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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Parasites, by T. Spencer Cobbold
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Parasites
+       A Treatise on the Entozoa of Man and Animals, Including
+       Some Account of the Ectozoa
+
+Author: T. Spencer Cobbold
+
+Release Date: June 10, 2014 [EBook #45923]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PARASITES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Thiers Halliwell, TIA: American
+Libraries and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned
+images of public domain material from the Google Print
+project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s notes:
+
+The text contains numerous inconsistencies involving spelling,
+hyphenation, punctuation, and other aspects. Some of the spelling
+variations possibly represent authentic contemporary alternatives while
+others may be attributable to the variety of languages occurring in the
+book – English, Italian, German, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, French,
+Portuguese and possibly others.
+
+Spelling inconsistencies that are clearly typos have been corrected
+where appropriate but those representing alternative spellings have been
+left unchanged. A list of corrections and common inconsistencies is
+appended at the end of the book.
+
+Punctuation anomalies have been corrected silently (e.g. missing
+periods, commas and semicolons, incorrect or missing quotation marks,
+unpaired parentheses), particularly in the extensive bibliographic
+lists, in the index and in the Figure captions.
+
+There is significant inconsistency between the headings displayed in the
+Table of Contents (TOC) and those in the text, most noticeably in Book
+II where the last four entries in the TOC are appropriately identified
+as Sections II, III, IV, and V but the corresponding headings in the
+text are incorrectly named as Section II Part I, Part II, Part III and
+Part IV. TOC headings and text headings also vary in their specific
+wording and the presence or absence of parentheses and dashes.
+
+Inconsistent ways of expressing measurements are as in the original, for
+example, one fifth of an inch, 1/5th of an inch, 1/5 of an inch, 1/5″ of
+an inch, 1/5″.
+
+The dimensions of many organisms are described using an archaic unit of
+length: the ‘line’ which was equivalent to 1/12 of an inch. However, as
+the inch itself varied, both within and between countries, it was a
+non-standard measurement, e.g. in England one line was equivalent to
+2.117 mm but the French (Paris) ligne was equal to 2.256 mm. The triple
+prime symbol ‴ was used to represent the unit and occasionally appears
+in this text (along with the more common ′ and ″ symbols representing
+feet and inches). The ligne unit is still used by watchmakers.
+
+The closing pages of the book contain advertising material about other
+works from the same publisher. In some cases the date of publication
+could not be determined with certainty because of the inferior quality
+of the page scans.
+
+
+
+                               PARASITES.
+
+
+
+
+                               PARASITES;
+
+                           A TREATISE ON THE
+
+                      ENTOZOA OF MAN AND ANIMALS,
+
+                               INCLUDING
+
+                      SOME ACCOUNT OF THE ECTOZOA.
+
+                                   BY
+               T. SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
+
+       HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY
+                       AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
+
+                             [Illustration]
+
+                                LONDON:
+               J. & A. CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
+                                 1879.
+
+
+
+
+                                PREFACE
+
+
+My introductory treatise on the Entozoa having long been out of print,
+it occurred to me that instead of attempting another edition it would be
+better to write an entirely new work, employing only such fragmentary
+portions of the old treatise as would harmonise with the far wider
+design I have now in view. Whilst, therefore, I have freely utilised
+a selection of the illustrations given in the elementary volume,
+comparatively few of its pages have been incorporated in the present
+work.
+
+Dealing with parasites and parasitism after a manner not hitherto
+attempted I have purposely omitted minute anatomical descriptions,
+and, with rare exceptions, I have avoided the introduction of clinical
+details. While bringing to a focus the records of, and principal
+references to, a widely scattered, intricate, and voluminous literature,
+it has been my chief endeavour to supply abundance of original matter
+of a kind that cannot be found in the columns of any existing treatise.
+Whether I have succeeded or not the experienced helminthologist alone
+can judge. He, at all events, will perceive that the summary, though
+compressed within the space of a moderate-sized octavo, can only have
+resulted from sustained effort.
+
+This treatise is not professional, that is to say, it does not concern
+itself with therapeutics or the curative treatment of parasitic
+affections; yet it introduces and helps to solve many questions
+relating to epidemics, endemics, and epizoötics due to parasites. The
+medical man who only looks at the phenomena of parasitism as displayed
+within the human territory must of necessity acquire a cramped, narrow,
+and distorted conception of the rôle played by parasites in the
+production of disease. Let it be freely granted that to the practising
+physician, as such, it matters little how many beasts, birds, reptiles,
+or fishes perish annually from parasitic affections; yet, when it is
+demonstrable that a large proportion of the strictly human entozoa
+require a change of hosts--or, in other words, need to pass through the
+bodies of the lower animals--then it is evident that some acquaintance
+on his part with the entozoa infesting animals becomes a practical
+necessity. Knowledge of the kind here offered will often materially
+aid him in recommending prophylactic measures. Moreover, the study of
+comparative pathology, almost ignored in England, conveys with it other
+lessons of high value in relation to the healing art. The great mind
+of John Hunter comprehended all this long ago, as any student of the
+beautiful preparations contained in the museum of the Royal College
+of Surgeons may readily convince himself; and this is all the more
+noteworthy, since the subject concerns the physician rather than the
+surgeon.
+
+To the naturalist the second half of this book addresses itself in a
+very direct manner. When engaged in his dissections, an appeal to its
+pages will often enable him to decide at once as to the species of
+parasite accidentally encountered, and if a full diagnosis be demanded
+it will guide him to better sources of information. Many hundreds of
+correspondents, not having ready access to the systematic writings of
+Rudolphi, Diesing, and Dujardin, have requested me to identify their
+“finds.” I have rarely or never failed to comply with their requests;
+but it is hoped that the present work may prove of ready service to
+subsequent inquirers, and thus place a reasonable limit upon the number
+of future applicants. Since the manuscript of this work was completed I
+have received Dr von Linstow’s _Compendium der Helminthologie_, which,
+for the purposes held in view by the author, leaves little to be desired.
+
+Expressly to meet the requirements of the Sanitarian I have dwelt upon
+the developmental phenomena exhibited by those parasites that occasion
+fatal helminthiases; and, in this relation, I have not confined my
+remarks to the parasites that are injurious to man in a direct manner,
+but have extended my observations to the genesis of those entozoa that
+prove destructive to horses, to beasts of burden generally, and to other
+creatures which, like cats and dogs, are in various ways subservient
+to man’s wants. It will be seen that in this way several questions
+relating to the purity of water and flesh-food, respectively, have been
+incidentally brought under notice.
+
+In view of the magnitude of the task which my enthusiasm, perhaps
+unwarrantable, has led me to undertake, I know full well how
+considerately my foreign friends and correspondents will deal with
+the errors of omission and commission that they will certainly detect
+in these pages. If there be any educated persons at home who still
+affect to despise the revelations of helminthology, I can assure them
+that their prejudices are misplaced. The study of the structure and
+economy of a humble parasite brings to the investigator no slight
+insight into the workings of nature. If these workings cannot at all
+times be pronounced to be “good and beautiful,” they must at least
+be characterised as “true.” The knowledge of the true--especially if
+that knowledge by its practical applications be calculated to confer
+substantial benefits upon man and his inferior fellow-creatures--ought
+to be held in high esteem; but, apart from this purely utilitarian view,
+there remains for the investigator the delight occasioned by the in-rush
+of new scientific ideas. The average mind, being either essentially
+commercial or ridiculously sentimental, as the case may be, is totally
+incapable of comprehending the motive power that animates and guides the
+votary of science. The late Professor Faraday, a man wholly untinged by
+the ambitions of wealth and power, once remarked to me that there were
+no people so difficult to instruct as those who were ignorant of their
+own ignorance. It is just these very persons who, when placed in high
+positions of social, political, or professional trust, most powerfully
+contribute to check a nation’s progress. There are too few genuine
+workers at science in this country. As one of the rank and file, I claim
+only to have honestly contributed my mite. I should like to see a small
+army of helminthologists rise up and lay siege to the fortresses at
+present securely held by thousands of death-dealing parasites.
+
+                                                         T. S. C.
+
+  74, Portsdown Road, London
+         _May, 1879_.
+
+
+
+
+                         SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  GENERAL INTRODUCTION                                               1
+
+
+                                BOOK I.
+
+                           PARASITES OF MAN.
+
+  SECTION I.--TREMATODA (FLUKES)                                    14
+     "   II.--CESTODA (TAPEWORMS)                                   56
+     "  III.--NEMATODA (ROUNDWORMS AND THREADWORMS)                149
+     "   IV.--
+          PART  I.--Acanthocephala (Thornheaded Worms)             256
+           "   II.--Suctoria (Leeches)                             257
+           "  III.--Arachnida (Parasitic forms of)                 259
+           "   IV.--Crustacea (alleged Parasitic forms of)         268
+           "    V.--Insecta (Parasitic forms of)                   269
+           "   VI.--Protozoa (Parasitic forms of)                  276
+
+  APPENDIX (Statistics)                                            284
+
+
+                                BOOK II.
+
+                         PARASITES OF ANIMALS.
+
+  SECTION I.--PARASITES OF MAMMALIA.
+          PART  I.--Parasites of Quadrumana                        289
+           "   II.--Parasites of Cheiroptera                       293
+           "  III.--Parasites of Insectivora                       295
+           "   IV.--Parasites of Carnivora                         297
+           "    V.--Parasites of Pinnipedia                        313
+           "   VI.--Parasites of Rodentia                          315
+           "  VII.--Parasites of Edentata                          320
+           " VIII.--Parasites of Ruminantia                        322
+           "   IX.--Parasites of Solidungula                       356
+           "    X.--Parasites of Pachydermata                      393
+           "   XI.--Parasites of Cetacea and Sirenia               416
+           "  XII.--Parasites of Marsupialia and Monotremata       430
+     "   II.--PARASITES OF AVES                                    434
+     "  III.--PARASITES OF REPTILIA                                451
+     "   IV.--PARASITES OF PISCES                                  457
+     "    V.--PARASITES OF EVERTEBRATA                             480
+
+  APPENDIX (Hæmatozoa)                                             485
+
+  INDEX                                                            489
+
+
+
+
+                        LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  No. 1. General and systematic treatises                            8
+
+      2. Minor treatises, general memoirs, and monographs           10
+
+      3. Literature of _Fasciola hepatica_ in man                   17
+
+      4. _Distoma lanceolatum_ in man                               20
+
+      5.     "   _crassum_                                          28
+
+      6.     "   _sinense_                                          29
+
+      7.     "   _conjunctum_ in man                                33
+
+      8.     "   _heterophyes_                                      35
+
+      9.     "   _ophthalmobium_                                    36
+
+     10. _Tetrastoma_ and _Hexathyridium_                           36
+
+     11. _Amphistoma hominis_                                       38
+
+     12. _Bilharzia hæmatobia_                                      55
+
+     13. _Tænia mediocanellata_ and the beef-measle                 84
+
+     14.    "  _solium_ and the pork-measle                         94
+
+     15.    "  _tenella_ and the mutton-measle                      99
+
+     16.    "  _lophosoma_                                          99
+
+     17.    "  _nana_                                              100
+
+     18. Tapeworm varieties and monstrosities                      105
+
+     19. _Bothriocephalus latus_, _B. cordatus_, and
+            _B. cristatus_                                         112
+
+     20_a._ General literature of hydatids (English)               141
+
+       _b._ Hydatids of the liver                                  142
+
+       _c._    "              "  and other organs together         143
+
+       _d._ Liver hydatids. American cases                         144
+
+       _e._ Hydatids of the lungs and pleura                       144
+
+       _f._    "     of the kidney                                 144
+
+       _g._    "     of the spleen, omentum, and abdominal cavity  144
+
+       _h._    "     within the pelvic cavity                      145
+
+       _i._    "     of the heart and blood-vessels                145
+
+       _k._    "     of the brain and cranial cavity               145
+
+       _l._    "     of the bones                                  145
+
+       _m._    "     of the breast, muscles, and soft parts        146
+
+       _n._    "     of uncertain seat                             146
+
+       _o._    "     of animals                                    147
+
+       _p._    "     in man. Foreign literature                    147
+
+     21. _Trichina spiralis._ English literature                   174
+
+              "               Foreign literature                   177
+
+     22. _Trichocephalus dispar_                                   180
+
+     23. _Filaria Bancrofti_ (_F. sanguinis hominis_)              202
+
+         Supplement (Hæmatozoa)                                    488
+
+     24. _Filaria loa_                                             206
+
+     25.     "   _lentis_                                          206
+
+     26.     "   _labialis_                                        207
+
+     27.     "   _trachealis_ and _F. bronchialis_                 208
+
+     28. _Eustrongylus_ (_Strongylus_) _gigas_                     210
+
+     29. _Dochmius duodenalis_                                     216
+
+     30. _Dracunculus medinensis_                                  224
+
+     31. _Oxyuris vermicularis_                                    232
+
+     32. _Leptodera_ (_Anguillula_) _stercoralis_ and
+            _L. intestinalis_                                      235
+
+     33. _Ascaris mystax_                                          241
+
+     34.     "   _lumbricoides_                                    251
+
+     35. _Echinorhynchus gigas_                                    257
+
+     36. _Sanguisuga medicinalis_ and other leeches                259
+
+     37. _Pentastoma tænioides_ and _P. constrictum_               265
+
+     38. _Demodex_, _Sarcoptes_, and other Arachnidan ectozoa      268
+
+     39. _Gammarus pulex_ in man                                   269
+
+     40. Bugs, lice, and other insect parasites of man             275
+
+     41. _Psorospermiæ_, _Gregarinæ_, and other protozoa           283
+
+     42. _Entozoa_ of monkeys                                      293
+
+     43.     "     and ectozoa of bats                             295
+
+     44.     "     of insectivorous mammals                        297
+
+     45.     "     of carnivorous mammals                          310
+
+     46.     "     of seals                                        315
+
+     47.     "     of rodents                                      320
+
+     48.     "     of sloths and ant-eaters                        322
+
+     49.     "     of ruminants                                    352
+
+     50.     "     and ectozoa of solipeds                         389
+
+     51.     "            "    of elephants                        400
+
+     52.     "     of rhinoceroses                                 402
+
+     53.     "     of the hippopotamus and tapir                   403
+
+     54.     "     and ectozoa of swine                            414
+
+     55.     "     of whales, dolphins, and dugongs                429
+
+     56.     "     of marsupial animals                            434
+
+     57.     "     and ectozoa of birds                            448
+
+     58.     "     of reptiles                                     456
+
+     59.     "     and ectozoa of fishes                           477
+
+     60.     "     of insects, crustaceans, and mollusks           484
+
+
+
+
+                                ERRATUM.
+
+
+Page 296, line 24 from the top, for “in the glow-worm (_Glomeris_),”
+read “in a myriapod (_Glomeris_) which is phosphorescent like the
+glow-worm.”
+
+
+
+
+                               PARASITES.
+
+                             INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+No person can derive advantage from the study of parasites unless the
+subject be approached in a right frame of mind. In other words, the
+student of helminthology must, as a primary discipline, dispossess
+himself of all preconceived opinions whatsoever, and in an attitude of
+child-like simplicity seek truth for its own sake. Unless the mind be
+absolutely free and unfettered it cannot rightly interpret the facts of
+this peculiar department of biological science. Those students who are
+nervously anxious to reconcile the conclusions of modern science with
+the ideas of their forefathers are certain to remain just as ignorant of
+the true value and significance of nature-teachings as all their fathers
+were.
+
+Whether dealing with the external or internal forms, the study of
+parasites of man and animals is practically one of boundless extent;
+and there is probably no department of knowledge, possessing an equal
+value in relation to the welfare of man and beast, that is so thoroughly
+misunderstood by those who are directly concerned in the appreciation of
+its revelations. This has arisen from a total misconception as to cause
+and effect. Most people, not excluding even the votaries of the healing
+art, following tradition, regard the internal parasites or entozoa as
+creatures either directly resulting from certain diseased conditions
+of their _hosts_ or as organisms which would not have existed if their
+_bearers_ had been perfectly healthy. Nothing can be more absurd. Such a
+conclusion is utterly at variance with all logical deduction from known
+facts. It is, however, quite on a par with multitudes of other popular
+delusions which, in spite of the advance of science, will probably never
+become wholly eradicated from the public mind. People who hold these
+notions either cannot or do not desire to reject a view which has for
+them a dominating power almost equal to that of any known religious
+dogma. In conversation I have repeatedly noticed this to be the case.
+These people are the victims of educated ignorance and they will never
+allow that parasites are natural developments, accomplishing ends or
+parts of the orderly mystery which reigns everywhere. Some of then
+still cling to the creed that the presence of parasites, of internal
+ones at least, betokens evidence of Divine disfavor; and their minds
+are troubled with all sorts of distressing and childish conceptions.
+In the present age one would have thought that such ridiculous ideas
+could not be seriously maintained; but instead of being relegated to
+the limbo of similar “old wives’ fables” they dominate the opinions of
+thousands of our so-called educated people. The genuine searcher after
+truth does not need to be told that all preconceptions of this order
+hopelessly obscure the mental vision. They operate to render a just and
+adequate understanding of the science of helminthology impossible. The
+biologist may say what he lists, but he knows perfectly well that the
+superstitious mind will continue to ignore the precious and elevating
+results of scientific research, and that it will perseveringly continue
+to persuade itself that internal worms, parasites, and entozoa, of
+whatever kind, belong to the category of “plagues” liable to be
+distributed as special punishments for human wrong-doing.
+
+As remarked in my previous treatise, the best way of studying the
+entozoa is to regard them as collectively forming a peculiar _fauna_,
+destined to occupy an equally peculiar territory. That territory is the
+wide-spread domain of the interior of the bodies of man and animals.
+Each bearer or “host” may be viewed as a continent, and each part or
+viscus of his body may be regarded as a district. Each district has its
+special attractions for particular parasitic forms; yet, at the same
+time, neither the district nor the continent are suitable as permanent
+resting-places for the invader. None of the internal parasites “continue
+in one stay;” all have a tendency to roam; migration is the soul of
+their prosperity; change of residence the essential of their existence;
+whilst a blockade in the interior soon terminates in degeneration and
+death. I repeat it. The entozoa constitute a specialised fauna. What
+our native country is to ourselves, the bodies of animals are to them.
+To attack, to invade, to infest, is their legitimate prerogative. Their
+organisation, habits, and economy are expressly fashioned to this
+end. How remarkable and complex is their structure, and how peculiar,
+diverse, and varied are their ways and wanderings, the contents of this
+volume will, I trust, sufficiently explain. The puerile horror which
+even some scientific persons affect to display in regard to the subject
+is altogether out of place. To the rightly balanced mind the study of
+these much abused “worms” is just as attractive as any other section
+of zoology. Helminthology opens up to our view many of the strangest
+biological phenomena of which the human mind can take cognisance; whilst
+a profound and extended knowledge of the subject, in all its bearings,
+is calculated to secure to the community a rich practical reward by
+enabling us to do effectual battle with not a few of the many ills of
+life to which our flesh is heir.
+
+Further on the general advantages to be derived from the study of
+parasites I cannot here dilate, and it becomes the less necessary
+that I should do so, since I have entered upon the subject very fully
+elsewhere. The character of the present work, moreover, imposes
+brevity. If the plan which I now propose to follow should not be deemed
+altogether satisfactory from the purely zoological standpoint, it
+will nevertheless have the advantage of simplicity and novelty; and
+knowing full well the difficulties that must surround any attempt to
+give a perfect classification of the entozoa, considered as a natural
+group, I feel sure that my helminthological friends will credit me with
+exercising a wise discretion in selecting the simplest available method
+of arrangement. My plan, therefore, is to devote separate sections of
+this work to the parasites of the different classes of vertebrated
+animals, including man, treating of the various species in regular
+succession. This arrangement is merely one of convenience and has no
+reference whatever to conceptions of zoological equivalency as variously
+interpreted and maintained by authors and investigators. The parasitic
+groups will be taken up in the following order, quite irrespective of
+their relative importance, and also without any attempt to treat each
+group with equal fulness. In the matter of recent literature only will
+the present record and summary make any approach toward completeness, my
+hope being to render this treatise indispensable and trustworthy as a
+ready means of reference.
+
+I. FLUKES. TREMATODA.--This group embraces several families of
+parenchymatous worms. The various species exhibit one or more
+suckers, which the older naturalists regarded as so many mouths or
+_perforations_. Hence the ordinal title. The term fluke is of Saxon
+origin, meaning anything flat. Thus, it has been applied to sole-fish
+or flounders, to the flattened halves of the tail of cetaceans, to the
+blades of anchors, and so forth. Although the common liver fluke is
+flat, many species of the order are round, biconvex, or even filiform
+organisms. I recognise six families:--_Monostomidæ_, _Distomidæ_,
+_Amphistomidæ_, _Tristomidæ_, _Polystomidæ_, and _Gyrodactylidæ_. Most
+of the species are entozoal; but many adhere to the surface of the body
+of piscine hosts.
+
+II. TAPEWORMS. CESTODA.--This comprises not only the tapeworms, but
+also the measles and other bladder-worms or cystic Entozoa of the old
+authors (Cystica). The Greek word _kestos_ means a band or girdle;
+hence the ordinal term above given. The bladder-worms, including
+Hydatids, Cysticerci, &c., are the larval stages of growth of various
+tapeworms. The further reduction of this order into sub-orders or
+families requires careful attention. At present we have _Tæniadæ_,
+_Acanthotæniadæ_, _Dibothridæ (= Bothriocephalidæ)_, _Diphyllobothridæ_,
+_Tetrarhynchidæ_, and _Tetraphyllobothridæ_. All the genera and species
+are entozoal. The proposal to separate the snouted or proboscidiform
+tapeworms (_Rhynchotæniadæ_) from those in which the rostellum is absent
+(_Arhynchotæniadæ_) does not recommend itself to my judgment.
+
+III. ROUNDWORMS. NEMATODA.--This series comprises not only lumbricoid
+or roundworms proper, but also threadworms. The term derives its origin
+from the Greek word _nema_, signifying a thread. It likewise includes
+the strongyles, the term _strongulos_ meaning round or cylindrical.
+This is a very extensive group whose parasitic members are strictly
+entozoal, whilst the non-parasitic forms are either entirely free or
+they infest plants. Some of the so-called free nematoids live in the
+slime of animals. The artificial classification by Schneider, based
+on the muscular system, places these parasites in three well-marked
+groups, but I think it a disadvantage to separate widely many really
+closely allied forms. Thus, in his _Polymyarii_ we have the genus
+Enstrongylus, and in his _Meromyarii_ the Strongyli proper. Most of the
+genera may be fairly included in the following families:--_Ascaridæ_,
+_Cheiracanthidæ_, _Cucullanidæ_, _Strongylidæ_, _Trichinidæ_,
+_Oxyuridæ_, _Trichocephalidæ_, _Filaridæ_, _Gordiidæ_, _Anguillulidæ_.
+
+IV. THORNHEADED-WORMS. ACANTHOCEPHALA.--This group embraces a small
+series of parasites, which, in general appearance, resemble the nematode
+worms. They differ, however, essentially, being, as the term indicates,
+furnished with spine-covered heads. They are, moreover, destitute
+of digestive organs. The species are entozoal in habit, abounding
+particularly in fishes and reptiles. At present, all the known forms are
+included in one family (_Echinorhynchidæ_), which also comprises only a
+single genus.
+
+V. ANNELID PARASITES. SUCTORIA.--In this category one must place all
+such suctorial annelids as affix themselves to hosts for a longer or
+shorter period. Many of the leech-like parasites (_Clepsinidæ_, and
+especially _Malacobdellidæ_) remind one of certain flukes (_Tristoma_,
+&c.) possessing ectozoal habits; whilst the leeches, properly so called,
+afford instances of the passage from a semi-parasitic to what has been
+called the free parasitic mode of existence. In tropical countries these
+creatures very readily attach themselves to man and animals, often
+creating severe distress. The genera _Clepsine_ and _Hæmocharis_ attack
+mollusks and fishes respectively. The species are all ectoparasitic and
+exceedingly numerous. They cannot be described in this work.
+
+VI. ARACHNID PARASITES, ARACHNIDA (part of).--The great class of
+articulated, limb-jointed, or, more strictly, arthropodous animals,
+includes a variety of parasites. The mites, true ticks, and such like
+creatures, belong to this group. Some few of them are entozoal in
+habit, others are only partially so, whilst the majority are entirely
+ectozoal. Of the two great sections of Arachnida, namely, Pulmonaria
+and Trachearia, the latter alone contains strictly parasitic forms. The
+parasitic species belong to the following families:--_Pentastomidæ_,
+_Pycnogonidæ_, _Ixodidæ_, _Acaridæ_, _Gamasidæ_, _Hydrachnidæ_,
+_Solpugidæ_. The parasitism of some of the species is very partial or
+slight. Thus, certain of the water mites, in their juvenile state,
+dwell on aquatic insects only; and the tick-like _Gamasidæ_ occur upon
+dung-beetles. The other ectozoal species attack vertebrated animals, and
+several attach themselves to man himself. The whale lice (_Cyamidæ_) are
+here included in the _Pycnogonidæ_, though often placed by zoologists
+with the Crustaceans.
+
+VII. CRUSTACEAN PARASITES. CRUSTACEA (part of).--A large number of
+species belonging to various well-marked sections of this great class
+of Invertebrates are parasitic in their habits, most of them being
+comprised in the so-called haustellated group. They are familiarly
+known to zoologists as Epizoa. As this latter term implies, they are
+strictly ectozoal in character, most of the species victimising fishes
+by attaching themselves, not only to the general surface of the body,
+but also to the eyes, and especially to the gills or branchiæ. The
+species for the most part belong to the families _Lernæidæ_, _Caligidæ_,
+_Dichelestidæ_, and _Argulidæ_. In this category must likewise be placed
+two other families belonging to the so-called isopodous section of
+edriophthalmatous crustaceans. These are the _Cymothoidæ_, which attach
+themselves to the tails of fishes, and the _Bopyridæ_, which occupy
+the branchial cavity of shrimps. The nature of this work precludes any
+detailed notice of the numerous members of this section.
+
+VIII. INSECT PARASITES. INSECTA (part of).--The insects, properly so
+called (that is to say, arthropodous, evertebrated creatures, with six
+legs), are many of them essentially parasitic in their habits. The most
+important of these are “bots” and other larvæ or maggots of various
+flies (Diptera). The varieties of lice are also included in this group.
+Some few of the insect parasites are strictly entozoal in habit, at
+least for a part of their lifetime, being previously attached externally
+for a short period only. Most of the forms are essentially ectozoal. A
+very large number of insect tormentors, although deriving nourishment
+from their victims, attach themselves to the animals for so short a time
+that they cannot be classed as parasites under the ordinary acceptation
+of the term. As examples of the so-called free parasitism, the autumnal
+flies (_Tabanidæ_) and _Stomoxys_ may be cited. Although embracing
+but few strictly parasitic forms we have the following:--_Œstridæ_,
+_Hippoboscidæ_ (with _Melophagus_), and _Nycteribiidæ_. In regard to the
+maggots of _Muscidæ_ and _Sarcophagæ_, some of them are parasitic on
+animals and man, whilst others are parasitic upon insects themselves.
+The larvæ of _Conopidæ_ attack humble-bees internally. Those parasitic
+insects, properly so called, which, like certain of the crustaceans,
+are sometimes spoken of as epizoa, comprise three well-marked families.
+Thus, we have Pediculidæ (the source of lousiness), _Philopteridæ_, and
+_Liotheidæ_. Both of the latter embrace numerous species which for the
+most part content themselves with devouring the feathers of birds and
+the hairs of quadrupeds. In addition to these it may be added that some
+of the rat-tailed larvæ or Helophilus maggots (_Syrphidæ_) are parasitic
+in man and quadrupeds, as are also the larvæ of the churchyard beetle
+(_Blaptidæ_). The closely allied _Tenebrionidæ_ and other coleopterous
+families also supply various maggots possessed of parasitic habits.
+Fleas and bugs come under Van Beneden’s category of free parasites. This
+is equivalent to calling them non-parasitic parasites, an expression
+which looks very like a contradiction of terms.
+
+IX. PROTOZOAL PARASITES. PROTOZOA (part of.)--This miscellaneous
+assemblage of minute creatures embraces a number of parasites of very
+low organisation. In the present work it is neither desirable nor
+necessary to hazard any statements respecting their precise zoological
+position. It is sufficient to say that the parasitic protozoa are
+for the most part entozoal in habit, not a few of them possessing
+vegetable affinities. The microscopic _Bacteridæ_, _Gregarinidæ_, and
+_Psorospermiæ_, comprise a multitude of organisms which are strictly
+parasitic in their habits, whilst amongst the _Infusoria_ we find
+numerous forms which, though dwelling in the intestinal canal of their
+hosts, do not derive nourishment in a direct manner from their bearers.
+Of this kind are _Paramecium_ and _Balantidium_. The separation of the
+psorospermiæ and gregarinæ into genera is attended with difficulty;
+nevertheless, I have for convenience long recognised various types
+under titles corresponding with the names of the observers who first
+discovered them (_Hesslingia_, _Gubleria_, _Lindermannia_, and so
+forth). Of necessity, the protozoal parasites will only be incidentally
+noticed in this work. In this category I place the falsely so called
+“cattle-plague bodies.” The micrococci and bacteria hardly come within
+the province of the helminthologist.
+
+Without prejudice to the foregoing restrictions I must at the same time
+observe that the varied characters presented by the above-mentioned
+groups show how impossible it is to treat the subject of parasitism
+adequately, if one is obliged to confine his remarks to the internal
+parasites or helminths proper. Many creatures possessed of entozoal and
+ectozoal habits are parasites in every legitimate sense of the term, and
+yet they do not belong to the class _Helmintha_ in its common zoological
+acceptation. _That_ class taken by itself may still be allowed to stand
+pretty much as I represented it in 1864; but in the present work I
+cease to speak of the Entozoa as in any sense the zoological equivalent
+of the _Helmintha_. I prefer to employ the term Entozoa in its popular
+and wider acceptation. It conveniently stands thus, moreover, in direct
+contradiction to the term Ectozoa.
+
+As this work treats of parasites only, I purposely refrain from dealing
+with the Turbellarians, and certain other creatures usually classed with
+_Vermes_. The vague term “worms,” so often employed as the equivalent
+of _Helmintha_, is misleading in many ways. I should like to see it
+adopted only when speaking of the Annelids proper. It would still have
+a sufficiently wide application, seeing that it would include Leeches,
+Earth-worms, Naids, Tubed-worms, Sea-lobworms, Sea-mice, Nereids, and a
+host of other setigerous species. Notwithstanding the remote connection
+subsisting between “intestinal worms” and worms properly so called,
+the notion that an intimate relation subsists between the lumbricoid
+helminths and earth-worms will probably never entirely disappear from
+the popular or even from the professional mind.
+
+Since one of the principal features of this treatise is to afford
+a handy means of reference to the rich and extended literature of
+parasitism, I here subjoin a list of general and systematic treatises.
+To most of these I shall constantly refer. Full special references to
+detached memoirs will appear in the bibliographies scattered throughout
+the body of the work.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 1).--_Bremser_, ‘Ueber lebende Würmer im lebenden
+Menschen,’ Vienna, 1819; French edit., by Grundler, 1824.--_Idem_,
+‘Icones helminthium,’ Vienna, 1824.--_Cobbold, T. S._, ‘Entozoa,
+an Introduction to the Study of Helminthology, with reference
+more particularly to the Parasites of Man,’ London, 1864; Supp.,
+1869.--Reviews in the ‘Lancet,’ Sept. 24th, 1864, p. 353; in the
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Oct. 29th, 1864, p. 474; in the ‘Athenæum,’
+Oct. 15th, 1864, p. 493; in ‘Cosmos,’ Oct. 27th, 1864, p. 463; in the
+‘Reader,’ Nov. 26th, 1864, p. 668; in the ‘Edinburgh Vet. Review,’
+Nov., 1864, p. 662; in ‘Intellectual Observer,’ vol. vi, 1864, p. 190;
+in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. v, January, 1865, p. 145;
+in the ‘Quart. Journ. of Micr. Science,’ New Series, No. 17, Jan.,
+1865, p. 43; in ‘Popular Science Review,’ Jan., 1865, p. 214; in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1865, p. 97; in the ‘Medical Mirror,’ Jan.,
+1865, p. 23; in the ‘Natural History Review’ for July, 1865; in the
+‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review,’ April, 1865, in the
+‘Edinburgh Medical Journal’ for April, p. 929; in the ‘Social Science
+Review’ for Feb. 1, 1866, p. 169; in ‘Dublin Quart. Journ. of Medical
+Science’ for Aug., 1867.--_Davaine, C._, ‘Traité des Entozoaires et des
+maladies vermineuses de l’homme et des animaux domestiques,’ Paris,
+1860, 2nd edit., 1877-79.--_Diesing, C. M._, ‘Systema helminthum,’
+Vienna, 1850.--_Dujardin, F._, ‘Histoire naturelle des helminthes
+ou vers intestineaux,’ Paris, 1845.--_Goeze, T. A. S._, ‘Versuch
+einer Naturgeschichte der Eingeweidewürmer thierischer Körper,’
+Blankenburgh, 1782.--_Küchenmeister, F._, ‘Die in und an dem Körper des
+lebenden Menschen vorkommenden Parasiten,’ Leipsic, 1855, 2nd. edit.,
+1878-79; Eng. edit., by Lankester, 1857.--_Le Clerc, D._, ‘A Natural
+and medicinal History of Worms bred in the bodies of men and other
+animals’ (_sic_), Browne’s edit., London, 1721.--_Leuckart, R._, ‘Die
+menschlichen Parasiten, und die von ihren herruhrenden Krankheiten,’
+Leipsic und Heidelberg, 1863-1876.--_Redi, F._, ‘De animalculis vivis
+quæ in corporibus animalium vivorum reperiuntur, observationes;’ Coste’s
+edition, Amstelædami, 1688.--_Rudolphi, C. A._, ‘Entozoorum sive vermium
+intestinalium historia naturalis,’ Amsterdam, 1808.--_Idem_, ‘Entozoorum
+Synopsis,’ Berlin, 1819.--_Van Beneden, P. J._, ‘Animal Parasites and
+Messmates,’ London, 1876.
+
+Several of the above works, while professing to deal with human
+parasites only, cover more or less of the whole ground of helminthology.
+Leuckart’s work is invaluable in this respect; and in the matter of
+literary references of a professional kind Davaine’s treatise is itself
+well nigh exhaustive. In any ordinary volume it is not possible to
+give a complete bibliography of parasitism. I make no pretension to
+do so here; nevertheless, the large number of modern memoirs that I
+have received from the distinguished writers themselves, enables me to
+render this part of my book very useful. As second only in importance
+to the above-mentioned works may be added the following--whether minor
+treatises, memoirs, monographs, comprehensive articles, or reports of a
+general or special character, respectively. As such it will be seen that
+some of them are sufficiently comprehensive, and their mere enumeration
+will enable the beginner to realise something like a fair estimate of
+the scope of helminthology. In the case of my own works I have ventured
+to add references to reviews and notices, because many of the latter
+contain valuable original suggestions made by the various anonymous
+writers.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 2).--_Bastian, H. C._, “On the Anatomy and Physiology
+of the Nematoids, parasitic and free,” ‘Philosophical Transactions,’
+1865 (see also Bibliog., No. 60).--_Cobbold, T. S._, ‘Worms; a series of
+lectures on Practical Helminthology,’ London, 1872; Italian edition by
+Tommasi. Milan, Florence, &c., 1873.--_Idem_, ‘The Internal Parasites
+of our Domesticated Animals,’ London, 1873; Italian edit. by Tommasi,
+Florence, 1874.--_Idem_, ‘Tapeworms (Human), their Sources, Varieties,
+and Treatment,’ London, 3rd edit., 1875. Reviews (1st and 2nd edit.,
+with ‘Threadworms’), in ‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir. Review’ for 1867,
+p. 433; in ‘Edin. Med. Journ.’ for 1866-67, p. 107; in ‘Lancet,’
+Nov. 10th, 1866; in ‘Popular Science Review,’ Oct. 1st, 1866; in
+‘Intellectual Observer,’ Oct. 1866; in ‘Med. Press and Circular,’
+Jan. 16th, 1867; again in the ‘Lancet,’ for March 13th, 1867; and in
+‘Dublin Quart. Journ. of Medical Science’ for 1867, 3rd edit.; in the
+‘Field,’ Sept. 25th, 1875; and in ‘Popular Science Review’ for Jan.,
+1876.--_Idem_, ‘Catalogue of the Specimens of Entozoa in the Museum
+of the Royal College of Surgeons of England,’ London, 1866; noticed
+in the ‘Lancet’ for March 24th, 1866, p. 321.--_Idem_, “On the best
+Methods of displaying Entozoa in Museums,” ‘Journ. Linn. Soc.,’ vol.
+viii, p. 170.--_Idem_, ‘New Entozootic Malady,’ &c., 1864; popular
+brochure, reviewed in the ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 4th, 1865, p. 128; in the
+‘Athenæum,’ Jan. 21st, 1865, p. 87; in the ‘British Med. Journal,’
+Jan., 1865; in the ‘Veterinary Review and Stockowners’ Journal,’ No.
+2, New Series, Feb., 1865, p. 76; in the ‘Reader,’ Feb. 4th, 1865, p.
+142; in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ for June 2nd, 1865; in the ‘Field’ for
+March 18th, 1865.--_Idem_, “Parasites of Man,” forming a series of
+articles contributed to the ‘Midland Naturalist,’ 1878-79.--_Idem_,
+“Notes on Entozoa contained in the various Metropolitan Museums,” in
+‘Lancet,’ May 13th, 1865, p. 503.--_Idem_, “Report on _Plica polonica_,
+in reference to Parasites,” in ‘Pathological Soc. Trans.,’ 1866, p.
+419.--_Idem_, “Report on Experiments respecting the Development and
+Migrations of the Entozoa,” ‘British Assoc. Reports’ (Bath Meeting)
+for 1864, p. 111; and briefly noticed in ‘Lancet’ for Sept. 24th,
+1864.--_Idem_, Miscellaneous observations, including “Note on Parasites
+in the Lower Animals,” in ‘Dub. Med. Press’ for Feb. 11th, 1863, p.
+154.--_Idem_, “Vegetables, Fruits, and Water considered as sources of
+Intestinal Worms;” in the ‘Popular Science Review’ for Jan., 1865, p.
+163.--_Idem_ (anonymously), “On Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics”
+(in relation to Entozoötics); leading art. in ‘Lancet’ for Dec. 9th,
+1865, p. 652.--_Idem_, “List of Entozoa, including Pentastomes, from
+animals dying at the Zoological Society’s Menagerie, between 1857-60
+inclusive, with descriptions of several new species,” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ 1861.--_Idem_, “Remarks on all the Human Entozoa,” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ 1862; abstracts in ‘Brit. Med. Journ.’ for 1862, and in ‘Edinb.
+New Phil. Journ.,’ vol. xvii, new series, 1863, p. 145; in Report of
+the ‘Proceed. of the Brit. Assoc. at Cambridge,’ 1862.--_Idem_, “Our
+Food-producing Ruminants, and the Parasites which reside in them;
+being the Cantor Lectures of the Society for the Encouragement of
+Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,” delivered in 1871, and pub. in the
+‘Journal of the Soc. of Arts’ for that year.--_Davaine, C._, “Les
+Cestoïdes,” in ‘Dict. Encycl. des Sci. Med.,’ Paris, 1876.--_Eberth,
+C. J._, ‘Untersuchungen ueber Nematoden,’ Leipsic, 1863.--_Heller,
+A._, “Darmschmarotzer,” in Von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch,’ Bd. vii, 1876;
+and in the American edition of the same, 1877.--_Jones, T. R._, “List
+of Entozoa of Greenland,” taken from _Krabbe_; ‘Arctic Manual,’ 1875,
+p. 179.--_Krabbe, H._, ‘Helminthologiske Undersogelser,’ Copenhagen,
+1865.--_Leuckart, R._, ‘Die Blasenbandwürmer und ihre Entwicklung,’
+Giessen, 1856.--_Moquin-Tandon, A._, “Epizoa and Entozoa,” in Hulme’s
+edit. of his ‘Elements of Medical Zoology,’ London, 1871.--_Nordmann,
+A. von_, ‘Mikrographische Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der wirbellosen
+Thiere,’ Berlin, 1832.--_Olsson, P._, “Entozoa, iakttagna hos
+Skandanaviska hafsfiskar.,” Lund, ‘Univ. Årsskrift,’ 1867.--_Owen,
+R._, “Entozoa,” art. in Todd’s ‘Cyclopædia of Anat. and Physiol.,’
+London, 1839.--_Idem_, “Entozoa,” ‘Lectures (iv and v) on the
+Comp. Anat. and Physiol. of the Invertebrate Animals,’ London,
+1855.--_Pagenstecher, H. A._, ‘Trematodenlarven und Trematoden,’
+Heidelberg, 1857.--_Rhind, W._, ‘A Treatise on the Nature and Cure of
+Intestinal Worms, &c.,’ London, 1829.--_Rolleston, G._, “Characteristics
+of Nematelminthes and Platyelminthes,” in his ‘Forms of Animal
+Life,’ Oxford, 1870.--_Schneider, A._, ‘Monographie der Nematoden,’
+Berlin, 1866.--_Siebold, C. von._, “Parasiten,” art. in Wagener’s
+‘Handwörterbuch der Physiol., &c.,’ 1845.--_Idem_, “Helminthes,” Book
+v, in Burnett’s edit. of Siebold and Stannius’ ‘Comparative Anatomy,’
+London and Boston, 1854.--_Thomson, A._, “Entozoa,” in the art. “Ovum,”
+in Todd’s ‘Cyclop. of Anat. and Physiol.,’ London, 1859.--_Van Beneden,
+P. J._, ‘Mémoire sur les Vers Intestineaux,’ Paris, 1858.--_Idem_, “Les
+Vers Cestoïdes,” ‘Mém. de l’Acad. Roy.,’ Brussels, 1850.--_Verrill,
+A. E._, “The External and Internal Parasites of Man and the Domestic
+Animals,” ‘Rep. of Board of Agriculture,’ Connecticut, U.S., 1870.--_Von
+Baer, K. E._, ‘Observations on Entozoa;’ in an analytical notice of
+his article “Beiträge zur Kentniss der niedern Thiere,” from ‘Nova
+Acta Nat. Cur.,’ tom. xiii, in the ‘Zool. Journ.,’ vol. iv, p. 250,
+1828-29.--_Wagener, G. R._, ‘Beiträge zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der
+Eingeweidewürmer,’ Haarlem, 1857.--_Weinland, D. F._, ‘An Essay on the
+Tapeworms of Man,’ Cambridge, U.S., 1858.
+
+
+
+
+                                BOOK I.
+
+                           PARASITES OF MAN.
+
+
+Whatever notions people may entertain respecting the dignity of the
+human race, there is no gainsaying the fact that we share with the lower
+animals the rather humiliating privilege and prerogative of entertaining
+a great variety of parasites. These are for the most part entozoal in
+habit. As the parasites are apt to cause suffering to the bearer, a
+superstitious age sought to interpret their presence as having some
+connection with human wrong-doing. We can now afford to smile at such
+erroneous ideas. The intimate relation subsisting between parasitic
+forms dwelling in man and animals, and their interdependence upon one
+another, alone suffices to preclude the idea that parasites have been
+arbitrarily placed within the human bearer. It would seem, indeed, that
+our existence is essential to the welfare and propagation of certain
+species of parasites. Possibly it is only by accepting the hypothesis
+of “Natural Selection” that we can escape the somewhat undignified
+conclusion that the entozoa were expressly created to dwell in us, and
+also that we were in part designed and destined to entertain them. View
+the matter as we may, the internal parasites of man and animals strictly
+conform to a few well-known types of structure, but these types branch
+out into infinitely varied specific forms. The vulgar mind sees nothing
+attractive in the morphology and organisation of a parasitic worm, and
+common-place conceptions of the beautiful cannot be expected to embrace
+within their narrow grasp the marvelous harmony and order that pervade
+the structure and economy of the individual members of this remarkable
+class of beings.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I.--TREMATODA (Flukes).
+
+
+_Fasciola hepatica_, Linneus.--The first form I have to consider is
+the common liver fluke. The part this entozoon plays in the production
+of disease will be fully stated when treating of the parasites of the
+sheep and other ruminants. About twenty instances of its occurrence
+in the human body have been recorded. It has been found beneath the
+skin in the sole of the foot (Giesker), and also under the scalp
+(Harris), and behind the ear (Fox). Its more frequent seat is in the
+liver and gall-ducts (Pallas, Brera, Bidloo, Malpighi) and gall-bladder
+(Partridge). The alleged cases by Bauhin, Wepfer, and Chabert are
+spurious, as is probably also that given by Mehlis. Duval’s case appears
+to be genuine, but the occurrence of the worm in the portal vein was
+accidental. Dr Murchison has recorded a case, occurring at St Thomas’s
+Hospital, where a solitary specimen was found in the liver. Dr H. V.
+Carter also met with the worm in a young Hindoo.
+
+In the second half of the present work I shall reproduce Blanchard’s
+admirable figure of the sexually mature worm (Fig. 61), accompanied
+by a categorical statement respecting the known facts of development.
+In this place, however, I may observe that the cases recorded by
+Giesker, Harris, and Fox had clearly pointed to the circumstance that
+the higher larvæ of this fluke must be armed cercariæ, otherwise they
+could not have bored their way through the human skin. As we shall
+see, Dr Willemoes-Suhm’s investigations have furnished evidence as to
+the truth of this supposition. For anatomical details I refer to my
+introductory treatise. In the adult state the liver fluke has been known
+from the earliest times. We have clear evidences that it was described
+by Gabucinus in the year 1547, and also subsequently by Cornelius Gemma,
+who, in a work published some thirty years later, refers to an epizootic
+disease prevalent in Holland during the year 1552, and which was very
+justly attributed to the parasite in question. After this date many
+writers described the liver fluke more or less accurately, and entire
+volumes were devoted to the consideration of the formidable disease
+which it occasions. The nomenclature of the parasite has been a subject
+of controversy. Amongst naturalists in general the common liver fluke
+is often described under the combined generic and specific name of
+_Distoma hepaticum_; but the title is both incorrect and inappropriate.
+The proper generic appellation of this parasite is _Fasciola_, as
+first proposed by the illustrious Linneus (1767) and subsequently
+adopted by F. Müller (1787), Brera (1811), Ramdohr (1814), and others.
+Unfortunately Retzius (1786) and Zeder (1800) changed the generic
+title without good cause, and the majority of writers, following their
+authority, refused to employ the original name, although a consideration
+of the distinctive types of structure severally displayed by the genera
+_Distoma_ and _Fasciola_ fairly demanded the retention of the Linnean
+title. In later times M. Blanchard (1847) strongly advocated the
+original nomenclature, and I have myself continually urged its adoption.
+On somewhat different grounds Professor Moquin-Tandon followed the same
+course.
+
+In the sexually mature state the liver fluke commonly measures three
+fourths of an inch in length, occasionally reaching an entire inch or
+even sixteen lines; its greatest breadth also varying from half an
+inch to seven or eight lines transversely; body very flat, presenting
+distinct dorsal and ventral surfaces, frequently curled toward the
+latter during life; upper or anterior end suddenly constricted, produced
+and pointed in the centre, forming the so-called head and neck;
+posterior extremity less acuminated, sometimes rounded, or even slightly
+truncated; margins smooth, occasionally a little undulated, especially
+towards the upper part; oral sucker terminal, oval, rather smaller than
+the ventral acetabulum, which is placed immediately below the root of
+the neck; reproductive orifices in the middle line, a little below the
+oral sucker; intromittent organ usually protruded and spirally curved;
+a central, light-coloured space, covering two thirds of the body from
+above downwards, marks the region of the internal male reproductive
+organs, being bordered on either side and below by a continuous dark
+band, indicating the position of the so-called yolk-forming organs; a
+small, brown-coloured, rosette-like body situated directly below the
+ventral acetabulum, marks the limits of the uterine duct; a series of
+dark lines, branching downwards and outwards on either side, indicate
+the position of the digestive organs; general color of the body pale
+brownish yellow, with a slight rose tint. The surface of the body,
+though smooth to the naked eye, is clothed throughout with small
+epidermal spines which diminish in size towards the tail.
+
+If any argument were necessary to show how desirable it is to
+furnish full descriptions of the commoner kinds of parasite, I could
+adduce numerous instances that have been brought under my notice
+where professional men and others have been entirely mistaken as to
+the essential nature of their parasitic finds. Thus, I have known an
+instance where a great authority on the diseases of dogs has persisted
+in asserting for the free proglottides of a tapeworm a nematode origin;
+and, in like manner, human tapeworm-segments have frequently been
+mistaken for independent fluke parasites. One of the most remarkable
+instances of this kind is that which I have elsewhere described as
+an error on the part of Dr Chabert. My reasons for so regarding his
+interpretation of the facts observed by him stand as follows:
+
+In the ‘Boston Medical and Surgical Journal’ for the years 1852-53-54,
+Dr J. X. Chabert described several cases of Tænia, and he averred that
+the tapeworms were associated with numerous specimens of _Distoma
+hepaticum_. The passage of distomes by patients during life was even
+regarded by Dr Chabert as indicative of the presence of Tænia within
+the intestines. Surely, I remarked, Dr Chabert was mistaken. Are not
+these so-called distomes the well-known _proglottides_? Not willingly
+doubting Dr Chabert’s statements, but desirous, if possible, of
+verifying the accuracy of his conclusions, I wrote to him (March 22nd,
+1864) requesting the loan of a specimen, but I was not fortunate enough
+to receive a reply. In the “Case of Tænia” in a boy four and a half
+years old, given in the 49th vol. of the journal, Dr Chabert writes as
+follows:--“In consequence of his passing the _Distoma hepaticum_, I
+concluded he must be afflicted with Tænia.” Further on it is added, that
+the administration of an astringent injection “caused the discharge of
+innumerable small worms (_Distoma hepaticum_).” I think this is quite
+decisive. The idea of “innumerable” flukes being expelled in this way is
+altogether out of the question.
+
+The only genuine case in which any considerable number of Distomata,
+of this species, have been observed in the human subject is the one
+recently recorded by Dr Prunac. In this instance two flukes were vomited
+along with blood immediately after the administration of salines (sel
+de Seignette), and about thirty were passed per anum. On the following
+day, some tapeworm proglottides having been evacuated, both salts and
+male-fern extract were administered. This caused the expulsion of an
+entire tapeworm, and also about twenty more flukes. Notwithstanding
+this successful treatment the hæmatemesis returned in about a month,
+when, finally, three more flukes were vomited and the bleeding ceased.
+Had not the parasites been submitted for identification to a competent
+observer (Prof. Martins, of Montpellier), some doubt might have been
+entertained as to the genuineness of this remarkable case. In reference
+to Dr Prunac’s comments on the facts of fluke-parasitism in man, I will
+only remark that Dr Kerr’s Chinese cases, to which he refers, were
+probably due to _Distoma crassum_ and not to _D. hepaticum_. The Chinese
+flukes will be noticed below.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 3).--Full references to details of the cases by
+Partridge, Fox, and Harris are given in Appendix B. to Lankester’s
+Edit. of _Küchenmeister’s_ Manual. See also the works of Davaine and
+_Leuckart_ (_l. c._ Bibl. No. 1).--_Carter, H. V._, “Note on _Distoma
+hepaticum_” (from a patient under the care of Mr Pandoorung), ‘Bombay
+Med. and Physical Soc. Trans.’ (Appendix), 1862.--_Chabert, J. X._
+(quoted above). Murchison, C., ‘Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the
+Liver,’ (2nd Edit., Appendix), London, 1877.--_Prunac_, De la Douve ou
+Distome hépatique chez l’homme; in ‘Gazette des Hôpitaux’ for December,
+1878 (p. 1147). For further references in this work, see Bibliog. No. 49.
+
+_Distoma lanceolatum_, Mehlis.--At least three instances of the
+occurrence of this small fluke in the human body have been observed.
+The authority for these cases rests, severally, with Bucholz, who
+found them in the gall bladder in considerable numbers at Weimar; with
+Chabert, who expelled a large number from the intestines of a girl in
+France; and with Küchner, who obtained forty-seven specimens from a
+girl in Bohemia. Probably many similar instances have been overlooked,
+and Küchenmeister hints that Duval’s parasites (above mentioned) may
+have been this species. Although this worm will again be incidentally
+noticed in connection with bovine parasites (and its ciliated larvæ
+will also be referred to when discussing the characters of the embryo
+of Bilharzia), I here subjoin a diagnosis of the characters of the
+adult parasite. The lancet-shaped liver fluke is a small flat helminth,
+measuring rather more than the third of an inch in length, and about
+one line and a half in breadth, being also especially characterised by
+its lanceolate form; the widest part of the body corresponds with a
+transverse line drawn across the spot where the vitellaria terminate
+below, and from this point, on either side, the width of the animal
+becomes gradually narrowed towards the extremities; both ends are
+pointed, but the inferior or caudal one more obtusely than the anterior
+or oral end; the general surface is smooth throughout, and unarmed; the
+reproductive orifices are placed in the central line immediately in
+front of the ventral sucker, and below the point at which the intestine
+bifurcates; the oral sucker is nearly terminal, and 1/50″ in breadth,
+the ventral acetabulum being about the same diameter; the testes form
+two lobed organs placed one in front of the other in the middle line
+of the body and directly below the ventral sucker; the uterine canal
+is remarkably long, forming a series of tolerably regular folds, which
+occupy the central and hinder parts of the body, reaching almost to
+the caudal extremity. The vitelligene glands cover a limited space, on
+either side of the centre of the body near the margin. The _foramen
+caudale_ communicates with a contractile vesicle, which passes upwards
+in the form of a central trunk-vessel, early dividing into two main
+branches; these latter reach as far forwards as the œsophageal bulb,
+opposite which organ they suddenly curve upon themselves, retracing
+their course for a considerable distance backwards; the digestive canals
+are slightly widened towards their lower ends, which occupy a line
+nearly corresponding with the commencement of the lower fifth of the
+body; the ova are conspicuous within the uterine folds, which present a
+dark brownish color in front, passing to a pale yellow color below.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The lancet-shaped fluke (_Distoma lanceolatum_),
+showing the disposition of the digestive and reproductive organs
+internally. Viewed from behind; mag. about 12 diameters. After
+Blanchard.]
+
+In reference to Kichner’s remarkable case I reproduce an abstract of it
+from Leuckart’s account (‘Die menschlichen Parasiten,’ Bd. i, s. 608),
+the original particulars of which were communicated to Leuckart by Dr
+Kichner himself:--
+
+“Dr Kichner’s patient was a young girl, the daughter of the parish
+shepherd at Kaplitz, having been accustomed to look after the sheep
+ever since she was nine years old. The pasture where the animals
+fed was enclosed by woods, being traversed by two water dykes, and
+being, moreover, also supplied by ten little stagnant pools. These
+reservoirs harboured numerous amphibia and mollusks (such as _Lymnæus_
+and _Paludina_), and the child often quenched her thirst from the half
+putrid water. Probably she also partook of the watercresses growing in
+the ditches. At length her abdomen became much distended, the limbs much
+emaciated, and her strength declined. Half a year before death she was
+confined to her bed, being all the while shamefully maltreated by her
+step-mother. Dr Kichner only saw her three days before her death, and
+ascertained that she had complained of pain (for several years) over the
+region of the liver. A _sectio cadaveris_ was ordered by the Government,
+when (in addition to the external evidences of the cruel violence to
+which the poor creature had been subjected) it was found that she had
+an enormously enlarged liver, weighing eleven pounds. The gall-bladder
+which was very much contracted and nearly empty, contained eight calculi
+and forty-seven specimens of the _Distoma lanceolatum_, all of which
+were sexually mature.”
+
+As I have remarked in a former comment on this singular case, one can
+have no difficulty in arriving at the conclusion that these parasites
+were obtained from the girl’s swallowing trematode larvæ, either in
+their free or in their encysted condition. Leuckart says it was not
+possible to ascertain whether the parasites had any connection with the
+gall-stones, or whether the two maladies, so to speak, were independent
+of each other; yet this question might possibly have been solved if the
+calculi had been broken up in order to ascertain their structure. It
+is just possible that dead distomes may have formed their nuclei, and
+if so, the circumstance would, of course, point to the worms as the
+original source of the malady.
+
+So far as I am aware, the actual transformations undergone by the
+larvæ of _Distoma lanceolatum_ have not been observed. The _Planorbis
+marginatus_ has been confidently referred to as the intermediate bearer
+of the cercariæ of the common fluke, and Leuckart supposes that the same
+mollusk harbours the larvæ of this species. The ciliated embryos carry
+a boring spine or tooth, and it is most probable that the higher larvæ
+are similarly armed.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 4).--_Kichner_ (see _Leuckart_), quoted
+above.--_Cobbold_, ‘Entozoa’ (p. 187).--The case by Bucholz (reported as
+one of _Fasciola hepatica_) is given by _Jördens_ in his work (quoted by
+Diesing and Leuckart) ‘Entomologie und Helminthologie des menschlichen
+Körpers,’ (s. 64, tab. vii, fig. 14), 1802.--_Chabert’s_ French case is
+quoted by _Rudolphi_ in his ‘Entozoorum sive vermium,’ &c. (_loc. cit._,
+Bibl. No. 1), p. 326, 1808.
+
+_Distoma crassum_, Busk.--This large species was originally discovered
+by Prof. Busk in the duodenum of a Lascar who died at the Seamen’s
+Hospital, 1843. It, however, remained undescribed until 1859, when, with
+the discoverer’s approval, I gave some account of it to the Linnean
+Society.
+
+Of the fourteen original specimens found by Mr Busk, several have been
+lost. The one that he himself gave me I handed over to Prof. Leuckart,
+and it is figured in his work (‘Die mensch. Par.,’ s. 586). A second
+is preserved in the museum attached to the Middlesex Hospital, and a
+third is contained in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. This
+last-named specimen is the best of the original set. It supplied me with
+the few details of structure figured in outline in my ‘Introductory
+Treatise’ (fig. 42, p. 123), published in 1864; and it also in part
+formed the basis of the description of the species communicated to
+the Linnean Society in June, 1859 (“Synopsis of the Distomidæ,” p. 5,
+‘Proceedings,’ vol. v). The late Dr Lankester, it is true, was the first
+to give a distinctive title to this entozoon (_Distoma Buskii_); but
+as the discoverer objected to this nomenclature, and as Dr Lankester’s
+proposed terms were unaccompanied by any original description, I
+requested Mr Busk to suggest a new name for the worm, which he
+accordingly did. As I subsequently pointed out, Von Siebold had already
+employed the compound title _Distoma crassum_ to designate a small fluke
+infesting the house-martin (_Hirundo urbica_); but for reasons similar
+to those which contributed to set aside Dr Lankester’s nomenclature, the
+title adopted in my synopsis at length came to be recognised by Leuckart
+and by other well-known helminthologists. Before this recognition took
+place, Dr Weinland, of Frankfort, had so far accepted Lankester’s
+nomenclature as to call the species _Dicrocœlium Buskii_. In my judgment
+there are no sufficient grounds for retaining Dujardin’s genus. Further,
+I may observe that, in addition to the above-mentioned specimens, two
+others are preserved in the Museum at King’s College. Thus, only five
+out of the fourteen specimens are still in existence.
+
+No well-authenticated second instance of the occurrence of this worm
+took place until the year 1873, when a missionary and his wife from
+China consulted Dr George Johnson respecting parasites from which they
+were suffering. After a brief interval, both of Dr Johnson’s patients
+were by an act of courtesy on the part of this eminent physician placed
+under my professional care. I need hardly add that Dr Johnson had from
+the very first recognised the trematode character of the parasites. From
+the patients themselves I ascertained that they had been resident in
+China for about four years. During that period they had together freely
+partaken of fresh vegetables in the form of salad, and also occasionally
+of oysters, but more particularly of fish, which, in common with the
+oysters, abound in the neighbourhood of Ningpo. From their statements it
+appeared to me that to one or other of these sources we must look for
+an explanation of the fact of their concurrent infection. Fluke larvæ,
+as we know, abound in mollusks and fish; but whether any of the forms
+hitherto found in oysters or in fish have any genetic relation to the
+flukes of man, is a question that cannot very well be settled in the
+absence of direct experimental proof. I should add that it was not until
+after their visit to the interior of the country, some 130 miles distant
+from Ningpo, that the symptoms (which Dr Johnson in the first instance,
+and myself subsequently, considered to have been due to the presence
+of the parasites) made their appearance. Whilst in the country the
+missionary and his wife freely partook of freshwater fish, and on one
+occasion they received a quantity of oysters that had been sent up from
+Ningpo. The husband assured me that the fish were always thoroughly well
+cooked.
+
+If it be asked what were the symptoms produced, I can only furnish
+such few and hitherto unpublished particulars as the missionary
+himself supplied. I need hardly say that he was a highly cultured and
+intelligent gentleman, since only such persons are chosen for missionary
+work in China.
+
+From inquiries made by me on the 29th of January, 1875, I learnt
+that they left Ningpo in November, 1872, and travelled thence 130
+miles into the interior of the country. In the following September,
+or about ten months subsequently, the missionary was attacked with
+diarrhœa, which persisted until expulsion of some of the parasites had
+occurred. According to the patient’s statements this result, so far,
+was entirely due to his having been placed on a milk diet; this course
+of treatment having been recommended by Dr Henderson, of Shanghae. The
+patient himself always suspected the presence of intestinal worms of
+some sort or other, although a Japanese doctor laughed at the idea of
+such a thing. Some other doctor treated this missionary for parasites,
+administering both male-fern and santonine without effect.
+
+It was not until several months had elapsed that his wife was attacked
+with diarrhœa. In both cases there was more or less flatus. The motions
+were white, and there were other indications implying that the liver was
+affected. Later on, symptoms of indigestion, with heartburn, set in and
+became very severe. Streaks of blood appeared in the fæces, but there
+was no dysentery. For the most part these symptoms were attributed to
+the effects of climate.
+
+When, in the month of February, 1875, I saw the missionary a second
+time, professionally, I found that all the old symptoms had returned.
+He had a foul tongue, the surface of the body was cold, he felt
+chills, and the pulse, though regular, registered ninety-six to the
+minute. Indigestion, nausea, headache, and diarrhœa had reappeared.
+Notwithstanding these febrile symptoms, so satisfied was the patient
+himself that all his ailments were entirely due to the presence of
+parasites, that I felt inclined to take the same view of his case.
+Accordingly my attention was principally directed to an effort for their
+expulsion; and in this view I ordered an aloetic pill followed by a
+castor-oil emulsion. This having no effect, I subsequently prescribed
+aloes and assafœtida pills, followed by scammony mixture. The action
+of the latter drug did not occasion griping, but, although efficient,
+led only to negative results. I should mention that in the patient’s
+judgment none of the vermifuges administered to him at any time had
+exerted any influence in the expulsion of the flukes. He was still
+thoroughly impressed with the notion that the milk diet, ordered by Dr
+Henderson, was the sole cause of their expulsion.
+
+As even a missionary could not live by milk alone I insisted upon a more
+substantial diet. The milk, indeed, had occasionally been supplemented
+by Liebig’s extract of meat and by light farinaceous food. When I last
+saw him neither he nor his wife had passed any more flukes, but they
+did not feel satisfied that no more guests remained. Somewhat improved
+in general health, the missionary resolved to go back to his duties in
+China. I expressed my fears, however, that his strength would prove
+unequal to the work.
+
+From the size and almost leathery texture of the two flukes which were
+in the first instance submitted to my notice, I at once recognised the
+species; but as they were spirit-specimens, I requested that if any more
+examples were obtained they should be sent to me in the fresh state.
+Fortunately others were brought in a few days, when, from an examination
+conducted whilst they were still fresh, I was able to make out several
+details of structure which had hitherto escaped notice. Altogether I
+secured seven specimens, three of them being in a mutilated condition.
+In what way these mutilations (as shown by my dried specimens) occurred
+I have not been able to make out, either by personal observation or by
+questioning the bearers. Two of the parasites look as though portions
+had been carefully excised near the centre. The new facts I have gleaned
+were derived from the examination of two comparatively small specimens,
+one of which, dried, has, by Prof. Rolleston’s desire, been deposited
+in the anatomical department of the University Museum at Oxford. When
+I took occasion to bring some of the new specimens under Mr Busk’s
+attention, he at once recognised them as referable to the species he had
+long ago discovered.
+
+The earliest literary notice of _Distoma crassum_ appeared in Dr Budd’s
+classical treatise ‘On Diseases of the Liver;’ and in it the author
+correctly stated, from data supplied by Mr Busk, that these human flukes
+were “much thicker and larger than those of the sheep,” being, it is
+added, from “an inch and a half to near three inches in length.” The
+longest of my recent specimens, however, scarcely exceeds two inches,
+whilst the smallest and most perfect (the one at Oxford) measures less
+than an inch from head to tail. The greatest width of my broadest
+specimen is little more than half an inch, or 9/16″. None of the twelve
+examples that I have examined approach the length of three inches; but
+Mr Busk assured me that, judging from his recollection, some of his
+specimens were even longer than that. I fear, nevertheless, that the
+estimate given in my Synopsis is somewhat exaggerated; at all events it
+is so for average specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The large human fluke (_Distoma crassum_) _a_,
+Oral sucker; _b_, intestine; _c_, cæcal end of same; _d_, reproductive
+papilla; _e_, uterine rosette (the folds of which are not branched);
+_f_, one of the folds (in profile); _g_, vitellarium; _h_, hernial
+protrusion (the result of an injury to the specimen); _i_, upper testis;
+_j_, streaks or layers of seminal fluid which have escaped by rupture
+and assumed a branched appearance; _k_, lower testis uninjured (but
+slightly altered in outline from flattening); _l_, ventral sucker.
+Magnified 2 diameters. Original.]
+
+The new anatomical facts made out by me bear reference principally to
+the reproductive apparatus. What else I have observed is for the most
+part confirmatory of the statements made by Mr Busk. In particular,
+his brief account of the position and character of the digestive
+organs was not only confirmed by my earlier examinations, but is now
+re-verified. In the representation given in my ‘Introduction’ I showed
+in dotted outline two large organs which I supposed to be the testes.
+I distinctly observed radiating lines proceeding from the centre in
+each; but I could not discover the slightest trace of any limiting
+border to either organ. I now found in the same position two nearly
+circular flattened masses with clearly defined limits (_i_, _k_). No
+doubt could be entertained as to the testicular character of the lower
+organ (_k_). In the original drawing I further indicated the presence
+of a third and much smaller globular mass, which I termed the ovary;
+but what I supposed to represent this organ in the particular specimen
+from which the accompanying illustration was drawn turns out to be
+merely a hernial protrusion resulting from injury (_h_). The radiating,
+broad, and branching seminal ducts are beautifully distinct in one of
+my specimens, forming the most attractive feature of the parasite’s
+organisation (_k_). In consequence of injury to the specimen which is
+here drawn, the upper testis (_i_) displays no seminal tubes. I made out
+the female reproductive organs with more completeness. In the outline
+drawing given in my introductory treatise I had indicated the probable
+position of the uterine folds; reducing the organ to the simplest
+expression of what I concluded must obtain in the normal condition. My
+conjecture was perfectly correct. The uterus consists of irregularly
+folded tubes, which, though here and there apparently branching from
+a central tube, are in reality folded evenly upon themselves. The
+oviduct can be distinctly traced to its outlet in the reproductive
+papilla, which, as usual in true Distomes, is placed in the middle line,
+immediately above the ventral sucker. In my examination of Mr. Busk’s
+original specimens I could not find the slightest trace of vitelligene
+organs; but in my fresh examples I not only obtained proof that these
+organs were largely developed, but that their limitations could be fixed
+with accuracy (_g g_). They consisted of two large elongated masses, one
+on either side of the body, occupying about two thirds of the entire
+length of the parasite. Their yolk-vesicles were distinctly seen; but
+the main efferent canals were only here and there traceable. Clearly,
+the position and character of the yolk-forming glands of this large
+human fluke are quite unlike those of any of its congeners. This fluke
+is a remarkably fine species, and, when viewed in the fresh state with
+a powerful pocket-lens, presents a most striking appearance. I did not
+observe any cutaneous spines. I found the eggs to present an average
+long diameter of about 1/200″, by 1/330″ in breadth. They are therefore
+somewhat smaller than those of the common fluke. In the specimen
+preserved in the Hunterian Museum there was complete evidence of the
+presence of an excretory outlet at the caudal extremity; but I did not
+succeed in finding any trace of the water-vascular system higher up. I
+have no doubt, however, that it exists.
+
+As regards the affinities of _Distoma crassum_, it is clear that this
+Trematode has little in common either with the liver-fluke of cattle
+and sheep (_Fasciola hepatica_), or the still larger species obtained
+by me from the giraffe (_Fasciola gigantea_). The simple character
+of the digestive tubes obviously connects it more closely with the
+lancet-shaped fluke (_Distoma lanceolatum_), the last-named parasite
+being, as already shown, an occasional resident in the human liver,
+where its presence, moreover, undoubtedly contributed towards the
+production of the fatal result.
+
+In my remarks on the missionary’s diet it is hinted that the Ningpo
+oysters may have played the _rôle_ of intermediary bearers to the
+parasite in question; and as tending in some measure to strengthen this
+notion, it should be borne in mind that Mr. Busk’s original fluke-bearer
+came from the east. It is not improbable that the Lascar host may have
+partaken of the same particular species of fish or shell-fish that the
+missionary and his wife partook of. Be that as it may, the frequency
+of the occurrence of Trematodes and their larvæ in marine mollusks is
+well known. According to Woodward, several species of oyster are sold
+in the Indian and Chinese markets. Thus, it would require the skill of
+a malacologist to determine the particular species of _Ostrea_ to which
+the Ningpo oysters should be referred.
+
+Mons. Giard is of opinion that the singular larvæ known as _Bucephali_
+attain sexual maturity in sharks and dog-fishes; therefore it is
+extremely unlikely that the _Bucephali_ should have been in any way
+concerned in the infection of our missionary and his wife; nevertheless
+there remains the probability that these human bearers swallowed
+other kinds of Trematode larvæ when they consumed the Ningpo oysters.
+Moreover, if it should happen that none of the other larvæ occurring in
+oysters are capable of developing into flukes in the human territory,
+it yet remains highly probable that some one or other of the various
+encysted (and therefore sexually immature) Trematodes known to infest
+marine fishes will turn out to be the representative of our _Distoma
+crassum_. In this connection we must not forget that the flesh of
+the _Salmonidæ_ forms the probable source of human _Bothriocephali_;
+and there is some likelihood that salt-water fishes, if not actually
+the primary, may become (after the manner explained by M. Giard) the
+secondary intermediary bearers of fluke-larvæ. At all events, I am
+inclined to look to the Ningpo oysters, or to some other of the various
+species of marine shell-fish sold in eastern markets, as the direct
+source of _Distoma crassum_; for, in addition to the bucephaloid
+cercarians, we have abundant evidence of the existence of other and more
+highly developed fluke-larvæ in marine bivalve mollusks.
+
+In this connection I will only further observe that we possess very
+little knowledge of the parasites which take up their abode in the
+viscera of savages. This ignorance results partly from the fact that
+these untutored races, as proved by the statements of Kaschin and
+others, actually, in the matter of severe symptoms, suffer much less
+from the presence of intestinal worms than their civilised fellow-men
+do. The subject is worthy of further attention, but no one, so far as I
+am aware, has cared to institute the necessary inquiries in a methodical
+way. I strongly suspect that several of the human parasites which we
+now consider to be rare would be found to be abundant if by means of
+post-mortem examinations and other methods of investigation we could
+be made acquainted with the facts of helminthism as they occur amongst
+the raw-flesh and fish-eating savage tribes. Of course any person,
+notwithstanding the utmost care and cleanliness, as in the cases before
+us, may contract a noxious parasite; nevertheless, speaking generally,
+it may be said that the measure of internal parasitism affecting any
+given class of people bears a strict relation to the degree of barbarism
+shown by such persons in their choice of food and drink, and in their
+manner of eating and drinking. This statement, if true, is not destitute
+of sanitary importance; moreover, it applies not alone to ourselves, but
+also to all the domesticated animals that serve our wants. Cleanliness
+is just as necessary for their welfare as for our own.
+
+In the spring of 1878 my patients returned from China. They had
+experienced fresh attacks from the parasite; moreover, one of their
+children, a little girl, was also victimised by the same species
+of fluke. Thus, in one family I have encountered three cases of
+fluke-helminthiasis due to _Distoma crassum_! One of the worms passed by
+the little girl _per anum_ is now in my possession. It not only shows
+the upper testis perfectly, but also the many times transversely folded,
+simple, uterine rosette which is certainly not branched. There are also
+traces of an organ which I take to be the cirrhus-pouch; but I have
+never seen the penis protruded externally.
+
+For the purposes of diagnosis I subjoin the following characters. The
+_Distoma crassum_ is a large, flat helminth varying from an inch and a
+half to two and a half inches in length, and having an average breadth
+of five eighths of an inch; it is especially also characterised by its
+uniform and considerable thickness, combined with the presence of a
+double alimentary canal which is not branched; the body is pointed in
+front, and obtusely rounded posteriorly; the integument being smooth
+and unarmed; the reproductive orifices placed immediately above the
+ventral sucker; the testes form two large rounded organs, situated below
+the uterine rosette, and disposed in the middle line, one in front of
+the other; the uterine folds occupy the front part of the body; near the
+lateral margins there are two large vitelligene glands, one on either
+side of the intestinal tube; the excretory organ probably consists of a
+central trunk with diverging branches, opening below.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 5).--_Budd_, original notice in his ‘Diseases
+of the Liver,’ 2nd edition, quoted by Lankester in Appendix B to
+Küchenmeister’s ‘Manual of Parasites,’ p. 437, 1857.--_Cobbold, T. S._,
+“Synopsis of the _Distomidæ_,” in ‘Journ. of the Proceed. of the Linnean
+Soc.,’ vol. v, Zool. Div., 1860 (original description p. 5).--_Idem_,
+‘Entozoa,’ p. 193, 1864.--_Idem_, “Remarks on the Human Fluke Fauna,
+with especial reference to recent additions from India and the East,”
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ April, 1876.--_Idem_, “On the supposed Rarity,
+Nomenclature, Structure, Affinities, and Source of the large Human Fluke
+(_D. crassum_),” ‘Linn. Soc. Journ.,’ vol. xii, Zool. Div., 1876, p. 285
+_et seq._--_Idem_, “Observations on the large Human Fluke, with notes
+of two cases in which a missionary and his wife were the victims,” the
+‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1876.--_Idem_, “The new Human Fluke,” in a letter
+published in the ‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1875.--_Leidy_, in ‘Proceed. Acad.
+Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia;’ see also Dr McConnell’s paper quoted
+below (Bibl. No. 6).--_Leuckart_, l. c., Bd. I, s. 560.--_Weinland_, l.
+c. (Bibl. No. 2), Appendix, p. 87.
+
+_Distoma Sinense_, Cobbold.--The discovery of this species is due to
+Prof. J. F. P. McConnell, who “on the 9th of Sept., 1874, found a large
+number of flukes in the liver of a Chinese, obstructing the bile ducts.”
+The species measures 7/10″ in length, by 1/7″ in breadth, the eggs
+being 1/833″ by 1/1666″. Dr McConnell showed in his original memoir
+that the worm cannot well be confounded with _Fasciola hepatica_, with
+_Distoma lanceolatum_, or with _D. conjunctum_. In this conclusion he
+was supported by Dr T. R. Lewis, who examined the specimens with him.
+In a letter communicated to the ‘Lancet,’ quoted above, I proposed
+the nomenclature here given; but Prof. Leuckart, unaware of this
+step, afterwards suggested the terms _Distomum spatulatum_. Later on
+I received numerous specimens from Calcutta, the examination of which
+enabled me to confirm the accuracy of the original description. As
+regards the male organs in the subjoined figure, it will be seen, by
+comparing the lettering and references, that I have interpreted the
+facts of structure somewhat differently from Prof. McConnell.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Chinese fluke (_Distoma Sinense_). _a_, Oral
+sucker; _b_, œsophageal bulb; _c_, intestine; _c′_, cæcal end; _d_,
+ventral sucker; _e_, genital pore; _f_, uterine folds; _g_, ovary; _h_,
+vitellarium; _i_, vitelligene duct; _k_, upper seminal reservoir; _l_,
+testes; _m_, lower seminal pouch; _o_, vas deferens; _p_, pulsatile
+vesicle; _p′_, water vessel. After McConnell.]
+
+In the month of December, 1874, a Chinese died in the Civil Hospital
+at Port Louis, Mauritius, whilst he was under the care of Dr William
+Macgregor, chief medical officer of the Colony of Fiji. The post
+mortem revealed the presence of a very great number of flukes in the
+bile-ducts. Dr Macgregor described these parasites with great care, and
+having favored me with a copy of his manuscript I at once recognised the
+worms to be identical with the species discovered by McConnell. I also
+received through Dr Henry Clark, of Glasgow, two Mauritius specimens,
+which when compared with the Calcutta examples proved to be specifically
+identical. Dr Macgregor’s paper, communicated to the Glasgow
+Medico-Chirurgical Society, gives full particulars of the helminthiasis
+associated with this parasite, whilst both his and Prof. McConnell’s
+account of the structure of the worm are remarkably complete in details,
+and well illustrated. It is not a little curious to notice that although
+these parasites were obtained in countries far removed from China, they
+were in both instances taken from Chinese; moreover, from the statements
+of Macgregor, it appears very probable that the parasites in question
+are a common source of liver disease. Without doubt oriental habits are
+eminently favorable to fluke infection, for we are now acquainted with
+four species of flukes whose geographical range is limited to eastern
+parts.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 6).--_McConnell, J. F. P._, “Remarks on the Anatomy
+and Pathological relations of a new species of Liver-fluke,” ‘Lancet,’
+Aug. 1875; repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1875; also in the
+‘Lancet,’ March 16th, 1878, p. 406.--_Macgregor, W._, “A new form of
+Paralytic Disease, associated with the presence of a new species of
+Liver Parasite (_Distoma Sinense_),” ‘Glasgow Med. Journ.’ for Jan.,
+1877; also in the ‘Lancet’ for May 26th, 1877, p. 775.--_Cobbold, T.
+S._, in a note to the ‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1875, and in the Appendix to
+Macgregor’s paper, p. 15, 1877.--_Leuckart, R._, l. c., Bd. ii, s. 871,
+1876.
+
+_Distoma conjunctum_, Cobbold.--The little fluke which I first
+discovered in the gall-ducts of an American fox (_Canis fulvus_) was
+fourteen years afterwards obtained from pariah dogs in India by Dr. T.
+R. Lewis (1872); but it remained for Prof. McConnell to show that this
+entozoon also invades the human subject (1874). A second instance of its
+occurrence in man was recorded in 1876. We all figured the worm, and in
+respect of general details our descriptions for the most part agreed
+(fig. 56). The worms from the dog and fox gave an average of 1/4″ in
+length, but the majority of those found by McConnell in man were fully
+3/8″ from head to tail.
+
+Writing in the spring of 1876 Dr McConnell says:--“In the ‘Lancet’ for
+the 21st of August, 1875, I published the description of a new species
+of liver-fluke found in the bile-ducts of a Chinaman (_sic_) who died in
+this hospital. Dr Spencer Cobbold has very kindly interested himself
+in this discovery, and proposed the name of _Distoma Sinense_ for the
+new fluke. This discovery (in September, 1874) has stimulated me to pay
+still greater attention to the morbid conditions of the biliary canals
+in our post-mortem examinations; but, although more than 500 autopsies
+have been conducted since that date, I have not met with another
+instance of distomata in the liver until within the last fortnight. On
+the 9th of January, 1876, in examining the liver of a native patient who
+had died in the hospital, I again found a large number of flukes in the
+bile-ducts, and having carefully examined many specimens, I recognise
+the species as the _D. conjunctum_ of Cobbold. Dr Cobbold discovered
+this fluke in 1858; but, as far as I am aware, the human liver has never
+hitherto been found infested by these parasites, and this will give
+general interest and importance to the following case.”
+
+“Jamalli Khan, a Mahommedan, aged twenty-four, admitted into the
+hospital on the 25th of December, 1875. He is a resident of Calcutta,
+and an ordinary labourer (coolie). He states that he had been suffering
+from ‘fever’ for the last two months, at first intermittent in
+character, but for the last seven days more or less continued. He is
+much emaciated and reduced in strength. Complains of pain on pressure
+over the liver and spleen; the latter can be felt much enlarged,
+reaching downwards to nearly the level of the umbilicus; the lower
+border of the liver, however, can only just be felt below the ribs.
+Temperature on evening of admission 101° F. Conjunctivæ are anæmic,
+but not jaundiced. Has also a little bronchitis. The fever continued
+with slight remissions for ten days (January 4th, 1876), the highest
+diurnal temperature (in the afternoon) varying from 103° to 104° F.; it
+then abated, but dysentery set in. He began to pass six or eight stools
+in the twenty-four hours, attended with much griping, and containing
+varying quantities of blood-tinged, gelatinous mucus. These became more
+frequent, in spite of treatment, during the next three days, and on the
+8th of January he was manifestly sinking; passed his evacuations into
+the bedclothes, became cold and collapsed, and died in this state that
+same evening.
+
+“A post-mortem examination was made on the following morning, thirteen
+hours after death. All the organs of the body were found more or less
+anæmic, but exhibited nothing remarkable with the following exceptions.
+The lungs towards their posterior margins and bases were dark, but still
+spongy and crepitant. The spleen was found greatly enlarged, heavy;
+capsule tense and stretched; substance soft, reddish brown, irregularly
+pigmented; weight 1 lb. 13 oz. The liver was of about normal size; its
+surfaces smooth, the capsule slightly hazy looking. Hepatic substance
+firm, but abnormally dark, and the bile-ducts particularly prominent
+and thickened. Numbers of small distomata escaped from the incisions
+made into the organ, and could be seen protruding from the dilated
+biliary canals. The gall-bladder was filled with thick greenish-yellow
+bile, measuring about an ounce and a half, but containing no parasites,
+and no ova even could be detected on microscopical examination of this
+bile and of scrapings from the lining membrane of the gall-bladder.
+The cystic duct was free from obstruction. The condition of the common
+choledic duct could not so well be ascertained, as the liver had been
+removed from the abdominal cavity before anything extraordinary had been
+detected in its condition, but, so far as it could be examined, it was
+found patent; the duodenal mucous membrane was well bile-stained, and
+there was evidence of biliary colouring matter in the fæcal contents
+of the bowels. On carefully dissecting out, and then laying open, the
+biliary ducts in a portion of the right lobe of the liver (the rest
+being preserved entire), numbers of distomata were found within them,
+lying singly, flattened, and generally with the anterior extremity,
+or “oral sucker,” directed towards the periphery of the organ, the
+posterior extremity towards its centre; or in twos, threes, or even
+little groups of fours, variously coiled upon themselves or upon each
+other. The lining membrane of the biliary canals was found abnormally
+vascular, its epithelial contents abundant (catarrh?), and, among these,
+ova could be detected under the microscope. Sections of the liver,
+hardened and then examined in glycerine, showed fatty infiltration of
+the lobular structure, but not to any advanced degree; the bile ducts
+considerably dilated, their walls thick and hypertrophied, but nothing
+else abnormal, or in any way remarkable. The weight of the liver was 3
+lbs. In the transverse and descending colon numerous indolent-looking,
+shallow, pigmented ulcers were found, and in the rectum others evidently
+more recent and highly injected. The submucous tissues throughout were
+abnormally thickened. The intestinal contents consisted of only about
+three ounces of thin yellowish (bilious) fæcal fluid, with small bits of
+opaque mucus. This was carefully washed and examined, but no flukes were
+discovered. About a dozen distomata escaped from the liver on making the
+primary incisions, and quite twice this number was found subsequently
+within the biliary canals. Only a portion of the right lobe has, as I
+have said, been dissected, so that it may be confidently stated that
+probably not less than a hundred of these flukes must have infested
+this liver. All were found dead, but it must be remembered that the
+autopsy was performed thirteen hours after the death of the patient.
+It is remarkable that in this case, as in the one before described by
+me, no distomata were found in the gall-bladder. The presence of these
+parasites in the bile-ducts seems to have led to catarrhal inflammation
+of their lining membrane and abnormal thickening and dilatation of
+their walls, but there is no evidence of their having caused sufficient
+obstruction to produce cholæmia, as in the case just referred to, and no
+marked pathological change could be detected in the lobular structure of
+the liver.”
+
+After referring to the anatomical descriptions of the worm, as recorded
+by myself (in ‘Entozoa’) and by Lewis (in the memoir quoted below),
+Professor McConnell further observes that the addition of a few more
+particulars seems necessary for the determination of the identity of the
+species. He then gives the following characters:
+
+“Body lanceolate, anterior and posterior extremities pointed, the latter
+obtusely. Surface covered with minute spines or hairs. Average length
+3/8″ (three eighths of an inch); average breadth 1/10″. ‘Ventral’ sucker
+slightly smaller than ‘oral.’ Reproductive papilla or genital orifice
+placed a little above and to one side of the former. Alimentary canal
+double and unbranched. Uterine folds and ovary placed in the median
+line, and above the male generative organs, the latter consisting of two
+very distinct globular bodies or testes. Ova of the usual type, _i. e._
+oval in outline, having a double contour, and granular contents; average
+length, 1/750″; average breadth, 1/1333″. The only point of note is that
+the average length of these flukes is greater than that of the same
+species found by the authors above referred to. The _D. conjunctum_ in
+the American fox, and in the pariah dog, has an average length of 1/4″;
+only two or three specimens of this size were found in this liver, and
+these showed evidences of immaturity; a few were found 1/2″ in length;
+but the great majority exactly 3/8″. The anatomical characters are
+otherwise precisely identical.”
+
+Professor McConnell concludes his communication by a remark in reference
+to the common source of infection shared by mankind and dogs in India.
+The occurrence, however, of this entozoon in an American red fox points
+to a very wide geographical distribution of the species. It is hardly
+likely that the fox, though dying in the London Zoological Society’s
+Menagerie, should have contracted the parasite in England. In the second
+half of this work I shall reproduce my original drawing (fig. 56) from
+the ‘Linnean Transactions;’ but I may refer to my Manual (quoted below)
+for a reproduction of McConnell’s figure. In my original specimens the
+integumentary spines had fallen, probably as a result of post-mortem
+decomposition.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 7).--_Cobbold, T. S._, “Synopsis of the Distomidæ” (l.
+c.), 1859; and in “Further Observations on Entozoa, with experiments,”
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xxiii (tab. 33, p. 349), 1860.--_Idem_, “List
+of Entozoa, including Pentastomes, from animals dying at the Zool.
+Soc. Menagerie between the years 1857-60,” ‘Proceed. Zool. Soc.,’
+1861.--_Idem_, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 20, pl. ii, 1864; and in “Manual
+of the Internal Parasites of our Domesticated Animals,” p. 81,
+1873.--_Lewis, T. R._, and _Cunningham, D. D._, in a footnote to their
+‘Microscopical and Physiological Researches,’ Appendix C., ‘Eighth Ann.
+Rep. of the San. Comm. with the Govt. of India,’ p. 168, Calcutta,
+1872.--_McConnell, J. F. P._, “On the _Distoma conjunctum_,” in the
+‘Lancet’ for 1875-76, quoted above; reprinted in the ‘Veterinarian,’
+1876; also (a second case) in the ‘Lancet’ for March 30th, 1878, p. 476.
+
+_Distoma heterophyes_, Von Siebold.--This minute parasite, measuring
+only 3/4 of a line in length, was discovered by Dr Bilharz, of Cairo,
+in the intestines of a lad, post-mortem, in the year 1851. A second
+similar instance occurred, when several hundred examples were collected
+and afterwards distributed amongst the helminthologists of Europe.
+Through the kindness of Leuckart two of the worms eventually reached
+myself. From one of these the accompanying figure was drawn. For the
+purpose of supplying a full diagnosis I have elsewhere described this
+worm as presenting an oblong, pyriform outline, attenuated in front, and
+obtusely rounded behind; body compressed throughout, the surface being
+armed with numerous minute spines, which are particularly conspicuous
+(under the microscope) towards the head; oral and ventral suckers
+largely developed, the latter being near the centre of the body, and
+about twice the diameter of the former; pharyngeal bulb distinct and
+separate from the oral sucker, and continued into a long œsophagus,
+which divides immediately above the ventral acetabulum; intestinal tubes
+simple, gradually widening below and terminating near the posterior
+end of the body; reproductive orifices inconspicuous, but evidently
+placed below and a little to the right of the ventral sucker, at which
+point they are surrounded by a special accessory organ, resembling a
+supernumerary sucker; uterine folds numerous and communicating with
+small but conspicuously developed vitelligene glands; testes spherical
+and placed on the same level in the lower part of the body; ovary
+distinct; aquiferous system terminating inferiorly in a large oval
+contractile vesicle, the latter opening externally by a central _foramen
+caudale_.
+
+Apart from its minuteness, moreover, this trematode is especially
+characterised by the possession of a very remarkable apparatus
+surrounding the reproductive orifices. It consists of an irregularly
+circular disk, measuring 1/125″ in diameter, and having a thick-lipped
+margin, which supports seventy fish-basket-like horny ribs comparable
+to the claw-formations seen in the genus _Octobothrium_. According to
+Bilharz these ribs give off five little branches from their sides, but
+Leuckart could not see them in his specimens. Leuckart estimated the
+length of these horny filaments to be 1/1250″, whilst their breadth was
+1/3570″. On the whole we may regard this organ as a complicated form of
+“holdfast” designed to facilitate or give efficiency to the sexual act.
+I may here also state that this structure is by no means unique; for,
+if I mistake not, it exists in an equally developed degree in the young
+trematode which Dr Leared found infesting the heart of a turtle. Leared
+believed that he had found an ordinary distome; an opinion to which I
+could not give my assent, seeing that the organ described by him as a
+“folded, ventral sucker” presented a very different aspect to the oral
+sucker displayed by the same animal. Without doubt, however, the organ
+in his so-called _Distoma constrictum_ is analogous to the supplementary
+“holdfast” existing in _Distoma heterophyes_. The views which I
+originally advanced as to the source and condition of the parasite are
+probably correct.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--The small Egyptian fluke (_Distoma
+heterophyes_), viewed from behind. The large ventral sucker,
+supplementary disk, uterus, testes, simple divided intestine,
+vitellarium, and pulsatile vesicle are conspicuous. Original.]
+
+As regards the structure of _Distoma heterophyes_, I have only to add
+that a special set of glandular organs is situated on either side of the
+elongated œsophagus, but the connection between these organs and the
+digestive apparatus has not been clearly made out. Leuckart compares
+them to the so-called salivary glands found in _Distoma lanceolatum_,
+and says, “The presence of such a glandular apparatus is also indicated
+by the more ventral position of the oral sucker, and the development of
+the cephalic margin.” The conspicuous contractile vesicle terminating
+the excretory system is developed to an unusually large extent,
+exhibiting in its interior multitudes of the well-known active molecular
+particles. Lastly, I have only to add that the eggs of _Distoma
+heterophyes_ measure 1/990″ in length by 1/666″ transversely.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 8).--_Bilharz_, “Beitrag zur Helminth. humana,”
+‘Zeitsch. für wissenschaftl. Zool.,’ s. 62, 1851.--_Cobbold_,
+‘Entozoa,’ p. 195, 1864.--_Küchenmeister, F._, ‘Parasiten,’ 1855, s.
+210, Eng. edit., p. 276, 1857.--_Leared_, “Description of _Distoma
+constrictum_,” ‘Quarterly Journal of Micros. Science,’ new series, vol.
+ii, 1862.--_Leuckart, R._, l. c., s. 613, 1863.--_Moquin-Tandon_, on the
+Genus _Fasciola_, l. c., 1861.--_Weinland_, on _Dicrocœlium_, l. c., p.
+86, 1858.
+
+_Distoma ophthalmobium_, Diesing.--There is every reason to believe
+that the small flukes found by Gescheid and Von Ammon in the human eye
+were sexually immature worms, but since it cannot be decided as to what
+adult species they are referable I prefer to notice them under the usual
+title. Possibly these eye-worms may be referred to _D. lanceolatum_, as
+suggested by Leuckart. However that may be, I deem it unnecessary to
+repeat the details recorded in the treatises quoted below. The largest
+examples measured only half a line or about one millimètre in length.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--The eye fluke (_Distoma ophthalmobium_). Showing
+the suckers and intestinal tubes. After Von Ammon.]
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 9).--_Cobbold_, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 191.--_Gescheid (D.
+oculi humani)_, in Von Ammon’s ‘Zeitsch. f. Ophth.,’ iii, and also
+in Ammon’s ‘Klin. Darstell. d. Krankheit d. Menschl. Auges.,’ vols.
+i and iii.--_Küchenmeister_, Eng. edit., p. 287.--_Leuckart_, l. c.,
+s. 610.--_Nordmann (Monostoma lentis)_, “Mikr. Beitr.,” Heft. ii,
+‘Vorwort,’ s. ix, 1832.
+
+_Tetrastoma renale_, Chiaje; _Hexathyridium pinguicola_, Treutler;
+and _H. venarum_, Treutler.--Whether these forms are good species or
+not, the fact that they were genuine parasites cannot, I think, be
+disputed. The first-mentioned measured five lines in length, and was
+found by Lucarelli in the urine. The second, eight lines long, was found
+by Treutler in a small tumour connected with the ovary. The third,
+measuring three lines in length, was twice found in venous blood, and
+twice in the sputum of patients suffering from hæmoptysis.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 10).--_Delle-Chiaje_, ‘Elmintografia Umana,’
+1833.--_Bremser_ (l. c., Bibl. No. 2), s. 265, 1819.--_Cobbold_,
+‘Entozoa’ (p. 204, et seq.).--_Dujardin_ (l. c., Bibl. No. 2), s. 265,
+1819.--_Treutler_, ‘Obs. Path. Anat. ad Helm. Corp. Humani,’ p. 19,
+1793.--_Zeder_, ‘Anleitung zur Naturg. der Eingeweidewürmer,’ s. 230,
+1803.
+
+_Amphistoma hominis_, Lewis, and McConnell.--The original account of
+this species is based upon two finds. The first series of specimens was
+procured from Dr J. O’Brien, of Gowhatty, and the second set from the
+Pathological Museum of the Calcutta Medical College. Dr O’Brien and Dr
+Curran together procured their specimens, post-mortem, from an Assamese.
+There were hundreds of worms present in the vicinity of the ileo-colic
+valve. The museum specimens were procured from a patient who died at the
+Tirhoot gaol hospital in 1857. They were (say the authors) presented to
+the museum by Dr Simpson, and in the catalogue their history was briefly
+recorded as follows:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The human amphistome (_Amphistoma hominis_).
+Longitudinal section. _a_, Oral sucker; _b_, pharyngeal bulb; _c_, nerve
+ganglia; _d_, œsophagus; _e_, genital pore; _f_, vagina; _g_, ductus
+ejaculatorius; _h_, ventral nerve cords; _i_, intestinal canal; _j_,
+upper testis; _k_, water vessel; _l_, lower testis (ovary according
+to Lewis); _m_, principal ducts of the vitellarium; _n_, branches of
+the vitellary ducts; _o_, ventral pouch or bursa; _p_, caudal sucker.
+Magnified 12 diameters. After Lewis.]
+
+“The cæcum of a native prisoner who died from cholera in the Tirhoot
+gaol hospital, with a number of peculiar and, probably, hitherto
+unrecognised parasites, found alive in that part of the intestinal
+canal.” (_Presented by Dr Simpson through Professor E. Goodeve._)
+
+In continuation of their narrative, Drs Lewis and McConnell go on to
+say that, “with reference to this preparation, the following very
+interesting particulars from the ‘Annual Jail Report of Tirhoot’
+for 1857 have been very kindly placed at our disposal by the
+Surgeon-General, Indian Medical Department. The prisoner, Singhesur
+Doradh, aged 30, was attacked with cholera on the 13th, and died on
+the 14th of July, 1857. Had not been in hospital previously, and was
+employed in cleaning the jail.”
+
+The post-mortem examination was made three hours after death:--“Colon
+externally livid, contracted; contains a little serous fluid with
+flakes of mucus. Mucous membrane healthy except venous injection. In
+the cæcum and ascending colon numerous parasites like tadpoles, alive,
+adhering to the mucous membrane by their mouths. The mucous membrane
+marked with numerous red spots like leech-bites from these parasites.
+The parasites found only in the cæcum and ascending colon, none in the
+small intestines.” This description is by Dr Simpson, who adds, “I
+have never seen such parasites, and apparently they are unknown to the
+natives. They are of a red colour, size of a tadpole, some young, others
+apparently full grown, alive, adhering to mucous membrane,--head round,
+with circular open mouth, which they had the power of dilating and
+contracting. Body short and tapering to a blunt point.”
+
+Drs Lewis and McConnell’s description of the worm is too long to be
+quoted in full. The parasites measure 1/5″ to 1/3″ in length, by 1/8″ to
+1/6″ in breadth. Science is much indebted to these eminent observers for
+having unearthed the museum specimens and for recording the facts they
+could gather. From a zoological point of view the most interesting fact
+connected with Lewis’s amphistome is the existence of a gastric pouch.
+This structure brings these human _Masuri_ into close relation with the
+equine parasite which I have named _Gastrodiscus Sonsinoii_, and which
+will be found illustrated in this work (fig. 62). In short, Lewis’s worm
+appears like a transition form; the absence of gastric supplementary
+suckerlets separating it from the new generic type.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 11).--_Lewis, T. R., and McConnell, T. F. P.,_ “_Amph.
+hominis_; a new parasite affecting Man,” ‘Proceedings of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal,’ Aug., 1876.
+
+_Bilharzia hæmatobia_, Cobbold.--This remarkable parasite was discovered
+by Bilharz in 1851. It was subsequently found by myself in an ape
+(1857); other species of the same genus having since been detected by
+Sonsino in the ox and sheep (1876). The human examples were originally
+obtained from the portal system of blood-vessels. Afterwards they were
+obtained by Bilharz, Griesinger, and others, from the veins of the
+mesentery and bladder. It was shown that they were not only associated
+with, but actually gave rise to a formidable and very common disease in
+Egypt.
+
+In 1864 Dr John Harley made the interesting announcement that he had
+discovered specimens of this singular genus in a patient from the
+Cape of Good Hope. He also showed that the entozoon was the cause
+of the _hæmaturia_ known to be endemic at the Cape. Harley believed
+his parasites to represent a new species (_Distoma capense_), but in
+this view I showed that he was mistaken. His admirable contribution,
+nevertheless, served not only to establish the wide range of this
+parasite on the African continent, but also to throw much light upon
+the subject of endemic helminthiasis. As this worm forms an almost
+altogether exceptional type of fluke-structure, it became necessary
+to supersede the original nomenclature proposed by Bilharz and Von
+Siebold (_Distoma hæmatobium_). Accordingly I proposed the term
+_Bilharzia_, whilst other helminthologists subsequently proposed various
+titles (_Gynæcophorus_, Diesing; _Schistosoma_, Weinland; _Thecosoma_,
+Moquin-Tandon). On various grounds, and chiefly on account of priority,
+most writers have at length definitely accepted the nomenclature which
+employed the discoverer’s name for generic recognition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--The blood fluke (_Bilharzia hæmatobia_). The
+lower end of the female is withdrawn from the gynæcophoric canal of the
+male. After Küchenmeister.]
+
+The _Bilharzia hæmatobia_ may be described as a trematode helminth
+in which the male and female reproductive organs occur in separate
+individuals; the male being a cylindrical vermiform worm, measuring only
+half an inch or rather more in length, whilst the female is filiform,
+longer, and much narrower than the male, being about four fifths of
+an inch from head to tail; in both, the oral and ventral suckers are
+placed near each other at the front of the body; in the male the suckers
+measuring 1/100″, in the female 1/314″ in diameter; in either, the
+reproductive orifice occurs immediately below the ventral acetabulum.
+The comparatively short, thick, and flattened body of the male is
+tuberculated and furnished with a _gynæcophoric_ canal, extending from
+a point a little below the ventral sucker to the extremity of the tail;
+this slit-like cavity being formed by the narrowing and bending inwards
+of the lateral borders of the animal, the right side being more or less
+completely overlapped by the left margin of the body; caudal extremity
+pointed; intestine in the form of two simple blind canals. Female with a
+cylindrical body measuring only 1/312″ of an inch in thickness in front
+of the oral sucker; lodged in the gynæcophoric canal of the male during
+the copulatory act; thickness of the body below the ventral acetabulum
+being about 1/357″, and at the lower part 1/96″; surface almost smooth
+throughout; intestinal canals reunited after a short separation to form
+a broad, central, spirally twisted tube extending down the middle of
+the body; vitelligene and germigene canals combining to form a simple
+oviducal canal, which is continued into a simple uterine tube, finally
+opening near the lower margin of the ventral sucker; eggs pointed at one
+end, or furnished with a projecting spine near the hinder pole.
+
+The study of the structure and formation of the contents of the ova
+possesses great interest. When fully developed the eggs are oval,
+measuring from 1/180″ to 1/160″ in length, with an average transverse
+diameter of 1/325″. Some are a trifle larger, others smaller.
+Occasionally one encounters narrow specimens, and also aberrant forms
+presenting a pear-shaped outline. I have met with eggs not exceeding
+1/250″ in their long diameter, and 1/500″ transversely, whose
+yolk-contents had already arrived at an advanced stage of segmentation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Two eggs of _Bilharzia_. _a_, With the yolk
+coarsely segmented; _b_, with the yolk granulated and the spine wanting.
+Original.]
+
+The shell is transparent, of a brown colour, and free from any markings,
+lines, or sculpturing. One pole of the shell is invariably narrower than
+the other, and usually presents a more or less pointed extremity (fig.
+8). This narrow end commonly displays a sharp, projecting, beak-like
+spine, which, at its base, constantly rests upon the centre of the pole
+of the shell, but occasionally it is eccentrically placed (fig. 8_a_).
+In some few examples the spine is removed to a little distance from the
+actual extremity of the shell; but even in these instances, so far as
+my observations go, its apex always projects beyond the level of the
+curved end of the pole. Now and then the spine is altogether absent
+(fig. 8_b_); and when present it is, as already hinted, very unequally
+developed. In size the spine ranges from a mere point, having an extreme
+length of only 1/8000″, up to the comparatively large magnitude of
+1/2500″ lengthways.
+
+According to the best evidence there is no good ground for asserting the
+existence of any specific differentiation between the parasites coming
+from the Cape and Egypt respectively.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Two eggs of _Bilharzia_, with eccentrically
+placed spines. That to the left shows mulberry cleavage of the yolk; the
+other having lost its embryonal contents by rupture. Original.]
+
+Taking a more extended view of the significance of these singular
+chorional spines, I think we may here recognise the early efforts of
+Nature, so to speak, to form or evolve a special organ, which, in
+the eggs of certain other parasites, becomes capable of attaining
+a relatively prodigious degree of development. To me it seems that
+the little process in question is a kind of rudimentary holdfast;
+and, as such, it may be reckoned as the homologue of a variety of
+egg-appendages. Eleven years ago Mr Edwin Canton discovered some curious
+ova attached to the conjunctiva of a turtle’s eye. I had no hesitation
+in pronouncing them to be referable to some ectozoon or entozoon
+belonging to one or other of the allied genera _Polystoma_, _Tristoma_,
+_Octobothrium_, and _Dactylogyrus_. Now, whilst the Bilharzia ova
+display only a solitary and imperfectly developed holdfast, placed at
+one end of the shell, the singular eggs described by Mr Canton develop
+organs of anchorage at both extremities. Parasitic ova exhibiting
+analogous processes, spines, and filamentary appendages at both poles,
+have been observed in various species of parasite--as, for example,
+in _Monostoma verrucosum_ infesting the fox, in _Tænia cyathiformis_
+infesting the swallow, in _Tænia variabilis_ of the gambet, in
+_Octobothrium lanceolatum_ attached to the gills of the common herring;
+and in _Polystoma appendiculata_, from the branchiæ of various marine
+fishes. Eggs of parasites which, like _Bilharzia_, are furnished with a
+single appendage, may likewise be seen in the ova of different species
+of _Dactylogyrus_ infesting the gills of the pike. In the more strongly
+pronounced developments it is easy to perceive how admirably these
+outgrowths are adapted to the necessities of the different species of
+parasite to which they are severally referable; and, even in the case of
+_Bilharzia_, the trifling amount of anchorage furnished by a projecting
+point is not absolutely thrown away. The resistance will also be greater
+where the spine is situated a little on one side of the pole of the egg,
+which seems to need steadying during the violent struggles of the embryo
+to escape from its temporary abode.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Free ciliated embryo of _Bilharzia_, with
+pear-shaped rudimentary organs below the head. Original.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Two ciliated embryos of _Bilharzia_; showing
+sarcode spherules in their interior. That to the left has recently
+escaped the shell. Original.]
+
+When any number of ova are removed from the urine and examined, it
+will be found that a large proportion of them contain embryos in an
+advanced stage of larval growth. The structural appearances presented
+by the embryos whilst still in the eggs are remarkably uniform; since,
+in all, the yolk appears to have resolved itself into a mass of rounded
+sarcode-globules, one or two of these particles being conspicuously
+larger than the rest (fig. 12). At this stage, except towards the
+cephalic division of the larva, no tendency to differentiation is
+perceptible; but some time after the embryo has escaped, one may notice
+elongated masses of sarcode formed by the coalescence of the globules.
+Whilst still in the egg, one end of the primitive embryonal mass becomes
+gradually narrowed, cilia at the same time appearing. This part becomes
+the future head, eventually acquiring the form of a cowl. Whatever form
+the body of the embryo may display after extrusion from the shell,
+the head retains its conical shape, the cone itself being narrowed or
+widened only when the larva is subjected to abnormal conditions (fig.
+14). Whilst the head is undergoing development within the shell, one,
+two, or sometimes three, pyriform masses make their appearance within
+the cone; and after the embryo has escaped, these structures become more
+marked (fig. 10). The sarcode-globules refract light strongly; and, when
+the larva is not compressed in any way, they move freely within the
+somatic cavity. In well-developed embryos, whilst still in the egg, the
+cilia are observed to clothe every part of the larva except the oral
+papilla. This minute nipple-like projection measures about the 1/3000 of
+an inch transversely, forming a very simple kind of unarmed proboscis.
+When the head of the free embryo is viewed from above, the proboscis
+looks like a central ring surrounded by a series of regular folds, which
+radiate outwards like the spokes of a wheel. The ridges thus formed
+support numerous cilia, these latter projecting at the circumferential
+margin of the cephalic cone in such a way as to present the figure of
+a star. Dr Harley has admirably represented this character, which is
+shared by many other parasitic larvæ. Throughout the greater part of
+the time, whilst the embryo is still resident within the egg, the broad
+neck or base of the cephalic cone forms a fixed point of resistance by
+its firm attachment to the inner wall of the shell; and this structural
+union, so long as it remains intact, enables the embryo to move not
+only its head and body from side to side synchronously, but also each
+part independently. When the time for final escape is drawing near,
+the vigorous movements of the cone-shaped head seem chiefly concerned
+in loosening the membranous connection just referred to; and when, at
+length, the ciliated animalcule has succeeded in overcoming this first
+difficulty, it is ludicrous to witness its frantic efforts to find an
+opening in the shell. While thus partially liberated, it will rush to
+and fro from one pole of the egg to the other, performing a series of
+summersaults, and at the same time occasionally rolling itself over
+laterally. This activity becomes gradually more and more violent, until
+at length its excitement is worked up into a sort of frenzy. I have
+many times watched these performances, which, however, are only to be
+seen within those ova whose shells, for some reason or other, refuse to
+yield to the earlier and ordinary efforts of the prisoner. In all cases
+where these phenomena are witnessed the eye readily detects a number of
+small free globules between the embryo and the inner wall of the shell
+(fig. 13). These minute particles are likewise tossed about tumultuously
+during the rapid rotatory movements of the imprisoned larva. Except
+as regards their size, these globules do not differ in character from
+the sarcodic contents of the animalcule. They are probably superfluous
+detachments from the primitive yolk-mass, but it is possible that they
+may afford some aid in the final breaking up of the shell. Whilst the
+embryo remains fixed its tail is usually directed towards the narrower
+or spine-bearing pole of the egg, but in a few instances I have seen
+this position reversed. As regards the precise mode of emerging from the
+shell, and the time occupied by the larva in freeing itself, there are
+several points of interest. Speaking generally, the purer the medium
+into which the ova are transferred, the more rapid will be the movements
+of the larvæ. To give an example of observed facts in relation to the
+rapidity of development, I cite the following:--“On the 20th of August,
+1870, I placed twelve eggs of _Bilharzia_ under the microscope. The
+medium in which they were immersed consisted of eight parts of ordinary
+drinking water to one of urine. At the expiration of seventeen minutes
+the first-born made its escape. In the course of another minute two more
+emerged. In twenty-six minutes the fourth, in twenty-eight the fifth, in
+thirty-two the sixth, in thirty-four the seventh, in thirty-seven the
+eighth, in thirty-eight the ninth, in forty the tenth, in forty-three
+the eleventh, and in forty-six minutes the twelfth, respectively made
+their appearance.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Egg of _Bilharzia_, with contained embryo and
+free sarcode globules. Original.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Free ciliated embryo of _Bilharzia_, slightly
+deformed, and having the pear-shaped organs largely developed. Original.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ciliated embryos of _Bilharzia_, deformed by
+the application of reagents. Original.]
+
+Now, this rapid mode of birth and emergence from the shell is very much
+more striking in the case of eggs which are placed in perfectly pure
+water; for, whilst the eggs are still in the urine, there appears to
+be neither the power nor the inclination on the part of the embryo to
+escape; but, on isolating and placing them in suitable conditions, their
+behaviour is even more remarkable. In a space of less than two minutes
+I have repeatedly seen the hitherto motionless embryo alter its shape
+by contractions, become violently agitated, and burst out of its shell
+in the condition of a free-swimming animalcule. Moreover, it is worthy
+of remark that the eggs and larvæ of _Bilharzia_ soon perish in stale
+urine. “On the 16th of August, 1870, I placed about a thousand eggs
+in a quart of fountain-water, to which only a drachm or rather less
+of urine had been added. At the expiration of forty-eight hours not a
+single living embryo could be found. I subsequently ascertained that I
+could not keep the embryos alive for twenty-four hours in any water in
+which I had introduced the smallest trace of mucus, blood-corpuscles,
+urinary crystals, or decomposing matters of any kind. All sorts of
+reagents speedily killed the larvæ. Mere discoloration by carmine
+solution, or by the addition of a drop of the solution of permanganate
+of potash, instantly caused them to assume grotesque and unnatural
+shapes (figs. 13 and 14), death sooner or later following as a result
+of the disintegration and resolution of their delicate bodies into mere
+sarcode-masses. Still more rapidly poisonous effects were produced by
+the addition of a little sherry or alcohol. In solutions where the
+amount of spirit did not exceed one part of spirit, proof strength, to
+fifty parts of water the effect was the same.”
+
+The development of the larva is equally well accomplished in distilled
+water, in well-water, and in brackish water. In pure sea-water the
+process goes on less satisfactorily. It was found, indeed, that the
+addition of slightly saline water to ciliated embryos, which were on the
+point of expiring in fresh water, had the effect of reviving them for a
+time. These facts have an important practical bearing.
+
+I have thus shown that the escape of the embryo is by no means the slow
+process that Bilharz has described. Almost invariably the shell bursts
+by a longitudinal slit extending over fully two thirds of its long
+diameter, the first point of rupture being commonly situated midway
+between the spine and the centre of the shell. In normal births, so
+to speak, the head of the animalcule emerges first; but occasionally
+the animal escapes sideways, and I have even seen the embryo extricate
+itself tail foremost. Not unfrequently it has a difficulty in detaching
+itself from the shell, in which case the egg is whirled round and
+round by the half-freed prisoner (fig. 15). The lodgment of the spine,
+however, against any foreign substance affords the necessary leverage
+for ensuring escape.
+
+The larva never displays its proper elongated, spindle-shaped, or
+cylindro-conical figure, until some short time after its escape from the
+shell; and, as a consequence of this, its powers of locomotion are less
+marked at first than they are subsequently. At the time of extrusion
+the larvæ are commonly more or less hour-glass shaped (fig. 11); this
+particular form being sometimes retained for many minutes or even for
+an hour. Usually the larvæ have a tendency to acquire their normal
+shape immediately after quitting the shell; the oval, pear-shaped, and
+variously contracted forms gradually merging into the characteristic
+cone-shaped animalcule (fig. 10). In their fully developed condition,
+they exhibit the most lively movements; and to witness several hundreds
+of them rushing about with unceasing activity is a curious sight. The
+phenomenon, moreover, loses none of its interest from the consideration
+that only a few hours, or it may have been minutes, previously, these
+now actively gyrating animalcules were lodged _in ovo_ within the
+blood-vessels of their human host. From persons who are infested,
+myriads of these eggs of _Bilharzia_ daily make their escape during
+the act of micturition; and, when this act is accomplished by the
+host out-of-doors, it is easy to perceive how readily the ova may be
+subjected to conditions favorable to the development of larvæ. The
+direct passage of the urine into any considerable receptacle of natural
+or fresh water would in a few minutes ensure the hatching of all the
+eggs; and in the absence of any such direct aid to development, the
+accidental occurrence of a shower of rain would, in all localities
+where the _Bilharzia_ disease is endemic, readily transfer the ova into
+ditches, ponds, rivers, lakes, and ultimately, perhaps, even into the
+sea itself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Egg of _Bilharzia_, with the shell adhering to
+the escaped ciliated embryo. Original.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Ciliated embryo of _Bilharzia_ in the act of
+dying from the escape of the sarcodic contents. Original.]
+
+The behaviour of the embryo under the action of reagents of various
+kinds is remarkable. Thus, when on the 5th of Sept., 1870, I placed
+some ova in brackish water, of the strength of two parts of fresh
+water to one of pure sea-water, their contents were readily developed,
+though the escaping embryos did not swim vigorously. When again I
+placed some other eggs in pure sea-water, their contained embryos
+became instantly transfixed, the vibratile cilia of the head being
+rigid and motionless. At first I naturally concluded that the embryos
+were killed outright; but, to my great surprise, the shock passed away
+in about half an hour, when they revived and were soon afterwards
+hatched. One of the larvæ thus set free carried off several of the loose
+intra-chorional globules which had, during the period of transfixion,
+become firmly adherent to the ends of the caudal cilia. Here I may
+remark upon a decided difference observable between the cilia of the
+head and body respectively. The former are at all times vibratile,
+active, and conspicuous, whilst the latter are more delicate, capable
+of comparatively little motion, and partaking more of the character
+of fine setæ. In length their general measurement varies from 1/2500″
+to 1/2000″. The action of pure sea-water on the free animalcules,
+previously immersed in fresh or brackish water, was equally striking.
+All, without exception, immediately became paralysed and almost
+motionless; nevertheless, on again adding fresh water, several entirely
+recovered. It is worthy of notice that in these cases the cephalic
+cilia furnished the first indications of returning viability. I was
+particularly struck with the behaviour of one embryo, which, under
+the stimulus of the sudden shock, retracted its cone-shaped head
+almost entirely within the general cavity of the body (fig. 14, lower
+specimen). In their moribund condition, whatever shape the embryo
+retained, the sarcodic contents gradually faded away; the outline of
+the creature, however, becoming more marked (fig. 16). Usually the body
+of the animalcule became elongated whilst expiring in sea-water. Under
+other circumstances the embryo frequently bursts; the sarcodic contents
+escaping in the form of amœba-like bodies and the cilia retaining their
+powers of movement long after all traces of the sarcode have disappeared.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Ciliated embryo of _Fasciola hepatica_, showing
+the so-called eye-spot. After Leuckart.]
+
+The larvæ of _Bilharzia_ closely resemble those of _Fasciola hepatica_,
+which latter may be appropriately noticed in this place. The ciliated
+embryo of the common liver fluke has the form of a long cone inverted;
+the anterior end or head being flatly convex. In the centre is a short
+proboscis-like papilla destitute of cilia (fig. 17). The general
+covering of cilia rests on a well-defined granular epidermis; this
+latter being succeeded by a dense peripheral layer of large nucleated
+cells, each of them measuring about 1/2500″ in diameter. The epidermis
+measures 1/6250″ in thickness. In the central mass of parenchyma no
+internal organs are recognisable, but Leuckart observed indications of a
+canal which he thought might open at the tail, though the opening itself
+was not actually visible.
+
+As long as the ciliated covering remains intact the embryo, like other
+animalcules, displays great activity, whirling round and round on
+its own axis, and also describing gyrations and circles of different
+degrees of range in the water, the latter movements being accomplished
+by bending the body upon itself to a greater or lesser curvature. The
+embryos of _Bilharzia_ and other infusoria exhibit the same behaviour,
+and, as Leuckart observes, when these embryos knock against any
+obstruction, they pause after the blow, as if to consider the nature
+of the substance they have touched. As in the case of fluke embryos
+generally, the ciliated covering eventually falls off and the embryo
+reassumes a more or less oval figure, at the same time changing its
+swimming mode of progression for the less dignified method of creeping.
+In the free ciliated condition the embryo of the common liver-fluke
+measures, according to Leuckart, 1/190″ in length, the anterior broad
+end being 1/500″. The cilia have a longitudinal measurement of 1/1388″.
+
+According to the observations of Dr Willemoes-Suhm, the cilia of the
+embryos of the _Distoma megastoma_ are limited to the anterior pole of
+the body. This is also the arrangement, as Leuckart first pointed out,
+in _Distoma lanceolatum_ (fig. 18). On the other hand, Pagenstecher has
+shown that the embryos of _Distoma cygnoides_ and _Amphistoma_
+(_Diplodiscus_) _subclavatum_ are ciliated all over, an observation
+which, as regards the latter species, has been confirmed by Wagener and
+others. Dr Pagenstecher’s original statement to the effect that
+“intrachorional germs of trematodes offer no distinctive characters,”
+must, therefore, in the present state of our knowledge, be accepted as a
+general conclusion admitting of many exceptions. In the early stages of
+development the embryo of _Distoma lanceolatum_ occupies the centre of
+the egg, and according to Leuckart has its conical head invariably
+directed towards the upper pole of the shell, or, in other words, to
+that end of the egg which is furnished with a lid-like operculum.
+Leuckart describes the embryo itself as “finely granular and armed at
+the tip with a dagger-like spine, which, with the simultaneous
+displacement of the adjacent granular mass, can be pushed forward and
+drawn back again.” Besides this so-called cephalic granular mass, there
+are within the embryonic body two other granular masses widely separated
+from each other, but occupying the posterior half of the embryo. These
+Leuckart supposes to be the rudiments of a future brood, to be developed
+at the time when the free embryo shall have lost its ciliated swimming
+apparatus, shall have bored its way by means of the cephalic spine into
+the tissues of a mollusk, and shall have become metamorphosed into a
+sac-like larva (Nurse, Sporocyst, or Redia, as the case may be).
+Whatever be the full significance of these internal developments, we
+have at least satisfactory evidence that the complete and free embryo is
+a globe-shaped animalcule, having the anterior third or cephalic end of
+the body covered with cilia, and armed with a central boring spine. In
+consequence of this limitation of the ciliated covering, its swimming
+movements are less vivacious than those of the embryo of _Fasciola
+hepatica_; it will, therefore, probably take up its residence in a less
+active host than that chosen by the embryo of Fasciola, selecting one of
+those mollusks which either move slowly or are prone to keep at the
+bottom of the water. The mature eggs have a length of 1/625 to 1/555 of
+an inch, and a breadth of 1/833″. The long diameter of the free embryo
+varies from 1/990″ to 1/833″, the transverse diameter being 1/1562″.
+Whilst the embryos were still in the egg Leuckart could see no ciliary
+motion. With most observers, both the ciliary apparatus and the boring
+spine appear at this stage to have altogether escaped observation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Ciliated embryo of _Distoma lanceolatum_. After
+Leuckart.]
+
+As regards the intimate structure of the ciliated embryo of _Bilharzia
+hæmatobia_, I have further to observe that, shortly after its extrusion
+from the shell, the hitherto loose, globular sarcode particles
+coalesce. This is apparently a preliminary step towards the subsequent
+differentiation process. Respecting the pedunculated blind sacs formed
+within the head, I think that we must regard the largest one as
+representing the stomach of the larva in its future cercarian stage.
+Under the 1/12″ objective I distinctly recognised, in the cavity of the
+central blind sac, numerous highly refracting granules, the diameter of
+which averaged not more than 1/12000″. The rudimentary stomach is often
+traceable whilst the larva is still within the egg. It measures about
+1/500″ in length, including the peduncle, and 1/14000″ in breadth. The
+width of the narrow stalk does not exceed 1/9000″. The other two-stalked
+bodies appeared to have the character of _lemnisci_. They were
+occasionally well seen whilst the embryo was still within the egg. As
+regards the integument, it is easy to recognise two layers. In careful
+adjustments of the focus the inner wall of the transparent dermis
+presents a beaded appearance. These minute and regular markings do not
+undergo alteration during the contractions of the body of the larva.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Outline representation of a ciliated embryo
+of _Bilharzia_, showing the arrangement of the water vessels and the
+vacuoles. Original.]
+
+A highly developed water-vascular system exists in these little
+animalcules. On many occasions I saw traces of this set of vessels,
+and in several instances I obtained a most satisfactory view of the
+entire series of branches. Anxious to receive confirmation of my
+discovery, I demonstrated the existence of these vessels to a skilled
+microscopist--the late Mr J. G. Pilcher, of H. M. Army. In the briefest
+terms it may be said that the water-vascular system of _Bilharzia_,
+in the larval condition, consists of two main stems, which pursue a
+tortuous passage from head to tail, and which, in the course of their
+windings, give off several anastomosing branches (fig. 19). As also
+obtains in the corresponding larvæ of _Diplodiscus subclavatus_, there
+is no excretory outlet visible at the tail.
+
+Encouraged by the experiences and determinations of Pagenstecher,
+Filippi, Wagener, Leuckart, and others, I sought for the intermediate
+hosts amongst fresh-water mollusks and small crustacea. Failing of
+success in these, it occurred to me that the larvæ of _Bilharzia_ might
+normally reside in fluviatile or even in marine fishes. This latter idea
+seems also to have struck Dr Aitken. In an appendix to his ‘Report to
+the Army Medical Department for 1868,’ dated from Netley, Nov., 1869,
+he gives a figure of a nurse-form, which he terms a cercaria, from the
+tail of a haddock--suggesting for _Bilharzia_ some genetic relation. Dr
+Aitken also extends his views in reference to certain larval trematodes
+alleged to have been found in the so-called Delhi boils and Lahore
+sores. These parasitic forms have, however, been shown by Dr Joseph
+Fleming to be nothing more than altered hair-bulbs (‘Army Med. Reports,’
+1868-69).
+
+In regard to the flukes from the haddock, I have satisfied myself that
+these immature trematodes from the nerves of the cod-tribe can have no
+genetic relation with _Bilharzia_; and I think it due to Dr Maddox to
+say that I accept his conclusion respecting them. In his paper (‘Micros.
+Trans.,’ vol. xv, 1867, p. 87) he offers strong proof that the so-called
+_Distoma neuronaii Monroii_ of the haddock (_Morrhua æglefinus_) is
+the juvenile condition of _Gasterostoma gracilescens_ of the angler
+(_Lophius piscatorius_).
+
+I am sorry to have to state that all my experiments proved negative. I
+tried to induce the ciliated embryos to enter the bodies of a variety
+of animals, such as Gammari, Dipterous larvæ, Entomostraca, Lymnæi,
+Paludinæ, different species of Planorbis, and other mollusks; but
+neither in these, nor in Sticklebacks, Roach, Gudgeon, or Carp, did they
+seem inclined to take up their abode.
+
+The very peculiar and formidable helminthiasis produced by this
+parasite has been thoroughly investigated by Griesinger and Bilharz,
+and it has been fully described in the standard works of Küchenmeister
+and Leuckart. My own case from Natal also supplied many interesting
+clinical facts which were published in my ‘Lectures on Helminthology,’
+quoted below. The comparative prevalence of this disorder in Egypt is
+well established. Symptomatically, its principal feature consists in a
+general disturbance of the uropoietic functions. Diarrhœa and hæmaturia
+occur in advanced stages of the complaint, being also frequently
+associated with the so-called Egyptian chlorosis, colicky pains, anæmia,
+and great prostration of the vital powers. The true source of the
+disorder, however, is easily overlooked unless a careful microscopic
+examination be made of the urine and other evacuations. If blood be
+mixed with these, and there also be a large escape of mucus, a minute
+inspection of the excreta will scarcely fail to reveal the presence of
+the characteristic ova of _Bilharzia_. Besides the increase of mucus
+secretion, there may even be an escape of purulent matter, showing that
+the disorder has far advanced. The patient’s constitution eventually
+becomes undermined; pneumonia often sets in, and death finally ensues.
+On making post-mortem examinations the following pathological facts come
+to light. In cases where the disease has not advanced very far, minute
+patches of blood-extravasation present themselves at the mucous surface
+of the bladder, but in more strongly pronounced cases the patches
+are larger or even confluent. In some instances there are villous
+or fungus-like thickenings, ulceration and separation of portions of
+the mucous membrane, with varying degrees of coloration, according to
+the amount of the extravasation, which becomes converted into grey,
+rusty-brown, or black pigment deposits. A gritty or sandy deposit is
+often superimposed, consisting of ordinary lithic-acid grains mixed
+with eggs and egg-shells. Eggs are readily detected in the urine, these
+having escaped from the ruptured vesical vessels. The lining membranes
+of the ureters and renal cavities are also more or less affected; the
+kidneys being frequently enlarged and congested. It must, however, be
+borne in mind that in all these organs the true seat of the disorder is
+the blood, which forms the proper habitat of the _Bilharzia_; and this
+being the case, the worms as well as their escaped eggs may be found
+in any of the vessels supplying the diseased organs. In one instance,
+quoted by Leuckart, Griesinger found a number of empty eggs in the left
+ventricle of the heart, and from this circumstance it was supposed that
+they might be carried into various important organs, or even plug up
+the larger vessels. As before stated, however, the parasites are more
+particularly prevalent in the vessels of the bladder, mesentery, and
+portal system. The effects upon the intestinal mucous membrane are, in
+most respects, similar to those occurring in the urinary organs. Blood
+extravasations, with thickening, exudation, ulceration, and fungoid
+projections, appear in and upon the intestinal mucous and submucous
+tissues; these appearances, of course, being more or less strongly
+marked according to the degree of infection.
+
+In regard to the treatment of the helminthiasis, I am precluded from
+entering into details here; nevertheless, I am glad to perceive that
+the principles which I long ago enunciated have received approval both
+at home and abroad. As stated in my ‘Lectures’ our object should be not
+to interfere with, but to promote nature’s curative efforts. If I read
+the pathological facts correctly, she seeks to bring about this result
+by erecting artificial barriers which serve to moderate the bleeding.
+In this way, under ordinary circumstances, the life of the bearer is
+sustained, or held in the balance until the parasites either perish or
+cease to be capable of causing active disease. Depend upon it, this
+is the principle which should guide physicians in their treatment of
+the Bilharzia disorder. If the adult parasite were merely attached
+to the lining membrane of the bladder, then powerful diuretics and
+medicated injections would probably prove serviceable; but since the
+entozoa reside in the blood we must be careful not to increase the
+patient’s troubles. In the case of intestinal worms the most powerful
+parasiticides may be prescribed without let or hindrance; but that drug
+must be a truly subtle worm-poison which, when taken into the system,
+shall kill the blood-flukes without exerting any injurious effects upon
+the parasite bearer.
+
+When, in 1872, I published my lectures on helminthology, I remarked
+that it was not improbable that, ere long, many more cases of Bilharzia
+disease would be brought to light. What has been added in this respect
+is chiefly due to the researches of Sonsino, but a case of some interest
+has been recorded comparatively recently by Dr W. K. Hatch, stationed
+at Bombay. From the particulars furnished it seems evident that the
+victim, an English gentleman, contracted the disease by drinking water,
+either in Arabia or in Egypt, in which latter country, however, he had
+only sojourned fifteen days. From the patient’s statements it appears
+that, hæmaturia is frequent amongst the Arabs. Incidentally, Dr Hatch
+mentions that Dr Vandyke Carter had informed him that, so early as the
+year 1862, he (Dr Carter) had detected the embryos of Bilharzia in the
+urine of an African boy admitted to the Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy Hospital.
+The treatment employed by Dr Hatch was that recommended by Dr Harley in
+his well-known memoir. Having myself energetically opposed Dr Harley’s
+views on pathological grounds, I am not surprised to see it stated
+that Dr Harley’s method of treatment effected “no diminution in the
+number of the parasites.” As I said in my lectures (now out of print)
+it is evident that “nature” in view of moderating the hæmaturia--by the
+formation of plugs at the ulcerated points of the mucous surface--sets
+up the artificial barriers above referred to; therefore if you
+catheterise and employ medicated injections you do more harm than good.
+As to the administration of belladonna internally, in view of retarding
+development, or of destroying the parasite, no good can be expected
+from this source. I certainly obtained better results with buchu and
+bearberry (_Arctostaphylos_).
+
+In the matter of sanitation it is quite evident, from the foregoing
+data, that the danger of infection cannot arise from the drinking of
+impure water, as ordinarily understood. The embryonal larvæ would be
+killed by an admixture of sewage. It is obvious that infection can
+only occur from swallowing free cercariæ or freshwater mollusks which
+contain the higher larval forms in their encysted or pupa condition.
+Slow running streams or stagnant pools with sedgy banks are eminently
+favorable to the existence and multiplication of intermediary bearers,
+and consequently their waters are dangerous if employed for drinking
+purposes.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 12).--_Bilharz_, in Siebold and Köll., ‘Zeitsch. für
+wissensch. Zool.,’ iv, 1851.--_Idem_, ‘Wiener medic. Wochenschrift,’
+1856.--_Cobbold, T. S._, “On some new forms of Entozoa (_Bilharzia
+magna_),” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xxii, p. 364, 1859.--_Idem_, “Synopsis
+of the Distomidæ,” in ‘Proceed. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. v, Zool. Div., p.
+31, 1860.--_Idem_, “Remarks on Dr J. Harley’s _Distoma capense_,” in
+‘Lancet,’ also in the ‘Veterinarian,’ and in ‘Intell. Observer’ for
+Feb. and March, 1864.--_Idem_, “Entozoa,” l. c., p. 197, 1864.--_Idem_,
+“On Blood Worms,” Lecture xx in ‘Worms,’ l. c., p. 145 et seq., 1872;
+Tommasi’s edit., Vermi, p. 141, 1873.--_Idem_, “On the Embryos of
+_Bilharzia_,” ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1864.--_Idem_, “On the Development
+of _Bilharzia hæmatobia_, together with Remarks on the Ova of another
+Urinary Parasite occurring in a case of Hæmaturia from Natal,” ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ July, 1872; repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1872.--_Idem_,
+‘New Entozootic Malady, &c.’ (brochure), London, 1865.--_Idem_,
+“Helminthes,” in Gunther’s ‘Record of Zool. Literature,’ p. 617,
+1865.--_Idem_, “Entozoa in relation to Public Health and the Sewage
+Question,” Rep. of the Proceed. of the Metrop. Assoc. of Officers
+of Health, in ‘Med. Times and Gazette,’ Jan., 1871, repr. in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 359, 1871.--_Idem_, “Verification of recent
+Hæmatozoal Discoveries in Australia and Egypt,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+June, 1876.--_Idem_, “On Sewage and Parasites, especially in relation
+to the Dispersion and Vitality of the Germs of Entozoa,” rep. in
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ for Feb., and the ‘Veterinarian’ for May,
+1871.--_Davaine, C._, l. c., ‘Synops,’ and p. 312, 1860.--_Diesing,
+C. M._, ‘Revis. d. Myzelmith,’ Vienna, 1858.--_Griesinger_, “Klin.
+und Anat. Beobachtungen über die Krankheiten von Egypten,” in ‘Arch.
+für physiol. Heilkunde,’ 1856.--_Idem_, ‘Gesammelte Abhandlungen,’
+Berlin, 1872.--_Idem_, ‘Arch. d. Heilk.,’ 1866.--_Harley, J._, ‘On
+the Hæmaturia of the Cape of Good Hope, produced by a Distoma,’ rep.
+in ‘Lancet,’ and ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Feb., 1864; also in Ranking’s
+‘Abstract,’ p. 173, 1864, and fully in ‘Medico-Chirurg. Trans.,’
+1865.--_Idem_, “On the Endemic Hæmaturia of the South Eastern Coast
+of Africa,” ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ vol. liv, 1871.--_Idem_, in Hooper’s
+‘Vade Mecum,’ 1869.--_Hatch, W. K._, “Case of _Bilharzia hæmatobia_,” in
+‘British Medical Journal,’ Dec. 14, 1878, p. 875.--_Küchenmeister, F._,
+‘Parasiten,’ 1855; Eng. edit., p. 277, 1857.--_Leuckart, R._, l. c., s.
+617, 1863.--_Sonsino, P._, “Richerche intorno alla Bilharzia hæmatobia
+in relazione colla Ematuria Endemica dell’ Egitto e nota intorno
+un Nematoideo trovato nel Sangue Umano,” ‘Estr. dal Rend., del. R.
+Accad.,’ 1874.--_Idem_, ‘Della Bilharzia hæmatobia e delle alterazione
+Anatomo-patologiche che induce nell’ Organismo Umano, loro importanza
+come Fattori della Morbilità e Mortalità in Egitto, con cenno sopra
+una Larva d’Insetto Parassita dell’ Uomo. Estratto dall’ Imparziale,’
+Firenze, 1876.--_Idem_, ‘Sugli ematozoi come contributo alla Fauna
+Entozooca Egiziana,’ Cairo, 1877.--_Idem_, “La Bilharzia hæmatobia, et
+son rôle Pathologique en Egypte,” ‘Arch. Gén. de Médicine,’ for June, p.
+650, 1876.--_Idem_, “Intorno ad un nuovo Parassita del bue (_Bilharzia
+bovis_),” ‘Estr. dal Rend. del. R. Accad. di Napoli,’ 1876.--_Weinland,
+D. F._, l. c., p. 67, 1858.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II.--CESTODA (Tapeworms).
+
+
+_Tænia mediocanellata_, Küchenmeister.--This cestode is frequently
+spoken of as the unarmed or beef tapeworm. In general appearance it is
+very similar to the armed form. It is, however, a larger and broader
+animal, being at the same time rather stouter. It varies usually
+from fifteen to twenty-three feet in length, but specimens have been
+described as attaining thirty feet. It is called the unarmed tapeworm
+in consequence of the absence of any coronet of hooks on the head;
+and consequently, also, from there being no prominent rostellum or
+proboscis. The place of the last-named structure, however, is supplied
+by a small rudimentary disk, which I have seen protruded on pressure
+(fig. 20). Usually this disk forms a more or less conspicuous cup-shaped
+circular depression, which has been compared to and described as a fifth
+sucker. That it is not, in any structural sense, comparable to the true
+suckers, I have had abundant opportunity of ascertaining; nevertheless,
+I do not doubt that it is to a slight extent capable of being used by
+the parasite as a supernumerary holdfast. The anchorage thus secured,
+however, is by no means equal to that obtained by the armed species.
+This explains the comparative difficulty we find in procuring a specimen
+of the armed tapeworm with the head attached.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Head of _Tænia mediocanellata_. Showing the
+calcareous corpuscles, suckers, rudimentary proboscis, and water
+vessels. Highly magnified. Original.]
+
+The establishment of this species as distinct from _T. solium_ is due
+to Küchenmeister; but it is curious to observe how accurately this
+determination was foreshadowed by the shrewd naturalist and theologian,
+J. A. E. Goeze, who clearly indicated two forms of the common tapeworm,
+remarking (l. c., Bibl. No. 1, s. 278):--“Die erste ist die bekannte
+grosse, mit langen dicken und gemästeten Gliedern, die ich _Tænia
+cucurbitina, grandis, saginata_, nennen will.” The same author (s.
+245) pointed out the resemblance subsisting between the tapeworm of
+the cat (_T. crassicollis_) and the vesicles (“Krystallblasen”) and
+their contained “erbsförmige Blasen” (_Cysticercus fasciolaris_) of the
+mouse. Thus the celebrated pastor of St Blasius, in Quedlinberg, almost
+contemporaneously with Pallas, early arrived at the conclusion that the
+hydatid-measle was a kind of tapeworm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Free proglottides of _Tænia mediocanellata_.
+After Leuckart.]
+
+Respecting the organisation of this worm I may observe that the mature
+joints have a more complicated uterine organ than obtains in _Tænia
+solium_, presenting nearly double the number of lateral branches.
+They are more closely packed, running outwardly in an almost parallel
+manner. The first sexually mature proglottis occurs at about the 450th
+joint, but whereas, in the pork tapeworm, only some 200 subsequent
+segments share this perfect character in the beef tapeworm, according
+to Leuckart, as many as 360 or even 400 mature joint may be present.
+The joints are very liable to form monstrosities; these abnormalities
+sometimes affecting the reproductive organs, which become doubled
+or even trebled. In the Hunterian collection there is a proglottid
+showing twenty-two sexual orifices. Dr Cullingworth, of Manchester, has
+described a specimen in which the joints are curiously tripartite.
+
+As already hinted the true source of this parasite has been proved by
+experiment; the first successful worm-feeding having been accomplished
+by Leuckart. Mosler’s, and subsequently my own feeding experiments,
+immediately followed. Other successful experiments with this species
+have been conducted by Zurn, Probstmayer, St Cyr, Perroncito, Masse and
+Pourquier, and Zenker. As will be again mentioned below Dr Oliver, R.A.,
+whilst stationed at Jullundur, successfully reared the adult tapeworm in
+a Mohammedan groom and in a Hindoo boy. It will also be seen that Prof.
+Perroncito reared the worm in a student in fifty-four days. In my own
+experiments on animals I was assisted by Professor Simonds. The feeding
+materials were tapeworms expelled from my own patients. We obtained the
+following interesting results:
+
+_Exp. 1._--A calf. First feeding, Dec. 21st, 1864. Marked symptoms.
+Slaughtered April 3rd, 1865. Result positive.
+
+_Exp. 2._--A calf. First feeding, April 13th, 1865. Second, third, and
+fourth feedings in May and June. No symptoms. Died on Sept. 3rd, 1865,
+after thirty-six hours’ illness with “cattle plague.” Result stated to
+have been negative as far as the muscles were concerned. Viscera not
+examined.
+
+_Exp. 3._--A Dutch heifer. First feeding, March 3rd, 1865. Three
+subsequent feedings. Symptoms only slight. Slaughtered April 4th, 1866.
+Result positive. Measles especially numerous in the diaphragm, but all
+had undergone calcareous degeneration.
+
+_Exp. 4._--A calf. Fed May 27th, 1872, with ripe proglottides. Marked
+symptoms set in on June 7th, which began to abate on the 12th, and had
+nearly disappeared by the 20th of the same month. The record of the
+post-mortem result has been lost; but the animal was infected.
+
+_Exp. 5._--A calf, which had been made the subject of a “glanders
+experiment.” First fed on Oct. 17th, 1872, and thrice in the following
+year, Jan. 1st and 11th, and March 8th. No symptoms having appeared the
+animal was kept for six or eight months after the last feeding. Seeming
+to be free from disease of any kind, it was sold as a sound heifer.
+
+_Exp. 6._--A young heifer calf, of six months. Fed Oct. 18th, 1873,
+with the mature proglottides of a large beef tapeworm. No symptoms.
+Slaughtered several months afterwards. Result stated to have been
+negative. Unfortunately I was not present at the autopsy.
+
+_Exp. 7._--A young heifer. First fed May 19th, 1874, with the joints of
+a tapeworm, and again on June 12th. No apparent ill effects resulted,
+but the animal died in October. At the post-mortem examination, made
+by Prof. Simonds, no parasites were observed. Subsequently I found
+calcareous specks in the liver which proved to be degenerated measles.
+
+_Exp. 8._--A calf. Fed on or about March 24th, 1875, with sexually
+mature joints. The calf was put to and remained with a foster mother
+until it died from disease of the larynx on the 15th of the following
+July. The animal was ill-treated by its foster parent, and at the
+post-mortem I observed a large intercostal cicatrix, evidently
+the result of injury. In this case I devoted several hours to the
+exploration of the muscles and viscera. Not a trace of the _Cysticercus
+bovis_ could be found in the muscles or connective tissues, but the
+liver contained scores of perfectly developed measles, besides hundreds
+of others in various stages of calcareous degeneration. On comparing
+some of the latter with those I had obtained from the preceding
+experiment the pathological appearances were at once seen to be
+identical. It was easy to find and pick out the measles in their cysts
+from the naturally friable liver. I also detected four Cysticerci in the
+lungs, two of which had degenerated. Microscopic examination confirmed
+my interpretation of the naked-eye appearances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Section of the heart of a calf infested by
+cestode larvæ. After Mosler.]
+
+Fragmentary as the above data are, they serve to show that we have
+hitherto been too hasty in concluding that beef and veal measles reside
+only in the voluntary and striated muscles of their hosts. The facts
+here recorded prove that the liver of a calf may be extensively invaded
+by cysticerci, and yet the animal will exhibit no sign of constitutional
+disturbance. The cestode tuberculosis may come and go without any
+diagnostic symptom, whilst a few months suffice for the natural death
+and decay of the parasite by calcareous degeneration. Thus it becomes
+extremely probable that many experiments hitherto regarded as negative
+in their results have really been positive; the pathological evidences
+having been either misinterpreted or altogether overlooked. Every
+pathologist is familiar with gritty particles in the various viscera
+of man and animals, but few are probably aware how constantly these
+are dead and degenerated Cysticerci. The gritty particle itself may be
+reduced to the merest point, no larger than the _receptaculum capitis_
+of the Cysticercus itself, and in course of time it will disappear
+entirely. Practically it is satisfactory to have experimental evidence
+of the fact that cattle, as well as other animals, however extensively
+measled they may have been, can become thoroughly cleansed of the
+disorder by nature herself. It is only necessary that the diseased
+animals be separated from infectious influences.
+
+Although the beef measle has never yet been found in man, I have for
+convenience sake introduced the facts of larval parasitism in this
+place. The sanitary bearings of this subject are far too important to
+be dismissed in a summary manner. I have shown that the prevalence or
+rarity of the beef tapeworm in man is strictly dependent upon the habits
+of the people; this same cause operating to produce healthy or diseased
+meat-food, according to the degree of civilisation. In this connection
+the oft-quoted statements of Kaschin respecting the prevalence of
+tapeworms among the Burätes, and the well-known frequency of this
+entozoon in Abyssinia, need only be alluded to.
+
+When discussing the food question in my ‘Manual,’ I freely availed
+myself of facts privately communicated by Dr. Joseph Fleming, and I
+especially referred to the published labours of Lewis, Hewlett, Veale,
+and other observers stationed in India. Beef measles are extremely
+common in the cattle of the north-west provinces of India, so much
+so that severe restrictions have been imposed upon the consumption
+of ration beef. The presence of a few measles in the flesh of cattle
+has been deemed a sufficient excuse for condemning and burying entire
+carcases. The measle is easily distinguished from that of mutton and
+pork by the fact that its head is not furnished with hooks, whilst in
+the place of a rostellum there is a small, centrally placed, retractile
+disk, which assumes the appearance of a supplementary sucker as in the
+adult worm. The four true suckers are also comparatively large. The
+measle usually varies in size from the fourth to the half of an inch in
+length, but my cabinet contains a specimen nearly an inch long. This
+was contributed by Dr J. Fleming, who mentions having seen a measle
+which, when unrolled, measured nearly an inch and a half in length.
+Although thousands of these bladder worms must exist in the cattle of
+England, up to the present time not a single instance has been recorded
+of the occurrence of these cystic parasites in the United Kingdom,
+except in our experimental animals. Notwithstanding my inquiries, I
+have not yet found a butcher, flesher, meat-inspector, or veterinarian,
+who has encountered this parasite in any animal slaughtered for the
+market. Several butchers have denied their occurrence in meat sold by
+themselves. Even so late as June, 1874, the presence of measles in the
+flesh of cattle was denied before an assembly of French _savans_; yet
+for many years past I have constantly exhibited measly beef and veal in
+the lecture room of the Royal Veterinary College. (See the discussion of
+the Société de Thérapeutique, recorded in the ‘Bullétin Gén. de Thér.’
+for June 30th, 1874, and also the ‘Jour. de Thér.,’ No. 14, for July,
+p. 556, where, however, special remarks on this head have been omitted;
+see also the ‘Lond. Med. Record’ for July 29th, 1874, p. 472, and the
+‘Lancet’ for Dec., 1874, p. 794.) Quite in contrast with the statements
+referred to are those of recent Italian observers.
+
+Some few years back Professor G. Pellizzari communicated to the
+Medico-Physical Academy, at Florence, the results of a series of
+experiments conducted by himself, with the assistance of Dr Tommasi, in
+regard to the temperature necessary for the destruction of cysticerci in
+measled meat. An account of these experiments is published in Tommasi’s
+edition of my ‘Manual.’ The researches were made in relation to certain
+sanitary measures effected by the Municipal Commission of Florence,
+the express object of these measures being to prevent the injurious
+distribution of measly meat, especially that of swine. Signor Bosi, the
+superintendent of the public slaughterhouses, granted every facility in
+his power. In a previously published memoir by Professor E. Perroncito
+it was stated that measly meat (_panicatura degli animali_) required
+a higher temperature than that of boiling point for the destruction
+of the bladder worms in question. In this opinion Signor Bosi shared.
+According to the original memoir of Perroncito we are told that “about
+twenty specimens of Cysticerci were collected by the author, and
+placed in boiling water. After twenty minutes’ boiling, not one of the
+parasites appeared to suffer. The head continued to be drawn into the
+body, and when the Cysticerci had their heads drawn out one by one
+they still appeared to possess all the elasticity of living bladder
+worms, displaying those movements of extension which are proper to
+parasites not yet dead. The hooks were observed regularly disposed on
+the proboscis, where they formed a double crown, the suckers remaining
+intact.” Perroncito remarked, however, that the Cysticerci showed a
+coloring tendency towards brown, and he added that “with the aid of
+two needles it became easy to lacerate the body of the Cysticercus,
+which appeared to be swollen, and possessed of diminished cohesion of
+its parts.” It was evident to all eyes, observed Professor Pellizzari,
+that these statements involved clear contradictions. Yet again, at page
+28 of the memoir, Professor Perroncito wrote:--“During the past winter
+I introduced some little slices (_fettuccie_) of muscle-flesh (8 to
+10 millimètres in thickness), infested with Cysticerci into a vessel
+(_cassolina_) containing fat at the temperature of 190 to 200° Cent.
+(374 to 400° Fahr.). At the expiration of ten or fifteen minutes the
+slices of meat were fried, and the Cysticerci lying at the surface had
+acquired a light brownish colour, as if they were roasted. By breaking
+up the slices one could still see the small reddish muscular bundles,
+whilst the Cysticerci in the middle remained entire and well preserved.
+Their heads displayed the hooks and suckers regularly distributed.” It
+is certainly singular, as Pellizzari observes, that these Cysticerci,
+having been thoroughly fried and roasted, should still remain alive and
+in their normal state; but the ultimate conclusion at which Perroncito
+arrived was still more startling, and one which, if it were true, would
+not fail to create a considerable stir among our officers of health. On
+reviewing the whole matter Perroncito says:--“It appears to me that the
+melted fat alone of hogs (_maiali grandinosi_) should be utilised, and I
+am pleased to reckon the illustrious Gerlach and all other distinguished
+practitioners to be of the same opinion. Permit me, therefore, being
+well satisfied also with the results of many other experiments, once
+more to advance the conclusion that, if it is not certain that the
+Cysticerci die at from 80 to 100° Centigrade (176 to 212° Fahr.), we are
+quite sure that they dry up and become completely mummified at 125, 130,
+and 150° Cent. (257, 268, and 302° Fahr.), temperatures which we could
+easily produce by means of a properly constructed apparatus.”
+
+After remarking upon the serious nature of the conclusion which
+Perroncito sought to establish, Professor Pellizzari makes further use
+of quotations which bear upon the question as to whether the quality of
+the vessels in which the fat of diseased hogs is melted down may not
+largely affect the degree of high temperature sought to be obtained (in
+view of a perfect destruction of the Cysticerci). Perroncito repeatedly
+witnessed the operations of pork-butchers; and when portions of meat
+were introduced, with water, into the cauldrons, he always saw that the
+temperature “was maintained between 97° and 98° Centigrade.” However,
+this part of the question may be dismissed in a very few words, since
+Perroncito himself finally allows that “the different composition of the
+vessels cannot elevate the temperature of the fat by many degrees.”
+
+With the praiseworthy intention of either verifying or refuting these
+conclusions, Pellizzari, with the approval of Bosi and with the
+assistance of Tommasi, instituted a fresh series of experiments at a
+private laboratory. The details of these experiments are exceedingly
+interesting; but as their record occupies several pages of Tommasi’s
+appendix already referred to, I must content myself with a general
+statement of the results obtained. Professor Pellizzari found that
+Cysticerci, so far from requiring a temperature of upwards of 100°
+Centigrade for their destruction, die at a temperature of 60° Centigrade
+(140° Fahr.). He had, it appears, previously taken the initiative in
+recommending certain measures to the Florentine municipality, in view of
+protecting the public health, and he had now the satisfaction of more
+than confirming the wisdom of these sanitary precautions. In excessively
+measled animals the fat is removed and boiled in suitable cauldrons, and
+has potash mixed with it to render it useful for industrial purposes.
+By the various measures adopted the entire animal is utilised, and with
+proper precaution there seems little chance for the measles to arrive at
+the tænioid or sexually mature condition.
+
+In the next part of his communication Pellizzari touches upon the
+question of measles in beef, referring especially to the experimental
+labours of Leuckart and myself. Finding additional support from our
+views Pellizzari declared the propositions of Dr Perroncito as of no
+value whatever. “But how is it,” he adds, “that notwithstanding that
+so low a temperature suffices to kill these cysticerci, yet cases of
+Tænia are continually occurring?” The answer to this question will
+appear in the sequel; but meanwhile it will be as well to refer to the
+recent _brochure_ by Dr Giacomini. This author appears to have had no
+opportunity of perusing Pellizzari’s communication already cited, and
+consequently it is not surprising that he should, in common with others,
+have accepted the original conclusions of Perroncito. Dr Giacomini
+clearly perceives that, whatever precautions of a hygienic character are
+suitable for the prevention of disease arising out of the consumption
+of measly pork, the same, or at all events similar, measures ought
+to be adopted with the view of checking tapeworm affections arising
+from the ingestion of other kinds of meat, especially veal and beef.
+Like Pellizzari, he is satisfied as to the human origin of the small
+bladder worms found in cattle, and establishes this position not only
+from the oft-quoted experiments of Leuckart and Mosler, but also from
+those conducted by myself and Simonds in England, and by Professor
+F. Saint-Cyr in France. From a careful review and consideration of
+all the facts of the case, he recommended a more complete supervision
+over the flesh of oxen before it is employed commercially, and greater
+precaution when employing veal as food, by causing it to be subjected
+to a high temperature, in order that the parasites may be killed before
+it is ingested. It is evident that Giacomini thinks that a temperature
+exceeding that of boiling-point is necessary for the destruction of the
+beef and veal measles, since he immediately adds, “Though experiments
+have not been made with the object of ascertaining the amount of
+resistance of heat which the unarmed cysticercus can bear, yet, judging
+by those conducted by Professor Perroncito on the measle of the hog,
+we are in a position to say that a temperature of 135° Cent. (275°
+Fahr.) is necessary for the destruction of an isolated Cysticercus,
+whilst the heat should be raised from 150° to 200° Cent. (302° to 392°
+Fahr.) for ten or fifteen minutes, in order to ensure the complete
+destruction of the Cysticerci encapsuled in the interior of a piece
+of meat.” I have abridged this portion of Giacomini’s text, because
+his statements are pretty much the same as those already quoted from
+Perroncito (as cited by Tommasi). But, in the next place, Dr Giacomini
+is in error when he states that experiments had not been performed on
+the Cysticerci of the ox. So far from this being the case, similar
+experiments had long previously been conducted by Dr Lewis in India; and
+these researches had quite as much to do with the measles or Cysticerci
+of beef as they had with those of the hog, if not more. Naturally but
+few foreign investigators can have had access to the work in which
+Lewis’s experiments were originally recorded, and to which, therefore,
+I must call their attention. Thus, Dr Tommasi has fallen into the error
+of supposing that the investigations of Lewis were made in England. It
+is of very little moment where the experiments were carried on, but
+Tommasi’s statement (appendix, loc. cit., p. 161), wherein he says that
+Pellizzari’s experiments, in which he himself took part (_ai quali
+io stesso ho assistito_), are even more complete than those made in
+England by Dr Lewis, and in Germany by Dr Küchenmeister, cannot be
+allowed to pass unchallenged. If Tommasi had enjoyed the opportunity of
+consulting Lewis’s original memoir, he would not have underestimated our
+countryman’s labors. The memoir by Lewis is singularly complete, and
+well-nigh exhausts all the facts that can have any interest in relation
+to the question of public health. Towards the close of his essay he
+expressly states, as the result of investigation--“(1) That exposure
+to a temperature of 120° Fahr. for five minutes will not destroy life
+in Cysticerci, but that they may continue to manifest indications of
+life for at least two or three days after such exposure; (2) that
+exposure to a temperature of 125° Fahr. for five minutes does not kill
+them; but (3) after being subjected to a temperature of 130° Fahr. for
+five minutes, they may be considered to have perished. After exposure
+to this and higher temperatures, in no instance have I been able (he
+adds) to satisfy myself that the slightest movements took place in
+their substance when examined even under a high power. At least, it
+may be confidently asserted that, after exposure for five minutes to
+a temperature of 135° to 140° Fahr., life in these parasites may be
+considered as absolutely extinct” (p. 139). Thus the statements of Lewis
+and Pellizzari were in perfect accord; and seeing that their conclusions
+were alike the result of very careful and independent inquiry, it seemed
+as if the question at issue was finally solved. These investigations
+made it perfectly clear that Cysticerci of all kinds, whether found in
+veal, beef, or pork, could not retain their vitality when exposed to a
+temperature of 60° Centigrade, or, in other words, 140° Fahr.
+
+The rather severe strictures made on Perroncito’s earlier experiments
+induced the Turin professor to go over the subject more carefully, when
+he obtained excellent results. He finally ascertained that Cysticerci
+perished at a temperature below 50° C. (122° Fahr.). In May, 1877, Dr
+Perroncito furnished me with an account of his researches. With the
+exception of a few verbal alterations, for which I am responsible,
+Perroncito wrote as follows:
+
+“In order to resolve the highly important question of the tenacity of
+life of the Helminths and corresponding larval forms, I made since 1871
+a very long series of experiments on the _Cysticercus cellulosæ_, which
+were published almost at the same time with others of the same kind,
+made by Dr Lewis in Calcutta. Towards the end of 1874 Mr Pellizzari,
+of Florence, disputed the results of the investigations which I had
+made known two years before, _i.e._ in 1872, and agreed with Dr Lewis,
+who had stated already that the _Cysticercus_ exposed to a temperature
+of 55° C. can be held for dead after five minutes, and also with Dr
+Cobbold, who thought the temperature of 60° C. quite enough to kill it.
+But the characters he (Mr Pellizzari) relied upon, needing the exactness
+and precision required to enlighten and persuade in the most important
+scientific questions, gave rise to a mistrust in the most scrupulous
+amongst the men devoted to biological pursuits and to several hygienic
+measures on the part of the sanitary inspectors with regard to infected
+pork. Therefore, my conclusions, argued from the experiments made in
+1871-72, were still those followed by the most important Italian cities,
+and approved in principle by the superior Board of Health in 1873. I
+expressed doubt then about the _Cysticercus_ dying at a temperature
+lower than 100° C., and some person misconstrued these doubts, saying
+that I had contradicted myself in my work. However, as I could not
+assert they died at 80°--100° C., I only noticed the alteration of color
+and cohesion which happened in the _Cysticercus_ exposed to various
+degrees of temperature, to the end that I might contribute usefully to
+the solution of the difficult question, and concluded that ‘if we could
+not be sure of the _Cysticercus_ dying at 80°-100° C., it was certain
+at all events that they perished at 125° or 130° C.’ Not wishing to
+prejudice the question, I never said that they did not die at 80°--100°
+C., but simply stated that at this temperature we could not be certain
+of their death.
+
+“Now, after a large number of experiments, I have been able to
+ascertain with exactness the lowest degree of temperature required to
+kill infallibly the _Cysticercus_ and other parasites of animals. The
+means I made use of for this kind of investigation were Mr Schulze’s
+heating table, the neutral tincture of carmine, the tincture of
+hæmatoxylon, and breeding experiments.
+
+“My method is founded essentially--
+
+“(_a_) On the fact that the _Cysticercus_ when it is fresh and is
+stretched and conveniently prepared in pure water, or in chloride of
+soda very much diluted, and afterwards brought gradually from the
+temperature of the ambient air to that of the body of higher animals and
+to degrees of heat still more elevated, until life is extinct, keeps
+moving to and fro with more or less energy throughout its body, using
+especially its suckers and proboscis.
+
+“(_b_) On the greater imbibing power of the dead tissue generally, which
+is undoubtedly far more apparent in insects and plathelminths.
+
+“(_c_) On the experiments made to ascertain the value of the two
+above-stated facts.
+
+“If, after having prepared a _Cysticercus_, newly extracted from a pig
+in the way we have pointed out, we examine it with a microscope on M.
+Schulze’s heating table, we find that usually it begins to move after
+30° or 35° C., and each moment with greater activity, especially after
+38°, 40°, 42°, 44°, 45° C. The temperature being raised progressively,
+we see that the _Cysticercus cellulosæ_ puts a stop to its movements
+occasionally at 45-46° C., seldom at 47° C., more frequently at 48°
+C., sometimes at 49° C.; and, in fifty and more experiments, only one
+_Cysticercus_ was able to live on beyond 49° C., standing still at 50° C.
+
+“As soon as it stands still the parasite is dead. In fact, if we
+lower again the temperature gradually to that of the ambient air,
+and if afterwards we raise it a second time, we pass through all the
+intermediate temperatures without the Cysticercus showing the least
+signs of life.
+
+“But a more convincing proof of the death of the parasite is got from
+the greater imbibing power of the tissue when life is extinct, the same
+over the whole body of the plathelminths, and their larval forms. If
+we dip the _Cysticercus_ alive with its head stretched in the neutral
+tincture of carmine or hæmatoxylon we can leave it there even two, four,
+eight, ten, or twelve hours and more, without the head coloring or a
+real imbibition taking place; this begins only after the _Cysticercus_
+is dead, so that if the _Cysticercus_ is brought first to a temperature
+hot enough to kill it (with M. Schulze’s tables to one of 48°, 49°, 50°
+C.) and dipped afterwards in the above-mentioned tinctures, it colors
+intensely in less than 45°, beginning from the head, and onwards to the
+extremity of the cyst of the tail. The head colors more intensely and
+rapidly than the neck, as it is covered with very numerous calcareous
+corpuscles, which are not met with so frequently in the remaining part
+of the body.
+
+“_Cysticercus cellulosæ_ of the pig, and that of the _Tænia
+mediocanellata_ of the calf, brought gradually to a final temperature,
+the first of 50° C., and the second of 44°, 45°, and 47° C., and then
+swallowed alone, or with a piece of butter or crumb of bread, never
+produced the _Tænia_ in the valiant students who voluntarily undertook
+to make the experiment of swallowing them.
+
+“My investigations were extended to other kinds and forms of Helminths,
+and the results were always the same, so that, abiding by the same
+principles, I was able to ascertain that--
+
+“1st. The _Cysticercus cellulosæ_ of the pig dies sometimes at 45°
+C., more frequently at 47° C., ordinarily at 48° C., very seldom
+reaches alive 49° C., and is quite an exception when it resists for
+a few moments the temperature of 50° C., so that we can say that the
+_Cysticercus_ brought gradually up to this temperature most assuredly
+dies if it is kept there longer than one minute.
+
+“2nd. A _Cysticercus cellulosæ_, extracted by Professor Raymond from the
+conjunctiva of a child’s eye, died between 45° and 46° C.
+
+“3rd. The _Cysticercus_ of the _Tænia mediocanellata_ dies sometimes at
+44° C., very often at 45° C., and does not resist a temperature superior
+to 46° C.
+
+“4th. The _Cysticercus pisiformis_ of the rabbit, like the _cellulosæ_,
+dies sometimes at 45° and 46° C., but generally stands still and
+perishes at 47° and 48° C.
+
+“5th. A _Cysticercus tenuicollis_ died at 49° C.
+
+“6th. The _scolici_ of the _Cœnurus cerebralis_ of a sheep died at 42° C.
+
+“7th. The _scolices_ of the cysts of _Echinococcus polymorphus_ die
+generally between 47° and 48° C., and in no case amongst those I have
+experimented on did it reach 50° C. alive.
+
+“8th. The _Tænia cucumerina_ died, one at 43° C., and a second parasite
+at 45° C.
+
+“9th. A few individuals of _Tænia serrata_ of the dog died at 50° C.
+
+“10th. Two individuals of _Tænia perfoliata_ of the horse died, the
+first at 45° C., the second at 50° C.
+
+“11th. The embryos of the _Filaria microstoma_ of the horse began to
+stand still at 46-47°, and all died at 48° C.
+
+“12th. The embryos of the _Filaria megastoma_ of the horse’s stomach
+died at 47° C.
+
+“13th. The _Trichina spiralis_, both free and in a cyst, in several
+experiments always died at 48° C.
+
+“14th. The embryos of the _Strongylus filaria_ of the sheep stood still
+at 50° C.
+
+“15th. Probstmayer’s viviparous oxyurids, the infusoria of the colon and
+cæcum of the solipeds, and the psorosperms of the liver of the rabbit
+did not stir at all.
+
+“Each experiment lasted about ten minutes, and the temperature rose from
+8-10° C. to 45-46° C. in six to eight minutes; and from 46° to 50° in
+one minute. These experiments have a great value, both scientific and
+practical, as they show, on one side, which is the lowest intensity of
+heat sufficient to kill always the _Cysticercus_, the _Trichina_, and
+other parasites, reducing thus by far the tenacity of life generally
+attributed to a large number of Helminths and corresponding larval
+forms. They assure us, moreover, of the harmlessness of the flesh
+infected by the above-mentioned parasites, when it is cooked in such
+a manner as to reach the temperature of 50° C. over all points of the
+pieces, even though it be kept at such a degree of heat not longer than
+five minutes.
+
+“In a piece of leg of pork the _Cysticerci_ were found alive in all
+places not yet putrefied twenty-nine days after the animal had been
+slaughtered. On the other hand, in the dry muscles of a calf the
+_Cysticerci_ of the _Tænia mediocanellata_ were all found dead fourteen
+days after the slaughtering of the animal. I have ascertained that
+putrefaction of the flesh is fatal for the two larval forms of these
+different kinds of helminths.”
+
+In a subsequent communication received from Professor Perroncito towards
+the close of the year 1877 he writes:
+
+“At the last meeting, held on April 23rd, I made a statement to
+the Medical and Surgical Society of Turin, of the results of other
+experiments tried by heating at M. Schulze’s table and by the
+imbibitions with the neutral tincture of carmine, through which I came
+to the conclusion that the _Cysticerci_ of the _Tænia mediocanellata_
+die sometimes at 44° C., now and then at 45° C., and always at 46° C.
+I therefore concluded that they could in no case survive at 47° C. and
+48° C. when they were maintained at this temperature at least five
+minutes. But to the end of more fully corroborating the facts I had
+thus communicated, I, contemporaneously with these, made some breeding
+experiments with the same _Cysticerci_ on bold and courageous students
+who generously offered themselves for the benefit of science.
+
+“Consequently I am now enabled to state that neither Mr Gemelli nor
+Dr Ragni contracted the _Tænia_, though each of them had eaten a
+_Cysticercus_ of the _Tænia mediocanellata_ previously, and respectively
+subjected to a temperature of 45° C. and 47° C. The larvæ were properly
+prepared and submitted to gradual heating on the above-mentioned table,
+and swallowed when they no longer gave signs of life. In like manner no
+generation of the _Tænia_ took place in the body of Mr Martini, who ate
+the _Cysticercus_ brought to a temperature of 44° C. It was maintained
+at this degree of heat during a period of about three minutes, and
+swallowed whilst a very slight movement was still visible in a portion
+of its neck.
+
+“In another student, on the contrary, who ate a living _Cysticercus_
+of the _Tænia mediocanellata_, the tapeworm reached its maturation in
+fifty-four days and eliminated the two first proglottides. It threw
+off two more on the fifty-eighth day, and thirty on the sixtieth.
+Sixty-seven days after swallowing the _Cysticercus_ this courageous
+young man, having, like his three companions, taken some kousso and
+castor oil, emitted the strobila. It was furnished with 866 rings, but
+destitute of the neck and head. Its measurement afforded a total length
+of 4·274 mètres.
+
+“Adding now to the 866 proglottides the thirty-four already eliminated,
+900 would be the number of the segments; and reckoning the length of
+each of the latter to be fourteen millimètres, we should have had the
+_strobila_ (deprived of the head and neck) reaching a length of 4·75
+mètres. Further, calculating the head and neck to be eight millimètres
+long, a total length of 4·83 mètres would be the result.
+
+“From all these facts we may conclude that the _Tænia_ has, in our
+instance, reached an approximative length of seventy-two millimètres a
+day, affording a daily production of 13·43 proglottides.”
+
+In relation to requirements of state medicine I have thought
+Perroncito’s researches sufficiently valuable to be quoted at some
+length; but their chief interest culminates in the worm-feeding
+experiments. Excellent in all respects as was the conduct of the
+medical students who, with Professor Perroncito’s approval, swallowed
+living specimens of the _Cysticercus bovis_, the intentional ingestion
+of beef measles is by no means a novelty. Eight or ten years back Dr
+Oliver (after explaining to one of the selected victims the possible
+consequences of the experiment) induced a Mahommedan syce or groom and a
+Hindoo boy to swallow perfectly fresh and living beef measles. In this
+way Dr Oliver successfully reared the _Tænia mediocanellata_ in India,
+and he was thus enabled to fix the amount of time necessary for the
+full growth of the strobila. Many other persons have displayed an equal
+amount of zeal in the cause of helminthology, by partaking of the larvæ
+or germs of other parasites. Thus, at the risk of repetition, I may
+state that Möller many years ago swallowed the slender-necked hydatid
+(_Cysticercus tenuicollis_) in the hope of infesting himself with _Tænia
+marginata_. Several persons have defiantly swallowed trichinised flesh.
+Professor Leuckart and some of his pupils also courageously swallowed
+the eggs of _Oxyurides_, and they had the infinite satisfaction of
+noticing the young worms in their fæcal discharges some fifteen days
+afterwards. Dr Crisp ate part of the cooked flesh of an animal that had
+died of cattle plague, and I myself partook of moderately cooked meat
+which I knew to be swarming with psorosperms. These obscure organisms
+were by some persons considered to be either a cause or product of
+the rinderpest. They will be noticed in my account of the Protozoal
+parasites.
+
+For the purpose of advancing science and the welfare of the people,
+there are scores of persons always to be found ready to make personal
+sacrifices of the kind undertaken by Drs Ragni, Martini, and Gemelli.
+Unfortunately for English science there are not wanting people in
+this country who are prepared to threaten with fines and imprisonment
+any _savant_ who may think it desirable to perform a similar set of
+feeding experiments on animals. Invaluable for good as our experimental
+investigations have already been, it would seem as if it were the
+deliberate aim of these sentimental obstructives to put a stop to the
+acquisition of all useful knowledge in the future.
+
+In reference to the rate of growth of tapeworms, Professor Perroncito’s
+determinations are useful, inasmuch as they verify certain ascertained
+facts with precision and confirm the general conclusion that had been
+drawn by practical helminthologists from various sources of information.
+In regard to the number of proglottides proper to a sexually mature
+tapeworm, the circumstance that Perroncito’s calculation was made
+without the head and a portion of the neck of the worm being present
+shows that it cannot be relied on absolutely; nevertheless, as far
+as it goes, it tends to confirm what Leuckart had long previously
+stated. I have possessed myself of upwards of thirty perfect beef
+tapeworms expelled from my patients, and in some of the specimens it
+was noticed that the segmentation-rings in the region of the neck were
+far more crowded together than they were in others. I also possess a
+perfect _Tænia mediocanellata_, removed post mortem. Though the rate
+of growth may be the same from day to day, yet experience has shown
+that the number of proglottides actually cast off varies exceedingly.
+Küchenmeister’s estimate of the average number agrees in the main with
+what we have ourselves observed (five to twenty daily); and here again
+Perroncito’s investigations serve to verify the general correctness of
+our previous determinations.
+
+To return to Pellizzari’s researches, one of the most important
+questions is that which relates to the prevalence of tapeworm. In this
+connection he first brings forward some very interesting and instructive
+data that had been previously communicated to the Medico-Physical
+Academy of Florence by Professor Marchi. On the occasion referred to
+Marchi had stated that, out of thirty-five Tæniæ which he had examined,
+only one belonged to the species known as _Tænia solium_; all the other
+thirty-four being of the unarmed type, or _Tænia mediocanellata_.
+Reflecting on this striking fact, and also on the circumstance that
+he had in vain begged his colleagues to send him specimens of _Tænia
+solium_, Marchi seems to have missed the very palpable explanation of
+this otherwise strange phenomenon. “How does it happen,” exclaimed
+Marchi, “that, notwithstanding the occurrence of 13,000 kilogrammes of
+the flesh of measled hogs in the public butcheries, I have seen but one
+specimen of _Tænia solium_, whilst thirty-four cannot have originated
+from the pig?” “The wherefore is obvious enough,” replies Pellizzari,
+“because our hygienic regulations demand that the flesh of the hogs
+be raised to a temperature of 60° Cent. (140° Fahr.);” and he then
+himself immediately proceeds to ask another question, namely, as to
+how it happens that the _Tænia solium_ is so frequently seen in other
+places. To his own question Pellizzari responds by remarking--(1)
+that there are not so many precautions (of a sanitary kind) taken in
+other places; and (2) that the people elsewhere consume more slightly
+salted or uncooked meat, as sausages and so forth (_come salame giovane,
+salciccia e via dicendo_). Pellizzari, having explained that Marchi’s
+thirty-four tapeworms must all have arisen from the consumption of
+the Cysticercus of the ox, then goes on to speak of the prevalence of
+tapeworm in Florence, even in little children. This last-named feature,
+he says, is due to the circumstance that raw meat is frequently employed
+as a restorative (_come cura ricostituente_). “Thirty years ago,”
+remarks Professor Pellizzari, “it was just as difficult to find a single
+_Tænia mediocanellata_ as it is now easy to find a great number of these
+worms; and all because it is nowadays customary to eat the flesh of
+the ox either insufficiently cooked or raw. This absolute inversion of
+the facts of the case affords proof of the correctness of the position
+sustained by me, to the effect that the cooking of meat up to the degree
+of temperature necessary for ebullition ensures the destruction of the
+Cysticerci.” Notwithstanding this statement of his own, Pellizzari
+thinks that the interference of inspectors may be pushed too far, and
+thus serve to bring about the very disasters which it should be their
+supreme object to prevent. Thus, he argues against the suggestions of
+those who would entirely prevent the sale of measly meat, and who would
+only permit, as obtains in the province of Modena, the melting down of
+the fat of hogs. Very strict measures of this sort would, as he says,
+constitute a radical means of entirely stamping out _Tænia_, but he also
+very judiciously reminds the sanitarian (_igienista_) that “such a step
+would be a serious thing for the tradesman, bringing injury not only
+to the municipal administration, but also proving an encouragement to
+smuggling. In this way the public health would sustain worse injury by
+the inducement held out to the owners of infected animals to slaughter
+them in secret butcheries, thus little by little withdrawing the meat
+from the superintendence of the public officials. By the adoption of
+fraudulent measures there would be a daily consumption of diseased
+meat; and thus also, while the public administration would suffer loss,
+the public health, on the other hand, would gain nothing.” In effect
+Pellizzari says, if we advise the employment of more severe and radical
+measures than those already in vogue in Florence, we should overburden
+the tradesman, almost compel him to defraud the exchequer by smuggling,
+and greatly injure the public health.
+
+The facts and explanations advanced by Italian writers regarding the
+causes of the endemic prevalence of tapeworm, are in perfect harmony
+with those previously obtained from other sources. Respecting these
+causes there is much that is both new and interesting. The eighth
+annual report of the sanitary commissioner of the Government of India
+had already made us acquainted with the fact that during the year 1869,
+out of 13,818 head of cattle slaughtered in the stations of the Upper
+Punjab, 768 beasts were found to be infected with measle-cysts. This,
+as I have remarked (Tommasi’s edit., p. 54), “affords a rate of 5·55
+per cent., being a considerable diminution of the proportion observed
+in 1868, when the percentage gave a total of 6·12. The reduction was,
+without doubt, due to the vigilance and enlightenment of the army meat
+inspectors. The prevalence, however, of tapeworm does not bear relation
+to the number of animals infested with Cysticerci so much as to the
+actual number of Cysticerci developed in infected animals. I have
+frequently pointed out the inadvisability of condemning and burying
+the carcases of measly oxen, whether there be few or many Cysticerci
+present, and I have stated, on trustworthy evidence, that even the
+presence of a few Cysticerci is deemed by some inspectors a sufficient
+reason for rejecting the entire animal. Such a waste should never be
+allowed. In regard to the numbers of ox-measles present in particular
+instances, I have elsewhere adduced some remarkable facts communicated
+to me by Dr Joseph Fleming, of the Indian Army Medical Staff. None of
+my experimental animals, though fed with scores of ripe proglottides,
+yielded such an abundance of Cysticerci as Dr Fleming encountered in
+Punjab cattle. In one pound weight of the psoas muscles Fleming counted
+no less than 300 Cysticerci.” From this it follows that the flesh of a
+largely infested animal is capable, under the circumstances of ration
+distribution and imperfect cooking, of originating numerous tapeworms.
+
+Not many years back the leading medical journal of this country
+challenged me to produce evidence as to the injuriousness of beef and
+mutton from Cysticerci. The writer stated in his article that I had
+“failed to produce a single specimen of beef or mutton measles” which
+had not resulted from experiments conducted “at the Royal Veterinary
+College;” and he said, further, “that butchers, fleshers, and
+veterinarians were practically right in refusing to adopt the opinion of
+Dr Cobbold, that measled beef or mutton is produced to any great extent”
+independently. How palpably I endured a species of unjust reproach for
+being somewhat in advance of the knowledge current at the time may be
+gathered from the voluminous evidence which has since cropped up from
+various parts of the world. It was, indeed, mainly through experiments
+conducted at the Royal Veterinary College, and reported in the ‘Lancet,’
+that professional men in India first became acquainted with the
+possibility of finding Cysticerci in beef.
+
+The statements of Dr Joseph Fleming, who was one of the foremost in
+discovering cystic disease in cattle, have since received abundant
+confirmation. The Indian Government Reports given in the February
+issue of the ‘Madras Monthly Journal of Medical Science’ for 1873 are
+especially instructive. Referring to the prevalence of Cysticercus in
+the ration beef at Jullundur, in the Punjab, the Inspector General
+(India Medical Department) reports as follows:
+
+“Cysticercus was first noticed here in the beef tendered at the Royal
+Artillery ration stand in May, 1868. For some two years previous to this
+date condemnations of cyst-infected meat had been frequent at Peshawur,
+Rawul Pindee, Meean Meer and several other stations in the upper part of
+the Punjab, and here I had often detected the parasite in meat exposed
+for sale in the bazaars, but no trace of it had been observed in the
+Commissariat beef, either by myself or any other medical officer who had
+preceded me.
+
+“From May, 1868, to November, 1869, ‘cyst’ was more or less frequently
+found both at the Artillery and 92nd Highlanders’ ration stands; but
+since the latter date it has almost entirely disappeared.
+
+“The following table shows the quantity of meat destroyed on this
+account during 1868 and 1869:
+
+  +--------+-----------+------------------+---------------+
+  | Years. |  Months.  | Number of cattle | Weight of meat|
+  |        |           |    infected.     |   destroyed.  |
+  +--------+-----------+------------------+---------------+
+  |      { | May       |         4        |     412 lbs.  |
+  |      { | June      |         1        |      77  "    |
+  |      { | September |         1        |     130  "    |
+  | 1868 { | October   |        10        |   1,763  "    |
+  |      { | November  |        14        |   2,010  "    |
+  |      { | December  |        12        |   1,785  "    |
+  +--------+-----------+------------------+---------------+
+  |      { | January   |        21        |   4,062 lbs.  |
+  |      { | February  |        16        |   2,341  "    |
+  |      { | March     |        14        |   2,209  "    |
+  |      { | April     |         5        |     856  "    |
+  | 1869 { | May       |         2        |     220  "    |
+  |      { | June      |         1        |     122  "    |
+  |      { | July      |         1        |     194  "    |
+  |      { | August    |         3        |     464  "    |
+  |      { | September |         2        |     218  "    |
+  |      { | October   |         4        |     615  "    |
+  |        +-----------+------------------+---------------+
+  |        |   Total   |       111        |  17,478 lbs.  |
+  +--------+-----------+------------------+---------------+
+
+“The whole of this meat was otherwise well fed and of excellent quality.
+The waste of so much good food led me to make inquiries; 1st, as to the
+sources from which the cattle obtained the Tænia ova, and the best means
+for preventing their infection; and 2ndly, as to whether or not any evil
+results followed the consumption of this meat when properly cooked.
+
+“From information obtained from the Commissariat Officer I found--1st.
+That the infected cattle had been purchased by native dealers from
+various parts of the district, not from any particular locality. 2ndly.
+That when brought in they were lean, and on an average required from two
+to three months’ feeding at the Commissariat cattle yards before they
+were fit for the shambles. 3rdly. That their food consisted of the grass
+they could pick up on the grazing grounds of cantonments, supplemented
+by such an allowance of grain and _bhoosâ_ as their condition required.
+
+“They were supposed to be watered at a trough with water drawn from a
+well, but on closely inquiring as to this, it transpired that they very
+frequently were taken to a large dirty tank near the yard for their
+water. The question which occurred to me was, were the cattle infected
+before their purchase by the Commissariat, or was there anything in
+their feeding to account for it after purchase? I am inclined to the
+latter opinion for several reasons, thus:--In the large number of
+the diseased cattle, the Cysticerci were of remarkably small size;
+many of them having no capsules, except such as were formed by the
+surrounding structures, and not being more than 1/8 to 1/4 of an inch
+in diameter. Although the dry food given to the cattle was doubtless
+good, still much of the water they got during 1868 was probably filthy.
+The tank previously referred to was situated close to the huts of the
+camel drivers. These men are all Mussulmans from Cabul, Peshawur, or
+thereabouts, and many of them are infected with _Tænia mediocanellata_.
+Human filth was often to be seen on the banks of the tank, and
+microscopic examination of mud and stagnant water taken from the margin
+exhibited _Tænia_ ova.
+
+“The conditions above shown must have been eminently favorable to
+keeping up a constant supply of ova, and the fact that Cysticercus
+entirely disappeared from amongst the cattle a few months after means
+had been taken to secure them a good supply of well water, seems to
+confirm the view that this tank must have been the source of a large
+amount of, if not all, the infection.
+
+“It has been suggested that Cysticercus can be detected before the
+animal is killed by an examination of the tongue. In exceptionably
+severe instances this is probably correct, but then it would be equally
+observable in some other parts of the body. Major Biggs, Commissariat
+Officer here, tells me of an animal he saw at Rawul Pindee, in which
+immense clusters of cysts could be felt at the root of the tongue and
+under the skin in several parts. After examining a very large number of
+tongues of ‘cysted’ animals, my experience is that it is found in the
+soft muscles and cellular tissues at the root of the tongue, perhaps
+more frequently than anywhere else; but I have never seen a case in
+which there was a chance of detecting it before death.
+
+“The most common situations in which it has occurred in the ration meat
+have been the gluteal, psoas, and lumbar regions. In many instances only
+from one to ten cysts have been found on cutting the carcase into small
+pieces, and I have no doubt that it often passed without detection.
+
+“During 1868 and 1869 I from time to time obtained pieces of beef badly
+infected with _Cysticercus_, and made some experiments as to the results
+of its consumption under different conditions.
+
+“After explaining to them the possible consequences of eating it a
+buttock of beef studded with _Cysticercus_ was given to three natives of
+low caste. They all declared that they were free from _Tænia_, or, to
+use their own term, “Kadhu dana.” The meat they cooked in their own way.
+These men were under my observation for some six months. Two of them had
+no symptom of _Tænia_, but the third, who was a low-class Mahommedan
+syce, and had probably eaten the meat in a very raw state, developed a
+_Tænia mediocanellata_ in about three months.
+
+“My own sweeper ate this cyst-infected beef regularly two or three times
+a week for some months. He cooked it well generally as an ordinary stew,
+and has never shown a sign of having tapeworm.
+
+“Into the food of a boy of low Hindoo caste, but who had never eaten
+beef, two scolices of Cysticercus were surreptitiously introduced, the
+result being that, between three or four months afterwards, he applied
+for some tapeworm medicine.”
+
+[The two successful experiments here reported are evidently the same
+as those that I have referred to (p. 72) as having been performed by
+Dr Oliver, of the Royal Artillery, stationed at Jullundur. The report
+continues as follows:]
+
+“_Tænia mediocanellata_ is very common amongst the Mussulman population
+of the Punjab, and from reliable sources I am informed that the lower
+classes amongst them are in the regular habit of eating half-cooked
+beef; indeed, prefer it so, and it is amongst these people that tapeworm
+is so prevalent.
+
+“But it is not only thorough cooking that is required to guard soldiers
+in India from the ill effects of eating measly meat; there is want of
+cleanliness in the general arrangements of the kitchens and serving of
+meals, which must offer great facilities for the introduction into the
+food of Cysticercus.
+
+“Barrack cooks, unless constantly looked after, are utterly careless
+as to the washing of chopping blocks, tables, dishes, &c. The dish or
+pot cover on which the meat is placed when raw is often used without
+washing for serving the piece up for dinner, and I have myself picked
+up a _Cysticercus_ from the table on which a cook was preparing food.
+The dangers too of the parasite being conveyed by the cook’s unwashed
+hands to the plates in which meals are served, and the common practice
+of using the same knife for cutting up meat, and afterwards, without
+washing it, for other culinary purposes, must not be overlooked. With
+good selection and careful feeding there seems to be every probability
+that Cysticercus would soon almost or completely disappear from our
+Commissariat cattle. If they were entirely stall-fed and watered from
+wells there could scarcely be a possibility of infection after their
+purchase.
+
+“Perhaps with the trench system of conservancy, which will necessitate
+the growing up crops, a sufficient quantity of root and other green
+produce may be obtained from cantonment lands set apart for this
+purpose, to supply green fodder for the cattle.”
+
+The important question as to whether the presence of cysts detected
+at the root of the tongue could be made available for the purposes of
+diagnosis was made the subject of special report through the agency of
+executive Commissariat officers, and they testified to its practical
+valuelessness in the following terms:
+
+“_Jullundur._--No appearance of cyst has been found at the root of the
+tongues of any of the cattle. A medical officer was asked for assistance
+in making search for the cysts, but he also found none.
+
+“_Rawul Pindee._--It is utterly impossible to discriminate before
+slaughter, from any outward symptoms, cattle that are cyst infected.
+
+“Every endeavour has been made to discover by close and careful scrutiny
+before slaughter the cyst-infected cattle, but the result has been in no
+way satisfactory.
+
+“_Sealkote._--All endeavours to discover any symptoms of the infection
+by examination of their tongues, while the animals were living, have
+been unsuccessful.
+
+“_Mooltan._--The mouth and tongue of a large number of living cattle
+have been examined before slaughter, but in no single instance has the
+infection been so detected.
+
+“Dr. Ross’s plan of examining the tongues of all animals at time of
+purchase is not feasible, as they are usually very wild and frightened,
+and often dangerous to approach.
+
+“_Peshawur._--In probably 99 cases out of 100 it is utterly impossible
+to discover cyst infection in cattle previous to slaughter by
+examination of their tongues. In only one instance has it been so
+discovered, and that was from the animal’s having a number of small
+lumps over the body which were also apparent on the back part of the
+tongue. When the tongue is infected the ‘cyst’ lies so far at the very
+root of it that it cannot be seen in the live animal.”
+
+From Mooltan a specially interesting report was made by Dr Alexander
+Neill, who says:--
+
+“I have carefully examined the mouth and tongue of a large number of
+living cattle, and of those slaughtered for issue as rations, and in no
+single instance did I find such cysts. These cattle were healthy.
+
+“In a case that died, and in which cysts existed, I could discover
+nothing abnormal in or under the tongue.
+
+“If such ‘cysts’ exist, or if such enlargements of the sublingual glands
+are found, I argue that they are not a diagnostic sign of what is termed
+‘cyst infection,’ or more correctly ‘_Cysticercus bovis_,’ for in the
+recent outbreak of cattle disease in England, one most prominent symptom
+of that disease was a bunch of grape-like swelling under the tongue,
+which in advanced cases suppurated, and to a casual observer would have
+been called cysts or ‘bags of matter.’
+
+“If such swellings are found in a bullock that is sick, it is merely
+symptomatic of an inflamed condition of the whole mucous surface of the
+intestinal canal, and not of any localised disease, such as Cysticercus,
+the above-mentioned swellings being merely inflamed sublingual glands.
+
+“In the pig the diagnostic sign of swellings of the glands or ‘cyst’
+under the tongue is not found in ‘Cysticercus,’ and the disease called
+‘measles’ is not ‘Cysticercus,’ but a mere superficial inflammation of
+the skin and a symptom of fever. ‘_Cysticercus cellulosus_,’ as its
+name shows, infects the cellular tissue only of the pig, and cannot be
+discovered in life by any abnormal condition of skin.
+
+“In ‘measles’ these swellings are found, because intestinal mucous
+membrane sympathises with eruption on the skin and are then merely
+inflamed glands, not cysts.”
+
+Dr Neill concludes his report by remarking that the larvæ of the
+beef tapeworm can “only arrive at maturity in the mucous membrane of
+horned cattle,” and not in the cellular tissue. This is an error on
+Dr Neill’s part; but in adducing these instructive extracts from the
+Government Reports my chief object has been to show the prevalence of
+Cysticercus in the North-West Provinces of the Indian Peninsula. I may
+say that a large proportion of my tapeworm-infected patients have been
+officers from the Punjab, and one of these victims told me that when he
+superintended the serving out of rations to the troops, “he (and those
+who acted with him) sent the meat away to be burnt, even when they only
+detected a single cyst in any given carcase.” It is needless to remark
+that such a waste of valuable food is altogether reprehensible.
+
+Some people, including not a few of the profession, make light of the
+occurrence of tapeworm, and I have seen many patients who had been told
+by their usual medical advisers that the presence of the worms was of
+little consequence. To account for this wide-spread error there is some
+basis in the fact that by far the majority of infested persons suffer
+only the trifling inconvenience arising from the passage _per anum_ of
+the proglottides; moreover, the less civilised the tapeworm-bearers
+happen to be, the less are they likely to suffer. The recorded
+experience of Kaschin, before referred to, where 500 hospital patients,
+in the Baikal district, had tapeworm, although all of them were being
+treated for other disorders, affords another argument tending to the
+same conclusion. On the other hand, amongst Europeans only a small
+percentage of tapeworm-patients suffer severely. But without trenching
+upon the symptomatology and prognosis of tapeworm disease, I may remark
+that I have (in my Manual) summarised the whole facts of cysticercal
+prevalence within the compass of two brief propositions:--1. The
+prevalence or the rarity of Cysticerci in cattle in any given country
+must be determined primarily by the habits of the people; for since the
+beef measle can only result from the ingestion by the ox of the eggs of
+the _Tænia mediocanellata_, it is clear that the degree of infection of
+cattle will correspond with the facilities offered by egg-dispersion.
+2. It may be affirmed that the frequency of this particular species
+of tapeworm amongst the people occupying any given area will bear a
+strict relation to the amount of underdone measly beef consumed by the
+inhabitants.
+
+Another question, and one of great interest to sanitary science,
+is that which I have raised in reference to the period that nature
+requires for the destruction of the Cysticerci, or, in other words,
+for the performance of a natural cure by calcareous degeneration of
+the parasites. I have shown that all kinds of tapeworm larvæ (measles,
+bladder-worms, cœnuri, and so forth) have a natural life-epoch assigned
+to them, and in one of my experiments on a Dutch heifer or young cow I
+demonstrated that a period of ten months was more than sufficient to
+ensure the perfect destruction of the Cysticerci of cattle. Moreover,
+this law or process of natural cure is not limited to cestode parasites,
+but affects all other kinds of internal parasites in one or other of
+their juvenile stages of growth. In the flesh of my experimental animal
+I estimated that there were not less than 12,000 of these degenerated
+Cysticerci. This positive contribution to our knowledge of the limits
+assigned by nature to the epoch of larval activity is not merely one of
+abstract scientific interest, but it has important practical bearings,
+inasmuch as it points out in what way an entire herd of cattle (known
+to be measled by the post-mortem examination of one animal previously
+selected for the purpose, or for that matter, by the rather barbarous
+act of excising and examining a fragment of the muscle of a living one)
+may be freed of its parasitic guests; and it also shows how all risk of
+propagating tapeworm, apart from the question of subjecting the flesh
+to a certain temperature, may be effectually prevented. The stockowner
+has but to remove his animals for six or eight months to localities
+where no fresh infection can occur, when, at the expiration of the time
+mentioned, all those Cysticerci that existed in the beasts at the time
+of the transfer will have perished. The flesh of the animals may then be
+eaten with impunity, whether well cooked or raw. This is an important
+teaching deducible from experimental inquiry, and I am rather surprised
+that it has hitherto escaped the notice of persons who, though they
+affect to ignore the value of scientific researches, are particularly
+anxious to parade their practical knowledge, which, unhappily, too often
+proves a mere cloak for ignorance.
+
+The memoir by Giacomini already quoted (p. 65) affords interesting
+details respecting a case in which there was a most unusual degree of
+infection of the human body by Cysticerci. Dr Giacomini instituted a
+searching comparison between the human measles procured by himself and
+those of the pig sent to him by Professor Perroncito. In the human
+Cysticerci he noticed a greater adherence of the capsule to the enclosed
+measle, and he also observed that while the human measle-heads either
+displayed thirty-two, or in some few cases thirty-four hooks, in two
+differently sized circles of fifteen or sixteen each, the pig-measles,
+on the other hand, carried only twenty-four hooks to the double circle
+of equal circumference; consequently the hooks appeared to be more
+crowded together in the human parasite. This fact, Giacomini remarks,
+does not of itself constitute an essential specific difference, since
+variations of the kind not unfrequently occur in Cysticerci occupying
+one and the same host. Even the beef-measle is not necessarily confined
+to one species of host, since Zenker has succeeded in rearing it in a
+goat.
+
+Although the substance of the above-recorded conclusions was originally
+communicated by me, anonymously, to a professional periodical, I have
+considered this work a suitable medium for a fuller discussion of the
+subject. Its importance in relation to the public health and the supply
+of meat-food has not received the attention it deserves.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 13).--_Balert, B._, ‘Die Bandwürmer,’ &c. (pamphlet),
+1877.--_Bertolus, G._, ‘Diss. sur les metamorph. des cestoïdes,’
+Montpellier, 1856.--_Cobbold, T. S._, “On the Production of the
+so-called ‘Acute Cestode Tuberculosis’ by the Administration of the
+Proglottides of _Tænia mediocanellata_” (with Mr Simonds), in ‘Proc.
+of the Royal Society’ for May 4th, 1865; repr. in the ‘Veterinarian’
+for 1865, p. 513.--_Idem_, “Experimental Investigations with Cestoid
+Entozoa,” in ‘Linn. Soc. Journ.,’ vol. ix, p. 170; also for July, 1865,
+p. 141.--_Idem_, “On Beef, Pork, and Mutton, in relation to Tapeworms,”
+in ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ for 1865, p. 102, and in ‘Appendix to Treatise on
+Tapeworms and Threadworms,’ 1st Edit., 1866, p. 73; also in ‘Med. Times
+and Gaz.’ for Sept. 23rd, 1865, p. 343.--_Idem_, “Remarks on Entozoa,”
+in ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ for 1865, p. 102; also on “Cystic Entozoa from
+Veal and Mutton,” in the ‘Path. Soc. Trans.’ for 1866, vol. xvii, p.
+462.--_Idem_, “Entozoa found in a Westphalian Ham;” report in ‘Athenæum’
+for March 27th, 1869, p. 442; also in ‘Brit. Med. Journ.’ for March
+20th, 1869.--_Idem_, “Note on Beef Measles from a Cow,” in ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ vol. xvii, p. 463, 1866; also in the ‘Lancet’ for Feb. and
+August, 1865, p. 249.--_Idem_, ‘Entozoa,’ &c., p. 235 _et seq._, 1864;
+and in ‘Supp.,’ sections iii, iv, v, 1869.--_Idem_, ‘Tapeworms,’ 3rd
+Edit. (with 100 cases), 1875, p. 11.--_Idem_, ‘Manual of the Internal
+Par. of Domesticated Animals,’ chap. iii to vi, 1874.--_Idem_, ‘Worms,’
+Lectures i to xi, 1872.--_Idem_, “On the Parasites of our Food-producing
+Ruminants (Cantor Lectures),” in the ‘Journ. of the Soc. of Arts,’
+1871.--_Idem_, “On the Entozoa of Abyssinia” (Lecture), in ‘Lancet,’
+1867.--_Idem_, “Remarks on Eighty Cases of Tapeworm,” ‘Lancet,’ June,
+1874.--_Idem_, “Revised List of Entozoa, with notes and references
+(the beef tapeworm, No. 15, and the beef measle, No. 25),” in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1874, and Feb., 1875.--_Idem_, (anonymously),
+“Cysticerci, being a review of the writings of Pellizzari, Tommasi,
+Perroncito, Lewis, Giacomini, &c.,” contributed to the ‘Lond. Med.
+Record,’ 1874, p. 642 _et seq._; repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan.,
+1875.--_Idem_, “Notice of a Discussion by Paul, Martineau, Créquy,
+Delioux de Savignac, Trasbot, and others, respecting the Source and
+Treatment of Tapeworm,” ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ July, 1874, p. 472.--_Idem_,
+“Review of the Writings of Oliver, Fleming, Hewlett, Lewis, and others,
+on the Cystic Disease of Animals,” ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ June, 1873, p.
+339.--_Idem_, “Further Experimental Researches with the Eggs of the
+Beef Tapeworm,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Aug., 1875.--_Idem_, “Remarks on
+Perroncito’s Researches,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1877.--_Dardel, A._,
+“Sulla frequenza della Tenia in Savoia,” ‘Giorn. d’Accad. di Med.,’
+1868.--_Davaine, C._, ‘Traité’ (1. c. Bibl. No. 1), 1860.--_Idem_, “Les
+Cestoides,” in ‘Dict. Encyclopédique des Sci. Med.,’ 1875.--_Fleming,
+J._, ‘Indian Med. Gaz.,’ 1869.--_Fock, H. C. A. L._, ‘De Lintworm en
+het middel om hem mit te drijven,’ Utrecht, 1878.--_Fritsch, G._,
+“Zur differentiellen Diagnose von _T. solium and T. mediocanellata_,”
+‘Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,’ 1874.--_Gamgee, J._, “Entozoa
+in Veal and Beef” (Letter on), ‘Lancet,’ 1865.--_Giacomini, C._,
+‘Sul _Cyst. cell. hominis_ e sull _Tænia med_, contrib. alla studio
+dei Cestoidi Parrassiti dell’ Uomo,’ Torino, 1874.--_Heller, A._,
+“Darmschmarotzer,” in von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch der speciellen Pathol.
+und Therapie,’ s. 598 _et seq._, 1876.--_Hewlett_, ‘Health Officer’s
+Report,’ Bombay, 1870.--_Krabbe, H._, ‘Beretning om 100 Tilfælde af
+Bœndellorm hos Menesket iagttagne her i Landet (Aftryk af Ugeskrift for
+Læger),’ 1869.--_Küchenmeister, F._, ‘Ueber Cestoden im Allgemeinen
+und die des Menschen insbesondere, hauptsählich mit Berücksichtigung
+ihrer Entwickelungsgeschichte, geographischen Verbreitung, Prophylaxe
+und Abtreibung; specieller Theil. Zittau,’ 1853.--_Idem_, ‘Parasiten’
+(1. c. Bibl. No. 1), 1855, Eng. Edit., London, 1857.--_Laboulbéne, A._,
+“Sur les Tænias,” ‘Mém. de la Soc. Méd. des Hôpit.,’ 1876.--_Idem_,
+‘Anat. Pathologique,’ 1879, p. 962.--_Letheby_, “On Diseased Meat,”
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1867.--_Leuckart, R._, ‘Die Menschl. Par.,’ Bd.
+i, s. 285 and s. 747, 1864.--_Levi_, “Della freq. della tenia,” &c.,
+‘Giorn. Veneto di Scienz. Med.,’ 1874.--_Lewis, T. K._, “A Report on the
+Bladder Worms found in Beef and Pork” (‘App. B. to 8th Ann. Rep. of the
+Sanit. Commiss. with the Gov. of India’), Calcutta, 1872.--_Masse, E._
+et _Pourquier, P._, “Le Tænia inerme et la lardrerie du Bœuf, Nouvelles
+Expériences,” &c., in ‘Montpellier Med. Journ. Mens. de Méd.,’ p. 220,
+1876.--_Mosler_, ‘Helminthogische studien und Beobachtungen,’ Berlin,
+1864. _Neill, A._, “Letter, forming the fifth of a series of important
+articles on Cyst-infected Cattle, and on the prevalence of Cysticercus
+in Beef,” reported by the Inspector General (I. M. D.), in the ‘Madras
+Monthly Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ Feb., 1873; repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’
+July, 1873.--_Nitsche, H._, “Untersuchungen ueber den Bau der Tænien,”
+‘Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschrift,’ 1873.--_Oliver_, “Rejections of Ration
+Beef on account of Cystic Disease” (l. c. _supra_), ‘7th Rep. of the
+Commiss.,’ p. 82, Calcutta, 1871.--_Perroncito E._, “Della panicatura
+negli animali,” ‘Annali della R. Accad. d’Agricolt. di Torino,’ vol. xv,
+1872.--_Idem_, “Sulla morte del _Cyst. cell._ delle carni del majale;”
+_ibid._, 1872.--_Idem_, “Ueber die Lebenszähigkeit des _Cyst. cell._ und
+anderer Eingeweidewürmer,” ‘Zeitsch. f. prakt. Veter.-Wissenschaften,’
+Bern, 1876.--_Idem_, ‘Della Grandine o Panicatura nell’ Uomo e negli
+animali,’ Torino, 1877.--_Idem_, “Esperimenti sulla produzione del
+cisticerco nelli carni del bovini, coll’ amministrazione di anelli
+della _tænia med._ dell’ uomo,” ‘Lo Studente Vet.,’ Parma, 1876, p.
+146.--_Idem_, “Sulla tenacita,” &c., _ibid._, 1877, p. 194.--_Idem_,
+“Esperimenti sulla prod. del Cyst. della _T. med._ nelle carni dei
+Vitelli,” ‘Estr. della Annali d. R. Accad. d’Agric. di Torino,’ vol.
+xx, 1877.--_Idem_, “On the Tenacity of Life of the Helminths, and their
+corresponding Larval Forms in Man and Animals,” the ‘Veterinarian,’
+July, 1877, p. 457.--_Idem_ (with similar title, including notice of
+experiments), the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1877; partly from ‘Osservatore
+Gaz. d. Cliniche di Torino,’ and from ‘Archivvo per le Sci. Med.,’ vol.
+i, 1877.--_Idem_, “On the Tenacity of Life of the _Cysticercus_ in
+the flesh of Oxen, and on the rapid development of the corresponding
+_T. mediocanellata_ in the Human Body,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec.,
+1877, p. 817.--_Probstmayr_, ‘Jahrb. der Münchener Thierarzneischule,’
+1869.--_Rochard_, “Note sur la fréquence du _Tænia mediocanellata_ en
+Syrie, et sur la présence du cysticerque qui lui donne naissance, dans
+la chaire musculaire des bœufs de ce pays,” in ‘Bulletin de l’Acad. de
+Méd.,’ 1877, tom. vi, p. 998.--_Thudichum, J. W. L._, “On the Parasitic
+Diseases of Quadrupeds used as Food,” ‘Privy Council Med. Officer’s
+Rep.’ 1865.--_Sommer, F._, “Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung der
+Geschlechtsorgane, von _Tænia mediocanellata_ und _T. solium_,” in
+‘Siebold and Köll. Zeitschrift,’ Bd. xxiv, s. 499, 1874.--_St Cyr_,
+“Deux Experiences,” &c., ‘Journ. de l’Anatomie, de Robin,’ p. 504; and
+in ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ by Higgs, vol. i, 582, 1873.--_Tommasi, T._,
+‘Appendice (to Cobbold’s) Parasiti Interni degli Animali Domestice,’
+p. 161, Firenze, 1874.--_Van Beneden, P. J._, “Iconographie des
+Helminthes ou des vers parasites de l’homme” (Vers Cestoïdes, pl.
+ii), Louvain, 1860.--_Welch, F. H._, “Observations on the Anatomy of
+_Tænia mediocanellata_,” ‘Quart. Journ. of Microsc. Science,’ vol.
+xv, 1875.--_Zenker_, in ‘S. B. Soc.,’ Erlang. iv, s. 71.--_Zurn_,
+‘Zoopathologische und physiol. Untersuchungen,’ 1872.
+
+_Tænia solium_, Linneus.--This cestode was formerly known as the common
+tapeworm, but in England it is of far less frequent occurrence than the
+beef tapeworm. In contradistinction it is best to speak of it as the
+pork tapeworm. Though only one specimen is usually present, the bearer
+may entertain several worms of this species at one and the same time.
+The parasite has been known to science from the earliest times, though
+possibly not earlier than the measles, or Cysticerci, from which it
+originates. Hippocrates, Pliny, and Aristotle describe the full-grown
+worm; and, in regard to the larvæ, some have gone so far as to express
+their belief that the prohibition of swine’s flesh as food amongst the
+Jews and other Oriental people, was dictated by sanitary considerations.
+Weinland has suggested that the Mosaic commandment not to eat pork may
+have originated in an old popular notion “of the fact that tapeworm
+sometimes comes from this food.” Weinland’s hypothesis is probably
+correct, for if one supposes Moses to have been supernaturally informed
+that pork would produce tapeworm disease, one naturally asks why veal
+and beef should not also have been prohibited, seeing that these meats
+also frequently harbour tapeworm larvæ.
+
+A perfect pork tapeworm presents itself to the eye of the observer as a
+long, soft, white, jointed strobile, which, when alive, elongates and
+contracts itself with facility. Though commonly spoken of as a single
+creature, it is a compound of many individuals. These are variously
+called “cucurbitini,” “zooids,” “proglottides,” “segments,” “links,”
+or “joints.” When fully grown the segments are capable of detaching
+themselves and of enjoying a free and independent existence. Very
+annoying it is to the human bearer to be continually reminded of his
+unwelcome “guests” as they seek to quit his interior.
+
+The head of _Tænia solium_ is seldom seen in anatomical museums,
+although the evacuation of pork tapeworms is not of rare occurrence.
+Placed under the microscope, the head displays a quantity of dark,
+almost black, pigment granules, which are abundant at the base of
+the rostellum and in the neighbourhood of the hook-fangs. They are
+equally present and abundant in the pork measle proper, and in measles
+derived from the human subject. The cephalic hooks of this cestode are
+comparatively large, those of the greater circle individually measuring
+1/156″, whilst the smaller hooks have a length of about 1/220″.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Head of _Tænia solium_. Highly magnified. After
+Van Beneden.]
+
+The male reproductive organ consists of a number of small vesicles or
+sacs, in which filiform spermatozoa have been detected, these latter,
+when ripe, being conducted by a _vas deferens_ into a seminal pouch,
+from which a canal passes laterally into the penis; the latter organ,
+in its retracted condition, being lodged within a flask-shaped sheath
+or cirrhus-pouch. The female organs are somewhat more complicated. They
+consist of two masses of vitelligene glands occupying a limited space, a
+small ovarium, a centrally-placed and largely-developed branched uterus,
+canals of outlet leading from all these organs, and enlargements of
+the main passages to form internal seminal reservoirs; also, a vaginal
+canal, which is widened at its termination to form a receptaculum for
+the curved penis.
+
+In addition to the above-named structures, the entire series of joints
+from the head downwards are traversed by a set of vascular canals,
+which are doubled in the region of the head. These form the so-called
+aquiferous system. There are two main channels, one passing down on
+either side of the worm, both being connected by transverse vessels,
+which occur singly at one end of every joint.
+
+The eggs in their mature condition are globular, and contain a
+six-hooked embryo. They present an average diameter of 1/694 of an
+inch, the shell itself measuring about 1/4000″ in thickness. In 1856
+I observed that many of the eggs, whilst still within the uterine
+branches, displayed an outer envelope, very delicate in structure and
+totally dissimilar from the egg-shell proper. This has since been
+more accurately described by Weinland, Van Beneden, and Leuckart. The
+outer membrane, according to the last-named authority, constitutes
+the primitive yolk-membrane, within which a part of the yolk-contents
+separates to form the true egg and embryo by a process of daughter-cell
+formation. The remaining part of the yolk forms a granular mass, being
+probably concerned in the formation of the true chitinous shell. The
+true shell displays a series of radiating and circular lines; the
+former, however, are more conspicuous than the latter, being due,
+according to Leuckart, to the presence of a series of fine rod-like
+chitinous elements, which are formed on the external surface of the
+original true shell-membrane. The enclosed embryo is furnished with six
+boring spines, arranged in three pairs, its granular body being invested
+by an extremely delicate skin-membrane, which is separated from the
+inner surface of the shell by a clear transparent fluid. The embryo
+measures 1/1250″ in diameter.
+
+The scolex or higher larval stage of growth forms the well-known pork
+measle or _Cysticercus_ (_telæ_) _cellulosæ_ of authors. The smallest
+measles found by Leuckart measured 1/25″ in length. They were obtained
+from the brain, liver, and intermuscular substance of a pig fed with
+proglottides about thirty days previously. Only those specimens,
+however, occurring in the liver at this early period displayed an
+outer membrane proper to the worm itself, the others being simply
+invested with capsules formed out of the connective tissues of the
+host. Many measle-masses in the same host were much larger, presenting
+an average diameter of 1/6″. The smallest already displayed a smooth,
+transparent, homogeneous, outer, cuticular membrane, overlying a
+double, finely-granular corium, the latter being traversed by a branched
+system of aquiferous vessels. These vessels proceed from a central spot,
+which marks the position of the so-called head-cone, or _receptaculum
+capitis_. It is, in fact, the first well-marked indication of that
+flask-shaped capsule within which the head, neck, and body of the
+Cysticercus is formed, and which Goeze long ago very aptly compared to
+a lantern. As growth proceeds, a central granular mass forms the true
+foundation of the head, its upper or stalk-like extension becoming the
+future neck and body. Further changes result in the evolution of the
+internal water-vascular system, the calcareous corpuscles, the marginal
+transverse foldings of the body, the four suckers, the rostellum, and,
+in particular, the double coronet of hooks. All these metamorphoses were
+minutely followed and described by Leuckart, who found the development
+of the larva to be completed within the space of ten weeks.
+
+As regards the injurious effects of this parasite upon man, it may be
+said to act prejudicially in three separate ways. I have remarked in
+my ‘Entozoa,’ that this parasite may cause disease and death both by
+its action in the larval and adult states. It may likewise injure us by
+rendering the flesh of swine unwholesome.
+
+When one or more sexually-mature tapeworms have developed themselves
+within the human intestine, they are apt to give rise to a variety
+of unpleasant symptoms, more or less marked according to the habit
+or irritability of the patient. According to Davaine (p. 103 of his
+‘Traité’) the principal features are “vertigo, noises in the ears,
+impairment of sight, itching of the nose and anus, salivation, dyspepsia
+and loss of appetite, colic, pains over the epigastrium and in different
+parts of the abdomen, palpitation, syncope, the sensation of weight
+in the abdomen, pains and lassitude in the limbs, and emaciation.” In
+ordinary cases there is always more or less anxiety and restlessness;
+but in severe cases the sympathetic symptoms are very strongly
+marked, showing themselves in hysterical fits, chorea, epilepsy, and
+epileptiform seizures, attended by more or less alarming convulsions.
+
+Amongst some of the more interesting and remarkable cases recorded in
+our English journals, I may instance that of Mr Hutchings, where a
+complete cure followed the evacuation of the worm which had produced
+convulsions. Mr Tuffnell records a case where irritability of the
+bladder and stricture of the urethra were entirely dependent on
+tapeworm, as proved by the subsequent recovery. At a meeting of the
+Pathological Society, in 1853, Dr Winslow mentioned his experience of
+three or four cases of mania arising from tapeworm; whilst on the same
+occasion Drs Ryan and Davey each recorded a similar instance. A case has
+also been previously published by Mr W. Wood. At a meeting of the London
+Medical Society, held on the 10th of April, 1837, Dr Theophilus Thomson
+(during an interesting discussion on this subject) stated the facts of
+a case where the presence of tapeworm had given rise to a tumultuous
+action of the heart, this symptom entirely disappearing after evacuation
+of the worm. Our journals likewise (anonymously) record a considerable
+number of cases from foreign sources. Thus, in the ‘London Medical
+Gazette’ for 1840, there is the case of a lady, aged thirty-seven,
+who had convulsions attended with a complete loss of consciousness,
+the separate fits lasting an hour at a time. The passage of the worms
+effected a complete cure. In the same journal for 1838, there is also
+the case of a younger lady (aged twenty-seven) suffering from epilepsy,
+in whom a complete cure had been similarly brought about; here, however,
+in addition to a single specimen of the _Tænia solium_, there were
+two lumbrici present. This journal also gives Ettmüller’s case, where
+eighteen tapeworms were the cause of hysteria; and likewise the case
+published by Steinbeck, where the symptoms presented an altogether
+peculiar character. More precise references to some of the above cases
+will be found in the ‘Bibliography’ below; and I may also refer to
+my published lectures on Helminthology and especially to my separate
+work on Tapeworms, where particulars of one hundred cases are briefly
+recorded. These were all average cases occurring to me whilst in private
+practice. Davaine’s book also abounds with remarkable cases.
+
+Whilst the adult worm is capable of producing serious and even fatal
+mischief to the bearer, the larvæ or measles much more frequently prove
+fatal. The Cysticerci may develop themselves in almost any situation
+in the human body, but they occur most commonly in the subcutaneous,
+areolar, and intermuscular connective tissue; next, most commonly in
+the brain and eye, and lastly, in the substance of the heart and other
+viscera of the trunk.
+
+In my ‘Entozoa’ I have stated that probably not less than one hundred
+cases have been observed where death had resulted from Cysticerci in the
+brain. Griesinger alone collected between fifty and sixty such cases.
+Mental disturbance occasioned by the presence of measles in the brain
+may occur with or without epilepsy. When Griesinger states that “the
+epilepsy from Cysticercus is in all respects like cerebral epilepsy and
+the psychical disturbances have nothing characteristic about them,” he
+tacitly admits the impossibility of correct diagnosis during life.
+
+Since the publication of Griesinger’s well-known memoir on Cysticerci
+of the brain, many similar cases have appeared, and amongst the more
+recent of these is one by Dr Frédet in which the victim was a young
+man twenty-two years of age. Though apparently in good health he fell
+dead in the street; the fatal result being due to the presence of a
+Cysticercus within the _pons Varolii_.
+
+Many other cases of earlier date are especially noteworthy. Thus Mr
+Toynbee recorded a case where an hydatid (which I take to have been the
+_Cysticercus cellulosæ_) situated in the middle cerebral fossa beneath
+the _dura mater_, but in this instance death ensued from other causes.
+Mr Ottley gives the case of a woman aged forty, where an undoubted
+Cysticercus in the brain gave rise to distressing fits, convulsions,
+and death. Then, again, there was Dr Burton’s workhouse patient, only
+twenty years of age, who was found dead in bed, but who at the time
+of admission merely complained of pain in the head. After death, four
+hydatids (_Cysticerci_) were found in the _tuber ancillare_ at the
+summit of the spinal marrow. M. Bouvier’s similar case is also reported
+in our periodicals. Of instances where Cysticerci occupied the cavity
+of the eye, we have one or two cases by Mackenzie of Glasgow, one by
+Mr Rose of Swaffham, and others by Windsor, Logan, and Estlin. Amongst
+the more peculiar cases, I may mention that described by Dr Greenhalgh
+in the ‘Lancet’ (1848), where the Cysticercus was lodged within the
+substance of the lip. Five similar cases are likewise recorded by Heller
+of Stuttgard. Then there is Dupuytren’s case of a Cysticercus ensconced
+within the great peroneus muscle; and also Fournier’s, where several of
+these scolices were said to have been found in a boil. The so-called
+_Trachelocampylus_, discovered by Frédault in the human brain, was
+neither more nor less than a common _Cysticercus cellulosæ_.
+
+It is worthy of remark, as Griesinger has also observed, that in cases
+where the Cysticerci have taken up their temporary residence in the
+brain, they are usually found, post mortem, in the grey cortical or
+peripheral substance of the cerebrum. The particulars of such a case are
+given in my ‘Entozoa’ where the victim suffered from epileptic fits due
+to the presence of numerous Cysticerci (fig. 24). The patient was under
+Mr Hulke’s care.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Head of a _Cysticercus_ removed from the brain.
+Magn. 5 diam. with detached hooks. Original.]
+
+As regards infection by the adult worm it is not alone sufficient that
+we avoid underdone _meat_, as brought to the dinner-table, but we must
+be especially careful to have our sausages well cooked. Under ordinary
+circumstances, we are safe for the following reasons:--No respectable
+butcher will knowingly supply us with pork or with sausages which are
+measled. Even in the case of underdone meats, in whatever way prepared,
+it is usually only a small portion which is unaffected by cooking. As
+we have seen a temperature of 140° Fahr. is sufficient to kill the
+Cysticerci.
+
+The successful rearing of pork measles by experimentation with the
+eggs of _T. solium_ has been accomplished by many helminthologists,
+amongst whom may be particularised Van Beneden, Leuckart, Küchenmeister,
+Haubner, Gerlach, and Baillet. The converse experiment of rearing the
+adult worm from the Cysticercus was first successfully undertaken by
+Küchenmeister on a condemned criminal; Leuckart, Humbert, and others
+having repeated this method with more or less success.
+
+The dangers arising from infection by swallowing the larval worms or
+six-hooked embryos are not easily avoided. Our flesh, like pork, thus
+becomes measled, although certainly not to the spawn-like extent so
+often seen in the lower animals. A single measle is sufficient to
+prove fatal; and this humiliating contingency, moreover, is one which
+we can never be absolutely certain of avoiding. We become the “host”
+or bearer of the measle by swallowing the fully-developed eggs of the
+_Tænia solium_. This we may do directly by handling fresh tapeworms,
+whose eggs, being concealed under our nails or in our clothing, may
+subsequently be swallowed, and develop within us accordingly. Even a
+thorough washing of the hands will not ensure absolute security. In like
+manner, those who partake of choice salads, prepared from the stores
+of the market-gardener, run a certain amount of risk. The vegetables
+may have been manured with night-soil containing myriads of tapeworm
+eggs, or they may have been watered with fluid filth into which the
+eggs were accidentally cast. In such cases, one or more tapeworm ova
+will be transferred to the digestive organs, unless the vegetables
+have been very carefully cleansed. In the same way, one perceives how
+fallen fruits, all sorts of edible plants, as well as pond, canal, and
+even river water procured from the neighbourhood of human habitations,
+are liable to harbour embryos capable of gaining entrance to the
+human body. One individual suffering from tapeworm may infect a whole
+neighbourhood by rendering the swine measly, these animals, in their
+turn, spreading the disease far and wide. As already remarked, measles
+sometimes occur in great numbers in different parts of the body. Among
+the more remarkable cases of the multiple Cysticerci are those recorded
+by Delore (1864) and Giacomini (1874). In M. Delore’s case, about 2000
+were obtained post mortem. Of these, 111 occurred in connection with
+the nervous centres, eighty-four being in the cerebrum, twenty-two in
+the membranes of the brain, four in the cerebellum, and one within the
+substance of the medulla oblongata. Dr Knox published a less notable
+instance in the ‘Lancet’ (1838); and in the year 1857, Dr Hodges,
+of Boston, U.S., published a case where the cysts, which in size he
+compared to rice grains and coffee beans, were felt subcutaneously. The
+coexistence of Tænia and Cysticerci in the same individual has also
+recently been observed in France (‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ 1875). Besides
+these, several remarkable instances have lately been reported by Davy,
+Tartivel, and others.
+
+To the literature already quoted in connection with the beef tapeworm
+the following may be added:
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 14).--_Aran_, in ‘Archives Gén. de Médecine,’
+1841.--_Baillet_, “Helminthes,” art. in ‘Bouley and Reynal’s Dict.
+Vétérin.,’ tom. viii, 1869.--_Bécoulet_ and _Giraud_, “On Cysticercus
+in the Brain,” ‘Bullet. de la Soc. Méd. de Gand,’ 1872; and in
+‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ Feb., 1873.--_Birkett, J._, Cases, ‘Guy’s
+Hosp. Rep.,’ 1860.--_Bouchut_, “Cyst. in the Brain,” ‘Gaz. des
+Hôp.,’ 1857, and ‘Journ. für Kinderkrankheit.,’ 1859.--_Bouvier_,
+‘Bullet. de l’Acad.,’ 1840.--_Burton_, in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’
+(supposed hydatids), 1862.--_Cobbold_, “On Measly Meat and Measles
+in Man,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1876.--_Czermack_, “Cysticerci causing
+Insanity,” Corresp.--Blatt, 1838.--_Dalton, J. C._, “Cyst in the
+Scrotum,” ‘New York Journ. of Med.,’ 1857.--_Davaine_ (see his
+‘Traité’ for many additional references; p. 676).--_Davy, R._,
+“Cysticerci in the Muscles,” ‘Rep. of Lond. Med. Soc.,’ ‘Lancet’
+for Nov., 1876.--_Estling_, “Cases of Cysticercus,” ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1838-39.--_Frédet_, “Cysticercus in the _pons Varolii_,”
+in the ‘Lancet’ for June 23rd, 1877 (p. 925), from ‘Giornale
+Veneto de Scienze.’--_Fournier_, ‘Journ. des Connois. Med. Chir.,’
+1840.--_Griesinger_, “On Cysticerci of the Brain,” from ‘Med. Jahrb.’
+in ‘Med.-Chir. Review,’ 1863.--_Harley, J._, “Cyst. in the Brain,”
+‘Lancet,’ 1867.--_Hodges, R. M._, “Specimens of _Cyst. cell._, felt
+as small tumours just beneath the skin, varying in size from that of
+a grain of rice to that of a coffee bean,” ‘Rep. of Boston Soc. for
+Med. Improvement,’ in ‘Brit. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1857.--_Hogg, J._,
+“Obs. on Cysticercus,” in his ‘Manual of Ophth. Surgery,’ 3rd edit.,
+1863.--_Holler, A._, “_Cyst. cell_., im Gehirne einer Geisteskranken,”
+‘Allgem. Wiener Med. Zeitung,’ 1878.--_Logan, R._, “Probable Cases
+of _Cyst. cell_.,” removed by Robertson, ‘Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1833.--_Mackenzie, W._, “Cyst in the Eye,” ‘Lancet,’ 1848, ‘Lond.
+Med. Gaz.,’ 1839.--_Mazotti, L._, “Caso di numerosi cisticerchi del
+cervello e delle meningi,” ‘Rivista Clin. di Bologna,’ 1876.--_Mégnin,
+P._, “La Ladrerie du porc et le _Tænia solium_,” ‘La France Médicale,’
+1876.--_Putz, H._, “Ueber die Lebenszähigkeit des _Cysticercus
+cellulosæ_,” &c., ‘Zeitsch. f. pr. Vet.-Wissenschaften,’ 1876.--_Rainey,
+G._, “On the Structure, &c., of _Cyst. cell._,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’
+1857.--_Rizzetti, G._, “Rendiconto Statistico dell’ufficio d’igiene
+di Torino per l’Anno 1873.”--_Rudall, J. T._, “Cyst. in the Brain,”
+‘Australian Med. Journ.,’ 1859.--_Tartivel, De A._, “Cysticerques
+multiples dans le tissu cellulaire sous-cutané et dans certain
+viscères,” ‘Rec. de Méd. Vet.,’ 1876.--_Von Gräfe, A._, in ‘Arch. für
+Ophthal.,’ 1857.--_Wells, S._, Bourman’s Case, ‘Ophth. Hosp. Rep.,’
+1860.--_Windsor, J._, “Cyst. in the Eye,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1861.
+
+_Tænia tenella_, Cobbold.--I have long been acquainted with the fact
+that there is a comparatively small human tapeworm which cannot be
+referred to either of the foregoing species. In the absence of
+experimental proof, I incline to the belief that the worm in question
+owes its existence to measly mutton. The sheep harbours an armed
+Cysticercus (_C. ovis_), which I regard as the scolex of _Tænia
+tenella_. The specific name (_tenella_) was originally applied by
+Pruner to a cestode six feet in length, which he found associated with
+a larger tapeworm. This latter he called _Tænia lata_. Whilst Diesing
+has pronounced Pruner’s _Tænia lata_ to have been a _T. mediocanellata_,
+I, on the other hand, consider Pruner’s _T. tenella_ to have been
+a _T. solium_. Mr J. C. Mayrhofer has suggested its identity with
+_Bothriocephalus tropicus_. When, some years back, I applied the term
+_T. tenella_ to a new tapeworm (of which I possess several strobiles)
+I was quite unaware than any similar nomenclature had been adopted by
+Pruner. From the few facts supplied by Pruner and Diesing, I cannot
+suppose that our cestodes are identical. Unfortunately my specimens are
+imperfect, wanting the so-called head. It is not possible to estimate
+the length of the worm accurately, but the perfect strobile must measure
+several feet.
+
+On one slide I have mounted nine mature proglottides of a worm which I
+procured on the 15th Dec., 1875. The segments measure, on the average,
+exactly 1/10″ in length, and only 1/20″ in breadth. The uterine rosettes
+are all full of eggs, and their branches so crowded together that I am
+unable to ascertain their average number. The segments are perfectly
+uniform in character, their reproductive papillæ alternating irregularly
+at the margin.
+
+In the autumn of 1872 I caused a lamb to be fed with the proglottides of
+a tapeworm which I referred to this species. The animal was slaughtered
+on the 22nd of January, 1873, when the result was stated to have been
+negative. As I had no opportunity of examining the carcase, I cannot
+feel quite sure that there actually were no Cysticerci present. On
+several occasions I have detected measles in the flesh of animals, when
+none were supposed to be present by those who either assisted me or
+were professional on-lookers. Assuming my _Tænia tenella_ to be derived
+from the sheep’s Cysticercus, I think it fitting to describe the mutton
+measle in this place. Even if _T. tenella_ be not actually the adult
+representative of the mutton measle (_Cyst. ovis_), it is quite certain
+that the scolex in question gives rise to an armed tapeworm, and it is
+almost equally certain that the adult armed cestode resides in man.
+In Pruner’s case, which is by no means unique, we have seen that two
+distinct species of cestode may coexist in the human bearer. It is quite
+possible that some one may yet have the good fortune to detect the beef
+tapeworm, the pork tapeworm, and the mutton tapeworm, all together in
+one and the same host.
+
+On five separate occasions I have detected measles in “joints” of
+otherwise excellent and healthy mutton brought to my own table, and
+supplied by the family butcher. On several other occasions I have had
+these parasites brought under my notice; nevertheless, many persons
+are either unaware of, or actually deny, the existence of these ovine
+parasites. Thus, MM. Masse and Pourquier, in the ‘Montpellier Med.
+Journ.’ for Sept., 1876, make the following statement: “The sheep, not
+being subject to measles, it seems to us natural to employ the raw meat
+of that animal whenever it is required for nourishment in the treatment
+of diarrhœa, in weaning children, in phthisis, and for anæmics.”
+Clearly, if MM. Masse and Pourquier could have brought themselves to
+believe that English literature is worth consulting on such matters,
+they would not have made this statement. Incidentally they also observe,
+when speaking of beef measles:--“Un fait que nous avons remarqué et que
+nous tenons à signaler, c’est que nous avons trouvé des cysticerques
+nageant librement dans l’eau où nous avions plongé de la viande infestée
+de ladrerie.” Certainly this is a novel experience. That measles should
+not only get out of their cysts, but should have the power of “swimming
+freely” in the water is a phenomenon which requires explanation. There
+must have been some error of observation.
+
+It was in the year 1865 that I discovered the mutton measle (_C. ovis_,
+mihi); but I am not prepared to say that the parasite had never been
+seen before, since it is alleged that a two-headed Cysticercus was
+obtained by Fromage from the liver of a sheep (as cited by Davaine). Be
+that as it may, my discovery was announced in a communication made at
+the Birmingham meeting of the British Association in the autumn of 1865,
+and subsequently at a meeting of the Pathological Society of London,
+on the 3rd of April, 1866 (‘Path. Trans.,’ vol. xviii, p. 463). After
+these dates further announcements and verifications appeared, amongst
+which I can only refer to my remarks “On Beef, Pork, and Mutton, in
+relation to Tapeworms,” forming an appendix to the first edition of my
+work on Tapeworms, 1866; to the “Remarks on Cysticerci from Mutton,”
+contained in the fourth chapter of the Supplement to my introductory
+treatise on Entozoa, where a figure of the parasite is given, 1869,
+p. 27; to Dr Maddox’s paper “On an Entozoon with Ova, found encysted
+in the Muscles of a Sheep,” recorded in ‘Nature,’ May 15th, 1873, p.
+59; to the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’ June, 1873, p. 245; to my
+further communications in the ‘Lond. Med. Record,’ Aug. 6th, 1873; to my
+‘Manual,’ 1874, pp. 74 and 105, Ital. edit. ‘Nota Dell’ Autore,’ p. 133;
+and especially to the article headed “The Mutton Tapeworm,” contained in
+the 3rd edit. of my little volume on ‘Tapeworms,’ p. 12, et seq., 1875.
+
+In regard to the measle itself, I spoke of it as smaller than the common
+pork measle. The head is 1/30″ in breadth, and is armed with a double
+crown of hooks, twenty-six in all, the larger hooks each measuring
+1/160″ in length. The suckers are four in number, each having a breadth
+of 1/100″. The neck and head are abundantly supplied with calcareous
+corpuscles, being at the same time marked by transverse rugæ. The data
+on which I founded my brief description of the scolex were chiefly based
+on the examination of a specimen which had been procured by Prof. Heisch
+from the interior of a mutton chop. Subsequently much fuller details
+of the structure of the scolex were supplied by the illustrated memoir
+of Dr Maddox (above quoted). This excellent microscopist, however,
+announced the presence of immature ova within the Cysticerci themselves.
+As the notion of the existence of eggs in larval cestodes was altogether
+at variance with what we know of the phenomena of tapeworm life, I
+suggested that the author might have mistaken the egg-shaped calcareous
+corpuscles (which I found so abundant in my own specimens) for the ova.
+In the interests of truth I felt bound to characterise certain of the
+conclusions arrived at by Dr Maddox as simply incredible, but I regarded
+his memoir as forming “an important contribution to our knowledge of
+the structure of the mutton measle.” I had no idea that in pointing to
+errors of interpretation I should offend the excellent author. However,
+a long letter appeared in the ‘London Medical Record,’ in which Dr
+Maddox showed that he was much vexed that I should have “impugned” the
+“accuracy of his conclusions.” He defended his position with the support
+of no less an authority than Dr Macdonald, F.R.S., the distinguished
+Assistant Professor of Naval Hygiène at the Victoria Hospital, Netley.
+Dr Maddox says:--“We were quite alive to the anomalous position. Hence
+the exceptionability of the case rests on more than my own evidence.”
+In regard to this unfortunate dispute I will only add the expression
+of my conviction that Drs Maddox and Macdonald will eventually become
+satisfied that no cestode scolex is capable of displaying either mature
+or immature ova in its interior.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 15). _Cobbold_ (l. c., _supra_), 1865-75.--_Idem_, “On
+Measly Meat, &c.,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1876.--_Idem_, “The Mutton
+Tapeworm (_T. tenella_),” No. 16 in my revised list of Entozoa, the
+‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1874.--_Diesing, C. M._ (_Tænia tenella_, Pruner
+nec Pallas), in “Revis der Cephalocotyleen,” ‘Sitzungsb. der Math.-Mat.
+Class d. k. Akad. der Wissenschaften,’ Bd. xlix, s. 369, 1864.--_Maddox_
+(l. c., _supra_), 1873.--_Mayrhofer, J. C._, ‘Die helminth. des
+Menschen,’ Erlangen, 1854.--_Pruner_, ‘Krankheiten des Orients,’ s. 245,
+1847.
+
+_Tænia lophosoma_, Cobbold.--This is a good species notwithstanding the
+doubts that have been expressed by Heller and others regarding it. I
+have called it the ridged tapeworm in consequence of the presence of
+an elevated line coursing the whole length of the body, which measures
+about eight feet. The reproductive papillæ are remarkably prominent and
+uniserially disposed throughout the entire chain of proglottides. It
+is quite an error to suppose that this species is a malformed cestode,
+or that it has any resemblance to Küchenmeister’s variety of tapeworm
+from the Cape of Good Hope. Neither does it in the slightest degree
+resemble the remarkably malformed _T. mediocanellata_ described by Mr
+Cullingworth. Of the distinctiveness of this parasite as a species, any
+one may satisfy himself by an inspection of the nearly complete strobile
+preserved in the Pathological Museum attached to the Middlesex Hospital
+Medical College. From the examination of several mature proglottides
+detached from this specimen, I find their average breadth to be one
+fifth of an inch, by three quarters of an inch in length. Their greatest
+thickness does not exceed the 1/13th of an inch. The eggs resemble those
+of other tapeworms, and offer a diameter of about 1/850″ from pole to
+pole.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 16).--_Cobbold_, “Parasites of Man,” in the ‘Midland
+Naturalist,’ April, 1878, p. 98.--_Idem_, ‘Tapeworms,’ 1st edit.,
+p. 52, 1866; 3rd edit., p. 27, 1875.--_Cullingworth_ (see Bibl. No.
+18).--_Davaine_, ‘Les Cestoïdes,’ l. c., p. 573.--_Heller_, l. c., s.
+594.
+
+_Tænia nana_, Siebold.--As regards the dwarf tapeworm, unless Spooner’s
+case be genuine, there is but one solitary instance on record of its
+occurrence in the human body; moreover, we have no evidence of its
+having existed in any other host. It was discovered by Dr Bilharz,
+of Cairo, at the post-mortem examination of a boy who died from
+inflammation of the cerebral membranes. Prodigious numbers existed. The
+largest specimen measured only one inch in length. To the naked eye
+these worms resemble short threads, and consequently they might very
+readily be overlooked. The head is broad and furnished with a formidable
+rostellum armed with a crown of hooks. These hooks have large anterior
+root-processes, which, extending unusually forward, impart to the
+individual hooks a bifid character. By far the best account of this worm
+is furnished by Leuckart, to whom I am indebted for a specimen.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 17).--_Cobbold_, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 244.--_Davaine_ (l.
+c., Bibl. No. 2), p. 574.--_Heller_, l. c., s. 606.--_Küchenmeister_,
+l. c., Eng. edit., p. 141.--_Leuckart_, l. c., Bd. i, s. 393.--_Von
+Siebold_ and _Bilharz_, in Von Sieb. and Köll. Zeitschr., Bd.
+iv.--_Spooner_, ‘Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1873.--_Van Beneden_,
+‘Iconographie,’ l. c., pl. iii, fig. 17.--_Weinland, ‘Diplacanthus
+nanus,’_ l. c., p. 85.
+
+_Tænia Madagascariensis_, Davaine.--This appears to be a well-defined
+species although the head has not yet been seen. It probably forms the
+type of a distinct genus. Dr Grenet, stationed at Mayotte (Comores),
+twice encountered single specimens passed by two young children,
+eighteen and twenty-four months of age respectively. The proglottides
+have their genital pores uniserially arranged, and they show, in their
+interior, remarkable egg-capsules, from 120 to 150 in number in all,
+each containing from 300 to 400 eggs. These give a long diameter of
+1/625″ for the outer envelope and 1/1250″ for the inner, or shell
+proper. The embryo measures only the 1/2500 of an inch.
+
+A full account of this parasite, with figures, is given by Davaine (‘Les
+Cestoïdes,’ l. c., Bibl. No. 2, p. 577 _et seq._).
+
+_Tænia marginata_, Batsch.--Although I possess no certain evidence of
+the occurrence of this parasite in its adult condition in the human
+bearer, yet there is a tapeworm in the Edinburgh Anatomical Museum
+referable to this species, which was said to have been obtained from the
+human body. This worm is very common in the dog.
+
+The principal evidence demonstrating the occurrence of the larval
+representative of this species (_Cysticercus tenuicollis_) in man, rests
+upon the two cases recorded in Schleissner’s ‘Nosography’ of Iceland.
+One of the alleged instances, however, has been proved by Küchenmeister
+and Krabbe to be that of an echinococcus; so that, after all, there only
+remains the solitary case observed by Schleissner himself, in which the
+parasite can fairly be considered as the “slender-necked hydatid.”
+
+To the above, however, may probably be added a specimen preserved in the
+Anatomical Collection at King’s College, London. It was found connected
+with an ovarian cyst.
+
+_Tænia elliptica_, Batsch.--This parasite is readily recognised not
+merely by its delicate form and small size, but also by the circumstance
+of its supporting two sets of reproductive organs in each mature joint.
+Their outlets are situated at the centre of the margin of each segment,
+one on either side. Ordinarily infesting the cat, this worm is a mere
+variety of the common _Tænia cucumerina_ of the dog. At all events,
+from the evidence put forth by Eschricht, seconded by Leuckart, there
+is every reason for believing that one or other of these closely-allied
+varieties is liable to infest the human body. It was originally stated
+by Eschricht that he had received a _Tænia canina_ which had been
+passed by a negro slave at St Thomas, Antilles. This is a synonym of
+_T. elliptica_, which must therefore be very rare in the human body,
+possibly only occurring in the negro race.
+
+In regard to the source of this parasite, it has been shown by Melnikow
+that the scolex of _Tænia cucumerina_ resides in the louse of the dog
+(_Trichodectes latus_), and thus it is exceedingly probable that the
+scolex of _Tænia elliptica_ resides in the louse of the cat (_Trich.
+subrostratus_). How man becomes infested is not so clear. Melnikow’s
+paper on the juvenile state of this cestode is contained in the ‘Archiv
+für Naturgeschichte’ for 1869, and is illustrated by a figure of the
+measle.
+
+_Tænia flavopuncta_, Weinland.--Regarded as a new species, the discovery
+of this little tapeworm is due to the investigations of Weinland. In
+Dr Jackson’s ‘Catalogue of the Boston Medical Improvement Society’ an
+account of the contents of a phial is recorded as follows:--“Specimen
+of Bothriocephalus, three feet in length, and from half a line to
+one line and a quarter in width, from an infant. The joints are very
+regular, except at one extremity, where they approach the triangular
+form, are very delicate, and but slightly connected, as shown in a
+drawing by Dr Wyman.” It is further stated that the infant was nineteen
+months old, and that the worm was discharged without medicine, its
+presence having never been suspected. It was presented by Dr Ezra Palmer
+in the year 1842. On examining the fragments, Dr Weinland found, instead
+of a solitary specimen, at least six different tapeworms, all of them
+being referable to a hitherto undescribed species. There were no heads;
+nevertheless, it was ascertained that the worms varied from eight to
+twelve inches in length, the joints or segments being very broad, and at
+the same time narrowed from above downwards. The parasite was named “the
+spotted tapeworm,” in consequence of the presence of yellow spots near
+the middle of the joint. They represent the male organs of reproduction,
+the outlets of which, as in my _T. lophosoma_, occur all along one side
+of the body or strobile. In Weinland’s estimation this parasite forms
+the type of a new genus which he calls _Hymenolepis_. A full account of
+the worm is given in his well-known essay (l. c., Bibl. No. 2).
+
+_Tænia abietina_ and other varieties. I can only notice very briefly
+certain cestodes which either present malformations or which may be
+regarded as mere _varieties_. First in this series is Weinland’s _T.
+abietina_. No one who has studied his ‘Beschreibung zweier neuer
+Tænioiden aus dem Menschen,’ Jena, 1861, can doubt that it is a mere
+variety of _T. mediocanellata_. The monstrosity described by him as
+referable to _T. solium_ must also be referred to the beef tapeworm.
+The variations in the character of cestode proglottides is practically
+infinite. A museum might be filled with them. Most common with _T.
+mediocanellata_, these varieties more or less prevail with other
+species. Thus I have seen them in Tæniæ and Bothriocephali alike. I have
+obtained segments of _T. mediocanellata_ having sexual outlets on both
+sides of the proglottis, so regularly disposed in a few segments as to
+suggest the notion of a new species. The coalescence of several segments
+into one compound segment is frequent, but the most remarkable specimen
+that I have seen is one contained in the museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons. In the old Hunterian catalogue the specimen is described as
+“two joints of the _Tænia solium_, with a number of orifices in unequal
+series on either side.” As stated in the new catalogue of the series,
+prepared by myself, the “lower segment is furnished with twenty-two
+sexual orifices, one of which is situated in the central line” on
+the ventral surface (as in Bothriocephali). References to this and
+other specimens in the Hunterian Collection will be found below (see
+_Pittard_). In regard to Weinland’s conjectural _Tænia acanthotrias_,
+based on the circumstance of his having found a Cysticercus that
+presented three rows of hooks on its rostellum, I need only say that if
+such a _Tænia_ were found it would only turn out to be a malformed _T.
+solium_. The specimens, however, are none the less interesting. Very
+remarkable and altogether exceptional characters are presented by the
+strobile of the cestode described by Mr Cullingworth, of Manchester, and
+of which I possess specimens. Here, apparently, at least two tapeworms
+are joined together throughout the entire chain of proglottides without
+intermission. The three margins of each compound segment project
+at equi-distant angles. Could we have secured the head we should
+certainly have found six or eight suckers present, since the finest
+neck-segments showed that the malformation pervaded the entire colony
+of zooids, sexually mature and otherwise. Mr Cullingworth’s specimen is
+so remarkable that I subscribe full particulars of the case in his own
+words. He says:--“A respectable married woman, named Ann H--, forty
+years of age, residing in Salford, brought to my out-patient room at St
+Mary’s Hospital, Manchester, on September 3rd, 1873, a few segments of
+tapeworm as a sample of what she had been passing per anum for about
+two years. Although never in the habit of taking meat absolutely raw,
+she told me, on inquiry, that she was particularly fond of tasting it
+when only partially cooked. The segments were unlike anything I had
+seen before, and I took them home for examination, ordering the patient
+meanwhile a draught containing a drachm of the oil of male fern, and
+giving her strict injunctions to bring to me every fragment that passed
+away as a result.
+
+“On September 17th she brought me portions of a tapeworm corresponding
+throughout to the segments I had already seen, and measuring altogether
+nine feet in length. Unfortunately, the head was not to be found.
+Along the middle line of every segment in the body a crest or ridge
+runs longitudinally, and in the centre of the margin of this crest the
+genital pore is situated. [In 304 segments examined, only four had the
+genital opening placed laterally. One segment had two openings, viz.
+one at the lateral margin and the other in the crest.] Underneath the
+segment there is a longitudinal groove, and the lateral portions are
+folded together by the apposition of their under surfaces. When hardened
+in spirit the section of a segment presents a three-branched appearance,
+the branches being of unequal length, but placed at equal angles. The
+uterus sends vessels into the crest as well as into the sides of the
+segment; and the contained ova are exactly like the ova of an ordinary
+_Tænia mediocanellata_. Wedged in between, or attached to, the segments
+here and there, is a stunted and ill-shaped joint, with irregular and
+unequal sides. A mature joint measures from five eighths of an inch to
+three quarters of an inch in length, and about half an inch in breadth,
+and the breadth or depth of the crest is usually one eighth of an inch.
+
+“There are only two specimens that I can find on record at all similar
+to the one here described, and both of these differ from it in several
+important particulars. Küchenmeister mentions, as a variety of _Tænia
+mediocanellata_, a tapeworm sent to him from the Cape of Good Hope by
+Dr Rose. This worm possessed a longitudinal ridge, but he describes its
+mature segments as ‘extremely massive’--more than an inch in length and
+3/5″ in breadth. The genital pores, too, were irregularly alternate, and
+not situated on the crest. On March 20th, 1866, Dr Cobbold exhibited to
+the Pathological Society of London a specimen of crested tapeworm which
+was discovered in the museum of Middlesex Hospital, and to which he
+proposed to give the name _Tænia lophosoma_ (λόφος, crest; σῶμα, body).
+The reproductive papillæ were all on one side of the chain of segments,
+a peculiarity which entirely distinguished it from the Cape of Good
+Hope variety of Küchenmeister. The head of the creature was wanting. It
+will thus be seen that my specimen does not correspond with either of
+these in the situation of the genital aperture. Here it is placed in
+the crest itself, and not unilaterally, as in Dr Cobbold’s specimen, or
+alternately, as in Küchenmeister’s. It further differs from the Cape
+variety in the more moderate dimensions of its proglottides. I have
+adopted, however, the name suggested by Dr Cobbold in the communication
+referred to, inasmuch as it sufficiently indicates the principal
+distinguishing feature of the specimen. I may mention that Dr Cobbold
+saw the specimen during his visit to Manchester, and that he regarded it
+as a most remarkable and unique abnormality.”
+
+Further, in connection with abnormal cestodes, I may observe that
+Weinland’s case of a triple-crowned Cysticercus does not stand alone,
+since a similar specimen is, I believe, in the possession of the Rev.
+W. Dallinger. This was removed from the human brain. Curious as this
+subject is, I cannot dwell upon it. Not only are the mature tapeworms
+and their Cysticerci liable to present monstrosities, but even also
+their proscolices or six-hooked embryos. Thus, twelve hooks were
+observed by Salzmann in the embryo of _T. elliptica_, and Heller also
+figures two embryos of _T. mediocanellata_ (_T. saginata_, Gœze) with
+numerous hooklets. Dujardin saw seven in a _Bothriocephalus_ embryo.
+Occasionally there have been errors of interpretation made by observers.
+Thus, Diesing has given beautiful figures of _Dibothrium hians_ in
+such a way as to suggest different degrees of monstrosity affecting
+the tail end of the strobile; but this splitting has clearly resulted
+from injury. Thus also, when I removed five specimens of a new cestode
+(_Diphyllobothrium stemmacephalum_) from the intestines of a porpoise,
+one of them was cleft nearly half way up the strobile. This had been
+done by the scissors employed in slitting up the gut; but owing to
+perfect contraction of the incised edges, it was some time before I
+discovered that the apparent monstrosity had been artificially produced.
+Lastly, I may add that many of the older writers were well acquainted
+with larval and other anomalies. Thus Rudolphi described a two-headed
+Cysticercus from a Lemur, and also a double-headed _Tænia crassicollis_.
+This worm had a tripartite body; as had likewise a _Tænia crassicollis_
+of which he did not possess the head (_corpore prismatico_). Other
+monstrosities were described and figured by Bremser and Creplin. Pallas
+mentions a two-headed Tricuspidaria (_Triænophori nodulosi bicipites_),
+and, as already stated at p. 97, a double-headed Cysticercus has been
+obtained from the liver of a sheep.
+
+Before quitting the _Tæniæ_ proper, I may observe that several other
+species have been indicated, based on ovular and other insufficient
+characters. To these belong Ransom’s supposed tapeworm, and also
+Weinland’s _Tænia megaloön_.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 18).--_Bonnet, C._, ‘Œuv. Compl.,’ tom vi, p.
+191, 1791.--_Bremser_, Atlas, by Leblond, Pl. iv.--_Chaussat_,
+‘Comptes Rendus,’ p. 20, 1850.--_Cobbold_, ‘Catalogue of the
+specimens of Entozoa in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
+of England,’ Nos. 118-121, London, 1866.--_Idem_, ‘Worms,’ l. c.,
+p. 78.--_Idem_, “On a Cysticercus from the Human Brain,” ‘Brit.
+Assoc. Rep.,’ 1870.--_Creplin_, ‘Tænia Monstrum, &c.,’ Berlin,
+1839.--_Cullingworth, C. J._, “Notes on a remarkable specimen of
+Tapeworm (_Tænia lophosoma_, Cobbold),” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Dec.,
+1873.--_Davaine_, ‘Les Cestoïdes,’ l. c., p. 570.--_Diesing_, ‘Zwanzig
+Arten von Cephalocotyleen,’ figs. 1 and 2, taf. ii (aus dem xii, Bd.
+d. denkschr. d. Math.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad.), Wien, 1856.--_Dujardin_,
+l. c., p. 619.--_Heller_, l. c., s. 600.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., Eng.
+edit., p. 139.--_Leuckart_, l. c., s. 303 and 465.--_Levacher_, ‘Journ.
+l’Institut,’ p. 329, 1841.--_Pittard, S. R._, Remarks in his article
+“Symmetry,” Todd’s ‘Cyclop.,’ vol. iv, p. 848, 1849-52, in which he
+refers to a monstrous Bothriocephalus (_T. lata_) in the Hunterian
+Museum, old ‘Catalogue of Nat. Hist.,’ pl. iv, p. 50, No. 205; see
+also my ‘Catalogue,’ l. c., _supra_, No. 167.--_Ransom_, in Reynolds’
+‘System of Medicine.’--_Rudolphi_, ‘Synops.,’ p. 545 and 598-9, with
+fig. showing the heads of _Cystic. Simiæ_ (biceps), widely apart,
+1819.--_Weinland_ (_T. megaloön_), in Zoolog. Garten, Frankf., 1861, s.
+118.--_Idem_, ‘Essay,’ l. c., p. 11.
+
+_Bothriocephalus latus_, Bremser.--This species, though seldom seen in
+England, is sometimes brought hither by persons who have been residing
+for a time in foreign countries. It is indigenous in Ireland, and,
+though by no means common there, has been called the Irish Tapeworm. As
+regards its distribution in Europe it is much more prevalent in some
+districts than in others. On this point Leuckart remarks that “foremost
+amongst these are the cantons of West Switzerland, with the adjacent
+French districts. In Geneva, according to Odier, almost a fourth part of
+all the inhabitants suffer from Bothriocephalus. It is also common in
+the north-western and northern provinces of Russia, in Sweden, and in
+Poland. In Holland and Belgium it is likewise found, but, on the whole,
+not so frequently as in the first-named countries. Our German fatherland
+also harbours them in some districts, especially in eastern Prussia and
+Pomerania, and there have appeared cases in other places, as in Rhenish
+Hesse, Hamburg, and even in Berlin; these being apparently spontaneous
+instances.”
+
+Unlike the ordinary tapeworms, the segments of the broad tapeworm do
+not individually separate so as to become independent organisms, a
+circumstance which is highly favorable to the bearer. Its remarkable
+breadth, and the extremely numerous and closely-packed proglottides,
+impart a sufficiently distinctive character; but this parasite may
+be more fully characterised as the largest human cestode at present
+known, attaining a length of more than twenty-five feet, and sometimes
+measuring nearly an inch in breadth; the so-called head 1/25″ in width,
+bluntly pointed at the tip, much elongated or club-shaped, slightly
+flattened from behind forwards, and furnished with two laterally
+disposed slit-like fossæ or grooves, but destitute of any armature:
+anterior or sexually-immature segments of the body extremely narrow,
+enlarging in a very gradual manner from above downwards; joints of the
+lower half of the body gradually decreasing in width, but enlarging in
+depth; sexually-mature segments usually about 1/8 of an inch in depth,
+but those near the caudal extremity frequently 1/4″, and quadrate in
+form; body flattened, but not so uniformly as obtains in the ordinary
+tapeworms, being rather thicker near the central line; total number
+of joints estimated at nearly 4000, the first sexually-mature ones
+being somewhere about the six hundredth from the head; reproductive
+orifices at the central line, towards the upper part of the segment at
+the ventral aspect, the vaginal aperture being immediately below the
+male outlet, and both openings surrounded by papillæform eminences;
+uterus consisting of a single tube, often seen regularly folded upon
+itself, forming an opaque, conspicuous, centrally-situated rosette; eggs
+oval, measuring 1/350″ in length by 1/550″ in breadth, having three
+shell-coverings, and a lid-like operculum at one end, as occurs in the
+fluke-worms. Owing to the dark color of the egg shells, the uterine
+rosette is readily seen by the naked eye as a conspicuous deep brown
+spot at the centre of each successive segment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Head and neck of _Bothriocephalus latus_. _a_,
+Front view. The smaller figure represents the head as seen from the
+side. After Knoch.]
+
+The source and development of this parasite are points of considerable
+interest. The eggs are of comparatively large size, and after expulsion
+and immersion in water they give passage to beautifully ciliated
+embryos, which latter produce larvæ furnished with a boring apparatus.
+These larvæ resemble the six-hooked embryos of other tapeworms. In what
+animals the larvæ subsequently develop themselves is not ascertained
+with certainty, but it is probable that persons become infested by
+eating imperfectly cooked fresh-water fish. Leuckart has suggested that
+the intermediary bearers are species of the salmon and trout family. Dr
+Knoch, of Petersburg, thought that there was no need of the intermediate
+host. He believed that he had succeeded in rearing young broad tapeworms
+in the intestines of dogs. It was Leuckart who first explained the
+source of Knoch’s errors of interpretation. Although Knoch administered
+eggs of _Bothriocephalus latus_ to dogs, and afterwards found young
+tapeworms of the species in question in the intestines of the dogs,
+it did not logically follow that any genetic relation (as between
+the egg-contents and the adult worms) had been thereby established.
+The circumstance that ripe ova of the Bothriocephalus always contain
+six-hooked embryos, must alone imply that an intermediate host is
+necessary for the formation of Cysticerci or measles. If the broad
+tapeworm could be reared in a direct manner by the administration of
+Bothriocephalus eggs, there would be no need for the presence of boring
+hooklets in the proscolex. These are necessary for invading the flesh of
+some intermediate host.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Proscolex, or six-hooked embryo of
+_Bothriocephalus_, escaping from its ciliated covering. After Leuckart.]
+
+Dr Fock, of Utrecht, has sent me particulars of an interesting case, and
+he suggests that infection comes from the little river bleak (_Leuciscus
+alburnus_). Writing from Utrecht in December, 1877, Dr Fock, after
+referring to a former case, goes on to say:--“Permettez moi, cher
+confrère, que je rappelle à votre souvenir que vous avez eu l’obligeance
+de communiquer au public une observation, de ma main, sur un cas très
+rare de ver rubanaire, d’un Bothriocephale, chez une petite fille juive.
+Malheureusement je n’ai pu en donner de plus amples détails, parce que
+cette enfant n’a plus, depuis ce temps-là, rendu la plus petite parcelle
+de ver. Il y a maintenant quinze mois, et voilà que de nouveau un cas
+pareil se présente. Une femme mariée, frisonne, et, cette fois-ci
+encore, juive, s’est adressée à moi pour la débarasser de son ver. Elle
+me disait avoir rendu, il y a quelque temps, des fragments, ou plutôt un
+fragment de la longueur d’un mêtre, d’un ver solitaire, pour lequel
+elle avait été traitée, sans succès, par son médecin ordinaire. A cause
+de cela elle s’adressa à moi, et je lui ai repondu qu’elle devrait
+revenir la première fois qu’elle rendrait de nouveau, spontanément, un
+nouveau fragment. Après un mois d’intervalle elle est revenue en me
+montrant un fragment de la longueur d’un demi-mêtre qu’elle venait de
+rendre spontanément, après avoir jeûni par précepte réligieuse, et deux
+jours après cela, traitée par l’écorce de grenadier, elle a rendu un
+Bothriocephale parfaitement conditionné en entier.
+
+“Ce cas me semble assez intéressant pour être communiqué de nouveau,
+d’abord parce que jusqu’ici personne n’a pu dire par quel chemin a pu
+s’introduire un tel helminthe, et ensuite parce que ce chemin doit se
+présenter bien rarement dans nos contrées (ou en Angleterre) puisque
+dans le courant d’une trentaine d’années ayant rencontré des centaines
+de tænias, ce cas-ci est seulement le second dont je suis gratifié. Il
+me semble digne de réflexion que ce cas-ci se présente cette fois-ci
+de nouveau chez une juive. Est ce cas-ci fortuit, ou bien y-a-t’il un
+lien de causalité entre ce ver rare et le genre de nourriture ou de
+boisson de ces bonnes gens? La dame me recontait que, en Frise, il
+y a un poisson très recherché qui s’appelle en Hollandais blèck, en
+Anglais blay ou bleak, et dont ils sont très friands, dans lequel, ils
+rencontrent très souvent un très grand ver rubanaire. Une autre personne
+me disait avoir été à table chez un ami, qui ne sachant probablement
+ce qu’il mangeait, savoura avec beaucoup de délice cette friandise
+dégoutante.”
+
+After describing the specimen, Dr Fock concludes his remarks with a
+suggestion as to the possibility of introducing tapeworm into the
+human body by potable water, into which Cysticerci have accidentally
+found their way. Dr Fock remarks:--“J’ajoute une réflexion par rapport
+à la provenance des autres tænias, qui jusqu’ici sont introduits par
+l’usage de la viande non assez cuite ou rôtie, ou saignante; mais, ne
+se pourrait-il pas que des débris de la chair d’un animal ladre fussent
+introduits fortuitement dans l’eau, par example, d’un fossé, et que
+celle-ci employée comme boisson contint des Cysticerques et par ainsi
+aussi une cause de Tænia? Ce n’est qu’une conjecture que je propose en
+terminant cet article.”
+
+Although I cannot at all agree with Dr Fock in regarding water as a
+source of infection in the manner he indicates, yet the still more
+recently expressed opinions of MM. Bertolus and Duchamp, based on
+experimental researches, render it tolerably certain that Leuckart’s
+original surmise was correct, and that we must look to freshwater fishes
+for the larvæ of the broad tapeworm. In the section of this work devoted
+to the parasites of fishes I shall make particular allusion to the
+experiences of Dr Bertolus; but as confirming the view of Leuckart I may
+here observe, that Bertolus has almost proved that the so-called _Ligula
+nodosa_ infesting the common trout is merely a sexually incomplete
+example of _Bothriocephalus latus_. The bleak (_Leuciscus alburnus_)
+shares with other freshwater fishes the privilege of harbouring a
+species of _Ligula (L. digramma)_; but whether this form bears any
+genetic relation to our human _Bothriocephalus latus_ can only be
+determined by actual experiment. If, as Duchamp and others have either
+indicated or implied, _Ligula alburni_ is a synonym of the bleak’s
+cestode in question, then it is evident that the sexually mature form of
+the _Ligula_ of the bleak is the well-known _L. simplicissima_ of many
+water birds and of a few other avian species. Probably the bleak-eaters
+of Holland consume many kinds of freshwater fishes, including various
+species of the salmon and trout family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Strobile of _Bothriocephalus cordatus_. After
+Leuckart.]
+
+The symptoms occasioned by _Bothriocephalus latus_ do not differ
+materially from those produced by other tapeworms. According to Odier,
+as quoted by Davaine, there is not unfrequently a tumid condition of
+the abdomen, with sickness, giddiness, and various hysterical phenomena
+occurring at night. Pain in the region of the heart, palpitations, and
+faintness are also mentioned.
+
+As already hinted, this cestode is very liable to present abnormalities
+of structure, the proglottides frequently displaying double sexual
+orifices, with corresponding duplication of the reproductive organs
+internally. For details respecting the anatomy of _Bothriocephalus_
+I must refer to the works of Küchenmeister and Leuckart; and more
+particularly to the memoir of Drs F. Sömmer and L. Landois, who have
+supplemented the previous researches of von Siebold, Leuckart, Böttcher,
+Stieda and others by beautiful investigations of their own. In the pages
+of ‘Nature,’ for 1872, I gave a _résumé_ of Sömmer’s memoir, which will
+be found quoted below.
+
+_Bothriocephalus cordatus_, Leuckart.--This species is identical with
+a worm long ago described by Pallas and Linneus. At present it is only
+known to infest the residents of North Greenland, but it is probably
+distributed throughout the north generally. It attains the length
+of about one foot, and has a small heart-shaped head, whose apex is
+directed forwards. The neck is so obscure that it may be said to be
+altogether wanting, the segmentation of the body being well marked
+immediately below the head. Though so small a species, Leuckart, who
+first described it, counted between six and seven hundred joints. As
+in the broad tapeworm, the reproductive orifices are serially disposed
+along the centre of the ventral line, but a close inspection shows that
+the folds of the egg-bearing organ are comparatively more numerous. This
+worm does not appear to be a frequent resident in the human body, though
+it is by no means uncommon in the dog. Possibly it may yet be found in
+the inhabitants of some of our northern and western isles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Head of _Bothriocephalus cristatus_, viewed from
+the front. After Davaine.]
+
+_Bothriocephalus cristatus_, Davaine.--This cestode measures between
+nine and ten feet in length, and is characterised by the presence of two
+remarkable prominences, together forming a sort of rostellum or crest
+which is covered by numerous minute papillæ. The full-grown segments
+are less than half an inch in breadth; the body of the parasite being
+narrower than that of the broad species. The original description of
+the parasite by Davaine is based on two specimens, one of which, quite
+perfect, was obtained from a child five years old, under Dr Féréol’s
+care at Paris. The other was passed spontaneously by an adult residing
+at Haute-Saône. I have here copied one of Davaine’s original figures of
+the head of the worm.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 19).--_Bertolus_, “Mém. sur le development du
+_Dibothrium latum_” (in Appendix to Duchamp’s work, see Bibliog. No.
+59).--_Blanchard_, “Recherches, &c.,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ ser. 3,
+Zool., Pl. 11, 12, 1848.--_Böttcher_, “Studien ueber den Bau des _Both.
+latus_,” ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ s. 97 _et seq_, 1864.--_Bremser_, l. c.,
+Bibl. No. 1, s. 88, 1824.--_Chiaje_, ‘Compendio, &c.,’ Tab. iii, figs.
+1-5, 1833.--_Cobbold_, ‘Entoz.,’ p. 289, 1864.--_Idem_, “Remarks on
+the Broad Tapeworm” (with a letter from Dr Fock), the ‘Veterinarian,’
+July, 1878.--_Creplin_, in Ersch and Gruber’s ‘Encyclop.,’ 1839,
+p. 296.--_Davaine_, ‘Traité,’ l. c., 1860; 2nd edit. (_passim_),
+1877.--_Idem_, art. ‘Les Cestoïdes,’ l. c., Bibl. No. 2, p. 580-591,
+1876.--_Dujardin_, l. c., Bibl. No. 1, p. 612, 1845.--_Eschricht,
+D. F._, ‘Anat-physiol. Untersuchungen ueber die Bothriocephalen,’
+Breslau, 1840.--_Fock_ (see Cobbold).--_Heller_, ‘Darmschmarotzer,’
+l. c., s. 606, 1876.--_Knoch_, ‘Petersburger Med. Zeitschrift,’
+1861.--_Idem_, ‘Die Naturgeschichte des breiten Bandwurms (_B. latus_,
+auct.),’ St Petersburg, 1862.--_Küchenmeister_, ‘Ueber cestoden,’ l.
+c., 1853.--_Leuckart_, ‘Die Blasen Bandwürmer,’ 1856.--_Idem_, ‘Die
+mensch. Par.,’ Bd. i, s. 414-448, und 757, 1863; and Bd. ii, s. 866,
+1876.--_Owen_, Todd’s ‘Cyclop.,’ 1837.--_Sömmer_ und _Landois_, aus
+Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschr., ‘Beiträge zur Anatomie der Plattwürmer,’
+Leipsig, 1872; see also the _résumé_ in ‘Nature’ for Aug., 1872, p.
+278.--_Wawruch_, ‘Pract. Monograph. d. Bandwürm-Krankheit,’ 1844, s. 33.
+
+_Echinococcus hominis_ (the common hydatid).--This larval entozoon has
+acquired various names according to the kind of bearer in which it
+happens to have been found; but all the true hydatids or acephalocysts,
+whether infesting man or animals, are referable to one and the same
+species of parasite. They have been termed _Echinococcus hominis_,
+_E. veterinorum_, _E. polymorphus_, _E. exogena_, _E. endogena_, _E.
+multilocularis_, according to circumstances. All of them represent a
+juvenile stage of the _Tænia echinococcus_ or hydatid-forming tapeworm
+which infests the dog and wolf. Experimental proof of this fact has been
+furnished by Von Siebold (1852), Haubner, Leuckart, Küchenmeister, Van
+Beneden, Naunyn, Nettleship, Krabbe, and others.
+
+The first successful rearing of _Tæniæ_ with human hydatids was
+accomplished by Naunyn (1864), his results being subsequently
+verified by Krabbe and Finsen (1865). Zenker, Ercolani, and several
+others, including myself, also conducted feeding experiments with
+human hydatids which were attended with negative results. In the
+case of one of my experimental dogs the animal was liberated by an
+ill-disposed person before I had opportunity to destroy it. As the
+experiment was carefully conducted, the animal may have proved a
+source of fresh echinococcus-infection. Mr E. Nettleship’s eminently
+successful experiment was made with hydatids obtained from a sheep. The
+converse experiment, namely, that of rearing hydatids with the mature
+proglottides of _Tænia echinococcus_ administered to animals, has been
+performed most successfully by Leuckart, and by Krabbe and Finsen; by
+the former in the pig, by the latter in a lamb, with tapeworms that had
+also been reared by experiment. Zenker, later on, reared the _Tænia_
+from hydatids obtained from an ox.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Tænia echinococcus_ Strobile. Mag. 30 diam.
+Original.]
+
+The sexually mature _Tænia echinococcus_ may, for the purposes of
+diagnosis, be characterised as a remarkably small cestode, seldom
+reaching the fourth of an inch in length and developing only four
+segments, including that of the head; cephalic extremity capped by
+a pointed rostellum, armed with a double crown of comparatively
+large-rooted hooks, from thirty to forty in number; the four suckers
+prominent, and succeeded by an elongation of the segment forming the
+so-called neck; final segment, when sexually mature, equalling in length
+the three anterior ones; reproductive papilla at the margin of the
+proglottis rather below the central line; proscolex or embryo giving
+rise to the formation of large proliferous vesicles, within which the
+scolices or echinococcus-heads are developed by gemmation.
+
+When an animal is fed with the mature proglottides of _Tænia
+echinococcus_ the earliest changes that take place are the same as
+obtain in other cestodes. The segments are digested; the shells of the
+ova are dissolved; the six-hooked embryos escape. The embryos bore
+their way into the organs of circulation, and thence they transfer
+themselves to the different organs of the host; being especially
+liable to take up their abode in the lungs and liver. Having arrived
+at this, their resting stage, the embryos are next metamorphosed into
+hydatids. According to Leuckart’s investigations the juvenile hydatid
+is spherical at the earliest stages; being surrounded by a capsule of
+connective tissue formed from the organs of the host. After removal
+from its capsular covering, the vesicle consists of a thick laminated
+membrane, forming the so-called cuticular layer, and a central granular
+mass, which subsequently becomes enveloped by a delicate granular
+membrane. At the fourth week the echinococcus capsule measures about
+1/25″ in diameter, its contained hydatid being little more than half
+this size. Its future growth is by no means rapid, seeing that at the
+eighth week the hydatid has attained only the 1/15″ in diameter. At
+this period the central granular mass develops a number of nucleated
+cells on the inner surface of the so-called cuticle. These cells, which
+at first are rounded or oval, become angular or elongated in various
+directions, and even distinctly stellate; and in this way a new membrane
+is formed, constituting the so-called inner membrane or granular
+layer. The intermediate stages between this condition and that of the
+fully-formed echinococcus hydatid have not been satisfactorily traced in
+detail; nevertheless, Krabbe and Finsen’s experiment on a lamb showed
+that within a period of little more than three months well-developed
+echinococcus-heads may be formed in the interior of the vesicles. It
+is thus clear that the production of scolices immediately follows the
+formation of the granular layer, and this is succeeded, though not
+invariably, by the formation of daughter- and grand-daughter-vesicles,
+which are sometimes termed “nurses.” These latter may be developed
+exogenously or endogenously.
+
+The appearance of hydatids varies very much according to their mode
+of formation, to the kind of host in which they are present, and to
+the character of the organs in which they happen to take up their
+residence. The so-called exogenous type occurs sparingly in man, whilst
+the endogenous type is very abundant. The peculiar form known as the
+multilocular echinococcus is probably a mere variety of the exogenous
+type. The exogenous and endogenous hydatids may coexist in the same
+bearer. In the lower animals we commonly find the organs of the body
+occupied by numerous lobulated cysts, varying in size from a walnut to
+a goose’s egg, but sometimes rather larger. They are rarely solitary,
+being particularly liable to occupy both the liver and lungs in the same
+animal. The viscera are sometimes crowded with cysts. The hydatids do
+not usually protrude much beyond the surface of the infested organ, but
+lie imbedded within its parenchymatous substance.
+
+The multilocular variety was first described by Virchow. In reference to
+it Leuckart writes as follows:
+
+“Hitherto we know this growth only from the liver, in which it forms a
+firm, solid, and tolerably rounded mass of the size of the fist or even
+of a child’s head. At first sight it looks more like a pseudoplasm than
+a living animal parasite. If you cut through the tumour, you recognise
+in its interior numerous small caverns, mostly of irregular shape, and
+separated from one another by bundles of connective tissue, more or less
+thick, and including a tolerably transparent jelly-like substance. In
+the intervening stroma a blood-vessel or a collapsed bile-duct runs here
+and there; but there is nowhere any trace of true liver substance. The
+outer boundaries of the tumour are in most cases pretty well defined,
+so that the attempt to cut these growths out is not difficult. In
+particular spots, especially at the surface, one sometimes sees white,
+moniliform, jointed lines passing off from the tumour, and even thicker
+terminations which, perhaps, expand in the neighbouring liver-parenchyme
+into new (multilocular) groups of different size. In one case, recorded
+by Virchow, the growth extended, together with Glisson’s capsule, a
+long way towards the intestine.” To this description it may be added,
+that the growth on section presents an appearance not altogether unlike
+alveolar colloid, having, in point of fact, been confounded with that
+pathological product, with which, however, as stated by Virchow, it has
+nothing in common. This is proved not only by the occurrence of the
+pathological features above mentioned, but also, more particularly,
+by the well-ascertained presence of echinococcus-heads in most of the
+so-called alveoli. Several hypotheses have been broached with the view
+of explaining the mode in which these multilocular hydatid growths are
+formed. Virchow thought that the echinococcus vesicles were primarily
+formed in the lymphatic vessels, whilst Schröder van der Kolk supposed
+that they originally took up their abode in the biliary ducts. Although,
+thanks to the courtesy of Professor Arnold Heller in giving me a
+specimen, I have been enabled to confirm much that has been written
+in respect of the morbid appearances, I can add nothing towards the
+solution of the difficulty in question. Until lately it was supposed
+that the multilocular variety of hydatids only existed in man, but
+Professor Böllinger has encountered it in the liver of a calf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Ectocyst, endocyst, and brood capsule of
+Echinococcus. From a Zebra. After Huxley.]
+
+Selecting any ordinary fresh example of the exogenous kind, and laying
+the tumour open with a scalpel, we notice in the first instance an
+escape of a clear transparent, amber-coloured fluid. This previously
+caused the distension of the sac. If the tumour is large, this
+escape will probably be followed by a falling in, as it were, of the
+gelatiniform hydatid membrane, in which case the inner wall of the
+external adventitious investment or true fibrous cyst will be laid
+bare. If the hydatid be next withdrawn from the cyst, it will be seen
+to display a peculiar tremulous motion, at the same time coiling upon
+itself wherever there is a free-cut margin. Further examination of
+portions of the hydatid will show that we have two distinct membranes;
+an outer, thick, laminated, homogeneous elastic layer (the _ectocyst_
+of Huxley), and an internal, thin, soft, granulated, comparatively
+inelastic layer--the _endocyst_ of the same author. The terms are
+convenient. The ectocyst is structureless, consisting of a substance
+closely allied to chitine. For this and other reasons it has been called
+the cuticular layer, but the endocyst is the essential vital part of the
+animal, representing a huge compound caudal vesicle. In an hydatid from
+the zebra, Huxley found that the endocyst was “not more than 1/2000th of
+an inch in thickness, being composed of very delicate cells of 1/2000″
+to 1/5000″ in diameter, without obvious nuclei; but often containing
+clear, strongly refracting corpuscles, generally a single one only in a
+cell.” Prof. Huxley adds: “These corpuscles appear to be solid, but by
+the action of dilute acetic acid the interior generally clears up very
+rapidly, and a hollow vesicle is left of the same size as the original
+corpuscle. No gas is developed during this process, and sometimes the
+corpuscles are not acted upon at all by the acid, appearing then to
+be of a fatty nature. A strong solution of caustic ammonia produces a
+concentrically laminated or fissured appearance in them. Under pressure
+and with commencing putrefaction a number of them sometimes flow
+together into an irregular or rounded mass.”
+
+The precise mode of development of the echinococcus-heads or scolices
+has been a subject of lengthened discussion between Leuckart and
+Naunyn. According to Leuckart the earliest indication of the scolex
+consists of a slight papillary eminence on the inner surface of the
+granular endocyst. After a short period this prominence displays in its
+interior a vacuole-like cavity, the latter being occupied, however,
+with a clear limpid fluid. Its margins become more and more clearly
+defined, until the cavity is by and by seen to be lined with a distinct
+cuticular membrane. The papilla increasing in size, becomes at first
+elongated or oval, eventually scoleciform, or even, perhaps, a true
+echinococcus-head. Thus far the description bears out, in a measure,
+the theoretical notions entertained by the older authors; but the
+developmental process does not stop here. The scolex-development has now
+to sacrifice itself by developing in its interior a brood of scolices
+or echinococcus-heads. In other words, it becomes transformed into the
+so-called brood-capsules of Leuckart and other authors. These structures
+were previously well known to Professors Erasmus Wilson and George
+Busk. Mr Wilson spoke of the capsule as “_a delicately thin proper
+membrane_, by which the Echinococci are connected with the internal
+membrane of the acephalocyst” (‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1845, vol. xxviii,
+p. 21). Mr Busk described the echinococcus-heads as “attached to a
+common central mass by short pedicles, which appear to be composed of a
+substance more coarsely granular, by far, than that of which the laminæ
+of the cyst are formed. This granular matter is prolonged beyond the
+mass of Echinococci into a short pedicle common to the whole, and by
+which the granulation is attached to the interior of the hydatid cyst.”
+What Mr Busk here describes as a granulation can only be equivalent to
+the brood-capsule and its entire contents, but he elsewhere speaks of
+the capsule itself as a “delicate membranous envelope.” It should be
+borne in mind that Busk’s paper was communicated to the Microscopical
+Society so early as the 13th Nov., 1844; being published in the
+‘Transactions’ for that year.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Group of Echinococcus-heads, from an hydatid
+found in the liver of a sheep. Magnified about 25 diameters. From a
+drawing by Professor Busk.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Three brood-capsules, containing
+Echinococcus-heads. Magnified 76 diameters. After Professor Erasmus
+Wilson.]
+
+In the completely developed state the echinococcus-heads exhibit
+somewhat variable characters as to size and form, the latter differences
+being, for the most part, dependent upon their degree of contraction
+and vitality. In the perfect condition they vary from the 1/60″ to the
+1/100″ in diameter, being usually about the 1/80″. They are solid, and
+when stretched out exhibit an hour-glass-like constriction at the centre
+of the body, which divides the scolex into an anterior part supporting
+the rostellum and suckers, and a posterior part which has been compared
+to the caudal vesicle of ordinary Cysticerci. The rostellum supports a
+double crown of hooks, but the disparity of the two series is scarcely
+sufficiently marked to render their distinction obvious. The hooks of
+the smaller row vary in size from 1/1040″ to 1/830″ of an inch, whilst
+those of the larger series are from 1/830 to 1/555″. In all instances
+the root-processes are incompletely developed, and consequently vary
+in thickness. They are, as Leuckart also has stated, apt to exhibit
+abnormalities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Separate _scolex_, or echinococcus-head.
+Magnified 500 diameters. After Huxley.]
+
+In regard to the development of the echinococcus-heads it further
+remains for me to observe that a distinct water-vascular system is
+recognisable in the scolices. By the intervention of the pedicle of
+the scolex this system is connected with the brood-capsule, and also
+with the vessels of the maternal endocyst. In the scolex there exists
+a circular channel immediately below the rostellum, and this ring, on
+either side, gives off two vessels which pass downwards in a tortuous
+manner, internally, until they arrive at the pedicle where they unite to
+form two channels, which latter are continued into the vascular system
+of the maternal endocyst. In the retracted condition their position, of
+course, becomes very much altered, and they form loops on either side
+of the central line which marks the space leading down to the inverted
+head. Neither Prof. Huxley nor myself have seen these vessels, which
+Leuckart observed in the scolex itself, but Huxley discerned some
+apparently loose cilia in the granular parenchyma of the body; their
+longitudinal measurement being about the 1/3500 of an inch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--An Echinococcus brood-capsule (flattened by
+pressure). Magnified about 120 diameters. From a drawing by Professor
+Busk.]
+
+As regards the production of “nurses” by the phenomenon of
+proliferation, I can only remark that the endocyst is primarily
+concerned. The secondary and tertiary vesicles must be regarded as so
+many special bud-developments which, instead of becoming brood-capsules,
+become daughter-vesicles and grand-daughter vesicles, constantly
+developing in their interior secondary and tertiary brood-capsules and
+scolices, but sometimes, it would appear, developing neither the one
+nor the other. This is the view of Naunyn, which is somewhat opposed by
+Leuckart, who holds that the vesicles ordinarily arise from within the
+layers of the ectocyst. Speaking of these daughter-hydatids Leuckart
+remarks that “Naunyn denies that they take their origin between the
+lamellæ of the mother bladder--a fact, however, which, in agreement
+with Kuhl and Davaine, I have seen more than once and have followed
+out step by step.” For my own part I incline to the belief that the
+process as observed by Leuckart is exceptional, and that under ordinary
+circumstances it occurs as Naunyn has described it. Thus the long and
+short of the whole matter appears to be that the endocyst is capable of
+forming solitary scolices. Some of the scolices become differentiated to
+form brood-capsules, a portion of whose individual echinococcus-heads
+may, in their turn, become secondary brood-capsules, whilst others
+fail to become either scolices or brood-capsules. It accords with
+our knowledge of the general plan of development to believe that the
+daughter and grand-daughter hydatids are likewise peculiarly modified
+scolices. They are, in short, buds of the endocyst.
+
+The distribution of hydatids throughout the organs of the bearer, and
+their prevalence in particular countries, has especially engaged my
+attention. I have personally examined upwards of a thousand preparations
+of entozoa in our public collections; and of these, 788 are preserved
+in the anatomical and pathological museums of the metropolis. By
+this inspection I have obtained a tolerably accurate knowledge of
+the pathology, localisation and effects produced by the presence of
+bladder-worms in at least 200 unpublished cases of hydatid disease. Most
+of our museums exhibit one or more specimens that are unique. After
+making certain necessary deductions, I find that I have 192 new cases to
+add to the 135 cases of hydatid disease that I had previously recorded,
+affording a total of 327 cases available for statistical purposes. If
+an analysis of these cases be made and compared with the statistics
+furnished by Davaine, and if the whole be reduced to the lowest number
+of practically available terms, we at length obtain a result which,
+although it may be only approximatively correct, is nevertheless of much
+practical value and significance. The statistics in question stand as
+follows:
+
+  +-----------------------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+  |       Organs affected.      | Davaine. |  Cobbold. | Total. |
+  +-----------------------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+  | Liver                       |   165    |    161    |  326   |
+  | Abdomen, including spleen   |    26    |     45    |   71   |
+  | Lungs                       |    40    |     22    |   62   |
+  | Kidney and bladder          |    30    |     23    |   53   |
+  | Brain                       |    20    |     22    |   42   |
+  | Bones                       |    17    |     16    |   33   |
+  | Heart and pulmonary vessels |    12    |     13    |   25   |
+  | Miscellaneous               |    63    |     25    |   88   |
+  +-----------------------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+  |            Total            |   373    |    327    |  700   |
+  +-----------------------------+----------+-----------+--------+
+
+In the main Davaine’s table and my own show a remarkable correspondency,
+as is seen in the numbers referring to hydatids of the liver, heart, and
+bones respectively. Where our results do not correspond the explanation
+of the discrepancy is sufficiently simple. The abdominal cases here
+credited as such in Davaine’s table are placed by him under _pelvis_,
+whilst the abdominal cases in my own table not only include the pelvic
+hydatids, but also two _spleen_ cases, and nineteen others from the
+peritoneum and intestines.
+
+As the facts here stand, the liver cases comprise nearly 46-1/2 per
+cent. In a large number of cases the entozoon has taken up its abode
+in organs of vital importance. If statisticians and officers of health
+would obtain an adequate conception of the fatal capabilities of
+parasites, they should consider these data. In 6 per cent. of all these
+cases the bladder worm has found its way into the brain, and of course
+proved fatal to the bearers; in about 3-1/2 per cent. more they took
+up their residence in the heart, also proving fatal; whilst of all
+the other cases put together I reckon that not less than 15 per cent.
+were concerned in bringing about the death of their hosts. I probably
+underrate the fatal capabilities of echinococcus disease when I express
+the conviction that hydatids prove fatal to 25 per cent. of all their
+human victims.
+
+The recently published analysis of 983 cases by Dr Albert Neisser
+affords similar results. Of these, 451 were referable to the liver, or
+45·765 per cent. The other cases, reduced as above, show in the main a
+similar correspondency.
+
+It may be asked if these facts afford us any assistance in determining
+the amount of injury that we, as a people, sustain either directly or
+indirectly from hydatids. On carefully reviewing all the data before me,
+I may say that it is difficult to draw very precise conclusions; albeit
+it is not mere guess-work when I assert that in the United Kingdom
+several hundred human deaths occur annually from this cause. In some
+other countries the proportion is far greater; the oft-quoted case of
+Iceland, where the disorder is fatally endemic, still standing at the
+head of the afflicted territories.
+
+Our Australian colonies are probably entitled to the next place of
+distinction in this respect. We have strong and recent evidence of the
+truth of this statement. Thus a writer in the ‘Australian Med. and Surg.
+Review’ says: “This disease is becoming unpleasantly frequent, and
+at present we have no reliable mode of treatment, either theoretical
+or empirical.” Another writer observes (‘Melbourne Argus,’ May 18th,
+1874), “Hydatid disease is endemic in this colony; and, though not so
+constantly met with as in Iceland, we may probably claim the doubtful
+honor of holding the second place in the list of countries so affected.”
+In the ‘Argus’ for June 20th of the same year, another writer refers to
+the frequent notices of cases of hydatids published in the various local
+newspapers. A retired medical man, the late Mr J. P. Rowe, writing in
+the ‘Melbourne Leader’ (Sept. 7th, 1872), incidentally remarked on the
+“notable increase of hydatid disease in the human subject.” Again, still
+more satisfactory evidence is afforded by a reviewer in the ‘Leader’
+of the 31st January, 1874. Commenting on my manual, he not only takes
+occasion to speak of the prevalence of hydatids generally, but also
+supplies that kind of accurate statistical evidence of which we so much
+stand in need. He gives the following table, showing the number of
+_deaths_ from hydatids in Victoria for eleven years. It is instructive
+in many ways.
+
+  +------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+
+  |            Years.            | Males. | Females. | Total. |
+  +------------------------------+-------------------+--------+
+  | 1862                         |    3   |     2    |    5   |
+  | 1863                         |    3   |     2    |    5   |
+  | 1864                         |    6   |     3    |    9   |
+  | 1865                         |    9   |     6    |   15   |
+  | 1866                         |   18   |     7    |   25   |
+  | 1867                         |   13   |    12    |   25   |
+  | 1868                         |   21   |    12    |   33   |
+  | 1869                         |   12   |    10    |   22   |
+  | 1870                         |   10   |     7    |   17   |
+  | 1871                         |    6   |     9    |   15   |
+  | 1872                         |   24   |     5    |   29   |
+  +------------------------------+-------------------+--------+
+  | Total deaths in eleven years |  125   |    75    |  200   |
+  +------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+
+
+To employ the writer’s own words, “this mortality gives only a faint
+notion of the extreme prevalence of hydatids in Victoria, since numbers
+of cases are cured by tapping, and otherwise by medical treatment, or
+by spontaneous bursting of the cysts.” Hydatids are often found post
+mortem where their presence has never been suspected during life. “To
+meet with hydatids as a cause of deranged health is now a matter of
+daily expectation with every medical practitioner.” Lastly, Dr Dougan
+Bird, in his able brochure on ‘Hydatids of the Lung,’ fully confirms
+these statements, remarking that the rich and poor of the Australian
+metropolis suffer just as much from hydatids as do either the shepherds
+of the western plains, or the miners of Ballarat and Sandhurst.
+
+Such are the facts from Australia. As regards home evidence, so far
+as I am aware, little or nothing has been done towards securing an
+accurate estimate of the mortality in England from echinococcus disease.
+The reports of the Registrar General give no sufficient sign. The
+explanation is not far to seek, since for the most part hydatids are
+either classed with diseases of the liver, or with those of the other
+organs in which they happen to have been present.
+
+One of the most valuable contributions to our knowledge of the
+prevalence of hydatid disease affecting animals is that supplied by
+Dr Cleghorn, from a statistical table constructed by the executive
+commissariat officers stationed at Mooltan. The record in question shows
+that out of 2109 slaughtered animals, no fewer than 899 were affected
+with hydatid disease. This is equal to more than forty-two per cent. In
+the majority of cases, both the lungs and liver were affected, cysts
+were found 829 times in the liver and 726 times in the lungs. In a few
+instances they were present in the kidneys, and also occasionally in the
+spleen. The inference from all this is that in India, if not elsewhere,
+the echinococcus disease is much less common in man than it is in
+animals. The explanation is simple enough, since cattle have more ready
+access to, and less scruple in partaking of filthy water and food in or
+upon which the eggs of the _Tænia echinococcus_ abound.
+
+Into purely professional questions connected with the treatment of the
+echinococcus malady I do not here enter; nevertheless, in connection
+with hygiene I may observe that the prevalence of hydatids in any
+country is strictly dependent upon the habits of the people. The close
+intimacy subsisting between the peasantry and their canine companions
+is the primary source of the endemic; and where dogs are not kept, it
+is well nigh impossible that the disease should be contracted. The fact
+that every Icelandic peasant possesses, on an average, six dogs, and
+that these dogs share the same dwelling (eating off the same plates and
+enjoying many other privileges of intimate relationship) sufficiently
+explains the frequency of hydatids in that country. According to Krabbe,
+the sexually mature _Tæniæ_ occur in 28 p. c. of Icelandic dogs,
+whereas in Copenhagen he found it twice only in 500 dogs examined. In
+his work (quoted below, p. 58, or Fr. Edit., p. 60) Krabbe comments on
+a sensational passage which, in my introductory treatise (p. 283), I
+had quoted from a popular memoir by Leuckart (‘Unsere Zeit,’ s. 654,
+1862). The practitioners whom we had spoken of as “quacks” are mostly
+homœopaths; and it appears that even those who are not in any legal
+sense professional men “treat their patients much in the same way as
+ordinary medical men.” It simply comes to this, that, instead of _dog’s
+excrement_ forming with the aforesaid “quacks” a conspicuous or common
+remedy (as Leuckart’s description had led me to infer), this nasty drug
+is now rarely administered, and by the grossly ignorant only.
+
+Up to the present time no person has seen the _Tænia echinococcus_
+in any English dog which has not been previously made the subject of
+experiment, but considering the prevalence of hydatid disease amongst
+us, there can be no doubt that English dogs are quite as much if not
+more infested than continental ones. Probably, at least one per cent.
+of our dogs harbour the mature tapeworm. Certainly a great deal of good
+might accrue from the acquisition of more extended evidence respecting
+the prevalence of this and other forms of entozoa infesting man and
+animals in this country.
+
+From Schleissner’s table it appears that hydatids are more frequent in
+women than in men. Apparently, it is not so in Australia. As regards
+Iceland the explanation must be sought for in the different habits of
+life. No doubt, water used as drink by women is constantly obtained from
+supplies in the immediate neighbourhood of dwellings, and in localities
+to which dogs have continual access. The comparative rarity of the
+echinococcus disease amongst sailors is not so much dependent upon the
+circumstance that seamen’s diet usually consists of salted provisions,
+as upon the fact that these men can seldom have opportunities of
+procuring water from localities where dogs abound. In regard to water
+drinking, there is ground for believing that the addition of a very
+little alcohol is sufficient to destroy the six-hooked embryos of _Tænia
+echinococcus_ whilst still _in ovo_; and there is no doubt that water
+raised to a temperature of 212° Fahr. will always ensure the destruction
+of the larvæ. Boiled water by itself is by no means palatable. The
+reason why the upper classes comparatively seldom suffer from hydatids
+may be attributed to the circumstance that those few who drink water
+take the very proper precaution to see that it is either “pump” or fresh
+spring water in which no living six-hooked embryos are likely to exist.
+So far as hydatids are concerned, wine and beer drinking is preferable
+to water-drinking; yet if water is carefully filtered no evil of the
+parasitic kind can possibly result from its imbibition. An ordinary
+charcoal filter will effectually prevent the passage of the ova, since
+their diameter is nearly 1/370 of an inch.
+
+From what has been stated it follows that personal and general
+cleanliness are eminently serviceable as preventions against infection,
+but to ensure perfect success other precautions must be exercised,
+especially in relation to our contact with and management of dogs.
+Leuckart puts this very clearly when he says:--“In order to escape the
+dangers of infection, the dog must be watched, not only within the
+house, but whilst he is outside of it. He must not be allowed to visit
+either slaughter-houses or knackeries, and care must be taken that
+neither the offals nor hydatids found in such places are accessible to
+him. In this matter the sanitary inspector has many important duties
+to perform. The carelessness with which these offals have hitherto
+been disposed of, or even purposely given to the dog, must no longer
+be permitted if the welfare of the digestive organs of mankind is to
+be considered. What blessed results may follow from these precautions
+may be readily gathered from the consideration of the fact that, at the
+present time, almost the sixth part of all the inhabitants annually
+dying in Iceland fall victims to the echinococcus epidemic” (l. c., s.
+654). Similar measures had previously been recommended in less explicit
+terms by Küchenmeister, who in effect remarked that the principal thing
+was to ensure the destruction of the echinococcus vesicles. He also
+recommended the expulsion and annihilation of the _Tænia echinococcus_.
+In order to carry out this idea, it was suggested by Dr Leared that
+every dog should be periodically physicked, and that all the excreta,
+tapeworms included, should be buried at a considerable depth in the
+soil. I advised, however, that in place of burying the excreta, _they
+should, in all cases, be burnt._ I had, indeed, long previously urged
+this measure (in a paper “on the _Sclerostoma_ causing the gape-disease
+of fowls,” published in 1861), with the view of lessening the prevalence
+of entozoa in general, whether of man or animals. The rule I suggested
+stood as follows:--_All entozoa which are not preserved for scientific
+investigation or experiment should be thoroughly destroyed by fire, when
+practicable, and under no circumstances whatever should they be thrown
+aside as harmless refuse._ As an additional security I recommended that
+boiling hot water be occasionally thrown over the floor of all kennels
+where dogs are kept. In this way not only would the escaped tapeworms be
+effectually destroyed, but also their eggs and egg-contents, including
+the six-hooked embryos. These measures were again advocated at the
+Cambridge Meeting of the British Association in 1862, and also more
+fully in a paper communicated to the Zoological Society, during the
+autumn of the same year (‘Proceedings,’ vol. xxx, pt. 3, pp. 288, 315).
+
+As the scope and tendency of this work preclude the textual admission
+of clinical details, I must limit my remaining observations to the
+pathology of hydatid disease. At very great labor, pursued at distant
+intervals during a period of ten years, I sought to ascertain the
+probable extent and fatality of this form of parasitism in England,
+by going over such evidence as our pathological museums might supply.
+Although, from a statistical point of view, the investigation could
+hardly be expected to yield any very striking results; yet clinically
+viewed the study was most instructive. The evidence which I thus
+procured of numerous slow and painful deaths from echinococcus
+disease, further stimulated me to place a summary of the facts on
+record. Physicians, surgeons, scientific pathologists, and veterinary
+practitioners are alike interested in the study of hydatid disease; and
+I had not proceeded far in my careful investigation before it became
+evident to me that very great practical results would ensue if, in this
+kind of effort, the principle of division of labor had full play. At all
+events, within these museums lie concealed a mass of pathological data
+which, although well within reach, have not been utilised to the extent
+they ought to have been.
+
+As a student of parasites for some thirty years, I must without offence
+be permitted to protest against the too frequent omission of parasites
+in statistical evidence as a cause of mortality. From facts within my
+own knowledge I can confidently assert that parasites in general, and
+hydatids in particular, play a far more important part in the production
+of disease and death than is commonly supposed. In saying thus much,
+however, I am not insensible to the fact that, in recent times, new
+methods of treatment combined with higher surgical skill, have greatly
+tended to lessen the fatality of this affection. In this connection I
+would especially refer to the recorded experiences of an able colonial
+surgeon, Dr MacGillivray, as made known in the pages of the ‘Australian
+Medical Journal.’ The able surgeon to the Bendigo Hospital, treated as
+in-patients, from 1862 to 1872, inclusive, no fewer than seventy-four
+cases of hydatid disease. He operated on fifty-eight of them. Two
+patients were tapped for temporary relief (as they were dying of other
+diseases); and of the remaining fifty-six only eleven died. No fewer
+than forty-five were discharged _cured_--a fact redounding largely, I
+should think, to the credit of Australian surgery.
+
+In reference to museum evidence I have no hesitation in saying that the
+pathological collections in the metropolis abound in rare and remarkable
+illustrations of hydatid disease; most of the preparations being
+practically known only to such few members of the medical profession
+as have been at some time or other officially connected with the
+museums. Not without justice, curators often complain that their work
+and catalogues are turned to little account. As a former conservator of
+the Edinburgh University Anatomical Museum (1851-56), and subsequently
+as museum-curator at the Middlesex Hospital Medical College, I am
+in a position to sympathise with them. Valuable, however, as the
+catalogues are, it is often necessary to make a close inspection of the
+preparations in order to arrive at a correct interpretation of the facts
+presented.
+
+Although the entozoal preparations in the museum attached to St
+Bartholomew’s Hospital are, comparatively speaking, few in number, there
+are some choice specimens of hydatid disease. There is a remarkable
+case in which hydatids invaded the right half of the bones of the
+pelvis; death resulting from suppurative inflammation of the cysts. This
+patient, a woman, had also another hydatid cyst which was connected
+with the ovary. Amongst the series contributed by Dr Farre, there is
+a case represented where a large cyst containing numerous hydatids
+“occupied the pelvis of an infant and produced retention of urine,”
+which ultimately proved fatal. There are also several fine examples of
+hydatids from the omentum (Dr Farre’s case), besides a good specimen
+of acephalocysts connected with the vesiculæ seminales. There are two
+other cases in which these larval entozoa were passed with the urine.
+At the time when I made my inspection, the entire series represented
+twenty-five separate cases, of which only one appears to have been
+published in detail (Mr Evans’s case, ‘Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,’
+1832). In addition to the above, I must not omit to particularise two
+instructive preparations illustrative of a case in which an hydatid was
+lodged in the right half of the cerebrum. This was from a girl in whom
+head symptoms showed themselves a year before death, and in whom there
+was partial hemiplegia of the left side. I may add that there is also in
+the series a doubtfully genuine example of hydatids of the breast.
+
+The collection in connection with the Westminster Hospital contains
+several highly interesting specimens of entozoa (one of which I believe
+to be altogether unique), but it is by no means rich in the matter
+of hydatids. Out of a score of preparations of parasites of various
+kinds, only four (apparently representing the same number of cases) are
+hydatids, all of which appear to have been connected with the liver.
+Two are certainly so, one of the latter (Mr Holthouse’s case) showing
+calcareous degeneration.
+
+The museum connected with St Mary’s Hospital Medical School, in addition
+to several liver cases, contains one interesting example of hydatids
+of the lung (Dr Chambers’s case), and also three valuable preparations
+illustrating Mr Coulson’s remarkable case of hydatids affecting the
+tibia. One of the preparations shows the bone itself, which was
+eventually removed at the joint, the operation having been performed by
+Mr Spencer Wells.
+
+Here, perhaps, it will not be out of place to mention as a fact of
+special clinical interest that I have encountered records of no fewer
+than nine other similar cases where hydatids have taken up their abode
+in the tibia, generally selecting the head or upper part of the bone.
+Some of my notes have been mislaid, but, speaking from recollection, one
+of the choicest specimens which I have examined is that contained in
+the pathological museum of the Nottingham Hospital.
+
+When I first went over the collection of the Middlesex Hospital Museum,
+I found it to contain fifty-four preparations of entozoa, of which some
+fourteen only were true hydatids, representing as many separate cases.
+There are now upwards of a score of preparations of hydatids, several of
+the cases having already had ample justice done to them by Dr Murchison
+in his well-known memoir (‘Edinb. Med. Journ.,’ Dec., 1865). Amongst
+the most interesting preparations I would especially call attention
+to two fine and genuine specimens from the kidney, another very large
+example of an hydatid situated between the bladder and rectum, a simple
+acephalocyst removed from the orbit (Mr Hulke’s case), and the hydatid
+removed from the axilla by the late Mr Charles Moore. There is a jar
+containing hundreds of hydatids that were taken from the thoracic cavity
+of a dissecting-room subject, who was reported to have died of phthisis;
+and there is another preparation of an hydatid of the heart, which
+also proved fatal, without there having been the slightest suspicion
+entertained as to the true nature of the disease. For this fine
+preparation the museum stands indebted to Dr Moxon, of Guy’s Hospital.
+Several of the liver cases are particularly instructive; but amongst
+the specimens presented by Mr Mitchell Henry is a small bottle full of
+minute hydatid vesicles, all of which were removed from the interior of
+the tibia. The history of this case has been lost; and, unfortunately,
+the bone from which the parasites were taken does not appear to have
+been preserved.
+
+The museum connected with King’s College contains at least a dozen good
+specimens of liver hydatids, several of the cases being of special
+interest from a pathological point of view. There are two remarkably
+fine examples of hydatids contributed by Dr Hooper, the parasites in
+one case affecting the spleen, and in the other involving the ovary and
+uterus. The spleen contained numerous encysted hydatids, whilst the
+uterine organs exhibited “an immense collection” of the same growths. In
+this place, also, I may refer to an hydatid-like entozoon, taken from a
+cyst in the ovary of a female who had been under the care of Dr Johnson
+(1860). It is, apparently, a genuine example of the slender-necked
+hydatid (_Cysticercus tenuicollis_); and if so (as might be determined
+by dissection), is, so far as I aware, the only specimen of the
+kind in existence from the human bearer. There is a renal hydatid
+(presented by Dr Pass, of Warwick) which was obtained from a lunatic,
+its presence being “quite unsuspected during life.” Amongst the liver
+cases (the majority of which are from Dr Hooper’s collection), there
+is one enormous hydatid that was obtained from a young woman who had
+died during a fit of laughter. The tumour had pushed the diaphragm up
+to a level with the fourth rib; and it is stated that, on puncturing
+the cyst, the fluid contents were ejected “in a jet nearly two feet
+high.” There is one case represented where numerous hydatids were
+expectorated after hepatitis, whence it was concluded that they were
+originally connected with the liver. There is a large solitary hydatid
+that was removed from a young female who died of phthisis, and in whom
+the consequent swelling had formed in the neighbourhood of the navel.
+Especially instructive, also, from a clinical point of view, is a case
+of peritoneal hydatids where the tumours had been diagnosed to represent
+a case of extra-uterine fœtation. It appears that there were two cysts,
+one of them being connected with the uterus. Two of the enormous
+hydatids taken from these cysts are preserved in the collection of the
+Anatomy School of Oxford. Several of the preparations show to perfection
+the stages of natural cure produced by calcareous degeneration; and
+there is one liver showing three of these so-called ossified cysts. The
+disease in this case proved fatal.
+
+Most of the entozoa displayed in the Charing Cross Hospital Museum have
+been contributed by Dr Wiltshire, the series being particularly strong
+in tapeworms. There are four characteristic examples of hydatids of the
+liver, representing as many separate cases. Two were from abscesses
+of this organ. In one of these, Mr Canton’s case, the hydatid was, I
+believe, expelled after operation; but in the other example (presented
+by Mr Rose, of Swaffham) the parasite was evacuated from an abscess,
+which burst of itself, externally.
+
+In the museum at University College, I examined sixteen preparations
+of hydatid disease, representing almost as many distinct cases. One
+is a wax model. Eight of the specimens were from the liver, five
+from the abdomen (including those of the omentum and mesentery), two
+from the lungs, and one from the heart. The model displayed ordinary
+hydatids of the liver bursting into the lungs. The mesenteric example
+is particularly fine, whilst that from the omentum is undergoing
+calcareous degeneration. Probably the most interesting of all is the
+example showing an hydatid lodged in the septum of the heart. This
+was from a middle-aged female, who died suddenly whilst pursuing her
+ordinary domestic avocations.
+
+The museum of the Royal College of Surgeons contains a fine collection
+of parasites, its chief strength in this respect being due to the
+special series of entozoa. Were visitors to judge by the contents of
+the catalogue of this series (which I prepared some years ago at the
+instance of the Council of the College), they might be led to suppose
+that the hydatids were only feebly represented. Out of nine preparations
+of hydatids in this section, only six have come from the human body.
+However, scattered throughout the collection, I found that there were no
+fewer than thirty-five preparations of hydatids belonging, apparently,
+to as many as thirty separate cases. Omitting, for the present, all
+mention of these derived from animals, I ascertained that, of the
+thirty human cases, thirteen were referable to the liver, four to the
+abdomen, three to the lungs (one of which was originally connected
+with the liver), and two to the brain. Five were of uncertain seat.
+With the abdominal cases we may also include one case of hydatids of
+the spleen, and another where these organisms were found in the region
+of the bladder. There is a characteristic breast case. One of the
+original Hunterian cases (in which “a prodigious number of hydatids
+were found in the sac of the liver and dispersed throughout the cavity
+of the abdomen”) appears, though it is not expressly so stated in the
+catalogue, to have been regarded as an ordinary example of abdominal
+dropsy. In one of the three lung cases two small hydatids were
+separately expectorated at an interval of about a month. This occurred
+in a female.
+
+I may here incidentally remark that many cases are on record where
+abdominal hydatids have been overlooked, the patient being supposed to
+be suffering from ascites. One such instance took place a few years ago
+at the Middlesex Hospital. I well remember a similar case of supposed
+hydrothorax, where the post-mortem examination revealed the presence
+of immense numbers of these formations occupying the right side of the
+chest. This case occurred at the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital, at the
+time when I was a student there, some thirty-five years ago.
+
+The pathological collection connected with St George’s Hospital
+displays several good hydatid preparations, the entire series
+representing at least twenty-two separate cases. Of these, fifteen are
+referable to the liver, that is, if we include Dr Dickinson’s case,
+already published, where hydatids were found within the hepatic duct.
+There are two renal cases; also one from the brain (Dr Dickinson’s
+case), and another where an hydatid was expectorated. Besides these,
+there are three other highly characteristic examples of echinococcus
+disease affecting the region of the neck, breast, and axilla
+respectively.
+
+The museum of the London Hospital Medical School contains a large
+collection of parasites. Out of fifty-seven preparations of entozoa, I
+found twenty-two referable to hydatids; and, so far as I could gather,
+all of them belonged to different cases. Only one case seems to have
+been published in detail. This, though a very old preparation, is a
+fine example of an hydatid, nearly three inches in length, occupying
+one of the cerebral hemispheres (‘Edinb. Med. Journ.,’ vol. xv). There
+is a second brain case, where the vesicles were of small size, but very
+numerous. Of the other twenty cases, fourteen belong to the liver, two
+to the spleen, one to the lung, one to the uterus; one being a very
+large hydatid of doubtful seat, and another being referable to the
+lumbar region, where it formed a tumour containing “a large number of
+small hydatids.” Amongst the more remarkable specimens is that described
+in the MS. catalogue as “a true hydatid cyst developed in connection
+with the broad ligament.” This preparation, unique of its kind, shows no
+trace of the ovary, which, indeed, seems to have disappeared altogether.
+One of the liver cases should rather be classed as abdominal, since the
+large cyst is situated between the diaphragm and liver, pressing upon
+the latter organ below and also upon the lung above, but apparently not
+involving either of these viscera structurally. Another very striking
+case is that in which there is an external opening communicating with
+the cyst in the liver, and an internal opening through the diaphragm
+communicating with the lungs and bronchial tubes. The patient had
+actually coughed up liver hydatids by the mouth, and had passed others
+through the right wall of his abdomen. There is another liver case in
+which the hydatids, in place of escaping externally, had gained access
+to the inferior cava; and if I understand the MS. record rightly, in the
+same patient a second hydatid communicated with the portal vein, and
+a third with the hepatic vein. Lastly, I must add that there is yet
+another fine preparation of liver hydatids, occurring in a lad, nineteen
+years of age. He had, it seems, met with “a slight accident, and died
+with obscure head symptoms;” but the odd part of the case is that at the
+post-mortem examination there was positively nothing found that could
+explain the patient’s death. He was under the care of Mr Luke (1834).
+
+Comparatively recently I inspected the collection at St Thomas’s
+Hospital, which I found to be particularly rich in entozoa of various
+kinds, especially tapeworms and hydatids. I encountered seventy-six
+preparations of internal parasites; and of these, forty-two were of the
+hydatid kind, representing at least thirty-three different cases. I
+say “at least,” because it is often impossible to decide in instances
+where no history of the specimens can be obtained. Thus, there are three
+similar preparations of hydatids passed by the urethra, and, from their
+appearance, I judge them to have come from one and the same patient; yet
+there is no statement in the catalogue to that effect.
+
+Of the thirty-three cases of hydatids represented in this museum, I
+reckoned eighteen as referable to the liver, two to the brain, two to
+the bones, two to the urinary organs, and one to the lung, spleen,
+uterus, and soft parts of the thigh respectively. There are also three
+that may be classed as peritoneal. There is another choice example in
+which the disease cannot be referred to any particular organ. I allude
+to Dr Peacock’s case, already published (‘Pathological Transactions,’
+vol. xv), where the lungs, liver, heart, spleen, and some other organs,
+were all occupied by hydatid formations. As an instance of extensive
+visceral infection by Echinococci in the human subject, I believe this
+case to be unique. The brain hydatids are particularly fine. In the
+specimen presented by Mr Boot, of Lincoln, the hydatid, two inches
+in diameter, is lodged in the anterior horn of the left ventricle.
+One of the peritoneal cases is remarkable for the amount of forward
+displacement of the pelvic viscera, caused by four or more hydatids,
+each of them nearly as large as a cricket-ball. Amongst the abdominal
+cases I have included a recent preparation, to which Mr Stewart has
+called my attention. The hydatid in question, of the size of a large
+lemon, existed near the fundus of the bladder, its walls being one
+third of an inch in thickness, and forming an unusually firm tumour.
+Of all the fine specimens of hydatids in the collection, however,
+none have struck me so much as those affecting the bones. There is a
+humerus, taken from a man thirty-four years of age, in which the shaft
+is occupied throughout by small hydatids that have destroyed almost all
+the cancellous structure; in some places, also, the absorption of the
+cortical layer has gone on to such an extent as to have left little more
+than the periosteum. Of course, the bone was at last fractured easily.
+It is a beautiful specimen; and the existence of Echinococcus-heads
+was proved by microscopic evidence. Scarcely less interesting are two
+preparations illustrative of Mr Traver’s case of a man, thirty-eight
+years of age, in whom numerous small hydatids occupied both the head of
+the tibia and the lower end of the femur. Each set of parasites freely
+communicated with the knee-joint, necessitating amputation of the limb.
+
+The very large museum connected with Guy’s Hospital is rich in hydatids.
+When, some time ago, I spent several days in going over the collection,
+I examined seventy-six preparations, representing apparently seventy
+separate cases of this affection. Amongst the noteworthy specimens one
+lung hydatid was intimately associated with a thoracic aneurism, two
+others being connected with the pleura; and of seven abdominal cases,
+five were connected with the peritoneum, one with the mesocolon, and
+one with the aorta. This last-mentioned instance occurred in a woman
+of sixty years, who, until her death, was treated for dropsy. She
+complained of incessant pain, which was only relieved when she rested on
+her hands and knees. Of the three cases affecting the heart one has been
+published (Mr Henderson’s), where the patient, a girl of nineteen years,
+died suddenly whilst in the apparent enjoyment of perfect health. In
+one of the other two cases (Mr May’s, of Tottenham), the left lung was
+also involved. One case of hydatid disease affecting the spinal column
+appears to have been originally an ordinary liver case. In Mr Cock’s
+example of genuine mammary hydatids, the hooklets and echinococcus heads
+were detected; but I am not sure that a similar result of microscopic
+examination was obtained in the equally interesting example of hydatids
+of the thyroid gland (also removed by Mr Cock). There are five bladder
+cases, all apparently genuine (of which one has been published); and
+there are also five other cases referred in the catalogue to the
+kidneys, of which I regard two as doubtfully parasitic in character. Of
+three cases of hydatid growths occupying the soft parts of the thigh,
+two were under Mr Bryant’s care. The museum likewise contains an old
+preparation of hydatids of the tibia, but its history has been lost.
+There are also two brain cases, besides upwards of a score of more or
+less characteristic and instructive cases of hydatids affecting the
+liver.
+
+Scattered amongst the museums connected with the larger provincial
+schools and recognised hospitals there must be a great many valuable
+preparations of hydatid disease; at all events, I judge so from the
+inspection I have incidentally made of a few of the collections.
+
+Of eleven preparations of human hydatids which I observed in the
+Cambridge Anatomical Museum, apparently representing the same number
+of cases, seven were connected with the liver and one with the lungs.
+Those hydatids displayed in the “special series” of entozoa were of
+uncertain seat. From the recently published and valuable ‘Notes’ by Dr
+Bradbury, I have no doubt that considerable additions have been made to
+the Cambridge Collection since my last visit.
+
+The museum at Oxford contains some choice specimens of hydatids, but I
+have only personally inspected a few of them. In the absence of original
+notes, however, I am indebted to the kindness of Mr W. Hatchett Jackson
+for supplying me with several interesting particulars. The anatomical
+department of the Oxford Collection shows from one particular case two
+hydatids that were found “under the dura mater.” In the pathological
+department we find one hydatid from the liver of a male subject, and
+also a preparation showing a number of small hydatids that were “coughed
+up from the lungs of a female.” There are also in this department (Dr.
+Acland’s) two examples of hydatids from the diaphragm, apparently
+belonging to two separate cases. One is described as a large “hydatid
+in the diaphragm covered by the pleura,” whilst the other is spoken of
+as “springing from the diaphragm and projecting into the sac of the
+pericardium.” There is likewise a preparation showing a number of small
+specimens of hydatids that were passed _per anum_ by a female. It is
+conjectured that they came from the liver.
+
+The small pathological museum attached to the Brighton and Sussex
+Hospital is particularly rich in hydatids. Amongst others, it contains
+preparations illustrative of the remarkable case of hydatids in the
+region of the prostate, communicated by Mr Lowdell, in the ‘Lancet,’ in
+1846.
+
+The comparatively large museum adjoining the Norfolk and Norwich
+Hospital displays a choice series of hydatids, chiefly from the
+collection of the late Mr Crosse. That eminent surgeon prepared a
+special set of specimens to illustrate the process of natural cure
+by calcareous degeneration; and I may here, perhaps, be pardoned for
+mentioning that it was the study of these and other entozoa in Mr
+Crosse’s Collection, some thirty or more years ago, that first drew
+my attention to the phenomena of parasitic life. Illustrations of the
+helminths in question are still in my possession. In one case (which is
+instructive as indicating the possibility of death from the simplest
+form and commonest habitat of an hydatid) a lad, twelve years old,
+received a slight blow from a playmate. Something gave way, and death
+speedily followed. It was found by post-mortem examination that a
+solitary liver hydatid, rather larger than a cricket-ball, had been
+ruptured. Although the case is almost unique, it is nevertheless by no
+means pleasant to reflect upon the fact that under similar circumstances
+a slight blow might prove fatal to any one, no matter in what internal
+organ the bladder worm happened to be situated.
+
+Before concluding my summary notice of the human hydatids contained in
+the metropolitan and certain other museums, there is an interesting
+literary contribution that I cannot pass unnoticed. In the November
+number of the ‘Indian Medical Gazette’ for 1870 an article occurs in
+which it is stated that the Calcutta Medical College Museum contains
+eighteen specimens of hydatid cysts of liver. This fact was, it seems,
+originally adduced to show, not the frequency, but rather the rarity,
+of the occurrence of hydatids in India. However, from a valuable
+communication by Dr James Cleghorn, which was published in the same
+periodical for the following March, it appears that hydatids of the
+liver are much more common in India than is generally supposed. This,
+he says, is owing to the circumstance that many of the so-called cases
+of tropical abscess are neither more nor less than examples of hydatid
+cysts that have suppurated. Besides Cleghorn’s evidence, we have the
+previous testimony of the Inspector General I. M. D., whose Report for
+1868-69 I have already referred to in connection with _Cysticercus_
+in beef. He says: “During some three months’ regular observation of
+the animals killed at the Commissariat slaughter-house here, at least
+70 per cent. of the beef livers may be calculated as thus affected.
+Cobbold, writing of the _Tænia echinococcus_, says that ‘this little
+tapeworm infests only the dog and the wolf.’ Therefore, considering the
+immense number of pariah dogs fed on the refuse of animals infected with
+hydatids, it seems more than probable that the parasite must attain its
+strobila condition in their intestines, and through them be eventually
+disseminated over the pastures on which the cattle graze.”
+
+I now turn to a neglected phase of the subject from which much practical
+instruction may be gathered. The consideration of the pathological
+phenomena of hydatid disease as it affects the lower animals is of high
+interest, and no prejudice should induce any medical man from accepting
+such useful data as may be gathered from this source. The facts of
+hydatid parasitism in animals, though often peculiar, are, for the most
+part, of an order similar to those presented in the human subject. If
+any medical practitioner thinks it beneath his dignity to study the
+pathology of the lower animals, the conduct of John Hunter in this
+respect is a standing protest against such narrowness.
+
+The museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England contains some of
+the finest specimens of hydatids from the lower animals that are to be
+seen anywhere, the very choicest of them having been selected by Hunter
+himself. That distinguished man sought information from every available
+source, and hydatids were for him of almost equal interest, whether
+found in the body of a human being or in the carcase of an ox or an ass.
+Now, at all events, neither pathologists nor sanitarians can well afford
+to neglect comparative pathology; and, for myself, I am free to say that
+the yearly exposition to the students of the Royal Veterinary College
+of the phenomena of parasitic life amongst animals has brought with it
+an ever-increasing knowledge of the most curious and often unlooked-for
+information. Some of the data thus supplied are quite remarkable. Let
+me also add that my studies of the entozoa of wild animals have put
+me in possession of particulars of high value in regard to the larger
+question of the origin of epidemics. Beasts, birds, reptiles and fishes,
+of every description, are liable to succumb to internal parasites, and
+there is practically no end to the variety of useful information to be
+obtained from this source. I have collected materials almost sufficient
+for a separate treatise on this department of the subject, but I fear I
+shall never have either the time or opportunity to give the facts due
+publicity. Here, for obvious reasons, I must for the most part restrict
+myself to the hydatids properly so called.
+
+Referring, in the first instance, to the hydatids of animals that have
+the same mode of origin and exhibit the same general characteristics
+as those found in man, I notice that four of the metropolitan museums
+exhibit nine examples of liver Echinococci. The Hunterian Collection
+shows specimens of this kind from the pig, monkey, zebra, and lion.
+The museum at St Bartholomew’s Hospital contains two examples from the
+pig and one from a cow; whilst the animal liver-hydatids preserved
+in the King’s College and Guy’s Museums, respectively, are from the
+pig and sheep. That from the latter is partly calcified. Respecting
+animal hydatids affecting the lungs, the Cambridge Museum exhibits a
+simple acephalocyst from a monkey, and the Guy’s Hospital Museum shows
+a pulmonary hydatid from the kangaroo. In the museum at Oxford, Dr
+Acland’s (pathological) department shows a preparation of “one large
+echinococcus cyst from the abdomen of a baboon,” whilst Dr Rolleston’s
+department (anatomical) displays the echinococcus itself from the
+“cavity of the abdomen of the same animal.” The collection also contains
+a variety of other bladder worms from different animals. The Hunterian
+Museum, Lincoln’s Inn, exhibits four or five alleged examples of
+hydatids from the kidney of the sheep, besides another from the spleen.
+Some of these are of very doubtful character. A cystic kidney from the
+sheep, preserved in the London Hospital Museum, and originally supposed
+to have been due to hydatids, is (as hinted in the MS. catalogue)
+certainly not of parasitic origin. In regard to the occurrence of
+hydatids in the heart of animals the Hunterian series shows two good
+examples from cattle, whilst the collection at University College
+exhibits one taken from the wall of the left ventricle of a sow. This
+was presented by Dr Elliotson.
+
+In the museum of the Royal Veterinary College there are a number of
+excellent preparations of true hydatids taken from various animals,
+especially from cattle, swine, and sheep; and there are also many kinds
+of bladder worms which, though often called “hydatid” by veterinarians,
+have a totally different origin from that of the true Echinococci.
+The so-called gid-hydatids (Cœnuri) and slender-necked hydatids
+(_Cysticercus tenuicollis_) are of this description. Specimens of the
+polycephalous brain hydatid, or Cœnurus, also exist in the museums
+connected with St Bartholomew’s, Guy’s, and St Thomas’s Hospital
+Medical Colleges, as well as in both the anatomical and pathological
+departments of the Oxford Museum. Specimens of large Cœnuri occurring
+in the soft parts of rabbits may be seen in the Guy’s Museum (presented
+by Mr Carpenter). Similar characteristic specimens exist in the Oxford
+Collection, labelled _C. cuniculi_, obtained from the “masseter and
+infraspinatus” muscles of a rabbit. My private collection also contains
+a recent addition of this remarkable hydatid, sent to me by Mr Alston
+from Ayrshire. It is the only one I have seen from Scotland. In the
+second half of this work these Cœnuri will again come under notice.
+Three examples of the slender-necked hydatid (from a monkey and two
+sheep respectively) may be seen in the Guy’s and University College
+Collections, and there are several in the museum of the Royal Veterinary
+College.
+
+I cannot go out of my way to speak of other bladder worms, except so
+far as to call attention to the heart of a bear preserved in the museum
+at Guy’s, the walls of which are crowded with Cysticerci. That unique
+preparation ought to be carefully examined and described. The Hunterian
+Museum contains two magnificent specimens of hydatids affecting the
+bones of cattle. In the one case a solitary vesicle occupies the shaft
+of the humerus; whilst in the other several “acephalocysts” have taken
+up their residence within the cancellous structure of the ilium.
+
+In the matter of human mortality from hydatids I have already supplied
+statistical evidence of the unenviable distinction which our Australian
+colonies exhibit, and in addition to the facts brought forward I may add
+that Dr Lewellin has mentioned to me a fatal case in which an hydatid
+occupied the whole length of the vertebral canal. The patient was under
+Dr Annand’s care. There could be no doubt as to the genuineness of the
+case, as the spinal cyst was tapped during life, when echinococcus
+hooklets were found.
+
+Through Dr Lewellin I am also indebted to Dr H. B. Allen, pathologist at
+the Melbourne Hospital, for the particulars of a case of hydatids of the
+cerebrum, which are given as follows:
+
+“J. Q--, aged 15, was admitted into the Melbourne Hospital on the 13th
+November, 1877, suffering from partial left hemiplegia. He rapidly
+became insensible and died next day. His mother furnished the following
+history.
+
+“He had been woodcarting in the bush for a considerable time, and while
+thus engaged eight weeks before admission began to lose power in his
+left arm and leg; gradually the paralysis increased, and he was taken
+home, where he remained for six weeks. During this time he had every
+week an attack of severe headache, and once he lost all sight for over
+half an hour. Gradually the symptoms increased, and he was taken to the
+hospital, but even then was able to walk with assistance part of the way.
+
+“At the autopsy, when the calvarium was removed, a large cyst about
+four inches in diameter was found on the mid-convexity of the right
+hemisphere of the cerebrum, slightly towards its anterior part. It
+formed a marked prominence on the anterior surface of the brain, and
+was bounded superficially by the pia mater and arachnoid, which were
+neither noticeably thickened nor adherent to the dura mater. On opening
+the cyst it was seen to extend inwards and abut on the wall of the
+lateral ventricle, and consisted of the ordinary gelatinous membrane,
+studded internally with little granular eminences, some pellucid, some
+opaque white. The contents were thin limpid fluid. The brain tissues
+around presented scarcely any induration. All other organs structurally
+healthy, congestion being the only morbid condition present.
+
+“The specimen is preserved in the hospital museum, which contains two
+other preparations of hydatids in the brain, and also an hydatid cyst of
+large size growing from the interior of the frontal bone.”
+
+In concluding this account of hydatids I may remark that, by the
+employment of sanitary measures, the disorder might, in course of time,
+be thoroughly stamped out. What these measures are I have already stated.
+
+I need hardly say that the following bibliography by no means exhausts
+the records of echinococcus disease. In Dr Albert Neisser’s recent
+monograph nearly a thousand separate cases are quoted and classified.
+The monograph of Dr Hearn, which is not mentioned in Neisser’s work,
+also contains a valuable bibliography.
+
+English literature. _Hydatids in general_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _a_).
+--_Ballard, E._ (review of Henoch), ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1854.--_Bird,
+S. D._, ‘On Hydatids of the Lung; their diagnosis, prognosis, and
+treatment,’ 2nd edit., Melbourne, 1877.--_Busk_, “On the Nat. Hist.
+of the Echinococcus,” ‘Micr. Soc. Trans.,’ orig. series, vol. ii,
+1849.--_Budd, G._, ‘Diseases of the Liver,’ Lond., 1845.--_Carmichael,
+R._ (lecture), ‘Dub. Med. Press,’ 1840, p. 91.--_Cobbold, T. S._,
+‘Entozoa,’ chap. vii and viii, 1864.--_Idem_, “On Hydatid Disease”
+(lecture), ‘Lancet,’ June, 1875, p. 850.--_Idem_, “On Hydatid Diseases
+of Man and Animals” (museum specimens), in a series of articles
+contributed to ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Oct., 1875, to Jan., 1876; fully
+reprinted in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1876.--_Copland, J._ (Art.
+“Hydatids”) in his ‘Dictionary,’ 1848.--_Davies, T._, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1835.--_Gairdner, J._, and _Lee_, ‘Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1844.--_Goodsir, H. S. D._ (same ref., Lee’s case), 1844.--_Goodsir, J._
+(same ref.), 1844.--_Gross, S. D._, ‘Elements of Path. Anat.,’ chap.
+xv, Boston, U.S., 1839.--_Hawkins, C._, ‘Lancet,’ 1833.--_Hjaltelin_,
+‘Edinb. Med. Journ.,’ 1867; see also Dobell’s ‘Report on the Progress
+of Practical and Scientific Medicine,’ London, 1870.--_Hodgkin, T._,
+in his ‘Lectures on the Serous and Mucous Membrane,’ 1838.--_Kerr,
+W._ (art. “Hydatids”) ‘Cyclop. of Pract. Med.,’ 1833.--_Leared, A._
+(prevention), ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1863.--_MacGillivray, P. H._ (see
+below, miscell. cases).--_Murchison C._, in his ‘Clinical Lectures,’
+Lond., 1868, p. 54; 2nd edit., 1877.--_Idem_, “Hydatid Tumours of the
+Liver; their danger, their diagnosis, and their treatment,” ‘Edinb.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1865.--_Nettleship, E._, “Notes on the Rearing of _Tænia
+echinococcus_ in the Dog from Hydatids, &c.,” ‘Proc. Royal Soc.,’ 1866,
+p. 224.--_Rose, C. B._, “On the Vesicular Entozoa, and particularly
+Hydatids,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1833-4, p. 204.--_Stephens_, ‘Lancet,’
+1833; the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1831, p. 284.--_Thompson, T._ (remarks),
+‘Lancet,’ 1851.--_Wilson, E._, “On the Structure, Classification,
+and Development of the _Echinococcus hominis_,” ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’
+1845.--_Yates, G._, “On Hydatid Disease,” ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ vol.
+iii, 1855.
+
+_Hydatids of the liver_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _b_).--_Abercrombie,
+T._, ‘Lond. Med. Journ.,’ vol. ii, p. 276, 1829.--_Alison, S. S._,
+‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1844.--_Barclay_, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Nov.,
+1868, p. 494.--_Barker, T. A._ ‘Lancet,’ and ‘Path. Soc. Trans.’
+1855.--_Barlow_, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1857.--_Beith_, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1852.--_Bradbury, J. B._ (six cases), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Oct.,
+1874, pp. 526-558.--_Idem_, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1876, vol. ii, p.
+646.--_Brinton_, ‘Lancet,’ 1854.--_Idem_, ‘Lancet,’ 1858.--_Bristowe,
+T. S._, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1851.--_Idem_, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1858.--_Broadbent, W. H._, “Hydatids of the Liver; Paracentesis followed
+by free Incision;” ‘British Med. Journ.,’ Nov. 30th, 1878.--_Brodie, B.
+C._ (supposed), ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1828.--_Brook, C._, ‘Lancet.,’ Feb.,
+1868, p. 162.--_Buchanan_, ‘Surg. Med. Gaz.,’ 1861.--_Budd, W._, ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1859.--_Chambers, T. K._, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1846.--_Cox,
+T._, ‘Lancet,’ and ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1838.--_Crosse, J. G._,
+‘Lancet,’ 1837.--_Curling T. B._, ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1840.--_Daly,
+O._ (supposed), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.--_Davies H._, ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1848.--_Dickenson_, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1861; ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1862.--_Duncan, A._ (near the portal vein), ‘Edin. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1808.--_Duncan, P. M._ (several cases), ‘Prov. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1850-52.--_Elliotson, J._, ‘Lancet,’ 1832.--_Fearn, S.
+W._ (immense cyst), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Nov., 1868, p. 496.--_Fletcher,
+T. B. E._, ‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1846.--_Freer, W. G._,
+‘Lancet,’ and ‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1845.--_Gaitskell, W._
+(1000 discharged) ‘Lond. Med. Repository,’ 1815.--_Gulland_, ‘Edin. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1860.--_Harley, J._, ‘Lancet,’ May, 1866, p. 538, and ‘Med.
+Chir. Trans.,’ 1866.--_Idem_, in ‘St Thomas’s Hospital Reports,’ 1877,
+p. 291.--_Hastings, C._, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1858.--_Heaton_, ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ Oct. 31st, 1874, p. 557.--_Heckford, N._, ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ Sept., 1868, p. 332.--_Hillier_, ‘Lancet,’ and ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1855.--_Hutchinson, J._, ‘Lancet,’ Oct., 1862.--_Inglis, A._,
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.--_Leared A._ (Hjaltelm’s case), ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1863.--_Logan_ (thousands present), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ and
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ March, 1865, p. 243.--_Lyon, E._ (several cases),
+‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1850.--_Murchison, C._ (rupture through
+pleura), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1861.--_Idem_, ‘Lancet,’ July, p. 75,
+1868.--_Page_, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ Nov., 1864.--_Pavy,
+F. W._ (expectorated), ‘Med. Gaz.,’ 1851.--_Idem_, ‘Med.-Chir.
+Trans.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1866, p. 234.--_Peacock_ (two cases,
+expectorated), ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ 1850.--_Pemberton, O.
+A._ (rupturing diaphragm), ‘Prov. Med. Journ.,’ 1848.--_Philipson_,
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Oct. 31st, 1874, p. 557.--_Pollock, J._ (fatal),
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.--_Idem_ (opening into lung), ‘Lancet,’
+Jan., 1865, p. 63.--_Rees, G. O._, ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1848.--_Idem_
+(lecture), ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1849.--_Richards, C. C._, ‘Lancet,’
+Jan., 1865, p. 261.--_Roberts_, ‘Lancet,’ 1833.--_Russell, J._, ‘Prov.
+Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1851.--_Sadler, M. T._ (Cæsarean section),
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Aug., 1864, p. 141.--_Salter; H._, ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1860.--_Savory, W. S._ (letter), ‘Lancet,’ May, 1866,
+p. 410.--_Sherwin, H. C._ (fatal), ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1823.--_Sibson, F._, ‘Lancet,’ July, 1868, p. 76.--_Sloane, J._
+(puncture), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1858.--_Thompson H._, ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ 1858.--_Trimnell, G. C._, ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’
+1821.--_Ward, S. H._, ‘Lancet,’ 1868, vol. ii, pp. 141, 305, and
+474.--_Wearne, V._ (perforating diaphragm), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ July,
+1864, p. 31.--_Wilks_ (escaping by gall-ducts), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1860.--_Young, J._, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1829.
+
+_Hydatids of the liver and other organs together_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20
+_c_).--_Beale, L._ (kidney), ‘Arch. of Med.,’ vol. i, p. 31, 1857; see
+also same case by _Bristowe_, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1853.--_Billing_
+(lungs), ‘Lond. M. and S. Journ.,’ 1831, p. 58.--_Griffith, J. W._
+(abdomen), ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1844.--_Heslop, T. P._ (kidney), ‘Month.
+Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ 1850.--_Richardson_ (kidney, Dr Mackinder’s case),
+‘Lancet,’ 1855.
+
+_Liver cases occurring in America_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _d_).
+--_Alexander, E._ (200 present), ‘Boston Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1838.--_Finnell_, ‘New York Med. Journ.,’ 1856, p. 216.--_Minot, T._
+(expectorated), Bost. Soc. for Med. Improv., 1859, and ‘Brit. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1860, p. 297.--_Webber, J. E._, ‘New York Med. Times,’
+1853, and ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1853, p. 126.
+
+_Hydatids of the lungs and pleura_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _e_).
+--Cholmeley, ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1837.--_Dowling, F._, ‘Australian Med.
+Journ.,’ 1864.--_Duffin, A. B._, ‘Beale’s Archives,’ 1857, vol. i,
+p. 253.--_Hare,_ ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1857-8.--_Hill, J._, ‘Med. and
+Philos. Comm.,’ 1784, vol. ii, p. 303.--_Hutchinson, J._, ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1854.--_Kirkes, W. S._, ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1851.--_Leared,
+A._, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1857.--_Peacock_, ‘Lancet,’ 1850.--_Ridge,
+J._, ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1836, p. 507.--_Rigden, G._, ‘Prov. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1852.--_Smith, F. G._, ‘North Amer. Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1858, p. 333.--_Todd, R. B._, ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1852.
+
+_Hydatids of the Kidney_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _f_).--_Adams, A. L._,
+‘Lancet,’ 1864, p. 375.--_Barker, T. H._, ‘Glasg. Med. Journ.,’ 1855-6,
+p. 439.--_Duncan_, ‘Liverpool Med. Journ.,’ 1834.--_Dunn, J._, ‘Lond.
+Med. Repos.,’ 1817.--_Fussell, E. F._, ‘Lancet,’ 1851.--_Lettsom_ (two
+cases), ‘Trans. Med. Soc. of Lond.,’ 1789, p. 33.--_Ward, W._, ‘Lancet,’
+1846.--_Wilson, J._ (lecture) ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1822.
+
+_Hydatids of the spleen, omentum, and abdominal cavity_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY
+No. 20 _g_).--(Anonymous), ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1819, p.
+50.--_Bailey, F._, ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1826.--_Bright, R._ (remarks
+on cases) ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1838.--_Bryant, T._ (simulating ovarian
+disease), ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1868, p. 235.--_Budd, G._ (omentum),
+‘Med. Times,’ 1838.--_Idem_ (rep. by Parsons), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+1859.--_Burman_, ‘Prov. Med. Journ.,’ 1847.--_Crowther, C._, ‘Edin.
+Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1826, p. 49.--_Greenhow, E. H._, ‘Lancet,’
+1862.--_Little, W. I._ (simulating ovarian disease), ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1857.--_Macleay, K._, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1806.--_Morley, J._ (partly pelvic), ‘Lancet,’ 1845.--_Newman, W._
+(simulating ovarian disease), ‘Obstetr. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. iv,
+1862.--_Obre_ (peritoneal), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.--_Ogle, J._
+(omentum), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1860.--_Simpson, A. R._ (peritoneal),
+‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ 1861-62.--_Simpson, J. Y._, ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’
+1854, p. 137.--_Thompson, T._, ‘Lancet,’ 1843.--_Thompson, A. T._
+(simulating ovarian disease), ‘Lancet,’ 1833.
+
+_Hydatids within the pelvic cavity_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _h_).
+--_Birkett, J._ (voided), ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1851, p. 300.--_Bryant,
+T._, ‘Lancet,’ 1865, pp. 566 and 589.--_Corrigan_ (ovarian), ‘Dub.
+Quart. Journ.,’ vol. i, 1846.--_Crampton_ (ovarian), ‘Dub. Quart.
+Journ.,’ vol. ii, 1846.--_Curling, T. B._ (bladder), ‘Med. Times
+and Gaz.,’ 1863.--_Farre, A._, ‘Lancet,’ 1862.--_Habershon_, ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1860.--_Hughes_, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1861.--_Hunter,
+T._, ‘Trans. of Soc. for Improv. of Med. and Chir. Knowledge,’ 1793,
+p. 34.--_Jennings_ (simulating pregnancy), ‘Dublin Quart. Journ.,’
+1855.--_Lowdell_, ‘Lancet,’ 1846.--_Maunder_, ‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1864, p.
+351.--_Sadler, M. T._ (voided), ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ 1865.--_Simon, J._
+(voided), ‘Lancet,’ 1853.--_Wakley_, ‘Lancet,’ 1863.--_White_, ‘Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1842.
+
+_Hydatids of the heart and blood-vessels_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _i_).
+--_Bigger_, ‘Dub. Path. Soc.’ Rep. in ‘Lancet,’ 1830.--_Budd, G._,
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1839.--_Coote, H._, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1854.
+--_Goodhart_, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Nov. 27, 1875.--_Price, D._, ‘Lond.
+Med. Repos.,’ 1822.--_Smith, R._, ‘Lancet,’ 1838.--_Trotter_, ‘Chem. and
+Med. Essays,’ 1736.--_Wilks_ (Henderson’s case), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1860.
+
+_Hydatids of the brain and cranial cavity_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY, No. 20 _k_).
+--(Anonymous) ‘Lancet,’ April, 1864, p. 444.--_Bailey, F._, ‘Lancet,’
+1825; ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1826.--_Barker, T. A._, ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1858.--_Bennett, J. R._, ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Jan.,
+1862.--_Berncastle, J._, ‘Lancet,’ 1846.--_Bree, C. R._, ‘Lancet,’
+1837.--_Brittan, F._, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.--_Burton_, ‘Med.
+Times and Gaz.,’ 1862.--_Dagleish, G._, ‘Lancet,’ 1832.--_Fletcher, T.
+B. E._, ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ vol. iii, p. 161, 1855.--_Headington_,
+‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xv, 1819, p. 504.--_Helsham_, ‘Med.
+Comment.,’ vol. xiii, 1788, p. 289.--_Macnamara, W. H._, ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ vol. ii, p. 616, 1876.--_Rigden, G._, ‘Prov. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1852.--_Stewart, J._, ‘Lancet,’ 1848.--_Sturton_, ‘Lancet,’
+1840.--_Wilson, E._, ‘Lancet,’ 1848.
+
+_Hydatids of the bones_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _l_).--_Cobbold, T. S._,
+“Notice of Specimens of Tibial Hydatids in Nottingham,” ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1865, and in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1866.--_Idem_, “Notice
+of Specimens from the Tibia in the Mid. Hosp. Museum,” _ibid.--Cooper,
+A._, “Foster and Lucas’s case affecting the Tibia,” ‘Surg. Essays,’
+Lond., 1818.--_Coulson, W._ (tibia), ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1858; see
+also _Daubeny, H._, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1858.--_Erichsen, J. E._, in
+his ‘Surgery,’ 4th edit., pp. 728, 823, and 948, Lond., 1864.--_Hunter,
+W._ (tibial, Mus. Spec. at Glasgow), quoted in ‘L’Expérience,’ 1838, p.
+531.--_Keate, R._ (os frontis), ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1819.--_Lambert,
+J._ (tibia), ‘Lancet,’ 1826.--_Thompson, H._ (Hearne’s tibial case),
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1859.--_Webster, F. W._ (tibia), ‘New Eng. Med.
+Journ. of Med. and Surg.,’ 1819.--_Wickham, W. J._ (tibia), ‘Lond. Med.
+and Phys. Journ.,’ 1827.
+
+_Hydatids of the breast, muscles, and soft parts_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20
+_m_).--_Adams, J._ (abdominal parietes), ‘Lancet,’ 1851.--(Anonymous),
+“Hyd. in the Eye of a Girl,” ‘Boston Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1849,
+p. 28.--_Baird, J._ (muscles), ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1821.--_Birkett, J._ (mammary), ‘Lancet,’ March, 1867, p. 263.--_Brodie,
+B. C._ (near scapula), ‘Lancet,’ 1818.--_Bryant, T._ (thigh), ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1859.--_Idem_ (thigh), ‘Lancet,’ 1862.--_Idem_ (breast),
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ Nov., 1865, p. 565.--_Cholmeley_
+(from right side), ‘Lancet,’ 1826.--_Cooper, B. B._ (neck and breast,
+two cases), ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.’ 1851.--_Idem_, in Birkett’s work on the
+‘Breast,’ p. 183; the ‘Institute,’ vol. i. p. 119, 1850.--_Dixon, J._
+(neck), ‘Lancet,’ 1851.--_Henry, M._ (breast), ‘Lancet,’ Nov., 1861,
+p. 497.--_Hewndon, A._ (neck), by Tyson, in ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1706-7,
+vol. xxv, p. 2344.--_Jones, S._ (subperitoneal), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1854.--_Rankine, J._, “Supposed Hyd. in Synovial Sheaths,” ‘Edin. M. and
+S. Journ.,’ 1830.--_Sands_ (neck), ‘Amer. Med. Times,’ 1861, vol. ii, p.
+376.--_White_ (breast and arm), ‘Lancet,’ 1839.
+
+_Hydatids of uncertain seat, or miscellaneous cases and observations_
+(BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _n_).--_Barrett_, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1838.--_Durrant, C. M._ (Ipswich Hosp.), ‘Prov. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1851.--_Fagge, H._, ‘Lancet,’ July, 1868, p. 76.--_Greenhow,
+J. M._ (intestinal), ‘Lancet,’ 1823.--_Howship, J._ (case, with
+speculative remarks), ‘Edin. M. and S. Journ.,’ 1835.--_MacGillivray,
+P. H._ (orbit, &c.), ‘Austral. Med. Journ.,’ Aug., 1865.--_Idem,
+ibid._, March, 1867.--_Idem_ (3rd series of cases), _ibid._, July,
+1872.--_Idem_ (treatment with kamala), _ibid._, July, 1872.--_Markham,
+W. O._, “On the ‘son hydatique,’” ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ 1856, p.
+1072.--_Musgrave_ (letter to Sir H. Sloane), ‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol. xxiv,
+1704-5.--_Phillips_, ‘Lancet,’ July, 1868, p. 77.--_Russell, J. J._,
+‘Dub. Journ.,’ 1838.--_Salter, H._, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.--_Ward,
+T. O._, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1837.
+
+_Hydatids of animals (acephalocysts)_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _o_).
+--_Böllinger_ (see Bibl. No. 49).--_Cobbold_, ‘Manual,’ l. c. (Bibl. No.
+2), 1874.--_Crisp, E._ (in a turkey and in hogs), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1863.--_East, J._ (see Steel).--_Findeisen_, “Echin. in der Lunge,”
+‘Repertorium für Thierheilkund.,’ 1875, s. 48.--_Gross, S. D._ (in
+swine), ‘Elements of Path. Anat.,’ 1845, p. 118.--_Hunter, J._, “A Cyst
+(hydatid) which was filled with water, formed in and filling up the Bone
+(humerus) of an Ox (from Hunterian MS.),” more fully described in the
+‘Catalogue of the Mus. Lond. Coll. Surg.,’ “Path.,” vol. ii, prep. No.
+864, p. 201, 1847.--_Idem_, “On Hydatids in Sheep” (supp. to Trans. of a
+Soc., l. c., _supra_), 1793.--_Hutchinson, J._, “Hydatid in the Eye of a
+Horse,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ 1857.--_Huxley, T. H._, “On
+the Anatomy and Development of _Echinoc. veterinorum_ (from a Zebra),”
+‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1852.--_Kirkman, J._, “Chronic Disease of the Bones
+of the Cranium of a Horse, associated with the existence of Hydatids
+within a Cyst at the inferior part of the Orbit,” the ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxxvi, p. 77, 1863.--_Lepper_, “Hydatids in the Kidney of a Lamb,”
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1863, p. 524.--_Martin, J._ (in the liver of a sow),
+‘Vet. Assoc. Trans.,’ 1842-3, pp. 330 and 364.--_Moorcroft, W._ (in the
+brain of a cow), ‘Med. Facts and Observ.,’ vol. iii, 1792.--_Morgan, A._
+(in the brain of a mare), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1855, p. 396.--_Peech,
+S._ (in the muscles of a horse), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1854, pp. 80
+and 209.--_Siedamagrotzky_ (see Bibliog. No. 49).--_Simonds, J. B._,
+“Remarks on Mr. Scruby’s case of Hydatids in the Liver of a Sheep,”
+‘Trans. of Vet. Assoc.,’ 1842-3, p. 331.--_Steel, J. H._ (in liver of
+a cow; Mr East’s case), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1878, p. 441.--_Stoddart_
+(in liver of a cow), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1838, p. 637.--_Thudichum,
+J. L. W._ (in sheep), ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ 1856, p. 195.--_Vincent,
+J. P._ (in horse, causing lameness), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1848, p.
+674.--_Walker, A._ (in the liver of a sow), ‘Vet. Record,’ 1846, p.
+185.--_Woodger_ (in the brain of a horse), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1863, p.
+75.
+
+_Foreign Literature. Human Hydatids_ (BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 20 _p_).
+--_Böcker_, ‘Zur statistik der Echinoc.,’ Berlin, 1868.--_Davaine, C._,
+‘Traité’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 1), p. 350, 1860; 2nd edit. p. 369,
+1877.--_Idem_, “Recherches sur les hydatides, les échinoc., &c.,”
+‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’ 1855.--_Idem_, “Recherch. sur le frémissement
+hydatique,” ‘Gaz. Med.,’ 1862.--_Eschricht_, ‘Danske videnskab. selsk.
+forhandl.,’ 1853.--_Finsen_, ‘Ugeskrift for Läger,’ Bd. iii, 1867; see
+also ‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1868, p. 324; also ‘Schmidt’s
+Jahrb. für Med.,’ 1867, s. 181.--_Guérault_, “Sur la maladie hydatique,
+&c.,” ‘Gaz. des Hôp.,’ 1857.--_Hearn, A. W._, ‘Kystes hydatiques du
+poumon et de la plèvre,’ Paris, 1875.--_Heller, A._, “Die Schmarotzer
+der Leber,” von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch d. Spec. Pathol. und Therapie,’
+Bd. viii, s. 559.--_Krabbe, H._, “Maladie causée en Island par les
+Échinocoques,” in his ‘Recherches Helminthologiques,’ p. 41, Paris,
+1866; ‘Helm. Undersøgelser,’ Copenhagen, 1865, p. 40.--_Idem_, “Die
+echinoc. der Islander,” ‘Archiv für Naturg.,’ 1865, and in ‘Den
+med. Skole i Reykjavik,’ 1868.--_Idem_ (see T. R. Jones, Bibl. No.
+2).--_Leuckart, R._ (l. c., Bibl. No. 1), Bd. i, s. 335, 1863; Bd.
+ii, s. 859, 1876.--_Linder_, ‘Echinococcen der Leber,’ Leipsic,
+1869.--_Naunyn_, ‘Archiv für Anat., Physiol.,’ &c., 1862-3.--_Neisser,
+A._, ‘Die echinococcen Krankheit.,’ Berlin, 1877.--_Rassmussen_,
+‘Bidrag til Kundskab om Echinoc.,’ &c., 1865; see also ‘Brit. and For.
+Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1866, p. 285, and 1867, p. 424.--_Schmalfuss_, ‘Ueber
+Leberechinococcus,’ Breslau, 1868.--_Tommasi, T._, ‘Storia di un caso di
+Echinoc.,’ &c., in an appendix (Nota) to his edition of my ‘Lectures’
+(Vermi, &c.), Milan, 1873, p. 153.
+
+NOTE.--As Leuckart, Davaine, and especially Neisser offer exhaustive
+analyses of the French and German literature of human hydatids, I will
+only give the authors’ names attached to such additional foreign memoirs
+and cases as have been published in England. These are quoted in my
+‘Introductory Treatise on the Entozoa.’ Full references will be found in
+the “Bibliography” of that work under the following heads:--_Andral_
+(pulmonary veins), _Angeli_, _Auglagnier_ (bladder), _Baillarger_
+(brain), _Boinet_ (liver), _Chaubasse_ (abdominal), _Cruveilhier_
+(liver and spleen), _Dupuy_ (hydatids in animals), _Demarquay_ (liver),
+_Dupuytren_ (muscles and viscera, &c.), _Fouquier_ (lungs), _Gayet_
+(liver), _Goyrand_ (liver), _Guérard_, _Guillot_, _Hedinger_ (brain),
+_Heintz_ (liver), _Held_ (thigh), _Heller_ (lip), _Klencke_ (blood,
+&c.), _Kuhn_, _Lafforgue_ (liver), _Legroux_, _Livois_, _Luschka_
+(liver), _Martinet_ (brain, liver), _Maug_ (hand), _Meissner_, _Micheá_
+(brain), _Moissenet_ (liver), _Montault_ (brain), _Morrisseau_,
+_Nicolai_ (liver), _Oerstelen_ (kidney), _Pohl_ (abdominal),
+_Quinquirez_ (bladder), _Récamier_ (abdominal), Richard (liver), Roget
+(lungs), Roux (pelvic), _Rüttel_ (brain), _Schleissner_, _Sichel_,
+_Sömmering_ (eye), _Skoda_, _Tomowitz_ (bladder), _Zeder_ (brain).
+
+Additional references to the echinococcus disease as it occurs in
+animals will be found at the close of the section devoted to the
+parasites of Ruminants (Bibliography No. 49), and I shall recur to the
+subject of mortality from “worms” further on.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION III.--NEMATODA (Round Worms).
+
+
+_Trichina spiralis_, Owen.--The progressive triumphs of biological
+science are well epitomised in the history of the discovery, and in
+the record of the gradual manner in which we have obtained our present
+complete knowledge of the structure and development of this small
+entozoon.
+
+Although the facts connected with the original discovery are clear and
+indisputable, much error still pervades foreign literature on this
+head. Without a doubt Mr Hilton was the first to suggest the parasitic
+nature of the capsules first spoken of as “gritty particles.” With Sir
+James Paget, however, rests the true discovery and determination of the
+nematoid character of the worm itself. With Professor Owen remains the
+honor of having first scientifically verified, described, and named
+the entozoon. Some have sought, without good reason, to alter Owen’s
+nomenclature; yet not only the generic title, but nearly all else that
+he wrote concerning the parasite, must be allowed to stand.
+
+In relation to the capsules, it is true that prior claims of discovery
+have been put forward; but whilst Peacock’s preparation of the “little
+bodies” testifies to the fact of his having seen the capsules before
+other English observers, including Wormald, it was Hilton who first
+surmised their parasitic character. As for the claims of Klencke and
+Tiedemann, they are practically of no value, even if it be admitted that
+the former may have at an early period seen something resembling this
+nematode, and that the “stony concretions” encountered by the latter
+were degenerated capsules.
+
+On no subject have I desired to write with more accuracy and precision
+than on this, and lest the above remarks should appear to be somewhat
+partial, I now purposely re-state the facts as they have presented
+themselves to me during a full and prolonged study of the entire
+literature of the subject. If it be asked with whom rests the discovery
+of _Trichina_, the reply must be framed with a due regard to precise
+issue at stake. The first recognition of the capsules as parasitic
+products is fairly claimed by Hilton; the worm by Paget; the zoological
+allocation and nomenclature by Owen; the adult worm by Virchow; the
+developmental phenomena by Leuckart; the rearing of the larvæ by Herbst;
+and to crown all, the clinical importance of the parasite by Zenker. Due
+regard being had to these relative claims, I think the following more
+extended statement will be found to be true and just in all its bearings.
+
+In the year 1834 Sir James Paget, then a student, first actually
+determined the existence of the nematode entozoon, which was
+subsequently more completely described by Professor Owen. The discoverer
+was assisted by the celebrated botanist, Robert Brown, who lent his
+microscope for the purposes of examination. In the following year
+Professor Owen first scientifically described and named the flesh-worm
+(_Trichina spiralis_) in the published transactions of a learned
+society. He first fully interpreted the true zoological position of the
+parasite. Sir J. Paget’s colleague, Mr. Wormald, had “more than once”
+previously noticed the characteristic specks “in subjects dissected at
+St Bartholomew’s Hospital.” He transmitted the individual specimens
+which enabled Owen to draw up his valuable paper. It is clear, however,
+that Mr Hilton was the first to suggest the parasitic and animal nature
+of the specks observed in human muscle. As the “find” was made in 1832,
+he anticipated Wormald in his observation of the “gritty” particles in
+dissecting-room subjects, describing the bodies as “probably depending
+upon the formation of very small Cysticerci.” Nevertheless, according
+to Dr Hodgkin, “the first observation of these little bodies was
+made in 1828” by Mr H. Peacock. The latter made a dry preparation of
+the _sterno-hyoideus_ muscle to display the specks. That preparation
+is the oldest in existence, and may be seen in Guy’s Museum. It may
+further be remarked that Henle, Küchenmeister, Davaine, myself, and
+others, have pointed to a notice by Tiedemann as probably, or possibly,
+indicating a prior observation of the specks. Leuckart rejects the
+evidence. Dr Pagenstecher appears to be in doubt as to the nature of
+the bodies in question. As the passage in question possibly gave a
+rough and imperfect description of the now familiarly known calcified
+Trichina capsules, I give a translation of it (Froriep’s ‘Notizen,’
+1822, Bd. i, s. 64):--“At a post-mortem examination of a man who had
+been a great brandy-drinker, and who died from thoracic dropsy after
+several severe attacks of gout, Tiedemann found white stony concretions
+in most of the muscles, especially at the extremities. They lay in the
+cellular tissue between the fibre-bundles, frequently also attached to
+(or near) the walls of the arteries, being from two to four lines long,
+and roundish. The chemical examination conducted by Gmelin yielded
+seventy-three parts phosphate of lime, seven parts carbonate of lime and
+twenty parts animal matter, resembling albumen or fibrin.” In regard
+to this notice Dr Pagenstecher (‘Die Trichinen,’ s. 4) has remarked
+that Tiedemann’s “communication was also referred by Henle to such a
+parasitic development when he subsequently found Trichina; and in this
+sense it was afterwards received by Diesing, Küchenmeister, and Davaine.
+But it has been rejected by Leuckart on account of the size (from two
+to four lines) and seat of the concretions. True, it has never yet been
+observed that the capsuled Trichina (not measuring a tenth part of that
+diameter) subsequently constituted centres of gouty deposit exceeding
+their own bulk, nor is it likely that they should. Seeing, however,
+as we often do, that errors respecting size have crept into works on
+Trichina, we shall not need to lay much stress upon these statements;
+still less so since the notice is very superficial, and its character is
+essentially of a physiologico-chemical nature. But this, at least, seems
+to us decisive, that when Bischoff, at Heidelberg, wrote on a case which
+occurred in Heidelberg, not one single word was mentioned respecting
+a former case, if such should have happened, although Tiedemann and
+himself were on terms of close intimacy.” So much for Tiedemann. In
+regard to Klencke’s claims, the same observer writes:--“Klencke has
+asserted that he had already drawn Trichinæ in the year 1829, and that
+he had seen them again in 1831. This subsequent statement has no kind of
+confirmation. The unreliableness, mistakes, and self-deceptions in the
+helminthological writings of Klencke have been repeatedly exposed some
+twenty years ago.” Prior to this criticism by Pagenstecher, Professor
+von Siebold and several other well-known helminthologists had already
+commented on Klencke’s assertions in the same destructive manner.
+
+In regard to the experimentation and the valuable instruction
+thus acquired, it appears that Herbst was the first to rear
+muscle-flesh-worms, or encapsuled Trichinæ, in animals (1850); whilst
+Virchow was probably the first to rear and recognise sexually-mature
+intestinal Trichinæ in a dog (‘Deutsche Klinik,’ 1859, s. 430); yet,
+without doing injustice to others, it must be added that it remained
+for Prof. Leuckart to offer a full, complete, and correct solution of
+the principal questions relating to the source and mode of genesis of
+the flesh-worm (1860). Leuckart likewise did good service by disproving
+the erroneous views that had been put forth by Küchenmeister. Lastly,
+all these brilliant results culminated in the clinical observations
+of Zenker, who opened out a new epoch in the history of trichinal
+discovery. Professor Zenker was the first to detect the young in the
+act of migration, and he likewise primarily demonstrated the fact that
+the larval parasites were capable of producing a violent disease in the
+human body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Sexually mature _Trichina spiralis_; male.
+After Leuckart.]
+
+Never in the history of biological science have more valuable issues
+followed the method of experiment upon animals. Not only has human life
+been thus saved, but animal life also. State-medicine and sanitation
+have received an immense impulse. The good that has already resulted
+is simply incalculable; nevertheless, in the eyes of a set of ignorant
+fanatics who infest this country, all experiments “involving cruelty
+to animals” ought to be prevented at any cost. The further progress of
+biological science in England has hereby sustained a severe check.
+
+The _Trichina spiralis_ in its sexually-mature state is an extremely
+minute nematode helminth, the adult male measuring only the 1/18th of
+an inch, whilst the perfectly developed female reaches a length of
+about 1/8″. The body is rounded and filiform, usually slightly bent
+upon itself, and rather thicker behind than in front, especially in
+the males. The head is narrow, finely pointed, unarmed, with a simple,
+central, minute oral aperture. The posterior extremity of the male is
+furnished with a bilobed caudal appendage, its cloacal or anal aperture
+being situated between these divergent appendages. The penis consists of
+a single spicule, cleft above, so as to assume a V-shaped outline. The
+female is stouter than the male, bluntly rounded posteriorly, having the
+genital outlet placed far forward, at about the end of the first fifth
+of the long diameter of the body. The eggs measure 1/1270″ from pole to
+pole. The mode of reproduction is viviparous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Larval Trichina coiled within its capsule.
+After Bristowe and Rainey.]
+
+As commonly observed in the human body our young Trichinæ appear as
+spirally-coiled worms in the interior of small, globular, oval, or
+lemon-shaped cysts, which latter appear as minute specks scarcely
+visible to the naked eye. These specks resemble little particles
+of lime, being more or less calcareous according to the degree of
+degeneration which their walls have undergone. In shape and general
+aspect they are not altogether unlike the eggs of certain nematoid
+worms, but their size alone sufficiently distinguishes them. They
+measure on an average 1/78″ in length by 1/130″ in breadth. The
+organised capsules are not essential to the further development of
+the parasite, and are rather to be regarded as abnormal formations,
+or rather, perhaps, as products resulting from an effort of nature to
+protect and thus prolong the life of the occupant. They are frequently
+altogether wanting. The capsuled Trichinæ measure 1/23″ in length by
+about 1/630″ in breadth. When fully formed they not only exhibit a
+well-marked digestive apparatus, but also reproductive organs, which are
+often, indeed, sufficiently developed to determine the sex.
+
+Notwithstanding the large number of experiments that have been more
+or less recently made by investigators, little or nothing has been
+discovered calculated to disturb the conclusions set forth by Leuckart,
+who writes as follows:--“(1) _Trichina spiralis_ is the juvenile state
+of a little round worm, previously unknown, to which the generic title
+of Trichina must remain attached. (2) The sexually mature Trichina
+inhabits the intestinal canal of numerous warm-blooded animals,
+especially mammalia (also of man), and constantly in great numbers.
+The duration of its life extends from four to five weeks. (3) At the
+second day after their introduction the intestinal Trichinæ attain
+their full sexual maturity. (4) The eggs of the female Trichinæ are
+developed within the uterus of the mother, into minute filaria-like
+embryos, which, from the sixth day, are born without their egg-shells.
+The number of young in each mother-worm is at least from ten to fifteen
+thousand. (5) The new-born young soon after commence their wandering.
+They penetrate the walls of the intestine and pass directly through
+the abdominal cavity into the muscles of their bearers, where, if the
+conditions are otherwise favorable, they are developed into the form
+hitherto known. (6) The directions in which they proceed are in the
+course of the intermuscular connective tissues. (7) Only the striped
+muscle (that of the heart excepted) contains Trichinæ. The majority of
+the wandering embryos remain in those sheathed muscular groups which
+are nearest to the cavity of the body, especially in those which are
+smaller and most supplied with connective tissue. Speaking generally,
+their number decreases with the distance from the abdomen, being,
+however, more numerous in the anterior half of the body. (8) The embryos
+penetrate into the interior of the separate muscular bundles, and here
+already, after fourteen days, acquire the size and organisation of the
+well-known _Trichina spiralis_. (9) Soon after the intrusion of the
+parasite the infested muscular fibre loses its original structure, the
+fibrillæ collapse into a finely granular substance, whilst the muscular
+corpuscles change into oval nucleated cells. (10) The infected muscular
+bundle retains its original sheathing up to the time of the complete
+development of the young Trichinæ, but afterwards its sarcolemma
+thickens, and begins to shrivel at the extremities. (11) The spot
+inhabited by the rolled-up parasites is converted into a spindle-shaped
+widening, and within this space, under the thickened sarcolemma, the
+formation of the well-known lemon-shaped or globular cysts commences by
+a peripheric hardening and calcification. This degeneration commences
+several months after the wandering. Immature muscle-Trichinæ are not
+capable of producing infection. (12) The migration and development of
+the embryos also take place after the transportation of impregnated
+Trichinæ into the intestines of a new host. (13) The further development
+of the muscle-Trichinæ into adult animals is altogether independent
+of the formation of the calcareous shell, and occurs as soon as the
+former have reached their completion. (14) Males and females are
+already recognisable in their larval state. (15) The immigration of the
+Trichina-brood in masses produces very grave or even fatal consequences,
+such as peritonitis (from the embryos perforating the intestinal walls),
+pain, and paralysis (resulting from the destruction of the infected
+muscular fibres). (16) The infection of man occurs especially through
+swine. (17) The muscle-Trichinæ are so capable of resistance that they
+are by no means in all cases destroyed by the ordinary methods of
+roasting, cooking, pickling and smoking. (18) As a rule, swine obtain
+Trichinæ from rats, to which latter we also as the natural bearers have
+to convey them. Microscopic examination of flesh is, therefore, urgently
+recommended as a public preventive against all danger from Trichinæ.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Immature female Trichina from muscle. After
+Leuckart.]
+
+As a summary the above conclusions are well nigh exhaustive; but whilst
+I purposely avoid entering into mere clinical details, there are points
+of hygienic interest to which I must allude. Thus, as regards the number
+of larval Trichinæ in any one “bearer” at a time, this, of course, must
+be extremely variable, but it may amount to many millions. In one of
+the cats on which Leuckart experimented, he estimated a single ounce of
+its muscle-flesh to harbour no less than 325,000 Trichinæ. I find that
+a relatively similar degree of infection in an ordinary human “bearer”
+would yield thirty millions. In the case of one of my own experimental
+animals, a pig, I reckoned that there were at least sixteen millions
+of Trichinæ. The larvæ were about ten months old and enclosed within
+perfectly formed capsules; nevertheless, the animal had never displayed
+any symptom of irritation. In a trichinised human subject, examined by
+Dr Thudichum, it was estimated that 40,000,000 parasites were present.
+My own estimate, calculated from specimens of muscle obtained from the
+same case, gave 100,000,000 as the approximate number of worms present.
+In the only outbreak of Trichinosis occurring in England, details of
+which will be given further on, I found that the flesh of the hog that
+had caused the local endemic contained upwards of 80,000 Trichinæ to
+the ounce. The consumption of a pound of such flesh would be capable of
+producing a collective progeny of something like 400,000,000 within the
+human “bearer.”
+
+In the year 1865 I conducted a series of experiments upon upwards of
+a score of animals, including seven birds, the latter all yielding
+only negative results. So far as muscle-Trichinæ were concerned my
+experiences accorded with those of Professors H. A. Pagenstecher
+and C. J. Fuchs, at the Zoological Institute in Heidelberg. These
+experimenters found that the ingested muscle-Trichinæ acquired sexual
+maturity within the intestinal canal of their avian “hosts;” but
+they never found young Trichinæ in the muscles of the birds, nor did
+they perceive any evidences of an attempt on the part of the escaped
+embryos to effect a wandering or active migration on their own account.
+Clearly, if the bird’s intestinal canal were a proper territory for the
+residence of sexually mature Trichinæ, we should have found abundance
+of wandering non-encapsuled flesh-worms and also sexually-immature
+muscle-Trichinæ enclosed in well-formed capsules. Not a few persons
+still entertain the notion that Trichinæ are liable to infest all kinds
+of warm-blooded, and even also many kinds of cold-blooded animals, such
+as reptiles and fishes. Certain nematodes found in earth-worms have
+been described as Trichinæ; and consequently, pigs and hedgehogs were
+said to become trichinous through eating these annelids. The minute
+flesh-worms described by Bowman from the muscle of the eel are not true
+Trichinæ, any more than the somewhat similar parasites which Eberth
+found to infest the muscles of the frog. The same may also be said of Dr
+Salisbury’s urinary Trichinæ, which are the larvæ of _Filaria Bancrofti_.
+
+Deducting the seven birds, and also six other animals where no
+examination after death was possible, I ascertained the result of
+my worm-feedings in sixteen instances. Nine of the experiments were
+entirely successful, the infected animals comprising four dogs, two
+cats, one pig, one guinea-pig, and a hedgehog.
+
+Carnivorous mammals, especially those subsisting on a mixed diet, are
+the most liable to entertain Trichinæ, but it is quite possible to rear
+them in herbivora. Thus, Pagenstecher and Fuchs succeeded in rearing
+muscle-Trichinæ in a calf, and they found three female intestinal
+Trichinæ in a goat, but apparently no muscle-flesh-worms, although
+twenty-seven days had elapsed since the first feeding with trichinised
+rabbit’s flesh. In three sheep on which I experimented no trace of
+Trichinæ could be found. There is no practical need for any further
+experiments on herbivora, for it is quite clear that, in their natural
+state, herbivorous mammals can seldom have an opportunity of infesting
+themselves, whilst the reverse is the case with swine, carnivorous
+mammals, and ourselves. Because many quadrupeds become trichinous, it
+does not follow that all mammals are liable to be infested. In the case
+of most parasites we find the species limited to a larger or smaller
+number of hosts. On the other hand, in not a few cases, the range of the
+entozoon is limited to a single territory or host.
+
+In conducting the experiments above mentioned I was assisted by
+Professors Simonds and Pritchard, of the Royal Veterinary College. As
+they were the only researches conducted on any considerable scale in
+England, I subjoin a few details of them. Dr Thudichum’s experiments
+were, I believe, confined to rabbits.
+
+_Exps._ 1 and 2.--On the 15th of March, 1865, an ounce of flesh
+containing Trichinæ was administered by myself to a black bitch. The
+dog being destroyed five days subsequently, neither intestinal nor
+muscle-Trichinæ were discovered. It was thought that the dog had thrown
+up the bolus, which was strongly saturated with chloride-of-zinc
+solution. The bolus consisted of a portion of the _pectoralis major_
+of a subject brought to the dissecting-room at the Middlesex Hospital.
+The cysts were highly calcified, but the majority contained living
+embryos, which were quite unaffected by the zinc solution injected into
+the body to prevent decomposition. At the same date a small white puppy
+was experimented on and examined with precisely the same results. In
+either case it was too early to expect muscle-flesh-worms to have become
+developed.
+
+_Exp._ 3.--Half an ounce of the same trichinous human flesh was given
+(at the same date) to a black-and-tan puppy reared at the Royal
+Veterinary College, a second “feeding” being administered on the 21st of
+March, or six days after the first. In this case Mr Pritchard, who fed
+the animal, took the precaution to chop the muscle into small pieces,
+and to mix it with other food, in order that the flesh might be the more
+readily retained in the stomach. The puppy was not destroyed until the
+15th of the following June, when, on examination, numerous encysted but
+non-calcified muscle-Trichinæ were found in all the voluntary muscles
+subjected to microscopic scrutiny.
+
+_Exp._ 4.--An ounce of the same flesh was given to a dark-colored pig on
+the 15th of March, and again on the 20th, several other “feedings” being
+also administered during the month of April, 1865. It was destroyed on
+the 16th of May, but no Trichinæ were detected.
+
+_Exp._ 5.--An ounce of the same human muscle-flesh administered to a
+small sheep (which was subsequently killed on the 29th of June) also
+produced negative results.
+
+_Exps._ 6 and 7.--“Feedings” were at the same time administered to a rat
+and mouse. The mouse died on the 2nd April, when I examined its muscles
+without success. On the following day the rat unfortunately made its
+escape, but whether trichinised or not cannot be said.
+
+_Exp._ 8.--An ounce of trichinous human flesh was given to a donkey, in
+the form of “balls,” on the 20th of March; and during the month of June
+four other separate “feedings” with trichinous dog’s flesh were also
+administered. The animal was removed from the College without the result
+being ascertained.
+
+_Exp._ 9.--From the 15th to the 20th March, 1865, inclusive, three small
+Trichinæ “feedings” were likewise administered to a guinea-pig. This
+little animal was not destroyed until the 15th of the following June,
+when a positive result was obtained. The _pectoralis transversus_ and
+other muscles were found to harbour a considerable number of encysted
+Trichinæ.
+
+_Exp._ 10.--On the 20th March, and again on the 21st (1865), “feedings”
+from the same human subject were administered to a hedgehog. On the 26th
+of April the animal seemed to be attacked with symptoms of Trichinosis.
+It refused food, kept its head extended, and the eyelids closed. On the
+27th it appeared much worse, and on the morning of the 28th it was found
+dead. On the 29th I examined the flesh, and found abundance of living
+Trichinæ in the muscles. The capsules were very thin and transparent. A
+few days later Mr Simonds also examined the flesh, and confirmed this
+result.
+
+_Exps._ 11 and 12.--Two chickens were fed, on the 21st of March, with
+the same material. One of the birds died on the 24th, when I examined
+the intestines and detected one or two very minute nematodes, which,
+at the time, I believed to be imperfectly developed Trichinæ, but
+subsequently saw reason to alter my opinion. The other bird died on the
+3rd of April, and certainly contained no muscle-Trichinæ.
+
+_Exp._ 13.--On the 22nd and 23rd of March “feedings,” amounting to an
+ounce of flesh in all, were given to a mole. This animal was returned
+to the care of Mr Charles Land, who had previously sent it to the
+Veterinary College. He subsequently reported that, after observing the
+mole to be “working” for two or three days, he lost all trace of it, and
+concluded that it had either escaped or was dead.
+
+_Exp._ 14.--On the 1st and 2nd of May portions of the left fore
+extremity of the hedgehog (in which we had successfully reared Trichina
+from the Middlesex-Hospital subject) were offered by Mr Simonds to a
+cat. It ate the flesh very readily, consuming the entire limb. On the
+15th of the following June the cat was killed, when living Trichinæ were
+found within all the muscles which we examined.
+
+_Exp._ 15.--At the same dates a young terrier dog was similarly treated,
+but did not take the “feeding” so readily. In this case the left
+hind extremity of the hedgehog was employed, and what was not eaten
+voluntarily was forcibly introduced. On the 1st of June the dog was
+attacked with “distemper,” and died on the 8th of the same month. On
+examination we found several living Trichinæ in the _sterno-maxillaris_
+and other muscles. Some of the parasites were encysted.
+
+_Exp._ 16.--From the 9th to the 12th of June inclusive four separate
+worm-feedings with the flesh of the trichinised terrier-dog were
+administered to a crow. The bird was killed some months afterwards and
+sent to me for examination. Its muscles were entirely free from Trichinæ.
+
+_Exp._ 17.--From the 9th to the 17th of June inclusive seven separate
+worm-feedings were administered to a pig. One of the “feedings” was
+with the trichinised guinea-pig’s flesh, the others from the dog. This
+animal was not destroyed until the 4th of April, 1866, when all the
+muscles which I examined were found extensively infested with Trichinæ.
+There were probably not less than 16,000,000 present, all being alive
+and enclosed within perfectly-formed capsules, none of which latter
+exhibited any traces of calcareous deposition.
+
+_Exp._ 18.--Four separate feedings with trichinous dog’s flesh were
+likewise, at the same dates as the foregoing, administered to a rat.
+This experimental animal, however, like the one previously mentioned,
+contrived to make its escape. I fear it was well trichinised.
+
+_Exp._ 19.--About the same date trichinous “feedings” were given to
+a black puppy (bred at the Veterinary College). The dog was killed
+on the 18th of August, 1866, having also been made the subject of an
+echinococcus-feeding, when I found abundance of encysted Trichinæ within
+the voluntary muscles.
+
+_Exp._ 20.--Four separate worm-feedings with the flesh of the
+trichinised guinea-pig were given to a sheep on the 15th, 16th, 17th,
+and 19th days of June, 1865. The experimental animal was destroyed on
+the 29th of the same month, but the result was negative.
+
+_Exps._ 21 and 22.--“Feedings” with the guinea-pig’s flesh--four in the
+one case and three in the other--were also administered by Mr Simonds
+(from the 15th to the 19th of June, inclusive) to a chicken and goose
+respectively. These birds were destroyed some months afterwards and
+sent to me for examination, but the most careful scrutiny failed to
+detect any Trichinæ within their muscles. The goose was cooked and eaten
+without the slightest hesitation. The chicken I found too tough for
+consumption.
+
+_Exp._ 23.--On the 28th of March, 1866, I obtained a small quantity
+of muscle from a highly trichinised German subject, who died from the
+effects of an accident at the London Hospital the day previous. The case
+was fully reported by Dr Thudichum in a new journal, called ‘Scientific
+Opinion’ (No. 4, April 25th 1866, p. 55). During the same day (at 2.30
+p.m.) I fed a dog with part of this human flesh. On the morning of the
+31st I killed the dog, and examined the intestinal canal (at 11.30
+a.m.), which revealed the presence of sexually-mature living Trichinæ.
+The males (of one of which I retain an accurate figure) displayed the
+characteristic bilobed caudal appendage, leaving no doubt as to their
+source and nature. I have mentioned the precise time of the experiment,
+in order to show that a period of sixty-nine hours proved amply
+sufficient for the development of the young muscle-flesh-worms of the
+human subject into the sexually-mature adult Trichinæ of the dog.
+
+_Exp._ 24.--With another portion of this human flesh (taken from the
+muscles of the tongue) in which the Trichinæ were extraordinarily
+abundant, I fed a cat. In about ten days the animal showed the most
+marked symptoms of trichinosis. It refused to eat; the eye lost its
+lustre; the body became very thin, and I thought the animal would die.
+By very great care, keeping it warm before the fire, and subsequently
+inducing it to take a little milk, the creature improved, gained flesh,
+and eventually recovered. About three months afterwards I destroyed
+this cat, when on examining the _panniculus carnosus_, _latissimus
+dorsi_, and other superficial muscles, I found great quantities of
+well-developed, capsuled Trichinæ. Although the animal had swallowed
+scarcely a quarter of an ounce by weight of the infested flesh, yet
+thousands of parasites had been propagated and dispersed throughout
+its muscular system. In this way the helminthiasis nearly proved fatal
+to my cat. As has been already stated, Dr Thudichum, who I believe had
+an opportunity of examining the corpse of this trichinised German,
+estimated the number of parasites in his body at 40,000,000. I do not
+think this estimate likely to be exaggerated, for if all the flesh had
+been infested to the extent I found to obtain in respect of the muscles
+of the tongue, I believe 100,000,000 would have been nearer the mark.
+In places the point of a needle could scarcely be thrust between the
+capsules, so closely were they agglomerated.
+
+_Exp._ 25.--From the 19th to the 25th of April, 1866, inclusive, daily
+administrations of trichinous pork, in the form of bolus, were made to
+a sheep by Mr Pritchard. The Trichinæ were obtained from one of our
+experimental animals at the Veterinary College, about two ounces of the
+flesh being given at each feeding. The flesh of this sheep (destroyed in
+the following November) failed to give any indication of the presence of
+parasites.
+
+_Exps._ 26 and 27.--About the same time, and occasionally at intervals
+extending over a period of five weeks, Mr Pritchard also fed two young
+fowls with the same trichinous pork. Towards the close of October, 1866,
+both birds died, when Mr Pritchard carefully examined the flesh of them,
+but failed to find any trace of Trichinæ.
+
+_Exps._ 28 and 29.--From April 2nd to the 9th of the same month, 1866,
+inclusive, feedings with trichinous pork were likewise given to two
+dogs. These animals were destroyed and examined by Mr Pritchard in
+November, 1866, but the result appears to have been negative.
+
+It is perfectly certain that the infection of man by Trichina is
+invariably due to the ingestion of verminiferously diseased meat, and
+as remarked in my ‘Lectures,’ whenever the parasites are taken in large
+numbers unpleasant symptoms soon show themselves in the infested person.
+There is, first of all, restlessness, loss of appetite, and more or
+less prostration. This is succeeded by rheumatoid pains in the limbs,
+with the frequent accompaniment of considerable swelling. The pain is
+not situated in the joints, but in the intermediate soft parts. In
+severe cases the limbs are drawn up and half bent, as in instances of
+severe and continued cramp. Sometimes the suffering is excruciating and
+unbearable, patients having been known to request the surgeon to put
+an end to their lives. In the worst forms of the malady death rapidly
+ensues from diarrhœa and exhaustion. If the parasites have gained
+admission to the muscles all hope of destroying them is at an end; but
+if a person suspects himself to have eaten diseased or trichinised meat
+he should lose no time in seeking professional assistance, seeing that
+the administration of suitable anthelmintics might be the means of
+saving his life, whereas a few days’ delay would probably prove fatal.
+So long as the worms remain in the stomach or intestinal canal they can
+be got rid of, but when once the trichinal brood have invaded the flesh
+then they cannot be expelled. As remarked in my ‘Entozoa,’ it is easy
+to perceive that although, in the majority of instances, Trichiniasis
+does not cause death, yet the percentage of fatal cases is by no means
+insignificant.
+
+The notion that particular breeds of swine are more liable to be
+infested than others is absurd, since infection must be due to the
+facilities offered for swallowing garbage, especially dead rats.
+According to Drs Belfield and Atwood 8 per cent. of slaughtered American
+swine contain Trichinæ. In infested hogs they found from 35 to 13,000
+parasites in a cubic inch of muscle, and by repeated feedings they
+succeeded in rearing about 100,000 Trichinæ in the body of a rat.
+
+In regard to the disease in man let us glance at the phenomena that
+presented themselves in Plauen, a town of Central Saxony. Drs Böhler
+and Königsdörffer, who first saw this disease and treated it, state,
+according to Leuckart, that “the affection began with a sense of
+prostration, attended with extreme painfulness of the limbs, and, after
+these symptoms had lasted several days, an enormous swelling of the face
+very suddenly supervened. The pain occasioned by this swelling and the
+fever troubled the patients night and day. In serious cases the patients
+could not voluntarily extend their limbs, nor at any time without pain.
+They lay mostly with their arms and legs half bent--heavily, as it were,
+and almost motionless, like a log. Afterwards, in the more serious
+cases, during the second and third week, an extremely painful and
+general swelling of the body took place; yet, although the fifth part of
+all the patients were numbered amongst the serious cases, only one died.”
+
+Satisfactory as it may be to note the numerous recoveries which take
+place, this circumstance is very much marred by the fact that a large
+proportion of the patients suffer the most excruciating agony. In the
+main it will be observed that Böhler’s and Königsdörffer’s experience,
+as recorded by Leuckart, corresponds very closely with that given by
+other observers. The symptoms, moreover, are very similar to those
+produced in the original case published by Zenker. In this case, which
+occurred in the Dresden Hospital (1860), the patient was a servant
+girl, aged twenty, and the principal symptoms were loss of appetite,
+prostration, violent pains, contraction of the limbs, and finally œdema,
+which, in association, perhaps, with a certain amount of pneumonia,
+terminated her career within a period of thirty days. The post-mortem
+appearances showed that the larval Trichinæ were the cause of death.
+The intestinal canal contained numerous sexually-mature worms.
+
+The effects produced by Trichinæ on animals are similar to those
+occasioned in man. The phenomena were summarised by Davaine (in the
+journals quoted below) in 1863 as follows:
+
+“The first phase is characterised by intestinal disorder, produced by
+the development of the larvæ in large numbers, and their adhesion to
+the mucous membrane of the intestine. In this stage M. Davaine has seen
+rabbits die with intense diarrhœa; one of two cats which he fed with
+trichinised meat had diarrhœa for at least a fortnight, but survived. Of
+five or six rats fed on a similar diet, one only, which was pregnant,
+died of diarrhœa, after abortion, on the eighth day. According to M.
+Leuckart, the passage of the embryos of Trichinæ through the intestinal
+walls sometimes produces peritonitis. This intestinal phase often
+becomes blended with the next; it may be relieved by the expulsion of
+the worms by means of the diarrhœa, or may cease with the natural death
+of the worms.
+
+“The second stage presents general symptoms--muscular pains, &c. These
+phenomena are dependent on the introduction of the Trichinæ into the
+muscles; they rapidly acquire their maximum intensity, and have not a
+long duration. The appearance and duration of this stage are in complete
+relation with the development and length of sojourn of the Trichinæ
+in the intestines; in fact, in this entozoon, oviposition is not slow
+and of long duration, as in many nematoid worms; the genital tube is
+rapidly formed, and the ova, in its whole length, are developed almost
+simultaneously, so that the embryos, arriving soon at maturity, are at
+once thrown out in large numbers into the intestine, and the mother
+Trichina dies exhausted. If it be remembered that the embryos do not
+escape before the eighth day, that a certain number of days are required
+for their arrival in the muscles, and that new ones are not produced
+after six or seven weeks, it will be understood that the first symptoms
+of this stage can scarcely appear until the end of a fortnight after
+ingestion of the diseased food, that they must continue four or five
+weeks, and that after this they may disappear. This course of events is
+observed in animals; and in man the symptoms of this stage have shown
+themselves and become aggravated from the third to the sixth week after
+infection. Most animals die during this stage; rabbits rarely survive;
+rats, on the contrary, generally resist it.
+
+“If the animals do not die of the general symptoms or local disturbances
+proper to these two stages, the inflammatory symptoms cease, respiration
+becomes natural, and order is re-established. But, in some cases, the
+number of cysts formed in the muscles are sufficiently great to impede
+them in the proper exercise of their functions, and hence arises general
+debility, a kind of consumption which persists or becomes aggravated,
+and the animal dies of marasmus. M. Davaine has noticed this in rabbits,
+but especially in a rat.
+
+“Recovery from these phases of trichinal infection may be apparently
+perfect. A rabbit which M. Davaine kept during five months became large
+and fat, although it had a large number of Trichinæ in its muscles;
+a rat which had had these entozoa in considerable numbers during six
+months was, to all appearance, in good health. Hence he concludes that
+the Trichinæ produce symptoms only when they are in the intestinal
+canal, and when they are entering the muscles. Having become lodged in
+their cysts among the muscular fibres, they may remain harmless for an
+indefinite time. In every case except one, down to 1859, Trichinæ have
+been found in the bodies of persons who have died of disease (generally
+chronic) or by accident; or in the dissecting-room, in bodies regarding
+which the previous history could not be obtained. In most cases the
+cysts contained a cretaceous or fatty deposit, showing that they had
+probably existed several years.
+
+“The observations which have been made on the human subject, in regard
+to the symptoms caused by Trichinæ, show that they belong, as in
+animals, to the initial period of infection. They consist in intestinal
+and in muscular lesions; the latter coincide with the entrance of the
+parasite into the muscles, and are truly traumatic. In Zenker’s case
+the intestinal symptoms were swelling and pain; in a case described
+by Friedreich diarrhœa was present. In all cases the most remarkable
+symptoms were violent rheumatoid pains in the muscles, not in the
+joints, which were considerably aggravated by attempts to extend the
+half-bent limbs. The other symptoms have been variable, but have had a
+strong resemblance to those of typhoid fever. In several cases there has
+been abundant sweating; and in one there was a very remarkable miliary
+and furuncular eruption. The animal heat was diminished in Friedreich’s
+case; and in those observed in Voigtland by Freytag the temperature
+never exceeded 102° Fahr.
+
+“The progress, duration, and severity of the disease in man are in
+relation to the number of Trichinæ taken into the digestive canal. Of
+sixteen patients observed at Plauen by Drs Böhler and Königsdörffer,
+eight, who were moderately affected, recovered in a month; four, more
+severely diseased, were ill two months; of four others, one died with
+ascites and colliquative diarrhœa at the end of two months, and three
+recovered slowly at the end of three or four months. Recovery does not
+imply the death of the Trichinæ, it follows their enclosure in cysts.
+
+“The diagnosis of trichinal infection has several times been made in the
+living human subject by removing a portion of muscle. M. Davaine thinks
+it probable that, during the first six or eight weeks of the disease,
+the diagnosis may be confirmed by searching for adult Trichinæ in the
+alvine evacuations, produced naturally or by means of a purgative.
+
+“The prophylactic treatment consists simply in the avoidance of
+uncooked meat. The medicinal treatment must vary with the stage of
+the disease. At first, attempts must be made to expel the parasites
+from the intestines by purgatives and anthelmintics. Which amongst
+the latter is the most energetic is not yet determined. Calomel is,
+perhaps, M. Davaine thinks, the best. After six or eight weeks all
+treatment directed towards the intestines is superfluous. It is scarcely
+probable that any substance will act on the larvæ disseminated through
+the muscles. Friedreich has recommended picronitrate of potash; but, in
+the case in which he used it, live Trichinæ were found in the muscular
+tissue after the patient was considered to be cured.”
+
+In regard to the possibility of curing trichiniasis by the
+administration of drugs which should act as trichinacides upon the
+parasites in the condition of flesh-worms, the absurdity of the proposal
+only equals that which was made in reference to the destruction of
+hydatids by the administration of kamala. As has been shown in the
+record of my first experiment the flesh of a trichinised corpse may be
+thoroughly saturated with a strong solution of chloride of zinc, and yet
+the worms will remain quite unaffected.
+
+In reference to the dangers arising from the consumption of diseased
+meat, Professor Gamgee has very cogently put two questions:--“Did
+Moses know more about pigs than we do?” “Was it a knowledge of the
+parasitic diseases of swine and man that led Moses to condemn pork as
+human food?” Mr Gamgee answered both questions negatively, thus:--“The
+wisdom of the Mosaic law can only be justly estimated with a knowledge
+of the accidents arising in warm countries from eating pork throughout
+long and hot periods of the year; and there is no doubt that the direct
+evil results, as manifested by human sickness, led to the exclusion of
+pork from the list of Israelitish viands. The masses of measly pork
+which may be seen hanging from the butchers’ stalls in Southern Europe
+prove that the long-legged swine which hunt the forests for acorns, and
+rove about to pick up all kinds of offal, are often unfit for human
+food, and that they were so to no less extent in the land of Israel is
+probable.” As supplementing Professor Gamgee’s argument, I may remark
+that, if Moses had been furnished with special knowledge beyond that of
+his contemporaries, he would not, in the matter of meat-parasitism, have
+confined his restrictions to pork. Had he possessed any knowledge of
+measly beef, he would not have spared the ox on the ground that although
+“it divideth the hoof, yet it cheweth the cud.” As regards home-reared
+animals, Professor Gamgee cogently remarked: “It is interesting to
+observe that parasitic maladies in the pig specially abound in that
+section of the United Kingdom where swine live most amongst human
+beings. The Yorkshire and Berkshire pigs, in their native counties
+enclosed in the farmyards of their breeders, are free from worms which
+are likely to live in the body of man. The Irish pig is the one most
+commonly injured by entozoa, and the reason for this is evident when
+we know how much the cottager relies on rearing a porker which is
+permitted the free range of house and road, where every description of
+filth is devoured, charged with the ova of parasites expelled by man
+or some of the lower animals.” He also adds: “The conditions under
+which we live in the British isles are certainly much less favorable to
+the propagation of worms; but we disregard, in our ignorance, the most
+common precautions to protect ourselves from loathsome diseases, and not
+only permit dogs to eat any kind of offal in and around slaughterhouses,
+but sanction the existence of piggeries where all kinds of garbage,
+charged with worms or their eggs, are daily devoured by swine. The
+majority of germs calculated to engender parasites are to be found
+in abundance in the contents of the alimentary canal of human beings
+and domestic quadrupeds. If pigs are permitted to eat these, as in
+Ireland or in many British piggeries, we must expect hams, bacon, and
+pork sausages to be charged with the embryonic forms of human entozoa.
+Whereas in Iceland the _dog_ is the victim of human negligence, and _en
+revanche_ the cause of human disease, in the British isles the _pig_
+holds this unenviable position. We have good reason to believe, with
+Moses, that the pig is an unclean beast; but without discarding him from
+the scanty list of animals to be eaten, it is evident that we can purify
+the race of swine, and thus prevent human as well as porcine maladies.”
+
+On the authority of Rupprecht, as quoted by Davaine, I append a list of
+the principal epidemics observed in Germany during the first six years
+immediately following the discovery of trichinosis:
+
+1. Two slight epidemics in 1860 in the Island of Rügen; 10 to 20
+patients (Dr Landois).
+
+2. An epidemic at Stolberg, 1860 (Dr Fricinus). The number of
+trichinised persons was not stated with certainty.
+
+3. Five epidemics during five summers, 1858 to 1862, at Magdebourg. The
+number of patients was 300, two only died (Dr Sendler).
+
+4. An epidemic at Plauen in 1862, 20 patients (Böhler).
+
+5. Gusten, 1861, 40 cases, all cured (Fränkel).
+
+6. Epidemic in the Province of Armsted (Mansfeld), 1861, 8 patients.
+
+7. Hettstädt, January and March, 1862, 8 to 10 patients.
+
+8. Blankenburg, 1862, 278 cases, 2 deaths.
+
+9. Calbe (Prussia), 1862, 38 cases (9 men, 25 women, 4 children), 8
+deaths (Dr Simon and Dr Herbst).
+
+10. Burg, in Magdebourg, 1863, 50 patients, 10 deaths (Dr Klusemann).
+
+11. Quedlinburg, 1863, 9 patients, 1 death (Dr Behrens).
+
+12. Plauen, 1863, 21 patients (Königsdörffer).
+
+13. Falkenstein, 1863, 4 patients (Drs Bascher and Pinter).
+
+14. Posen, August and September, 1863, 37 patients (Dr Samter).
+
+15. Hamburg, 1863, 2 patients (Dr Tüngel).
+
+16. Blankenburg, 1863, 32 patients, 2 deaths; new cases in 1864 (Dr
+Scholz).
+
+17. Hettstädt (Prussian-Saxony), October, 1863, 158 patients, 27 deaths
+(Rupprecht).
+
+18. Eisleben, December, 1863, and January, 1864, 18 cases, no deaths.
+This result was attributed to the employment of phosphoric acid
+(Rupprecht).
+
+19. Hettstädt, February and March, 1864, 8 patients, no deaths. Two
+cats were also attacked, one of which died. Nearly 50,000 Trichina were
+counted in an infected leg of pork (Rupprecht).
+
+20. Quedlinburg, 1864, 120 patients, 2 deaths; benzine was employed (Dr.
+Wolf).
+
+21. Hettstädt, January, 1865, 15 patients (Rupprecht).
+
+22. Berlin, 1864, 3 cases (Dr Cronfeld). Several butcher boys (Frischer).
+
+23. Leipzig, 1864, 14 patients, 2 deaths; 4 were infested after having
+eaten raw beef hashed on a block which had previously received the flesh
+of a trichinised hog (Dr E. Wagner).
+
+24. Potsdam, 1864, 5 slight cases (Dr Mollendorf).
+
+25. Celle (Hanover), 1864, 8 patients (Dr Scheller and Dr Baring);
+Trichina proven in the pork by Gerlach. In 1855, 12 Trichina (?)
+patients were treated by Schuchart.
+
+26. Hedersleben, 25th October, 1865, a pig was killed and sold; on the
+28th the malady appeared amongst the workmen; 350 patients, 100 deaths.
+Of 100 children infected, none died. Trichina found in the autopsies (Dr
+F. Kratz).
+
+Dr Davaine also adds the following outbreaks:
+
+In Massachusetts, 1867, 6 patients from having eaten raw ham, 1 death
+(‘Medical Times,’ 20th April, 1867, p. 431).
+
+Ravecchia (Bellinzona), 1868, 5 patients, 4 deaths (Dr Zangger in
+_Landbote_ of Winterthur).
+
+Up to a comparatively recent date no case of trichinosis had been
+recognised in England during the life of the victim. As regards
+diagnosis, what was happening every day on the Continent was utterly
+unknown here. Whilst, however, not a single instance of Trichina-disease
+had been observed by British physicians in actual practice, as many as
+thirty or forty instances had occurred where the parasites in question
+had been found post mortem. I had myself examined the trichinised flesh
+taken from a dozen of these corpses, but in no instance had the faintest
+suspicion of trichinosis been entertained during life. The circumstances
+attending the only outbreak of trichiniasis that has been witnessed in
+England are very interesting. In the month of April, 1871, I received
+from Dr W. L. Dickinson, of Workington, Cumberland, specimens of pork
+which he requested me to examine; and in complying with his request I
+confirmed his opinion that the diseased meat was infested with Trichinæ.
+A few days afterwards I announced the discovery in the pages of the
+‘British Medical Journal’ for April 22, p. 435. It happened, also, that
+at the time I was delivering a course of lectures before the Society
+of Arts; consequently, in my second discourse (which was devoted to
+the parasites of cattle) I gave full details of the facts that were
+obtained. Taking a small portion of the flesh which I judged to be
+affected to an average extent I addressed the audience as follows:
+
+“If you calculate from one portion only, you might, if you had stumbled
+upon a part which was more infested with parasites than another, be led
+to over-estimate the degree of trichinisation. Taking proper precautions
+I have calculated that one scruple of this trichinous flesh would give
+us 4320 parasites, and two scruples would therefore yield 8640. Without
+speaking so precisely to numbers, I do not hesitate to aver my belief
+that there are at least 5000 of these parasites inside this small
+piece of ham. The number is probably close upon 8640. In one drachm
+that would give us 12,000, and in an ounce 103,000, according to the
+old apothecaries’ weight. If, however, we calculate according to the
+ordinary weight used by butchers, we should say that one ounce contains
+437-1/2 grains of meat, and therefore the number of parasites in one
+ounce would be 85,000. Thus, in one ounce of meat from this particular
+pig you have 85,000 Trichinæ, calculated at the rate of 200 in the
+grain, for I have purposely cut off the odd numbers. You may say, if a
+person can survive 18, 20, 30, or 40 millions, he would not take much
+harm from eating a piece of flesh containing only 8640 parasites. Such
+a portion, however, would be quite sufficient to make any one of us
+extremely uncomfortable were we to eat it, for supposing its contained
+parasites to be alive, it might prove dangerous to life. Why? The
+explanation is this:--Half of those 85,000 parasites, at the very least,
+will, in forty-eight hours after ingestion, have become fully-developed
+females; and from each of these 42,000 there will proceed at least
+1000 as a brood, so that the entire progeny (and it is they that do
+the mischief by their independent migrations through our tissues) will
+eventually yield about 42,000,000 entozoa. If we should be so voracious
+as to eat a pound of such trichinised flesh, then there would be
+400,000,000 as the result of a single meal.
+
+“Having detailed these facts and inferences, I now wish to bring to your
+notice some other particulars connected with the Cumberland outbreak.
+
+“Dr Dickinson, of Workington, tells me that he was at first suspicious
+that his patients were suffering from fever, but was not quite able to
+make out what the disorder was. At length certain symptoms occurred,
+which suggested that it might possibly be the German flesh-worm
+epidemic making its appearance in this country for the first time,
+and, therefore, in view of verifying the facts of the case, he sent
+me portions of the flesh of the pig. He describes the symptoms, which
+in their character corresponded with those previously recorded as
+experienced by persons similarly attacked. Dr Dickinson remarks, towards
+the close of his communication, that the victims form a small family
+who have carefully reared their own swine. The British farmer is thus
+here introduced to us at his own table playing the part of ‘host’--at
+her own table, I should say, for, to be more precise, it is a widow,
+her daughter, and a man-servant who are suffering. Dr Dickinson informs
+me that for two or three weeks before he was called to see them they
+had been eating sausages and boiled pork from one of their own home-fed
+pigs, which pig, by the way, turns out to have been an old sow. He
+brought away some sections of the leaner portions of the flesh for
+microscopic examination. You will observe that there can be no mistake
+about the source of the food on this occasion. Hitherto, Trichina has
+not been observed in our British-fed swine in more than one or two, or
+possibly three instances. Therefore it would be very interesting to
+ascertain how it happened that this poor pig became trichinised. In my
+communication addressed to the ‘British Medical Journal,’ I wrote as
+follows:--“Dr Dickinson has at the present time under his care a family
+suffering from the so-called flesh-worm disease, resulting from the
+consumption of ham prepared from pigs reared by the family themselves.
+A portion of ham sent to me swarmed with recently encapsuled Trichinæ.
+Dr Dickinson being thus the first person who has diagnosed trichiniasis
+in the living subject in England, I hope he may be induced to give us
+further particulars.” The editor, in commenting upon this letter, added
+a practical point, which I wish especially to bring to your notice. He
+says:--‘The subject of parasitic diseases of domestic animals is one
+of widespread and increasing interest. It is immediately related to the
+irrigation of fields with sewage.’ The editor, of course, made this
+statement on independent grounds, and on his own responsibility. If he
+had said the subject bears an indirect relation to the sewage question,
+he would have said no more than is absolutely true, for, as I shall
+take occasion to explain, there is every reason to suppose that certain
+forms of parasitic disease may be propagated by means of sewage. In this
+connection some of you may be disposed to ask the question:--‘Are there
+any sources of comfort to be gathered from the facts?’ Or you may say,
+supposing that in future our British swine are not as free from Trichinæ
+as they have been hitherto, can we possibly avoid the contingency of
+playing the part of host to those creatures? Certainly, I reply, it is
+simply a question of properly cooking the food. If these farmers have
+not cooked their food at all, or scarcely at all, that will at once
+account for their being laid up. I should tell you that the lady and
+the daughter are recovering, and that they are convalescent, but the
+man-servant is very ill. If, during cooking, the flesh consumed by these
+persons had been raised to a persistent temperature of 170° Fahr., then,
+doubtless, the ingestion of trichinised pork would have done no harm.
+You observe that Dr Dickinson says in his letter that they partook of it
+roasted and boiled. Now, few of us are in the habit of eating underdone
+pork, although there are other meats that we devour very readily in an
+imperfectly cooked state. It must be remembered, also, that although
+the exterior may have been subjected to a temperature of 212 degrees,
+it by no means follows that the whole of the joint throughout must have
+been submitted to that temperature. Under rapid cooking, the centre of a
+large joint may remain much below even 140 degrees. If the man-servant
+ate only one ounce of the flesh with living Trichinæ in it, he will
+probably have at this present moment at least 42,000,000 of these guests
+in his muscles. You will ask, ‘Will he recover?’ ‘Yes; if he ate no
+more than that.’ If he has eaten 2 oz. thoroughly underdone, depend
+upon it he has 80,000,000, and if he has eaten 3 oz. he will have over
+100,000,000 of Trichinæ in his muscles. Could he survive if he had eaten
+over 3 oz., and thus have 100,000,000 and upwards of these inhabitants?
+I think he could. We have evidence on this point from the case in which
+I estimated that there were upwards of 100,000,000 of Trichinæ present,
+and yet the man survived the attack.
+
+“Incidentally I may remark that in the course of the last twenty years,
+although millions of parasites and their eggs have passed through my
+hands, I have almost entirely escaped infection. It is something to
+know what you are either handling or looking at, because there are many
+parasites besides Trichina which are dangerous. There are gregariniform
+entozoa residing in meat which we eat every day without any bad
+consequences. They are as harmless as cheese-mites. There is no need
+to be in the slightest degree nervous about flesh-food, provided it is
+properly cooked. I believe there will be no fatal issue in the case of
+any of the three individuals just alluded to, but the chief practical
+point before us arises out of the fact that we have here, for the first
+time in England, an epidemic of trichiniasis. By calling attention to
+the subject, it will, to say the least, suggest precautions by which
+future epidemics may be avoided.”
+
+The above remarks form the substance of a lecture given on the 24th of
+April, 1871. A week later I delivered the third of the Cantor lectures
+for that year, when I took occasion to add the following particulars:
+
+“It has been asked whether the so-called muscle-Trichinæ, after they
+have arrived at their destination within the flesh of man, are capable
+of producing any more unfavorable consequences? The answer is, Certainly
+not. In the case of man it would be necessary that his muscles should
+be eaten in order for the Trichinæ to become sexually-mature worms;
+and in those countries where cannibalism exists, the man-eater would
+himself become trichinised, and would certainly deserve his fate. I was
+very desirous to follow up the account of this outbreak by inquiries
+respecting the particular animal which had been the cause of the
+outbreak. I may therefore mention that my informant, Dr Dickinson,
+states that the family, including the man-servant, all fed together,
+and that they had for upwards of a fortnight eaten daily, and sometimes
+twice a day, sausages made from the flesh of the trichinised animal.
+And he adds: The meat cut from the ham and flitches, and what is called
+the spare-rib, was roasted before the fire or in the frying-pan.
+Occasionally it was cooked in the oven. Dr Dickinson ascertained from
+the mother that she liked her meat to be underdone, and thus, therefore,
+there is very little doubt that the meat was generally undercooked. The
+man, a strong labourer, had a good appetite, and would therefore get a
+large share. He is improving slowly. Dr Dickinson adds in a postscript,
+what is still more to the point, that the sausages would be most likely
+undercooked; they would be cooked in the frying-pan, and if only brown
+on the outside would be eaten. It is probable that the outbreak was due
+therefore to eating underdone meat from this pig, cooked in various
+ways, and not alone from the ham itself.”
+
+If the facts connected with this outbreak be honestly faced, it must be
+rendered clear to any unprejudiced observer that Dr W. Lindow Dickinson
+was the first person to observe, recognise, and treat the Trichina
+disorder in this country. No other English, Scotch, or Irish physician
+has encountered any similar case. If I lay stress upon this fact it
+is because I have learned from Dr Dickinson that another person has
+asserted priority in this relation. Sir Dominic Corrigan is stated
+to have told a gentleman in the House of Commons, “that he had often
+met with trichiniasis in his practice in Dublin,” further averring
+that the disease “was quite common in many parts of Ireland.” If Sir
+D. Corrigan merely desired it to be understood that he had repeatedly
+encountered the Trichina at post-mortem examinations, then there is
+nothing surprising in his statement, but if, on the other hand, the
+disease itself has been frequently recognised in the living Irish human
+subject, one can only express astonishment that hitherto no single
+instance of the kind appears to have been recorded either in the public
+or professional journals.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 21).--_English Literature._--_Allman, G. J._,
+“Exhib. of Specimens,” ‘Micr. Jrn. and Structural Record,’ 1842, p.
+94.--_Althaus, J._, ‘Essay on Trichinosis,’ London, 1864.--_Idem_, “On a
+Suspected Case,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1864, p. 161; see also pp. 362
+and 390.--_Atwood_, see _Belfield_.--_Ballard, E._, “On Diseased Meat,”
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1864.--_Belfield_ (with _Atwood_), “Trichinæ
+in Pork;” ‘New York Med. Rec.,’ Dec. 28, 1878; ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’
+Feb. 15, and ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 22, 1879.--_Bellingham, O. B._, ‘Dublin
+Med. Press,’ 1852.--_Bowditch, H. J._, “Cases of Trichina,” ‘Boston
+Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1842-43-44.--_Bristowe, J. S._ (and _Rainey_),
+‘Trans. Path. Soc.,’ 1854.--_Chevers, N._, “Sanitary Efforts in regard
+to Trichiniasis,” ‘Lancet,’ 1864, vol. ii, p. 733.--_Cobbold, T. S._,
+“On the Discovery of Trichina, in relation to the question of Priority,”
+‘Lancet’ for March 3, 1866, p. 244.--_Idem_, ‘Parasites, and the part
+they play in the Economy of Nature’ (lecture), Manchester, 1873, p.
+46; also in the ‘Veterinarian,’ March, 1874.--_Idem_, Remarks in the
+‘Journ. Soc. of Arts,’ 1866, p. 399; also in ‘Med. Times. and Gaz.,’
+1867, p. 24; also in ‘Lancet,’ Feb., 1864 and 1866, p. 538.--_Idem_,
+‘Our Food-producing Ruminants and the Parasites which reside in them’
+(Cantor Lectures), 1871.--_Idem_, “Experiments with Trichina,” ‘Proceed.
+Linn. Soc.,’ vol. ix, p. 205, 1867; see ‘Lancet’ for Jan. 13, 1866, p.
+52; ‘Brit. Med. Journ.’ for Dec. 22, 1866, p. 713; also ‘Lancet’ for
+Jan. 9, 1867, p. 91.--_Idem_, “Worms” (l. c., Bibliog. No. 2, Lecture
+xviii), 1872.--_Idem_, “Outbreak of Trichinosis in England,” ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1871, p. 435.--_Idem_, “Trichinæ in Fish” (alleged to
+have been found in a pike by Dr. Elendenen at Ostend), in the ‘Lancet’
+(anonymous annotation) for Nov. 16, 1878.--_Curling, T. B._, two cases,
+‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1836.--_Davaine, C._, quoted in ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+see foreign lit., below.--_Delpech_, abstr. of his Report, ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 375.--_Dickinson, W. L._, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+1871.--_Elendenen_, “Trichinæ in Fish” (newspaper report respecting
+his “find”); see Cobbold, above.--_Farre, A._, “Observations,” ‘Lond.
+Med. Gaz.,’ 1835-36.--_Friedreich, N._ (trans. by Ogle), ‘Med.-Chir.
+Rev.,’ 1863, repr. in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1863.--_Furstenburg_, ‘Edin.
+Vet. Rev.,’ 1864, p. 513.--_Gordon_ (see Chevers).--_Gamgee, J._,
+“On Diseased Meat,” ‘Pop. Sci. Rev.,’ 1864.--_Goodsir, J._, ‘Month.
+Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1842.--_Harr_, ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1866,
+p. 532.--_Harrison_, “On a peculiar Species of Entozoon occasionally
+found in the Voluntary Muscles of the Human Subject,” ‘Rep. of Brit.
+Assoc.,’ Aug. 12, 1835; in ‘Dub. Journ.,’ vol. viii, 1835-36; in ‘Lond.
+and Edin. Phil. Mag.,’ and in ‘Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ vol. xviii, p.
+187, 1836.--_Herbst_, “Trichinæ in the Badger,” ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’
+1853, p. 491.--_Hilton, J._, “Notes on a peculiar appearance observed
+in Human Muscle, probably depending upon the formation of very small
+Cysticerci,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ vol. xi, p. 605, 1833.--_Jackson, J.
+D._, “Trichiniasis,” in ‘Hay’s Amer. Journ.,’ 1867, p. 82.--_Kiefer,
+H._, cases, ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 208.--_Kobelt_,
+‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ 1842, p. 147.--_Kratz_, “On the
+Hedersleben Epidemic,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 76.--_Krombein_,
+“Trichiniasis in New York,” ‘Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1864, and ‘Med.
+Times and Gaz.,’ 1864, p. 292.--_Küchenmeister, F._, Symptoms, &c.,
+‘Lond. Med. Rev.,’ 1860, p. 457.--_Langenbeck_, case, ‘Edin. Vet.
+Rev.,’ Feb., 1864.--_Leidy, J._, “Trichina in the Pig,” ‘Annals
+of Nat. Hist.,’ and ‘Pr. Ac. N. S. Philad.,’ 1847.--_Leuckart, R._
+(translations from), in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1860; in ‘Qrt. Journ. Micr.
+Sci.,’ 1860; and in ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. liii, p. 198,
+1860-61.--_Liveing, R._, “Path. Soc. Rep.” in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’
+1865, p. 374.--_Mosler_, “On Trichinous Flesh,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+1864, p. 554.--_Idem_, “On Benzine in Trichinosis,” ‘Med. Times and
+Gaz.,’ Oct., 1864, p. 444.--_Nunneley, T._, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1866,
+p. 252.--_Owen, R._, “Description of a Microscopic Entozoon infesting
+the Muscles of the Human Body,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ and ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1835; ‘Trans. Zool. Soc.,’ vol. i, 1835.--_Idem_, Remarks in
+‘Journ. Soc. of Arts,’ 1866, p. 399.--_Paget, J._, “Letter relating to
+the Discovery of Trichina,” ‘Lancet,’ March, 1866, p. 269.--_Rorie,
+J._, Letter, ‘Lancet,’ Feb., 1864.--_Salisbury, J. H._, On a supposed
+Species of Trichina (_T. cystica_) from the Human Bladder; in his
+paper on “Parasitic Forms,” in ‘Hay’s Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1868,
+p. 376.--_Sanders, R._, ‘Edin. Month. Journ.,’ 1853.--_Sawer, A._,
+‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1865, p. 16.--_Sutton, G._, Report on
+Trichinosis; Indiana, U.S., 1874.--_Thudichum, J. W. S._, ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ Jan., 1864, repr. in ‘Glasgow Med. Journ.,’ April, 1864, p.
+116; also letter in ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ Feb., 1864.--_Idem_, “Rep. on
+the Parasitic Diseases of Quadrupeds used as Food,” pub. by the Med.
+Officer of the Privy Council, London, 1865.--_Idem_, “The Diseases of
+Meat as affecting the Health of the People,” ‘Journ. Soc. of Arts,’
+April 20, 1866.--_Idem_, “German Sausages and the Trichina Disease,”
+‘Scientific Opinion’ for April 25, 1866.--_Idem_, ‘Lancet’ for Jan.
+6, 1866, p. 16.--_Turner, W._, “On the _Trichina spiralis_,” ‘Edin.
+Med. Journ.,’ Sept., 1860; in the ‘Year-Book,’ p. 109, for 1860; in
+‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1862; and in ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lxiii, p.
+294.--_Ude_, “Rep. on the Inspection of Pigs,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’
+Aug., 1868, p. 141.--_Valentin_, ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ 1842,
+p. 87.--_Virchow, R._, Extr. from his brochure on ‘_Trichina_’ (by
+myself), in ‘Gunther’s Record’ for 1864, p. 611.--_Idem_, “On the Cure
+of Trichinosis,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ April, 1866, p. 368.--_Idem_,
+from “Comptes Rendus,” in ‘Qrt. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1861.--_Idem_, from
+his ‘Archiv,’ 1860, Bd. xviii, Heft. 4, p. 330; in ‘Brit. and For.
+Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ vol. xxvi, p. 515, 1860.--_Wedl_, Report, ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ Dec., 1866, p. 618.--_Wilks, S._, “Letter respecting the
+Discovery of Trichina,” ‘Lancet,’ March 10, 1866, p. 269; see also the
+‘Times,’ Feb. 13, 1866.--_Windsor, J._, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ March 4,
+1866, p. 319.--_Wood, H._, case, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1835.
+
+_Foreign Literature_:--_Ardenghi, E._, “Sulla _Trichina spiralis_,”
+‘Lo Studente Veterinario,’ 1876, p. 115.--_Behrens_, “Ein Fall
+von Trichiniasis,” ‘Deutsche Klinik,’ No. 30, 1863 (quoted by
+Davaine).--_Bette, F._, _ibid._, 1876.--_Bischoff_, ‘Path. Anat. des
+menschl. Körp.,’ 1845.--_Idem_, ‘Med. Annalen,’ 1840.--_Böhler_, ‘Die
+Trichinenkrankheit in Planen,’ 1863.--_Boudin_, “Des épidémies de
+Trichina spiralis observées en Allemagne dans ces dernières années,”
+‘Journ. de Méd. Vét. Milit.,’ August and September, 1864 (quoted by
+Davaine).--_Claus_, ‘Wurzb. nat. Zeitschr.,’ 1860.--_Idem_, ‘Ueber
+die Trichine’ (a discourse), 1877.--_Colberg_, ‘Deutsche Klinik,’
+1864.--_Davaine, C._, ‘Traité’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 1), 1860, p. 672,
+2nd edit., p 732-768.--_Idem_, “Faits et Considerations sur la
+Trichine,” ‘Mémoires de la Société de Biologie’ for the year 1862,
+tom. iv, ser. 3, 1863; in ‘Gazette Médicale de Paris,’ 1863; in
+‘British Medical Journal’ for April 25, 1863; and in my ‘Entozoa,’
+p. 349.--_Idem_, “La Trichine” (popular exposition), in ‘Revue des
+Deux Mondes’ for May, 1865.--_Dujardin_ (l. c., Bibl. No. 1), p.
+24.--_Fiedler_, ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ 1864.--_Fleckles, F._, ‘Die
+Trichinen und die Trichinenkrankheit’ (popular exposition), Prag.,
+1866 (quoted by Davaine).--_Friedrich, N._, ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’
+1862.--_Fürstenberg_, “Wochenblatt d. Ann. der Landwirthsch., in d.
+Königl. Preuss. Staaten,” 1865.--_Gerlach, C._, ‘Die Trichinen,’
+1866.--_Idem_, ‘Hannöversche Zeitschrift,’ 1864.--_Hagen_, in
+‘Pharmaceutische Centralhalle,’ 1862.--_Henle_, ‘Muller’s Archiv,’ 1835,
+s. 526.--_Herbst_, ‘Nachrichten v. d. Georg-Aug. Univ. zu Göttingen,’
+1852; ‘L’Institut,’ 1852, p. 135.--_Heschl, R. L._, ‘Ueber Trichinen,
+die Trichinenkrankheit und die Schützmassregeln dagegen,’ Gratz, 1866
+(quoted by Davaine).--_Kestner_, “Etude sur le Trichina,” ‘Gaz. Méd.
+de Paris,’ 1864.--_Klusemann_, “Die Erkrankung durch den Genuss von
+Nahrungsmittel aus dem Thierreiche,” ‘Deutsche Klinik,’ 1864.--_Kobelt_,
+‘Valentin’s Repertorium,’ 1841.--_Krabbe_, “Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,”
+‘Tiddsskrift for Vet.,’ 1872.--_Kratz_, ‘Die Trichinenepidemie zu
+Hedersleben,’ 1866.--_Küchenmeister_, ‘Parasiten,’ 1855.--_Leuckart_,
+‘Untersuchungen ueber _Trichina spiralis_,’ 1866.--_Idem_, ‘Die
+mensch. Par.,’ Bd. ii, s. 409.--_Idem_, “Die neuesten Entdeckungen
+ueber menschliche Eingeweidewürmer und deren Bedeutung für die
+Gesundheitspflege,” ‘Unsere Zeit.,’ 1862.--_Lion_, ‘Zur Geschichte,
+Therapie, Prophylaxis, und Sanitätspolizei der Trichinen’ (quoted
+by Pagenstecher).--_Luschka_, “Zur Naturgeschichte der _Trichina
+spiralis_,” ‘Zeitschr. für wissenschaftl. Zool.,’ 1851.--_Meissner_,
+‘Zeitschr. f. rat. Med.,’ 1855.--_Idem_, “Ueber Trichinenkrankheit,”
+‘Schmidt’s Jahrbücher,’ 1863.--_Ordonez, E. L._, ‘Note sur la
+Distinction des Sexes et le Développement de la Trichina spiralis des
+Muscles,’ Paris, 1863; and ‘Compt. Rend. Soc. Biologie,’ p. 61, 1863
+(quoted by Davaine).--_Pagenstecher_, ‘Verhandl. d. Naturhist.-Med.
+Vereins zu Heidelberg,’ 1864.--_Idem_ (und _Fuchs_), ‘Die Trichinen,’
+1865.--_Perroncito_, “La _Trichina spiralis_” in ‘Italia. Estr. degli
+Annali R. Accad. d’Agric. di Torino,’ vol. xx, 1877.--_Reyher, O._, ‘Die
+Trichinenkrankheit,’ Leipzig, 1862.--_Rodet, H._, ‘De la Trichine et
+de la Trichinose,’ Paris, 1865 (quoted by Davaine).--_Rupprecht, B._,
+‘Die Trichinenkrankheit im Spiegel der Hettstedter Endemie betrachtet,’
+Hettstedt, 1864.--_Seidel_, ‘Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Med. u. Nat.’
+1864.--_Siebert_, ‘Ueber die Trichinenkrankheit und ihre Vermeidung,’
+Jena, 1863.--_Siebold_, art. “Parasiten,” ‘Wagner’s Handwörterbuch,’
+1844.--_Simon, G._, “Eine Trichinen-epidemic in Calbe,” ‘Preussische
+Medicinal Zeitung,’ 1862.--_Tommasi_, ‘La Trichina spiralis e la
+Malattia prodotta da esso,’ Torino, 1863.--_Tüngel_, ‘Archiv von
+Virchow,’ xxvii, 3, 421, 1863 (quoted by Davaine).--_Virchow_, ‘Deutsche
+Klinik,’ 1859; ‘Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des Sci.,’ tom. xlix.--_Idem_,
+‘Archiv f. Path. Anat. und Physiol.,’ Bd. xviii.--_Idem_, ‘Darstellung
+der Lehre von den Trichinen’ (fur Laien und Aerzte), 1864.--_Vogel_,
+‘Die Trichinenkrankheit,’ 1864.--_Wagner_, “Eine Trichinenepidemie in
+Leipzig,” ‘Arch. der Heilkunde,’ 1864.--_Wunderlich, C. A._, “Sur la
+diagnose probable de l’affection trichinale,” ‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’
+p. 311, 1863; from ‘Wagner’s Archiv der Heilkunde,’ ii, 3, p. 269,
+Leipzig, 1861 (quoted by Davaine).--_Zenker_, “Zur Lehre von der
+Trichinenkrankheit,” ‘Deutsches Archiv. für Klin. Med.,’ Bd. viii, s.
+387.--_Idem_, ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ 1855 and 1860.
+
+_Trichocephalus dispar_, Rudolphi.--This well-known worm possesses a
+long filiform neck, occupying about two thirds of the entire length
+of the body. The surface of the skin though smooth to the naked eye
+is furnished on one side with a longitudinal band of minute wart-like
+papillæ. The tail of the male is curved, and emits at the extremity a
+short, tubular penis-sheath, armed with minute retroverted spines. The
+tail of the female is straight and bluntly pointed. The eggs measure
+1/480″ to 1/447″ in their long diameter. The whipworm infests the cæcum,
+and also the upper part of the colon. Upwards of one thousand were found
+by Rudolphi in a woman.
+
+The original name of _Trichuris_, given to this worm by Buttner, could
+not, of course, be allowed to stand when it became evident that the
+so-called tail was in reality the head and neck. The _Trichocephalus_ is
+not uncommon in England and Ireland. It is less frequent in Scotland.
+On the continent, however, it is so abundant that M. Davaine calculates
+that not less than one half of the inhabitants of Paris are infested
+by it. From what Dujardin has said it can be scarcely less abundant
+in Northern France, for M. Duval, the distinguished director of the
+Rennes School of Medicine, supplied that helminthologist with numerous
+specimens on various occasions. The worm abounds in Italy and Egypt;
+being scarcely less prevalent in the United States. The lamented Mr
+Noel, one of my old pupils at the Middlesex Hospital College, brought
+me specimens which he found post-mortem on three or four occasions.
+Dr Haldane, of Edinburgh, once or twice obtained large numbers
+(post-mortem). In Ireland, Bellingham found the worm in eighty-one out
+of ninety post-mortem examinations. Mr Cooper, of Greenwich, met with
+it, post-mortem, in eleven out of sixteen instances. When treating
+patients for tapeworm I have repeatedly expelled the whipworm.
+
+The organisation of _Trichocephalus dispar_ has been investigated
+by Dujardin, Mayer, Von Siebold, Eberth, Bastian, and others. Prof.
+Erasmus Wilson and myself have carefully studied the anatomy of the
+closely-allied whipworm of ruminants (_T. affinis_) which is discussed
+in my ‘Entozoa.’
+
+The statement of Küchenmeister that there are no external appendages
+in the female _Trichocephalus_ comparable to those known to exist in
+the allied _Trichosomata_, is incorrect. Leuckart’s, and especially
+Virchow’s, researches disproved Küchenmeister’s and Meissner’s notion
+that _Trichinæ_ were the young of _Trichocephalus_. The experiments of
+Davaine render it probable that the young get into the human body in
+a direct manner. He finds that the eggs undergo no development whilst
+yet lodged within the host’s intestines. The eggs are expelled per
+anum in the immature condition in which they first escape from the body
+of the parent worm. It further appears that, after their expulsion, a
+period of six months must elapse before embryonic formation commences.
+The fully-developed embryo measures 1/333″ in length, and resembles the
+parent to a certain extent.
+
+Whipworms rarely put their bearers to inconvenience; nevertheless, both
+human and animal hosts occasionally suffer from their presence. Thus,
+Felix Pascal quotes a remarkable and fatal instance of cerebral symptoms
+from this cause in a girl of four years of age; and Mr Gibson has
+recorded an instance in which these worms produced paralysis and loss
+of speech. According to Professor Axe, sheep suffer severely from the
+allied species.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 22).--_Bastian, H. C._, “On the Anatomy of the
+Nematoids,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1866, p. 545.--_Bellingham, O. B._, “On the
+frequency of _Trichocephalus dispar_ in the Human Intestines,” ‘Rep.
+of Brit. Assoc., in Dubl. Journ.,’ 1838, and in ‘Med. Chir. Rev.,’
+1838; see also Bibliog. No. 33 (and the biography of Bellingham by
+Dr Mapother, in ‘Dubl. Jrn. Med. Sci.,’ 1877, p. 471).--_Busk, G._,
+“Anat. of _T. dispar_,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. vii, 1841.--_Chiaje_,
+sul _Tricocephalo disparo_, &c., 1836.--_Cobbold_, ‘Entozoa,’ pp.
+69 and 329.--_Idem_, ‘Worms,’ pp. 31 and 67.--_Davaine_, l. c., p.
+205.--_Idem_, ‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1858, p. 1217, and ‘Journ. de Physiol.,’
+1859, p. 296.--_Dubini_, ‘Entozoografia umana,’ p. 83.--_Dujardin_,
+l. c., p. 32.--_Eberth_, “Die Generationsorgane von _T. dispar_,”
+‘Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschr.,’ 1860, s. 384.--_Gibson, D._, “On a
+Case of Paralysis, with loss of speech, from intestinal irritation
+(produced by _T. dispar_),” ‘Lancet,’ Aug. 9th, 1862, p. 139.--_Goeze_,
+‘Naturg.,’ s. 112.--_Gurlt_, ‘Path. Anat.,’ p. 350.--_Küchenmeister_,
+l. c., s. 235; Eng. edit., p. 321.--_Leidy_, ‘Proc. Acad. Phil.,’
+viii, p. 53.--_Leuckart_, l. c., s. 465.--_Mayer_, Sieb. und Köll.
+‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,’ Bd. ix, s. 367; Bd. x, s. 233, and s. 383,
+1858-60.--_Mérat_, ‘Dict. Sc. Méd.,’ p. 560.--_Von Siebold_, ‘Wiegm.
+Arch.,’ 1845.--_Wilson, E._, ‘The Veterinary Record and Trans.,’ vol.
+ii, p. 47, 1846.
+
+_Filaria Bancrofti_, Cobbold.--The history of the discovery of this
+entozoon is second only in interest to that of _Trichina spiralis_. Step
+by step the facts have been evolved by a slow process of observation,
+and from the data thus afforded a tolerably connected narrative of the
+probable life-cycle of this entozoon may now be offered. To place
+matters beyond all doubt much remains to be done; yet that which has
+been accomplished is, or ought to be, of surpassing interest alike to
+the physician, the scientific pathologist, the epidemiologist, and the
+philosophic naturalist. In the case of Trichina, Owen’s nomenclature was
+most properly allowed to stand; but for reasons stated below I have not
+hesitated to employ for this worm, in its adult state, a name differing
+from that originally given to the hæmatozoon which turns out to be its
+representative larval state. Although the male parasite is at present
+unknown, the following characters will in the meantime suffice for a
+diagnosis of the species:--Body capillary, smooth, uniform in thickness.
+Head with a simple circular mouth, destitute of papillæ. Neck narrow,
+about one third of the width of the body. Tail of female simple, bluntly
+pointed; reproductive outlet close to the head; anus immediately above
+the tip of the tail. Length of largest females, 3-1/2 in.; breadth,
+1/90″; embryos, 1/200″ to 1/125″ in length, by 1/3000″ to 1/2250″ in
+breadth; eggs, averaging 1/1000″ by 1/1650″ from pole to pole.
+
+The first discovery of this entozoon, in its embryo state, was made
+by Wucherer on the 4th of August, 1866. To use Dr Da Silva Lima’s
+words:--“At the moment when Wucherer was seeking for the _Bilharzia
+hæmatobia_, he found instead of it an unknown worm. Our illustrious
+collaborator,” adds Dr Lima, “has made his important discovery known
+under the modest title of ‘Preliminary Notice on a species of Worm at
+present not described;’ and still more modestly Wucherer formulated in
+the following manner his judicious and prudent conclusions:--It would
+be rash on my part to put forth a conjecture on the coexistence of
+these worms of the hæmatochyluria, and on the etiological signification
+which they might have. I shall therefore abstain until I have been able
+to make more ample investigations, and until I have been permitted to
+examine the corpse of a hæmaturic, which has not yet been possible.”
+(‘Gazeta Medica da Bahia,’ Dec., 1868, p. 99.)
+
+In the year 1868 Dr J. H. Salisbury referred certain ova which he found
+in the urine to a new and distinct species of nematode. Although he had
+no acquaintance with the adult parasite, Dr Salisbury at once placed
+the “species” in the genus Trichina. Here is what he says:--“_Trichina
+cystica_ (Salisbury).--This is a small species which I have found in
+the human bladder. In all my examinations I have met with this little
+entozoon in three cases only. In two of these it was only occasionally
+met with in the urine. In the other it occurred in great numbers.
+Frequently from ten to fifteen ova were found in a single drop of urine.”
+
+It is important to remark, that there was no hæmaturia in the last-named
+case, which Dr Salisbury describes as one of “cystinic rheumatism,”
+or “severe cystinæmia associated with rheumatism and paralysis.” The
+patient “had been insane for several years. Her urine was passed milky,
+with granular cystine, and was dense and scanty.” It is likewise added:
+“No examination was made of the muscles after death to determine whether
+this species burrowed in the tissue, like the (_Trichina_) _spiralis_.”
+
+So much for the principal facts recorded by Dr Salisbury. His paper is
+accompanied by two woodcut figures of the ova (× 300 diam.), and one
+representation of the embryo (× 1000 diam.). If these figures give the
+size correctly, the ova measure only about 1/800″ in length, by 1/1560″
+in breadth, whilst the embryo would be about 1/500″ from head to tail.
+
+On the 17th of May, 1872, I communicated to the Metropolitan Counties
+Branch of the British Medical Association a paper on ‘_Bilharzia_,’
+and in an Appendix to it I wrote as follows:--“A most interesting
+circumstance connected with this case of ‘_Bilharzia_’ from Natal
+lies in the fact that I obtained from the patient some other urinary
+parasites in the egg-condition (fig. 38). On five separate occasions
+I obtained one or more specimens of the eggs or embryos of a minute
+nematode. In one instance there were about fifty of these ova in the
+urine, their contained embryos being well developed and in a state of
+activity. Usually they were all in this advanced condition; but on the
+25th of July, 1870, several were observed in much earlier stages of
+development. One of these was of a triangular form; its shape, granular
+contents, and clearly defined limiting membrane, indicating separation
+from the rachis within the ovarian tube. Another early form was
+perfectly spherical, with a well marked chorional envelope and double
+contour. These forms measured about 1/750″ in diameter. The fully grown
+eggs observed at the same time gave a longitudinal measurement of 1/500″
+by 1/1000″ in breadth. On adding any stimulus, such as diluted sulphuric
+acid, the embryos moved themselves freely within the egg. After allowing
+the urine to stand for forty-eight hours, I found, on the 27th of July,
+that the shells of the ripe ova had dissolved, leaving the embryos dead,
+but still coiled within a fine transparent envelope. In this state
+they were easily separated and examined, when they gave a measurement
+of 1/300″ in length, by 1/3500″ in breadth. On two occasions, whilst
+engaged in rearing the larvæ of _Bilharzia_ in water, I noticed single
+specimens of these embryos lying dead; and one of the examples thus
+observed gave a length of 1/150″, by 1/3000″ in breadth.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Group of eggs and embryos in a case of endemic
+hæmaturia (1870). Original.]
+
+Knowing what errors of interpretation have often crept into
+helminthological literature I was more than usually cautious in
+pronouncing upon the source of these urinary parasites. Accordingly,
+I remarked that “future discoveries might enable us to identify
+the species of nematode to which these ova are referable.” I also
+added:--“Notwithstanding discrepancies as to size, I am inclined to
+think that Dr Salisbury and myself have been made acquainted with
+nematode eggs and embryos referable to one and the same species of
+parasite. I do not care to speculate as to the origin of these ova.
+Long ago I gave in my adhesion to the determinations of Schneider in
+respect of the so-called _Spiroptera hominis_, but I am by no means
+certain that his position may not be disturbed by fresh discoveries. It
+is not a little remarkable that the parents of my patient should have
+averred that she passed three small vermiform entozoa by the urethra,
+corresponding, to judge from their verbal statements, very closely with
+the ordinary appearances of _Filaria piscium_.”
+
+Having written thus much seven years back, it is with natural pleasure
+that I find my anticipations already verified. Knowing that I was
+dealing with parasites in their earliest larval stages, it never
+occurred to me to give a specific name to them, and I could not possibly
+approve of Dr Salisbury’s nomenclature, for which there was no good
+ground.
+
+In the original discovery Dr O. Wucherer procured the worms from the
+chylous urine of a female in the Misericordia Hospital at Bahia; and
+on the 9th of the following October, 1866, he obtained similar worms
+from another female suffering from hæmaturia. He also afterwards found
+them in a man whose urine was slightly chylous, but not hæmatic. In
+all cases these sexually-immature nematodes were alive. In September,
+1872, Dr A. Corre furnished a careful description of similar worms found
+by Dr Crévaux in a hæmato-chylurous patient at Guadeloupe. Dr Crévaux
+frequently examined the blood of this patient but found no hæmatozoa.
+In like manner in Brazil, Dr J. Silva Lima sought in vain for worms
+in the blood of no less than five patients, all of whom suffered from
+hæmaturia, and whose urine contained numerous nematoid worms.
+
+Towards the close of the year 1872 the biological world was startled by
+the announcement of the discovery of minute Filariæ in human blood. Dr
+T. R. Lewis had found microscopic worms in the blood, and also in the
+urine, of persons suffering from chyluria. The worms could be obtained
+from day to day by simply pricking any portion of the body with a
+finely pointed needle. To this hæmatozoon Lewis gave the trinomial term
+_Filaria sanguinis hominis_, which thus fitly distinguished it from the
+_Filaria papillosa hæmatica canis domestici_ described by Grube and
+Delafond. Dr Lewis found the average size of the parasite to be 1/75″ in
+length by 1/3500″ in breadth. He observed that while it exists in the
+blood the body is enclosed in a delicate transparent tunic or cyst. The
+worm was never absent from urine in chyluria. In a case in which there
+was a milky discharge from the eyes the worms were also detected. In one
+case Lewis calculated that 140,000 Filariæ were present in the blood--a
+number certainly not relatively large seeing that MM. Grube and Delafond
+estimated the verminiferous blood of their several dogs to contain
+numbers varying from 11,000 to 224,000. Lewis also found Filariæ in the
+kidneys and supra-renal capsules of a woman who died of chyluria. It did
+not appear probable that the worms underwent further development in the
+human body. On this point Lewis remarks:--“Not only may those hæmatozoa
+found in man live for a period of more than three years, but there is no
+evidence that they have any tendency to develop beyond a certain stage
+as long as they remain in the circulation.” Dr Lewis judged that the
+form of chyluria associated with this condition of the blood was local
+and intimately related with a tropical climate. The milky condition
+of the urine comes on suddenly, not only at first, but on succeeding
+occasions also. It is frequently accompanied by more or less distinctly
+marked symptoms of various other obscure diseases, including temporary
+swellings in the face or extremities. From certain appearances of
+intestinal ulceration Lewis thought that the parasites might gain access
+to the system by the alimentary canal, possibly from the tank-water or
+the fish inhabiting it. He considered the state of the urine to be due
+to the mechanical interruption offered to the flow of the nutritive
+fluids of the body. The accidental aggregation of the Hæmatozoa might
+give rise to obstruction of the currents within the various channels, or
+occasion rupture of their extremely delicate walls, and thus cause the
+contents of the lacteals, lymphatics, or capillaries, to escape into the
+most conveniently placed excretory channel.
+
+Compressed into a small compass, I think the above is a fair statement
+of the leading facts and phenomena discovered by Lewis. The whole
+subject of hæmatozoology immediately received additional impulse, the
+consequences of which have not yet terminated. In this country Welch was
+stimulated to investigate the structure of _Filaria immitis_ in the dog,
+whilst others sought diligently for nematoid hæmatozoa abroad.
+
+On the 20th of April, 1874, Dr Prospero Sonsino communicated to the
+Neapolitan Royal Academy his memoir entitled “Researches concerning
+_Bilharzia hæmatobia_ in relation to the endemic hæmaturia of Egypt,
+with a notice concerning a nematoid found in the human blood.” In this
+brochure he made known the fact of his having discovered microscopic
+Filariæ in a young Egyptian Jew, in the following words:--“On the 1st of
+February last, having well washed the finger of the boy, I placed one
+drop of blood under the microscope, when with astonishment I discovered
+a living organism of the form of a nematode, resembling _Anguillula_,
+in the midst of the hæmatic corpuscles. The worms glided amongst the
+globules, which were tossed about by their lively movements, showing
+various appearances according as they presented themselves either from
+the sides, the edges, or the front of the disk” (‘Ricerche,’ &c., pp.
+11, 12). Dr Sonsino took every precaution to prevent error, subsequently
+verifying his “find” from the same patient. Dr Sonsino directs attention
+to two of his own characteristic figures of the worm, and subsequently
+states not only that he found examples of the Filariæ in the urine
+of this same youth, but also “in the urine of another patient.” The
+parasites from these two sources being figured side by side, it was
+clear, from their resemblance, that they referred to one and the same
+species of entozoon. Dr Sonsino having compared the facts supplied
+by these cases, was satisfied that the nematodes in question were
+specifically identical with those that I had previously obtained from
+my little African patient. However, Dr Sonsino was of opinion that his
+Filariæ were not precisely the same as those that had been described by
+Lewis.
+
+On the 8th of April, 1876, I received from Dr William Roberts, of
+Manchester, some capillary tubes, charged with blood, obtained from a
+patient suffering from chyluria. The tubes had been transmitted by Dr
+Bancroft, of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; and in fulfilment of the
+donor’s request, Dr Roberts afforded me an opportunity of examining
+their contents, he having himself verified Bancroft’s statement
+that they contained Filariæ. It was not until May 22nd that I found
+opportunity to confirm the observations of Drs Bancroft and Roberts. The
+contents of some of the tubes had by this time completely dried up; but
+in others, to which diluted glycerine had been added, the blood appeared
+tolerably fresh. In what might be reckoned as the sixth part of the
+contents of one of the tubes, spread on a glass slide, I detected about
+twenty Filariæ, three of which I sketched _in sitû_, in order to compare
+them with the figures of Lewis, and also with others that I had procured
+from my _Bilharzia_-patient in the year 1870. There could not, I
+thought, be any doubt as to the identity of all these sexually-immature
+nematoids. One novelty, however, presented itself in the presence of a
+solitary and empty egg envelope, measuring about 1/500 of an inch in
+its long diameter, and thus corresponding precisely with the ova that I
+obtained from the urine in my _Bilharzia_ case.
+
+According to Bancroft, chyluria is somewhat common in Brisbane; and the
+case here brought forward was not the only one of the kind which had
+already furnished Filariæ in the blood. The patient was a little girl
+ten years of age.
+
+Thus stood the facts in the spring of 1876. Having informed Dr
+Bancroft that a nematoid egg had been detected in the Australian blood
+transmitted to England, he was induced to make further investigations.
+These happily resulted in the discovery of the adult worm; the
+circumstances attending the “find” being recorded by Dr Bancroft in a
+letter written to myself and dated from Brisbane, Queensland, April
+20th, 1877. He wrote as follows:--“I have labored very hard to find the
+parental form of the parasite, and am glad to tell you that I have now
+obtained five specimens of the worm, which are waiting to be forwarded
+by a trustworthy messenger.
+
+“I have on record about twenty cases of this parasitic disease, and
+believe it will be the solution of chyluria, one form of hæmaturia, one
+form of spontaneous lymphatic abscess, a peculiar soft varix of the
+groin, a hydrocele containing chylous fluid, together with some forms
+of varicocele and orchitis. These I have verified. In the colony there
+are no cases that I can find of elephantine leg, scrotal elephantiasis,
+or lymph scrotum; but from the description of these diseases in the
+volume on skin and other diseases of India by Fox, Farquhar, and Carter,
+and from Wm. Roberts’ article on the latter in his volume on urinary
+diseases, I am of opinion that the parasitic nature of the same will be
+established.
+
+“The worm is about the thickness of a human hair, and is from three to
+four inches long. By two loops from the centre of its body it emits the
+Filariæ described by Carter in immense numbers.
+
+“My first specimen I got on December 21st, 1876, in a lymphatic
+abscess of the arm; this was dead. Four others I obtained alive from
+a hydrocele of the spermatic cord, having caught them in the eye of a
+peculiar trochar I use for tapping. These I kept alive for a day and
+separated them from each other with great difficulty. The worm when
+immersed in pure water stretches itself out and lies quite passive. In
+this condition it could be easily washed out of hydroceles through a
+large-sized trochar from patients known to suffer from Filariæ.”
+
+In July, 1877, I announced Bancroft’s discovery in the ‘Lancet,’ naming
+the parasite _Filaria Bancrofti_, and in the following September I sent
+the editor an account of the results of my study of the adult worms
+received from Brisbane in the interval. These examinations supplied me
+with the diagnosis already given (p. 181).
+
+On the 29th of September, 1877, Dr Lewis published a paper in the
+‘Lancet,’ wherein, after alluding to my previous announcement respecting
+the discovery of _Filaria Bancrofti_, he describes under the name of
+_Filaria sanguinis hominis_ a mature worm, which was evidently the
+same parasite. Not unnaturally Dr Lewis put aside the nomenclature I
+had employed, on the ground that the name originally given by himself
+to the embryonal form ought to be retained, and that “a new name, if
+not necessary on anatomical grounds, would only lead to confusion.”
+Personally I have no objection to Lewis’s specific name, but if the
+question of priority is to determine the nomenclature, then I fear we
+ought to call the species _Filaria Salisburyii_. Obviously the retention
+of Dr Salisbury’s nomenclature (_Trichina cystica_) would be unsuitable
+and misleading.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Filaria Bancrofti._ _a_, Female (nat. size);
+_b_, head and neck (× 55 diam.); _c_, tail; _d_, free embryo (× 400
+diam.); _e_, egg containing an embryo; _f_, egg, with mulberry cleavage
+of the yolk (× 360 diam.). Original.]
+
+When (prior to Lewis’s discovery of the hæmatozoa) I had myself
+encountered larval nematodes of the same character as those described by
+Salisbury, I, like Wucherer, was careful not to employ a special name
+for an immature form, which might or might not represent a worm hitherto
+known to science. The paper in which I described the adult worm from
+specimens supplied by Bancroft appeared in the ‘Lancet,’ Oct. 6th,
+1877, the facts being stated as follows:--
+
+On the 28th of August, 1877, I received a small collection of entozoa.
+The box contained the promised Filariæ, and also eight bottles filled
+with various intestinal worms taken from animals. The Filariæ were
+enclosed in four small tubes and preserved in glycerine. Three of the
+tubes (marked 1, 2, 3) contained sexually-mature worms, the fourth being
+labelled “Sediment from adult _Fil. sang._--young and ova.” I described
+their contents in succession. Thus, on the 6th of September, 1877, I
+examined the Filaria in tube No. 3. The specimen was injured and in four
+portions, these collectively measuring three inches in length. Although,
+to the naked eye, the worm had appeared to Dr Bancroft to be of the
+thickness of an ordinary human hair, yet I found it about 1/90″ at the
+thickest part. It was a female. At the same time I examined the specimen
+in tube No. 1. This was also a female. Towards the centre of the body a
+hernial protrusion of the uterine horns and intestine had taken place.
+In a lithograph sent by Dr Bancroft this specimen was figured and
+described as the “parent worm of the _Filaria sanguinis_, emitting young
+Filaria from two loops.” Later on I examined the contents of tube No. 2.
+In it I found one tolerably perfect female Filaria, and also a delicate
+shred forming part of one of the uterine horns of another worm. This
+filament measured one inch and a half in length, and was coiled round
+the complete worm. On transferring it to a watch-glass containing water,
+hundreds of embryos made their escape. Owing to the transparency of the
+tissues I had much difficulty in finding the reproductive outlet, and
+the effort to find it was all the greater because Bancroft’s figure had
+misled me. At length I found the vagina and its orifice close to the
+head (about 1/20″ from it), the anal orifice being placed within the
+1/90″ from the extremity of the tail. The vaginal pouch, 1/100″ long,
+was crowded with embryos, and a constriction marked its junction with
+the uterus proper, which appeared to divide lower down at a distance of
+1/10″ from the head. Towards the tail a fold of the tuba Fallopii was
+seen to extend to within 1/20″ of the extremity. All sections of the
+uterine system were crowded with germs, eggs, and embryos in their usual
+relative situations.
+
+My examinations of the ova and embryos were chiefly made from the
+“sediment” sent in a special glass tube. The fully formed embryos were
+1/125″ in length by 1/2500″ in breadth. They each showed a double
+skin, the outer envelope in the more advanced specimens leaving clear
+spaces at either end of the body, resulting from commencing ecdysis.
+I saw no trace of intestinal tube, but a central line of condensation
+marked an early differentiation of the somatic granular contents. The
+less advanced embryos were mostly enclosed in a chorional envelope, the
+smallest free embryos measuring only 1/200″ in length by 1/3000″ in
+breadth. These had no double contour. The ova, whose yolk-contents were
+still in various stages of cleavage, gave an average long diameter of
+1/900 to 1/1000 of an inch.
+
+Such are the facts I made out, and they enabled me to amend the
+characters of the species.
+
+As regards nomenclature, I associated Dr Bancroft’s name with the
+sexually-mature worm as being in harmony with the binomial method and
+little calculated to mislead; moreover, it helped to fix both the source
+and date of the discovery (Brisbane, Dec. 21st, 1876). The use of this
+nomenclature detracts nothing from the high merits of Lewis, who first
+named the immature worm _Filaria sanguinis hominis_. As it now turns
+out, both Dr Salisbury and myself had previously been made acquainted
+with the young of _Filaria Bancrofti_; but it was reserved for Lewis
+to discover the hæmatozoal character of the embryos of this worm, and
+actually to take them from the blood. It was a singular circumstance,
+that when I was engaged in treating my little African patient for
+trematode hæmatozoa, it never once occurred to me that the numerous
+nematoid embryos mixed with the Bilharzia ova were hæmatozoal. As before
+remarked, it was alleged that my patient had passed worms two or three
+inches long by the urethra. I therefore concluded that these were the
+parents of the eggs and embryos, and that all of them were urinary.
+The inference was wrong, but it has instructively shown how near one
+may go towards a great discovery without really making it. As regards
+the larvæ, notwithstanding some slight differences in regard to size
+and so forth, I have little hesitation in saying that all the embryo
+forms severally described by Salisbury, by myself, by Lewis, Sonsino,
+Wucherer, Crévaux and Corre, Silva Lima, Bancroft, Manson, and others,
+are referable to one and the same species.
+
+Into the clinical bearings of this subject it is impossible for me to
+enter at any length, but I may remark that these parasites appear to
+be associated with, if not actually the cause of, several distinct
+morbid conditions. To one of these Bancroft has given a separate name
+(_Helminthoma elastica_). This is a highly elastic form of growth to
+which I have already alluded under the title of “lymphatic abscess of
+the arm.” In the first valuable report on Hæmatozoa, by Dr Patrick
+Manson, of Amoy, China, this careful observer gives interesting
+particulars of no less than fifteen cases in which hæmatozoa were found.
+Two of these patients had _Elephantiasis scroti_, two had lymph-scrotum,
+two were lepers (one having scrotal disease), two had enlarged inguinal
+glands, one had anasarca; and of the remaining six, spoken of as having
+no concomitant disease, one had enlarged glands and abscesses, and
+another suffered from marked debility. It would thus appear that what is
+ordinarily termed “good health” is rarely associated with a hæmatozoal
+condition of the blood in the human subject. The cases given by Lewis
+and Manson, where absolutely no recognisable disease existed, must
+be regarded as exceptional. Disease, moreover, may exist without any
+palpable symptoms being exhibited by the “bearer,” and thus perhaps it
+was with the hæmatozoal dogs of Gruby and Delafond to which I shall
+again have occasion to allude. Even those animals that carried upwards
+of two hundred thousand microscopic Filariæ in their blood appeared to
+suffer no inconvenience whatever.
+
+In the autumn of 1877 Dr Da Silva Lima published an article in the
+‘Gazeta Medica da Bahia,’ in which he dwelt upon the labors and merits
+of Wucherer, and, judging from an omission in one of my memoirs, he
+supposed that I had insufficiently acknowledged Wucherer’s claims.
+A translation of this article appeared in the ‘Archives de Médicine
+Navale,’ with an important appendix by Dr le Roy de Méricourt. In this
+_addendum_ the French _savant_ showed that the omission on my part was
+unintentional, and had been corrected by me in a later memoir. Not
+only had I been amongst the earliest in England to enforce Wucherer’s
+claims in respect of the micro-Filariæ, but I had first announced
+his discoveries in connection with _Anchylostoma duodenale_. In my
+translation of Wucherer’s memoir (‘Ueber die Anchylostomum Krankheit’) I
+spoke of the melancholy satisfaction I had in knowing that the memoir in
+question was “among the last that appeared from the pen of that gifted
+and amiable physician.” Some notice of Dr Lima’s paper and its appendix
+by Dr A. le Roy de Méricourt appeared in the ‘Lancet’ for Jan. 5th,
+1878, and I also published a full translation of it, with explanatory
+notes, in the ‘Veterinarian’ for Feb., 1878. Later on, in the ‘Lancet’
+(March 23rd, 1878), Dr Da Silva Lima published an interesting letter
+correcting a misconception that had incidentally arisen in the mind of
+a commentator (on the Helminthological work of 1877), and at the same
+time he pointed to the original facts connected with the discovery
+of Wucherer’s Filaria. As my views are in perfect accord with those
+of Dr Da Silva Lima, I can only regret that errors of interpretation
+should have crept into the discussion. Dr Lima honorably recognises the
+nomenclature (_Filaria Bancrofti_) which I proposed for the adult worm,
+and only claims for Wucherer that which is fairly due.
+
+On the 4th of January, 1878, I received from Dr Patrick Manson a
+manuscript in which he announced the discovery of the larvæ of _Filaria
+sanguinis hominis_ in the stomach of mosquitoes. Already, in April,
+1877, Dr Bancroft had informed me of his expectation of finding that
+these insects sucked up the larvæ of the Filaria whilst engaged in their
+attacks on man. Dr Bancroft’s supposition was a very natural one, but
+it remained for Manson to make the actual discovery of the existence of
+human hæmatozoa, or parasites that had been such, within the stomach of
+_Culex mosquito_. I lost no time in making the principal facts public
+(‘Lancet,’ Jan. 12th, 1878). Dr Manson at the same time forwarded for
+publication a record of thirty-five additional cases of hæmatozoa
+occurring in Chinese subjects, together with additional particulars
+of one of the cases already published in the ‘Customs Gazette.’ These
+were afterwards published as separate contributions in the ‘Medical
+Times and Gazette.’ Dr Manson likewise forwarded materials for a paper
+entitled “Further Observations on _Filaria sanguinis hominis_.” In this
+communication he gave an analysis of the cases (sixty-two in all) in
+which he had observed the hæmatozoa, and he added valuable statistical
+evidence as to the prevalence of Filariæ in the Amoy district, dwelling
+especially on the influence of age, sex, and occupation in determining
+the presence of the parasite. He also described the morbid states with
+which these entozoa were commonly associated.
+
+On the 7th of March, 1878, I formally communicated to the Linnean
+Society a detailed account of Manson’s investigations relating to the
+metamorphoses undergone by the Filariæ within the body of the mosquito.
+In this paper Manson pointed out that the female mosquito, after
+gorging itself with human blood, repairs to stagnant water for the
+purpose of digesting the blood, and also for the purpose of depositing
+its eggs. During this period, which lasts four or five days, the Filariæ
+undergo remarkable changes. Subsequently, in a more perfect state, they
+escape into the water, and in this advanced stage they are conveyed to
+the human body along with the water as drink. Dr Manson persuaded a
+Chinese, whose blood was previously ascertained to abound with Filariæ,
+to sleep in a “mosquito house.” In the morning the gorged insects
+were captured and examined under the microscope. A drop of blood from
+the mosquito was found to contain 120 Filariæ, but a drop taken from
+the man’s hand yielded only some thirty specimens. Further stages of
+development are accomplished within the human host, ending in the sexual
+maturity of the parasite. After fecundation successive swarms of embryos
+are discharged by the female worm, a part of whose progeny eventually
+gains access to the blood.
+
+Before I proceed to summarise the whole body of facts I must in the next
+place state that Manson and myself contributed a joint communication to
+the Medical Society of London on the 25th of March, 1878. In this memoir
+I especially dealt with the question of priority in connection with the
+discovery of the adult worm. I then restated that the adult parasite
+was discovered by Dr Bancroft on December 21st, 1876. The discovery
+was verified by Dr Lewis on August 7th, 1877, by Dr Silva Araujo
+October 16th, 1877, and by Dr F. dos Santos November 12th, 1877. I gave
+these dates unhesitatingly, without, however, in any way prejudicing
+the question already raised in respect of the identity of the worms
+found in each case. My own mind was fully made up on that point, and
+affirmatively so. Dr dos Santos’ find was made in conjunction with Dr J.
+de Moura in a case of lymphatic abscess of the arm. Clinically viewed,
+the case published by Dr Araujo must be regarded as unique. Not only
+were adult and embryonic Filariæ found in the same patient, but, what
+was far more surprising and interesting, the patient displayed in his
+own person several of the disorders hitherto found apart; and he was
+more than once attacked by one or two of the diseases. He experienced
+a first attack of chyluria three years ago, then attacks of craw-craw
+commencing a year ago, the latter being attributed to bathing in a
+particular lagoon. He had a second attack of chyluria six months back,
+at which time lymph-scrotum appeared, and also scrotal elephantiasis.
+Dr Bourel-Roncière pronounced this case to be unique, and attributed
+nearly all the disorders to the presence of Wucherer’s embryonic
+Filariæ. In a very elaborate analysis of and commentary on Dr da Silva
+Lima’s second memoir, Dr Bourel-Roncière warmly claims for Wucherer the
+supreme honor in all these discoveries. A number of affections hitherto
+regarded as distinct, and all of which appear to be due to the action of
+Filariæ, are regarded by Dr Bourel-Roncière as mere phases of one and
+the same disorder. This affection he terms _Wucherer’s helminthiasis_.
+Dr Manson had indeed arrived independently at a similar conclusion, and
+I am confident that Wucherer, were he alive, would in this particular
+aspect of the question be the last to claim priority either to Lewis, to
+Bancroft, or to Manson.
+
+In this place I may observe that Dr Pedro S. de Magalhães, of Rio de
+Janeiro, detected free microscopic nematodes in the potable waters of
+Rio (agua da Carioca), which from their similarity he supposes may have
+some genetic relation with _Filaria Bancrofti_. In this opinion I cannot
+share.
+
+As regards the metamorphoses of the embryo, Manson states that for a
+little while after gaining access to the stomach of the mosquito the
+embryo undergoes no change (Fig. 40, _a_). In a very few hours changes
+commence, resulting in wider separation of the outer skin and an
+appearance of transverse markings on the body within (_b_). In the next
+stage oral movements occur; the striation becomes more marked, and the
+outer envelope is cast off (_c_). Then the striated lines disappear and
+a dotted appearance is substituted (_d_). From this condition the embryo
+passes to what Manson calls the chrysalis stage, in which nearly all
+movement is suspended and the large spots gradually disappear (_e_, _f_,
+_g_, _h_, _i_, _j_, _k_). The tail continues to be flexed and extended
+at intervals and the oral motions cease. By the close of the third day
+the embryo becomes much shorter and broader; but the finely pointed
+tail retains its original dimensions, projecting abruptly from the
+sausage-shaped body (_m_, _n_). Large cells next appear in the interior
+of the body, and by a little pressure one may detect indications of
+a mouth (_o_, _p_, _q_, _r_). At this period the embryo begins to
+elongate, and at the same time to diminish in width; but the growth
+takes place chiefly at the oral end of the body. The mouth becomes
+four-lipped, open, and funnel-shaped, and from it a delicate line can
+be distinctly traced passing to an opening near the caudal extremity,
+the tail itself gradually disappearing (_s_, _t_). Speaking of the most
+advanced stage Manson says:--“A vessel of some sort is seen in the
+centre running nearly the whole length of the body and opening close to
+one extremity. This end is slightly tapered down and is crowned with
+three or perhaps four papillæ, but whether this is the head or tail,
+and whether the vessel opening near it is the alimentary canal or the
+vagina, I cannot say.” Now it is quite evident, I think, from Manson’s
+figures that he has here faithfully represented the head and tail,
+the former (_u_) to the left, the latter (_v_) to the right. In his
+_manuscript_ (from which I am now quoting) there is no special reference
+to these two figures; but it is easy to see that these terminal sections
+of the body of the advanced embryo closely correspond with the head
+and tail of the adult worm (_Filaria Bancrofti_). The curved line
+passing to the left (_u_) evidently indicates the commencement of the
+partially-formed vagina.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Larval Filariæ in various stage of growth from
+the mosquito; _a_ to _d_, representing the first stage of metamorphosis
+during the first 36 hours, _e_ to _o_, the changes occurring during the
+second stage, to the close of the third day; _p_ to _t_, forms seen
+during the third stage of metamorphosis from the fourth day onwards. The
+figs. _u_, _v_, represent the head and tail only, whilst _t_ shows the
+young Filaria in an advanced stage, and drawn to a much smaller scale,
+than the others which are here magnified about 125 diameters. Much
+reduced from Manson’s original figures.]
+
+How completely Manson took the initiative in this part of the work is
+evident even from Lewis’s own later observations. In a paper published
+in March, 1878, Dr Lewis, writing from Calcutta and speaking of the
+rôle of the mosquitoes, says:--“I had repeatedly examined, in a cursory
+fashion, these and other suctorial insects, but had not observed
+any parasites suggestive of these embryo-hæmatozoa, hence, when, on
+receipt of a communication from Dr Manson a couple of months ago, a
+renewed search was made, I was surprised to find that four out of eight
+mosquitoes, captured at random in one of the servants’ houses, harboured
+specimens of hæmatozoa to all appearances identical with those found in
+man in this country. After this, however, several days elapsed before
+any mosquitoes could be obtained which contained these embryo-nematoids,
+and the specimens obtained on the next occasion were devoid of the
+enveloping sheath, which appears to characterise the kind found in
+man out here, and apparently, according to Dr Manson, in China also.”
+Further on Lewis also remarks, “When the insect is caught shortly
+after feeding and the contents of its stomach examined microscopically,
+the hæmatozoa, if present, will be observed to manifest very active
+movements, which may possibly continue for several hours on the slide.
+If the insect be kept for twenty-four hours before examination it is
+probable that the movements of the parasites will be more sluggish,
+and their form probably altered owing to irregular contractions and
+dilatations of their substance--changes which may also occasionally be
+observed when embryo-hæmatozoa are preserved on a glass slide, and they
+may sometimes be kept alive thus, if in suitable media, for two or three
+days. When the insect is not examined till the third day, the contained
+parasites will probably manifest marked signs of disintegration--and
+possibly every indication of life will have disappeared from many
+of the specimens. After the third or fourth day I have not seen any
+active specimens of these entozoa in the stomach or in any part of the
+alimentary canal of the mosquito; those which remain have undergone
+more or less fatty degeneration, and are readily stained with eosin,
+which, as far as my experience goes, is not the case so long as they are
+alive and active. After the fourth or fifth day it is very rare that
+traces of any hæmatozoa-like objects can be detected at all, so that
+it must be inferred either that they have succumbed to the digestive
+action of the insect’s stomach or been disposed of along with the
+excreta.” An important _addendum_ by Lewis records a fortunate incident
+as follows:--“It was observed that nearly all the mosquitoes captured
+in one of the servants’ houses contained hæmatozoa, so that the supply
+of suitable insects in all the stages of their growth became amply
+sufficient for all requirements. The result of the examinations under
+these favorable conditions has shown that although the stomach digests a
+great number of the ingested hæmatozoa, as mentioned above, nevertheless
+others actually perforate the walls of the insect’s stomach, pass out,
+and then undergo developmental stages in its thoracic and abdominal
+tissues.”
+
+I may here observe that Sonsino has instituted a comparison between the
+embryos of this Filaria and those of Anchylostoma, by which it appears
+that the former measure 0·218 to 0·330 mm. in length, and those of
+Anchylostoma 0·430 mm. The hæmatozoa are about forty times longer than
+broad, and the larval anchylostomes only fourteen times longer. The tail
+of _Filaria_ is conspicuously longer.
+
+In the ‘Lancet’ for June 22nd, 1878, an announcement appeared from the
+pen of Mr D. H. Gabb, of Hastings, stating that a patient under his care
+formed the habitat of _Filaria sanguinis hominis_; and in the autumn of
+the same year a paper which I read to the Linnean Society in the spring
+was published. In that paper the following summary was offered:
+
+1. _Filaria Bancrofti_ is the sexually-mature state of certain
+microscopic worms hitherto obtained either directly or indirectly from
+human blood.
+
+2. The minute hæmatozoa in question--hitherto described as Wucherer’s
+Filariæ, _Filaria sanguinis hominis_, _Trichina cystica_, _Filariose
+dermathemaca_, and so forth--are frequently associated with the presence
+of certain more or less well-marked diseases of warm climates.
+
+3. The diseases referred to include chyluria, intertropical endemic
+hæmaturia, varix, elephantiasis, lymph scrotum, and lymphoid affections
+generally, a growth called _helminthoma elastica_, a cutaneous disorder
+called craw-craw, and also leprosy.
+
+4. It is extremely probable that a large proportion, or at least
+that certain varieties of these affections are due to morbid changes
+exclusively resulting from the presence of _Filaria Bancrofti_ or its
+progeny within the human body.
+
+5. It is certain that the microscopic hæmatozoa may be readily
+transferred to the stomach of blood-sucking insects, and it has been
+further demonstrated that the digestive organs of the mosquito form
+a suitable territory for the further growth and metamorphosis of the
+larval Filariæ.
+
+6. The character of the changes undergone by the microscopic Filariæ,
+and the ultimate form assumed by the larvæ whilst still within the body
+of the intermediate host (_Culex mosquito_), are amply sufficient to
+establish the genetic relationship as between the embryonal _Filaria
+sanguinis hominis_, the stomachal Filariæ of the mosquito, and the
+sexually-mature _Filaria Bancrofti_.
+
+In the month of September, 1878, I received a letter from Dr da Silva
+Lima announcing the fact that Dr Araujo had verified the existence
+of the embryos of _Filaria Bancrofti_ in mosquitoes, at Bahia. These
+mosquitoes had, I understood, attacked a French priest in whose blood
+Dr Araujo also detected Filariæ. Thus, it fell to the lot of Araujo,
+through his untiring zeal, to verify in Brazil all the separate
+discoveries of Bancroft, Manson, and Lewis.
+
+In the October issue of the ‘Pathological Society’s Transactions’ for
+1878 Dr Bancroft records numerous cases of filarious disease, and
+he gives a succinct account of the circumstances connected with his
+original discovery.
+
+In a clinical lecture published October 12th, 1878, Dr Tilbury Fox
+seeks to diminish the value of these discoveries, characterising
+helminthological investigators as merely “recent writers.” Dr Fox
+denies that Filariæ are a cause of true elephantiasis, but admits
+the occurrence of “elephantoid inflammation and inflammations due
+to Filariæ.” Dr Fox’s statement that “Filariæ have not been found
+in uncomplicated elephantiasis, that is, in disease without chylous
+exudation,” seems to me to be directly at variance with Manson’s
+recorded experiences. I hold that Manson has confirmed the truth of
+Lewis’s views, and that he has thoroughly proved that (to use his
+own words) “varicose groin glands, lymph scrotum, elephantiasis, and
+chyluria are pathologically the same disease.” In the first instance I
+was myself led to conclude that some of the forms of elephantiasis might
+be due to other causes than obstruction of the lymphatics caused by the
+presence of Filariæ; but the explanations of Lewis, of Bancroft, and of
+Manson more especially, have almost entirely removed this doubt. Those
+who seek to explain away the connection between genuine elephantiasis
+and Filariæ will do well to study Manson’s last important memoir. He
+shows that “elephantiasis and allied diseases are much more frequently
+associated with the parasite than are other morbid conditions.” This
+fact is brought out very clearly in his table of 670 cases, from which
+it appears that 58 per cent. of cases of Filaria are associated with
+elephantoid disease.
+
+When this opposition to Manson’s views is likely to cease (on the part
+of those who do not happen to have been in any way instrumental to the
+discoveries in question) it is not easy to say. In a brief communication
+which appeared in the last number of the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’
+for 1878, Dr Manson successfully combats the doubts that have been
+entertained respecting the rôle of the mosquito. Because Lewis found
+that canine hæmatozoa were digested, and thus perished in the stomach of
+mosquitoes, it had been argued that _human_ hæmatozoa must necessarily
+undergo similar processes, and consequently die. Those who oppose the
+views of helminthologists in respect of the intermediary host-function
+of insects on such grounds can have very little general, and still less
+special knowledge of the phenomena of parasitism. It is the old story.
+When any new discovery is made, it must always pass through the ordeals
+of denial and doubt before it can be generally accepted as true; and,
+as in the case of Jenner’s immortal discovery, there will always remain
+a certain number of peculiar people who show themselves hostile to every
+advance in science. Dr Manson may take comfort from this consideration,
+and rest assured that the value of his discovery is quite unaffected by
+the opposition referred to.
+
+Since I communicated the results obtained by Manson, Lewis, myself,
+and others to the Linnean Society, an even more exhaustive summary
+of the facts has been published by Dr Bourel-Roncière, in the
+‘Archives de Médecine Navale.’ The distinguished author does full
+justice to the writings of English helminthologists, and dwells, with
+emphasis, upon the finds and interpretations of Lewis, Manson, and
+Bancroft. Incidentally, also, he comments upon Sir Joseph Fayrer’s
+early recognition of the etiological identity of hæmato-chyluria
+and elephantiasis, on other than helminthic grounds. The frequent
+concurrence of the two affections had especially struck Sir J. Fayrer
+as pointing to a probable common origin. He had also surmised that the
+disorders might be due to parasites.
+
+Dr Bourel-Roncière, alike with the caution, precision, and logical
+reasoning of a cultured _savant_, concludes his elaborate review in the
+following terms:--“There are the facts. Certainly, many points remain
+obscure, many problems await a solution, and the last word has not been
+said on the actual part which the parasite plays in the pathogenesis
+of the affections above enumerated--its mode of action, the importance
+of its rôle, the extent of its pathological domain, the habitat of its
+progenitors, their identity, and so forth. All these questions will
+only be elucidated by necroscopic researches, which at present remain
+absolutely wanting.”
+
+“However, notwithstanding the doubts which hover over the future
+value of these curious discoveries, it is difficult not to recognise
+their importance in the study of certain tropical diseases--which up
+to the present time have been attributed to vague and undetermined
+causes--hæmato-chyluria and elephantoid affections principally.
+Apart from the interest which attaches to the natural history of
+the nematoids, they raise, in effect, etiological and prophylactic
+questions, the extreme importance of which we believe it would be
+needless to demonstrate. It is greatly to be desired that the researches
+should be taken up in other parts of the globe, where endemicity
+and perhaps greater facilities for necroscopic investigation would
+render them fruitful--Cochin-China, Tahiti, &c. Fresh observations are
+necessary to confirm the first and to fill up notable gaps. The way has
+been brilliantly opened by the English and Brazilian physicians. Let our
+colleagues in the French colonies put their shoulders to the wheel; they
+have before them a vast field of study to explore.”
+
+Since the above remarks were written I have received several
+communications from Dr Bancroft, and also others from Drs da Silva Lima,
+Araujo, Assis Sousa, Paterson, Hall, of Bahia--the two last named being
+English physicians in practice there. I regret that I can do little more
+than refer to the writings of these authors in the Bibliography below;
+but I may observe that Drs Paterson and Hall have ascertained that the
+proportion of the population of Bahia affected by Filaria is 8-1/2 per
+cent. Out of 309 persons examined, 26 had hæmatozoa, which is, roughly,
+one in twelve, or more strictly, 8·666 per cent.
+
+Amongst recent memoirs that by Sir J. Fayrer, read to the
+Epidemiological Society on the 5th of February, 1879, deserves especial
+attention. In regard to its significance, I have only space to remark
+that, much as we may regret the little interest shown by our hospital
+physicians and surgeons in this subject, it is particularly gratifying
+to see experienced Indian officers like Sir J. Fayrer, Mr Macnamara, and
+Dr John Murray, coming forward both to aid and render homage to their
+junior colleagues in Eastern parts, who are successfully labouring to
+advance the cause of helminthology and scientific medicine.
+
+In concluding this subject I may observe, that one of the greatest
+hindrances to the due recognition of the remarkable part played by
+parasites in the production of human endemics and animal epizoötics
+arises from the circumstance that no inconsiderable number of minute
+worms may infest a host without obvious injury. This immunity proves
+nothing. If, for example, we take the case of _Trichina_ we find that
+several millions of entozoa may exist in the human, or, at all events,
+in the animal bearer, without producing any symptom of discomfort. In
+such cases it is not possible to determine the strict limits of health
+and disease; nevertheless, were we to double the amount of infection,
+the imaginary line of demarcation is at once bridged over and the
+parasites become acknowledged as directly responsible for grave symptoms
+which may even prove fatal to the bearer. Again, the relative strength
+and size of the infected host constitute factors that materially
+limit the power of the parasite for injury. Where the entozoa are of
+minute size, and where their injurious action is primarily due to the
+mechanical obstructions they set up, it is clear that the virulence of
+the helminthiases, or resulting diseased conditions, will mainly depend
+upon the number of intruders.
+
+Another consideration of the highest value in relation to epidemiology
+generally, and more especially in regard to the practical question as to
+the best methods of stamping out parasitic plagues, is that which refers
+to the life-history of the entozoon itself. It must be obvious that in
+all cases where the intermediate host can be captured and destroyed,
+the life-cycle of the parasite can be broken and interrupted, and if
+thus broken, there is an end to the further propagation of the species.
+The knowledge that we have acquired by experimental research in this
+connection has already enabled us to set a limit upon the prevalence of
+certain well-known disorders, such as Trichinosis, Cestode-tuberculosis,
+and so forth. In the case of epizoötics, however, which are indirectly
+due to the action of intermediary hosts that cannot be readily captured
+or destroyed, then our power of arresting the disease is comparatively
+limited. In the present case it is probably not necessary either that
+a dead or living mosquito should be swallowed to insure infection; but
+it _is_ necessary that the parasitic larvæ should have dwelt within the
+mosquito in order to arrive at the highest stage of larval growth prior
+to their re-entrance within the human territory. Undoubtedly, the larvæ
+are swallowed with potable waters. Perfect filtration before use would
+certainly check, if in course of time it did not totally extinguish
+several of the many virulent diseases that now afflict the inhabitants
+of warm climates.
+
+It is with reluctance that I terminate this article, but in the closing
+pages of this work (Book II, Section V) I hope to add a few more
+particulars in reference to Lewis’s latest researches.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 23).--_Araujo, A. J. P. da Silva_, “Memoria sobre a
+Filariose,” &c., Bahia, 1875; see also ‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.,’ 1875 and
+1878.--_Bancroft, J._, “Cases of Filarious Disease,” in ‘Pathological
+Soc. Trans.’ for 1878, vol. xxix, p. 407.--_Bourel-Roncière_, “_Résumé_
+of and Commentary upon the writings of Silva Lima, Silva Araujo, and
+others,” in ‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.’ for March, 1878.--_Idem_, “Pathologie
+exotique. De l’hématozoaire nématoïde de l’homme et de son importance
+pathogénique, d’après les travaux Anglais et Bréziliens des dernières
+années;” _ibid._, for August and Sept., p. 113-134 and p. 192-214,
+1878.--_Cobbold, T. S._, “Discovery of the Adult Representative of
+Microscopic Filariæ,” ‘Lancet,’ July, 1877, p. 70.--_Idem_, ‘On _Filaria
+Bancrofti_,’ _ibid._ Oct., 1877, p. 495.--_Idem_, “Verification of
+Hæmatozoal Discoveries in Australia and Egypt,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+June, 1876.--_Idem_, “Obs. on Hæmatozoa,” ‘Veterinarian,’ October,
+1873.--_Idem_, “Remarks on the Ova of another Urinary Parasite (in the
+paper on ‘Bilharzia’) from Natal,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ July 27th,
+1872, p. 89; see also Bibl. No. 12.--_Idem_, “Entozoa in Relation to
+the Public Health” (various papers), ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Jan. and
+Feb., 1871.--_Idem_, ‘Worms’ (l. c., p. 151), 1872.--_Idem_, “Hæmatozoa;
+Fresh Discoveries by Lewis,” ‘Lancet’ for Feb. 6, 1875.--_Idem_ (brief
+notice), the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 209, March, 1875.--_Idem_, “On the
+Discovery of the Intermediary Host of _Filaria sanguinis hominis_,”
+‘Lancet,’ Jan. 12, 1878, p. 69.--_Idem_, “On the question of Priority
+of Discovery,” Rep. of Med. Soc. of Lond., in ‘Lancet,’ March 30, 1878,
+p. 465.--_Idem_, ‘Mosquitoes and Filariæ’ (explanatory note), in ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ March 16, 1878, p. 366.--_Idem_, “On the Life-history
+of _Filaria Bancrofti_, as explained by the discoveries of Wucherer,
+Lewis, Bancroft, Manson, Sonsino, myself, and others,” “Report of the
+Proceed. of the Linnean Soc.” for March 7, 1878, in ‘Pop. Science Rev.,’
+April, 1878; and afterwards published _in extenso_ in ‘Journal Linn.
+Soc.,’ Oct. 31, 1878.--_Idem_, “On _Filaria Bancrofti_,” in Part iv of a
+series of papers on the Parasites of Man, in the ‘Midland Naturalist,’
+August, 1878.--_Idem_, “On _Filaria sanguinis hominis_,” in a letter
+to the ‘Lancet,’ July 13, 1878, p. 64.--_Idem_, “Filariæ and Leprosy”
+(case from Bancroft); ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 1, 1879.--_Corré, A._, “Note sur
+l’helminthe rencontré dans les urines hémato-chyleuses,” ‘Rev. des
+Sci. Nat.,’ 1872.--_Cossé_, “Sur l’helminthe rencontré par Wucherer
+et Crevaux,” &c., ‘Rev. Montpellier,’ tom. i, p. 190.--_Couto, A._,
+“These de concourso,” Bahia, 1872.--_Crevaux, J._, “De l’hématurie
+chyleuse, &c.,” 1872; also in ‘L’Union Médicale,’ 1872 (abs. in ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ July, 1872, p. 100); also in ‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.,’ 1874;
+and in ‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol.,’ 1875 (see also Silva
+Lima).--_Davaine, C._, ‘Traité,’ 2nd edit., p. 944; ‘Hæmatozoaires,’
+supp., 1877.--_Fayrer, Sir J._, “Filaria sang. hom.,” ‘Lancet,’ March
+16, 1878, p. 376.--_Idem_, “Elephantiasis Arabum,” ‘Med. Times and
+Gaz.,’ Dec. 1, 1877, p. 588; “On the Relation of _Filaria sanguinis
+hominis_ to the Endemic Diseases of India,” in the ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 8
+and 15, and reprinted from the ‘Med. Times and Gazette’ (same date),
+1879.--_Gabb, D. H._, letter in ‘Lancet,’ June 22, 1878.--_Leuckart_,
+l. c., s. 638, 1876.--_Lewis, T. K._, “On a Hæmatozoon in Human Blood,”
+‘San. Comm. 8th Rep.,’ Calcutta, 1872; ‘Med. Press,’ 1873, p. 234;
+‘Indian Ann. Med. Sci.,’ 1874; ‘Lond. Med. Rec.’ (abs. by myself in
+vol. i, p. 5), 1873.--_Idem_, “Pathological Significance of Nematode
+Hæmatozoa,” ‘Tenth Ann. Rep.,’ 1873, Calcutta (reprint), 1874; ‘Ind.
+Ann.,’ 1875.--_Idem_, “Remarks regarding the Hæmatozoa found in the
+Stomach of _Culex mosquito_,” ‘Proc. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,’ March,
+1878, p. 89.--_Idem_, “Flagellated Organisms in the Blood of Rats”
+(being portion of a paper on “The Microscopic Organisms found in the
+Blood of Man and Animals,” in ‘14th Annual Report of the San. Comm.
+with the Govt. of India’), in the ‘Quart. Journ. of Micr. Science,’
+Jan., 1879.--_Idem_ (published since the present article was written),
+“The Nematoid Hæmatozoa of Man,” _ibid._, April, 1879.--_Lima, J.
+F. da Silva_ (with _Crevaux_), ‘Memoria sobre hematuria chylosa
+ou gordurosa des paizes quentes;’ extrahida da ‘Gazeta Medica da
+Bahia,’ 1876; repr. in ‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.,’ Dec., 1878 (see also Le
+Roy de Méricourt).--_Magalhães, Pedro S. de_, “Filarias em estado
+Embryonario, encontradas n’agua tida como potavel (agua da Carioca),”
+‘O Progresso Medico,’ Dezembro, 1877, p. 57.--_Idem_, “Nota sobre
+os nematoides encontrados no sedimento deposito pela agua (potavel)
+da Carioca,” ‘O Prog. Med.,’ 1 de Setemb., 1878, p. 577.--_Idem_,
+“Caso de filariose de Wucherer;” _ibid._, 15 de Setemb., 1878, p.
+589.--_Makina, M.D._, “Filaria in Chyluria,” letter in ‘Lancet,’
+Feb. 22, 1879, p. 286.--_Manson, P._, “Rep. on Hæmatozoa,” ‘Customs
+Gazette,’ No. 33, Jan.-March, 1877; see also ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’
+for Nov. 10, p. 513, Nov. 17, p. 538, and Nov. 24, p. 563; Dec. 1,
+p. 589, 1877; also Jan., 1878.--_Idem_, “Additional Cases;” _ibid._,
+March 2, 9, 23, 1878.--_Idem_, “On _Filaria sanguinis hominis_, and
+on the Mosquito considered as a Nurse,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ March 7,
+1878; see also report in ‘Nature,’ March 28, 1878, p. 439.--_Idem_,
+“On _Filaria sanguinis hominis_, clinically considered in reference to
+Elephantiasis, Chyluria, and allied Diseases,” ‘Rep. of Med. Soc. of
+Lond.,’ in ‘Lancet,’ March 30, 1878.--_Idem_, “Further Observations on
+_Filaria sanguinis hominis_,” “Med. Rep.” for April-Sept., 1877, in
+‘Customs Gazette,’ Shanghae, 1878.--_Idem_, “The Development of the
+_Filaria sanguinis hominis_,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ for Dec. 28, 1878,
+p. 731.--_Méricourt, A. Le Roy de_, in Appendix to an art. entitled
+“Nouvelle phase de la question relative à la nature parasitaire de
+la chylurie. Découverte du représentant adulte de la ‘Filaire de
+Wucherer,’” par le Dr da Silva Lima, from the ‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’
+Sept., 1877; see also the ‘Lancet,’ Jan., 1878, p. 22 (editorial
+notice).--_Moura, J. de_, ‘These de Concourso,’ 1877.--_O’Neill_, “On
+Craw-craw,” ‘Lancet,’ Feb., 1875.--_Pareira, A. P._, “On Bilharzia and
+Chyluria,” ‘Gazeta Med. da Bahia,’ No. 9, 1877 (noticed in ‘Lancet,’
+Feb. 2, 1878).--_Salisbury, J. H._, “On the Parasitic forms developed
+in Parent Epithelial Cells of the Urinary and Genital Organs,” ‘Hay’s
+American Journ.,’ vol. iv, 1868, p. 376.--_Santos, F. dos_, in ‘Gaz.
+Med. da Bahia,’ March, 1877.--_Sonsino, P._, ‘Richerche,’ &c., 1874;
+‘Della Bilharzia,’ &c., 1876; ‘Sugla Ematozoi,’ &c., 1876 (see Bibl. No.
+12).--_Idem_, “On the Diagnosis of Embryos of Filaria,” in his paper
+‘Sull’ Anchylostoma duodenale;’ ‘Estr. dall Imparziale,’ 1878.--_Sousa,
+M. de A._, ‘Memoria sobre a Elephantiasis do escroto,’ Bahia,
+1878.--_Wucherer, O._, “Noticia Preliminar,” &c., ‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’
+Dec., 1868.--_Idem_, ‘Sobre Hematuria no Brazil,’ _ibid._, Sept., 1869;
+see also “Méricourt’s trans. (De l’hématurie intertropicale observée au
+Brézil),” ‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.,’ p. 141, 1870, and the fuller references
+quoted in my memoir; ‘Linn. Soc. Journ., Zool.,’ vol. xiv, p. 368.
+
+_Filaria Loa_, Guyot.--Although further examinations of this worm will
+probably result in placing it in some other genus than _Filaria_, yet
+it is by no means clear that Diesing was right in placing it with the
+genus _Dracunculus_. I therefore abandon the nomenclature adopted
+in my previous treatise. According to the surgeon, Guyot, who made
+seven separate voyages to the coast of Angola, these worms cannot be
+confounded with the Dracunculus. They are quite white, and relatively
+much thicker than guinea-worms. Under the title of _Filaria oculi_
+Moquin-Tandon has spoken of certain small nematodes as “not uncommon
+in the negroes of the Angola coast;” and he gives other localities
+where it occurs. The worms are identical with those described by Guyot
+as dwelling beneath the conjunctivæ of negroes at Congo and in the
+Gaboon region generally. The parasite is rather more than an inch and
+a quarter in length, being pointed at one end and blunt at the other.
+It is termed _Loa_ by the natives, who state that after a period of
+several years the worm voluntarily quits the organ. The disease is thus
+naturally cured. This parasite enjoys a tolerably wide geographical
+distribution, as it has been observed by Clot Bey in a negress who
+had come from the town of Monpox, situated on the banks of the River
+Magdalena; by Sigaud, who saw one in the eye of a negress in Brazil; by
+Blot, at Martinique, who saw two in a negress originally from Guinea;
+by Bajon, who met with one in a little negro girl who had come from
+Guadeloupe; by Mongin, who found one in a negress who had been living
+in the Island of San Domingo; and by Lestrille, who removed one from
+beneath the conjunctiva of a negro who came from Gaboon.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 24). _Davaine_, l. c., p. 839.--_Guyon_, ‘Gaz. Méd. de
+Paris,’ p. 106, 1841, and in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Record,’ p. 40,
+1842, and in ‘Dublin Journ.,’ vol. xxv, p. 455, 1839.--_Idem_, ‘Compt.
+Rendus,’ tom. lix, p. 743, 1865.--_Guyot_, in ‘Mém. par Arrachait,’ p.
+228, 1805.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., s. 322.--_Lestrille_, in Gervais and
+Van Beneden’s ‘Zool. Med.,’ 1859, also quoted by Davaine, l. c., 2nd
+edit., p. 840.--_Leuckart_, l. c., s. 619.--_Moquin-Tandon, A._, ‘Zool.
+Med.,’ Hulme’s edit., p. 363, 1861.
+
+_Filaria lentis_, Diesing.--This is a doubtful species. The worm
+was first discovered by Nordmann, in a case of lenticular cataract
+under the care of Von Gräfe, and it was afterwards found by Jüngken
+in a similar case, as recorded by Sichel. There is also the instance
+described by Gescheidt, in which Von Ammon operated, and from which
+brief descriptions of the worm have generally been taken. In this case
+there were three worms, two measuring about 1/6″ and the third 1/15″ in
+length. In Jüngken’s case (exhibited by Quadri, of Naples, at Brussels)
+the worm was more than 3/4″ long. In another case, reported by M. Fano,
+the worm was somewhat less than 1/4″ long. There is no certain evidence
+that any of these various worms had developed sexual organs in their
+interior. It is true that the reproductive organs were described in two
+of the worms observed by Gescheidt; but after a due consideration of all
+the facts I fear we must conclude that all the worms in question were
+sexually-immature and wandering nematodes, possibly referable to Gurlt’s
+_Filaria lacrymalis_, as Küchenmeister long ago suggested.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 25).--_Cobbold_, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 332.--_Davaine_, l.
+c., p. 821 _et seq._--_Diesing_, ‘Syst. Helm.,’ p. 625.--_Fano_, ‘Traité
+des Malad. des Yeux,’ tom. ii, p. 498; and in ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ p.
+140, 1869; quoted by Davaine, p. 831.--_Gescheidt_, Ammon’s ‘Zeitsch.,’
+1833, s. 435.--_Leuckart_, l. c., Bd. ii, s. 622.--_Nordmann_, l. c.,
+Bibl. No. 2, s. 7, 1832.--_Sichel_, ‘Iconogr. Ophth.,’ p. 707, 1859.
+
+_Filaria labialis_, Pane.--This is a filiform cylindrical worm measuring
+an inch and a quarter in length. The mouth is armed with four papillæ
+arranged in the form of a cross. The tail of the female is blunt, the
+vaginal outlet being placed at a very short distance from its extremity,
+and a little above or in front of the anus. This parasite was found by
+a medical student at Naples. It occupied the cavity of a pustule in the
+upper lip, giving rise to considerable irritation. Only the male worm is
+at present known.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 26).--_Davaine_, l. c., edit. ii, Synopsis, p.
+107.--_Leuckart_, l. c. (with a fig.), Bd. ii, s. 616.--_Pane_, “Nota
+di un elminte nematoide,” in ‘Annali dell’ Acad. degli aspiranti
+Naturalisti,’ Napoli, ser. 3, vol. iv, 1864.
+
+_Filaria hominis oris_, Leidy.--In the fifth volume of the ‘Proceedings
+of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences’ (1850, p. 117) Dr Leidy
+furnishes the following description of this worm as gathered from the
+examination of a simple specimen preserved in alcohol, and labelled as
+having been “obtained from the mouth of a child.” Body white, opaque,
+thread-like; mouth round, simple; posterior extremity obtuse, furnished
+with a short, curved, epidermal hooklet, 1/500″ in length, by 1/2000″
+in diameter at base. Dr Leidy offers some speculations as to its origin,
+but from whatever source the worm was obtained by the bearer, it seems
+to be an immature form. Its length is five inches and seven lines.
+
+_Filaria_ (_Nematoideum_) _trachealis_, Bristowe and Rainey.--This
+is another very doubtful worm. It was originally described in the
+‘Pathological Society’s Transactions’ for 1855. It evidently represents
+only a juvenile stage of growth of some species of round worm. Rainey
+discovered a considerable number of these worms in the trachea and
+larynx of a person who died from a disease affecting the lower
+extremities. Individually the parasites measured about the 1/50″ in
+length.
+
+_Strongylus_ (_Filaria_) _bronchialis_, Rudolphi.--This is a small
+nematode. The male measures rather more than half an inch, whilst the
+female is upwards of an inch in length. The caudal appendage of the
+male is furnished with a bilobed, membranous, half-bell-shaped bursa.
+This surrounds the cloacal outlet, the latter concealing a double
+spiculum. The tail of the female is sharply pointed, the anal orifice
+being placed a little in front or above. The body is filiform, of a pale
+yellow color. It is about 1/50″ broad in the male, and 1/35″ in the
+female. The mode of reproduction is viviparous.
+
+The original specimens were discovered by Treutler in Germany, during
+the winter of 1791, in the bronchial glands of an emaciated subject,
+whilst those sent to Diesing for description were discovered by Dr
+Fortsitz at Klausenberg, in Transylvania, in the lungs of a boy six
+years old. Diesing and Weinland suggested the identity of _Filaria
+bronchialis_ and _Strongylus longevaginatus_, whilst Küchenmeister went
+further, and pronounced them to be one and the same species.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 27).--_Cobbold_, ‘Entoz.,’ p. 357.--_Davaine_,
+‘Synops.,’ l. c., ‘Synopsis’ cix.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., Eng.
+edit., p. 381.--_Leuckart_, l. c., s. 618.--_Treutler, F. A._, “De
+vermibus filiformibus (_Hamularia lymphatica_) in glandulis conglobatis
+bronchiorum repertis,” in ‘Obs. Pathol. Anat.,’ 1793.--_Wedl._, ‘Die im
+Menschen vorkommenden Helminthen’ (quoted by Leuckart), Wien, 1862, s.
+22.
+
+_Eustrongylus gigas_, Diesing.--This is by far the largest nematode
+known to science, the male sometimes measuring a foot in length and the
+female more than three feet, whilst the breadth of the body reaches half
+an inch at the thickest part. Though fortunately very rare in man, this
+worm is known to occur in a great variety of animals, especially in
+weasels. According to Weinland and Jackson, it is particularly abundant
+in the kidney of the North American mink (_Mustela vison_), destroying
+the substance of the organ, the walls of which become the seat of
+calcareous deposit. It has been found in the dog, wolf, puma, glutton,
+raccoon, coati, otter, seal, ox, and horse.
+
+The body of the adult worm is cylindrical, more or less red in color,
+and somewhat thicker behind than in front. The head is broadly obtuse,
+the mouth being supplied with six small, wart-like papillæ, two of which
+correspond with the commencement of the two lateral lines of the body.
+These lines are also distinguishable from other six longitudinal lines
+traversing the body from end to end by the presence of very minute
+papillæ which are less closely arranged towards the centre (Leuckart).
+The tail of the male shows a simple, thick, cup-shaped bursa, which is
+destitute of rays, and partly conceals the simple spiculum. The tail of
+the female is blunt and pierced by the centrally placed anal opening.
+The vulva is situated near the head in the ventral line. The eggs are
+stout and oval, measuring 1/300″ in length by about 1/550″ in breadth.
+
+As regards development the recent researches of Schneider have shown
+that certain kinds of fish play the part of intermediary bearer.
+Balbiani preserved the ova in water for more than a year without their
+hatching, and all his attempts to rear the larvæ in the intestines of
+the dog by direct experiment failed. Similar feeding experiments upon
+fishes and reptiles also failed. The embryo, when removed from the
+egg, measures 1/104″ in length. It is vermiform, having a pointed head
+and simple mouth. Balbiani describes the buccal cavity as containing
+a protractile stylet. Notwithstanding the negative results obtained
+by Balbiani’s experiments on fishes, Schneider (from anatomical data,
+which Leuckart confirms) has placed it almost beyond question that
+the worm hitherto known as _Filaria cystica_ is the sexually-immature
+_Eustrongylus gigas_. This worm is found encysted beneath the peritoneal
+membrane in _Galaxias scriba_ and _Synbranchus laticaudatus_. It is
+worthy of remark that the genus Galaxias comes nearer to the Salmonidæ
+than to the pike family, whilst the Synbranchi are tropical oceanic
+fishes. Probably the sexually-immature worm occurs in other fishes,
+especially the Salmonidæ.
+
+Remarkably fine examples of the adult worm may be seen in the Hunterian
+Collection, Lincoln’s Inn, and in the Museum of the Royal Veterinary
+College. The human example is undoubtedly genuine. The dissections in
+the Hunterian Collection of specimens were made by me in 1865. Objection
+has been taken to my description of the œsophagus as “spiral.” In
+Sheldon’s specimen it is certainly twisted upon itself, precisely in
+the manner in which Davaine has also figured it (‘Traité,’ fig. 68);
+but I cannot here give further anatomical particulars. Drelincourt
+found two worms sexually united in the kidney. When once the parasites
+have gained access to this organ, rapid destruction of the glandular
+substance follows. Ultimately the kidney is reduced to the condition of
+a mere cyst or bag, which, besides the worms, contains a quantity of
+sanguineo-purulent matter. Frequently only one worm is present, but
+oftener two or three. In the kidney of a puma D’Azara’s friend, Noseda,
+found no less than six worms, whilst Klein obtained eight from the
+kidney of a wolf.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 28).--_Azara, F. de_, ‘The Natural History of the
+Quadrupeds of Paraguay,’ trans. from the Spanish by W. P. Hunter;
+Valpy’s edit., p. 43, 1837; Black’s, 1838; French edit., p. 313,
+1801.--_Albers_, ‘Beitr. z. Anat. &c.,’ Bd. i, s. 115.--_Aubinais_,
+‘Revue Méd.,’ 1846, p. 284.--_Balbiani_, “Recherches,” &c., ‘Compt.
+Rend.,’ 1869, p. 1091; ‘Rec. de Méd Vét.,’ 1870, p. 5.--_Bickford_,
+“Spec. of _Str. gigas_ found in the Kidney of a Dog,” the
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1859, p. 312.--_Blainville_, ‘Dict. des Sci. Nat.,’
+tab. 29.--_Blanchard_, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1849, p. 186.--_Idem_, in
+‘Cuvier’s Règne Animal’ (Masson’s edit.), ‘Les Intestinaux,’ p. 57,
+pl. 27.--_Blasius_, ‘Obs., &c.’ (with fig. of Lumbricus in renibus
+hominis), 1674, p. 125.--_Bobe-Moreau_, in ‘Journ. de Méd.,’ tom.
+xlvii.--_Boerhaave_, ‘Aphorism.,’ 1728.--_Bremser_ (l. c., Bibl. 2),
+s. 223.--_Chabert_, ‘Traité des maladies verm. dans les Animaux,’
+1782.--_Chiaje_, ‘Comp. d. Elmintogr. umana,’ p. 106.--_Clamorgan, J.
+de_, ‘La Chasse de Loup,’ 1583 (quoted by Davaine, the worms being
+described as “serpents et bêtes fort venemeuses”).--_Cobbold_, ‘Entoz.,’
+p. 358.--_Idem_, ‘Catalogue of Entozoa in the Museum of the Roy.
+Coll. of Surg.,’ “Descr. of preps. Nos. 19-25,” p. 3, 1866.--_Idem_,
+“Parasites of Man,” ‘Midland Naturalist,’ Dec., 1878.--_Collet-Meygret_,
+“Mém. sur un ver trouvé dans le rein d’un Chien,” in ‘Journ. de
+Physique,’ &c., 1802.--_Cuvier_, see _Blanchard_ (supra).--_Idem_,
+‘Voyage en Sicile,’ and in ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ tom. xi.--_Davaine,
+C._, ‘Traité,’ l. c., deuxième edit., p. 271 _et seq._ (with full lit.
+refs. at p. 290).--_Diesing_, l. c., vol. ii, p. 325.--_Dujardin_, l.
+c., p. 113.--_Frank, F._, “Ein Spulwürm in der Urinblase eines Hundes,”
+‘Hufeland’s Journ.,’ Bd. xviii, s. 112.--_Jackson_, ‘Catalogue of the
+Boston Museum,’ 1847, p. 317.--_Klein, T. K._, “Anatomical Description
+of Worms found in the Kidneys of Wolves,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1729-30, p.
+269.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., Eng. edit., p. 376.--_Leblanc_ (rep. by
+Rayer and Bouley), in ‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Méd.,’ 1850, p. 640; in ‘Rec.
+de Méd. Vét.,’ 1862, p. 800; and quoted by Davaine.--_Leuckart_, l. c.,
+Bd. ii, s. 353-401, 1876.--_Moublet_, “Mém. sur les vers sortis des
+reins et de l’urethre d’un enfant,” ‘Journ. de Méd-Chir. et Pharm.,’
+1758, pp. 244 and 337.--_Otto_ (Anat.), in ‘Mag. d. Gesellsch. naturf.,’
+1814.--_Owen_, art. “Entozoa,” in Todd’s ‘Cyclop.’--_Rayer_, ‘Traité
+des maladies des reins,’ 1841.--_Rayger_, ‘Sur un serpent qui sortit
+du corps d’un homme après sa mort’ (quoted by Davaine, l. c., p. 272),
+1675.--_Schneider_, ‘Monographie der Nematoden,’ 1866, s. 50.--_Idem_
+(mit Peters), quoted by Leuckart, l. c., s. 382.--_Stratton_, in ‘Edin.
+Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ p. 261, 1843.
+
+_Dochmius duodenalis_, Leuckart.--Much time might be occupied and wasted
+over the nomenclature of this parasite. In my previous treatise, and
+for reasons there stated, I placed it under the genus _Sclerostoma_.
+On rather slender grounds Dubini formed the genus _Anchylostoma_
+for its reception, but Von Siebold thought that, on account of the
+absence of symmetry in the arrangement of the so-called dental organs,
+Dubini’s genus might very well be allowed to remain. Bilharz, Diesing,
+Küchenmeister, Wucherer, and others have retained the genus as either
+_Anchylostoma_ or _Anchylostomum_. Schneider keeps it amongst the
+_Strongyli_; but after all that has been said and written there can,
+I think, be no doubt that if Dujardin’s genus _Dochmius_ is to be
+retained at all, Dubini’s worm must be placed in it. The comparisons
+instituted by Leuckart afford sufficient proof of the intimate alliance
+as between _Anchylostoma_ and _Dochmius_. Professor Molin thought to
+meet the difficulty by calling the worm _Dochmius anchylostomum_, but
+the specific term, _duodenale_, should certainly be retained.
+
+This worm was discovered by Dubini at Milan, and though at first thought
+rare, it is now known to be tolerably common throughout Northern Italy.
+The worm has also been recently found by Dr Kundrata at Vienna, in an
+Austrian subject. According to Pruner, Bilharz, and Griesinger, it
+is abundant in Egypt. Griesinger believed that about one fourth of
+the people of that country suffered from anæmic chlorosis, solely in
+consequence of the presence of this worm in the small intestines. From
+Wucherer’s observations especially, we know that Dubini’s worm is not
+limited to the localities above mentioned, for it occurs in the western
+tropics, in Brazil, and even in the Comoro Islands.
+
+The worm may be described as a small nematode, the males measuring 3/8″
+or rather more, whilst the females extend to very nearly 1/2″ (12 mm.).
+The head is pointed and tapering, and bent forward, having the mouth
+directed towards the ventral aspect. The oral opening is armed with four
+asymmetrically disposed, unequally-sized, horny, conical, converging
+teeth. The neck is continuous with the cylindrical body, which is 1/80″
+in thickness. The body terminates in a straight cone-shaped, or rather
+sharply-pointed tail in the female, the caudal extremity of the male
+ending in a partially inflexed, blunt point. In the male there is a
+cup-shaped, bilobed bursa, the membranes of which are supported by
+eleven chitinous rays, ten being simple, whilst the median, or odd one,
+is bifurcated at the summit. The mode of reproduction is viviparous.
+Adult males and females occur in the proportion of one of the former to
+three of the latter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Male _Dochmius duodenalis_, with bursa
+separately enlarged. After Küchenmeister.]
+
+As above mentioned, it was Griesinger who first pointed out the clinical
+importance of this entozoon. He first explained the manner in which
+the worm produces anæmia, the persons attacked losing blood as if
+they were being bitten by innumerable small leeches. Like the rest of
+their kindred, these worms are veritable blood-suckers. In the first
+instance the views of Griesinger met with opposition, but they have
+since received abundant confirmation. Whilst Küchenmeister’s ‘Manual’
+furnishes an excellent account of the disorder as known in Europe, we
+are chiefly indebted to Wucherer for what is known of the disorder in
+Brazil. The experiences recorded in the ‘Deutsches Archiv für Klinische
+Medicin’ for Sept. 27th, 1872 (s. 379-400), were amongst the last that
+appeared from the pen of that gifted and amiable physician. As little
+or no notice of his writings appears to have been taken by professional
+men in this country, I depart somewhat from the design of this work
+when I venture to abstract a few of the clinical particulars which
+he has supplied. Their importance in relation to sanitary science is
+obvious, inasmuch as these parasites are introduced into the human body
+by drinking impure water, or, at least, water which either contains the
+free larvæ of the worm, or the intermediary bearers that harbor the
+larvæ.
+
+It should be borne in mind that Dubini’s original discovery was made at
+Milan in 1838, whilst Griesinger’s recognition of the worm as a cause
+of the Egyptian chlorosis resulted from a post-mortem examination made
+on the 17th of April, 1851.
+
+In the journal above mentioned, Wucherer records his own discoveries
+as follows (‘Ueber die Anchylostomunkrankheit,’ &c.):--“Although
+Griesinger with well-founded confidence gave an account of his ‘find’
+and its significance, yet it remained for a long time unnoticed and
+unutilised, till at length a case led me to corroborate it. During my
+many years’ residence in Brazil, especially during the first year, I
+had very frequent opportunities for witnessing the tropical chlorosis,
+but seldom to treat it, as it is one of those diseases for which
+Brazilians seek no medical assistance. Its treatment falls to the lot
+of the _curiosos_, _curadeiros_ (quacks), who employ the fresh pulp of
+a species of fig as a remedial agent with the best results. On the 13th
+of December, 1865, I was called to the Benedictine monastery in Bahia
+to see a slave of the _order_ suffering from _hypoæmia_. The patient
+was about thirty years of age, married, a strongly built mulatto. He
+was a field laborer on the Ingua plantation of the order, who exhibited
+in a conspicuous degree all the symptoms that occur in hypoæmia except
+the diarrhœa. He was well nourished, but strikingly pale, his whole
+face, but especially the eyelids, being œdematously swollen, as also
+were the feet, legs, and hands. The hands and feet were very cold.
+His appearance betrayed the most horrible anguish or low despondency.
+With difficulty only could he raise himself, being obliged to lie down
+again immediately on account of his weakness. Auscultation revealed a
+diminished respiratory murmur, and bronchial expiration in both lungs.
+The pulse was very rapid and small, the patient complaining of pain in
+the region of the heart. He had frequent palpitation when he moved, and
+he complained of pain in other parts of the body. His abdomen was much
+distended by gases, but not sensitive to pressure from without, except
+in the region of the stomach. The urine was clear, its specific gravity
+1007 to 1023-1/2°. Under great difficulties he resided for several
+months after his marriage at Inhatâ. Earlier he had been on the estates
+of the order at Rio de S. Francisco. He there suffered for a long time
+from intermittent fever, but at Inhatâ he entirely recovered. At Inhatâ
+the slaves frequently suffered from hypoæmia, but in S. Francisco not
+at all. He appears not to have made any misuse of brandy. The slaves
+of the order were well cared for, and supplied with good and wholesome
+nourishing food. The patient had already, for a long period, treated
+himself with steel wine, yet was continually getting worse and worse.
+He had not taken the pulp of the fig. As I was unaware he had suddenly
+become so ill, they hastily despatched a message to the town. There was
+no good to be expected from the further employment of iron, and the
+patient was in such a condition that from the very first I despaired
+of his recovery. I immediately prescribed the pulp of the Gammeleira
+(_Ficus doliaria_), but it could not be easily obtained. Considering
+that the Gammeleira would have a drastic effect, I therefore prescribed
+two grammes of elaterium, to be divided into eight doses, of which he
+should take one every three hours.” Dissatisfied with this advice,
+however, Dr Wucherer goes on to say that on reaching home he carefully
+looked up the literature of the subject. “In a ‘Geologico-Medical
+Report’ by Professor Hirch, recorded in the ninety-sixth volume of
+‘Schmidt’s Jahrbucher,’ I found how Griesinger had recognised the
+_Anchylostoma_ as the cause of the Egyptian chlorosis, which was
+clearly identical with our _hypoæmia_. He had employed this commended
+anthelmintic. I resolved the more to prescribe the pulp of the
+Gammeleira when I found it described as a worm-expelling remedy in
+Martin’s ‘Systema Materiæ Vegetabilis Braziliensis.’ The next morning,
+however, when I arrived at the monastery I learnt that my patient died
+about two hours after a slight evacuation. Only after much resistance
+would they permit the _sectio cadaveris_. I merely opened the abdomen,
+and was surprised to find everything as Griesinger had described. During
+the next season, through the courtesy of my colleagues attached to the
+General Infirmary at Bahia, especially of Drs Silva Lima, Faria, and
+Caldos, I was enabled to open more than twenty bodies of anæmically
+deceased individuals. All were selected as miserably poor in condition,
+but only five were bodies of persons in whom hypoæmia was diagnosed,
+and in these there were a great number of Anchylostomes in the small
+intestine. The intestines of the other bodies contained either none,
+one, or a few.” Dr Wucherer next states that he compared the characters
+presented by his entozoa with those given by Dubini, Diesing, and Von
+Siebold, and found a perfect agreement throughout. He sent several
+examples to Griesinger, who also established their identity, and
+communicated the results of his investigations accordingly (‘Archiv für
+Heilkunde,’ 1866, s. 387. See also Leuckart, ‘Die Mensch. Par.,’ Bd ii,
+s. 411). Dr Wucherer also forwarded a number of specimens to Dr Weber,
+who published a brief account of them with excellent figures (‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xviii, 1867, p. 274). As mentioned in the text of
+his memoir (s. 394), Dr Wucherer also transmitted some strongyloids to
+myself. “The publication of my observations,” adds Dr Wucherer (‘Gazeta
+Medica da Bahia,’ 1866, p. 27 _et seq._), “had a result in that Dr J.
+R. de Moura, of Thersepolis, in the province of Rio de Janeiro, sought
+for Anchylostomes in the bodies of tropical anæmics (_Hypöæmikern_).
+He at once found these parasites, as stated in the same journal (for
+1866, p. 132). As occurred to myself, he saw no enduring results from
+the application of the remedies which appeared to be called for, whilst
+he well knew that unprofessional persons (Nichtärzte) succeeded in
+obtaining marked results by the exhibition of the pulp of the Gammeleira
+(_Ficus doliaria_). The anthelmintic action of this remedy was also
+unknown to him.” Dr Wucherer then records how his discovery of these
+entozoa was announced by Dr Jobini to the Rio academy, and how Dr
+Moura’s observations were subsequently communicated, adding remarks upon
+the interesting discussion that followed. The general opinion was that
+the _Anchylostomata_ were _not_ the primary and necessary cause of this
+tropical anæmia, but rather a co-operating agent in its production.
+Against this view Dr Wucherer afterwards very properly protested
+(‘Gazeta,’ Jan. 15th, 1868). In the mean time, says our author, “Dr le
+Roy de Méricourt, prompted by my first communication, had invited the
+physicians of the French colony to seek for Anchylostomes. Drs Monestier
+and Grenet, at Mayotta (one of the Comoro Isles, which lies about 12°
+S. lat. to the north-east of Madagascar), ascertained the presence of
+entozoa in hypoæmics. Dr Grenet sent the duodenum and a portion of the
+jejunum of an hypoæmic corpse to Le Roy de Méricourt, who compared
+the Anchylostomes with Davaine’s description, and recognised them as
+examples of _A. duodenale_.”
+
+“In the year 1868 Dr Rion Kérangel found Anchylostomes in the bodies
+of hypoæmics in Cayenne. Thus, the occurrence of Anchylostomes in
+hypoæmics has been authenticated by Pruner, Bilharz, and Griesinger,
+in Egypt; by myself, Dr Moura, Dr Tourinho, and other physicians, in
+Brazil; by Monestier and Grenet, in the Comoros; and by Rion Kérangel in
+Cayenne. It thus also appears, from the wide separation of these several
+localities, that the Anchylostomes, if duly sought for, will be found in
+many other countries.”
+
+These details given by Wucherer are so precise and instructive that I
+could not have further abridged them without injustice to his record.
+The bearing of the foregoing facts in relation to the question as to
+how we may hope to arrest the fatal action of many of these nematodes
+is sufficiently obvious. That strongyles and their allies prove highly
+destructive to man and beast is as well established as any other
+recognised conclusion in medical science; nevertheless, there are
+those who still doubt the power of these nematodes in relation to the
+production of fatal epidemics. I shall deal with the sanitary bearings
+of the subject hereafter. In conclusion, I may mention that Dr da Silva
+Lima has forwarded specimens of _Anchylostomum_ to the Hunterian Museum,
+where they may be seen.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 29).--_Bilharz_, ‘Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.,’ Bd.
+iv, s. 55.--_Cobbold_, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 361.--_Idem_ “Remarks on Recent
+Contributions to our Knowledge of the Parasitic Nematoids, especially
+in reference to the Wasting Diseases they produce in Man and Animals,”
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan., 1876, p. 1.--_Davaine_, l. c., pp. 118
+and 931.--_Diesing_ “Revis. der Nematoden,” ‘Sitzb. d. m.-naturw.
+cl. d. k. Akad.,’ 1860, s. 716.--_Dubini_, ‘Entozoografia,’ &c.,
+1849.--_Griesinger_ (quoted above), see also ‘Arch. f. Phys. Heilk.,’
+1854.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., Eng. edit., p. 383.--_Leuckart_, l.
+c., ss. 410-455.--_Molin_, ‘Il sottordine degli Acroffali,’ p. 61
+(quoted by Leuckart).--_Siebold_, ‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,’ 1852,
+s. 55.--_Sonsino, P._, _L’Anchilostoma duodenale_ in ‘relazione
+coll’ Anemia progressiva perniciosa,’ Egitto, 1877.--_Idem_, ‘Sull.’
+_Anch. duod._, 1878 (see also Bibliog. No. 27, both reprinted from
+‘Imparziale.’)--_Weber, H._, l. c., 1867.--_Wucherer_ (quoted above),
+1872.
+
+_Dracunculus medinensis_, Cobbold.--This parasite is popularly known as
+the guinea-worm, or Medina-worm. Probably Lister was the first writer
+who distinctly spoke of it as the Dracunculus, 1690, the same title
+being applied to it by Kaempfer, 1694. Be that as it may, Gmelin, long
+afterwards, placed the parasite in the genus _Filaria_, at the same
+time adopting the specific title _medinensis_. This had been previously
+employed by Linneus, who, however, regarded the worm as belonging to the
+genus _Gordius_. It being clear from the distinctive characters of the
+entozoon that it was desirable to separate it from the Filariæ, and that
+no better generic name could be devised than _Dracunculus_, I thought
+it right to combine Lister’s and Gmelin’s nomenclature as above, 1864.
+Leuckart pursued a similar course, crediting Linneus with the titles.
+
+The guinea-worm having been known from the earliest times, it is not
+surprising that its true nature long remained a mystery. Any one who has
+read Küchenmeister’s elaborate narrative of the historical significance
+of the Dracunculus will hardly have failed to arrive at the conclusion
+that Moses was probably the earliest writer on the endemic disorder
+which is occasioned by this parasite. There can be no doubt that the
+“fiery serpents” which afflicted the children of Israel during their
+stay in the neighbourhood of the Red Sea were neither more nor less
+than examples of our Dracunculus. It is further evident that Plutarch
+spoke of Dracunculi, when in the eighth book of his ‘Symposiacon,’ he
+quotes Agatharchidas as stating that the people taken ill on the Red
+Sea suffered from many strange and unheard-of attacks, amongst other
+worms, from “little snakes, which came out upon them, gnawed away their
+legs and arms, and when touched retracted, coiled themselves up in
+the muscles, and there gave rise to the most insupportable pains.” In
+order to render the passage more readable, it will be seen that I have
+slightly altered the original version (‘Parasites,’ s. 305).
+
+The guinea-worm may be described as a nematode measuring from one to six
+feet in length, having a thickness of 1/10th of an inch. The body is
+uniformly cylindrical, terminating below in a more or less curved and
+mucronately pointed tail. The head is flatly convex or truncate, having
+a central, simple mouth, which is surrounded by four equi-distantly and
+cruciately disposed papillæ. The mode of reproduction is viviparous,
+the body enclosing a prodigious number of hatched embryos, which, by
+distension of the uterine ducts, almost entirely obliterate the somatic
+cavity. Notwithstanding the statements of Owen to the contrary, the male
+Dracunculus is at present altogether unknown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Outline of a female _Dracunculus medinensis_.
+Nat. size. Original.]
+
+The guinea-worm possesses a comparatively limited geographical
+range, for not only is it proper to the tropical regions, but within
+intertropical limits it is almost exclusively confined to certain
+districts in Asia and Africa. Thus, according to Künsenmuller, as quoted
+by Busk, it occurs endemically in Arabia Petræa, on the borders of the
+Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea, on the banks of the Ganges, in Upper
+Egypt, Abyssinia, and the coast of Guinea. “In America the guinea-worm
+is unknown, except in persons who have had communication with Africa
+or other parts where it is indigenous. The island of Curaçoa is the
+only locality in the New World which offers an apparent exception to
+this fact, and it would be highly desirable to ascertain the real state
+of the case in this instance.” The observations of Chisholm showed
+that the Dracunculus is really prevalent in several of the West Indian
+islands, especially in Grenada, and the still later investigations of Dr
+Da Silva Lima point to its former prevalence in Brazil. Now, the worm
+is rarely seen at Bahia. Mr Busk said:--“Though endemic only in the
+above-mentioned parts of the world, it would yet appear that all races
+of mankind are obnoxious to the attacks of the _Filaria_ when exposed to
+what may be called the contagion; that is, when placed in circumstances
+under which it might be supposed a contagious _seminium_ could be
+conveyed to them.” Mr Busk also added:--“I have known many instances
+tending to prove that, in order that a European should become infected
+with the guinea-worm on the coast of Africa, it is not necessary that
+he should have been on shore at all. It has been quite sufficient for
+him to have exposed the bare surface of some parts of his person to the
+water in the native canoes alongside, or, it may be, to the discharge
+from the sores of those laboring under the disease. This mode of its
+introduction accounts for the frequency with which the legs and feet
+are attacked by the parasite, in preference to other parts of the body,
+as it will always, I believe, be found that the men who have become so
+affected have been in the habit of going about with bare feet, as is
+common among sailors in warm latitudes. That the contagious material is
+conveyed in water is also further indicated by the well-known fact that
+in India, where it is the custom of the natives to carry water in skins
+on their backs, the worm makes its appearance on the back and shoulders
+and upper part of the body.” These views were published by Busk in
+1846, and I am free to confess that--confirmed as they appeared to be
+by subsequent and independent testimony--they completely dominated my
+conceptions as to the mode of ingress of the young parasites within the
+human bearer. Thus, those of our Indian troops which were most exposed
+during the rainy season, subsequently exhibited evidence of having been
+invaded by the Dracunculus. As, moreover, the period of incubation
+of the entozoon commonly extends from twelve to fifteen months, it
+necessarily happened that the disease often showed itself in localities
+far distant from the spot where the troops originally contracted the
+disorder. The statement that the period of incubation of the worm is not
+less than a year, is probably incorrect, since Carter mentions that in a
+school of fifty boys bathing in a certain pond at Bombay--the sediment
+of which swarmed with microscopic tank-worms (_Urobales palustris_,
+Carter)--twenty-one were attacked with Dracunculus during the year,
+whilst the boys of other schools, bathing elsewhere, remained, with few
+exceptions, uninfected. This is a remarkable occurrence, and it points
+to the possibility of the young Dracunculi being confined to particular
+pools. That they should, whether occupying the bodies of intermediary
+bearers or not, be more abundant in some waters than others, is just
+what might be expected, since such a distribution is in harmony with
+a recognised law affecting the abundance or limitation of species in
+particular localities. Much, indeed, has been written respecting the
+nature of the soil and geological formations occurring in the Indian
+worm-districts, but the speculative views enunciated on this point are
+little worthy of credit. Those who desire information on this head
+should at all events consult the valuable writings of Smyttan, Greenhow,
+Bird, Forbes, Chisholm, and Aitken, who, apart from the question at
+issue, supply abundance of practical information.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--_a_, _b_, Head and tail of the adult
+guinea-worm (magnified 10 and 18 diameters respectively); _c_, embryo
+(magnified 500 diameters). Original.]
+
+Into the anatomy of the adult Dracunculus I do not enter, but I may
+remark in passing, that the structure of the worm has been exhaustively
+treated of by Busk and Bastian. A _résumé_ of their views is given in
+my introductory treatise. Carter and Leuckart have also added important
+details. As regards the structure and development of the young
+worms, I have to observe that the discovery of the viviparous mode of
+reproduction in Dracunculus is due to Jacobson. Nearly a quarter of a
+century ago I recognised the fact that the uterine organs of the adult
+worm almost completely filled up the perivisceral cavity, and that
+they were crowded with microscopic worms. Referring to this “find,”
+the late Sir George Ballingall, of Edinburgh, in his well-known work
+on ‘Military Surgery,’ recorded the circumstance in the following
+terms:--“The Assistant Conservator of the Anatomical Museum in our
+University has detected _in the oviduct_ of an adult specimen from
+my collection myriads of minute and perfectly-developed (embryonic)
+Dracunculi. They can be very well seen with an half-inch object-glass,
+but their structure is best exhibited if the magnifying power be
+increased to two hundred and fifty diameters linear.” As already stated
+in my introductory treatise, these observations were made during the
+winter of 1853-54. In July, 1854, M. Robin made a similar statement
+after examining a fresh _Dracunculus_ which had been extracted from the
+leg of a man by M. Malgaigne. Robin, not unsuitably, compared the worm
+to a double tube, one tubular sheath, as it were, enclosing the other.
+“The second tube,” he distinctly affirms, “_is the oviduct, or, rather,
+that part which represents the uterus_. The young still remaining in
+the uterus were nearly all coiled, sometimes with the tail sallying
+outwards, at others rolled like the rest of the body.” I have thought
+it only due to Robin and myself to show that from the first we were
+perfectly well acquainted with the fact of the “great development of the
+genital tube and of its close adherence to the parietes of the body.”
+To be sure, many discrepancies occurred in our writings, and in those
+of Busk and Carter. It was Bastian’s skill and good fortune to correct
+these errors. Thus, most of us agreed in recognising a slightly trilobed
+or tripapillated mouth; but Carter failed to demonstrate the existence
+of these tubercles, and spoke of the oral aperture as being simple and
+“punctiform.” The body throughout its three upper fourths appeared to me
+to be cylindrical, but Robin found that it was flattened. It is finely
+striated transversely, except at the part where it contracts to form
+the slender, pointed tail. According to Carter, Robin, and Davaine, the
+young attain a length of about 1/33 of an inch, but Bastian gives it as
+about 1/42″. In thickness, Carter gives the approximative diameter as
+1/633″, Robin makes it 1/990″ to 1/1320″, whilst Bastian gives their
+breadth at 1/1428″, and Davaine at 1/2500″. I estimated their greatest
+length and breadth to be 1/30″ by 1/1000″. Robin and myself thought
+we recognised a distinct, rounded, anal orifice; and whilst Busk, on
+the one hand, saw nothing which in the slightest degree indicated the
+presence of an anal opening, Carter, on the other hand, described the
+structure which we called the anus as a gland, at the same time placing
+the alimentary outlet on one side and a little above it. According to
+Bastian, “the intestinal tube is about 1/87″ in length, and appears
+to consist of a simple canal of varying calibre, pursuing a nearly
+straight course, and terminating exactly at about the middle, in length,
+of the worm.” Like Robin, Bastian recognised œsophageal and stomachal
+divisions, and in a few examples he observed the cæcal or terminal
+portion of the intestine to be partially reflected upon itself. In
+regard to the circular opening which Robin and myself described as the
+anus, Bastian says there is a rounded body, “about 1/2200″ in diameter,
+with a dark or light spot in the centre, according to the varying focal
+distance, and which seems to represent a central aperture. Sometimes,
+above this, traces of two or three large cells may be recognised, whilst
+behind nothing definite can be made out, save that the cavity of the
+body is visible for about 1/400″. In other specimens of the young worm
+the central body and spot are wanting, but, in its stead, two lateral
+sacculi are met with, about 1/3300″ in diameter, that communicate
+with the exterior by a minute channel through the integuments, which
+can sometimes be distinctly recognised. At other times the channel is
+obscured by protrusion, which appears to have taken place through it,
+of a minute bilobed papilla, projecting 1/10,000″ from the side of the
+body. When the projections are seen, the sacculi are indistinct.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Embryos of _Dracunculus_. Magnified 500
+diameters. After Bastian.]
+
+As Bastian found the young in all stages of development from the
+germ condition 1/5000″ in diameter up to the perfect embryo, and as,
+moreover, he, like the rest of us, could detect no sexual orifice in
+the adult Dracunculus, he was led to express his belief that the young
+were produced agamogenetically. He went so far as to call the germs
+_pseudova_. It was with great reluctance that I dissented from the views
+of so gifted an observer as Bastian; nevertheless, later researches have
+shown that I was justified in not hastily concurring in the theory of a
+non-sexual mode of reproduction for Dracunculus.
+
+Among the many advances of modern helminthology, the discovery of the
+true source of the guinea-worm is not the least important. To the late
+M. Fedschenko (the lamented and accomplished Russian traveller, who
+lost his life in a snowstorm on the Alps), science stands indebted
+for this memorable advance. Fedschenko showed that the embryos of
+Dracunculi, after quitting the human host, succeed in effecting an entry
+into the bodies of entomostracous crustaceans belonging to the genus
+Cyclops. Within these intermediary bearers, after twelve hours’ sojourn,
+the embryos undergo a change of skin, attended with subsequent growth.
+Here they remain to complete their larval development, which takes place
+within a period of five weeks, or, as Fedschenko himself told me, one
+month and six days. At length, as perfected larvæ, they are, together
+with their crustacean hosts, transmitted to the stomach of the ultimate
+or human bearer. It is probable that sexual maturity is next acquired
+within the human stomach, copulation following. After this, the females
+migrate to the situations in which they are found beneath the skin of
+the human bearer, whilst the males perish and pass out with the fæces.
+Thus much I gathered from M. Fedschenko himself when he visited this
+country, and I possess a sketch of the larvæ made by him at the time
+(October 23rd, 1873). One of the figures represents a larva which has
+undergone ecdysis, the long and narrow embryonic tail being supplanted
+by one which is blunt and forked at the tip. The somatic contents of the
+embryo have at the same time differentiated into a complete intestinal
+tube, and a constriction marks the junction of the œsophagus with the
+stomach. There is also internally an oval-shaped mass of cells near the
+centre of the body. These represent the commencement of the reproductive
+organs.
+
+What I had gathered from Fedschenko in conversation thus epitomises
+that which has since been much more fully stated by Leuckart; and
+it is only fair to add that the Russian traveller was led up to his
+discovery by the previous investigations of Leuckart respecting the
+young of Cucullanus. The Leipsic helminthologist had, indeed, specially
+instructed Fedschenko as to the probable source of Dracunculus.
+
+It is often thus that science makes its clear advances, since a
+master-mind is needed to set others on the right track. The embryos
+of Cucullanus and Dracunculus bear a close resemblance to each other,
+and the similarity of the types is continued on, though not in the
+same degree, in the next stage of larval growth, after ecdysis. The
+higher larvæ of both have their tails trifurcate at the tip, the head
+of the Dracunculus-larva being distinguished by the presence of a pair
+of papillæ. In the case of Cucullanus the embryos are, according to
+Leuckart, passively transferred to the stomach of Cyclops by the mouth;
+but in the case of Dracunculus, Fedschenko saw the embryo in the act of
+perforating the bodies of the little crustacea at the ventral surface,
+where the segments are bound together by a thin and easily penetrated
+connecting membrane. The larvæ then proceed to coil themselves within
+the limbs, as many as six or even a dozen of the parasites being
+occasionally found within the body of a single crustacean host. When
+they have reached full larval growth they measure about 1/25″ in length.
+Of course, after attaining this stage, it is a matter of conjecture
+as to the precise way in which their final destiny is accomplished.
+Fedschenko fed dogs and cats with the infected crustacea, but failed
+to rear Dracunculi in these animals. Clearly, these carnivora were
+unsuitable hosts. Could Fedschenko have experimented on man the result
+would probably have been very different. Arguing from what happens in
+the case of Cucullanus amongst fishes, and Trichina in man, there can
+be little doubt that all the further and final changes undergone by
+the larvæ are accomplished within the human host. These changes are
+usually, if not invariably, consequent upon a direct transference of the
+infested entomostraca along with water used as drink. Thus, it must at
+once be evident that the simple sanitary precaution of filtering water
+before use is amply sufficient to ensure the prevention of attacks of
+dracontiasis or the guinea-worm disease. The theosophical remedy of
+Moses against this invasion by fiery serpents, as the worms were called
+in his time, and the modern prophylactic measures dictated alike by
+science and common sense, thus stand in striking contrast the one to the
+other. In the nature of things it must ever remain that unreason and
+reason will select diametrically opposite methods of action, equally, no
+doubt, with the good intention of bringing about beneficial results.
+
+From what has now been advanced, it will be seen that as regards the
+mode of infection the views categorically expressed in my previous work
+(‘Entozoa,’ p. 387) cannot be maintained. What, however, is there stated
+in respect of _treatment_ still holds good in the main, even as regards
+prophylaxis.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 30).--_Adam_, ‘Trans. Med. and Surg. Soc.,’ Calcutta,
+1824.--_Aitken, W._, ‘The Science and Practice of Medicine,’ 6th edit.,
+vol. i, 1872.--(Anonymous), “Review of the writings and opinions
+of Duncan, Johnson, Bird, Mylne, Kennedy, Chisholm, H. Scott, A. J.
+Robertson, Smyttan, Macgregor, Thomas, Mosely, Morehead, Twining,
+and others, on the Dracunculus or Guinea-worm,” in ‘Corbyn’s India
+Journ. of Med. and Phys. Sci.,’ vol. ii, p. 118, 1836.--(Anon.),
+“The Guinea-worm very Prevalent at Bokhara,” ‘Boston Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1843, p. 387.--_Balfour, J._, ‘Ind. Ann. Med. Sci.,’ 1859, p.
+175.--_Ballingall, G._ (l. c., supra), 1854.--_Bastian, H. C._, “On
+the Structure and Nature of the Dracunculus or Guinea-worm,” ‘Linn.
+Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xxiv, p. 101, 1863.--_Berncastle, J._, in the
+‘Lancet,’ 1851.--_Bird, J._, ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Trans.,’ 1825,
+p. 151.--_Bremser_ (l. c., Bibl. No. 2), s. 194.--_Brett_, ‘Surgical
+Diseases of India,’ 1840; see also ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1841.--_Bruce,
+N._, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1806, vol. ii, p. 145.--_Busk,
+G._, ‘Micr. Soc. Trans.’ (original series), 1846.--_Carter, H. J._,
+“Note on Dracunculus in the Island of Bombay,” ‘Bombay Med. and Phys.
+Soc. Trans.’ (new series), No. 2, p. 45, 1853-54; see also postscript,
+p. 252.--_Idem_, “Further Observ. on Dracunculus,” ‘Bomb. Med. and
+Phys. Soc. Trans.’ (new series), No. 4, p. 215, 1857-58.--_Idem_, “On
+Dracunculus and Microscopic Filaridæ,” ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. iv
+(third series), 1859.--_Idem_, “Notes on Dracunculus,” &c., ‘Ann. of
+Nat. Hist.,’ vol. ix (third series), 1862.--_Chapotin_, ‘Bull. des
+Sci. Med.,’ 1810.--_Charvet_, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1834.--_Chiaje_
+(l. c., Bibl. No. 2), p. 99.--_Chisholm, C._, “On the _Malis
+Dracunculus_ or Guinea-worm (in Grenada),” ‘Edin. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ vol. xi, 1815; see also the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ix, p. 508,
+1836.--_Clark_, ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1840.--_Clarkson, N. F._, “Alleged
+Case in the Horse,” the ‘Veterinary Record,’ 1845, p. 73.--_Clot-Bey_,
+‘Aperçu sur le ver dragonneau observé en Egypte,’ 1830.--_Cobbold_,
+‘Entozoa,’ p. 373.--_Cuvier_, ‘Règne animal,’ Orr’s Eng. edit., 1849,
+p. 644.--_Davaine_, ‘Traité,’ l. c., edit. ii, p. 783 (full lit.
+refs.), 1878.--_Dickson_, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1851.--_Drummond_,
+‘Med. Commentaries,’ 1793, p. 294.--_Dubois_, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ vol. ii, 1806.--_Duncan_, ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1835.--_Ewart, J._, “Questions relating to Dracunculus,” in
+a review of his memoir on the “Vital Statistics of the Meywar Bheel
+Corps,” in the ‘Madras Quart. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ vol. i, 1860, p.
+462.--_Fedschenko_, ‘Protocol of the Promoters (Freunde) of the Natural
+and Physical Sciences at Moscow’ (in the Russian language), 1869 and
+1874 (quoted by Leuckart).--_Forbes, D._, “Observ. on Dracunculus”
+(extr. from the ‘Half-yearly Reports of the diseases prevailing at
+Dharwar in the 1st Grenadier Regiment, in the year 1836’), ‘Bombay Med.
+and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. i, 1838, p. 215.--_Gibson, A._, “Note on
+the Prevalence of Dracunculus,” in his remarks on the “Diseases of
+the Deckan,” in ‘Bomb. Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. ii, 1839,
+p. 209.--_Gramberg_, ‘Geneeskundige tijdschrift voor nederl. Indie,’
+1861, p. 632 (quoted by Leuckart).--_Greenhow, H. M._, ‘Indian Ann. of
+Med. Sci.,’ vol. vii, 1861, p. 31.--_Grierson, D._, “Observ. on the
+Dracunculus, as it prevailed in the 22nd Regiment, N.I., from April till
+September, 1841,” ‘Bomb. Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ No. 4, 1841, p.
+90.--_Grundler_, in ‘Commerc. Litt. Nov.,’ 1740, p. 239.--_Henderson,
+J._, “Note respecting Four Cases of Dracunculus in the 48th Regiment,”
+‘Madras Quart. Journ.,’ vol. iii, 1841, p. 353.--_Horton, J. A. B._,
+‘Army Med. Reports,’ 1868, p. 335.--_Kennedy, R. H._, ‘Calcutta
+Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ 1825, p. 165.--_Küchenmeister_ (l. c.,
+Eng. edit.), p. 389.--_Leuckart_ (l. c., Bibl. No. 1), s. 644-725.--
+_Lewis, T. R._, in ‘On a Hæmatozoon,’ &c. (l. c., Bibl. No. 23), p.
+30 _et seq._--_Lima, Da S._, “Remarks on the _Filaria medinensis_, or
+Guinea-Worm; on the occurrence of this Parasite endemically in the
+Province of Bahia; on its entrance into the human body by drinking
+water,” in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., March, _et seq._, 1879.--_Lister_,
+‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1690, p. 417.--_M’Clelland, J._, ‘Calcutta Journ. of
+Nat. Hist.,’ vol. i, 1841, p. 366.--_M’Grigor, J._, “On the Guinea-worm”
+(in his “Account of the Diseases of the 88th Regiment in Bombay”),
+‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. i, 1805, p. 284.--_Morehead, C._,
+‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. vi, 1833, p. 418; also
+noticed in ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xliv, 1835.--_Idem_, part
+ii, ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. viii, 1836-42.--_Murray,
+J._, “Guinea-worm a very Common Disease at Sattara” (in his Official
+Report on the Hospital, &c.), ‘Bombay Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’
+No. 9, art. vi, p. 198, 1847.--_Oke, W. S._, “Case of Guinea-worm,”
+‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. vi, 1843.--_Oldfield_, “Case of
+Dracunculus” (from Laird and Oldfield’s “Narrative of an Expedition into
+the Interior of Africa”), ‘Dublin Journ.,’ vol. xii, 1838.--_Paton_,
+“Cases of Guinea-worm,” ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. ii,
+1806.--_Raddock_, “A Case of Guinea-worm,” ‘Indian Med. Gaz.,’ Oct.,
+1877, p. 265.--_Scott, W._, “Remarks on the Dracunculus,” in a letter to
+the Medical Board, Madras, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xvii,
+1821.--_Leverance, C. E._, “History of a Case of Guinea-worm,” from
+‘Amer. Med. Times,’ in the ‘Glasgow Med. Journ.,’ vol. ix, 1861-62, p.
+377.--_Smyttan, G._, “On Dracunculus,” ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc.
+Trans.,’ vol. i, 1825, p. 179.--_Stewart, L. W._, ‘Indian Ann. of Med.
+Sci.,’ vol. vi, 1858, p. 88.--_Twining, W._, “Cases of Dracunculus,”
+‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. vii, 1835.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Head of _Oxyuris vermicularis_. Highly
+magnified. After Busk.]
+
+_Oxyuris vermicularis_, Bremser.--Of all the parasites infesting the
+human body this is the one concerning which the medical practitioner is
+most frequently consulted, partly on account of its remarkable frequency
+in children, and more particularly on account of the difficulty often
+experienced in getting permanently rid of it. The _Oxyuris vermicularis_
+is by no means confined to young persons, seeing that adults are
+infested even to old age. It is familiarly known as the threadworm or
+seatworm. The male measures about 1/6″, and the female from 1/3″ to 1/2″
+in length. The female possesses a long capillary tail, which terminates
+in a three-pointed end. The extremity is said to act as a kind of
+holdfast. The tail of the male is obtusely pointed. In both sexes the
+body presents a more or less fusiform shape, the anterior end being
+narrowed to form a somewhat abruptly-truncated head, which is often
+rendered very conspicuous by a bulging of the transparent integument
+surrounding the mouth. This presents in profile the aspect of winged
+appendages (fig. 45). The oral opening is tripapillated, leading into
+a triangular œsophagus. The integument is transversely striated, and
+of a silvery-white appearance. The spicule is simple, single, and very
+minute. The eggs are oblong and unsymmetrical. They measure about 1/900″
+from pole to pole, and 1/1400″ transversely.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Section of a female _Oxyuris vermicularis_,
+magnified 220 diameters (after Busk); and also several free eggs
+(original). _a_, With an imperfectly formed embryo; _b_, _c_, _d_, with
+three tadpole-shaped embryos, magnified 450 diameters.]
+
+Many years back (1863) I pointed out that the most advanced eggs whilst
+still within the body of the pregnant female contained tadpole-shaped
+embryos, and about the same time the fact was noticed by Claparède.
+In his beautiful and scholarly memoir, ‘De la formation et de la
+fécondation des œufs chez les vers Nématodes,’ he wrote concerning the
+ova as follows:--“The egg, which exhibits the form of a very narrow
+disk in the ovary, acquires the shape of an elongated ellipsoid in the
+oviduct, and at the surface differentiates itself into a very thick
+vitelline membrane. Then it forms a strong and resisting chorion, which
+imparts to the egg an outline similar to that of a bridge’s span. It
+has an oval figure flattened at one of its sides. This chorion is very
+fragile; it frequently gives way under slight pressure from the thin
+plate of glass which covers the object. It extends itself considerably
+under the action of acetic acid, acquiring a size three or four times
+greater than that of the egg. The constitution of this chorion is
+perfectly identical in the eggs both before and after impregnation. It
+is, nevertheless, easy at first sight to know whether or not we have
+to deal with a fecundated egg. In the impregnated females the uteri
+are filled with thousands of ova, each one of which encloses an embryo
+already well formed. The ventral surface of the embryo and the tail are,
+without exception, applied to the flattened side of the egg. The embryo
+is very broad in the body, and occupies all the interior space. An
+embryo such as Küchenmeister has represented under the form of a small
+filiform worm folded on itself, and only occupying a very small part
+of the cavity of the egg, is never to be seen. In the non-fecundated
+females, on the other hand, the uteri are filled with eggs, which,
+instead of the embryo, enclose a non-segmented yolk furnished with a
+large germinal vesicle. This vesicle is not visible so long as the
+eggs have the form of thin disks; it only shows itself when the eggs
+begin to acquire an elliptical form in the oviduct. It is, however,
+probable that this vesicle is the same which was originally visible in
+the ovary.” The chorion itself is homogeneous, but in an allied species
+(_Oxyuris spirotheca_) Gyoery and Claparède found that this egg-covering
+consists of spirally-coiled bands resembling the tracheal spiral fibre
+of an insect. Under suitable conditions the tadpole-shaped embryos
+rapidly assume a vermiform character. The investigations of Leuckart
+have shown that “one only needs to expose the eggs to the action of
+the sun’s rays in a moistened paper envelope when, at the expiration
+of five or six hours, the tadpole-shaped embryos will have already
+become slender elongated worms.” According to Heller, the simplest way
+to rear the vermiform stage of Oxyuris is to put a number of the eggs
+in a glass tube filled up with saliva. The tube should then be placed
+in the arm-pit, in which situation it can be carried about with little
+inconvenience. In a few hours the transformations will commence and
+go on continuously until the vermiform condition is attained. If, as
+remarked in my ‘Lectures,’ it be asked whether the embryos which have
+escaped into the bowel are capable of arriving at the vermiform stage,
+the answer is in the affirmative; for, as Leuckart says, “the elongated
+embryos are to be found not only in the fæces but also in the mucus of
+the rectum above and around the anus.” Vix has also asserted that free
+vermiform embryos are occasionally to be detected in the intestine of
+the human bearer along with the eggs; this hatching within the lower
+bowel, however, must, in my opinion, be regarded as exceptional. Heller
+is of the same opinion. According to Leuckart, the escape of the embryos
+from the eggs “ordinarily takes place under the action of the gastric
+juice, also primarily in that condition when they have by some means or
+other gained access to a new bearer.” Prof. Leuckart and three of his
+pupils courageously infected themselves by swallowing the eggs, and had
+the satisfaction of observing young Oxyurides in their stools fifteen
+days afterwards.
+
+From the united labors of Professors Zenker and Heller it is now
+rendered certain that all the further changes necessary to bring the
+larvæ to sexual maturity are accomplished within the small intestines of
+the human bearer; and it is not necessary that a change of hosts should
+occur at any time during the life of the parasite. Infection ordinarily
+takes place by the accidental and direct conveyance of the eggs that are
+lodged in the neighbourhood of the victim’s anus to the mouth. Since the
+victim may accomplish this during sleep, it is not in all cases fair
+to charge infected persons with uncleanliness. On the other hand, it
+too often happens that due care in this respect has not been exercised,
+and from such persons you may remove the eggs of Oxyurides from the
+margins of the finger nails. One aristocratic person, who was infested
+by myriads of these entozoa, confessed to me that in his extreme
+distress, and consequent rage, he had freely bitten the live worms in
+halves between his teeth. He had thus exposed himself to a terrible
+revenge, since multitudes of the ova entering his mouth subsequently
+found their way into the stomach and intestines. By whatever mode the
+eggs are conveyed to the mouth their subsequent passage to the stomach
+ensures their being hatched. In the duodenum and other divisions of
+the small intestines, as Zenker and Heller have shown, the embryos
+undergo transformation, casting their skins, and growing with great
+rapidity. Probably not more than three weeks or a month is necessary
+to complete their growth. Heller obtained mature worms from an infant
+only five weeks old. Finally the worms are transferred to the cæcum,
+which constitutes, so to speak, their headquarters. It is an error to
+suppose that the lower bowel or rectum forms their especial habitat,
+nevertheless the most approved manuals, vade mecums, and general
+treatises have for a long time supported this erroneous view. The error
+had been pointed out by Stricker in 1861.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Adult male _Oxyuris vermicularis_. Magnified.
+After Küchenmeister.]
+
+The symptoms produced by Oxyurides are occasionally very serious. In
+the mildest cases they have a tendency to undermine the health. As
+remarked in my ‘Entozoa,’ the unpleasant sensations chiefly develop
+themselves in the evening and at night, consisting for the most part
+of feelings of heat and irritation within and around the margin of
+the anus. The symptoms may become extremely distressing and almost
+intolerable, especially when the itching extends to the genito-urinary
+passages, in consequence of the escape and migration of the parasites
+about these parts. By-and-by various sympathetic phenomena, such as
+restlessness, general nervousness, itchings at the nose, involuntary
+twitchings, grinding of the teeth during sleep, chorea, convulsions, and
+even epileptiform seizures, may supervene. At the age of puberty special
+local disorders arise, the nature of which will be readily understood
+when merely spoken of as the morbid phenomena of sexual irritation. In
+the female the occurrence of pruritus and leucorrhœa is not uncommon,
+accompanied or not, as the case may be, with hysteria in various forms.
+There is usually general asthenia, with more or less emaciation. The
+anæmia is sometimes remarkable, but in place of anorexia, which is,
+however, an occasional symptom, one frequently finds a most voracious
+appetite, especially in young people. Sometimes there are obscure
+symptoms simulating those of local organic disease.
+
+About the treatment of the disorder I have nothing to say here, further
+than to urge the benefits of the preventive measure of cleanliness.
+Like Zenker and Heller, I have obtained the eggs of oxyurides from
+beneath the finger-nails of young people. In one lad all the nails had
+been carefully bitten down to their roots, but from beneath a minute
+projecting portion that was left on the right fourth-finger I procured
+two eggs. Their demonstration under the microscope convinced both parent
+and child of the necessity of frequently employing local and general
+ablutions. Personal cleanliness is essential. In this connection an
+able biologist has ventured to hazard a statement to the effect that
+“probably any infected person who adopted the requisite precautions
+against reinfection from himself or others would get well in a few
+weeks without treatment by drugs.” Dr Ransom bases his belief on the
+known facts of the life-history of this entozoon, as recorded more
+especially by Leuckart. I regret that I cannot fully share Dr. Ransom’s
+views, and still less should I think it right by my silence to seem to
+endorse his statement to the effect “that every person who is shown
+to be infested with those very common entozoa, _Oxyuris vermicularis_
+and _Trichocephalus dispar_, is thereby demonstrated to have swallowed
+minute portions of his own or another person’s fæces.” This is putting
+the case too strongly. No doubt the eggs of oxyurides swallowed by
+ourselves must have previously passed through some person’s rectum;
+as such, either separately or mayhap collectively, in the body of the
+maternal parasite. That does not, however, justify the statement, that
+we “have swallowed” part of our own or of some other person’s excrement.
+The eggs ought not to be regarded as constituent portions of the fæcal
+matter. Perhaps Dr Ransom will say that the surfaces of these eggs,
+being in contact with fæcal matter, must carry infinitesimal particles
+on their surfaces, and it is to such that he refers. As, however, a
+large proportion of the ova escape with their parents, whilst they are
+still lodged within the maternal worm, it cannot be held that these
+intra-uterine ova carry fæcal matter on their shells. Commonly the eggs
+are swallowed in the separate, free, and dry state. In water they perish
+quickly. The act of eating with unwashed hands is a fertile source of
+infection, more especially if the meal be taken either in bed or in the
+bedroom.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 31).--_Alexander, J._, “On Vermination,” ‘Lancet,’
+1833.--_Anderson, W._, “On Santonine, with especial reference to its
+use in Roundworm and Threadworm,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ April, 1864,
+p. 443; also in Braithwaite’s ‘Retrospect of Medicine,’ vol. xlix
+(synopsis, p. 20), 1864.--_Barry, J. M._, “On the Origin of Intestinal
+Worms, particularly the _Ascaris vermicularis_,” ‘Trans. Assoc. of Fell.
+and Licent. of King’s and Queen’s Coll. of Phys. in Ireland,’ vol.
+ii, 1878, p. 383.--_Bremser_, l. c., s. 79.--_Buckingham_, “Ascarides
+causing Erotomania,” from ‘Bost. Journ., U.S.,’ in ‘Med. Gaz.,’
+1857.--_Claparède, E._, “On the Formation of the Egg and Fertilisation
+in the Nematoidea,” from the ‘Zeitsch. f. w. Zool.,’ translated by
+Dallas in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. i (third series), 1858.--_Idem_
+(memoir quoted in the text above), Genève, 1859.--_Cobbold, T. S._,
+‘Worms,’ Lect. xii-xv, 1872.--_Idem_, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 362.--_Idem_, ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ Aug., 1873.--_Idem_, ‘Tapeworms and Threadworms,’ 2nd
+edit., 1872.--_Idem_, ‘Lancet,’ 1866.--_Idem_, “On the Development and
+Migrations of the Entozoa,” ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1864, p. 116.--_Date,
+W._, ‘Lancet’ for Feb., 1872, p. 185.--_Davaine_, ‘Traité,’ l. c.,
+2nd edit., p. 211, and ‘Synops.,’ p. 95.--_Dickinson_, “Case of
+Epilepsy in Children relieved by the expulsion of Worms,” ‘Med. Times
+and Gaz.,’ Jan., 1863.--_Dickson, R._, art. “Anthelmintics,” rep.
+from the ‘Penny Cyclopædia,’ in Knight’s ‘Eng. Cyclop. Arts and Sci.
+Div.,’ vol. i (column 365), London, 1859.--_Dreyfus_, “Irritation of
+the Bladder from Ascarides,” from ‘Journ. de Med.,’ in ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1847.--_Elliotson, J._, “A Lecture on Worms,” ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1833.--_Idem_, “On Worms in the Intestinal Canal,” ‘Lancet,’
+1831.--_Idem_, “On a Case of Threadworms,” ‘Lancet,’ 1831.--_Idem_, “On
+Intestinal Worms,” ‘Lancet,’ 1830.--_Heller, A._, “Darmschmarotzer,”
+in von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch,’ Bd. vii, s. 632 (see also Anglo-American
+edit.), 1876.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., Eng. edit., p. 356.--_Ransom_, in
+Reynolds’ ‘Dictionary of Medicine.’--_Smith, A._ (and others), ‘Lancet,’
+April 29th, 1865, p. 468.--_Stricker, W._, in ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ xxi,
+1861, s. 360.--_Tatham_, ‘Lancet,’ April, 1867, p. 457; see also p.
+519.--_Vix, E._, ‘Ueber Entozoen,’ &c., Berlin, 1860; see also “On the
+occurrence of Entozoa in the Insane, particularly with respect to the
+_Oxyuris vermicularis_;” brief notice (‘Allg. Zeitsch. f. Psychiatrie’)
+in Winslow’s ‘Journ. of Psycholog. Med.,’ vol. i, 2nd series, 1861,
+p. 158.--_Zenker_, ‘Verhandl. d. phys. med. Soc.,’ H. ii, Erlangen,
+1870, s. 20; and in ‘Tageblatt der deutschen Naturforscherversammlung
+zu Dresden,’ 1868, s. 140 (also quoted freely by Leuckart, Davaine, and
+Heller).
+
+_Leptodera_ (_Anguillula_) _stercoralis_, Bavay.--In the summer of
+1876 Dr Normand, of the French Marine, discovered this little entozoon
+in the fæcal discharges of soldiers who had been sent home invalided
+from Cochin-China. The patients in question were the victims of the
+so-called Cochin-China diarrhœa or dysentery. This disorder is endemic
+in character, and it had hitherto been regarded as consequent upon a
+variety of causes other than parasitic. Dr Normand’s discovery, as
+such, therefore takes equal rank with the analogous revelations made
+by Bilharz, Harley, Leuckart, Zenker, Weber, Lewis, and Bancroft, in
+respect of the particular helminthiases in man with which their names
+are severally associated (Bilharzia disease, Endemic hæmaturia, Cestode
+tuberculosis, Olulaniasis, Inter-tropical anæmia, Trichinosis, Lymphoid
+affections, Helminthoma, and so forth), and also, if I may be permitted
+to say so, with my own determinations in respect of a variety of
+endemics affecting animals (cestode and nematode epizoöty in the horse,
+the so-called grouse-disease, the pigeon-endemic due to lumbricoids,
+&c.).
+
+The _Leptodera stercoralis_ is a minute, smooth-bodied, simple,
+rhabditiform nematode, measuring when full grown 1/25″ in length, with
+an average breadth of 1/625 of an inch. The embryos at the time of their
+extrusion measure only 1/250″ in length, but by the time at which a
+rudimentary vesicle representing the uterus begins to form, the females
+have already attained a length of about 1/83″. The males and females are
+of nearly equal size. The transition from the embryonal state to the
+higher larval conditions is accompanied by a change of skin, after which
+the digestive and reproductive organs are gradually but rapidly formed
+and completed. These changes have been minutely traced and recorded
+by Professor Bavay, who also compares the entozoon with the genera
+Rhabditis and Leptodera, in either of which genera the worm might be
+placed. I have accordingly adopted the nomenclature suggested by Bavay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--_Leptodera intestinalis._ _a_, Adult female,
+and separate figure showing a portion of the body with the ova _in
+sitû_. The two outlined figures represent profile and front views of the
+tail, respectively. _b_, _c_, Eggs with imperfectly formed embryos. _d_,
+Larva. Highly magnified. After Bavay.]
+
+As happens in all the kindred helminthiases that are known to be
+dependent upon the presence of small worms, large numbers of Anguillules
+are necessary to produce injurious effects upon the bearer. Thus, the
+evacuations of the Cochin-China patients were found to contain such
+multitudes of the worms that their numbers could only be adequately
+estimated at so many hundreds of thousands passed in twenty-four hours.
+Of course they varied in quantity, not only in different patients, but
+in the same bearer, from day to day. They are to be found in every stage
+of growth and development, from that of the intra-ovular embryo and
+free embryonic state up to sexual maturity. They occupy all parts of
+the intestinal canal, from the stomach downwards, being also found in
+the pancreatic and biliary ducts, and likewise within the gall-bladder.
+According to Bavay, five days suffice under favorable circumstances for
+the complete maturation of the worm. This readily accounts for their
+occasional extreme abundance.
+
+I am indebted to the courtesy of Dr le Roy de Méricourt for the original
+memoirs from which these brief abstracts are taken.
+
+_Leptodera intestinalis_, Bavay.--This is a larger species, now and then
+found associated with the above, and, according to Bavay, “in infinitely
+less abundance.” This species was also discovered by Dr Normand, and
+has been carefully described by Bavay. Possibly the worm may afford us
+another curious instance of dimorphism. Be that as it may, it must be
+provisionally regarded as a distinct form. As its occurrence is by no
+means invariable, its rôle in relation to the Cochin-China diarrhœa
+must, as Davaine has likewise remarked, be regarded as of secondary
+importance. It is readily distinguished from _A. stercoralis_ both
+in the adult and larval conditions. The full grown worm, although
+comparatively narrow, is more than twice as long as its congener;
+moreover, the larvæ, in place of possessing finely-pointed tails, have
+blunt or truncated caudal extremities. Converting M. Bavay’s millimetric
+measurements into fractions of the English inch, the average length of
+the mature worms will be about 1/11″, whilst their breadth does not
+exceed 1/757″ in diameter.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 32).--_Bavay_, “Sur _l’Anguillule stercorale_,”
+‘Comptes Rendus,’ Oct., 1876, p. 694, also in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol.
+xviii, 4th series, p. 507, 1876, also noticed in the ‘Veterinarian,’
+Jan., 1877, p. 19.--_Idem_, “Note sur _l’Anguille intestinale_,”
+‘Archiv. de Méd. Nav.,’ July, 1877, p. 64, and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+1877, vol. xix, 4th series, p. 350.--_Cobbold, T. S._, “Parasites of
+Man,” in the ‘Midland Naturalist’ for January 1st, 1879.--_Davaine_,
+‘Traité,’ l. c., 2nd edit., Supp., pp. 966-976, 1877.--_Laveran_,
+in ‘Gaz. Hebd. de Med.,’ Jan., 1877, p. 42.--_Layet_ and _Le Roy de
+Méricourt_, in ‘Dict. Encycl. des Sci. Med.,’ 1875.--_Libermann_, in
+‘Gaz. des Hôp.,’ March, 1877, p. 237, and in ‘La France Méd.,’ 1877,
+p. 165 (quoted by Davaine).--_Méricourt_ (see Layet).--_Normand,
+A._, in ‘Comptes Rendus’ for July, 1876, p. 316, and Aug., 1876, p.
+386.--_Idem_, in ‘Arch. de Méd. Navale,’ 1877, p. 35, and separately as
+‘Mémoire sur la diarrhée dite de Cochinchine,’ Paris, 1877.--_Idem_,
+“Du rôle étiologique de l’Anguillule dans la diarrhée de Cochinchine,”
+in ‘Archives de Médecine Navale’ for September, 1878, pp. 214-224.
+
+_Ascaris mystax_, Rudolphi.--This well-known helminth possesses aliform
+appendages, one on either side of the head. It is of a medium size, the
+male measuring 2-1/2″ and the female usually 3-1/2″ to 4″ in length.
+Both as regards the size of the alæ and the length of the body it
+varies in different hosts. Thus the variety infesting the dog has long
+been regarded as a distinct species (_A. marginata_), partly from the
+circumstance that the alæ are less conspicuous, and partly because the
+individuals are often longer and thicker. I possess one specimen from
+the dog measuring more than six inches in length. From like causes the
+_Ascaris leptoptera_ and other varieties infesting the carnivora have
+been regarded as distinct species, but the worm also varies in one and
+the same host.
+
+As remarked in my elementary treatise, the late Dr Bellingham, of St
+Vincent’s Hospital, Dublin, published in the 13th vol. of the ‘Annals
+of Natural History,’ an extended catalogue of Irish entozoa, and in
+this list he recorded the existence of a new round worm in man. He
+says of it:--“From the distinctness of the lateral membranes of the
+head I have given it the name of _Ascaris alata_.” The catalogue was
+constantly referred to by Dujardin, Diesing, and other systematists;
+but some of the continental helminthologists do not appear to have had
+access to Dr Bellingham’s more extended account of this parasite as
+given in the first volume of the ‘Dublin Medical Press,’ No. 7, Feb.
+20th, 1839. I am led to this inference from the doubt which some have
+cast upon the very existence of the worm, although others, with more
+candour, supposed that Bellingham had only mistaken the species. Thus,
+Küchenmeister (‘Parasiten,’ s. 464, and in Lancaster’s edit., vol. ii,
+p. 100) says:--“The _Ascaris alata_, found in the small intestines of
+a man, is probably only a young individual of one of the long-known
+nematoda, _if, indeed, it be a worm at all_!” (The italics are mine.)
+This statement was reproduced by Hulme in his English edition of
+Moquin-Tandon’s ‘Elements of Medical Zoology,’ p. 341; and the French
+author himself evidently shared the doubt expressed by other people.
+Dujardin (‘Helminthes,’ p. 156) admitted the species, as also did
+Diesing (‘Systema Helminthum,’ p. 175), but the latter unluckily added
+the following very significant suggestion:--“An _Ascaris lumbricoides_
+capitis epidermide emphysematice inflata?”
+
+Dr Leidy, of Philadelphia, admitted _A. alata_ among his _Entozoa
+hominis_ without comment (‘Smithsonian Contrib.’ for April, 1853), but
+Weinland, of Frankfort, in his list, prefixed a note of interrogation,
+observing also that it had been “once” found in Ireland (‘Essay on
+Tapeworms,’ p. 88). It is quite clear, therefore, that these authors did
+not believe that the _Ascaris mystax_ was a human parasite. Those who
+doubtfully accepted Bellingham’s _A. alata_ did so under the impression
+that whatever it was, it could not be regarded as the common Ascaris of
+the cat. In the new edition of Davaine’s ‘Traité,’ _A. alata_ is, to my
+surprise, still retained as a separate species, and there is no mention
+of the occurrence of _A. mystax_ in man. From what has recently been
+written by several continental helminthologists (Leuckart, Heller, and
+others), I rejoice to think that it is not necessary for me again to
+advance the really superabounding proofs that Bellingham’s _A. alata_
+was nothing more than _A. mystax_. It has at length been admitted
+by almost all who are competent to form an opinion, that the memoir
+originally communicated to the ‘Lancet,’ in 1863, and subsequently
+introduced into the text of my introductory work, finally settled the
+question of identity. It was through the donation of Dr Edwin Lankester
+and Mr Scattergood that I was enabled at the time to announce the _third
+instance_ of the occurrence of this parasite in man, and since that date
+several other instances have been brought under public notice. Not less
+than seven cases have now been noticed in which this little lumbricoid
+of the cat and dog has been found in man. For one good human specimen I
+am indebted to Dr Morton. In the above list I include Heller’s specimen,
+and the one from Greenland sent by Steenstrup to Leuckart. According to
+Hering’s observations this worm grows with remarkable rapidity. Worms
+obtained from a puppy only six days old measured from 1/12″ to 1/6″ in
+length. In a twelve-day-old puppy they reached nearly an inch in length,
+and in a month the growth was up to four inches. Females only 1-1/2″ in
+length already contained eggs, and males only 3/4″ long had acquired
+their spicules. Three weeks therefore, would be amply sufficient for
+the completion of sexual maturity within the feline or canine host. We
+do not know, however, whether or not a temporary host is necessary for
+the larvæ prior to their introduction into the cat or dog. Hering thinks
+that a direct infection by the ova is sufficient; but he gives no proof
+of the truth of this hypothesis. “Leuckart (as quoted by Heller, l.
+c., s. 615) found numerous embryonal round worms in the stomach of a
+cat, 1/62″ in length, and in addition all the intermediate stages of
+growth up to the larger examples found in the small intestine. They
+remain in the stomach until they have attained a length of from 1/18″ to
+1/12″ and then pass into the small intestine. When they have attained a
+length of nearly 1/8″ they cast their skins and change the tooth-like
+boring apparatus for the three characteristic semicircular lips. These
+observations on _Ascaris mystax_ (adds Heller) render it probable that
+_A. lumbricoides_ is also introduced into the human alimentary canal
+while still in the embryonal state or somewhat further advanced (und
+wohl auch grösse).” The subject will be found more fully discussed in
+my account of the large species further on. The cat’s worm possesses an
+historical interest, not only in connection with Bellingham’s original
+discovery, but also in respect of Nelson’s subsequent determinations as
+to the precise mode of impregnation in nematodes. The subject is too
+extended and too special to be dealt with here at any great length.
+
+For several years after Nelson left the shores of England to spend a
+too short life in New Zealand, the points discussed in his ‘Edinburgh
+Thesis’ (and subsequently published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions’)
+formed the subject-matter of numerous memoirs contributed to the leading
+German scientific journals. Stated with brevity, it may be said that,
+according to Nelson, the essential act of impregnation occurs when the
+thimble-shaped spermatozoa of the male penetrate the unimpregnated or
+ovarian ovum. This, he maintained, could and did take place at any part
+of the surface of the unfertilised ovum, since the granular mass of
+which it was composed, though well defined, did not, at this period,
+possess a limiting--or true yolk--membrane. Professor Allen Thomson, in
+a series of papers (some contributed in the German language), supported
+Nelson’s views generally.
+
+Amongst Nelson’s chief opponents was Meissner, who demonstrated that
+the unimpregnated ova really possessed a delicate limiting membrane,
+and that consequently the action of the spermatozoa was restricted to
+that portion of the ovarian ovum which became exposed by rupture or
+separation from the rachis. This opening he termed the micropyle. The
+union of the sexual elements is quickly followed by a condensation of
+the yolk-granules, and by the disappearance of the hitherto centrally
+placed germinal vesicle. The ovum next assumes a distinctly oval
+shape, the true yolk-membrane and the external chorional envelope now
+becoming more and more differentiated, until the latter acquires a
+regularly tuberculated surface. Co-ordinating with these changes the
+granular yolk is seen transforming itself into a single large embryonal
+cell; after a time this cell divides and subdivides by the ordinary
+process of yolk-segmentation, until it is finally resolved into the
+condition of a short, stout, vermiform embryo. The egg having assumed
+its definitive oval shape, the intrachorional embryo remains coiled
+within the shell, and does not make its escape until the egg has passed
+from the body of the parent worm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Germs and ova of _Ascaris mystax_. Nos. 1 to 3
+magnified 330 diameters and Nos. 4 to 24 magnified 220 diameters. After
+Nelson.]
+
+Into the question of the mode of formation of the ovarian ova, and also
+into that of the development of the spermatozoa, I do not enter. However
+unwillingly, I must, in this matter, be contented to refer to Professor
+Allen Thomson’s classical article ovum (quoted below), to Leuckart’s
+elaborate analysis (l. c., Bd. ii, s. 76-92), and also, especially, to
+the exhaustive memoir of Claparède, whose brilliant labors, like those
+of Henry Nelson, were too early terminated by death. Shortly after
+graduation Nelson suffered a virtually enforced banishment from his
+native land.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 33).--_Bellingham, O. B._, “On the Genus to which
+the Worms known as Ascarides belong,” ‘Dublin Journ.,’ vol. xiv,
+1839.--_Idem_, “Catalogue of Irish Entozoa,” ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’
+vols. xiii and xiv, 1843-44; and in the first part of Charlesworth’s
+‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. iv, 1840. See also the address by Dr E.
+D. Mapother on the “Lives and Writings of O’Ferrall and Bellingham,”
+in the ‘Dubl. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ Nov., 1877, p. 471 _et
+seq._--_Bischoff_, ‘Widerlegung (u. s. w.),’ Giessen, 1853; quoted by
+Claparède, l. c. _infra_, p. 9.--_Idem_, ‘Bestätigung (u. s. w.),’
+Giessen, 1864.--_Idem_, “Ueber Ei-und Samenbildung und Befruchtung
+bei _Ascaris mystax_,” Sieb. and Köll. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1855, s. 377; also
+in S. and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1856.--_Bremser_, ‘Icones helminth.,’ p.
+23, tab. iv.--_Claparède, E._, “Ueber Eibildung und Befruchtung bei
+den Nematoden,” S. and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1857, s. 106.--_Idem_, ‘De la
+formation et de la fécondation des œufs chez les vers Nématodes,’
+Genève, 1859. See also ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. i, 3rd series,
+1858.--_Cobbold_, in ‘Proceed. of the Zoological Soc. of London,’ Nov.,
+1862.--_Idem_, ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1862.--_Idem_, “On the occurrence
+of _Ascaris mystax_ in the Human Body,” with figures, ‘Lancet,’ Jan.,
+1863; and in the ‘Dublin Med. Press,’ Feb., 1863.--_Idem_, ‘Entozoa,’
+chap. xi, p. 316, 1864.--_Idem_, ‘Worms,’ pp. 72 and 112, 1872.--_Idem_,
+in “Obituary Notice of Dr Henry Nelson,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1865
+(?).--_Davaine_, ‘Traité,’ l. c., 1877.--_Diesing, C. M._, ‘Syst.
+Helm.,’ vol. ii, p. 180, 1850.--_Dujardin_ (l. c., Bibl. No. 2), p.
+162.--_Frœlich_, in ‘Naturf.,’ xxiv, s. 141 (_Asc. felis_).--_Funke,
+O._, ‘Lehrbuch (u. s. w.),’ 1857, s. 1299.--_Gmelin_, ‘Syst. Nat.,’ p.
+3031.--_Golze_, ‘Naturg.,’ l. c., s. 79.--_Gurlt_, ‘Path. Anat.,’ s.
+366.--_Heller, A._, “Darmschmarotzer,” in Von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch,’ Bd.
+vii, s. 361.--_Idem_, ‘Sitzungsb. d. Erlanger phys.-med. Soc.,’ 1872,
+s. 73.--_Hering_, “Ueber das Vorkommen und die Entwicklung der _Ascaris
+mystax_ bei jungen Hunden,” quoted by Leuckart from ‘Würtemb. Naturw.
+Jahreshefte,’ 1873, s. 305-337.--_Kölliker_, in ‘Müller’s Archiv,’ 1843,
+s. 68 _et seq._--_Leidy_, ‘Proc. Acad. Phil.,’ viii, p. 50.--_Leuckart_,
+l. c., Bd. ii, s. 258.--_Meissner, G._, “Beobachtungen über das
+Eindringen der Samenelemente in den Dotter,” S. and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’
+1854, s. 208.--_Morton, T._, “Another Example of the Occurrence of
+_A. mystax_, from a Child of fourteen months old,” in a letter to the
+‘Lancet,’ March 11th, 1865, p. 278.--_Nelson, H._, “On the Reproduction
+of _Ascaris mystax_,” ‘Proc. of the Royal Soc.,’ in ‘Philosoph. Trans.,’
+and in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1051-52; also in ‘Froriep’s Tagsbericht.,’
+1852, s. 205-207.--_Rudolphi_, ‘Synops.,’ p. 42, 1819.--_Schneider_,
+“Ueber Bewegung an dem Samenkörperchen der Nematoden,” in ‘Monatsb. d.
+Berliner Akad.,’ 1856, s. 192.--_Idem_, ‘Monographie der Nematoden,’
+Erste Abth., s. 38, und Dritte Abth., s. 263 (“Entwicklungsgeschichte”),
+1866.--_Siebold_, ‘Vergleichende Anatomie,’ 1848, s. 153, and in
+Burnett’s edit., p. 125 _et seq._, 1854.--_Thomson, A._, art. “Ovum,” in
+‘Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.,’ supp., 1859.--_Idem_, “Ueber die
+Samenkörperchen, die Eier und die Befruchtung der _Ascaris mystax_,” S.
+and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1856, s. 425.--_Idem_, “Report of Glasgow Meeting”
+(‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’), 1855, p. 158.
+
+_Ascaris maritima_, Leuckart.--This is a well-marked species. Judging
+from the characters presented by the solitary, sexually-immature female
+which supplied Leuckart with his only means of diagnosis, this worm
+may be briefly described as a filariform nematode about 3/4″ in length
+and about 1/25″ in breadth. Although there are no cephalic aliform
+membranes, the cuticle immediately below the lips forms small and
+distinct projections, one on either side of the head (‘Die Mensch.
+Par.,’ Bd. ii, s. 877).
+
+This entozoon was discovered by Dr Pfaff at Jacobshavn, near Godhavn,
+West Greenland, in April, 1865. Two years later he sent the specimen
+to Krabbe, who afterwards transmitted it to Leuckart. In the original
+communication addressed to the Copenhagen helminthologist, Dr Pfaff
+states that he procured the worm from amongst matters vomited by a
+child, and he incidentally observes that he had hitherto encountered
+only _Bothriocephalus cordatus_ and _Oxyuris vermicularis_ amongst
+Greenlanders. As to the source of infection, Prof. Leuckart not
+unnaturally refers to the similar conditions of existence shared by the
+human and carnivorous inhabitants of that country. It is well known
+that bears, polar-bears, seals, and walruses are largely infested by
+nematodes (_Asc. transfuga_, _A. osculata_, _Ophiostoma dispar_, &c.),
+but these various species are quite distinct from Dr Pfaff’s little
+“spulwurm.”
+
+_Ascaris lumbricoides_, Linneus.--This common parasite was for a long
+while regarded as identical with the great lumbricoid of the horse,
+but the question has been finally settled by Schneider, who has shown
+that the human worm, although identical with Dujardin’s _Ascaris
+suilla_ of the hog, is nevertheless quite distinct from the _Ascaris
+megalocephala_ of solipeds. The large lumbricoid occasionally found in
+the ox belongs to the human worm. Our large human helminth resembles
+the common earth-worm in general appearance only. The males usually
+measure from four to six inches in length, and the females from ten to
+fourteen inches. Some have been reported up to seventeen or eighteen
+inches in length. The body is smooth, fusiform, and elastic, and marked
+by numerous fine transverse rings. It is attenuated towards either
+extremity, the anterior end terminating in a prominently three-lobed
+mouth The tail is bluntly pointed. The female is much shorter than the
+male, having a diameter of nearly a quarter of an inch. The male is
+supplied with a double spiculum, its tail being always more or less
+curved towards the central surface. The female reproductive orifice
+is situated above the centre of the body. According to Schneider, the
+tail supports from 138 to 150 caudal papillæ, that is, from 69 to 75 on
+either side of the median line. Below the anus the papillæ are regularly
+arranged in pairs, seven in number, the two uppermost pairs being
+double.
+
+Notwithstanding the advantage which the size of this entozoon affords
+us in the matter of observation and experiment, we are yet ignorant
+as to the precise mode in which the young gain access to the human
+body. From what has been said respecting the quick growth of _Ascaris
+mystax_ in the dog, and from what has been observed respecting the
+rapid growth of the so-called _A. suilla_ in the hog, we know that the
+worm requires but a short time to pass from the larval to the sexual
+state. The view of Hering, Mosler, Davaine, and others, who suppose
+that these worms are reared in a direct manner by swallowing the ova,
+is, as Leuckart observed, not yet proved. We are not in full possession
+of the facts of larval development. It is true that Professor Heller’s
+interesting “find” has shown that when these worms first gain access to
+the human body their size is quite insignificant. At the post mortem
+of an imbecile, Heller discovered eighteen young worms, varying in
+size from about 1/9″ to 1/2″ in length (2·75 to 13 mm.). The sexes
+were indistinguishable. As a set-off against this, Leuckart’s repeated
+attempts to rear _Ascaris lumbricoides_ and _A. mystax_ by means of
+direct feeding-experiments with the eggs all failed. Thus, we are yet
+left in doubt as to the destiny of the larvæ during the period which
+elapses between the time of their escape from the egg and the time of
+their entry into the human body. So important is the question as to
+the mode of origination, growth, and subsequent development of the
+larvæ, that it may be well to trace, however briefly, what steps have
+been taken to clear up the matter. Leuckart obtained his negative
+results by the administration of ripe ova to dogs, rabbits, swine, and
+mice. The eggs of _Ascaris lumbricoides_ have been kept alive by Dr
+Davaine for a period of more than five years. I have myself watched the
+development of their contents in fresh water through all the stages of
+yolk segmentation up to the stage of an imperfectly-organised, coiled,
+intra-chorional embryo, and have kept them in the latter condition
+for a period of three months. According to Davaine (‘Comptes Rendus,’
+1858, p. 1217), the fully-developed embryo is cylindrical, its length
+being, 1/100th of an inch. The mouth is not furnished with the three
+characteristic papillæ of the genus, and the tail terminates suddenly in
+a point. Davaine administered some of his five-year-old embryos to rats,
+and had the satisfaction of finding a few of these eggs in the rodent’s
+fæces, with their embryos still living, but striving to emerge. He also
+gave eggs to a cow, and introduced others into the stomachs of dogs in
+small linen-covered flasks. As a general result it may be said that the
+embryos escaped from their shells. Those eggs, however, in which the
+yolk-segmentation had not arrived at the early embryonal stage remained
+unaffected. According to Heller, the embryo of _A. lumbricoides_ casts
+its first skin while still within the egg, and “a subsequent ecdysis
+probably completes its definitive form” (l. c., s. 615). So far back
+as 1853 Verloren reared coiled intra-chorional embryos in the eggs of
+_Ascaris marginata_ within a period of fifteen days in distilled water.
+I also reared the embryos of this species in fresh water, and kept them
+alive for a period of nearly a year and a half, at the expiration of
+which time, and during the warm weather, some few of them succeeded in
+making their escape. According to Davaine, the eggs of many nematode
+species will readily retain their vitality though long exposed to
+dryness, but their yolk-contents will not go on developing during this
+period of exposure. As regards _A. mystax_, however, Heller remarks that
+whilst “the eggs have a great power of resisting external influences,
+their development is not arrested in spirits of wine, chromic acid, or
+oil of turpentine” (l. c., s. 631). In the case of _Ascaris tetraptera_
+of the mouse, embryonic formation goes on in spite of the absence of
+external moisture. Davaine has noticed the same thing in the oxyurides
+of rodents. Dryness does not even destroy the eggs of _A. lumbricoides_
+and _Trichocephalus dispar_. It would seem, in short, that the eggs of
+nematodes which normally take up their residence in cats, dogs, and in
+the carnivora which reside in arid regions, will develop embryos in
+the egg without external moisture. As before remarked, Davaine thinks
+it is not necessary that these nematode embryos should pass through
+any intermediary bearer, and he believes that they are often directly
+transferred to the stomach of their “hosts” whilst adhering in the form
+of an impalpable dust to the coats of their bearers, whence they are
+detached by the animal’s frequent habit of licking the fur. Davaine’s
+view has received some support from the observations and experiments
+of Unterberger with the eggs of _Ascaris maculosa_. This observer
+administered eggs of the worm to doves (whose fæces were free of eggs),
+and seventeen days after found ova in the fæces.
+
+With the eggs of the _Ascaris megalocephala_ of the horse I performed
+numerous experiments. I reared the embryos in simple fresh water, and
+found them during warm weather escaping before the expiration of five
+months. I also succeeded in rearing these larvæ in pond mud, noticing,
+at the same time, that after their escape from the shell they grew more
+or less rapidly up to a certain point, after which they ceased growing.
+The addition of horses’ dung to soft wet mud in one case, and of cows’
+dung in another, neither appeared to advance nor retard the process
+of embryonal formation, so long as the embryos were enclosed in their
+shells. On the other hand, when I reared embryos in simple horse-dung
+purposely kept moist, they attained a higher degree of organisation than
+did those in wet mud or water. Having watched hundreds of these larvæ
+under varying conditions, I came to the conclusion that, after escape
+from the egg, their activity, growth, and strength was most marked when
+they occupied media which happened to be impure. Davaine experimented
+on cows, and Leuckart also experimented on horses, with the eggs of
+this worm without success. Leuckart also failed to rear the larvæ in
+intermediary hosts. Some eggs passed through the water-palmer unaltered.
+
+These results, so far as they go, seem to be borne out by facts of a
+professional order. Thus, an instance has been brought under my notice
+where a considerable number of peasants and their children, dwelling
+in a parish in Yorkshire, were infested with this worm. There was,
+in short, a local endemic helminthiasis. Through the parish runs a
+stream which supplies the cottagers with all the water they employ
+for domestic purposes (washing, drinking, and so forth). Some of the
+peasants living by the side of the stream keep pigs, and the sewage
+from this source has been allowed to pass into the stream itself. Now,
+if Schneider’s determination as to the identity of the lumbricoid of
+man and the pig is correct (which I do not doubt), the explanation of
+the cause of the endemic becomes a very simple matter. But it does not
+explain all that we desire to know about the young worms. Either the
+freed embryos before they enter the human bearer accomplish further
+changes of form and growth in the sewage or impure water; or, what is
+far less probable, they pass into the bodies of intermediary hosts (such
+as insect-larvæ, Gammari, Entomostraca, &c.) to undergo the necessary
+changes. Practically, no doubt, it comes to the same thing in the end.
+Even if we suppose that the _Ascaris suilla_ and _A. lumbricoides_ are
+not identical species, still it is evident that any person discharging
+the eggs of lumbricoids in the vicinity of open waters becomes, by that
+fact, a source and centre of infection. To ensure an endemic it is
+probably only further necessary that the human inhabitants should employ
+the contaminated water for domestic purposes. But time and an increase
+of temperature must be allowed for the bringing about of those known
+and unknown larval changes that alike form the necessary antecedents
+of infection. In this connection I will only add, that if the present
+position of the question be such as I have here represented it to be, we
+see that Mosler was not far wrong when he suggested that “contamination
+of the drinking water with the eggs out of privies is to be blamed” as
+a source of infection. According to Heller, from whom I quote, Mosler
+actually demonstrated the presence of the eggs in water thus exposed. In
+like manner it becomes obvious that Davaine’s practical remark (although
+it was based on the assumption of a direct infection by the eggs), that
+filtration will probably be sufficient to prevent infection, loses
+nothing of its hygienic value.
+
+The foregoing observations naturally lead one to the question of
+frequency and distribution. Davaine holds that the comparative
+infrequency of this parasite in Paris is due to the free use of the
+filter. In London, though not uncommon, the worm rarely occurs in great
+numbers in one bearer. Those cases in our hospitals, where considerable
+numbers have been present, have usually come up from suburban or country
+places. Heller states that these worms were found in 9·1 per cent. of
+post mortems conducted at Dresden, in 12 per cent. at Erlangen, and in
+17 per cent. at Kiel. He quotes Huss as stating that no one is free
+from this worm in Finland. The prevalence of large round worms in warm
+countries generally is well known. Throughout India and the East they
+are extremely abundant, and the same may be said of the West Indies,
+Brazil, and the adjacent territories. Professor Dyce and others have
+remarked on the extreme prevalence of lumbrici in the Mauritius, but
+they are comparatively rare along the sea border. In all situations
+where there is an abundant fresh-water supply these parasites are
+particularly common, as in the lowlands of Holland and the lake
+districts of Sweden. The abundance of water is certainly not alone
+sufficient to explain the frequency of the parasite, seeing that the
+most important factor is that which rests upon the uncivilised habits
+of the rural population. What, therefore, it may be asked, can be the
+cause of immunity enjoyed by Icelanders in this respect? The answer is
+not apparent; nevertheless Krabbe and Finsen have testified to the fact
+that Iceland is the only country that is entirely free from _Ascaris
+lumbricoides_.
+
+As remarked in my previous work the number of worms present in any human
+bearer is usually small, varying commonly from one to six or eight.
+Cases in which scores or hundreds have existed are comparatively rare.
+Küchenmeister mentions the case of one child who passed 103 examples,
+and of another child that harbored from 300 to 400 worms. Dr Gilli, of
+Turin, gives a case where 510 were passed by a child, and Cruveilhier
+estimated that over 1000 existed in an idiot girl, whose intestines he
+found crammed with them. A remarkable case has also been communicated
+to me by Dr Mackeith, of Sandhurst, Kent, who, by means of santonine,
+expelled from a little girl, five and a half years of age, 300 lumbrici;
+and I am likewise indebted to Dr Cooper Rose for notes of a case in
+which about thirty lumbrici were expelled, chiefly in consequence of the
+employment of this drug. The most interesting fact, however, in this
+case was that the child was only fifteen months old. In this case the
+symptoms were severe.
+
+The proper habitat of the lumbricus is the upper and middle part of the
+small intestine. From this situation it often wanders into the stomach,
+and frequently gains access to the outer world, not only by the natural
+passages of the mouth, nostrils, and anus, but also, occasionally, in
+a more direct way, by perforating the intestinal and abdominal walls.
+Many cases are on record where lumbrici have passed into the abdominal
+cavity. In other instances they have lodged themselves within the
+abdominal viscera and pulmonary organs. When they find their way into
+the parietes of the abdomen and adjacent parts, they usually give rise
+to the formation of abscesses requiring surgical interference.
+
+As regards the symptoms produced by lumbrici, these vary according to
+the situation they happen to occupy. The symptoms are also modified
+by age and temperament. In the stomach and intestines they give rise
+to colic and shooting pains about the abdomen, followed generally
+by dyspepsia, nasal itching, nausea, vomiting, and even diarrhœa.
+Occasionally death supervenes suddenly. A singular case of this kind
+(the particulars of which I only gathered from a local newspaper)
+occurred in a boy, thirteen years of age, at the County Gaol at
+Hertford, in 1873. From Dr Evans’s statement, made at the coroner’s
+inquest, the sole cause of death appeared to be due to pressure on
+the windpipe by a worm lodged in the gullet. Sometimes there is
+cerebral disturbance, attended with general restlessness and convulsive
+twitchings during sleep. Thus, Dr Woodman has recorded a serious case
+of convulsions arising from lumbricoid worms, in which, however, a cure
+was effected by expulsion of the worms. An anonymous writer in the
+‘Medical Gazette’ records a case of epilepsy from this cause, whilst
+another writer in the same journal (1839) mentions an instance where two
+lumbrici and one tapeworm were associated in the production of similar
+phenomena. But a much more striking case is also given (anonymously)
+in the ‘Gazette’ for 1874 (p. 415), where a single lumbricus caused
+the bearer to be a lunatic for eight years. The victim suffered from
+cataleptic fits, which lasted for two or three weeks at a time. M.
+Petrequin, in his ‘Traité Pratique,’ records two cases of amaurosis in
+young girls produced by lumbrici. A fatal case is recorded by Petrenz,
+where 200 worms produced enteritis, and another fatal case is given
+by Roger from perforation (1848). Cases of perforation are also given
+by Young, by Blair (1861), by Mondière (1839), by Buchner (1851), by
+Sheppard (1861), and by Luschka (1854), the worms in this last-mentioned
+case occupying the cavity of the pleura. Cases of severe irritation
+affecting the genito-urinary organs are given by Dreyfus, Buckingham,
+and others; and one or two instances are reported where these worms have
+been discharged from several parts of the body (Neilson, 1833). I may
+add that the third fasciculus of a work illustrating the collection of
+morbid anatomy in the Army Medical Museum at Chatham gives a case of
+lumbrici occupying the biliary ducts and gall-bladder. I find, moreover,
+two additional cases of perforation of the small intestine, one of which
+appeared in the ‘London Medical Gazette’ (1827) and the other in the
+‘Lancet’ (1836).
+
+During the Franco-German war Dr Reginald Pierson, as he afterwards
+informed me, removed a lumbricus from an abscess formed in the abdominal
+parietes of a soldier. But amongst the most curious cases (illustrating
+the wandering habits of these parasites) are those severally described
+by Barwell (1857), Williams, Prichard, and the Messrs Stockbridge. In
+Barwell’s case an Ascaris was expelled from a child who had swallowed
+the brass “eye” of a lady’s dress. Through the circular loop of
+this eye, used as a toy, the Ascaris had partly thrust its body,
+and becoming thus strangulated, it probably perished before it was
+evacuated. In Prichard’s case (1859) one or two lumbrici had similarly
+trapped themselves in the eyes of buttons swallowed by the patient,
+and one worm, not contented with a single strangulation, had succeeded
+in passing its body through two buttons. In 1842 Mr T. G. Stockbridge
+gave a similar case, in which he, not inaptly, spoke of these “hooks
+and eyes” as constituting a new remedy or “worm-trap” for lumbricus,
+and singularly enough, a namesake (W. Stockbridge), in the succeeding
+year, also recorded a like instance of the “mechanical expulsion of
+worms” by metallic buttons. Again, a third correspondent in the ‘Boston
+Journal,’ under the initials A. M., spoke of an open-topped thimble
+as constituting another new “worm-trap,” whilst he gave a case of
+lumbrici penetrating “metallic suspensor buttons.” There is also the
+case reported by Williams, who, at a meeting of the Boston Society for
+Medical Improvement, exhibited “a lumbricus with a dress-hook attached”
+(1857). Lastly, another lumbricus, trapped in the same way, may be seen
+in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons at Edinburgh.
+
+Owing to the presence of a peculiar irritating vapour which is given
+out by these lumbricoids, particularly when fresh, several observers
+have experienced curious symptoms. Thus, Miram on two occasions, when
+examining _A. megalocephala_, was attacked with sneezing, excessive
+secretion of tears, with swelling of the puncta lacrymalia, and Huber
+also experienced a troublesome itching of the hands and neck after
+examining specimens of _A. lumbricoides_. In like manner I have myself
+had watery suffusion of the eyes (when collecting the perivisceral
+fluid for Marcet’s analyses: see Bibliog.), and Bastian has given a
+detailed account of the serious effects which the poison produced upon
+him. In Bastian’s case even spirit specimens produced irritation.
+The attacks of catarrh and asthma were so persistent and severe that
+they lasted for six weeks at a time. So sensitive was Bastian to the
+lumbricoid-miasm that he could not even put on a coat that he had worn
+during his investigations without experiencing fresh attacks of sneezing
+and other catarrhal symptoms. The attacks became periodical, occurring
+between five and six in the morning, being accompanied by dyspnœa and a
+distressing spasmodic cough. Bastian, in short, was quite a martyr in
+the cause of nematode anatomy.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 34).--_Abousson, L._, “On the Presence of Worms
+(lumbrici) in the Air-passages,” from ‘Arch. Gén. de Méd.,’ in
+‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1836.--(Anonymous), _A. M._, “Another New
+Worm-trap--an open-topped Thimble in the Nostril (also notice of
+metallic suspender buttons penetrated by Lumbrici),” ‘Bost. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xxvii, p. 121, 1842-43; see also T. G. and W.
+Stockbridge.--(Anon.), “Lumbrici expelled by Bismuth,” ‘Bost. M. and
+S. Journ.’ (from ‘Gaz. des Hôp.,’ ‘Journ. des Connaiss. Méd.,’ and
+‘Boletin del Inst.-Med.-Valenc.’), 1859.--(Anon.), “Case of one Tapeworm
+and two Lumbrici causing Epilepsy,” from ‘Bull. du Midi’ and ‘Gaz.
+Méd.,’ 1839.--(Anon.), “Case of Perforation of the Ileum by Ascarides,”
+from ‘Hufl. and Ossan’s Journ.,’ in the ‘Lancet,’ 1836.--(Anon.),
+“Case of Lumbrici in the Biliary the Ducts and Gall-bladder,” note
+and fig. in third fasc., illust. the Coll. of Morb. Anat. in the Army
+Med. Mus. at Chatham, 1838.--(Anon.), “A Lumbricus causing Catalepsy,
+with Fits lasting two or three weeks; Cure by Vomiting,” ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1847, p. 415.--_Archer, E._, “On a Case of _A. lumbricoides_
+producing alarming symptoms,” ‘Lancet,’ 1857.--_Barwell_, “Case of
+Ascaris expelled by the swallowing of a foreign body,” ‘Lancet,’
+1857.--_Bastian, H. C._, “On the Anatomy and Physiology of the
+Nematoids, Parasitic and Free,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1866, p. 545; for the
+account of his poison-symptoms, see _footnote_, p. 583.--_Batterbury,
+R. L._, “Jaundice due to the presence of Lumbrici,” ‘British Med.
+Journ.,’ Nov., 1878, p. 721.--_Bigelow, H._, “Worm in an Abscess,”
+‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xxxiii, p. 486, 1836.--_Blatchley,
+C. C._, “Two Cases of _A. lumbricoides_, attended with Abscesses,
+followed by large purulent discharges, and Worms therein,” ‘New York
+Med. and Phys. Journ.,’ vol. i, new series, p. 209, 1829.--_Bonfils,
+E._, “Lesions and Path. Phenomena caused by Lumbrici in the Biliary
+Ducts,” from ‘Arch. Gén.,’ in ‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1858,
+and in ‘Amer. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ vol. xxxvii, 1859.--_Bradford,
+J. T._, “Singular Case of Worms (Lumbrici),” ‘Bost. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ vol. xxviii, 1843.--_Brigham, A._, “Worms in the Bladder
+simulating ‘Stone,’” ‘Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1837; ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1837; ‘Quart. Journ. Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc.,’ vol. ii, p. 132,
+1838.--_Buchner_, “On the Perforation of the Intestinal Canal by Worms
+(with ref. to two cases),” from ‘Med. Zeitung,’ 1850, in ‘Med.-Chir.
+Rev.,’ 1851.--_Calderwood_, “Treatment,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Jan.
+30, 1875.--_Chapman, N._, “Case of 68 Ascarides causing Pulmonary
+Disease,” in his ‘Dis. of the Thoracic and Abd. Viscera,’ p. 263,
+and in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1845.--_Chiaje, Delle-_, in ‘Rend. dell’
+Accad. di Napoli,’ 1846 (“Anat.,” p. 403).--_Church, J._, “On _A.
+lumbricoides_,” ‘Mem. Med. Soc. Lond.,’ vol. ii, 1789.--_Claparède_
+(l. c., Bibl. No. 33, for development).--_Clark, P._, “Discharge of
+a Lumbricus through the Male Urethra,” ‘New York Journ. Med.,’ 1844,
+rep. in ‘Lancet,’ 1844, and in ‘Edin. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lxiv,
+1845.--_Cloquet_, ‘Anat. des vers Intest.,’ 1824.--_Cobbold_, “On Sewage
+and Parasites, especially in relation to the Dispersion and Vitality
+of the Germs of Entozoa,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Feb. 25, 1871, p.
+215.--_Idem_, ‘Entoz.,’ p. 302-315.--_Idem_, ‘Worms,’ lect. xvi, p.
+3.--_Idem_, art. “Ascaridæ,” in ‘Maunder’s Treasury,’ 1862.--_Colvan,
+J._, “Case in which Eleven Round Worms of the species _A. lumbricoides_
+were removed by Anthelmintics,” ‘Dubl. Med. Press,’ vol. xxvi, p. 211,
+1851.--_Cutler, J. H._, “Death by Worms (a large Lumbricus being found
+in the Wind-pipe),” ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. lxvi, p. 392,
+1862.--_Czermak_, in ‘Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch.,’ 1852 (“Anat.,”
+s. 755).--_Davaine_, in his ‘Traité,’ l. c., 2nd edit., syn. xcvii,
+and p. 122-235 (with details of forty-five cases); see also his memoir
+“On the Development and Propagation of the _Trichoceph. dispar_ and
+_A. lumbricoides_,” from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol.
+ii, 3rd series, 1858; also in the ‘Journ. of Pract. Med. and Surg.,’
+Eng. edit., vol. i, 1858, and in the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxii, p.
+700, 1859, from ‘Proc. of Acad. des Sci.,’ in ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’
+vol. lix, p. 157, 1858-59.--_Idem_, art. “Entozoaires,” in ‘Dict. de
+Méd. et Chir. prat.’--_David, J. B._, “Cases of Perforation of the
+Intestines by Worms,” from ‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’ in ‘Dubl. Med. Press,’
+1840, p. 223.--_Diesing_, ‘Syst. Helm.,’ ii, p. 166; and in ‘Revis der
+Nemat.,’ l. c., s. 660.--_Douglas, J._, “Worms (Lumbrici) evacuated at
+an Ulcer of the Groin,” ‘Med. Ess. and Obs.,’ vol. i, 2nd edit. (vol.
+i, 5th edit., p. 179), p. 222, 1737.--_Dowler, B._, “Case of Worms in
+the Urinary Bladder,” from ‘New Orl. M. and S. Journ.,’ in ‘New York
+Journ. Med.,’ new series, vol. xiv, 1855.--_Dubini_, ‘Entozoografia
+umana’ (“Anat.,” p. 148).--_Dupuytren_, “Lumbricus passed by the
+Urethra,” from “Clin. Lect.,” in ‘Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1846,
+p. 14.--_Dyce, R._, “On Lumbrici and the Causes of their Prevalence
+in the Mauritius,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1834.--_Evans, T._, “Lumbricus
+causing Death,” rep. of coroner’s inquest in the ‘Herts Advertiser and
+St Alban’s Times’ for Feb. 8, 1873.--_Gervais_ (and _Van Beneden_),
+‘Zool. Med.,’ ii, p. 118.--_Gilli_, “Account of a Case in which 510
+Worms (Lumbrici) were voided by a Child,” from ‘Giorn. d. Scienze
+Med. di Torino,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1843.--_Goopta, G. D. D._, “On
+Suicide and Lumbrici,” ‘Ind. Med. Gaz.,’ July, 1874, and ‘Lond. Med.
+Rec.,’ Aug., 1874, p. 502.--_Heller, A._, “Darmschmarotzer,” in Von
+Ziemssen’s ‘Handb.,’ s. 612-631.--_Holland, G. C._, “A peculiar Case
+of Nervous Disease or Derangement of the Nervous System (associated
+with _A. lumbricoides_),” ‘Edin. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lxiii,
+1845.--_Howall_, “Abscess of the Groin, with discharge of Lumbrici,”
+‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1845, and ‘Edin. M. and S. Journ.,’ 1846, p.
+241.--_Johnson, W. G._, “Case of forty Lumbrici in a Boy who died with
+Traumatic Tetanus,” “Rep. of South Mid. Br. of Brit. Med. Assoc.,” in
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1858.--_Kell_, “Perforation of the Intestines by
+a Worm,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1828.--_Kilgour, T._, “Case in which Worms
+in the Nose, productive of alarming Symptoms, were removed by the Use
+of Tobacco,” ‘Med. Comment.,’ vol. viii, 1783.--_Kirkland_, “Case of
+Lumbricus in an Abscess of the Liver,” rep. in his book, entitled ‘An
+Enquiry,’ vol. ii, p. 186 (quoted by Richter and Davaine), London,
+1786.--_Küchenmeister_, ‘Manual,’ Eng. edit., p. 410-427.--_Leidy,
+J._, ‘Proc. Acad. Phil.,’ 1856, p. 50.--_Lente, F. D._, “Lumbricus
+in the Stomach causing Dyspnœa,” in his “Rep. of Cases occurring
+in the New York Hosp.,” in ‘New York Journ. of Med.,’ vol. v, new
+series, p. 167, 1850.--_Lettsom_, “Case of Lumbricus evacuated from an
+Abdominal Abscess,” ‘Trans. Med. Soc. Lond.,’ and ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’
+1817.--_Leuckart_, l. c., s. 152-258.--_Lieberkühn_, in ‘Miller’s
+Arch.’ (“Anat. of _A. suilla_”), 1855, s. 331.--_Luschka_, “Case of
+Lumbrici within the Pleura,” from ‘Virch. Arch.,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1854.--_Lowne, B. T._, “The Anatomy of the Round Worm,” ‘Trans. Roy.
+Micr. Soc.,’ 1871, p. 55.--_Maesson_, “On a Worm found in the Bubo of
+a Woman 36 years of age;” see ‘Entozoa and Parasites, being a ref. to
+numerous papers;’ from “Valentin’s Repertorium,” in ‘Month. Journ. of
+Med. Sci.,’ vol. ii, p. 559, 1842; also in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct.
+Rec.,’ p. 85, 1842.--_Marcet, W._, “Chemical Exam. of the Fluid from
+the Peritoneal Cavity of _A. megalocephala_,” ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ 1862,
+No. 72, p. 69.--_Martin, D. T._, “Large number of Worms (140 examples
+of _A. lumbricoides_) discharged from a Child five years old,” rep.
+from the “Stethoscope,” in ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xliv, p.
+301, 1851.--_Mattei, R._, “On a Case of two Lumbricoid Worms, which had
+penetrated during life into the liver, and were demonstrated by Prof.
+G. Pelizzari to his pupils in the Sch. of Path. Anat. of Florence,”
+from ‘Gaz. Med. Ital. Toscana,’ in ‘Dubl. Quart. Journ.,’ vol. xxiv,
+1857.--_Michel_, “Case of Epilepsy in a Girl ten years of age, caused
+by Lumbrici,” from ‘Journ. des Connaiss. Méd.,’ in ‘Amer. Journ. of
+Med. Sci.,’ vol. vi, p. 451, 1843.--_M’Laggan, J._, “Gangrenous Sore
+from a large Worm in the Parietes of the Abdomen,” ‘Med. Comment.,’
+vol. ii, 1774, p. 80.--_Molin_, in ‘Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad.,’ 1859,
+s. 23.--_Mondière_, “On Perforation by Worms (three cases),” from
+‘L’Expérience,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1839.--_Moore, E. D._, “Example
+of _A. lumbr._ ejected by the Mouth,” ‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1852.--_Morgan, J._, “Case of Perforation of the Stomach, probably by
+a (Lumbricus) Worm,” ‘Lancet,’ 1836.--_Morland, W. W._, “Ejection of
+numerous Lumbrici from the Mouth, impaction of the small intestine
+with Lumbrici, (of which 365 were removed post mortem),” ‘Bost. M. and
+S. Journ.,’ vol. lvi, 1857.--_Idem_., an “_A. lumbr._ of unusual size
+(over 17 inches long),” ‘Rep. of Bost. Soc. for Improv.,’ in ‘Bost.
+M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lviii, p. 62, 1858.--_Neilson_, “Discharge of
+Worms from various parts of the Body,” ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ and ‘Lond.
+Med. Gaz.,’ 1833.--_Omond, R._, “Case of Lumbricus attended with
+Hæmoptysis,” ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ 1856.--_Owen, R._, art. “Entozoa,” l.
+c.--_Padley, G._, “Jaundice and Lumbrici,” ‘British Med. Journ.,’ Dec.
+14, 1878, p. 877.--_Petrenz_, “Case of fatal Enteritis produced by (200)
+Lumbrici,” from ‘Clarus and Radius’ Beitr. zur Pract. Heilk.,’ in ‘Dubl.
+Journ.,’ vol. xi, 1837; also in ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1837.--_Playfair_,
+“Case of Lumbricus (69 specimens) cured by the Mudar,” ‘Calc. Med.
+and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. ii, p. 407, 1826.--_Pomeroy, C. G._,
+“Escape of Worms (17 Lumbrici) from the Navel of a Child,” ‘Bost. M.
+and S. Journ.,’ vol. xxi, 1840.--_Prichard, A._, “Case of Lumbricus,”
+‘Rep. of East York and North Lincoln Br. of Brit. Med. Assoc.,’ in
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.--_Royer_, “Case of Intestinal Perforation
+by a Lumbricus,” report in ‘Lancet,’ 1856.--_Rumsey, N._, “Cases of
+Lumbricus and Tænia associated with Hæmoptysis,” ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’
+1818.--_Sandwith, H._, “Remarks on Worms in the Peritoneal Cavity,
+with a case,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1861.--_Schleifer_, “Case of a
+Deaf and Dumb Child restored after the discharge of Worms (87 Lumbrici
+and innumerable Oxyurides),” from ‘Œsterr. Med. Wochensch.,’ in ‘Amer.
+Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ vol. viii, p. 473, 1844.--_Schneider, A._, ‘Monog.
+der Nemat.,’ s. 36.--_Idem_, “On the Nervous System of Nematoda,” from
+the German by _Busk_, ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1863.--_Schultze_,
+“Case of Stuttering occasioned by Worms,” from ‘Med. Zeit.,’ in
+‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1837.--_Sheppard_, “Case of _A. lumbr._ extracted
+from an Abdominal Abscess,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1861.--_Smith, J.
+N._, “Thirty-nine Specimens of _Ascaris lumbricoides_ in a Child,”
+‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’ 1856.--_Spalding, P._, “Case of Worms (100
+Lumbrici),” _ibid._, 1839.--_Stockbridge, T. G._, “Worm-trap (hooks and
+eyes), a New Remedy,” _ibid._, vol. xxvii, p. 73, 1842-43; see also
+Anon., A. M.--_Stockbridge, W._, “Mechanical Expulsion of Worms (by
+metallic buttons),” _ibid._, vol. xxviii, p. 419, 1843.--_Van Beneden_,
+‘Animal Parasites,’ l. c., p. 95; see also _Gervais_.--_Villemin_,
+“Case of Death from Worms (about 18 specimens of _A. lumbr._),” from
+‘L’Union Méd.,’ in the ‘Lancet,’ and rep. in ‘Dubl. Med. Press,’ vol.
+xxxv, p. 327, 1856.--_Weinland_, in his ‘Essay,’ l. c., p. 88, and
+in ‘Troschel’s Arch.,’ 1859, s. 283.--_Welsh, T._, “Curious Facts
+respecting (symptoms produced by) Worms (_A. lumbricoides_),” art. ix
+in the ‘Med. Papers communicated to the Massachus. Med. Soc.,’ vol. i,
+p. 87, 1790.--_Wendelboe_, “Case of discharge of Worms (Ascarides?)
+through the Skin,” from ‘Rep. of Roy. Soc. Copenhagen,’ in ‘Lancet,’
+1836; see also _Neilson_.--_Williams, H. W._, “Exhibition of a Lumbricus
+with a dress-hook attached,” ‘Rep. of Bost. Soc. for Med. Improv.,’ in
+‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lvi, p. 163, 1857.--_Wilson, J._, “On
+the prevalence of Lumbrici in China,” in his ‘Med. Notes on China,’
+London, 1846.--_Woodman, W. B._, “Case of Convulsions, &c., arising from
+Lumbricoid Worms,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1863.--_Young, W._, “Cases in
+which Lumbrici were evacuated by Ulceration through the Parietes of the
+Abdomen,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ from ‘Glasgow Med. Journ.,’ 1828; rep. in
+‘Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. i, p. 564, 1828.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.--PART I.--ACANTHOCEPHALA (Thornheaded worms).
+
+
+_Echinorhynchus gigas_, Goeze.--There is but one recorded instance
+of the occurrence of this entozoon in the human body. This is the
+oft-quoted case by Lambl, given in the ‘Prager Vierteljahrschrift’ for
+1859. Lambl, indeed, described it as a separate species (_E. hominis_),
+but as the worm was a sexually-immature female, its identification with
+_E. gigas_, notwithstanding Schneider’s great authority, can hardly
+be regarded as absolutely certain. The worm was found in the small
+intestine of a boy of nine years, and measured only rather more than
+the fifth of an inch in length. As Leuckart hints, the worm may be
+_Echinorhynchus angustatus_, or possibly the _E. spirula_, a species
+found in various South American apes (_Cebus_ and _Jacchus_), and also
+in the Barbary ape (_Inuus_).
+
+In 1872, Welch, unaware of Lambl’s case, announced the discovery of “the
+presence of an encysted Echinorhynchus in man.” The minute parasite
+found by him occurred in a soldier, thirty-four years of age, who died
+at Netley, but who had contracted the worm in India. “It was situated
+in the jejunum, immediately beneath the mucous coat, and formed an oval
+prominence in the interior of the gut.” Speaking with great confidence,
+this able microscopist further remarks:--“The character and arrangement
+of the hooklets unequivocally shadowed forth a species of Echinorhynchus
+for the first time discovered as a representative of the Acanthocephala
+in the human body.” Along with his elaborate description Welch gives
+several figures; but these, so far from producing conviction as to
+the accuracy of his inferences, have unfortunately led me to believe
+that the parasite in question would be more properly referred to
+the _Pentastomidæ_. But for Heller’s acquiescence I might have more
+fittingly noticed this worm elsewhere. Davaine falls into the same
+view, and moreover accepts Lewis’s “Echinorhynque du Chien,” which I
+have shown to be a nematode (_Cheiracanthus robustus_). It is thus that
+serious errors creep into the literature of parasitism.
+
+In the adult state the female _Echinorhynchus gigas_ is a huge species,
+occasionally reaching two feet in length, with a breadth of one third
+of an inch. The male rarely exceeds three inches. This worm is common
+in swine, both wild and domesticated. According to Schneider the
+embryos take up their residence in the grubs or larvæ of the cockchafer
+(_Melolontha vulgaris_), a discovery which very readily explains the
+manner in which hogs become infested. Whether _E. gigas_ be a human
+parasite or not, it is certainly very injurious, not to say destructive,
+to swine. Although this parasite must be quite common in England I have
+experienced great difficulty in procuring specimens. In the second book
+of this work I shall give some interesting particulars furnished by
+the memoir of Prof. Verrill and privately by Mr George Wilkins. (See
+‘Parasites of the Pachydermata’.)
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 35).--_Blanchard_, in ‘Cuvier’s Règne Animal,’ tab. 35
+(good fig.), and in ‘Ann. d. Sci. Nat.,’ ser. xii.--_Bremser_, ‘Icones,’
+tab. vi.--_Cobbold_, “Parasites of the Hog,” the ‘Veterinarian,’
+1875.--_Idem_, ‘Manual,’ l. c., p. 123.--_Davaine_, l. c., ‘Syn.,’ p.
+83.--_Diesing_, l. c., ii, p. 2.--_Dujardin_, l. c., p. 503.--_Goeze_,
+l. c., s. 143 (good figs.).--_Gurlt_, l. c., s. 367.--_Heller_,
+‘Darmschmarotzer,’ l. c., s. 663.--_Lambl_, l. c., _supra_, Feb.,
+1859.--_Leuckart_, l. c., Bd. ii, s. 729; also in ‘Bibl. Univ.’ for
+March, 1863, and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xii, 1863.--_Owen_, l. c.,
+in ‘Todd’s Cyclop.’ (figs. after Cloquet).--_Rudolphi_, ‘Synops.,’ pp.
+63 and 310.--_Schneider_, in ‘Arch. f. Anat. und Phys.,’ 1868.--_Idem_,
+in ‘Sitzungsb. der Oberhess. Gesellsch. f. Nat.,’ &c., 1874 (quoted by
+Leuckart); see also ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 4th series, vol. vii, p. 441,
+1871.--_Verrill_, ‘The external and internal Parasites,’ &c., l. c.,
+p. 109.--_Welch_, “The presence of an Encysted Echinorhynchus in Man,”
+‘Lancet,’ Nov. 16, p. 703, 1872.--_Westrumb_, ‘De Helm. Acanth.’ (good
+figs.), 1821.
+
+
+SECTION IV.--PART II.--SUCTORIA (Leeches)
+
+As explained in the Introduction we must regard the Leeches and
+many allied forms of Suctorial Annelids as creatures possessed of
+semi-parasitic habits. They are, perhaps, something more than what
+Van Beneden styles “free parasites”--an expression which almost looks
+like a contradiction of terms. I cannot here, however, stop to discuss
+questions which lie, as it were, on the border-land of parasitology.
+Three species of leech are more or less commonly employed in medicine.
+These are the grey leech (_Sanguisuga medicinalis_, Savigny), the
+green-leech (_S. officinalis_, Sav.), and the dragon-leech (_S.
+interrupta_, Moq.-Tandon). The two former abound in Central and Southern
+Europe, being also present in North Africa, the last named inhabiting
+Barbary and Algeria. So abundant are leeches in the country bordering
+the Mediterranean that during the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon the
+French soldiers suffered seriously from their attacks. When the men
+lay down to drink, the leeches (_Hæmopis sanguisorba_, Sav.) affixed
+themselves to their mouths and nostrils, producing serious distress.
+They also attacked horses, camels, and cattle. In like manner the
+Ceylon and Philippine Island leeches (_S. ceylonica_, Moq.-Tand., or
+_S. tagalla_, Meyen), of which there are several varieties, prove
+exceedingly troublesome to Europeans. These leeches, not being aquatic
+forms, occupy woods and damp places. Unless the limbs of travellers are
+well protected, the presence of the blood-suckers is soon discovered by
+the trickling of blood from the limbs and lower part of the body. The
+leeches even sometimes creep up to the neck and other adjacent parts.
+These “free parasites” also attack horses, causing much loss of blood.
+Terrestrial leeches abound more or less in all warm countries. Sir J.
+Hooker encountered them in the Himalayas, and they are common in China,
+Japan, Java (_S. Javonica_, Wahlberg), and other eastern parts. They
+likewise abound in Brazil and Chili. The American leeches for the most
+part belong to the genus Hæmenteria (_H. Mexicana_, _H. officinalis_,
+and _H. Ghiliani_, Filippi). The last named is common in Brazil, the
+other two being Mexican forms. Another species, which is blind, has
+been found in Brazil by F. Müller (_Cyclobdella lumbricoides_). Not
+only the above-named species, but also many other kinds of leeches are
+in the habit of attacking man and the domestic animals, but the subject
+is too extended and special to be fully dealt with in this work. Almost
+a legion of species are known as externally parasitic upon Fishes,
+Chelonian and Batrachian reptiles, Crustaceans, and Echinoderms.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 36).--_Blainville_, ‘Dict. des Sci. Nat.,’ tom.
+xlvii, p. 257.--_Brandt_ (und _Ratzeburg_), ‘Medicin. Zoologie,’ Bd.
+ii.--_Brightwell_, ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ ix, 1842.--_Diesing_,
+‘Syst.,’ vol. i, p. 465, and “Revis. der Myzelminth. (Abth.
+Bdellideen),” in ‘Sitzungsb. der math.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad. der
+Wissensch.,’ Bd. xxxiii, s. 473.--_Ebrard_, ‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1856, p.
+1012.--_Idem_, ‘Monogr. des sangues Méd.,’ 1857.--_Filippi, De_, ‘Mem.
+Accad., &c., Torino,’ and in ‘S. und K. Zeitsch.,’ 1829.--_Idem_,
+“Nuovo genere,” &c., in ‘Gaz. Med. Lombard,’ 1849.--_Grube_, ‘Fam. d.
+Annelid.,’ s. 109.--_Hofmeister_, in ‘Burmeister’s Zeitung für Zool.,’
+1848.--_Johnson_, ‘Treatise on the Medicinal Leech.’--_Leuckart_, l.
+c., Bd. ii, s. 634-739 (with many refs.)--_Leydig_ (“Anat.”), ‘S.
+und K. Zeitsch.,’ Bd. i.--_Moquin-Tandon_, ‘Monogr. de la fam. des
+Hirudinées,’ 1846.--_Idem_, in his ‘Medical Zoology’ (Hulme’s edit.),
+1861, p. 137.--_Müller, F._, in ‘Archiv f. Naturg.,’ 1846.--_Pereira_,
+in his ‘Materia Med.,’ vol. ii, p. 2197, 1853.--_Savigny_, ‘Descript. de
+l’Egypte,’ 2nd edit.--_Idem_, ‘Syst. des Annélides,’ 1820.--_Schmarda_,
+‘Neue wirbell. Thiere,’ Bd. i (quoted by Leuckart).--_Virey_ (and
+_Serullas_), in ‘Journ. Pharm.,’ 1829, p. 614.--_Wagener_, in
+‘Troschel’s Archiv,’ 1858, Bd. i, s. 244 _et seq._--_Wahlberg_, in
+‘Œfvers. Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Forhand.,’ Stockholm, 1855.
+
+
+SECTION IV.--PART III.--ARACHNIDA (Pentastomes, Mites, Ticks).
+
+The Trachearian division of the Arachnida comprises a few internal
+parasites that attack man, and many ectozoa which are parasitic upon man
+and animals. The species can only be noticed very briefly.
+
+_Pentastoma tænioides_, Rudolphi.--In the system of classification
+adopted by Diesing, this entozoon and its allies are placed in the
+division _Cephalocotyleen_ and therefore, in association with the
+Cestodes, with which, however, it has no structural affinity. It was
+long ago pointed out by Van Beneden, T. D. Schubart, Leuckart, and
+others, that the pentastomes were Acarine and Lernæan Arthropods; the
+genus being osculant between the Acaridæ and Lernæidæ. The whole subject
+is discussed in Leuckart’s profound memoir quoted below.
+
+The adult _Pentastoma tænioides_ is characterised by the possession
+of a vermiform, lancet-shaped body, flattened at the ventral surface,
+attenuated posteriorly, and marked transversely by about ninety rings
+(fig. 50, 1 and 2). The cephalo-thoracic segments are continuous with
+the body, each supporting a pair of strong retractile chitinous claws;
+four in all. The head is truncated, furnished with an oval mouth, armed
+with a horny lip. The integument of the body is perforated with numerous
+respiratory openings or stigmata. These are wanting in the cephalic
+segment. In the larval state (══ _Pent. denticulatum_) the body is armed
+with numerous rows of small, sharply pointed spines. The adult female
+measures from three to four inches in length, but the male is only
+about an inch long. The genital aperture of the female is situated at
+the extremity of the tail, that of the male being placed at the front
+part of the abdomen in the middle line. The mode of reproduction is
+oviparous, accompanied by a subsequent and complete metamorphosis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--_Pentastoma tænioides._ (1) Male and (2)
+female, of the natural size. The egg and embryo highly magnified. After
+Leuckart.]
+
+In the mature condition this parasite infests the nostrils, and frontal
+sinuses of the dog and wolf, and also, though more rarely, the nasal
+cavities of the horse and sheep. In the pupal and larval states it
+sometimes occurs in the abdominal and thoracic cavities of the human
+body, but it is more frequently found in herbivorous mammals, such as
+the sheep, deer, antelope, peccary, porcupine, guinea-pig, hare, and
+rat. According to Creplin, it infests the domestic cat. In these animals
+and in man the young worms occupy little cysts within or upon the
+peripheral parts of the liver and lungs. I have occasionally found them
+free in the cavities of the abdomen and pleura.
+
+In the course of the development of this entozoon, Leuckart recognises
+four well-marked stages. The _first_ is that of the embryo with a boring
+apparatus. In the _second_ stage, the embryo has become transformed
+into a motionless pupa. The _third_ is the ordinary larval condition
+characterised by numerous rows of small spines in addition to two
+pairs of double claws. The _fourth_ is the sexually-developed stage,
+furnished with a simple hook-apparatus, and without integumentary
+denticles. “Our Pentastomes, therefore,” says Leuckart, “exhibit two
+kinds of larval forms, an earlier and later one, such as takes place
+in other animals; this also occurs even in insects (_Strepsiptera_ and
+_Meloidæ_), only that, in our case (_i. e._ in _Pentastoma_), both do
+not immediately follow one another, but are separated by a resting
+condition, which I have designated as the pupa stage. In choosing this
+name I do not mean to express a complete identity of this intermediate
+state with the pupal sleep of insects.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Upper third of the body of _Pentastoma
+denticulatum_. Original.]
+
+So far as my own observations extend, the pupa, in its later stages,
+closely resembles the free larva; but, as Leuckart points out, the
+earlier stages are very different. The embryo, after encystation,
+repeatedly casts its skin, and during the intervals of these several
+successive moultings, the young animal makes rapid growth, accompanied
+by a series of structural changes. Passing through these it at length
+acquires the perfected larval state (_P. denticulatum_).
+
+As regards the occurrence of this entozoon in the human body, the best
+account is that given by Frerichs. As quoted in my previous work from
+Murchison’s edition of Frerichs’ well-known clinical treatise, the
+German _savant_ remarks:--“The Pentastoma is a parasite which has only
+recently been discovered in the human subject, but it is, nevertheless,
+far more common in the human liver than the echinococcus. It is devoid
+of clinical importance, because it does not give rise to any functional
+derangements. Pruner (‘Krankheit des Orients,’ 1847, s. 245) was the
+first who pointed out the existence of the Pentastoma in the human
+liver. On two occasions he found an encysted parasite in the liver of
+negroes at Cairo, the nature of which, however, he did not accurately
+determine. Bilharz and Von Siebold (‘Zeitschr. für Wissench. Zoologie,’
+Bd. iv, s. 63) recognised in it a new variety of Pentastoma, to which
+he gave the name of _P. constrictum_. In Germany the Pentastoma was
+found in the human liver by Zenker (‘Zeitschr. f. ration. Med.,’ 1854,
+Bd. v, s. 224); it occurs, however, not only in this gland, but also
+in the kidneys, and in the submucous tissue of the small intestine
+(Wagner). The parasite is by no means rare with us. Zenker, at Dresden,
+succeeded in finding it nine times out of 168 autopsies; Heschl, at
+Vienna, met with it five times out of twenty autopsies; Wagner, at
+Leipsig, once in ten. According to Virchow, it is more common in Berlin
+than in Central Germany. During six months at Breslau I met with it
+in five out of forty-seven dead bodies. The Pentastoma-endemic in
+Germany is not identical with that which occurs in Egypt; the former is
+the _P. denticulatum_ of Rudolphi.” This clear statement of Frerichs
+is valuable; but, as Murchison has also pointed out, there is some
+discrepancy between Frerichs and Küchenmeister’s record of Zenker’s
+experience. According to Küchenmeister, Zenker met with the Pentastoma
+thirty times in 200 autopsies.
+
+Although from a purely clinical point of view, and speaking generally,
+this worm, as Frerichs says, can claim little attention, yet, as we
+shall see (when treating of the parasites of the dog), it occasionally
+proves fatal to the canine bearer. Not only so, it may even occasion
+severe inconvenience to the human bearer. Quite recently a remarkable
+instance of this kind occurred in Germany, some notice of which appeared
+in the ‘Medical Times and Gazette,’ Jan. 4th, 1879, as follows:
+
+“Dr Landon of Elbing (‘Berl. Klin. Wochenschrift,’ No. 49, 1878)
+relates the case of a workman, aged forty-two, who soon after the
+Franco-German campaign of 1870 was laid up with pain in the hepatic
+region, jaundice, and gastric disturbance, which symptoms persisted more
+or less until 1874, when he came under Dr Landon’s care with an attack
+apparently of perihepatitis. It then appeared that since 1871 he had
+also suffered from severe attacks of epistaxis, which occurred often
+twice in the same day. The patient complained of a feeling of painful
+pressure in the left nasal cavity, but with the speculum nothing but a
+moderate degree of inflammatory swelling could be detected. Suddenly, at
+Easter, 1878, a parasite was dislodged from the left side of the nose by
+a violent sneeze, and from that moment the epistaxis has not occurred.
+Its cause proved to be the _Pentastoma tænioides_.”
+
+As the full-grown parasite occupies the nasal chambers of the dog, it is
+clear that the act of sneezing will be liable to transport the eggs and
+their contained embryos to the face and other exposed parts of persons
+who fondle dogs. In this way the germs will readily gain access to the
+human mouth. Ordinarily, the germs are introduced into the human stomach
+with uncooked vegetable food and fruits, to which they adhere after
+expulsion from the animal’s nostrils. The slimy nasal mucus secures this
+attachment, especially when it has become dry by exposure to the air.
+On reaching the stomach the embryos escape the egg-coverings and bore
+their way directly to the liver and other viscera, in which organs they
+become encysted and undergo the pupal transformation. Eventually they
+acquire a length of 2 to 2-1/2 lines (_P. denticulatum_). After a while
+the capsules enclosing the larvæ undergo calcareous degeneration, the
+parasite perishing.
+
+In the case of dogs it is easy to perceive that when the animals are
+engaged in devouring the flesh of herbivora, the liberated larvæ will
+often come in contact with their noses. In this way contraction of the
+body, aided by the integumentary denticles, will secure their entrance
+into the nasal cavities. For our own security, therefore, we should
+avoid contact with dogs which frequent butchers’ shops and knackeries,
+and be sure that our market-garden fruits and vegetables are carefully
+washed before they are brought to table.
+
+_Pentastoma constrictum_, Von Siebold.--This parasite is at present
+only known to us in the immature condition; unless, indeed, as is by no
+means improbable, the adult worm has been described under some other
+name. It was first discovered by Pruner on two occasions in negroes,
+and he also subsequently found two specimens of the worm preserved in
+the Pathological Museum at Bologna, which had been removed from the
+human liver. Pruner also found it in the giraffe. Bilharz afterwards
+frequently detected it in the livers of negroes at Cairo. It differs
+from the larval form of _P. tænioides_ in not possessing integumentary
+spines; moreover, it is a much larger parasite. The cephalothorax is
+furnished with four foot-claws, and the elongated abdomen displays
+twenty-three rings placed at tolerably regular intervals. The anterior
+part of the animal is obtusely rounded off, the caudal end being
+conical. The worm usually attains a length of rather more than half an
+inch, whilst the breadth scarcely exceeds a line.
+
+An extremely interesting account of this worm has been published by
+Prof. Aitken, accompanied with illustrations by Dr H. C. Gillespie,
+taken from specimens in the Pathological Museum at Netley. Two cases
+are recorded. In one of these the encysted worms were found in the
+liver and lungs, and in the other in the liver only. In Dr Crawford’s
+account of the post mortem in the last-mentioned case, Prof. Aitken
+quotes him as saying: “These worms varied in length from an inch to an
+inch and a half, and were found coiled up like a watch-spring, in small
+sacs scattered throughout the whole organ.” The patient was a private
+of the 1st West India Regiment, and died at Bathurst, Gambia, in 1854.
+In the other case, where the lungs and liver were infested, the patient
+was an African, about twenty-one years old, who had enlisted into the
+5th West India Regiment at Up Park Camp, Jamaica. He had, a few months
+previously, come from the slave depôt at Rupert’s Valley, St Helena.
+According to the post-mortem report, furnished by Mr Kearney (staff
+surgeon), the lower lobe of the right lung contained one or two yellow
+specks. “When cut into, worms were seen regularly encysted in its
+substance.” The surface of the liver was dotted over “with about twenty
+or thirty yellow specks, similar to those seen in the lung.” The longest
+of these specimens was a trifle less than three quarters of an inch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Pentastoma constrictum._ Magnified four
+diameters. After Bilharz.]
+
+Whether _Pent. denticulatum_ be or be not devoid of clinical interest,
+it is quite clear from Aitken’s account that _P. constrictum_ is a
+formidable parasite and one that occasionally proves fatal to the
+bearer. As his remarks suggest, a parasite that can produce both
+pneumonia and peritonitis is not a creature that either the physician
+or the sanitarian can afford to ignore. Lastly, I must again express my
+belief that the so-called _Echinorhynchus_, described by Welch, if it
+be not the _Pentastoma denticulatum_, must either be referred to _P.
+constrictum_ (in an early larval condition), or to some other hitherto
+undescribed pentastomatoid larva.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 37).--_Aitken, W._, “On the occurrence of _Pentastoma
+constrictum_ in the Human Body as a cause of painful Disease and
+Death,” repr. from the ‘Science and Practice of Medicine,’ 4th
+edit., 1865.--_Bellingham_, in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xiv, p.
+162.--_Blanchard_, in ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ ser. 3, t. viii, and
+in ‘Règn. Anim.’ (with figs.).--_Cobbold_, ‘Entoz.,’ p. 393 _et
+seq._--_Idem_, in ‘Quart. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1859, p. 205.--_Idem_
+(“_P. cephalophi_”), in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ xxii, p. 357, and xxiii, p.
+350.--_Idem_, in ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’ 1861, p. 124.--_Diesing_, ‘Syst.,’
+i, p. 609.--Idem, ‘Revis. der Cephalocot.,’ s. 327.--_Frerichs_ (l. c.,
+in text), vol. ii, p. 276.--_Klob_ (und _Schroff_), in ‘Gesellsch. d.
+Aerzte,’ Wien, 1860.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., i, s. 370, Eng. edit.,
+tab. viii.--_Idem_ (with _Van Beneden_), in ‘Bullet. Acad. Belg.,’
+xxii (with figs.), 1855.--_Landon_ (quoted in text).--_Leuckart_,
+in ‘Zeitsch. f. rat. Med.,’ 1857; see also “Obs. on the development
+and early condition of the _Pent. tænioides_,” in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+vol. iii, 3rd series, 1859; also my translation of his “Further
+Observations on the development of _P. tænioides_,” from ‘Henle
+and Pfeufer’s Zeitsch.,’ in the ‘Quart. Journ. of Micr. Sci.’ for
+1859.--_Idem_, ‘Bau und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pentastomen, nach
+Untersuchungen besonders von _P. tænioides_ und _P. denticulatum_,’
+Leipzig, 1860.--_Moquin-Tandon_, ‘Med. Zool.’ (Hulme’s edit.), “The
+Linguatula,” p. 329.--_Pruner_ (“Nematoideum”) in ‘Krankh. d. Orient.,’
+1847.--_Schubart_, ‘S. und K. Zeitschr.,’ Bd. iv.--_Welch_, see Bibl.
+No. 36.--_Zenker_, in ‘H. und Pf. Zeitschr. f. rat. Med.,’ 1854, s. 212
+(with figs.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Demodex folliculorum_, var. _caninus_. _a_,
+Female; _b_, male. Viewed from below and in profile. Magnified 300
+diameters. After Mégnin.]
+
+The ectoparasitic arachnidans comprise a great variety of mites and
+ticks (_Acaridæ_ and _Ixodidæ_) more or less proper to man, and also
+a number of creatures which, though hardly to be reckoned as human
+parasites, are apt to transfer themselves from animals to man. Little
+more than an enumeration of the forms is possible here. The Common Scab
+or Itch insect (_Sarcoptes scabiei_) forms the type of a great variety
+of arachnids, generally spoken of as different species according to the
+host they dwell upon. Mégnin, however, in his beautiful memoir, quoted
+below, regards most of the forms of this genus (found on the horse,
+hog, sheep, dog, wolf, and other animals) as mere varieties. In man the
+female Acarus burrows beneath the skin, forming galleries or curved
+channels, in which she deposits her eggs. The irritation produced is not
+alone due to these excavations, but to the presence also of a poison
+which the mite discharges when feeding. The _Sarcoptes crustosæ_ of
+Fürstenberg, producing the Norway itch, is a variety, if, indeed, it
+can be called as much. Under the frightful name of _Dermatophagoides
+Schérémétewsky_ two parasites found on an herpetic patient have been
+described as new to science by M. Bogdanoff, but Mégnin points out
+that these Acari are only female and young male representatives of his
+_Chorioptes setiferus_ (var. _bovis_) respectively. In Newfoundland,
+Dr Le Roy de Méricourt discovered a singular species upon an officer
+who had come from Havannah (_Tyroglyphus Méricourti_, Laboulbène). It
+possesses enormous palpi, as in the genus _Chyletus_ to which Robin
+refers it. Another ectozoon, placed by Mégnin and others amongst the
+lowest types of Arachnida, is the well-known _Demodex folliculorum_. It
+is a gregarious species, a dozen or more examples often being present in
+a single dilated hair follicle. Though disfiguring to the human face it
+produces little harm. M. Gruby made it out to be a very common parasite,
+infesting forty out of sixty persons; but Mégnin, in his brochure (l. c.
+infra, p. 119), shows this statement to be an exaggeration. It infests
+on the average not more than one in ten persons. According to Gruby,
+moreover, a single follicle in the dog may contain 200 of these mites,
+another statement which Mégnin deems unreliable. The _Demodex_ of the
+dog is only a variety (fig. 53). Many other human Arachnids have been
+found, some of which appear to be genuine species, whilst others are
+accidental, so to speak. Of the former kind, perhaps we may reckon
+the two species discovered by Hessling (_Cœlognathus morsitans_ and
+_Entarsus cancriformis_). Of the latter sort, those found by Busk,
+Simon, and Bory de St Vincent may be cited. The mite found in Simon’s
+case was the _Dermanyssus avium_, which infests cage-birds. Probably it
+was the same species which Bory found on a lady; but in Busk’s negro
+sailor the mite may have been _D. gallinæ_ of the common fowl. Differing
+from the mites, proper, and also from the true ticks, are some bug-like
+forms called Argades. The two best known are the Miana bug of Persia
+(_Argas persicus_) and the Chinche of Columbia (_A. chinche_). Like
+their congener infesting pigeons (_A. reflexus_) these parasites are
+terrible blood-suckers. The bite of the Persian bug is so venomous as
+to have occasioned death. Various species of tick have been known to
+attack man, but the species have not been well determined. Although
+a human form has been described (_Ixodes hominis_, Koch), yet it is
+more probable that the species usually attacking man are the same as
+those known to infest the domesticated animals. In this list we may,
+therefore, reckon _Ixodes nigra_, _Ix. bovis_, _Ix. ricinus_, and _Ix.
+reduvius_. Cases in which one or other of these ticks occasioned much
+pain and distress are recorded by Hussem, Raspail, and Dr Cosson.
+Besides these there is a formidable tick well known at Angola (_Ix.
+monbata_). Its habits are like those of the common bed-bug. Severe pain
+comes on two hours after the person is bitten. It likewise attacks
+animals. The _Ix. carapato_ is similarly troublesome in Brazil.
+Another very disgusting arachnid liable to attack man is the _Galeodes
+araneoides_. This large spider-like creature, two inches in length,
+commonly attacks camels and has an extremely venomous bite. One or
+more species of the dung-beetle mites (Gamasidæ) have also been known
+to fasten themselves on man. According to Latreille, they first get
+attached to the clothes of travellers, whence they pass to his body,
+and there shift about, producing great torment. Another disagreeable
+arachnid is the little harvest bug (_Leptus autumnalis_), which not
+only excites irritation during its crawling motion on the human skin,
+but even succeeds in burying itself near the hairs. The irritation
+thus produced is almost unbearable. This mite attacks various animals,
+especially dogs and cats. I myself once suffered severely from this
+species in consequence of fondling a young wild rabbit which, as I
+afterwards discovered, was much infested. When the parasites had
+reached my left arm-pit they occasioned extreme torture. I have known
+these autumnal spiders to produce small suppurating boils on the
+abdomen. I may add that Dr Tilbury Fox has brought under my notice
+an instance where the hexapod larva of another species (probably
+_Trombidium cinereum_) was found to have occasioned severe irritation in
+a child.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 38).--_Alibert_, ‘Maladies de la Peau,’ Paris,
+1833.--_Audouin, V._, art. “Arachnida,” in ‘Todd’s Cyclop.,’ vol. i,
+1836.--_Beneden, Van_ (_et Gervais_), ‘Zool. Med.,’ 1859.--_Bourguignon_
+(_et Delafond_), in ‘Rec. Vét.,’ 1856.--_Idem_, in ‘Mém. de
+l’Institut.,’ 1862.--_Cobbold_, “Case of _Leptus_ producing Boils,” in
+‘Worms,’ p. 140, London, 1872.--_Gamgee_, ‘Our Domestic Animals in
+Health and Disease,’ Edin., 1861.--_Gerlach_, ‘Kraetze und Räude,’
+1857.--_Hebra_, in ‘Oester. Jahrb.,’ 1864.--_Hering_, ‘Die
+Kraetzmilben,’ Stuttgard, 1845.--_Krabbe_, “Husdyrenes paras. Mider.,”
+‘Tidssk. f. Vet.,’ Rœk. 2, Bd. iii.--_Küchenmeister_, l. c., 1855, s.
+412 (good figs.).--_Mégnin_, ‘Monographie de la tribu des Sarcoptides
+psoriques.’ (This work contains a full bibliography and numerous
+beautiful plates; see also Review in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Aug., 1877, p.
+563).--_Idem_, “Mémoire sur un nouveau Symbiote (_Chorioptes_, Gerv.),”
+‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol.,’ 1872.--_Idem_, “Mém. sur un
+nouvel Acarien,” _ibid._, 1873.--_Idem_, “Mém. sur les Hypopes,”
+_ibid._, 1874.--_Idem_, “Mém. sur l’organisation et la distribution
+zoologique des Acariens de la famille des Gamasidés,” _ibid._,
+1876.--_Idem_, “Mém. sur les métamorphoses des Acariens en général, et
+en particulier sur celles des Trombidions,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’
+1876.--_Idem_, “Des conditions de la contagion de la gale des animaux à
+l’homme,” ‘Arch. générales de Méd.,’ 1876.--_Idem_, “Mém. sur le
+_Demodex folliculorum_ (Owen),” ‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol.,’
+1877.--_Moquin-Tandon_, ‘Elém. de Zool. méd.’ (Hulme’s edit., p.
+302-328), 1861.--_Williams_, in his ‘Veterinary Surgery’ (good figs.,
+reproduced from Gamgee’s translation of ‘Gerlach,’ &c.), 1872.
+
+
+SECTION IV.--PART IV.--CRUSTACEA (Gammaridæ).
+
+Although multitudes of small Crustaceans are parasitic upon fishes, and
+some few of them adhere to oceanic mammals (Cetacea), I am sceptical
+as to the parasitism of Crustacea either in or upon man. Many of the
+Amphipodous Gammari lead a sort of free parasitic existence, and they
+are themselves very liable to harbor larval parasites. As regards human
+parasitism from this source the only records known to me are those
+quoted below.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 39).--_Banon_, “Freshwater Shrimp, or _Gamarus pulex_
+(said to have been passed per anum),” ‘Rep. of Path. Soc. of Dublin,’
+in ‘Dub. Med. Press,’ April 6, p. 351, 1864.--_Bartels_, “_Gamarus
+pulex_ in the Human Subject, with a postscript by Troschel,” trans. by
+Dr E. P. Wright, from ‘Verhandl. des Naturhist. verein. der Preuss.
+Rheinl. und Westph.,’ in ‘Dubl. Med. Press,’ 2nd ser., vol. ix, p. 407,
+1864.--_Wright, E. P._, ‘Remarks on Dr Banon’s Case’ (see Bartels).
+
+
+SECTION IV.--PART V.--INSECTA (Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera,
+Aphaniptera).
+
+Whilst very many flies, bugs, lice, and fleas persecute animals, not
+a few of them also attack man. Several of the species are genuine
+parasites, others are semi-parasitic, and others, again, are altogether
+outside the border-land of parasitism in the ordinary sense of the term.
+In fact, it becomes difficult to say where the line of parasitism should
+be drawn. I cannot, however, ignore all notice of the insect tormentors,
+whether strictly parasitic or not.
+
+At least fifty different species have been regarded as playing the rôle
+of parasitism in man. Amongst the Coleopterous parasites none is more
+authentic than _Blaps mortisaga_. At least half a dozen such cases
+have occurred. Mr Hope’s catalogue of insects producing parasitism in
+man gives three examples of _scolechiasis_ from this source. Sir J.
+R. Cormack published a fourth case, and I have recorded a fifth. In
+this instance I received the living larva from Dr Horne, of Barnsley,
+who procured it from an infant eleven weeks old. In my ‘Introductory
+Treatise’ I have alluded to the case of the girl Riordan, who not only
+passed per anum upwards of 1200 larvæ, but also several perfect insects.
+The case was first reported by Pickells, Thomson, and Bellingham. One
+of the other authentic cases, in which only a few larvæ were present,
+was recorded by Patterson, of Belfast, and the third case by Bateman.
+Mr Hope’s ‘Catalogue’ originally appeared in the ‘Transactions of the
+Entomological Society,’ being afterwards published in the pages of the
+‘London Medical Gazette,’ 1837. Patterson’s case was also, I believe,
+first communicated to the Entomological Society.
+
+As regards the mode in which the maggot gained access to the child in
+Horne’s case, it was not easy to decide; but in the case of the girl
+Riordan the mode of ingress was sufficiently explained. The _Blapsidæ_,
+as a family, are closely allied to the meal-worms, and, like most of
+the _Tenebrionidæ_, are black and foul-smelling beetles, frequenting
+dark and damp situations, from which they escape only at night. The
+family comprises numerous species, of which probably not more than three
+are found in this country. They are abundant in Africa, especially in
+Egypt, where (according to Fabricius, as quoted by Westwood, Figuer,
+and others) the women eat _Blaps sulcata_ cooked with butter in order
+to make themselves grow fat. The insects are also employed as specifics
+against ear-ache and the bite of the scorpion. The superstitious notion
+of a “charm” is generally at the bottom of these domestic remedies.
+In the girl Riordan’s case, as Westwood observes (when epitomising
+Pickell’s account), the parasites, as such, “probably originated in an
+absurd and superstitious practice, which she had for some time followed,
+of drinking daily for a certain time a quantity of water mixed with
+clay, taken from the graves of two Catholic priests, and eating large
+pieces of chalk. One of these beetles was immersed repeatedly in spirits
+of wine, but revived after remaining therein all night, and afterwards
+lived three years.” The intolerance of light shown by the perfect insect
+seems to be equally shared by the larva. Of this fact I had repeated
+evidence by observing the behaviour of the living specimen sent to me by
+Dr Horne. Thus, when, on February 5th, 1877, I placed the maggot on the
+surface of some moist mould, scarcely half a minute elapsed before it
+commenced to bore its way downwards, and in less than a minute all but
+the tip of the tail had disappeared. In like manner, when, on the 7th,
+I raised the lid of the box, and found the maggot on the surface of the
+soil, it almost instantly proceeded to bury itself. Hope’s list records
+no less than nine instances of parasitism in man from the larvæ of
+_Tenebrio molitor_, and he gives a score of other Coleopterous insects
+which he regarded as human “intestinal worms.” Undoubtedly a large
+number of insect larvæ do get introduced into, and actually live within
+the human intestines.
+
+Numerous cases of this sort have come under my observation, but it often
+requires a profound knowledge of entomology to determine the species.
+Several examples of œstridean larvæ occur amongst them. For one example
+of _Œstrus hominis_ I am indebted to Mr Higginson, of Liverpool, who
+obligingly supplied me with notes of the case. Dr Kirk presented me
+with a small bot which he removed from Livingstone’s leg. I afterwards
+deposited the African bot, in his name, in the Hunterian collection.
+Bates speaks of an Œstrus in Brazil producing boils in human flesh.
+Westwood quotes similar instances. Of these, one was extracted from the
+thigh by Dr Brick. Mr Doubleday, the entomologist, extracted one from
+his own leg, and M. Goudot, another entomologist, was also victimised
+in the same way. Both of these _savans_ were travelling in America at
+the time. Two cases from South America were also recorded by Howship. In
+one the larva lodged in the back; in the other in the scrotum. Humboldt
+noticed that the Indians were much infested by Œstridæ. Three cases
+are severally recorded by Roulin, Guérin, and Audouin. Mr Stroop also
+mentions a case in which an Œstrus was removed from an ulcer on the
+shoulder of a boy in Texas. Another kind of bot known as the Macaco worm
+(_Cuterebra noxialis_) occasionally attacks man, but more frequently
+cattle and dogs. For one example, taken from the leg of a negro, at
+Belize, British Honduras, I am indebted to Dr Dobson (A. M. D., Netley).
+Hope’s list records five cases of bots of _Œstrus hominus_, one of
+_Œ. Guildingii_, one of _Œ. bovis_, and thirteen others (belonging to
+the same genus) as having been noticed in man. Since his time many
+additional cases have been recorded by J. M. Duncan and others. In like
+manner a legion of cases in which the maggots of various Muscidæ have
+been noticed, either in, upon, or from the human body. At a meeting
+of the American Academy in April, 1859, Dr Leidy showed some larvæ of
+the bluebottle fly vomited by a child; five larvæ of the flower-fly
+(Anthomyia) from a physician’s own person (which had produced choleraic
+symptoms); and nine examples of _Cuterebra noxialis_. I have myself
+encountered numerous insect larvæ in medical practice. Amongst others
+I have obtained the larvæ of _Anthomyia canalicularis_ in six or eight
+separate instances. One set of specimens, identified by Wunderlich, was
+sent to me by Dr Brandt, of Oporto. Drs Duffin, W. Fox, and Leared have
+supplied me with others. The larvæ described in Farre’s case, not being
+setose, must be referred to one or other of the Muscidæ proper. Mr
+Hope gave nearly forty cases of this kind, referable to eight different
+species of fly, and, as already implied, I have myself collected a great
+variety of the maggots of Muscidæ passed by the bowel, besides others
+obtained either from beneath the skin or from open ulcerations.
+
+The flies hitherto noticed as supplying parasitic maggots in man are
+_Musca domestica_, _M. carnaria_, _M. larvarum_, _M. nigra_, and perhaps
+_M. Cibaria_, _M. stabulans_, and _M. Cæsar_. This last, a handsome fly,
+is the species which proves so troublesome to sheep. The habit which
+flies have of depositing their eggs in open wounds, when the victims
+are asleep, is a fertile source of this kind of parasitism. Some of the
+instances recorded by Kirby and Spence are revolting in the extreme.
+They quote the cases which came under Mr Sell’s notice in Jamaica. In
+one instance the flies were hatched in a neglected blister on the chest;
+in another from the gums and inside of the cheek; and in a third, from
+the nostrils of a negro, from whom 235 larvæ were expelled. The case of
+the Lincolnshire pauper, Page, who was literally eaten up by maggots, is
+almost incredible. An equally horrible instance, however, is recorded by
+Cloquet. It is said that the Jamaica cases were all due to the larvæ of
+the bluebottle fly (_M. vomitoria_). An instance of the same kind has
+been recorded by Mr Knox (A. M. D.). Sufficiently revolting as these
+cases are, the horrors attending them are eclipsed by the habits of
+the larvæ of _Lucilia hominivora_. The best accounts of its habits are
+those by M. Coquerel, M. Saint-Pair, and M. Vercammer. The insects lay
+their eggs in the mouth and nostrils, and when the larvæ escape they
+devour the tissues surrounding the buccal cavity, the pharynx, glottis,
+frontal and nasal sinuses, even reaching the sockets of the eye. Several
+Cayenne convicts have perished from the maggots of this fly, which is
+also prevalent in Mexico. These are not, however, the only instances of
+maggots gaining access to the nasal chambers. In a case recorded by Dr
+Astros, of Aix, 113 were discharged from the nose of a woman; and M.
+Legrand du Saulle records an instance where a number of larvæ occupied
+the frontal sinuses of a girl, nine years of age. The larvæ produced
+persistent headache and convulsions. In the case recorded by Wohlfart,
+18 larvæ were discharged from the nose of an old man, and in the example
+given by Latham several larvæ were obtained from the frontal sinuses of
+a woman. Bracey Clark also gives an instance in which a bot was taken
+from a woman’s jaw. Not improbably the well-known Indian disease, termed
+peenash, or worm in the nose, is due to the presence of Œstridean larvæ.
+Cases by Rustomjee and Lahory are quoted below. Possibly Stockett’s is
+another of the same order. The case by Kilgour (Bibliog. No. 34) may be
+another. I may add that Moquin-Tandon gives an instance of the discharge
+of seventy-two bots, resembling those of the sheep, from a woman’s nose
+(‘Journ. de Vandermonde’). The rat-tail maggots or larvæ of _Helophilus_
+are parasitic. Two or three instances have been recorded from the horse.
+I possess one from the human intestine. Kirby also quotes an instance
+in which _Heloph. pendulus_ was obtained from the stomach of a woman
+(‘Philos. Mag.,’ vol. ix, p. 366).
+
+A vast number of non-parasitic insects are injurious to man and beast.
+Inasmuch as they subsist at the expense of their victims and also adhere
+to his person during their attacks for a shorter or longer time, they,
+like the leeches, may be spoken of as free parasites. The leg-sticker
+(_Stomoxys calcitrans_) penetrates through thick stockings, causing
+blood to flow freely. The clegg of the West Highlands (_Hæmatopota
+pluvialis_) also violently attacks man and beast, especially horses. The
+mosquito (_Culex anxifer_), the gnats (_C. pipiens_, _C. annulatus_,
+and _C. pulicaris_), and the midge (_Chironomus plumosus_) need only
+be mentioned. The creeping gnat (_Simulium reptans_) is also very
+annoying in Sweden. The rôle of the mosquito, as itself constituting
+a parasite-bearer, will be again referred to in the closing pages of
+this work (Book II, Section V). The bites of the tsetse (_Glossina
+morsitans_), though so destructive to the horse, ox, sheep, and dog, are
+not dangerous to man himself. According to Sir S. Baker, the seroot-fly,
+or zimb of Bruce, which is a species of _Pangonia_, is excessively
+annoying to travellers in Abyssinia. Amongst the hemipterous insects
+the common bug (_Acanthia lectularia_) is sufficiently blood-thirsty;
+but there is a far more sanguinary species of this kind in South
+America. This is the pampas benchucha (_Conorhinus nigrovarius_). Our
+distinguished countryman, Darwin, in his ‘Voyage,’ speaking of these
+wingless insects, says:--“Before sucking they are quite thin, but
+afterwards become round and bloated with blood. In less than ten minutes
+the insect is changed from being as flat as a wafer to a globular form.”
+This insect somewhat resembles our water-scorpion (_Nepa cinerea_), a
+non-parasitic species whose bite causes severe pain, as does also the
+wound inflicted by the water-boatman (_Notonecta glauca_). There are
+other species of bug, such as the _Acanthia rotundata_ of Réunion Island
+and _A. ciliata_ of Kasan, the bites of which are worse than that of the
+common species. The fly-bugs also, such as the _Reduvius personatus_, so
+common in France, and the _R. amænus_ of Borneo and Java, attack man,
+although their especial habit is to attack and destroy other insects,
+including bugs themselves. Other species or varieties of Reduvius (_R.
+cruentus_, and _R. serratus_) attack man. The last named is an Indian
+form, capable, it is said, of producing an electric shock.
+
+Passing to the fleas, the most important and truly parasitic form is
+the chigoe or gigger (_Pulex penetrans_). This abounds in tropical
+America and the West Indies. The female insects only attack man, and
+this they do for the purpose of securing a lodgment for their offspring.
+They attack especially the soles of the feet, between the toes and
+near the nails. In bad cases the whole of the foot becomes affected.
+After the insect has penetrated the skin its body swells enormously and
+becomes a mere bag of eggs. This swelling causes active inflammation,
+which terminates in suppuration and the formation of open ulcers. The
+chigoe also attacks various animals. In addition to the common flea
+(_P. irritans_) other species infesting animals are said to attack man
+occasionally. As regards those degraded types of insects known as lice I
+can only afford space to remark that five species have been recognised
+as human. These are the head-louse (_Pediculus capitis_); the louse of
+the eyelids (_P. palpebrarum_); the clothes-louse (_P. vestimenti_);
+the distemper louse (_P. tabescentium_); and the pubic louse (_P.
+inguinalis_). The distress these creatures occasion is only fully known
+to physicians who deal with the obstinate cutaneous affections caused
+by their presence (_Phthiriasis_). Some of the lice found on negroes
+and Greenlanders are regarded as distinct varieties. Lice are abundant
+on animals, and some of the species are apt to transfer themselves
+from one host to another. Thus the _Ornithomyia avicularis_ of cage
+birds has been found on man, whilst one or more of the numerous species
+infesting the common fowl are, by transfer, apt to produce a severe
+phthiriasis in the horse. The lice of the fowl belong to the genera
+_Leipurus_, _Liotheum_, _Menopon_, _Philopterus_, _Goniodes_, and
+_Goniocotes_. The unsuitableness of man’s person as a habitation for
+bird-lice should, however, check the fear which many persons have of
+handling fresh-killed poultry and game birds. Poultry lousiness in man
+is probably impossible from this source.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 40).--_Arture_, “Obs. sur le ver nommé Macaque,”
+in ‘Mém. Acad. des Sci.,’ Paris, 1753.--_Bates_, “Œstrus in
+Man,” ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons.’--_Beneden, Van_, ‘Animal
+Parasites and Messmates,’ 1876.--_Idem_ (with _Gervais_), ‘Traité
+de Zool. Méd.’--_Blood, M._, “Case of Larvæ (_Musca sarcophaga_)
+expelled alive in the Fæces,” ‘Beale’s Arch. of Med.,’ vol. iii,
+p. 134, 1862.--_Brinton_ (similar case), ‘Arch. of Med.,’ vol.
+iii, p. 133, 1862.--_Bouyer_ (quoted by Figuer), ‘Tour du Monde,’
+p. 318, 1866.--_Clark, Bracey_, in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. iii, 1797
+(the jaw-case at p. 323), and vol. xv, 1827.--_Idem_, ‘Essay on
+Bots,’ 1815.--_Cloquet, J._, “Case of Blindness from Worms (larvæ
+of Musca) in the Eyes,” from ‘Arch. Gén. de Méd.,’ in ‘Lancet,’
+1828.--_Cobbold_, “On _Blaps mortisaga_ as a Human Parasite,” ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1877, p. 420.--_Idem_, “Entoz.” (‘Hope’s List.’), p.
+416.--_Idem_, in ‘Worms’ (“Leptus,” &c.), p. 140, 1872.--_Coquerel_
+(quoted by Figuer).--_Cormack, J. R._, “Exhibition of a Larva (_B.
+mortisaga_) passed by a Child,” ‘Month. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ vol. i,
+1841.--_Crumpe, S._, “History of a Case in which Worms (larvæ of a
+beetle) were discharged from the Stomach,” from ‘Trans. of the Roy.
+Irish Acad.,’ vol. vi, in ‘Med. Facts and Observ.,’ vol. viii, p.
+229, 1800.--_Denny_, ‘Monog. Anoplurorum Brittaniæ,’ 1842.--_Duncan,
+J. M._, “On the Occurrence of Bots in the Human Subject,” ‘Edin. Vet.
+Rev.,’ vol. i, p. 275, 1858-59.--_Idem_, “The Larva of _Œstrus bovis_
+in the Human Subject,” ‘Rep. of Edin. Med.-Chir. Soc.,’ in ‘Month.
+Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ July, 1854.--_Farre, A._, “On the Larva of
+_Anthomyia canalicularis_,” ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ 1841,
+p. 129, and in ‘Trans. of Micr. Soc. of Lond.,’ orig. ser., p. 51,
+1844.--_Figuer_, in ‘The Insect World’ (good figs.), Janson’s edit.,
+1869.--_Furlonge_, “Anat. of Pulex,” in the ‘Journ. of the Queckett
+Club,’ vol. iii.--_Geer, De_, ‘Mémoires pour servir à l’Histoire des
+Insectes,’ 1773.--_Gervais_ (see Van Beneden).--_Hill_, “Account of
+the Larva of a supposed _Œstrus hominis_, or Gad-fly, which deposits
+its Eggs in the bodies of the human species, with particulars of a
+Case,” ‘Edin. New. Phil. Journ.,’ vol. xxii, p. 284, 1830.--_Hilaire_
+(see St Hilaire).--_Hope_, “Tables of Cases of (spurious) Intestinal
+Worms,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1837-38.--_Hoppe_, “Case of Larvæ of
+Insects (_Musca stabulans_) passed by Stool,” from ‘Bibl. für Läger,’
+in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1842.--_Hopper, R. S._, “Insects (Stratiomis)
+voided with Urine,” edit. note in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rev.,’ p.
+160, 1841.--_Joly_, ‘Recherches sur les Œstrides en général,’ &c.,
+Lyons, 1846.--_Keferstein_, ‘Sur l’Oistros,’ Isis, 1827.--_Kirby_ (and
+_Spence_), ‘Introd. to Entomology,’ 7th edit., 1856.--_Knox, M._,
+“Maggots, the larvæ of the Bluebottle Fly, in Syphilitic Ulceration
+of the Throat,” ‘Lancet,’ Oct. 6, 1877, p. 514.--_Lahory, B. T. C._,
+“On _Peenash_, or Worms in the Nose,” ‘Ind. Ann. of Med. Sci.,’ 1855,
+and ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ 1857.--_Leach_, “Œstridæ,” in ‘Wernerian
+Trans.,’ 1817.--_Leidy_, in ‘Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.,’ 1859, p.
+7.--_Maclean_, “On the Oistros,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xiv, 1824, and in
+‘Zool. Journ.,’ vol. i and iv.--_Metaxa_, “Vom Œstrus (u. s. w.),” in
+‘Neuen Nord. Beitr.,’ Bd. i, and in ‘Mém. de Zool. Med.,’ Rome, 1835
+(quoted by Westwood).--_Moquin-Tandon_, ‘Med. Zool.’ (l. c., Bibl. No.
+38).--_Newport_, art. “Insecta,” ‘Todd’s Cyclop.,’ 1839.--_Rustomjee,
+B._, “Case of Worms in the Nose, or ‘Peenash,’” in ‘App. to Bomb. Med.
+and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ No. vii, new ser., p. 21, 1861; see also Lahory,
+on ‘Peenash.’--_Saint-Hilaire_, “Sur l’Œstre chez l’homme,” in ‘Ann.
+Soc. Ent. de France,’ 1833.--_Say_, “Brick’s Case,” in ‘Trans. Acad.
+Nat. Sci. Phil.,’ vol. ii.--_Sells_, in ‘Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond.;’ see
+also Lemprière’s ‘Diseases of the Army in Jamaica,’ vol. ii.--_Stockett,
+T. H._, “An account of a Headache cured by the discharge of a Worm (?)
+from the Nose,” ‘Med. Com.,’ vol. xix, p. 157, 1794, and in ‘Trans.
+Coll. of Phys. Phil.,’ vol. i, part i, p. 181, 1793.--_Stroop, St J._,
+“Œstrus,” in ‘Amer. Naturalist,’ vol. vii, p. 437.--_Tanner_, “On Lice,”
+in his ‘Pract. of Med.,’ vol. ii, p. 429, 6th edit., 1869.--_Westwood_,
+in his ‘Classification of Insects,’ vol. ii, 1840.--_Wohlfart_ (quoted
+by Moquin-Tandon).--_Yule_, “Case of Larvæ of Insects in the Human
+Stomach,” ‘Edin. Phil. Journ.,’ and ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1825.
+
+
+SECTION IV.--PART VI.--PROTOZOA (Psorospermiæ, Gregarinidæ, &c.).
+
+The scope of this work does not demand that I should comprise within
+its limits any vegetable parasites; nevertheless, I must needs refer,
+however briefly, to certain confervoid and sarcodic organisms, which,
+for the most part, lie on the borderland of the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms. Professor Cohn regards the bacteria as allied to the
+Oscillitoriaceæ. He puts them in his order _Schizosporeæ_. It is of
+little moment, practically, where these protista forms are placed.
+Unquestionably many of them are parasitic, as they live in the tissues,
+fluids, and secretions of animal bodies, including man. Their presence
+in cattle is associated with an anthracoid disease (charbon), whilst
+in the human body they have been detected in connection with zymotic
+affections. They have been found by Cohn, Sanderson, Klebs, Chauveau,
+and others, either in the lymph of vaccine pustules, or in the miliary
+eruptions of typhus fever. Professor Beale, who was one of the first to
+observe these special organic particles in vaccine lymph, denies that
+they are true Bacteria; and, indeed, he warmly disputes the inferences
+that have generally been drawn from the fact of the presence of such
+particles in lymph, blood, and other nutrient fluids. The best known
+and defined forms are _Bacterium termo_ and _Bact. lineola_, which are
+concerned in the production of putrefaction, _Bacillus anthracis_, found
+in the blood of animals suffering from carbuncular disease, _Micrococcus
+septicus_, found in typhus and pyæmia, _M. vaccinæ_ of cow pox lymph,
+and _M. diphthericus_, in diphtheria. As regards their prevalence in
+certain forms of relapsing fever, Sanderson states that Dr H. V. Carter,
+of Bombay, examined the blood of 250 fever patients and found _spirilla_
+in nearly every instance. From the independent observations of Pasteur,
+Sanderson, Lister, Tyndall, Bastian, Eberth, Roberts, Davaine, and
+many others, it seems clear that the Bacteria and their allies play an
+important part in association with certain morbid states. However, as
+regards the etiology of the maladies in which these organisms are found,
+it is perhaps too early to speak with absolute confidence. The subject
+cannot be dealt with here; moreover, it is outside the range of my
+personal investigations.
+
+Passing to those protozoa which, although retaining some vegetable
+affinities, are more or less distinctively animal, I notice the obscure
+organisms termed psorosperms. In dealing with these I shall treat of the
+forms that infest both man and animals, confining my remarks to such as
+happen to have come under my own observation.
+
+In the year 1865 the public were thoroughly roused to a sense of danger
+arising from the consumption of meat. The panic originated with the
+outbreaks of trichiniasis in Germany. During the excitement which
+subsequently prevailed at the time of the rinderpest, all sorts of
+erroneous notions took possession of the popular mind, and the errors
+were stimulated by writers ignorant of helminthology. In January,
+1866, I published a few observations, the purport of which was to
+show that certain microscopic organisms found in animals dying from
+cattle plague were harmless “parasitic Protozoa,” possessing more
+or less striking vegetable affinities. About a week previously some
+interesting researches on these so-called cattle-plague bodies had been
+published by Dr Beale. Those who first saw these bodies thought they
+had stumbled upon organisms new to science. I showed that similar or
+analogous organisms were to be met with in a great variety of animals,
+and likewise in the human body. They had been called worm-nodules,
+worm-nests, egg-sacs, eggs of the common fluke, young “measles,”
+corpuscles produced by muscular degeneration, psorospermiæ, stages of
+growth of gregarinæ, amœboid bodies, and so forth. In so far as the
+higher animals were concerned, Dujardin was the first to describe them.
+He found these organisms in a mole. This animal, however, having been
+fed upon earth-worms known to harbour such parasites, there was no
+difficulty in accounting for the source of the psorosperms.
+
+In 1853 Hessling discovered psorospermial sacs in the muscular substance
+of the heart, not only of the ox, but also of the sheep and roe. By him
+they were regarded as evidences of muscular degeneration. About ten
+years previously Miescher found similar bodies in the muscles of the
+mouse.
+
+In 1857 Rainey described similar structures taken from the flesh of
+swine; and, in his memoir, he went so far as to maintain that these
+bodies were early stages of development of the common pork-measle.
+In the year 1858 Gubler wrote an important paper on this subject, in
+which he related a case where twenty cysts existed in the human liver.
+The cysts were of great size, mostly as large as a hen’s egg, one of
+them being some six inches in diameter. Naturally, the largest had
+been diagnosed as an ordinary hydatid. However, on evacuating their
+contents (post mortem), they were found to harbor enormous quantities
+of minute corpuscles strictly analogous to those usually obtained
+from psorospermial sacs. Gubler believed he had stumbled upon masses
+of eggs of _Distoma hepaticum_, but in this he erred. Shortly after
+Gubler’s discovery similar bodies from the human liver were described
+by Virchow; and in 1862, the subject was followed up by Dr Dressler,
+of Prague. Dressler found in the human liver a number of pea-shaped
+bodies, the milky contents (_breisubstanz_) of which displayed a
+multitude of the characteristic corpuscular elements referred to. These
+particles, already considered as equivalent to, if not identical with,
+the so-called pseudo-navicellæ of gregarinæ, were soon encountered by a
+variety of independent observers. Thus, Leuckart noticed these bodies in
+various animals; but with caution remarked:--“Concerning the nature of
+these formations I will not decide. To be candid, however, it appears
+to me to be in no way made out whether the psorospermiæ are to be
+considered as the result of a special animal development, whether they,
+like pseudo-navicellæ, are the nuclei of gregariniform productions, or
+whether they are the final products of pathological metamorphosis.”
+Leuckart found these organisms in the intestines of a trichinised dog,
+also in a sheep and pig fed with Trichinæ. He also found them in the
+muscles of another pig fed with psorosperms, and likewise in the liver
+of various rabbits. He remarks that in swine these parasites are more
+abundant than measles. They were present in five of eighteen pigs, and
+also in two out of four sheep, whose flesh was especially examined.
+The observations of Lindemann at Nischney-Novgorod are particularly
+interesting. This medical officer discovered psorospermial sacs attached
+to the hair of a girl who was being treated in hospital for chlorosis.
+The sacs in question bore close resemblance to the bodies which we found
+in abundance in diseased and healthy cattle. It would further appear,
+from Lindemann’s observations, that the affection is not very uncommon
+amongst the Russian peasants.
+
+In connection with and attached to the same parasitically affected
+hairs Lindemann also noticed several movable gregarinæ; and partly
+from this circumstance he was led to believe in the existence of a
+genetic relation subsisting between the two kinds of bodies. He further
+expressed his conviction that the people contracted the disease by
+washing themselves with water in which gregarinæ abounded. Lindemann
+moreover refers to Lebert as having noticed similar parasites in a case
+of favus, and concludes that these organisms are of a vegetable nature.
+His opinion, though not shared by the majority of parasitologists, is
+nevertheless supported by the views of Robin, Leydig, and others. Of
+still higher interest are the observations of Lindemann respecting the
+occurrence of psorospermiæ in the capsule of the kidney of a hospital
+patient who died with Bright’s disease. The sacs in this case were
+remarkably small; nevertheless their corpuscular contents indicated
+their true nature. The pseudo-navicellæ measured only 1/5000″ in
+diameter. Amongst other contributions of interest I may refer to those
+of Dufour, J. Müller, Creplin, Kölliker, Keferstein, Stein, Drummond,
+Lieberkühn, and E. Ray Lankester. I doubt if the vegetable organisms
+described by Prof. W. T. Gairdner can be referred to this group of
+parasites. At all events, by whatever name these spurious entozoa are
+called, they were first discovered by Dufour in insects, by Müller in
+fishes, by Miescher in the mouse, by Dujardin in the mole, by Hessling
+in the larger quadrupeds, and by Gubler in man. The results of my own
+examinations may be briefly re-stated. In the flesh of cattle I found
+psorospermial sacs varying from 1/120″ to 1/12″ in length, and in that
+of sheep from 1/220″ to 1/80″. The bodies were enclosed in well-defined
+transparent envelopes, and their contents exhibited indications of
+segmentation. In some specimens the segments displayed themselves as
+a complete cell-formation, the contents of each cell being uniformly
+granular. Under the 1/4″ objective the contained granules were clearly
+visible, and on rupturing the sac their peculiar characters were at
+once manifest, each granule or corpuscle represented a pseudo-navicel,
+all displaying a tolerably uniform size, averaging 1/2000″ in diameter.
+Some of the corpuscles were round, others oval, several bluntly pointed
+at one end, many curved and fusiform, not a few being almost reniform.
+Highly refracting points or nucleoli were visible in their anterior.
+
+Turning to the practical aspect of the subject, I remarked that these
+bodies had nothing to do with the cattle plague. No one who carefully
+examined the flesh of animals that had died of rinderpest had failed
+to discover them; yet, in one or two instances they appear to have
+escaped notice. When it is considered how long it takes us to examine
+a few grains weight of muscle carefully, it is obvious that the body
+of a large beast might contain many hundreds of these organisms
+without our being able to detect their presence, except by a prolonged
+investigation. In the few rinderpest beasts, portions of whose flesh I
+submitted to the microscope, I should say there were not more than 100
+of these bodies in one ounce of meat; but in the heart of a healthy
+sheep (which I afterwards ate) I calculated there were about 1000
+parasites to the ounce, and in the heart of a healthy bullock (which
+likewise served me for a meal) their numbers were rather in excess of
+those in the sheep. Altogether, at two meals, I could not have swallowed
+less than 18,000 of these psorosperms. Consumers of beef, mutton, and
+pork eat these bodies every day, but they take no harm because the
+parasites in question are not true helminths. Fine healthy beef has
+been returned to the butcher when it was as good as any other meat
+in the market. I have examined various kinds of meat, such as veal,
+pork, and mutton, but in none have I found so great an abundance of
+psorosperms as in beef, which was, notwithstanding, perfectly healthy
+and sound. I calculated that in one instance a single ounce of the
+flesh contained upwards of 2000 parasites. There is practically no
+limit to the extent of this kind of parasitism, and there is no organ
+of the body in which psorosperms may not be found. Moreover, the forms
+they display are exceedingly various. Psorosperms have been found by
+Siedamagrotzky in the muscles of the horse, and not very long ago,
+through the help of Professors Simonds and Axe, I had the opportunity
+to examine some peculiar worm-like structures which occupied the mitral
+valve of a horse. To the naked eye they looked like coiled nematodes,
+but I was soon convinced that they formed a peculiar type of psorosperm.
+A complete view of these bodies was a matter of great difficulty owing
+to the delicate nature of their limiting membrane and to the confusion
+of markings produced by the interlacing of the fibres of the chordæ
+tendinea. At length, by spreading a portion of the membrane of the valve
+over a large glass slide, and by allowing it to dry slowly, I found that
+the vermiform body presented neither beginning nor end. The appearances
+were curious and puzzling. The organism formed a flattened tube or sac,
+almost uniform in width and variously twisted upon itself. From the main
+tube there projected several hernia-like secondary loops or branches,
+most of them presenting less than half of the thickness of the former.
+These peculiarities, however, can hardly be understood without reference
+to the original illustrations. That these secondary coils were not of
+the nature of hernial protrusions was evident, not alone from the nature
+of their contents, but also from the fact that they showed distinct
+anastomoses. In fact, the parasite was a simple sac or bag with branches.
+
+On puncturing the main tube with a fine needle a small quantity of
+tenacious creamy fluid made its escape. This, under Ross’s 1/4-inch
+lens, resolved itself into a few excessively delicate sarcode globules
+surrounded by fine granules. The granular matter displayed a tendency
+to collect itself in the form of oval masses without showing any trace
+of a limiting border. One of these masses, measuring 1/250″ in length,
+I examined under a Wasserlein-objective, when I further ascertained
+that the elementary particles or granules were uniformly oval in shape,
+rather highly refractive, their size scarcely exceeding 1/8000″ in
+diameter. The sarcode corpuscles, on the other hand, were of different
+sizes, ranging between 1/3000″ and 1/1600″ in diameter.
+
+From the facts thus elicited, negative as they were in respect of
+helminthic structure, I could see no escape from the conclusion that
+we had to deal with a new form of psorospermial bag, whose granular
+contents consisted of excessively minute pseudo-navicellæ. In the centre
+of the largest hernia-like loop there was a clear oval disk, which at
+first brought to my mind the nucleus of _Monocystis_ infesting the
+earth-worm, but it was merely a vacuole.
+
+The case recorded by Gubler reminds me of another remarkable instance
+of psorospermial cysts, in this case associated with true hydatids. In
+1873 Dr Whittell sent me particulars of a case in which the contents of
+an hydatid of the liver (drawn off, during life) consisted of shreds of
+a true hydatid, a few echinococcus-hooklets, together with multitudes of
+spindle-shaped amœboid particles of excessive minuteness and delicacy.
+The bodies, floating in a transparent fluid, formed a thick milky or
+creamy fluid, resembling pus in appearance; but there was no trace of
+pyæmia. Judging from Dr Whittell’s figures, he must also have found a
+solitary microscopic nematoid hæmatozoon, the nature of which was not
+clear to him. I believe it to have been a specimen of _Filaria sanguinis
+hominis_. Be that as it may, the case is altogether unique and deserves
+further elucidation.
+
+As regards the higher forms of protozoa it must suffice to allude
+to the _Cercomonas hominis_ of Davaine, found in the dejections of
+cholera patients, to the _Cerc. urinarius_ of Hassal and _C. saltans_
+of Ehrenberg, to the _Trichomonas vaginalis_ of Donné, detected in the
+vaginal mucus, and to the _Balantidium coli_ of Claparède and Lachmann,
+originally found by Malmsten in the human colon. The _Balantidium_, or
+_Paramæcium coli_, has frequently been observed in the evacuations of
+fever patients, and it has also been found by Dr Treille in patients
+suffering from the Cochin-China diarrhœa. Monads have also been found
+in the stomach and intestines of the hog and various other animals.
+Infusorial parasites are particularly abundant in batrachians, the
+_Bursariæ_ of frogs and toads being familiar to every helminthologist.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 41).--_Arloing_ (and _Tripier_), in ‘Gaz.-hebd.,’
+1873, p. 574 (quoted by Davaine).--_Balbiani_, ‘Compt. Rend. Soc.
+Biol.,’ 1867, p. 103 (quoted by Davaine and Bastian).--_Bastian_,
+“On the Nature of the so-called _Sarcina ventriculi_,” ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ Feb. 3, 1872.--_Idem_, “On Heterogenesis in its relation to
+certain Parasitic Diseases,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Feb. 24 and April 20,
+1872 (see part iv, p. 417, with figs. from Balbiani).--_Beale, L._,
+“Entozoon-like bodies in Muscles,” in the ‘Microscope in Medicine,’
+4th edit., p. 485, 1878.--_Idem_, “Bacterium Hypothesis of Contagium,”
+_ibid._, pp. 313-321.--_Burnett, W. T._, “On Psorospermia, Mermithes,
+&c.,” in a paper entitled ‘Reviews and Records in Anat. and Physiol.,’
+in ‘Amer. Journ. of Sci. and Arts,’ vol. xviii, 2nd ser., p. 104,
+1854.--_Carter, H. V._, “On Spirilla,” quoted by Sanderson in ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ Nov. 17, 1877, p. 700.--_Cobbold_, “Remarks on Spurious
+Entozoa found in Diseased and Healthy Cattle,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+vol. xvii, p. 452, 1866, and ‘Lancet,’ Jan. 27, 1866, p. 88; see also
+Prof. J. Gamgee’s work on the ‘Cattle Plague.’--_Idem_, “On Worm-like
+Organisms in the Mitral Valve of a Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Sept.,
+1877.--_Idem_, “On Psorospermiæ in the Eye of the Cod (Morrhua),”
+‘Linnean Society’s Proc.,’ May, 1862, and in ‘Intellectual Observer,’
+1862, p. 199.--_Cohn_, ‘Nova Acta,’ xxiv, s. 103 (quoted by Leuckart),
+Bd. i, s. 139.--_Creplin_, ‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1842, s. 61.--_Davaine_,
+l. c., 2nd edit., “Synops. xxi” (with bibliog. refs.), 1878.--_Donné_,
+‘Cours de Microscopie,’ Paris, 1847, p. 157.--_Dressler_, quoted
+by Leuckart, Bd. i, s. 141.--_Drummond_, ‘Edin. Phys. Rep.,’
+1852,--_Dufour_, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1837.--_Dujardin_, ‘Traité’
+(l. c., see Bibl. No. 1).--_Eberth_, ‘Zur Kentniss Bacteritischer
+Mykosen,’ 1872.--_Eimer_, ‘Ueber Psorospermien,’ 1870.--_Gairdner_,
+‘Edin. Phys. Soc. Rep.,’ 1853.--_Gluge_, “Cysts in Sticklebacks,”
+‘Bullet. Acad. Roy. des Sci. de Bruxelles,’ 1838.--_Gubler_, ‘Mem.
+Soc. Biol.,’ 1859, p. 657, and in ‘Gaz. Méd.,’ 1858, p. 61.--_Harz, C.
+O._, “Eine neue Mikrococcusform im lebenden Thierkörper,” ‘Deutsche
+Zeitschrift für Thier-Medicin und vergleichende Pathologie,’ f. Novemb.,
+1878.--_Hessling_, ‘Sieb. u. Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1853, p. 196.--_Henle_,
+‘Müller’s Archiv,’ 1845.--_Hollis, W. A._, “What is a Bacterium?”
+repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 205, 1875.--_Keferstein_, ‘Götling.
+gelehrte Anzeigen,’ 1862.--_Kloss_, ‘Ueber Parasiten (u. s. w.)’ (quoted
+by Davaine).--_Knoch_, ‘Journ. de Russ. Kriegs. dep.,’ Bd. xcv, 1866
+(quoted by Leuckart and by Davaine).--_Kölliker_, in ‘Zeitsch.’ (by
+Sieb. and Köll.), 1848-49.--_Lambl_, ‘Prager Vierteljahrschrift,’
+1859.--_Lankester, E. R._, “Recent Researches on Bacteria (with copious
+references),” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Science,’ Oct., 1878.--_Lebert_,
+‘Phys. Pathologique’ (quoted by Leuckart).--_Leidy_, “Gregarina,”
+‘Amer. Phil. Trans.,’ 1851.--_Leisering_, “Bericht (u. s. w.),” in
+‘Sachsen,’ 1865.--_Leuckart_, l. c., Bd. i, s. 135 and 740, and Bd.
+ii, s. 842 _et seq._--_Leydig_, ‘Müller’s Archiv,’ 1851, s. 221, in
+‘Micr. Journ.,’ 1853, p. 206, and in ‘Arch. f. Anat. und Phys.,’ 1863,
+s. 191.--_Lieberkühn_, ‘Müller’s Arch.,’ 1854.--_Lindemann_, ‘Bullet.
+Soc. imp. des Naturalistes de Moscow,’ 1863, and in ‘Gaz. Méd. de
+Paris,’ 1870, p. 86.--_Lister, J._, “Natural History of Bacteria,”
+‘Micr. Journ.,’ Oct, 1873.--_Malmsten_, “_Paramæcium coli_” (quoted
+by Davaine, l. c., 2nd edit., p. 67).--_Miescher_ (quoted by Leuckart
+and Siebold).--_Müller_, ‘Archiv,’ 1841, s. 477.--_Rainey_, ‘Phil.
+Trans.,’ 1857.--_Rayer_, “Singulière éruption sur un véron (Cyprinus),”
+‘Arch. de Méd. Comparée,’ Paris, 1842 (quoted by Davaine).--_Rivolta_,
+“Psorospermi, &c.,” trans. in ‘Journ. des Vét. du Midi,’ 1869, pp. 445
+and 521.--_Robin_, ‘Les Végét. Paras.,’ 2nd edit., p. 291.--_Sanderson_,
+in ‘Privy Council Reports,’ 1874.--_Siedamagrotzky_, in ‘Recueil de Méd.
+Vét.,’ 1872, p. 460.--_Stein_, in ‘Müller’s Arch.,’ 1848, and ‘Ann.
+Nat. Hist.,’ 1850.--_Idem_, “Abhandl. d. k. Böhmischen Gesellsch.,”
+x, s. 69, oder Lotos, 1859, s. 57 (quoted by Leuckart, Bd. i, s.
+151).--_Steinberg_, ‘Walter’s Zeitschr. f. die moderne Medicin,’ 1862,
+and in Leuckart, Bd. ii, s. 844.--_Stieda_, ‘Arch. f. pathol. anat.,’
+Bd. xxxv, and in Leuckart, Bd. ii, s. 846.--_Suriray_, “Sur quelques
+parasites du lombric,” ‘Ann. des. Sci. Nat.,’ 1836.--_Virchow_,
+“Zur Keutniss der Wurmknoten,” ‘Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys.,’ xviii, s.
+523.--_Vogel_, ‘Path. Anat.,’ i, s. 404.--_Waldenburg_, “Psorospermien,”
+in ‘Arch. f. Path. Anat.,’ s. 435, 1867.--_Windbladh_, also
+_Wising_, ‘On _Balantidium coli_’ (quoted by Leuckart, Bd. ii, s.
+846-847).--_Winkler_ (see _Leisering_).
+
+APPENDIX.--On various occasions I have dwelt upon the necessity of
+acquiring accurate information respecting the degree of mortality due to
+parasites, and in the present volume (p. 124) I have referred to the
+defective evidences supplied by the returns of the Registrar-General
+in respect of the echinococcus disease. My object is not to cast blame
+upon those whose duty it is to publish the returns, but rather to call
+attention to the advantages that would follow if the Registrar-General
+were supplied with full and accurate information on this head.
+
+Through the courtesy of Mr Noel A. Humphreys I have been furnished
+with the following official statement of the number of _Deaths from
+Worms_ in England and Wales, as recorded in the Annual Reports of the
+Registrar-General throughout a decade of years:
+
+  +--------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
+  |              |1868|1869|1870|1871|1872|1873|1874|1875|1876|1877|
+  +--------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
+  |Total         | 172| 148| 151| 160| 154| 183| 188| 227| 204| 225|
+  | including--  +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
+  |Porrigo       | 15 | 13 |  9 |  9 |  9 | 14 |  5 | 16 |  7 | 13 |
+  |Scabies       |  6 |  2 |  7 |  1 |  4 |  2 | -- |  5 |  2 |  3 |
+  |Tapeworm      |  8 |  3 |  6 |  3 |  5 |  3 |  5 |  5 |  2 |  6 |
+  |Hydatids      | 20 | 20 | 33 | 37 | 41 | 34 | 29 | 43 | 31 | 51 |
+  +--------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
+
+Considering the prodigious advances in helminthology during the last
+half century, it is certainly remarkable that under the category of
+“worms,” as a cause of death, only two kinds of true helminths should be
+mentioned in the Registrar’s record. It will also strike the experienced
+hospital and dispensary physician as somewhat remarkable that of the
+two death-producing parasites above named one of them should be the
+“tapeworm.” Now death from _Tænia_ is certainly a very rare occurrence,
+although grave nervous symptoms are not unfrequently due to its presence
+in man. Thus, I am inclined to regard the 46 reported instances of
+death from this cause as a redundant estimate. On the other hand, I
+am surprised to see no specified instances of death from lumbricoid
+Ascarides, from Oxyurides, or even from Cysticerci, which now and then
+take up their residence in the human brain.
+
+As regards hydatids I believe the returns to be excessively deficient.
+In place of an average of 34 deaths annually from this cause in the
+United Kingdom I am of opinion that at least 400 deaths are due to
+hydatids. This opinion and the data on which it was founded were
+communicated by me twelve years ago to the Linnean Society, and I have
+since become acquainted with facts which lead me to conclude that
+my original estimate was very much below the mark. The post-mortem
+registrar of one of our large hospitals has told me that of late years
+as many as _ten_ deaths might be reckoned as annually due to hydatids in
+their institution alone. At a smaller hospital I ascertained that the
+average was about _four_. Obviously, if these estimates are correct,
+the Registrar-General’s returns for the United Kingdom do not record
+a tithe of the annual mortality due to hydatids. Perhaps another half
+century will elapse before the truth of my deductions be confirmed by
+the _official_ returns. For me, it must suffice to have pointed to the
+desirability of securing more accurate records.
+
+By a curious coincidence I had only just sent to press the sheet of this
+work recording the statistics of hydatid disease in Australia (p. 123),
+when a paper dealing with the same subject appeared in the ‘Lancet.’
+I refer to the brief memoir of Dr David Thomas, of Adelaide, South
+Australia, which was published on the 1st of March, 1879. Dr Thomas
+writes as follows:
+
+“It is well known that Australia presents an extraordinary prevalence
+of hydatid disease, but, as far as I know, no definite statistics have
+been published to illustrate the fact. Consequently, some months ago,
+with the kind assistance of the Hon. W. Morgan, the present Chief
+Secretary of South Australia, I endeavoured to procure reports from
+the Governments of Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, New Zealand,
+Tasmania, and Western Australia, upon this question. Unfortunately, the
+mode of registration of the causes of death in most of these colonies
+was such as prevented the necessary replies being supplied. However, it
+appears that in Tasmania no deaths were returned from this disease in
+the ten years 1867-77. During the greater part of the same period no
+separate classification of hydatid disease had been adopted in New South
+Wales; but in 1875 four deaths were attributed to hydatids; in 1876,
+eleven were so returned. In Victoria, however, the record of deaths from
+this cause is far more complete, and I append a table based upon the
+returns from that colony.
+
+“One case, in which hydatid of the kidney was present, accompanied by
+malignant disease of bladder, with stricture, was not returned as a case
+of hydatid causing death.
+
+“During the decade 1867-77, 2·5 per 1000 deaths were due to hydatid
+disease. In 183 out of the 307 cases the liver was either solely or
+conjointly with other organs the seat of disease. Holding the second
+place in frequency come the lungs in 71 cases, _i.e._ 53 simple and 18
+complicated.”
+
+_Table of Deaths returned as being due to Hydatid Disease in the
+Province of Victoria during the ten years 1867-77._
+
+  Key to Column Headings:
+
+  A = Year.                    I = Omentum.
+  B = Liver.                   J = Ovary.
+  C = Lungs and pleura.        K = Womb.(?)
+  D = Brain and spinal cord.   L = Abdominal cavity.
+  E = Heart and pericardium.   M = Situation not recorded.
+  F = Kidney.                  N = More than one organ invaded.
+  G = Spleen.                  O = Total annual deaths.
+  H = Pancreas.                P = Totals
+
+  +----+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-------+----------+
+  |  A | B | C| D| E| F| G| H| I| J| K| L| M|   N   |     O    |
+  +----+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-------+----------+
+  |1868| 17| 5|  | 1|  |  |  |  |  |  | 2| 7| 1(_a_)|    33    |
+  |1869|  6| 8| 1|  |  |  | 1|  |  |  | 2| 1| 3(_b_)|    22    |
+  |1870| 10| 2| 1|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 4|       |    17    |
+  |1871|  4| 6| 1|  |  | 1|  |  |  | 1|  | 1| 1(_c_)|    15    |
+  |1872| 19| 3| 1| 1|  |  |  |  |  |  | 2| 2| 1(_d_)|    29    |
+  |1873| 17| 3| 2|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2| 5(_e_)|    29    |
+  |1874| 21|10| 1|  |  |  | 1|  |  |  |  | 6| 2(_f_)|    41    |
+  |1875| 29| 7|  | 2|  | 1|  |  | 1|  | 3| 2| 2(_g_)|    47    |
+  |1876| 23| 1|  |  | 2|  |  |  |  |  | 1| 4| 5(_h_)|    36    |
+  |1877| 20| 8|  | 1|  | 1|  | 1|  |  | 3| 2| 2(_i_)|    38    |
+  +----+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-------+----------+
+  |  P |166|53| 7| 5| 2| 3| 2| 1| 1|1?|13|31|22     |   307    |
+  |    |   |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |       |in 10 yrs.|
+  +----+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-------+----------+
+  |(_a_) Lungs and kidneys.                                    |
+  |(_b_) In two instances liver and lungs; in the third case   |
+  |        liver and brain.                                    |
+  |(_c_) Lungs and liver.                                      |
+  |(_d_) Lungs and abdominal cavity.                           |
+  |(_e_) In three cases liver and lungs; in one kidney and     |
+  |        abdomen; in another liver, lungs, omentum           |
+  |(_f_) Liver and lungs.                                      |
+  |(_g_) One liver and lungs; the second case lungs and heart. |
+  |(_h_) Three cases liver and lungs; one liver and kidney.    |
+  |(_i_) Liver and lungs.                                      |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+Such are the returns as recorded by Dr Thomas. If a comparison be
+instituted between the data supplied by his decade-report and those
+supplied by the decade-report which I have previously adduced (p. 123),
+it will be seen that as regards the returns for the years 1868-72,
+inclusive, both reports are in perfect agreement. Of still more interest
+also is the circumstance that whilst, on the one hand, out of the total
+of 307 deaths given in Dr Thomas’s table, 116 occurred during the first
+semi-decade (_i.e._ from 1868 to 1872, inclusive), on the other hand,
+no less than 181 deaths occurred during the second semi-decade (_i.e._
+from 1873 to 1877, inclusive). This increase of 45 deaths during the
+later semi-decade is very significant. It points either to the fact of
+more careful returns having been made, or to an actual increase in the
+fatality of the disorder. Possibly both the causes alluded to operated
+to affect the returns. Be that as it may, Dr Thomas’s record is highly
+instructive, and should stimulate the profession in England to supply
+our Registrar-General with more precise data wherewith to construct his
+annual reports.
+
+
+
+
+                                BOOK II.
+
+                         PARASITES OF ANIMALS.
+
+
+In dealing with this division of the subject it will be impossible to
+give more than the faintest outline. Let it be borne in mind that quite
+as much information might be offered by me respecting the parasitism of
+each of the commoner domestic animals as has been already advanced in
+regard to the helminthism of man. That would by no means exhaust the
+subject. Thus treated, a score of volumes, each equal in size to this,
+would barely suffice to cover the whole ground of Parasitology; and
+yet there are not wanting intelligent persons who regard Helminthology
+as unworthy of their attention. These persons form a far too prevalent
+type of educated ignorance, and unfortunately, it is just this class of
+people who enjoy the prerogative of educational responsibility. Even
+our metropolitan scientific institutions, expressly raised for the
+purpose of diffusing useful knowledge, shrink from the revelations of
+parasitism. Dominated by the miserable conception which judges that the
+life-history of a worm cannot prove either interesting or instructive
+to their audiences, they let slip the acquisition of scientific data,
+a knowledge of which might enable them to combat successfully some of
+the most terrible evils to which human flesh, in common with that of
+animals, is heir.
+
+In the following few pages many new points of departure for fresh
+scientific work will inevitably be suggested; and if I only succeed in
+conveying to the working student an adequate grasp of the whole subject,
+especially in its bearings on the welfare of the higher domesticated
+animals and man, I shall have accomplished all that I can reasonably
+hope to do within the restricted limits of space at my command.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I (MAMMALIA).
+
+
+In dealing with this class of hosts, exclusive of man, I shall notice
+the entozoa of the various orders successively, taking the arrangement
+which I employed many years since when writing the Mammalian Division of
+a popular treatise called the ‘Museum of Natural History.’ The internal
+parasites of those orders which happen to embrace important domesticated
+animals will necessarily receive more attention than the others; some
+notice of the ectozoa being likewise added.
+
+
+PART I.--QUADRUMANA (Monkeys).
+
+Monkeys are less afflicted with flukes than most animals. The
+species known to me are _Distoma laciniatum_, found by Brongniart
+in the pancreas of _Simia maimon_; _D. orbiculare_ and _Amphistoma
+emarginatum_, from the intestines of _Cebus trivirgatus_; and
+_Bilharzia hæmatobia_, a single specimen of which I obtained from
+_Cercopithecus fuliginosus_. The monkeys of the Old World rarely harbor
+full-grown tapeworms, but Cysticerci are abundant (_Cyst. tenuicollis_,
+_C. cellulosa_, _C. pileatus_, _C. crispus_). The common hydatid
+(_Echinococcus polymorphus_) has been found in many of the Simiæ, and
+by myself in a Madagascar lemur (_L. macaco_). Dr Leidy also obtained
+three hydatid cysts from a large monkey. On the last day of the year
+1857 I obtained some polycephalous hydatids (_Cœnurus lemuris_) from
+a ring-tailed lemur. They infested the liver, being more abundant in
+the lungs. They occupied both sides of the chest. Loose and detached
+specimens also existed in the cavity of the right pleura. Most of
+those occupying the chest were connected to the pleura, forming
+vesicular, semi-transparent masses, varying in size from a filbert
+to a large walnut, many being united in bundles of much larger size.
+One of these masses is here drawn (1, fig. 54). It consists of four
+large Cœnuri, their combined pedicles forming a single stalk. A fifth
+hour-glass-shaped rudimentary Cœnurus is also visible. Every Cœnurus
+supports a variable number of lobules, each lobe supporting one or more
+papillæ. Here and there the papillæ resemble chains of beads. No trace
+of tapeworm heads could be seen, but under a half-inch objective glass,
+I found some flat papillæ presenting oval depressions at the surface
+(2, fig. 54). On examining some of the larger papillæ they were found
+to consist of membranous layers folded one within the other. These
+were carefully dissected and examined with the aid of needles, when
+each one showed in the centre a well-formed tapeworm head with four
+characteristic suckers, and a prominent rostellum supporting a double
+coronet of hooks, thirty-two of the latter in all (3, fig. 54). The
+hooks displayed a marked disparity of size and form. Each hook showed
+conspicuous anterior and posterior root-processes, the larger set of
+hooks individually measuring about 1/225″ and the smaller 1/330″ in
+length (4, fig. 54). There were numerous calcareous corpuscles. The
+interior of each vesicle was filled with a fluid, in which there were
+no free scolices. On referring to my notes I find that the lemur had
+arrived in England about four months previously.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--_Cœnurus lemuris._ 1, Colony; 2, portion of the
+ectocyst (enlarged); 3, scolex-head (magnified 40 diameters); 4, hooks
+(magnified 260 diameters). Original.]
+
+Larval cestodes do not appear to be common in the monkeys of the New
+World (Cebidæ), nevertheless I found several Cysticerci in the liver of
+_Macacus radiatus_ (Feb. 19th 1857), and a single specimen in the sooty
+monkey (Dec. 4th 1857). They were wrongly described by me as Cercariæ.
+The Cebidæ are largely infested with tapeworms (_Tænia megastoma_ and
+_T. rugosa_). A species of Ligula (_L. reptans_) has likewise been found
+beneath the skin of _Callithrix sciureus_ and in one of the marmosets
+(_Hapale melanurus_). Perhaps the most common helminth infesting monkeys
+is the nematode called _Filaria gracilis_. I have examined specimens
+from the orang, the capuchin, and the spider monkey. This parasite
+commonly occupies the abdomen, coiled beneath the peritoneum, or within
+folds of the mesentery. It sometimes occurs beneath the skin, or within
+the connective tissue of superficial muscles. The female worm has been
+known to reach a length of five feet. In 1873 Mr Samuel Smith, of
+Clifton, sent me five specimens of this worm. From one of the males,
+which measured twenty inches in length, I procured some spermatozoa,
+and found their long diameter to average 1/1400″. These corpuscles and
+other structures, as well as the worm itself, are figured in my ‘Notes
+on Entozoa’ quoted below. Next in frequency, perhaps, is the whipworm
+(_Trichocephalus dispar_), which monkeys of all kinds harbor in common
+with man. Besides these nematodes, _Physaloptera dilatata_ is found in
+the stomach of American monkeys, and _Ascaris distans_ also (in the
+large intestine of marmosets more particularly). This Ascaris has also
+been found in _Cercopithecus fuliginosus_ and in _Simia sabæa_. A small
+spiroptera is said to infest the walls of the stomach of _Simia maimon_.
+To Dr Murie I am indebted for a large roundworm (_Ascaris lumbricoides_)
+taken from the intestine of a chimpanzee (_Troglodytes niger_), and also
+for a smaller nematode taken from a green mona-monkey (_Cercopithecus_).
+This I have described and named _Ascaris cuspidata_. From the intestines
+of a chacma (_Cynocephalus porcarius_) M. Schafhert procured sixteen
+examples of a small strongyle (_Str. attenuatus_, Leidy).
+
+The singular monkey known as _Tarsius spectrum_ is liable to be
+attacked by a filaria (_F. lævis_), which is found beneath the skin.
+At least two species of Echinorhynchus (_E. spirula_ and _E. elegans_)
+are known to infest monkeys. I have carefully examined and figured _E.
+elegans_ in the ‘Zoological Society’s Proceedings,’ from specimens
+supplied to me by Dr Murie. They had been obtained from a pinche monkey
+(_Hapale œdipus_) from New Granada. I am under the impression that
+Diesing’s original description of this parasite is the only one that
+exists. I have gone over his numerous memoirs contributed to the Vienna
+Academy, but can find nothing beyond the specific characters given
+in his ‘Systema.’ All the specimens in the Vienna Museum, whence his
+description is taken, were collected by Natterer. They were procured
+from the marakina (_Midas rosalia_), from two other true marmosets
+(_Hapale ursula_ and _H. chrysoleuca_), and from a squirrel monkey
+or tee-tee (_Callithrix sciureus_). In the monkey which died at the
+Zoological Society’s Gardens the cause of death was not clearly due to
+the parasites; nevertheless, the mucous layer of the intestine, to which
+the entozoa were attached, showed deep conical pits or depressions at
+the spots where the worms had anchored themselves. During the perfect
+retraction of the proboscis of this Echinorhynchus the centre is
+represented by a wide opening which communicates with a cavity beneath.
+The end of the neck thus forms a sort of collar, or rosette, made up of
+rays arranged like the spokes of a wheel. When the proboscis is exserted
+this collar is more or less convex, but it becomes slightly concave when
+the proboscis is retracted. Diesing recognised twenty-four rays; they
+probably vary from that number up to twenty-eight, at least I counted
+twenty-seven in my specimens. During exsertion the proboscis forms a
+nipple-like projection. According to Diesing it supports three rows of
+hooks, but I certainly saw four rows. When separately magnified these
+hooks present very different appearances as to size and contour. These
+variations I believe to be due to growth. The largest hooks measured
+about 1/200″ in length.
+
+As regards insect parasites, it is well known that monkeys are largely
+infested by fleas, but the species have not been much studied. The
+same may be said of their mites (_Acaridæ_). A species of Pentastoma
+(_P. tornatum_, Creplin) has been found occupying little cysts of the
+peritoneum and omentum in _Simia maimon_ and _S. cynomulgus_. Under a
+synonym (_Linguatula Diesingii_) it has been very fully described by Van
+Beneden. Another species (_P. subcylindricum_) has been found attached
+to the lungs and liver of a marmoset (_Hapale chrysopygus_). Dr Leidy
+found five specimens of _P. euryzonum_ in cysts on the subperitoneal
+surface of the liver of _Cynocephalus porcarius_. Leuckart believes that
+Dr George Harley’s _P. polyzonum_ is the adult state of _P. euryzonum_,
+and that _P. subcylindricum_ is the larva of _P. proboscideum_, found in
+_Boa constrictor_ and other serpents.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 42).--_Beneden_ (see Van Beneden).--_Cobbold_, “On
+_Filaria gracilis_ and _Ascaris cuspidata_,” in ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’
+Feb. 3, 1874, p. 124.--_Idem_, “List of Entozoa, including Pentastomes,
+obtained from Animals dying at the Menagerie in 1857-60 inclusive,”
+‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1861.--_Idem_, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 119.--_Idem_, “On
+Parasite-Larvæ (Cœnurus and Echinococcus of the Lemur),” ‘Intell.
+Observer,’ vol. iii, pp. 86-96.--_Idem_, “Bilharzia from Cercopithecus,”
+in ‘Synops. of Distomidæ,’ ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ 1860, Zool. Div., pt. v,
+p. 31, and in “Parasites from Zool. Gardens.,” in ‘Intell. Obs.,’ June,
+1862, p. 352.--_Idem_, “On _Echinorh. elegans_,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’
+1876, in ‘Notes on Entozoa,’ pt. iii, plate xvi, p. 202.--_Creplin_,
+“On _P. tornatum_,” ‘Troschel’s Arch.,’ 1849, s. 54.--_Idem_, “_F.
+gracilis_,” in ‘Wiegm. Arch.,’ 1851, s. 270.--_Diesing_, ‘Syst.,’ l. c.,
+s. 611, and in ‘Sitzb. d. k. Akad.,’ 1854, s. 598.--_Harley, G._, in
+‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1857, p. 12.--_Leidy, J._, “On Pentastoma,” ‘Proc.
+Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.,’ 1850, p. 97.--_Idem_, ‘Hydatids,’ l. c., 1856,
+p. 46.--_Idem_, ‘_Strong. atten._,’ l. c., p. 54.--_Leuckart_, ‘Bau
+und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pentastomen,’ 1860, “_P. polyzonum_,”
+‘Synops.,’ s. 153.--_Molin_, “On _F. gracilis_,” in ‘Sitzungsb. d. k.
+Akad. d. Wissensch.,’ 1858, Bd. xxviii, s. 376.--_Schneider_, ‘Monag.
+der Nem.,’ 1866, “_F. gracilis_,” s. 87.--_Smith, S._, “On _F. gracilis_
+found in connection with the Great Omentum of a Spider-monkey,”
+‘Proc. of Bristol Naturalists’ Soc.,’ vol. i, 1873.--_Van Beneden_,
+“_Ling. Diesingii_,” in ‘Mém. Acad. Belgique,’ vol. xxiii, ‘Recherches
+sur l’organisation et le dévélopment des Linguatules, suivies de la
+description d’une espèce nouvelle provenant d’un Mandrill,’ 1849.
+
+
+PART II (CHEIROPTERA).
+
+Until lately not very much attention had been paid to the parasites
+of bats, probably on account of the insignificance of the hosts.
+However, whilst Dr Dobson has recently been extending the subject of
+Cheiropterology, Prof. van Beneden has added largely to our knowledge
+of the parasites of bats. In his beautiful memoir, the Belgian
+helminthologist asks whether the parasites quit their hosts during the
+period of hybernation, and then proceeds to answer that question in
+the negative. Should the bats die, the parasites of necessity share
+the same fate. It would appear, however, that the spermatozoa of
+the worms are capable of surviving their parents for a fortnight or
+even longer. Flukes abound; the most common species (_Distoma lima_)
+infesting the pipistrelle, noctule, mouse-colored bat, Natterer’s bat,
+parti-colored bat, Daubenton’s bat, whiskered bat, and the greater and
+lesser horseshoe bats. Almost as abundant is the _Distoma chilostomum_
+found in most of these bats, and also in Leisler’s or the hairy-armed
+bat. Dujardin’s _D. heteroporum_ is a synonym of the species. Schreber’s
+_Monostomum_ is probably identical with Van Beneden’s _Distoma ascidia_.
+This fluke he found in _Vespertilio marinus_, _V. dasycnemus_, _V.
+Daubentonii_, _V. emarginatus_, _V. serotinus_, _V. mystacinus_, _V.
+pipistrellus_, _V. auritus_, and in _Rhinolophus hippocrepis_. Another
+species, distinguished from _D. ascidia_ by its large ventral sucker,
+has been found in great numbers in the noctule (_D. ascidioïdes_, Van
+Beneden). The cestodes of bats are not numerous. The best known species
+(_Tænia obtusata_) has been found in the serotine, in the mouse-colored
+bat, and in _Vespertilio lasiurus_. Another species (_T. decipiens_)
+occurs in _Molossus perotis_, and _Chylonycteris rubiginosus_, and a
+scolex, forming the type of a new genus and species (_Milina grisea_,
+Van Ben.) has been obtained by hundreds in the intestines of _Vesp.
+murinus_ and _V. serotinus_. Of nematodes we have _Ophiostomum
+mucronatum_, Rud., and _Oph. spinosum_, W.-Suhm (from _Vespertilio
+mystacinus_)., _Trichosomum speciosum_, Van Ben., _Strongylus tipula_,
+Van Ben., _Strongylacantha glycyrrhiza_, Van Ben., _Litosoma filaria_,
+Van Ben., _Ascarops minuta_, Van Ben., and one or two sexually-immature
+forms, either found loose in the tissues or occupying cysts. The
+Acanthocephala are not known to infest bats. Respecting insects,
+one family (Nycteribiidæ) is exclusively parasitic upon bats. They
+resemble the forest-flies in their habits. The best known species is
+_Nycteribia Latreillei_, but several others (_N. biarticulata_ and _N.
+Sykesii_, Westw.) have been described. One or more of the Brazilian
+bats are infested by _Lipoptena phyllostomatis_, Nitsch, and Westwood
+has obtained several allied forms of _Hipposcidæ_ (of the genus
+_Strebla_), also from bats. As regards the true Arachnidans (mites and
+ticks), Van Beneden enumerates _Ixodes lividus_, Van Ben., _Pteroptus
+vespertilionis_ and _P. arcuatus_, Koch, _Otonissus aurantiacus_ and
+_Cerathophyllus octactenus_, both of Kolenati, and _Caris elliptica_.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 43).--_Audouin_, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ xxv.--_Beneden,
+P. J. van_, “Les Parasites des Chauves-souris de Belgique,” fr. vol.
+xl of the ‘Mém. de l’Acad.,’ 1873.--_Diesing_, ‘Syst. Helm.,’ ii, p.
+530.--_Dufour_, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1831.--_Dujardin_, l. c., p.
+437.--_Kolenati_, ‘Die Parasiten der Chiropteren,’ 1857.--_Latreille_,
+art. “Nycteribie,” in ‘Nouv. Dict. d’Inst. nat.’--_Müller_, ‘Zool.
+Danica,’ ii, p. 43, “_Fasciola vesp._ (syn. _Dist. lima_).”--_Perty_,
+“Lipoptena,” ‘Del. an. art. Brasil’ (quoted by Westwood).--_Rudolphi_,
+‘Synops.,’ p. 117.--_Westwood_, “Mém.,” in ‘Zool. Soc. Trans.,’
+1835.--_Idem_, ‘Modern Classif. of Insects,’ vol. ii, p. 585,
+1840.--_Willemoes-Suhm, R. V._, “Helminthologische Notizen,” iii,
+‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,’ 1873.
+
+
+PART III (INSECTIVORA).
+
+The entozoa of insectivorous mammals, though sufficiently numerous, are
+not important practically. The common hedgehog (_Erinaceus europæus_)
+is infested by four flukes (_Distoma pusillum_, _D. trigonocephalum_,
+_D. caudatum_, _D. linguæforme_), and also by three thorn-headed worms
+(_Echinorhynchus napæformis_, _E. amphipachus_, and _E. major_). Two
+tapeworms are also known (_Tænia compacta_ and _T. tripunctata_). More
+attention has been paid to the round worms. A species of strongyle (_S.
+striatus_) infests the lungs, the male being readily distinguished
+by its nearly round hood. A second species of strongyle has been
+mentioned by Diesing, but it is more than doubtful. The lungs are
+also infested by a small trichosome (_Eucoleus tenuis_ of Dujardin);
+another species of the genus (_Trich. exiguum_) infesting the stomach
+and small intestine. As the _Trichina spiralis_ has been repeatedly
+reared by myself and others in the hedgehog, the little flesh-worm
+must also be noticed in this place. _Physaloptera clausa_ occupies the
+stomach, and a minute Ascaris (_A. pusilla_) is found in cysts of the
+peritoneum. According to Wedl, the intestine of the Egyptian hedgehog
+(_Erinaceus auritus_) is infested by another worm, which he calls
+_Pterygodermatitis plagiostoma_. This is allied to Froelich’s genus
+_Rictularia_. As regards the mole (_Talpa europæa_), two flukes have
+been described (_Distomum flexuosum_ and _Monostomum ocreatum_), also
+two round worms, namely, _Ascaris incisa_, occupying the peritoneum, and
+_Spiroptera strumosa_ in the cavity of the stomach. Dr Schneider places
+the latter with the Filariæ. A little tapeworm (_Tænia bacillaris_)
+infests the small intestines, and a larval cestode occupies the liver
+and subcutaneous connective tissues. This is the well-known _Cysticercus
+talpæ_, which Leuckart and others have referred to as being the
+scolex or juvenile state of _Tænia tenuicollis_ infesting weasles
+(_Mustelidæ_). The Cysticercus is also found in _Arvicola arvalis_.
+In regard to the shrews, many species of fluke have been described as
+occupying the intestines. In _Sorex araneus_ and _S. leucodon_, the
+_Distoma migrans_; in _S. constrictus_, the _D. exasperatum_; in _S.
+tetragonurus_, the _D. corrugatum_ and _D. rubens_; the last-named
+fluke, with two others (_D. instabile_ and _D. truncatum_), being
+also found in Daubenton’s shrew. The tapeworms are numerous--_Tænia
+neglecta_, _T. furcata_, _T. uncinata_, _T. pistillum_, _T. tiara_, _T.
+scalaris_, _T. scutigera_. With the exception of the last named, all
+these forms occur in the common shrew. According to the investigations
+of M. Villot the cysticercal stage of _T. pistillum_ is to be found in
+the glow-worm (_Glomeris_). This scolex (_Staphylocystis micracanthus_,
+Villot) multiplies by proliferation, and in this way the swallowing of
+a single intermediate host may result in the formation of a hundred or
+more tapeworms. Another species of Staphylocystis (_S. biliarius_) is
+considered by Villot to be the larval source of _T. scutigera_ and _T.
+scalaris_, which are perhaps identical species. A small Echinorhynchus
+(_E. appendiculatus_), found in the intestines and also encysted in
+the mesentery of the shrew, in like manner becomes transferred to the
+stomach of the fox. The nematodes of shrews possess little interest.
+In the common shrew the only species known are _Trichosoma splenaceum_
+and an immature worm, whilst in _Sorex tetragonurus_ we have _T.
+incrassatum_, occupying the tunica vaginalis of the testis, and
+_Strongylus depressus_ in the intestines. Not many other insectivora
+appear to have been studied in relation to their internal parasites.
+A larval cestode has been noticed in the Russian musk rat (_Mygale_),
+and also a tapeworm (_Tænia sphærocephala_) in the golden mole
+(_Chrysochloris_). Several flukes and a tapeworm have been found in
+the water-shrews (_Sorex fodiens_), but, so far as I am aware, nothing
+has been done in connection with the parasites of the _Macroscelidinæ_,
+of the Banxrangs (_Tupainæ_), or of the Tanecs (_Centites_) and their
+allies. The entozoa of the star-nosed and shrew moles of North America
+(_Condylura_ and _Scalops_) also deserve attention. From the last-named
+genus (_S. canadensis_) Prof. Leidy obtained a single male spiroptera.
+It occupied the stomach and was only half an inch in length.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 44).--_Leidy_, “_S. scalopsis canadensis_,” ‘Proc.
+Phil. Acad.,’ 1851, p. 156.--_Linstow_, “_D. cordatum_, Einige neue
+Distomen (u. s. w.),” ‘Arch. für Anat.,’ 1873, s. 95.--_Molin_, ‘Una
+Monografia del genere Physaloptera,’ Wien, 1860 (p. 7, “_P. clausa_,”
+and p. 31, “_P. limbata_”).--_Idem_, ‘Nuovi myzelmintha,’ Wien, 1859, p.
+10, Spec. No. 8.--_Idem_, ‘Una Monogr. del genere Spiroptera,’ Wien,
+1860, p. 25, Spec. No. 22.--_Schneider_, ‘Monogr. der Nematoden,’
+Berlin, 1866, s. 103, Spec. No. 39.--_Stieda_, in ‘Troschel’s Archiv,’
+1862, “Description and figs. of _Tænia uncinata_ and _T. furcata_ of the
+Shrew.”--_Thomson_, art. “Ovum,” in ‘Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.,’
+contains figs. and description of _T. pistillum_ (from Dujardin),
+vol. v, p. 28.--_Villot, A._, “On the Migrations and Metamorphoses
+of the Tapeworms of the Shrews,” in ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ March,
+1878, from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ Nov. 19, 1877, p. 971.--_Wedl, K._, “Zur
+Helminthenfauna Ægyptens,” ‘Sitzungsb. d. math.-naturw. Classe’ (u. s.
+w.), Bd. xliv, Abth. i, s. 464.
+
+
+PART IV (CARNIVORA).
+
+Notwithstanding the importance of the entozoa of this large section of
+mammals, I must deal with them very summarily, emphasising my remarks
+on the parasites of the dog and cat. Only a few of the ectozoa can be
+noticed.
+
+The bears are much infested by nematodes, the species being _Ascaris
+transfuga_ and _Spiroptera_ (_Gongylonema_) _contorta_ of Molin. The
+latter is found in the œsophagus. Immature round worms have also been
+found in cysts. These were erroneously described as cestodes by Zeder
+and Gmelin. The bear, however, is very liable to be infested by genuine
+Cysticerci. Retzius found them in the muscles, and they are described
+as examples of the ordinary hog-measle. The museum attached to Guy’s
+Hospital contains the heart of a bear which is largely infested by
+Cysticerci. A species of tapeworm has been found in the polar bear. The
+coati (_Nasua narica_) is infested by _Ascaris brachyoptera_ in the
+intestine, by Molin’s _Physaloptera semilanceolata_ from the stomach,
+by _Echinorhynchus spirula_, _Tænia crassipora_, and _Ligula reptans_,
+the latter occupying the muscles. A second species of Ascaris (_A.
+alienata_) is described from _Nasua rufa_.
+
+The racoons (_Procyon_) are infested by a species of pentastome (_P.
+subcylindricum_), and Prof. Leidy has described a threadworm (_Filaria
+insignis_) obtained from a cyst in the foot. The gluttons (_Gulo_) are
+liable to be infested by an Ascaris, a Ligula, and by _Eustrongylus
+gigas_. The giant strongyle also infests the coati (_Nasua_). The
+skunk harbors _Tænia crassipora_. The Hunterian Museum contains four
+specimens of _Strongylus cruciformis_ taken from a badger (_Meles_).
+The otters are largely infested by flukes; _Distoma trigonocephalum_,
+_D. incrassatum_, and _D. rude_ being found in _Lutra vulgaris_, _L.
+solitaria_, and _L. braziliensis_, respectively, the latter also
+harboring _Hemistoma clathratum_. Otters are likewise infested by
+_Ligulæ_ and _Eustrongyli_. The weasels (_Mustelidæ_) are attacked by
+a legion of entozoa, comprising flukes, tapeworms, round worms, and
+thorn-headed worms; they are also liable to harbor many ectozoa, a large
+tick (_Ixodes_) being especially troublesome.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--_Strongylus gigas_, coiled within the kidney of
+a coati. After Leuckart.]
+
+Amongst the nematodes is Van Beneden’s _Filaroides mustelarum_, for
+specimens of which I am indebted to Mr Wright Wilson. This is found in
+the lungs, trachea, and in the frontal and nasal sinuses of the common
+marten (_Mustela foina_), in which situations it causes absorption of
+the cranial bones. This worm occurs also in the polecat (_M. putorius_),
+in the common weasel (_M. vulgaris_), and in the pine-marten (_M.
+martes_). The larvæ reside in frogs. Weasels are also very liable to
+have their kidneys invaded by _Eustrongylus gigas_. A species of
+Ascaris and a Trichosoma (_T. entomelas_) are not uncommon in the
+intestines. In regard to the tapeworms, _Tænia tenuicollis_ infests the
+polecat and the common weasel, and _T. intermedia_ the pine-marten.
+The most common fluke of the weasel is _Distoma trigonocephalum_. This
+infests the intestine, while _D. megastomum_ is found in the stomach.
+The stoat or ermine (_M. erminea_) harbors _Strongylus patens_ and
+_Tænia brevicollis_.
+
+The parasites of the civets, ichneumons and their allies, (_Viverridæ_)
+are of little importance. Many years ago I described a small fluke
+(_Distoma compactum_) obtained from the lungs of the common Indian
+ichneumon (_Viverra mungos_). It is figured in my ‘Entozoa,’ (p. 16).
+Two species of tapeworm (_Tænia platydera_ and _T. genettæ_) have
+been found in the common genet (_V. genettæ_), and also a round worm
+(_Ascaris brachyoptera_). From another viverra (_V. senegalensis_)
+Dujardin obtained a strongyloid worm (_Dochmius crassus_). A species
+of mongoos (_Herpestes leucurus_) is likewise infested by tapeworms
+(_Bothriocephalus folium_).
+
+Comparatively speaking, very few entozoa infest the hyænas. In this
+family I include the earth-wolf (_Proteles lalandi_). Some years back
+Prof. Flower sent me a large number of delicate nematodes found loose
+in the peritoneal cavity of this singular South African carnivore.
+The worms themselves were so peculiar that I was compelled to form a
+new genus for their reception (_Acanthocheilonema dracunculoides_).
+From the intestines of the common _Hyæna striata_ Dr Lautner obtained
+_Echinorhynchus gigas_.
+
+The parasites of the wolf, jackal, and fox family (_Canidæ_) have
+especial interest, as including those of the dog. I can, however, do
+little more than mention the names of the various helminths of the dog,
+and the sources whence they come. At the same time, I shall incidentally
+refer to the wild canine animals that happen to harbor the same
+parasites.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Distoma conjunctum._ Eight parasites of the
+natural size. Original.]
+
+The flukes of the dog are few in number. Perhaps the most important is
+_Distoma conjunctum_, originally discovered by myself in an American
+fox (_Canis fulvus_) that died at the Zoological Gardens. Lewis, eleven
+years afterwards, found it in the pariah dogs of India, where it is of
+frequent occurrence. It infests the bile ducts. As already stated, Prof.
+McConnell subsequently found this entozoon in man (1875), a second
+instance being recorded later on (1878). Another species of canine
+liver fluke has been described by Prof. Ercolani (_D. campanulatum_),
+besides which there is the winged species occupying the small intestines
+(_Holostoma alatum_). This latter is also found in _Canis azaræ_.
+
+The tapeworms of the dog are not only numerous, but also particularly
+injurious, alike to their bearers and to mankind. By experimental
+research we have ascertained the sources of most of the _Tæniæ_. The
+serrated species (_T. serrata_) is derived from _Cysticercus pisiformis_
+infesting hares and rabbits. This is common in sporting animals, owing
+to the careless practice of allowing gamekeepers and kennel masters to
+throw the fresh viscera of the intermediate hosts to the dogs. I have
+witnessed this stupid habit in the field. The cucumerine tapeworm (_T.
+cucumerina_) is, by most observers, considered to be identical with
+the _T. elliptica_ of the cat. I regard it as a variety. This delicate
+species is excessively common and is now, through Melnikow’s discovery,
+known to be derived from the louse of the dog (_Trichodectes latus_).
+This circumstance affords a curious illustration of the fact that an
+ultimate host may carry the intermediate host upon its back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Tænia cucumerina._ _a_, Strobile; _b_,
+head (enlarged); _c_, proglottoid, showing the sexual orifices; _d_,
+termination of the reproductive organs on one side. Magnified 60
+diameters. Original.]
+
+As regards the relative prevalence of these tapeworms in England, it
+may be said that whilst _T. serrata_ occurs almost entirely in our
+harriers, greyhounds, sheep-dogs, and lurchers (taught to “pick up”
+hares), the _T. cucumerina_ is liable to infest any variety of dog,
+and probably infests nearly 70 per cent. According to Krabbe the
+prevalence of the last-named species is 57 per cent. in Iceland and
+48 per cent. in Copenhagen, whereas the _T. serrata_ is almost absent
+from those countries. The gid tapeworm (_T. cœnurus_) is derived from
+the ordinary gid hydatid infesting the brains of sheep and lambs. The
+polycephalous bladder-worm (_Cœnurus cerebralis_), so familiar to
+agriculturists and veterinarians, is often confounded with the ordinary
+hydatid infesting ruminants. Cœnuri infest the soft parts of rabbits,
+but it remains to be shown whether they are the same species. Possibly
+the _Cœnurus cuniculi_ is merely a variety. The gid tapeworm is not
+very abundant in England. In Denmark it appears to be rare, occurring
+in 1 per cent. only; but in Iceland Krabbe found it in 18 per cent. In
+common with other helminthologists, I have frequently reared this and
+the serrated species by worm feedings administered to dogs. The lettered
+tapeworm (_T. litterata_) is very commonly spoken of as the _Tænia canis
+lagopodis_. It was so named by Viborg, but I prefer the more distinctive
+nomenclature of Batsch. We know nothing, for certain, respecting
+the source of this entozoon. It is rare if not altogether wanting
+in Denmark, but abundant in Iceland (21 per cent.). I have obtained
+specimens from a cheetah (_Canis jubatus_) which died at the Zoological
+Gardens, and Mr W. H. Jackson, of Oxford, found it in a cat. The worm is
+certainly not confined to the Arctic fox (_C. lagopus._).
+
+A well-known tapeworm infests the fox which has not yet been noticed in
+the dog. This is the _Tænia crassiceps_, whose scolices (_Cysticercus
+longicollis_) reside in the viscera and soft parts of field mice
+and voles (_Arvicola arvalis_, _A. terrestris_, _A. amphibius_).
+This relationship was pointed out by Leuckart. Another tapeworm (_T.
+opuntioides_) mentioned by Rudolphi as occurring in the wolf, seems to
+be of doubtful authenticity. A formidable and not uncommon tapeworm is
+_Tænia marginata_. This large species occurs in at least 25 per cent. of
+English dogs, whilst in Iceland its prevalence reaches 75 per cent. In
+Denmark about 14 per cent. only.
+
+It is well known that the larval or scolex stage (_Cysticercus
+tenuicollis_) of the margined tapeworm resides in the sheep and dog. In
+a feeding experiment with five examples of this bladder worm I reared
+five strobiles of ten days’ growth. These immature tapeworms were each
+one inch long. By far the most important tapeworm of the dog, however,
+is the hydatid-forming species (_T. echinococcus_). This remarkable
+entozoon is the sole cause of the terrible echinococcus disease, so
+prevalent in Iceland and elsewhere. Experimental research, initiated by
+von Siebold, has explained its origin; Van Beneden, Zenker, and others
+have also experimented successfully. Rarely attaining a length of 1/3″,
+the perfect strobile is made up of only three proglottides in addition
+to the head, the lowermost segment being sexually mature. As hydatids
+(_Echinococcus veterinorum_ or _E. hominis_) are found in a great
+variety of animals as well as in man, and as these bearers form so many
+kinds of intermediate hosts, it is easy to understand how readily dogs
+and wolves may acquire the sexually-mature tapeworm. I am in possession
+of hydatids from the liver of a clouded tiger (_Felis macroscelis_).
+In England the _Tænia echinococcus_ is excessively rare, and has not
+been seen in any dog which had not previously been subjected to a
+feeding experiment. Mr Nettleship succeeded in rearing large numbers.
+In Iceland, Krabbe found dogs to be infested to the extent of 28 per
+cent., a proportion fully explaining the prevalence of hydatid disease
+in that country. The remaining tapeworms of the dog belong to the genus
+_Bothriocephalus_; of these, the broad tapeworm (_B. latus_) is best
+known, because it infests man. Diesing has described a variety found
+in the Pomeranian dog as a separate species (_Dibothrium serratum_).
+The museum of the Royal Veterinary College contains a very perfect
+specimen of _B. latus_ from an English dog, but the parasite is of rare
+occurrence in this country. It is generally supposed that this tapeworm
+is derived from the consumption of fish belonging to the salmon and
+trout family, but Dr Fock, of Utrecht, thinks that the bleak (_Leuciscus
+alburnus_) is the usual intermediate host. I have already discussed
+this question at some length. Experimental proof is still wanting. In
+addition to _B. latus_ the dog is liable to harbor _B. cordatus_, _B.
+fuscus_, and also two varieties of the last-named species (_B. dubius_
+and _B. reticulatus_, Krabbe). Taking the pit-headed tapeworms as a
+whole, their prevalence in Iceland is not considerable, amounting to
+about 5 per cent. only. Lastly, it may be mentioned that instances are
+recorded of the occurrence of the hog-measle (_Cysticercus cellulosæ_)
+in the dog. Though many have felt sceptical on this point, Gurlt’s
+authority is not to be lightly set aside, confirmed, as it has been, I
+believe, by MM. Mégnin and Leblanc.
+
+Passing to the round worms it may be said that _Ascaris marginata_ is,
+at the best, a mere variety of _A. mystax_ of the cat, with which
+must also be placed _A. leptoptera_ of the lion and other felines.
+The lateral appendages not only vary in breadth in these three forms,
+but also in the specimens obtained from each host. I have encountered
+examples in a dog, which measured more than six inches in length. The
+worm is excessively common in England, occurring in probably not less
+than 75 per cent., whilst in Denmark it occurs in about 24 per cent.
+According to Krabbe it is rare in Iceland. Its presence is at all
+times more or less injurious to the bearer, being a frequent cause
+of sickness, colic, convulsive fits, and paralysis. Occasionally the
+worms prove fatal to dogs by wandering into the trachea. At the Royal
+Veterinary College, in 1864, a litter of six puppies, of only three
+weeks growth, died rather suddenly in consequence of the presence of
+these worms in the stomach and small intestines. So far back as the year
+1684 Redi described round worms from the walls of the œsophagus of a
+dog. These were afterwards noticed by various observers in tumours of
+the mucous membrane of the stomach. Owing to their red color, derived
+from the ingested blood of the host, the species was named _Spiroptera
+sanguinolenta_. In 1867 I suggested that the minute Filariæ found by
+Grube and Delafond in the blood of dogs would probably turn out to be
+referable to this species. The researches of Lewis have proved that
+this supposition was correct. To be sure, other nematoid hæmatozoa, of
+microscopic dimensions, occur in the dog, but those described by Grube
+and Delafond may be referred to _Spiroptera_. These authors estimated
+their number in the canine host to vary from 11,000 to upwards of
+200,000. In one instance Messrs Grube and Delafond found six worms
+lodged in a clot occupying the right ventricle of the heart. Four were
+females and two males. Although they were described as representing an
+altogether new species, which they termed _Filaria papillosa hæmatica
+canis domestici_, I think there can be little doubt that they were
+examples of _Spiroptera sanguinolenta_ not fully grown. The writings
+of Lewis abound with interesting details respecting the structure and
+development of this worm, and as much may be said of the writings of
+Manson and Welch concerning the cruel threadworm (_Filaria immitis_,
+Leidy) occupying the right cavities of the heart. I was first made
+acquainted with this entozoon in 1853, by examining specimens in the
+possession of Prof. Hughes Bennett of Edinburgh; at which time also I
+was put in possession of a valuable MS. (since lost) describing the
+ravages of this entozoon in the dogs of China. I have since received
+numerous verminiferous hearts both from China and Japan, and also
+some heart-worms from Charleston, U. S., sent by Mr M’Innes. In a
+recent communication, Dr Manson has spoken of this worm as if it were
+comparatively harmless, but all the evidence I long ago received through
+the late Mr Swinhoe, formerly H. B. M. Consul at Amoy, through Mr Dare’s
+letters enclosing Dr Orton’s valuable observations (addressed to the
+editor of the ‘Field’), through the lost MS. above alluded to, through
+Dr Lamprey’s statements, and through many other sources, lead to the
+very opposite conclusion. No doubt the canine hosts do for a time appear
+to be little inconvenienced by their nematode guests, but sooner or
+later the most distressing symptoms set in. As in Hoysted’s case (quoted
+below) the convulsive spasms may occasion death in a few minutes, but
+frequently they last for hours or days, with more or less prolonged
+intervals of relief before the final struggle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Filaria immitis._ Tail of male. Enlarged.
+Original.]
+
+Some other filariform nematodes have been imperfectly described. Of
+these, Gescheidt’s _Filaria oculi canini_ (_F. trispinulosa_, Diesing)
+was probably a sexually-immature worm, and the same may be said of the
+encysted worms found by Mr Mather in the mucous coat of the intestines
+and in the liver ducts and acini (_Filaria hepatica_, Cobbold). Of
+more interest is Leisering’s hæmatozoon (_Strongylus subulatus_).
+These minute worms occupy the veins, the largest females not exceeding
+1/12″ in length. They are viviparous, and thus form another source of
+embryonic hæmatozoa. A single drop of infected venous blood commonly
+carries from four to six mature worms. In this place may be mentioned
+Dr Osler’s _Strongylus canis bronchialis_. The largest males measure
+1/6″ and the females fully 1/4″. In the worms sent to me by Prof. Osler
+I saw no evidence of strongyloid structure, and in his description he
+avoids all mention of the presence of any caudal hood in the male. I
+regard the worms as Filariæ (_F. Osleri_, Cobbold). Very great interest
+attaches to them from the fact that they produce a destructive canine
+epizoöty, resembling the ordinary “husk” or parasitic bronchitis of
+calves, lambs, and other domesticated animals. The only other genuine
+strongyle known to infest the dog is _Eustrongylus gigas_. This is a
+very common parasite in wolves. I have already spoken of this parasite
+at some length (Book I, p. 207), and can only further refer to the
+recently published case by Mégnin (quoted below, and at full length in
+my paper in the ‘Veterinarian’ for April, 1879). The Museum of the Royal
+Veterinary College contains three fine examples of this worm coiled
+within the kidney of a dog, or rather within the renal capsule, for
+the substance of the organ is almost entirely wanting. These are from
+Bickford’s case.
+
+Amongst the many good “finds” made by Lewis in India, not the least
+interesting is that appertaining to _Cheiracanthus robustus_. Lewis,
+indeed, supposed that he had detected _Echinorhynchi_ in chestnut-sized
+tumours of the walls of the stomach, but, as I pointed out at the time,
+the parasites were entirely destitute of Acanthocephalous structure. As
+is well known, this curious nematode infests various felines, such as
+the wild cat, puma, and tiger. In addition to the above canine nematodes
+we have the wrinkled threadworm (_Trichosoma plica_) infesting the
+bladder. This is of much more frequent occurrence in the fox. In the
+list _Trichina spiralis_ must also be included, although, so far as I am
+aware, it has only been seen in dogs that have been subjected to feeding
+experiments.
+
+Another nematode common to the fox and dogs, and infesting the cæcum,
+is the whipworm (_Trichocephalus depressiusculus_). It is very rare
+in the dog. Lastly, there is the important little strongyloid worm
+generally known as _Dochmius trigonocephalus_. At the hands of Leuckart
+the general structure and development of this entozoon have received
+complete elucidation. It infests the small intestines, and is found
+alike in the fox, wolf, and cheetah. It has also been obtained from
+_Canis lagopus_ and _C. azaræ_. Dr Krabbe did not encounter this worm in
+Icelandic dogs; nevertheless, he obtained it in a blue fox which died
+in Kjoerbolling’s menagerie, and which had come from Iceland. In Danish
+dogs it occurred in less than 2 per cent. The embryos of this worm are
+rhabditiform and possess three long bristle-like teeth, the slender
+tail being furnished with a distinct appendage at the tip. They develop
+in moist situations, where they feed freely, grow rapidly, and change
+their skins, throwing off the caudal tip with the first month. It seems
+evident that they do not require a change of hosts, since Leuckart
+succeeded in rearing the sexually-mature _Dochmii_ by introducing
+the rhabditiform larvæ into the stomach of the dog; moreover, his
+experiments upon water-snails belonging to the genus _Physa_ gave
+negative results.
+
+Of Arachnidan parasites (_Trachearia_) infesting the dog, by far the
+most interesting is the well-known _Pentastoma tænioides_, shown by
+Leuckart to be the adult condition of the still better known _Pentastoma
+denticulatum_. It resides in the nasal sinuses. As already mentioned in
+a former part of this work, these parasites present four marked stages
+of growth, namely (1), the embryo, (2) the pupa, (3) the active larva
+(_P. denticulatum_), and (4) the sexually-mature worm. As the eggs and
+their embryonic contents are lodged in the nasal mucus of the dog, and
+are commonly distributed by the act of sneezing on the part of the
+animal, the sources of infection are not far to seek. Clearly the larvæ
+usually get introduced to the bodies of mankind and herbivorous animals
+by the ingestion of unclean vegetable matter. The embryos set free in
+the stomach bore their way to the liver and other viscera, in which
+organs encystation and moulting subsequently take place. The fondling
+of dogs infested by pentastomes may prove dangerous by a more direct
+transference of the eggs to the hands and mouth. As regards the dog, the
+adult parasite has been known to prove fatal. A very striking instance
+of this kind was recorded by Prof. Dick, where the worms wandered into
+the trachea producing asphyxia.
+
+The ectozoa of the dog, though not numerous as species, are of
+importance in relation to mange. The follicle-mites form a family by
+themselves (_Demodicidæ_), and, as already observed, those infesting the
+dog and cat are, alike, mere varieties of the human species (_Demodex
+folliculorum_, var. _caninus_ and var. _cati_). Whilst the human
+parasite restricts itself to the face, the canine variety (fig. 52)
+will occupy any part of the dog’s body. The follicle-mite of the cat,
+however, usually confines itself to the ear. According to Mégnin, to
+whose beautiful monograph we owe so much, two or three dozen of these
+parasites may be found occupying a single follicle of the dog. Acne-like
+pustules are thus formed, and when they are very numerous death may
+result from the excessive irritation, which is usually accompanied
+with depilation. An interesting example of this kind recently occurred
+at the Royal Veterinary College. In regard to the ordinary mange-mite
+(_Sarcoptes canis_, Gerlach) M. Mégnin points out that it is in all
+respects identical with the human itch-insect. In the wolf and fox,
+however, the same species forms well-marked varieties (_S. scabiei_,
+var. _lupi_ and var. _vulpis_). As regards true insect parasites and
+tormentors of the dog, I can only allude to a few of them. In tropical
+America dogs are said to be attacked by the larvæ of a species of gadfly
+(_Œstrus canis_), whilst in Africa they are often fatally bitten by the
+tsetse (_Glossina morsitans_). In addition to the flies (_Diptera_),
+several kinds of fleas (_Aphaniptera_) frequently prove troublesome
+(_Pulex canis_, _P. martis_, and _P. penetrans_), and the same may
+be said of certain lice (_Hemiptera_). The common louse of the dog
+(_Trichodectes latus_) proves especially noxious to young puppies. Of
+the two other species, namely, _Hæmatopinus piliferus_ and _H. canis_,
+the former is tolerably common, whilst the latter is comparatively
+rare. This species is also found on the ferret. A new form of mite
+(_Chorioptes ecaudatus_), infesting the ears of the ferret, has recently
+been described by M. Mégnin.
+
+I have already referred to several of the parasites of the cat-tribe
+(_Felidæ_), but some others require notice. Only two flukes (_Amphistoma
+truncatum_ and _Hemistoma cordatum_) have been described as infesting
+the cat. Of the tapeworms, _Tænia crassicollis_ is the best known. This
+is derived from _Cysticercus fasciolaris_ of the mouse and rat. It is
+not uncommon to find this scolex in the sexually-immature tænioid state
+in the liver, measuring six or seven inches in length. An exceedingly
+interesting communication by Dr Romano, of Gemona (Frioul), demonstrates
+the possibility of severe feline epizoöty as due to this entozoon. As
+I gather from an account given in the journal quoted below, “during
+the summer of 1876, Dr Romano was informed by his confrère Dr Leoncini,
+a physician practising at Osoppo, that for about a fortnight most of
+the cats in a certain hamlet of the town had died without appreciable
+cause after presenting the following symptoms:--Gradual wasting, with
+complete loss of appetite, retracted abdomen, slight diarrhœa at first,
+then constipation, abundant saliva, contraction of the elevating muscles
+of the upper lip in some subjects, great prostration of strength, loss
+of the visual faculty. Some of the feline patients no longer heard or
+appeared no longer to hear their master’s voice; some vomited and seemed
+to experience relief, for the appetite improved, but they soon died
+like the others. Nervous phenomena, epileptiform convulsions, and more
+frequently colic, also showed themselves. Having visited the locality
+(of the outbreak), Dr Romano could not at first procure any corpses for
+the post-mortem examination, for the children had thrown them into the
+Tagliamento, which flows at the foot of the fortress of Osoppo. It was
+only after the lapse of some days that he was able to open one of the
+animals which had just succumbed. The principal evils were remarked in
+the stomach, the walls of which were retracted and formed the seat of a
+catarrhal inflammation, from the products of which a long, white, flat
+worm was removed with care for examination. All the other organs were
+in good condition. The examination of the helminth in the stomach, made
+with the help of Dr Leoncini and Fachini, showed that the flat worm
+(white, and with the body divided into rings, 12 centimètres long, and 5
+or 6 millimètres broad) had all the characters of the tænias, and this
+was confirmed by a microscopic examination of the head. A few days later
+Dr Romano made an autopsy of two other cats. In one of the corpses he
+noted the alterations described above, and found a tænia smaller than
+the first; in the other the same lesions without any helminth. This
+negative circumstance very naturally disconcerted Dr Romano, but several
+people of the place came to assure him that they had seen their cats,
+during the course of the malady, after violent and repeated efforts
+at vomiting, throw up a sort of white cord, which they recognised
+as corresponding with the tænia he showed them. Thus confirmed and
+reassured in his diagnosis, Dr Romano sought to identify the species.”
+In this connection it is specially interesting to note that “during the
+whole summer the inhabitants of Osoppo had been over-run by bands of
+rats proceeding from the fortress. They were combated by means of cats,
+and it was the best hunters among the felines that succumbed. Here was,
+therefore, a striking relation of cause and effect which could not be
+gainsayed.” Dr Romano communicated his observations to the National and
+Royal Veterinary Society, but by an error in the report the species
+appears to have been described as _Tænia tenuicollis_ instead of _T.
+crassicollis_. In this connection I have only further to add that the
+wild cat is infested by a tapeworm scarcely an inch in length (_Tænia
+lineata_). A species of Bothriocephalus (_B. decipiens_) likewise
+infests the domestic cat, in common with most of the wild felines, such
+as the tiger, puma, ounce, and jaguar. Dr Bancroft brought me a specimen
+from an Australian cat. The nematodes of the cats are very abundant.
+Dr Bellingham found a trichosome (_T. felis cati_) in the urinary
+bladder of the wild cat. This is probably identical with _T. plica_. A
+tolerably common nematode is _Dochmius tubæformis_, which occurs not
+only in the cat but also in the leopard, puma, jaguar, ounce, panther,
+and also in _Felis tigrina_ and _F. mellivora_. In the last-named and
+in other Brazilian felines an echinorhynchus (_E. campanulatus_) was
+found by Natterer. A strongyle (_Sclerostoma dispar_) infests the lungs
+of the puma. A species of spiroptera (_S. subæqualis_, Molin) infests
+the œsophagus and stomach of the lion and tiger. Redi also noticed
+a species of Filaria beneath the skin of the lion. _Physaloptera
+terdentata_ (Molin) and _P. digitata_ (Schneider) infest the stomach
+of the puma. I can only allude also to _Tænia laticollis_ of the lynx,
+_Pentastoma recurvatum_, occupying the frontal sinuses and air-passages
+of the ounce, and _Ligula reptans_ the subcutaneous tissues of the
+leopard. Lastly, there is the _Olulanus tricuspis_ of the domestic
+cat. I have examined the lungs of three cats containing this parasite,
+which was first described as an entirely new species by Leuckart. The
+adult worms, only 1/25″ in length, occupy the walls of the stomach.
+Thence they are apt to migrate or stray into the lungs and liver,
+where they encyst themselves. When myriads of them are thus encysted a
+kind of nematode tuberculosis is set up. This disease I have elsewhere
+called _olulaniasis_. Ordinarily, however, the encysted condition of
+_olulanus_ is to be found in the muscles of mice, which are thus said to
+be olulanised. Clearly, as Leuckart’s experiments substantially prove,
+the domestic cat acquires the adult worm by catching and devouring
+olulanised rodents. Every now and then the disorder thus created
+produces a virulent and fatal feline epizoöty.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 45).--(Anonymous), “Curious Note on two Tænia from
+the Dog (asserting that neither strong whisky nor boiling water would
+kill them),” ‘Med. Commentaries,’ vol. xvi, p. 370, 1791.--_Araujo,
+A. J. P. S._, “A _Filaria immitis_ e _F. sanguinolenta_ no Brazil,”
+‘Gazeta Medica da Bahia,’ Julho de 1878.--_Baillet, C._, “On Dochmius,
+and on a Worm found in the Heart and Vessels of a Dog,” from ‘Journ.
+Vet. du Midi,’ in the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 549, 1862.--_Baird, W._, “Note
+on the _Spiroptera sanguinolenta_ found in the Heart of Dogs in China,”
+‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. ix, Zool. Div., p. 296, 1867.--_Balbiani_ (l.
+c., Bibl. No. 28).--_Beneden_ (see Van Beneden, below).--_Bickford_
+(l. c., Bibl. No. 28).--_Chapman_, “On _Ascaris mystax_ (leptoptera)
+in the Tiger and American Wild Cat,” ‘Proc. Acad. Philad.,’ 1875, pp.
+14 and 17.--_Cherry, E. F._, “Worms in the Stomach of a Dog,” in the
+‘Farrier and Naturalist,’ 1829, vol. ii, p. 303.--_Clamorgan, J. de_,
+“Serpents dans les reins,” in his ‘La Chasse du Loup,’ 1570; see also
+Bibl. No. 28.--_Cobbold_, “On the Prevalence of Entozoa in the Dog,
+in relation to Public Health,” ‘Journ. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. ix (Zool.
+Sect., No. 37, p. 281), 1867; also in ‘Lancet,’ April 27, 1867, p.
+521; and in supp. to ‘Entozoa,’ 1869.--_Idem_, “Observ. on Entozoa,
+with experiments in regard to _Tænia serrata_ and _T. cucumerina_,”
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1858.--_Idem_, “On some new Forms of Entozoa,” ‘Linn.
+Trans.,’ 1859.--_Idem_, “Further Observ. on Entozoa, with Experiments,”
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1861.--_Idem_, “On _Filaria immitis_,” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc. of Lond.,’ Nov. 18, 1873, p. 736.--_Idem_, “Observ. on Hæmatozoa,”
+in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1873.--_Idem_, “Parasites of the Dog,”
+in ‘Manual,’ 1874, l. c., chap. ix, p. 86.--_Idem_, “Description of a
+new generic type of Entozoon (Acanthocheilonema) from the Aard Wolf
+(Proteles),” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. of Lond.,’ Jan. 13, 1870.--_Idem_, “On
+_Diatoma compactum_,” in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xxii, p. 363, ‘Proc.
+Zool. Soc.,’ March, 1861.--_Idem_, various letters on “Canine Epidemics
+in relation to Lumbricoid Worms in Dogs,” in the ‘Field,’ Dec.,
+1872.--_Idem_, “Remarks on the Life-epochs (biotomes) of _T. cœnurus_
+and _T. echinococcus_,” in a paper on ‘Animal Individuality,’ ‘Journ.
+Linn. Soc.,’ Zool. Div., vol. viii, p. 163.--_Idem_, “Worms in the
+Heart (Mr. M’Innes’ specimen from Charleston),” the ‘Veterinarian,’
+Feb., 1875.--_Idem_, “Note of Lewis’ Discoveries,” in ‘Nature,’ March
+11, 1875, vol. ii, p. 363.--_Idem_, “Remarks on _Eustrongylus gigas_”
+in the ‘Veterinarian,’ April, 1879.--_Coles, E. C._, “Worms in the
+Heart and Œsophagus of a Dog,” ‘Path. Soc. Rep.,’ March, 1878.--_Dare,
+J. J._, “Death of Dogs from Worms in the Heart,” the ‘Field,’ Feb.
+24, 1872.--_Davaine_, ‘Traité,’ l. c., 2nd edit., p. 290 (for refs.
+to lit. of _Strongylus gigas_).--_Delafond_ (with _Grube_), “Note on
+a Verminiferous kind of Blood of a Dog, caused by Hæmatozoa of the
+genus Filaria,” from ‘Ann. de Chimie et de Physique,’ in ‘Ann. of Nat.
+Hist.,’ vol. xi, 1843, and ‘Comp. Rend.,’ in ‘Lond. Phys. Journ.,’ p.
+28, 1843; also from ‘Gaz. Med.,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ vol. xxxv, p.
+393, 1843-44; see also ‘Edin. New. Phil. Journ.,’ vol. lii, p. 233,
+1852, and ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xviii, p. 216, 1845.--_Dick_, “Worms
+the cause of Sudden Death in a Dog,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xii,
+p. 42, 1840 (Pentastomes).--_Diesing_, ‘Syst. Helm.,’ vol. ii, p. 327
+(Eustrongylus).--_Ercolani, G. B._, “Osservazione elmintologiche sulla
+dimorfobiosi nei Nematodi, sulla _F. immitis_ e sopra una nuova specie
+di Distoma dei cani,” ‘Mem. Accad. Bologn.,’ v, 1874-5.--_Frank_ (see
+Bibl. No. 28).--_Gay, J._, Specimen of Olulanus in Hunterian Museum,
+and marked in the ‘Catalogue’ “No. 1814A, Lung of Cat, pneumonic,
+from the presence of parasites.”--_Gay_, “Nematodes of Panther,”
+in ‘Hering’s Repert.,’ 1873, from ‘Il. Med. Vet.’--_Herbst_, “On
+Trichinæ in the Badger,” from ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ in ‘Assoc. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1853, vol. i, p. 491.--_Hoysted_ (and _Sir J. Fayrer_), “On
+_Filaria sanguinis_ (really _F. immitis_),” ‘Lancet,’ March 1, 1879,
+p. 317.--_Jamieson_ (see Manson).--_Jardine_ (see Manson).--_Klein,
+J. T._, “Worms found in the Kidneys of Wolves,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol.
+xxxvi, 1729.--_Krabbe_, “Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,” ‘Tidsskrift for
+Veterinairer,’ 1872.--_Leblanc_, “Subcutaneous Tumour in the Dog, due
+to the presence of _Strongylus gigas_,” from ‘Recueil de Méd. Vét.,’
+in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Dec., 1863; see also Bibl. No. 28.--_Idem_
+(see Mégnin).--_Legros_, “Hæmatozoa of Dogs,” in ‘Rec. de Méd.
+Vét.,’ i, p. 947.--_Leisering_, “On _Hæm. subulatum_,” in ‘Virch.
+Archiv,’ 1865.--_Leuckart_ (see Bibl. Nos. 28, 29).--_Idem_, (for
+development of _T. serrata_, &c.), ‘Die Blasenbandwürmer und ihre
+Entwicklung,’ Giessen, 1856.--_Idem_, ‘Bau und Entwicklungsgeschichte
+der Pentastomen (especially _P. tænioides_ and _P. dent._),’ Leipzig,
+1860.--_Idem_, ‘In relation to the genus Dochmius,’ see his standard
+work, l. c., s. 433, and also ‘Arch. f. Heilkunde,’ Bd. ii, s. 212
+(see also _Parona_).--_Lewis, T. R._, “On Nematoid Hæmatozoa of the
+Dog,” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Soc.,’ 1875, vol. xv.--_Idem_, “On _Filaria
+sanguinolenta_, Echinorhynchus, &c., from the Dog,” in his oft-quoted
+‘Memoir,’ Calcutta, 1874.--_Linstow, O. von_, “Ueber die Muskulatur,
+Haut und Seitenfelder von _Filaroides mustelarum_, v. Ben.,” ‘Arch. f.
+Naturg.,’ xl, s. 135 (with figs.).--_Idem_, “Einige neue Nematoden,”
+&c., ‘Arch. f. Naturg.,’ p. 293, Bd. xxxix.--_Manson, P._, “On _F.
+sanguinolenta_ and _F. immitis_,” in his ‘Report on Hæmatozoa,’ in the
+‘Customs Gaz.,’ No. xxxiii (with numerous figs.), Jan.-March, Shanghai,
+1877. (N.B.--The same journal, Rep. No. 12, Gaz. No. xxx, contains
+remarks on worms in the heart of dogs by Dr A. Jamieson. The subject
+is also discussed by Dr Jardine.) See also ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Oct.
+20, 1877, p. 480.--_Mather, T._, “Filariæ found in the Intestines
+of a Dog,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xvi, p. 434, 1843.--_McConnell_, “On
+_D. conjunctum_,” ‘Lancet,’ March 30, 1878, p. 476.--_Mégnin, P._ “On
+Myobia,” ‘Abhandl. ueber eine neue Gruppe von Acariden (u. s. w.),’ in
+‘Revue f. Thierheilkunde,’ Oct., 1878, p. 149.--_Idem_, “Sur un parasite
+des oreilles chez le furet,” ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ Oct., 1878.--_Idem_
+(avec _C. Leblanc_), “Note sur le _Cysticercus cellulosæ_ developpé chez
+le chien,” ‘Bullet. de la Soc. cent. vét. de Paris,’ 1873.--_Idem_,
+“Sur le _Strongylus gigas_,” Bullet. de la Société Entom. de France,
+No. 3, 1879.--_Melnikow, N._, “On _Tænia cucumerina_,” in ‘Arch. f.
+Naturg.,’ 1869, p. 62.--_Miller, E._, ‘Six Cases of Strongyle in the
+Kidney of _Putorius vison_’ (quoted by Davaine from Museum of Boston,
+U.S.).--_M’Innes_ (see Cobbold).--_Molin_, ‘Nuovi myzelmintha,’ s. 34,
+1859.--_Idem_, ‘Una monog. del gen. Physaloptera (_P. tordentata_),’
+1860, s. 17.--_Idem_, ‘Una monog. del gen. Spiroptera (_S.
+subæqualis_),’ 1860, s. 13.--_Nettleship, E._, “Notes on the Rearing of
+_Tænia echinococcus_ in the Dog from Hydatids, with some observations
+on the anatomy of the adult worm,” ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ 1866, No. 86,
+p. 224, with figs.--_Noseda, B._, “Six Strongyles in the Kidney of
+the Agouara-gouazura or Puma,” in Don F. de Azara’s ‘Quadrupèdes du
+Paraguay,’ Paris, 1801 (see also Azara, Bibl. No. 28).--_Osborne, T.
+C._, “Worms found in the Heart and Blood-vessels of a Dog (with symptoms
+of hydrophobia),” ‘Western Med. Journ.,’ rep. in ‘Bost. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xxxvii, p. 448, 1847-48.--_Osler, W._, “Verminous
+Bronchitis in Dogs (from Strongyles),” ‘Veterinarian,’ June, 1877,
+p. 387.--_Owen_, “On the Anatomy of _Linguatala tænioides_,” ‘Trans.
+Zool. Soc.,’ vol. i, 1835, and in ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1835.--_Idem_,
+“Anatomical description of two species of Entozoa, from the Stomach of
+a Tiger, one of which forms a new genus, Gnathostoma,” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ part iv, 1836.--_Parona_ (and _Grassi_), “On a new Species
+of Dochmius (_D. balsami_),” ‘Reale Instituto Lombardo di Scienze
+e Lettere, Rendiconti,’ vol. x, fasc. vi, 1877.--_Raynold, T. M._,
+“Tapeworm in the Pointer and Spaniel,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xiv, p. 694,
+1841.--_Romano_, “Epizoöty amongst Cats from _Tænia crassicollis_,”
+‘Giornale di med. vet. practica,’ Août, 1877, and in ‘Journ. de Méd.
+Vét.,’ Avril, 1878.--_Schuppert, M._, “Mechanical Obstruction of the
+Heart (of a Dog) by Entozoa, causing Death,” ‘New Orleans Med. News
+and Hosp. Gaz.,’ Jan., 1858, also ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol.
+lvii, 1857-58, and in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1858.--_Stirling_, “On the
+Changes produced in the Lungs by the Embryos of _Olulanus tricuspis_,”
+‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1877, p. 145.--_Van Beneden_, “On the
+Transmigration of the Entozoa” (in answer to MM. Pouchet and Verrier),
+from the French, by Busk, in ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1862.--_Idem_,
+“Researches on the Intestinal Worms,” from Van der Hoeven’s abstr. in
+the ‘Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+vol. iii, 3rd ser., 1859.--_Idem_, “New Obs. on the Development of the
+Intestinal Worms,” from ‘Compt. Rend.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol.
+xiii, 2nd ser., 1854.--_Idem_, “On _Filaroides mustelarum_,” ‘Mém. sur
+les vers intest.,’ 1858, p. 267.--_Welch_, “On _Filaria immitis_,”
+‘Lancet,’ March 8, 1873; also in ‘Month. Micr. Journ.,’ Oct., 1873, p.
+157 (with three plates).--_Wilson, W._, “A Parasitic Worm infesting the
+Air Sinuses of the Weasel,” ‘Midland Naturalist,’ May, 1878.--_Wright_,
+“On Worms found in the Pulmonary Artery of a Dog,” ‘Lancet,’ 1845, and
+in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xviii, p. 52, 1845.--_Youatt_, “On Tumours
+(containing Entozoa) in the Stomach of a young Tiger,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. x, p. 619, 1837; see also Owen on ‘Gnathostoma.’--_Idem_, “Worms
+(_Ascaris marginata_) in the Nose of a Dog,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. v, p.
+337, 1832.
+
+
+PART V (PINNIPEDIA).
+
+Following the order of classification adopted in my description of the
+Mammalia in the ‘Museum of Natural History,’ I proceed to speak of the
+internal parasites of the seals (_Phocidæ_) and walruses (_Trichecidæ_).
+From their piscivorous habits one would naturally expect the seals to be
+largely infested with entozoa, and yet, though sufficiently victimised,
+they are not liable to entertain so great a variety of helminths as the
+fishes themselves on which they feed.
+
+The flukes observed in _Phoca vitulina_ are _Distoma acanthoides_ and
+_Amphistoma truncatum_, the latter occurring also in _P. grœnlandica_.
+In another seal (_P. barbata_) we have _D. tenuicolle_. The nematodes
+are more numerous. The best-known is the maw-worm (_Ascaris osculata_),
+which seems to be always present in full-grown seals of every kind. In
+the years 1862-64 I conducted a series of experiments with the eggs
+of this worm. I reared embryos both in salt and fresh water, but the
+administration of the young worms to various animals led to no result.
+However, I succeeded in watching the growth of the embryos until they
+had acquired well-marked digestive organs and a length of 1/25″, their
+size when emerging from the egg-shell in the water having been about
+1/150″ only. The large strongyle (_Eustrongylus gigas_) has been found
+in various organs of the common seal. Of more interest are the _Filariæ_
+found in the heart of seals, which in many respects resemble those
+obtained from the same situation in dogs. Professors Joly, Leidy, and
+myself, have each described a species, but apparently our descriptions
+all refer to one and the same parasite. It has also been seen by Camill
+Heller. The close correspondency in size and other characters of
+Leidy’s _Filaria spirocauda_ and my _Filaria hebetata_ leaves little
+doubt as to their identity. As the worms were both originally noticed
+by Leidy and Joly in 1858, I cannot pronounce upon the question of
+priority of discovery. By Joly the worm was called _F. cordis phocæ_.
+In Leidy’s and in my own specimens the males were four inches long, and
+the females six inches; they extended up to 8″ in some of the American
+examples. The worms found by Prof. Joly were all females. Professor
+Millen Coughtrey, who furnished me with the seal’s heart, stated that
+it was obtained from a male hoodcap (_Stemmatopus cristatus_), a rare
+visitant of our British coasts. This seal was captured on the Cheshire
+side of the Mersey river. Leidy and Joly obtained their specimens from
+_Phoca vitulina_. In the common seal have also been found _Ligula
+crispa_, _Schistocephalus dimorphus_, and _Echinorhynchus strumosus_.
+In other seals a not uncommon tapeworm of the Bothriocephalous type
+is that called _Dibothrium hians_ by Diesing. To Prof. Krabbe I am
+indebted for a specimen of _Bothriocephalus fasciatus_ taken from _Phoca
+hispida_. There is a nematode of frequent occurrence in _P. hispida_
+and _P. grœnlandica_. This is the _Ophiostoma dispar_ of Rudolphi. In
+addition to the above I can only add that _P. barbata_ is infested by
+_Liorhynchus gracilescens_, occupying the stomach, and by a tapeworm,
+_Tetrabothrium anthocephalum_, which is found in the lower part of the
+large intestine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Ascaris osculata._ _a_, Male; _b_, female.
+Natural size. Original.]
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 46).--_Cobbold_, “Description of _F. hebetata_,” in
+‘Notes on Entozoa,’ part i, sp. 3, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ Nov. 18th, 1873,
+p. 741.--_Idem_, “On _Ascaris osculata_,” in ‘Report of Experiments
+respecting the development and migrations of the Entozoa;’ ‘Brit. Assoc.
+Trans.,’ 1864, p. 114.--_Heller, C._, in ‘Schrift der zool.-botan.
+Gesellsch.,’ Wien, 1858, s. 83.--_Joly_, “On a new Species of Hæmatozoon
+of the genus _Filaria_, observed in the heart of a seal;” from ‘Compt.
+Rend. Acad. Sci.,’ 1856, p. 403, in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. i, 3rd
+ser., 1858; also abstr. in the ‘Year Book,’ 1859.--_Leidy, J._, (_E.
+spirocauda_) in ‘Proc. Philad. Acad.,’ 1858, p. 112.
+
+
+PART VI (RODENTIA).
+
+Though very numerous, the parasites of this order are chiefly
+interesting as embracing those of the hares and rabbits, moles, mice,
+rats, squirrels, and beavers. Some slight notice, however, will be given
+of the entozoa of each of the eleven families into which the order may
+be divided.
+
+The squirrels (_Sciuridæ_) are liable to be infested by the common liver
+fluke (_F. hepatica_), and also, it is said, by a cysticercus (_C.
+tenuicollis_). I have never encountered this bladder worm, but in 1864 I
+described some polycephalous hydatids (_Cœnuri_) which I obtained from
+the viscera of an American squirrel. I think the host was of the same
+species (_Sciurus vulpinus_) as that from which Mr Chapman has since
+obtained an example of Echinorhynchus (_E. moniliformis_). This worm
+also infests the hamster. A very small female round worm, probably a
+strongyle, was described by Rudolphi as _Ascaris acutissima_. It infests
+the cæcum of the common squirrel, in which host a species of tapeworm
+is tolerably frequent (_Tænia dendritica_). The common European marmot
+is infested by _T. pectinata_, so abundant in hares and rabbits. I
+have also noticed it as occurring in the Canadian porcupine (_Hystrix
+dorsata_). The dormice (_Myoxidæ_) are not much troubled with parasites,
+at least I have not encountered any in our common _Myoxus avellanarius_.
+In _M. glis_, however, a tapeworm, and at least one species of strongyle
+(_S. gracilis_), have been observed. Dujardin described very fully
+another strongyle (_S. lævis_) from _M. nitela_, from the long-tailed
+field-mouse (_Mus sylvatica_), and from _Arvicola subterraneus_. The
+other species are _Trichosoma myoxi nitelæ_, and _Ophiostoma cristatum_
+from _Myoxus dryas_, and _M. muscardinus_. The jerboas (_Dipodidæ_),
+in common with the hamster and several species of true mice, are apt to
+be infested by _Ascaris tetraptera_; and a small nematoid, apparently
+immature, was noticed by Otto in the intestines and in the abdominal
+walls and cavity of _Dipus tetradactylus_. Mice, properly so called, are
+largely infested, as is also the hamster (_Cricetus vulgaris_), which I
+include in the _Muridæ_. In addition to the parasites already mentioned,
+the hamster is infested by _Tænia straminea_. Along with examples of
+this tapeworm I have received from Dr Murie some acephalocysts found in
+a hamster which died at the Zoological Gardens.
+
+Flukes exist in the long-tailed field-mouse (_Distoma vitta_ and _D.
+recurvum_), but I have not seen any in our common mice and rats.
+However, Dujardin describes a distome (_D. spiculator_) in the brown
+rat (_Mus decumanus_). One of the tapeworms observed in the mouse (_M.
+musculus_) is _Tænia pusilla_, also found in the rat (_M. rattus_)
+and long-tailed field-mouse. The house-mouse likewise harbors _T.
+microstoma_ and _T. leptocephala_; and an immature cestode has also been
+seen in the abdomen, probably a species of _Ligula_. Various species of
+rat also harbor _T. diminuta_. In regard to the round worms one of the
+most common species is _Ascaris oxyura_. This not only occurs in rats
+and mice, but also in voles, water-rats, and many other rodents. The
+rodents’ whipworm (_Trichocephalus nodosus_) is yet more common in the
+lemmings, rats, voles, and mice; another species (_T. unguiculatus_),
+taking its place in hares and rabbits, and yet another (_T. affinis_)
+in the porcupine. Another nematoid, very common in mice, is _Spiroptera
+obtusa_, occupying the stomach. I have seen a mouse with its abdomen so
+distended by their presence that the animal could scarcely run along the
+pathway where it was killed by being trod upon. According to Marchi,
+the young of this entozoon dwell in the fat surrounding the alimentary
+canal of the larva of an insect (_Tenebrio molitor_). When noticing the
+parasites of the cat I referred to Leuckart’s interesting discovery
+of the relations subsisting between the adult _Olulanus tricuspis_,
+found in the stomach walls of that feline, and the immature encysted
+worms, found not only as wanderers in the cat itself but also in the
+muscles of mice. The olulanised mouse is thus an intermediate host.
+Rats and mice also play the part of intermediary bearers in the case of
+two other species of entozoa, namely, _Trichina spiralis_ and _Tænia
+crassicollis_, the tænioid scolex or larval condition of the cat’s
+tapeworm being familiarly known as _Cysticercus fasciolaris_. This
+sexually-immature tapeworm infests many other rodents, especially the
+voles (_Arvicolidæ_). In regard to _Trichinæ_ it must not be forgotten
+that their presence in rats is not uncommon in some parts of Europe;
+and this circumstance may explain the recurrence of trichinosis (first
+in hogs and then in man) in certain outlying districts. Only in this
+way can the Cumberland outbreak in this country be accounted for. Here
+I cannot dwell upon the subject, but in this connection I may observe
+that Bakody has in a very convincing manner described a new variety or
+species of Trichina, found by him infesting the walls of the stomach
+and intestine of rats. In the first instance he detected the worm in
+association with the ordinary _T. spiralis_, but afterwards separately.
+He also obtained it in fowls. The species should be called _Trichina
+Bakodyii_. Possibly the nematodes observed by Colin in 1863 also refer
+to this worm. They occupied tubercles in the liver of a rat. In regard
+to the beavers (_Castoridæ_) it appears that they harbor many species
+of round worms, and also several flukes, but they do not appear to have
+been very much studied. In Morgan’s work on the American beaver there is
+a notice in which it is stated that Dr Ely found a very fine filamentous
+worm 40‴ in length. This does not seem to correspond with _Ascaris
+castoris_ (Rud.). He also speaks of large numbers of a slender white
+worm, 3″ to 5″ in length, found in the peritoneal cavity, and referable
+to the genus _Filaria_. This cannot be confounded with _Trichocephalus
+castori_ (Rud.). Moreover, he describes a strongyle (_Sclerostoma_)
+as infesting the colon, and especially the cæcum. These all appear
+to be new to science. The _Fasciola hepatica_ is occasionally found
+in the liver, but the most common helminth of beavers is _Amphistoma
+subtriquetrum_. Specimens of this worm may be seen in the British and
+Hunterian Museums. As regards the porcupines (_Hystricidæ_) I have
+already mentioned the occurrence of a tapeworm in the common species.
+The larval _Pentastoma denticulatum_ has been found by Otto attached to
+the surface of the lungs, and Redi, about two centuries back, noticed
+small nematodes lodged in tubercles of the œsophagus. The late C. M.
+Diesing obtained _Trichocephalus affinis_ from the intestines. So far as
+I am aware, little or nothing has been said respecting the helminths of
+the _Octodontidæ_, _Chinchillidæ_, and _Cavidæ_. Like other European
+investigators I have dissected guinea pigs (_Cavia aperœa_) without
+finding any parasites; but in Brazil a small species of ascaris (_A.
+uncinata_) was found by Natterer in this animal and also in the paca
+(_Cœlogenys paca_). The agoutis (_Dasyprocta_) harbor _Trichocephalus
+gracilis_.
+
+The entozoa of the duplicidentate rodents (_Leporidæ_) acquire
+importance from the fact of their abundance and from the intimate
+relation which some of them bear to parasites infesting the dog and
+other animals. Thus, the two commonest kinds of fluke infesting
+cattle (_Fasc. hepatica_ and _Dist. lanceolatum_) also attack hares
+and rabbits; the former parasite often producing the rot disease,
+which is almost as fatal to the rodents as it is to the ruminants.
+Mutual infection occasionally results from this circumstance by the
+distribution of germs. All experiment-conducting helminthologists have
+reared _Tænia serrata_ from the _Cysticercus pisiformis_; nevertheless,
+several English Manuals of Zoology persist in propagating the old
+error of Von Siebold, who supposed he had reared this tapeworm by the
+administration of Cœnuri. So far as I am aware, no feeding experiments
+have been conducted with the Cœnuri of rabbits (_C. cuniculi_). These
+bladderworms infest the soft parts of the body, often producing tumours
+having a very unsightly appearance. For details I must refer to the
+papers quoted below. The Norfolk warreners call the infested hosts
+“bladdery rabbits.” Though apparently most abundant in the eastern
+counties of England, these diseased rabbits are by no means confined
+to that quarter. Through Mr Alston’s help I have received specimens
+of _Cœnurus cuniculi_ from Ayrshire, Scotland. Probably this form of
+Cœnurus occurs wherever rabbits live. In Italy a case is recorded
+by Perroncito from the abdominal cavity of a rabbit (_coniglio_).
+Every experimenter is more or less familiar with the cestode larvæ
+(_C. pisiformis_) found wandering in the abdominal cavity. These
+were regarded as flukes by Kuhn (_Monostoma leporis_). I need hardly
+remark that the developmental and structural changes undergone by
+these Cysticerci during their residence within the rabbit have been
+exhaustively followed out and treated of by Leuckart. Without dwelling
+on this subject, I must in justice add that in this relation the
+special labors of Küchenmeister, Van Beneden, Haubner, Wagener, Röll,
+Eschricht, and Möller played no inconspicuous part. My own efforts
+in 1857, and subsequently, were not unattended with success. It
+therefore seems to me, without prejudice to the recent experiences of
+De Sylvestre and others, that further experiments in this immediate
+connection are unnecessary. As regards the nematodes of leporine
+rodents, probably the most important is _Strongylus commutatus_. This
+parasite, like its husk-producing congeners, infesting calves and
+lambs, occasionally sweeps off great numbers of hares. Such an epizoöty
+occurred in Thuringia in 1864. The most frequent intestinal parasite
+of rodents is probably _Oxyuris ambigua_, but _Strong. retortæformis_
+is tolerably abundant in the hare, and _Trichocephalus unguiculatus_
+is liable to occur in all leporines. I know nothing of the so-called
+_Strong. strigosus_ of rabbits, but Bellingham found it in Ireland.
+Olfers and Natterer obtained a small ascaris (_A. veligera_) from
+_Lepus braziliensis_; but I cannot help thinking that the large measle
+(_Cysticercus macrocystis_) described by Diesing as three inches in
+length, and obtained from the same rodent, must either have been
+_Cœnurus cuniculi_ or else another form of polycephalous hydatid.
+
+In reference to the ectozoa of rodents it may be said that they are very
+numerous. Acari infest rats and mice, and especially leporines. Thus,
+in the mouse are found _Sarcoptes notoedre_, Bourguignon, var. _muris_,
+Mégnin, _Sarc. musculinus_, Koch, and _Myobia musculi_, Claparède. It
+is not very generally known that wild rabbits are apt to be attacked
+by the common autumnal spider (_Leptus autumnalis_), whence, as once
+happened with myself, they may be transferred to the human body. The
+ears of tame rabbits are sometimes covered with acari, which are easily
+destroyed by the cautious application of a mixture of carbolic acid and
+olive oil (one of acid to six of the oil). Rodents also harbor fleas.
+At a meeting of the Entomological Society in 1875 Mr Vernall showed
+living specimens from the ears of a rabbit, and Messrs Cole and W. A.
+Lewis stated that they had obtained fleas from the hedgehog and European
+marmot respectively.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 47).--_Beneden_ (see Van Beneden below).--_Capelle,
+J._, Extr. from a letter, in which the author states that he had
+“found worms of the tænia kind in the liver of sixteen out of eighteen
+rats,” ‘Med. Commentaries,’ vol. xix, p. 139, 1794; see also ‘Trans.
+Coll. Phys. of Philad.,’ vol. i, part ii, p. 60, 1793.--_Chapman, H.
+C._, “Echinorhynchus in Squirrel,” ‘Proc. Acad. Philad.,’ 1874, p.
+76.--_Cobbold_, “Note on Cœnurus (from a squirrel),” ‘Proc. Linn.
+Soc.,’ May 5, 1864.--_Idem_, “On the occurrence of _Tænia pectinata_
+in the Porcupine (_Hystrix dorsata_),” in a letter to Dr. Lawson in the
+‘Canadian Naturalist and Geologist,’ 1862.--_Idem_, ‘On _T. serrata_,’
+&c. (see Bibl. No. 45).--_Colin_, “On the presence of a Nematode Worm in
+certain Tubercles of the Liver of a Rat,” from ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ in
+‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Oct., 1863.--_Leuckart_, ‘Die Blasenbandwürmer (u. s.
+w.),’ 1858 (contains numerous details and figs. in ref. to _Cysticercus
+pisiformis_ and _T. serrata_, &c.).--_Marchi, P._, ‘Mem. della R. Accad.
+d. Sci. di Torino,’ xxv.--_Peacock_, “Remarks on the Liver of a Mouse
+with Cysts containing Cysticerci,” ‘Lancet’ and ‘Trans. Path. Soc.,’
+1855.--_Perroncito, E._, “Sopra un caso di Cœnurus (in the abdominal
+cavity of a rabbit),” ‘Giornale Med. Veter.,’ 1876.--_Siebold_ (see Von
+Siebold, below).--_Sylvestri, De_, “Experiments with _C. pisiformis_,”
+‘Il. Med. Veterinario,’ 1871.--_Van Beneden_ (see Bibl. No.
+45).--_Idem_, “On _Sciurus glacialis_ and its Parasites,” from ‘Bull. de
+l’Acad. de Belgique,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xiii, 1854.--_Verrall_,
+in ‘Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.,’ Feb. 15, 1875, p. 3.--_Von Siebold_, ‘Ueber
+die Band-und Blasenwürmer,’ Leipsig, 1854, and Huxley’s edit. for Syd.
+Soc., 1857.--_Idem_, “Experiments on the Transformation of the Cystoid
+Worms into Tænias,” from ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+vol. x, 1852.--_Idem_, “Helminthology,” trans. by Busk and pub. in ‘Ray
+Soc. Rep. on Zool.,’ 1843-44, p. 446, London, 1847.--_Idem_, “On the
+Transformation of _Cysticercus pisiformis_ into _Tænia serrata_,” from
+‘Zeitsch. f. w. Zool.,’ in ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1854.
+
+
+PART VII (EDENTATA).
+
+The entozoa of the edentulate mammals are not very numerous. So far as I
+am aware only one species has been described from the scaly ant-eaters
+(_Manidæ_). This is the small and probably immature ascaris noticed by
+Whitefield in the walls of the stomach of the badgareit or short-tailed
+pangolin (_Manis pentadactyla_). Amongst the true ant-eaters
+(_Myrmecophagidæ_) a single round worm has also been observed, but
+not adequately described. I allude to Marcgrav’s “find” in the little
+ant-eater (_Myrmecophaga didactyla_). I observe that Rudolphi distinctly
+refers to this edentate as the tamandua. Diesing does the same. The
+ant-eaters are much infested by a thorn-headed worm (_Echinorhynchus
+echinodiscus_). On the 1st November, 1875, I received from Prof. Flower
+a jar labelled as follows: “Entozoon found attached to intestine of
+tamandua ant-eater.” The parasite was procured from the society’s
+gardens on August 12th, 1871. Natterer originally obtained this worm
+from _Myrmecophaga jubata_ and _M. bivittata_. Croplin described it from
+a _M. didactyla_ from Surinam (‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1849). I presume
+that _M. tamandua_ answers to the _M. bivittata_ of Geoffroy, as well
+as to the tridactyle and tetradactyle species of Linnæus. The parasite
+in question was a female, measuring exactly 10 inches long, and had its
+proboscis firmly anchored within the gut. The armadillos (_Dasypidæ_)
+entertain a variety of nematodes. In 1858 I obtained several examples of
+_Ascaris retusa_ from the rectum of a poyou or weasel-headed armadillo
+(_Dasypus sexcinctus_). The worm was first procured by Natterer from
+the black armadillo (_D. peba_), which host also harbors _Pentastoma
+subcylindricum_. According to the “finds” of Natterer and the subsequent
+descriptions by Diesing, the two most common helminths of the Brazilian
+armadillos are _Aspidocephalus scoleciformis_ and _Trichocephalus
+subspiralis_. As regards the sloths (_Bradypidæ_) it would seem that
+they are particularly liable to entertain round worms. The Ai (_Bradypus
+tridactylus_) is infested by _Strongylus leptocephalus_, _Spiroptera
+gracilis_, _Sp. anterohelicina_, and _Sp. brachystoma_; whilst the unau
+(_Cholœpus didactylus_) harbors the last-named species and also _Sp.
+spiralis_. All these worms have been described by Molin, and, with the
+exception of the two first named, were new to science when he wrote his
+well-known monograph on the genus. They were collected by Natterer. All
+the species infest either the stomach or intestines, with the exception
+of _Sp. spiralis_. This singular worm, like the closely allied _Sp.
+helicina_, infesting the feet of birds, has the habit of coiling itself
+amongst the tendons of the digits of the hind limbs more especially.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Tail of the male _Ascaris retusa_. Enlarged.
+Original.]
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 48).--_Cobbold_, “On some new Forms of Entozoa,”
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xxii, p. 365, 1859.--_Idem_, “List of Entozoa,”
+&c., ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ March 26, 1861.--_Idem_, “Notes on Entozoa,”
+part iii, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ Feb. 1, 1876, p. 202.--_Marcgrav_, in
+his ‘Historia rerum nat. Brasil.,’ 1648, p. 226, and in ‘Rudolphi’s
+Synopsis,’ p. 186.--_Molin_, “Una Monografia del gen. Spiroptera,” ‘Aus
+dem Sitzungsb. d. m.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch.,’ Bd. xxxviii,
+1859, s. 911, Wien, 1860.--_Whitefield_, in ‘Edin. New. Phil. Journ.,’
+edited by Jamieson, 1829, p. 58.
+
+
+PART VIII (RUMINANTIA).
+
+In the matter of parasites this order of mammalian animals stands second
+in importance. An entire volume of the dimensions of the present would
+barely do justice to the subject. Although in the article “Ruminantia”
+in ‘Todd’s Cyclopædia,’ and in my popular treatise on the mammalia, I
+have described the oxen (_Bovidæ_) and sheep (_Ægosceridæ_) as separate
+families, I shall here speak of their entozoa together; and, at the
+same time, I shall introduce occasional reference to the helminths
+of the antelopes and gnoos (_Antilopidæ_), also of the giraffes
+(_Camelopardidæ_), the deer tribe (_Cervidæ_), the camels, and the
+llamas (_Camelidæ_). The parasites of the last family, however, will
+necessarily stand somewhat apart.
+
+Almost all ruminants harbor the liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_).
+This worm has been found in every variety of the common ox and zebu
+(_Bos taurus_, var. _Indicus_), in the sheep, goat, and argali (_Ovis
+aries_, _Capra hircus_, and _G. argali_), in the antelopes and gazelle
+(_A. dorcas_), in red-deer, roe, and fallow (_Cercus elaphus_, _C.
+capreolus_, and _C. dama_), and in the two-humped camel (_Camelus
+bactrianus_). A closely-allied but much larger species of fluke (_F.
+gigantea_) infests the giraffe (_Camelopardalis_). All these animals are
+more or less liable to suffer from the “rot” which is produced by these
+flukes. Into the history of the affection the space at my command does
+not permit me to enter, but as regards the development of the common
+fluke I believe the following conclusions to be tolerably well founded.
+I had long entertained the opinion that our common _Planorbis_ plays
+the rôle of intermediate bearer, and this view has at length received
+confirmation.
+
+1. The liver fluke, in its sexually-mature state (_Fasc. hepatica_),
+gives rise to the disease commonly called _rot_; this affection being
+also locally termed _coathe_ (Dorsetshire, Devon), _iles_ (Cornwall),
+and _bane_ (Somersetshire). In France it is known as the _Cachexie
+aqueuse_, and more popularly as _pourriture_. In Germany the epidemic
+disease is called _egelseuche_, and in a more limited sense either _die
+Fäule_ or _die Leberkrankheit_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Fasciola hepatica._ Enlarged. After Blanchard.]
+
+2. The _rot_ is especially prevalent during the spring of the year, at
+which time the fluke itself and innumerable multitudes of the free eggs
+are constantly escaping from the alimentary canal of the bearer. The
+germs are thus ordinarily transferred to open pasture-grounds along with
+the fæces of the bearer.
+
+3. As it has been shown by dissections that the liver of a single sheep
+may harbor several hundred flukes, and as, also, a single adult fluke is
+capable of throwing off several thousand eggs, it is certain that any
+rot-affected flock is capable of distributing millions of fluke germs.
+
+4. Such flukes as have escaped the host per anum do not exhibit active
+powers of locomotion. Their slight contractile movements, however, serve
+the purpose of concealing them in the grass, and probably aid in the
+further expulsion of eggs, which pass from the oviduct in single file.
+
+5. After the death of the escaped flukes the further dispersion of the
+eggs is facilitated by the subsequent decomposition of the parent worm,
+and also by its disintegration, partly occasioned by the attacks of
+insects. It has been calculated that the uterus of a full-grown fluke
+may contain upwards of forty thousand eggs.
+
+6. By the agency of winds, rains, insects, the feet of cattle, dogs,
+rabbits, and other animals, as well as by man himself, the freed ova are
+dispersed and carried to considerable distances; and thus it is that a
+considerable proportion of them ultimately find their way into ponds,
+ditches, canals, pools of all kinds, lakes, and running streams.
+
+7. At the time of their expulsion the eggs exhibit a finely segmented
+condition of the yolk. The egg-contents continue to develop whilst
+outside the parent’s body, the granular matrix finally becoming
+transformed into a ciliated embryo, which when set free follows the
+habit of infusorial animalcules in general by swimming rapidly in the
+water. The escape of the embryo is effected at the anterior pole of the
+egg-shell, which is furnished with a lid that opens in consequence of
+the action of prolonged immersion, aided by the vigorous movements of
+the contained embryo.
+
+8. The ciliated, free-swimming embryo, at the time of its birth,
+exhibits the figure of an inverted cone, its anterior extremity, which
+is broad and somewhat flattened, supporting a central proboscis-like
+papilla. A small pigment spot placed dorsally, and having the form of a
+cross, is supposed to be a rudimentary organ of vision. After the lapse
+of a few days the cilia fall off, the embryo then assuming the character
+of creeping larvæ (planulæ).
+
+9. Notwithstanding its abridged locomotive powers the non-ciliated larvæ
+sooner or later gain access to the body of an intermediary bearer,
+within or upon whose tissues it becomes transformed into a kind of sac
+or _sporocyst_. In this condition the larva is capable of developing,
+agamogenetically, other larvæ in its interior. The sporocysts are highly
+organised, forming _rediæ_. According to Willemoes-Suhm, the redia of
+_Fasciola hepatica_ lives on the body of _Planorbis marginata_. This
+organised nurse, which is about a line in length, is the _Cercaria
+cystophora_ of Wagener. The progeny of this redia consists of armed
+Cercariæ, which after a time quit the nurse to pass an independent
+existence in the water.
+
+10. In the cases of some species of fluke there is reason to believe
+that before the _Cercariæ_ gain access to their final or definitive host
+they re-enter the bodies of the mollusks. This they accomplish by means
+of a boring apparatus, and having previously cast off their tails they
+encyst themselves beneath the surface of the skin. In this new situation
+they develop into the so-called _pupa_, which is at length passively
+transferred with the fodder, or drink, to the digestive organs of the
+host. In the case of _Fasc. hepatica_, as probably obtains also with
+many other flukes, I think there can be no doubt that the Cercariæ pass
+directly into the bodies of ruminating animals. The circumstance that
+flukes of this species have been found beneath the human skin shows how
+considerable are the boring powers of the armed Cercariæ.
+
+In regard to the possibilities of fluke development, that will be best
+understood by glancing at the constitution of the zoological individual.
+The sum total of the products of a single germ may be tabulated as
+follows:--
+
+          Zoological individual (_Fasciola hepatica_).
+
+  _a._ Ovum in all stages,            } First “biotome.”
+  _b._ Ciliated free-swimming embryo, }
+  _c._ Nurse, germ-sac, sporocyst (_redia_), } Second “biotome.”
+  _d._ Active, migrating, tailed larva (_cercaria_), }
+  _e._ Encysted, resting larva (_pupa_),             } Third “biotome.”
+  _f._ Sexually-mature fluke (_fasciola_).           }
+
+This is a fair representation of the life-phases of the fluke.
+The life-phases are rarely less numerous or complicated than here
+indicated, but Pagenstecher’s researches tend to prove that under
+certain climatal conditions the number of larval forms may vary
+considerably. In other words, the fluke individual does not comprise
+any definite number of “zoöids,” although the kinds of zoöids are
+limited. I recognise three “biotomes.” The first includes only one
+temporary, independent life-phase, this is the ciliated animalcule,
+which I call a “protozoöid.” The second “biotome” may comprise only a
+solitary simple sporocyst or germ-sac (deuterozoöid), but an almost
+indefinite multiplication of new and independent germ-sacs, as well as
+other more highly organised “nurse formations,” may also be developed
+from the primary sporocyst (secondary and tertiary “deuterozoöid”). The
+third “biotome” embraces a large but variable number of “tritozoöids”
+(_cercariæ_), an equal number, whatever that may be, of “tetartozoöids”
+(pupæ), and, therefore, also, a similar number of “pemptozoöids”
+(flukes).
+
+Practically, other curious results arise out of the foregoing
+considerations. For example, a single sheep may harbor 1000 flukes. Each
+fluke will develop 10,000 to 40,000 eggs. Each egg may give rise to 370
+zoöids. It thus appears that, if all the conditions were favorable,
+a single fluke might originate between three and four millions of
+individualised life-forms, whilst the solitary sheep itself would,
+under the same circumstances, be the means of causing the production of
+at least 3,000,000,000 fluke zoöids! Happily, no such results as this
+can possibly occur in nature, since interfering agencies reduce the
+favorable conditions. However, the balance of parasitic forms from all
+sources is usually sufficient to destroy thousands of sheep annually.
+The virulence of rot-epizoöty is entirely due to the presence of
+conditions favoring the development of fluke larvæ.
+
+As regards the injurious action of this parasite on animals, it is well
+known that in particular years, in England alone, hundreds, and even
+thousands, of sheep have been destroyed in a single season. A writer in
+the ‘Edinburgh Veterinary Review’ for 1861 states that in the season of
+1830-31 the estimated deaths of sheep from _rot_ was between one and two
+millions. This would, of course, represent a money loss of something
+like four million pounds sterling. As affording additional striking
+instances of the disastrous effects of rot, I may cite the statements of
+Davaine. Thus:--“In the neighbourhood of Arles alone, during the year
+1812, no less than 300,000 sheep perished, and at Nimes and Montpellier
+90,000. In the inner departments, during the epidemic of the years
+1853-54, many cattle-breeders lost a fourth, a third, and even three
+fourths of their flocks.” In like manner our English authority, Prof.
+Simonds, furnished a variety of painful cases. Thus, on the estate of
+Mr Cramp, of the Isle of Thanet, the _rot epidemic_ of 1824 “swept away
+£3000 worth of his sheep in less than three months, compelling him to
+give up his farm.” Scores of cases are on record where our English
+farmers have individually lost three, four, five, six, seven, and even
+eight hundred sheep in a single season; and many agriculturists have
+thus become completely ruined.
+
+Remarkable periodic outbreaks of this disease are recorded by Simonds
+as occurring in England in the successive years of 1809, ’16, ’24, ’30,
+’53, and ’60; whilst, for France, Davaine mentions 1809, ’12, ’16, ’17,
+’20, ’29, ’30, ’53, and ’54, as the most remarkable years. It would
+be interesting to know how far these outbreaks tally with the similar
+outbreaks which have occurred in Holland, Germany, and other European
+districts. The disease was prevalent during four separate years in
+France and England at one and the same time. This, indeed, is no more
+than we would naturally expect, considering that the extent of the
+development of the larval forms must, in a great measure, be dependent
+upon atmospheric conditions. A warm and moist season would alike prove
+beneficial to the development of the larvæ and their intermediate
+molluscan hosts. Their numbers would also multiply enormously; for, as
+already remarked, the degree of non-sexual production of trematode larvæ
+within their sporocysts is materially affected by climatic changes. On
+the other hand, a fine, dry, open season will tend to check the growth
+and wanderings of the larvæ, and thus render the flocks comparatively
+secure.
+
+Considerations like these sufficiently explain many of the crude
+theories which were early propagated concerning the causes of this
+disease, and in particular, the very generally prevalent notion that
+water, and water alone, was the true source of the disease. Intelligent
+cattle-breeders and agriculturists have all along observed that the
+_rot_ was particularly virulent after long-continued wet weather, and
+more especially so when there had been a succession of wet seasons. They
+have likewise noticed that flocks grazing in low pastures and marshy
+districts were much more liable to invasion than sheep which pastured
+on higher and drier grounds, but noteworthy exceptions occurred in the
+case of flocks feeding in the salt-water marshes of our eastern shores.
+The latter circumstance appears to have suggested the common practice
+of mixing salt with the food of sheep and cattle, both as a preventive
+and curative agent; and there can be little doubt that this remedy
+has always been attended with more or less satisfactory results. The
+intelligible explanation of the good effected by this mode of treatment
+we shall find to be intimately associated with a correct understanding
+of the genetic relations of the entozoon, for it is certain that
+the larvæ of _Fasciola hepatica_ exist in the bodies of fresh-water
+snails. As already hinted from Willemoes-Suhm’s observations, it is not
+improbable that the larvæ are confined to gasteropod mollusks belonging
+to the genus Planorbis.
+
+The symptoms produced by _rot_ are very striking. When the disease has
+far advanced it is easy to know a rotten sheep, not only by its very
+look, but still more convincingly, as I have myself tested, by slightly
+pressing the hand over the region of the loins. In this region the
+diseased animal is particularly weak, and the pressure thus applied
+instantly causes it to wince. At the same time the hand feels a peculiar
+sensation very unlike that communicated by the spine of a sound animal.
+In bad cases the back becomes hollow, and there is a corresponding
+pendulous condition of the abdomen. The spinal columns ultimately stick
+out prominently, forming the so-called “razor-back.” As Professor
+Simonds has well observed, in an earlier stage of the disease, “an
+examination of the eye will readily assist in determining the nature of
+the malady. If the lids are everted it will be found that the vessels
+of the conjunctiva are turgid with pale or yellowish colored blood, the
+whole part presenting a peculiar moist or watery appearance. Later on,
+the same vessels become blanched and scarcely recognisable.” The skin
+also becomes harsh and dry, losing its natural tint, and the wool is at
+length rendered brittle, either becoming very easily detached or falling
+off spontaneously.
+
+The first thing noticeable in dissecting a rotten sheep is the wasted
+and watery condition of all the tissues. There is a total absence of
+that firm, fresh, carneous look which so distinctively characterises
+the flesh in a state of health. Not only is the rigidity and firm
+consistency of the muscles altogether wanting, but these structures
+have lost that deep reddish color which normally exists. When the
+abdominal cavity is opened a more or less abundant, clear, limpid, or
+yellowish fluid will make its escape, and the entire visceral contents
+will, at the same time, display a remarkably blanched aspect. These
+pathological changes are also shared by the important organ especially
+affected, namely, the liver. This gland has lost its general plumpness,
+smoothness, and rich, reddish-brown color, and has become irregularly
+knotted and uneven both at the surface and the margins, its coloring
+being either a dirty chocolate brown, more or less strongly pronounced
+at different parts, or it has a peculiar yellowish tint, which in places
+is very pale and conspicuous. To the feel it is hard and brawny, and
+when incised by the scalpel, yields a tough and, in places, a very
+gritty sensation. On opening the gall-ducts a dark, thick, grumous,
+biliary secretion oozes slowly out, together with several distomes,
+which, if not dead, slowly curve upon themselves, and roll up like a
+slip of heated parchment. On further slitting open the biliary passages,
+they are found distended irregularly at various points, and in certain
+situations many flukes are massed together, having caused the ducts
+to form large sacs, in which the parasites are snugly ensconced. The
+walls of the ducts are also much thickened in places, and hardened by a
+deposit of coarse calcareous grains on their inner surface. Mr Simonds
+says, that the “coats of the _ductus hepaticus_, as also of the _ductus
+communis choledicus_, are not unfrequently so thick as to be upwards of
+ten times their normal substance, and, likewise, so hard as to approach
+the nature of cartilage.” Respecting their numbers, the greatest
+variation exists. The presence of a few flukes in the liver is totally
+insufficient to cause death; consequently, when a sheep dies from rot,
+or is killed at a time when the disease has seriously impoverished the
+animal, then we are sure to find the organ occupied by many dozen,
+many score, or even several hundred flukes. Thus from a single liver
+Bidloo obtained 800, Leuwenhoeck about 900, and Dupuy upwards of 1000
+specimens. Even the occurrence of large numbers only destroys the
+animal by slow degrees, and, possibly, without producing much physical
+suffering, excepting, perhaps, in the later stages. Associated with
+the above-described appearances, one also not unfrequently finds a
+few flukes in the intestinal canal, whilst a still more interesting
+pathological feature is seen in the fact that the bile contained in the
+liver ducts is loaded with flukes’ eggs. In some cases there cannot be
+less than tens or even hundreds of thousands. Not a few may also be
+found in the intestinal canal and in the excrement about to be voided.
+Occasionally dead specimens become surrounded by inspissated bile, and
+gritty particles deposited in the liver ducts, thus forming the nuclei
+of gall-stones. Mr Simonds mentions a remarkable instance, “where the
+concretion was as large as an ordinary hen’s egg, and when broken up was
+found to contain about a dozen dead flukes. It was lying in a pouch-like
+cavity of one of the biliary ducts.”
+
+In respect of treatment we all know that “prevention is better than
+cure.” Moisture being essential to the growth and development of the
+fluke-larvæ, it is clear that sheep cannot be infected so long as they
+remain on high and dry grounds, and even in low pastures they can
+scarcely take the disease so long as they are folded, and fed on hay,
+turnips, and fodder procured from drier situations. When once the malady
+has become fairly developed, internal remedies are of little avail, at
+least, in view of producing a thorough cure. Palliative treatment may
+undoubtedly do good, especially in cases where the disease is not very
+strongly pronounced. The most important thing is the transference of the
+rot-affected animals to dry ground and good shelter, supplying them, at
+the same time, with a liberal quantity of manger food, such as beans,
+peas, and other leguminous seeds. The fodder, of whatever kind, should
+be frequently changed, and many other hygienic measures adopted, all
+tending to promote the appetite and general health of the animal. An
+admixture of salines is a matter of essential importance, especially in
+cases where the disease is not far advanced. The beneficial effect of
+salt is one of those few points on which nearly all parties are agreed,
+and its preservative influence in the case of sheep fed upon salt-water
+marsh-land has been previously explained. In regard, however, to the
+legion of remedies which have from time to time been proposed, all I
+need here say is, that most of them when fairly tested have been found
+to fail ignominiously. Every year we hear of the adoption, often with
+enthusiasm, of new so-called specifics, or of ancient medicines whose
+employment had long fallen into disuse. Thus, for example, in the April
+number of the ‘Journal des Vétérinaires du Midi’ for 1860, we find
+M. Raynaud strongly recommending soot, in doses of from one to three
+spoonfuls, to be followed up by the administration of a grain of lupin
+for tonic purposes. In like manner, we received from France wonderful
+accounts of the medicinal virtues of a certain fœtid oleaginous
+compound, the value of which was put to a fair test by our distinguished
+veterinarian, Professor Simonds. Having with infinite care and trouble
+undertaken a series of experiments with the remedy in question, Mr
+Simonds writes in the ‘Scottish Farmer and Horticulturist’ to the effect
+that, as a result of his inquiries, he fears “we must conclude that this
+supposed cure of _rot_ in sheep has proved quite ineffective for good.”
+The last new “cure” announced is by Mr Robert Fletcher (‘Journ. Nat.
+Agric. Soc. of Victoria,’ Dec., 1878).
+
+The examination of rotten sheep is not altogether free from danger.
+Professor Simonds tells us that in August, 1854, “a person of
+intemperate habits, following the occupation of a country butcher,
+was employed in skinning and dressing a number of rotten sheep on
+the premises of a farmer in the county of Norfolk. The sheep were
+necessarily opened when _warm_, and while he was so engaged he
+complained greatly of the sickening smell. The same evening he was
+attacked with choleraic disease, and two days afterwards was a corpse.”
+This case is highly instructive and, when taken in connection with the
+well-known fact that animals affected with the disease putrefy very
+rapidly, clearly points to the necessity of removing slaughter-houses
+far away from densely populated localities.
+
+Notwithstanding the above statement, there is little or no danger to be
+apprehended from the consumption of the flesh of rot-affected animals.
+On this vexed question we have the strong testimony of the late Dr
+Rowe, of Australia, who, after leaving the medical profession, became a
+large and successful stockowner, and devoted himself especially to this
+question. Dr Rowe, writing from the Goulburn district, said:--“The mere
+presence of flukes in the viscera of an animal is no proof that it is
+unfit for human food. For inspectors of slaughter-houses to adopt such
+a test of wholesome food would be the greatest mistake. It would afford
+no protection to the public against unhealthy food, would increase the
+price of animals, and be ruinous to our farmers and graziers. If the
+consumption of flukey beef and mutton were prejudicial to the health of
+man, there would be very few people alive in this part of the colony;
+for, to my certain knowledge, they have had no other animal food to live
+upon for the last twenty-five years, yet for physical ability I believe
+they may be favorably compared with the inhabitants of any other part of
+Australia.” Speaking of his own experiences, Dr Rowe avers that he found
+the common liver fluke in sheep, cattle, goats, opossums, kangaroos,
+geese, ducks, and other creatures, but he had never encountered it in
+men, dogs, or pigs. On the whole I think we may agree with Dr Rowe, in
+regarding the consumption of the flesh of rot-affected animals as free
+from danger provided only the meat, be well or even moderately well
+cooked. It must be borne in mind, however, that an essential objection
+to its consumption lies in the fact that the watery and otherwise
+chemically deteriorated flesh is comparatively innutritious. It must
+also be noted that the meat-supply from fluke-affected animals, as
+usually sold in the markets, is chiefly derived from animals which have
+only entered the early stage of the disorder, that is, long before the
+watery and wasted condition of the muscles has fairly set in.
+
+Respecting the other trematodes I have to observe that _Distoma
+lanceolatum_ not only infests the liver ducts of cattle and sheep,
+but also the deer tribe. Its larvæ are likewise supposed to reside
+in _Planorbis marginatus_. Still more common and widespread amongst
+ruminants is the _Amphistoma conicum_, occupying the paunch. It has
+been found in the ox, sheep, musk-ox, elk, roe, fallow, red-deer,
+goat, and dorcas-antelope; also in _Cerrus campestris_, _C. nambi_, _C.
+rufus_, and _C. simplicicornis_. Prof. Garrod has also recently shown
+me examples from the sambu deer of India (_C. Aristotelis_). Diesing’s
+_A. lunatum_, infesting _Cerrus dichotomus_, is inadmissible. Two other
+species of Amphistome (_A. explanatum_, _A. crumeniferum_) are said to
+infest the zebu; and I have described another (_A. tuberculatum_) from
+the intestines of Indian cattle. An aberrant amphistomatoid entozoon
+(_Gyrocotyle rugosa_) has been found in a Cape antelope (_A. pygarga_).
+Of more interest, however, is the circumstance that Dr Sonsino has
+discovered a species of Bilharzia (_B. bovis_) in Egyptian cattle and
+in sheep. The eggs of this species are distinctive, being fusiform and
+narrowed towards either pole.
+
+Comparatively few tapeworms are found in ruminants. Cattle are infested
+by _Tænia expansa_ and _T. denticulata_, the former of these two species
+being also more or less prevalent in sheep, antelopes, and deer. Other
+alleged species (_Tænia fimbriata_ and _T. capræ_) appear to me more
+than doubtful. Unquestionably the common _Tænia expansa_ is capable of
+giving rise to severe epizoöty among lambs. The privately communicated
+evidence of Professors Brown and Axe, and published evidence supplied
+by Messrs Cox and Robertson on this head, are conclusive. Mr George
+Rugg has also (in a letter to Prof. Simonds, dated Dec. 4th, 1878)
+communicated the particulars of an outbreak in which “large numbers of
+lambs perished rapidly” from tapeworms in the intestines, the parasites
+varying from one to five or six feet in length. This tapeworm (_T.
+expansa_) is also very prevalent in Germany. Ruminants, however, both at
+home and abroad, suffer much more severely from bladder-worms. Of these,
+_Echinococcus veterinorum_, _Cysticercus tenuicollis_, and _Cœnurus
+cerebralis_, are not only shared alike by all varieties of cattle,
+sheep, and goats, but they also infest the deer tribe, antelopes, the
+giraffe, and even camels. In 1859 I obtained the slender-necked hydatid
+from a spring-bok (Gazella). Besides these larval cestodes, cattle
+are very liable to harbor measles (_Cysticercus bovis_), whilst sheep
+also entertain an armed Cysticercus (_C. ovis_). I cannot again dwell
+at any length upon the source of these immature helminths, but I may
+remark upon the extreme frequency of measles in Indian cattle. This is
+explained by the careless habits of the people. They not only consume
+veal and beef in an imperfectly cooked state, but when suffering from
+tapeworm no precautions are taken to prevent cattle from having access
+to the expelled proglottides of _Tænia mediocanellata_. The subject has
+already been dealt with in the first part of this work, and also in my
+‘Manual,’ quoted in the bibliography. The mutton measle is described
+under the heading of _Tænia tenella_. In like manner I must refer
+to the ‘Manual’ for a detailed account of the gid hydatid (_Cœnurus
+cerebralis_). How many kinds of Cœnuri exist it is impossible to say,
+but I am of opinion that the various polycephalous bladder-worms found
+by Rose, Baillet, and Alston in rabbits, by myself in a lemur and in
+a squirrel, and by Engelmeyer in the liver of a cat, are referable to
+tapeworms specifically distinct from the _Tænia cœnurus_ of the dog.
+
+It was in 1833 that Mr C. B. Rose, formerly of Swaffham, Norfolk,
+discovered an undoubted example of polycephalous hydatid in the rabbit,
+the parasite in question bearing a very close resemblance to _Cœnurus
+cerebralis_. As the accuracy of Rose’s determination respecting the
+characters of the hydatid has been called in question, I again invite
+attention to the original description as recorded in the ‘London
+Medical Gazette’ for November 9th, 1833. At page 206, vol. xiii, of
+that periodical, after describing the common _Cœnurus cerebralis_ of
+the sheep, Rose writes:--“This (_i.e._ _C. cerebralis_) is the only
+species of Cœnurus noticed by authors, but I have met with another. It
+infests the rabbit, and I have found it situated between the muscles
+of the loins. It is also met with in the neck and back. This hydatid
+grows rapidly, and multiplies prodigiously, and being seated near the
+surface it soon projects, and sometimes forms a tumour of considerable
+magnitude. When the warrener meets with a rabbit thus affected, he
+punctures the tumour, squeezes out the fluid, and sends the animal to
+market with its brethren. I possess a specimen of this species in a
+pregnant state. The earliest visible state of gestation is a minute
+spot, more transparent than the surrounding coats of the parent; this
+enlarges till it projects from the parietes of the maternal vesicle. It
+continues to enlarge until it becomes a perfect hydatid, attached by a
+slender peduncle only; even whilst small, other young are seen sprouting
+from it, and so on in a series of three or four. My specimen exhibits
+them in every stage of growth, from a minute point to a vesicle the
+size of a hen’s egg. As I can see no difference in structure between
+this hydatid and the last-mentioned (_i.e._ _Cœnurus cerebralis_), I
+am unwilling to consider it a different species, for surely a varying
+locality ought not to constitute a specific character.”
+
+The observations of Rose did not escape the well-known Dutch
+author, Numan. In a foot-note to his memoir, entitled “Over
+den veelkop-blaasworm der Hersenen,” he makes the following
+observations:--“Rose observes that he has found Cœnurus in bladdery
+rabbits (blaaszieke konijnen) in the skin, and in the cellular tissues
+of the trunk and extremities. The veterinary surgeon, Engelmeyer, of
+Burgau, says he has also found the _Cœnurus_ (Veelkop) in the liver
+of a cat (‘Thierärztliche Wochenschrift van 1850,’ s. 192). These
+observations differ thus far from those of other writers, according to
+whom the Cœnurus is only found in the brain and spinal marrow. However,
+it is not impossible in particular cases that some parasites may have
+strayed from their ordinary dwelling-places.” Numan seems to have been
+not a little puzzled to account for these discrepancies, and he was
+altogether undecided regarding the mode of propagation of Cœnuri and
+Cysticerci. This will be gathered from the following passage, which I
+quote in the original:
+
+“Ik moet het onbeslist laten, of de grondbeginsels, waaruit de wormen
+uit de blaas ontspruiten, als wezenlijke of als zoogenaamde kiemen
+(_gemmæ_) zijn te houden, waaromtrent de gevoelens der voornamste
+Natuuronderzoekers, die zich met de nasporing der blaaswormen hebben
+onledig gehouden, nog uiteenloopen. Gulliver, door Rose (a. p. pag. 231)
+aangehaald, houdt ze voor eijeren, in den _Cysticercus tenuicollis_, en
+Goodsir, mede aldaar genoemd, spreckt ook van _ova_ bij den _Cœnurus
+cerebralis_; doch de laatstgenoemde en Busk houden ze voor _gemmæ_.
+Hier wordt voots gewezen op Owen en de meeste onderzoekers van den
+tegenwoordigen tijd, die het daarvoor houden, dat alle hydatiden zich
+alleen door _gemmæ_ reproduceren. Rose merkt voorts aan, dat, hetzij
+men de geboorte dezer ingewandswormen toekenne aan eijeren of kiemen
+(_gemmæ_), dit om het even is, wat hunne verspreiding (_dissemination_)
+betreft, daar zij ingesloten zijn, waardoor de wijze, hoe zij naar
+buiten komen en verspried worden, tot dusver een gesloten boek is.”
+
+The idea of Numan that these are strayed forms of _Cœnurus cerebralis_
+is not convincing. It must not be forgotten, however, as Leuckart and
+Numan have both reminded us, that Eichler discovered an hydatid about
+the size of a goose egg in the subcutaneous tissue of a sheep. This
+bladder-worm supported nearly two thousand heads. In regard to true
+hydatids or acephalocysts in ruminants, on which subject I have already
+dwelt at much length, I may again observe that the Hunterian Museum
+contains some remarkable examples. In 1854 I obtained Cysticerci from a
+giraffe, and I have reason to believe that similar bladder-worms infest
+antelopes and deer.
+
+The nematodes of the ruminants are both numerous in, and destructive to,
+their bearers, those infesting the lungs being productive of a parasitic
+bronchitis termed husk or hoose. In cattle the lung-worm (_Strongylus
+micrurus_) is particularly fatal to calves, whilst _S. filaria_ attacks
+sheep, and especially lambs. A larger but less common lung strongyle
+(_S. rufescens_) is sometimes found associated with the latter. In
+1875 I conducted experiments with the view of finding the intermediate
+hosts of _S. micrurus_, and I arrived at the conclusion that the larvæ
+of this parasite are passively transferred to the digestive organs
+of earth-worms. The growth and metamorphoses which I witnessed in
+strongyloid larvæ taken from earth-worms (into which I had previously
+introduced embryos) were remarkably rapid, and accompanied by ecdysis.
+The facts were as follows. About the middle of October, 1875, I received
+from Messrs Farrow, of Durham, a fresh and characteristic specimen of
+diseased lungs, in which the bronchi were swarming with Filariæ.
+
+In reference to the case itself, Mr George Farrow afterwards informed
+me by letter that the calf was one of a herd of seven, whose ages
+respectively varied from four to six months. At the time of his writing
+(October 20th) the remaining six animals were progressing favorably
+towards recovery--a result which Mr Farrow attributes to the employment
+of inhalations of turpentine and savin, combined with the internal
+administration of tonics. In regard to this plan of treatment, and in
+reference to the source of infection, he adds:--“I should have preferred
+trying the inhalations of chlorine gas, but as the patients were so
+very young and in poor condition, I deemed it advisable to try a milder
+course of treatment.
+
+“The history of the case is brief. The cattle are on a very dry and
+well-drained farm, but during the summer there was a great scarcity of
+water, and they were supplied from a stagnant pool which eventually
+became dry. This, in my opinion, is where the disease originated.”
+
+Mr George Farrow’s opinion is probably correct, being in harmony with
+the most recent results of scientific research as made known more
+particularly by Leuckart. But the facts thus conveyed do not explain
+the whole truth; or, rather, they convey it only in a very incomplete
+manner. Professor Leuckart’s experiments were made with several
+species such as _Strongylus armatus_ of the horse, _S. rufescens_, _S.
+hypostomus_, and _S. filaria_ of the sheep, and _S. commutatus_ of the
+hare. Still, as regards the strongyles, partial as the results have thus
+far appeared, there cannot be a doubt that his successes with several
+allied nematode species form a key by which we may yet unlock and expose
+to view the entire life-history of that specially obnoxious form under
+consideration, namely, _Strongylus micrurus_. To summarise the whole
+matter in a few words, Leuckart supposes that all these strongyloids
+require a change of hosts before they can take up their final abode
+in the sexually-mature state. This he infers especially because their
+respective embryos display characters very similar to those exhibited by
+_Olulanus_. He believes that either small mollusks or insects and their
+larvæ play the _rôle_ of intermediary bearer. His experiments with the
+embryos of _Strongylus filaria_ prove that these larvæ can be kept alive
+for several weeks in moist earth, and that whilst so conditioned they
+undergo a first change of skin within a period varying from eight to
+fourteen days. Experiments on sheep, made with these moulting larvæ, led
+only to negative results. Unless the following facts be accepted, the
+scientific position remains pretty much where Leuckart left it.
+
+On the 22nd of October, 1875, at 1 p.m., I placed the entire
+egg-contents of the uterus of a _Strongylus micrurus_ on a glass slide
+hollowed out in the centre. Probably something like ten thousand ova
+were thus brought under observation, yet only three were noticed as
+freed from their shells, probably as the result of accidental rupture.
+Two of these displayed lively movements. In round numbers the ova gave
+a measurement of 1/300 of an inch in length by 1/750 of an inch in
+breadth, whilst the free embryos measured about 1/90 of an inch long,
+and less than 1/1000 of an inch in thickness. The integument of the
+embryo displayed neither markings of any kind nor any double contour.
+The contents of the worm were granular throughout, these granules being
+crowded in the centre of the body, but scarcely visible towards the head
+and tail, where for a considerable space (fully 1/300″) the worm was
+perfectly transparent. No trace of any sexual organs or their outlets
+was visible. An examination of numerous eggs and free embryos obtained
+from near the primary bronchial bifurcations (of Mr Farrow’s specimen)
+yielded the same microscopic results, the only thing worthy of remark
+being that the embryos from the mucus seemed much more lively than those
+which, as I supposed, had accidentally escaped their shells.
+
+At 1.30 p.m. I placed some free embryos in two watch-glasses, one
+containing water and the other saliva, and placed them before the fire.
+Being called away professionally I found on my return at 3 p.m. that
+evaporation to dryness had occurred in the interval. All my attempts to
+resuscitate the embryos by moisture proved unavailing, a result which,
+though negative, proves how little capable these embryonic creatures are
+of enduring desiccation. If these facts be confirmed, their practical
+significance is not without value in relation to the choice of dry
+pasturage grounds for the rearing of young cattle. I may add that whilst
+half an hour’s immersion of the dried embryos failed to restore any sign
+of life, the previous warmth and moisture had caused many more embryos
+to escape their shells during the time they were placed before the fire.
+
+At 4 p.m. I passed some very rich mould through muslin. Some of this
+finely sifted earth I placed in a watch-glass, adding a little water to
+moisten it, and also numerous eggs and free embryos. In a wine-glass and
+also in a small jar I placed some coarse earth with water added to make
+thin mud, and to both of these I added, not only eggs and embryos, but
+also portions of the reproductive organs of the adult female worms.
+
+On the 23rd of October, at 2 p.m., I examined the contents of these
+vessels. All the embryos in the vessels containing the coarse earth were
+dead, but several were found alive in the watch-glass containing the
+fine moist mould. Structurally these latter had undergone no perceptible
+change beyond a somewhat closer aggregation of the somatic granules.
+
+Although the embryos in the coarse wet mud had perished, the eggs
+with unhatched embryos appeared to have retained their vitality. Of
+this fact, indeed, I subsequently obtained abundant proof; and I
+also satisfied myself that the death of the embryos had not resulted
+either from the coarseness of the earth or from excessive moisture,
+but from the presence of numerous shreds of the uterine tubes which I
+had somewhat carelessly added to the vessels. Previous experiments,
+conducted many years back, had indeed taught me that few if any
+nematoid larvæ can resist the fatal action of putrid matter, however
+slight the putrescence.
+
+Having removed the offending shreds, I next placed a quantity of living
+ova together in the earthenware jar, and allowed the earth-contents to
+become much drier by evaporation before the fire. I also left others in
+a watch-glass, which was placed under a bell-jar enclosing several ferns.
+
+On the 25th of October I removed particles of the moist earth,
+altogether weighing about two grains, and, on submitting them to
+microscopic examination, had the satisfaction to observe about a dozen
+living embryos, some of which exhibited very lively movements. There
+was not the slightest indication of putridity; nevertheless, I noticed
+several shreds of the adult worms whose presence had been accidentally
+overlooked, and, curiously enough, all the embryos subsequently removed
+from the immediate neighbourhood of these decomposing shreds of tissue
+were almost motionless and apparently in a moribund condition. On
+examining the contents of the watch-glass placed under the fern shade,
+I noticed several points of interest. First of all the earth contained
+strongyle embryos, such as I had seen before. Secondly, the surface
+of the mould was being traversed by three or four briskly-moving
+_Thysanuridæ_, hunting about with all that restless activity which Sir
+John Lubbock has so well described. Thirdly, in marked contrast to the
+behaviour of these I noticed several slow-moving _Acaridæ_, apparently
+also employed in searching for food. And lastly, while thus engaged, the
+surface of the mould in the centre of the deep watch-glass was suddenly
+upheaved, by which I was at once made aware of the presence of another
+most welcome and unexpected intruder. In short, an earth-worm had crept
+from the dry mould in which the ferns were growing, and had taken up its
+temporary abode in the soft moist experimental-earth contained in the
+watch-glass. When contracted, this _Lumbricus terrestris_ was barely
+an inch in length. On placing it under the half-inch objective glass,
+I noticed a single embryonic strongyle adhering to the skin, but not
+firmly, and evidently only in an accidental way, so to speak. It was
+clear to me that it possessed neither the intention nor the power to
+penetrate the chitinous integument of the earth-worm.
+
+Having in the next place removed the _Lumbricus_ with a pair of forceps,
+and having washed it under a current of water, I snipped off the
+lower end of the body, and allowed some of the intestinal contents to
+escape on a clean glass slide for separate microscopic examination.
+Immediately, to my satisfaction, I found that the fæcal contents
+displayed a large quantity of my strongyle ova, enclosing still living
+embryos, and in addition several free embryos presenting characters
+which declared that they were from the same source. Clearly they had
+been ingested by the earth-worm along with its ordinary food. One or
+two of the embryos were conspicuously larger than their fellows, but
+the structural changes they had undergone were not so marked as to
+lead me for a single moment to associate them with any of the various
+sexually-mature worms which have been described as normally infesting
+the earth-worm. I had no doubt whatever that such slight structural
+changes as were now discernible had resulted from growth and development
+consequent upon this accidental admission into the body of the
+intermediate bearer which might or might not prove to be its legitimate
+territory. It will be seen that subsequent observations tended to
+affirm the truth of this view. I made a careful examination of one of
+these larvæ, whose active movements were such as to render the process
+exceedingly tedious. The earth-worm itself (or rather its unequal
+halves) was placed in a fresh watch-glass containing ordinary mould. The
+larvæ or embryos obtained from the earth-worm now measured about 1/80 of
+an inch in length, their heads exhibiting a short and simple chitinous
+buccal tube, whilst their tails were somewhat more pointed and bent
+upward. The somatic granules were more crowded, rendering the position
+of the intestinal tract more marked, though, as yet, the differentiation
+gave no indication of the formation of a distinct intestinal wall. There
+was no perceptible increase of thickness of the body of the embryos.
+The results thus far naturally encouraged me to procure some fresh
+earth-worms for experimental purposes.
+
+On the 26th of October I found that the halves of the earth-worm were
+alive, and I left them undisturbed in rather dry mould, freshly added.
+To a watch-glass containing newly sifted earth and embryos I added a
+fresh garden-worm, which was rather sluggish from the cold; and in
+the original jar I placed another smaller and very active earth-worm
+obtained the same morning. Finding the soil in the jar congenial,
+this _lumbricus_ soon buried itself. Another and larger earth-worm
+subsequently added refused to follow this example. It was therefore
+removed from the jar. Believing the fine and artificially prepared
+soil to be still much too moist, I caused further evaporation; and I
+afterwards found that the thicker the mud the more suitable it proved as
+a residence for embryonic nematodes and earth-worms alike.
+
+On the 27th I found the small earth-worms in the jar burrowing freely
+and throwing up fæcal casts. From one of my watch-glasses the worm
+had escaped, its place being occupied in the meantime by an actively
+crawling _Julus_. I put a second _Julus_, obtained from the mould in the
+fern jar, to form a companion (in view of other experiments), and I also
+added a fresh earth-worm, covering all by another inverted watch-glass,
+which I thought would prevent their escape.
+
+In the next place I examined the halves of my original experimental
+earth-worm. They were scarcely capable of motion, but retained a certain
+amount of vitality. The tail was the more active half, and unfortunately
+it was soon afterwards lost. Carefully washing the superior half, and
+transferring its contents to a glass slide, I immediately detected
+under the microscope a large number of embryos. They were in a state of
+marked activity, the largest having increased to about 1/50″ of an inch
+in length, whilst their structure had become correspondingly advanced.
+Here, again, there was no room for doubt as to their source, especially
+as they individually displayed different degrees of organisation, all
+answering to one and the same embryonal type. I now observed a distinct
+œsophagus, the rest of the intestinal tract being still more conspicuous
+than heretofore, though, as yet, no true cells marked the limitation of
+the stomach and chylous intestine.
+
+After an hour’s immersion in cold water some of the larvæ became much
+less active, whilst others were motionless, so that I feared all were
+about to perish. In the hope of keeping a few of them alive I now added
+to the slide some finely sifted grains of mould, placing the slide under
+a small bell jar which protected some of my ferns. The remains of the
+moribund earth-worm were also covered with mould.
+
+Other larvæ, derived from the earth-worm, were placed on the moist pinnæ
+of a living fern-frond which supported small drops of water, for by
+this process I hoped in some measure to imitate the dew which naturally
+condenses on the grass and fodder of our low-lying fields. At 3.15 p.m.
+of the same day (27th) I also examined a fresh worm pellet from the jar,
+and found it to contain living strongyle embryos, which as heretofore
+had not exhibited the slightest advance either in respect of size or
+structure.
+
+At noon on the 28th I again sought for the larger larvæ, first of all on
+the slide covered with fine earth, and afterwards within the remains of
+the upper half of the original earth-worm. On the slide I could detect
+none, but within the intestine of the worm there were still two living
+larvæ left, whose characters corresponded precisely with the largest
+that I had previously obtained from the same source only the day before.
+They had undergone, however, no further change in structure, and their
+measurements remained precisely the same.
+
+At 12.30 p.m. I snipped off two or three of the terminal fern-fronds
+on which I had placed a few advanced larvæ. On examination under the
+half-inch objective I immediately detected one of the larvæ cruising
+about most actively. On adding a drop of water it soon rushed across
+the field of the microscope, its movements being thoroughly eel-like.
+The size of this larvæ had so much increased that it was now visible to
+the naked eye, measuring, indeed, as much as 1/30 of an inch from head
+to tail. Moreover, its organisation had advanced in a marked degree.
+Thus, the digestive organs were better defined, and on one side of them
+there appeared a regularly arranged congeries of cellules, forming the
+commencement of the reproductive organs. As yet, however, I could not
+pronounce as to the sex.
+
+At 1.45 p.m. I again examined a few grains of earth from the jar, when
+I at once noticed five or six active embryos whose structure failed
+to show the slightest advance upon that originally described. It was
+evident that the jar contained thousands of them; and since no ova were
+found, it became probable that all their embryonic contents had escaped
+to swell the number of free larvæ, leaving their very delicate envelopes
+to perish. I think I had hit upon the most suitable degree of moisture
+favorable to this result.
+
+In the next place I sought for the earth-worm that had been placed
+in the infested soil between two watch-glasses. It had escaped. This
+obliged me to transfer the mould to a rather wide-mouthed and open
+phial, in which four more fresh lumbrici were placed. I feared the
+closing of the bottle would be detrimental.
+
+Later in the day I selected an earth-worm which had not been exposed
+to strongyle infection, but which was in a moribund condition. In the
+intestine there were several free nematoids and also several psorosperms
+of the genus _Monocystis_, so well illustrated by E. Ray Lankester. As
+to the nematoids, which were filariform, they neither corresponded in
+size nor structure with my strongyle embryos.
+
+At 1 p.m. on the 29th I renewed my examination of the larva removed
+from the fern-pinnule. It showed a further stage of growth, the male
+character of the reproductive organs having become apparent. The now
+tolerably well-formed vas deferens had pushed the chylous intestine on
+one side, whilst a series of caudal rays, five on either side, supported
+two narrow membranous wings, which represented the lateral lobes of the
+hood of the adult strongyle.
+
+At 1.30 p.m. I submitted the intestinal contents of four fresh
+earth-worms removed from my garden to microscopic examination, but no
+nematoids were found in any one of them.
+
+About 2 p.m. I removed another large and active strongyle larva that had
+been reared on another fern-pinnule. It was of the same size as that
+previously described, but was in the act of changing its skin. It was
+then put aside along with the other worm under the glass shade.
+
+At 3 p.m. I intended to have examined one or more of the earth-worms
+placed in the open-mouthed phial, but all had escaped and buried
+themselves in the fern-mould out of reach.
+
+At noon on the 30th I renewed my examination of the two large larvæ
+whose developmental changes I had been instrumental in producing from
+the time of their escape from the egg-coverings. I saw no reason to
+doubt that the sequence of changes thus far noticed referred to the
+species of parasite under consideration. Both larvæ were active, but the
+moulting one had now completed its ecdysis. Its sexual distinctiveness
+had become yet more pronounced by the formation of two rather short
+and stout spicules, the point of the tail displaying a very minute
+awl-shaped projection. The lateral membranes had not visibly increased
+in size. One of these larvæ, the first under observation, now perished
+from the injuries sustained during inspection.
+
+Again, and later in the day, I sought to clear up any doubts that might
+still suggest themselves respecting the source of these larvæ, by once
+more submitting the intestinal contents of two fresh and uninfected
+earth-worms to careful scrutiny. In the first worm no parasite could be
+found, and in the second only one minute nematoid; its organisation,
+which was sexually incomplete, neither corresponded with my strongyle
+embryos, nor, so far as I could judge, with Goeze’s _Ascaris minutissima
+microscopica_ (the _Anguillula lumbrici_ of Diesing and others), nor
+with Dujardin’s _Dicelis filaria_. It was a very long and narrow
+creature, but I lost it whilst attempting to secure an accurate
+measurement. I should say it was about 1/50th of an inch in length, and
+not more than 1/1500th in breadth. I made a rough outline sketch of it.
+
+In view of further observations I now placed five more earth-worms in
+the jar containing strongyle embryos, and I also placed six others in
+the phial which contained coarser mould, and only a comparatively small
+number of the original strongyle embryos. The phial was closed with
+a cork and half buried in the fern-mould of one of my larger Wardian
+fern-pans. Before this transfer was made I again took an opportunity
+of ascertaining by microscopic evidence that the embryos lodged in the
+coarse and fine mould had none of them made the slightest advance in
+organisation. The worms placed in the jar immediately proceeded to bury
+themselves.
+
+At noon on the 1st of November I sought to get further results from the
+only large free larva which now remained to me (for the fern-pinnules
+on which the larvæ were originally placed had dried up and no third
+specimen could be discovered). Structurally the larva presented no
+advance. It therefore appeared to me necessary to place it under new
+conditions in view of exciting further progress towards sexual maturity
+and adult growth. To transfer it to the bronchus of a living calf would,
+of course, have been the crucial experiment, but the hopelessness of
+getting any satisfactory result from this solitary transfer deterred me
+from the attempt. On a larger scale, with many larvæ, a positive issue
+would of course prove decisive. Accordingly, the only thing I could
+do, in partial imitation of nature, was to try and induce some further
+changes by placing the larva in human saliva, kept warm artificially. As
+a first step I immersed the creature in a little of the secretion added
+to the glass slide, when it immediately displayed very lively movements,
+such as could only be fitly described as frantic. This encouraged me
+to replace the slide under one of the fern shades without applying any
+additional heat. I then left it.
+
+At 12.30 p.m. I selected three of the eleven worms lodged in the
+infested earth, namely, two from the jar and one from the closed phial,
+and made a microscopic examination of their respective intestinal
+contents. In one of the worms from the jar I found several embryos
+clearly referable to my strongyles, their structure showing scarcely
+any advance upon that exhibited by the embryos in the mould itself.
+The weather was now excessively cold and the larvæ were motionless;
+nevertheless, the application of warmth showed that they were by no
+means dead. The fæcal matter obtained from the worm that had lived in
+the phial displayed an immense number of infusoriæ (_Bacteria_) which
+rushed about rapidly over the field of the microscope. No other signs of
+life were detected.
+
+On the 2nd of November I found my solitary strongyle larva alive, but
+its movements, though active, were by no means so active as on the
+previous day. No fresh structural changes had occurred.
+
+At noon on the 3rd the larva at first lay almost motionless in the
+now thick and ropy saliva; nevertheless, on applying a thin glass
+cover its movements became tolerably vigorous. During its quiescent
+state I succeeded in getting a good view of the caudal rays and other
+imperfectly developed organs, of which I retain figures.
+
+Having now satisfied myself that other new conditions were necessary to
+enable the larva to arrive at sexual maturity, I sought to transfer it
+to a glass tube filled with fresh saliva. This transfer was a matter
+of difficulty. After passing the thick ropy saliva into the tube, I
+examined the slide and found that the larva was gone. I concluded it was
+in the tube, which, in order to keep the contents warm, I subsequently
+carried about concealed in my under-clothing during the day and placed
+in my bed during the night. This increase of temperature, however,
+caused decomposition of the saliva; so when next day I diligently sought
+for my experimental nematode it was nowhere to be found. Thus terminated
+my observations on the first set of embryos, which had enjoyed their
+temporary sojourn in the intestinal tract of the earth-worm, and which
+had certainly afterwards undergone a series of marked structural and
+morphological changes, accompanied with ecdysis.
+
+The weather had now been for several days exceedingly cold, but on the
+4th a favorable change set in, which led me to hope that I might be
+able to verify the facts above recorded. Accordingly, as a new point of
+departure, I re-examined the fine mould, and at once found my embryos
+in a high state of activity. The mould, however, appearing too moist
+for the earth-worms, I permitted further evaporation before closing
+the jar with a glass cover. Four days subsequently I examined the
+intestinal contents of two of the earth-worms. In one of these, an inch
+in length, no parasite of any kind could be detected; but in the other,
+which was beyond three inches in length, there were numerous _Opalinæ_
+besides several strongyle embryos, the latter presenting characters not
+visibly in advance of those still living in the mould. All of them were
+motionless, as if they had not got over the shock produced by previous
+cold. Moreover, the weather had again become cold, and thus, when I
+again inspected my experimental embryos living in the jar, I also found
+them motionless, so different from their behaviour on the 4th. However,
+since a further result with the earth-worm embryos appeared possible, I
+placed some of the fæcal matter, already ascertained to contain a few
+of them, on the fronds of a thoroughly moist and dew-covered _Asplenium
+bulbiferum_. This plant was in a fern-pan which had the advantage of
+considerable fire-warmth during the day. When, however, on the 15th
+of November, I examined the fæcal earth removed from several of the
+pinnules, I failed to find any of the embryos. Possibly they had
+wandered, for the entire frond was covered with dew-drops, which was not
+the case with the fern that I had previously experimented on with such
+satisfactory results. At all events, whether they had wandered or had
+perished, their apparent absence in no way affects my previous record;
+and the more so since only a few had been observed in the fæcal matter.
+The smallness of the number found in the earth-worm was also readily
+accounted for. Thus, when at 1.30 p.m. on the 15th I made a diligent
+search for embryos in several grains of the fine mould, not a single
+young strongyle could be detected. Possibly the frost of the previous
+night had killed them. The earth-worms were still alive and in good
+condition.
+
+In conclusion, I may observe that every experimenter with helminths
+is well aware how unfavorable the winter season is for this kind of
+research. If a repetition of this inquiry in the spring or summer should
+confirm these results, it will prove a clear and substantial addition
+to our knowledge of the development of the strongyles. Meanwhile, I
+think that the data above given render it highly probable that the
+larvæ of the hoose-producing strongyle (_S. micrurus_) are passively
+transferred to the bodies of setigerous annelids, which are thus
+called upon to act as intermediate hosts. If this be so, it is further
+certain that important structural changes with ecdysis follow after
+their escape from the earth-worms or other annelids, moisture, dew, or
+water being essential to the penultimate stage of growth. Final passive
+transference, either with fresh fodder from swampy grounds, or, it may
+be, from pond water, ultimately enables them to acquire their definite
+sexual form, size, and other adult characteristics.
+
+According to Mégnin it is not the _Strongylus filaria_, but a hitherto
+unknown and totally distinct species (_Strongylus minutissimus_)
+which occasions pneumonia in Algerian sheep. In England the parasitic
+bronchitis affecting sheep is generally called the “lamb disease.”
+This is unfortunate, because many other parasites prove destructive to
+lambs. One of the most injurious species is _Strongylus contortus_,
+infesting the true stomach, whilst _S. hypostomus_, occupying the
+small intestines, is almost equally obnoxious to the ovine bearer. By
+Leuckart and others this last-named worm is retained in Dujardin’s genus
+_Dochmius_, in which genus another species occurs (_D. cernuus_). This
+worm is quite distinct, but not readily distinguishable by the naked eye
+alone. It occasionally occupies the upper part of the colon, as well as
+the lower end of the small intestine. A rarer intestinal worm in lambs
+is the _Strongylus filicollis_. Several other strongyles infest the ox
+(_S. radiatus_, _S. inflatus_, _S. gigas_), goat (_S. venulosus_), and
+stag (_S. ventricosus_).
+
+As showing the extraordinary prevalence and destructiveness of entozoa
+in certain countries, I will adduce an instance in which my opinion
+was requested and given some five years since. My informant stated the
+case somewhat in the following manner:--On a farm in New South Wales,
+and lying about 200 miles to the north-west of Sydney, on the Trafalgar
+tributary of the Macquarie river, out of a flock of about 8000 sheep no
+less than 1200 have perished. In many instances post-mortem examinations
+were made, _worms_ appearing in all cases to be the cause of death.
+There were four kinds of parasites present. The most numerous were
+red and white, “marked like a barber’s pole.” These occurred chiefly
+in the fourth stomach and commencement of the duodenum, but some were
+found throughout the entire length of the small intestine. A second
+set comprised small black worms, resembling needles, scattered only
+in the lumen of the intestines. The third set were tapeworms, each
+being several fathoms in length. The fourth set was made up of white
+threadworms, individually measuring two inches in length. These occupied
+the bronchial tubes, and were characterised by my informant as “the
+most deadly of all.” Without the aid of specimens I at once recognised
+these brief diagnostic characters as severally referring to _Strongylus
+contortus_, _Dochmius hypostomus_, _Tænia expansa_, and _Strongylus
+filaria_.
+
+What the inquirer desired at my hands was “full information respecting
+the general principles to be carried out in view of the prevention of
+this parasitic disease, regard being had to the difficulty of finding
+any food but pasture, to the number of animals to be treated, and to
+the not unfavorable circumstance that the run is divided by fencing
+to a great extent.” I was also requested to explain the best modes of
+treatment, being at the same time informed that turpentine drenchings
+had already been employed with only “partially effective” results. I
+was also expected to give numerous and varied formulæ, to be tried in
+succession, supposing the first should fail. Of course, it should have
+been known that I neither prescribe medicines nor accept fees in respect
+of animal patients; but, as in this instance my opinion was permitted
+to assume the form of a “written scientific report,” I was pleased to
+have an opportunity of commenting freely and fully on the significance
+of the facts submitted. My advice took the form of a long report, which
+might here be usefully given _in extenso_ were it not somewhat of the
+nature of a private and privileged communication. I have no doubt that
+the stockowner would be pleased that I should utilise his remarkable
+“case” for the benefit of agriculturists and others; but it is for him
+to publish the “opinion” as it stands, should he think fit to do so.
+
+Practical men, on reading the few foregoing particulars, will perceive
+that one of the principal obstacles to success in cases of this kind
+lies in the circumstance that artificial food can only be procured with
+difficulty. Where the source of the disease is associated with the
+pasture-supply, any treatment, however effectual for a time, can only be
+followed by partially satisfactory results.
+
+The destructive powers of any one of the above-mentioned parasites being
+sufficient to produce a fatal lamb-disease, it is clear that when two
+or more of these particular species attack their victim in considerable
+numbers, the ovine-bearer has little chance of recovery. The intestinal
+strongyles, by means of their oral armature, behaving as veritable
+leeches, will, if not expelled in good time, produce a rapidly fatal
+anæmia, precisely in the same way as the human _Anchylostomum_ of the
+tropics.
+
+The worst of dealing with this sheep-parasite is that it will not
+succumb to ordinary doses of salines like the stomach strongyle;
+moreover, the little leech-like wounds will probably bleed after the
+parasites have been compelled to abandon their hold. Prevention is
+better than cure. Accordingly, I sought to explain the origin of these
+creatures, and in what possible ways the germs of the various species
+could be destroyed, or at least limited in numbers.
+
+As to the drugs and inhalations to be employed, it would be difficult to
+advise any more effective than those commonly in vogue, the great thing
+being to effect changes of pasture and ground, to look to the purity
+of the water-supply, and to supply the best kinds of nourishment after
+active treatment. The diseased animals should, from the very first, be
+separated from their companions, because the amount of germ distribution
+is thereby greatly lessened. They should be at once drenched or treated
+by inhalation (as the parasitic nature of the attack requires), and the
+enclosure in which the animals have been temporarily housed should be
+thoroughly scoured with boiling-hot water impregnated with salt.
+
+The nomenclature of the parasitic diseases of animals is excessively
+vague. Thus, _apropos_ to the case above recorded, I may mention that
+an American veterinary practitioner appeared to be much shocked that
+I should have had the temerity to speak of four distinct kinds of
+lamb-disease. It is in this way that practical men often commit serious
+mistakes by rolling together disorders that are totally distinct. If
+it were true that epizoöty in lambs is exclusively due to _Strongylus
+filaria_, then professionals might aptly speak of the parasitic
+bronchitis of young sheep as lamb-disease; but we now know that several
+other helminths prove terribly fatal to lambs, occasioning death in
+totally different ways. In one set of cases the animals are asphyxiated;
+in another set they become fatally anæmic; and in a third set they
+perish from the severity of nervous reflex irritations. Lastly, it may
+be remarked that, in view of the successful management of the parasitic
+disorders of animals, the veterinary practitioner must necessarily be
+guided by the same general principles as the physician. For myself, I
+may say that I have hitherto designedly withheld many practical hints
+which a long experience with human patients suggested, not wishing to
+appear to dictate to those who are constantly seeing animals. However,
+since (contrary to my own wishes) it has happened that both professional
+men and agriculturists have not only invited me to give opinions, but
+have, at various times, asked me to prescribe, it seems there can have
+been no impropriety in publishing my views on this subject. Certainly I
+have had no professional motives to serve.
+
+Of the few non-strongyloid nematodes, one of the commonest is
+_Trichocephalus affinis_. I have obtained this worm from the giraffe,
+and the parasite may be said to infest all ruminating animals, not
+excluding even the camels and llamas. As before remarked, the whipworm
+has been known to produce severe symptoms in man, and it occasions
+“scour” in the sheep. The eyes of cattle are occasionally infested by
+_Filaria lacrymalis_ and _F. papillosa_. The last named is the common
+eye-worm of the horse. On Feb. 27th, 1875, Dr Edward L. Moss, of H.M.S.
+“Alert,” brought me three examples of a nematode which I referred to
+_Filaria terebra_. Dr Moss obtained these parasites in 1874, during the
+time that he had charge of the Naval Hospital at Esquimalt, Vancouver’s
+Island. They occupied the abdominal cavity of the black-tailed deer
+(_Cervus columbianus_). The worms were mostly found lying amongst the
+coils of the small intestine. They were not attached to the peritoneal
+membrane. Dr Moss had shot seventeen deer in all, the males and females
+being in about equal proportion; nevertheless, not one of the bucks
+showed any trace of the presence of these entozoa. This absence of
+parasites in the male deer is noteworthy. Hitherto the worm appears to
+have been observed in the red deer (_C. elaphus_), and by Natterer in
+three species of American roe (_C. rufus_, _C. simplicicornis_, and
+_C. nambi_). Two of the worms measured each about 2-1/3″ in length,
+the third exceeding 3″. They displayed in profile two prominent oral
+papillæ. Probably there were four of these processes, such as Dujardin
+described in his _Filaria cervina_, which, according to Diesing, is a
+synonym. They all possessed spirally twisted tails.
+
+Amongst the arachnidan parasites of ruminants having entozoal habits are
+_Pentastoma denticulatum_ and _P. constrictum_. The former larval worm
+is excessively common in cattle, sheep, deer, and antelopes. According
+to Rhind, the adult worm (_P. tænioides_) also infests the sheep. The
+_P. constrictum_ has hitherto only been found in the giraffe. On the
+10th February, 1859, I obtained numerous examples (_P. denticulatum_)
+from a bubale (_Antilope bubalis_) which died at the Zoological
+Society’s Gardens. The greater number occupied the surface of the lungs
+and intestines; some few, however, were enclosed in cysts beneath the
+pleura. In the spring of 1860 I also procured several specimens from the
+abdomen of a cape guevi (_Cephalopus pygmæus_).
+
+The ectozoa of ruminants have received much attention, but I can
+merely indicate the known forms. Following Mégnin’s classification
+we have three well-marked varieties of the acarine genus _Sarcoptes_
+(_S. scabiei_, var. _ovis_, var. _capræ_, and var. _cameli_), two
+varieties of _Psoroptes_ (_P. longirostris_, var. _bovis_ and _ovis_),
+and _Chorioptes spathiferus_. This last is the true mange mite of the
+ox (or _Symbiotes bovis_ of Gerlach). A variety of the follicle mite
+infests the sheep (_Demodex folliculorum_, var. _ovis_). Numerous
+species of tick (_Ixodidæ_) have been more or less fully described.
+Of these we have the Carapartos of the Portuguese (_Ixodes bovis_),
+attacking cattle; the _I. reduvius_, attacking sheep; the _I. plumbeus_,
+said to attack lambs; the _I. albipictus_ and _I. unipictus_, found
+on the moose-deer. Probably this species also attacks cattle. A
+most horrible arachnidan is found on camels. I allude to _Galeodes
+araneoides_ belonging to the _Solpugidæ_. This parasite will bite
+severely any person who attempts to dislodge it from the bearer.
+Turning to the insects, we find ruminants liable to be annoyed alike
+by flies (_Diptera_), fleas (_Aphaniptera_), and lice (_Hemiptera_).
+Various species of four different families of flies are apt to prove
+troublesome. Of the _Œstridæ_, attacking the ox, we have _Hypoderma
+bovis_, whose larvæ form tumours or warbles on the back; also _H.
+lineata_, _Dermatobia noxialis_, and _Cephenomyia bovis_ (mihi). The
+larvæ of the latter reside at the root of the tongue and adjacent parts.
+In the sheep we have _Œstrus ovis_, _Œ. purpureus_, and _Hypoderma
+lineata_. Various species also attack goats and antelopes. Dr Kirk
+presented me with specimens of Œstrus from the frontal sinuses of a
+harte-beest or caama, and they have also been obtained from the sassabe,
+the saiga or colus, from the gnoo, and from the brindled gnoo, kokoon
+or gorgon. Mr Charles Danford presented me with several bots from an
+ibex. One or more species of _Hypoderma_ have likewise been removed from
+the gazelle and other antelopes. The deer tribe are much attacked by
+bots. In the red deer we have _Hyp. actæon_ and _H. diana_, a species
+also infesting the elk. The throat-grubs are _Ceph. rufibarbis_ and
+_Pharyngomyia picta_; another species, also occurring in the fallow
+deer, _Ceph. ulrichii_, infests the elk, and _C. stimulator_ the roe,
+the last-named deer being also infested by _Hyp. diana_. A throat-fly
+infests the reindeer, which is also frequently attacked by _Hyp.
+tarandi_. Specimens of the latter worm have been obtained by Dr Murie
+at the Zoological Gardens. The Hunterian Museum also contains these and
+other species of bots, presented by myself in Mr Andrew Murray’s name.
+A subcutaneous bot has been found in the musk-deer. A throat-bot (_C.
+maculata_) infests the dromedary.
+
+In regard to the so-called free dipterous parasites and other noxious
+insects that attack ruminants, their name is legion. One of the worst
+is the tsetse (_Glossina morsitans_), immortalised by Livingstone.
+Of the _Muscidæ_ we have the ox-fly (_Musca bovina_), the sheep-fly
+(_M. cæsar_), and the executioner (_M. carnifex_). Of the _Tabanidæ_
+we have _T. bovinus_ and _T. autumnalis_, _Chrysops cæcutiens_, and
+the allied _Asilus crabroniformis_ (_Asilidæ_). Amongst the specially
+noxious insects must also be placed _Stomoxys calcitrans_ and _Rhagio
+columbaschensis_. This fly proves fearfully destructive to cattle in
+Hungary and Servia. Lastly, I can only further mention the common
+_Melophagus ovinus_. This is nothing more than a gigantic louse, which
+from long use agriculturists and veterinarians persist in calling
+the sheep-tick. It belongs to the _Hippoboscidæ_, the members of
+which family only attack quadrupeds and birds. As regards the lice
+(_Anoplura_), I have to mention _Hæmatopinus vituli_ of the calf,
+_H. eurysternus_ of cattle, and _H. stenopsis_ of the goat; also
+_Trichodectes scalaris_, _T. sphærocephalus_, and _T. capræ_. These
+infest the ox, sheep, and goat, respectively.
+
+For some account of the protozoal parasites (_Psorospermiæ_, &c.)
+infesting the flesh of ruminants I must refer the reader to Book I,
+Section IV, Part VI of this treatise.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 49).--(Anonymous), “On the Hydatid in the Brain of
+Sheep,” from ‘Journ. de Méd. Vét.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxviii, p.
+461, 1855.--(_Idem_), “Note on the ‘Rot in Sheep,’” ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxxvi, p. 100, 1863.--(_Idem_), “On the Hydatid, or Tumour of the
+Brain (of Sheep),” under sig. of “Ben Ledi,” in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol.
+xii, p. 467, 1839.--(_Idem_), “Note on Rot in Sheep, Cattle, and Hares,”
+from the ‘Bristol Mirror and Scotsman,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxvi,
+pp. 156-7, 1863.--(_Idem_), “Tapeworm Epizoöty in Nottinghamshire,”
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1858.--(_Idem_), “Prevalence of Rot in Sheep,” from
+‘Carlisle Journ.,’ in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1863.--_Baillet_, “Filariæ in
+the Eye of an Ox,” from ‘Journ. des Vét. du Midi,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxxi, p. 703, 1858.--_Barnett, J._, “Hydatids in the Liver of a
+Cow,” &c., ‘Veterinarian,’ 1865, p. 236.--_Beale, L. S._, “On Entozoa
+(?) in the Muscles of Animals destroyed by the Cattle Plague,” ‘Med.
+Times and Gaz.,’ Jan. 20, 1866, p. 57; see also “Annotation,” ‘Lancet,’
+Jan. 13, 1866, p. 45, and ‘The Microscope in Medicine,’ 4th edit.,
+1878.--_Beneden_ (see Van Beneden).--_Böllinger, O._, “_Echinococcus
+multilocularis_ in der Leber des Rindes,” ‘Deutsch. Zeitschr. f. Thier
+med.,’ ii, 1876, s. 109.--_Brauer_ (see Bibl. No. 50).--_Bugnion, E._,
+“Sur la pneumonie vermineuse des animaux domestiques,” ‘Compt. Rend. de
+la réunion de la Soc. Helvet.,’ Andermatt, 1875.--_Chaignaud_, “Worms
+in the Eyes of Oxen (with remarks by Desmarets),” from the French,
+in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. i, p. 77, 1828.--_Cobbold_, “Descr. of a new
+Trematode from the Giraffe,” ‘Rep. of Glasgow Meeting of Brit. Assoc.,’
+1854, and in ‘Edin. New. Philosoph. Journ.,’ 1855.--_Idem_, “On Flukes,”
+‘Intellectual Observer,’ Feb., 1862.--_Idem_, “The common Liver Entozoon
+of Cattle,” _ibid._, March, 1862.--_Idem_, “The Whipworm of Ruminants,”
+_ibid._, Dec., 1863.--_Idem_, “Parasite-larvæ,” _ibid._, March,
+1863.--_Idem_, “On the Measles of Cattle and Sheep” (see various papers
+quoted in Book I, Bibl. No. 13).--_Idem_, “On the Cattle-Plague Bodies
+(spurious Entozoa),” see Bibl. No. 41.--_Idem_, “On the Fluke Parasites
+of our Food-producing Ruminants,” Lect. iv of the Cantor series, pub.
+in ‘Journ. Soc. Arts,’ 1871.--_Idem_, “Remarks (&c.) in ref. to the
+Management of Sheep suffering from Nematoid Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+Oct., 1876.--_Idem_, “Record of preliminary Experiments with the Eggs
+and Embryos of the Husk-producing Strongyle of the Calf,” _ibid._, Dec.,
+1875.--_Idem_, in ‘Entozoa,’ pp. 145-183; also in ‘Manual,’ and in the
+chap. on “Parasitic Diseases” contributed to ‘Williams’ Principles
+of Vet. Med.’--_Idem_, “Remarks on Prof. Perroncito’s Researches,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1877.--_Idem_, ‘Amphistomes of the Ox,’ see
+Bibl. No. 51.--_Cooper, J._, “Three Cases of Cœnurus in Calves,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1865, p. 357.--_Copeman, A._, “Hydatids in the Brain
+of Lambs,” ‘Vet. Record,’ vol. iii, p. 337, 1847.--_Cox, W._, “Tænia
+in Lambs,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxviii, p. 446, 1855.--_Creplin_, fig.
+of _Amphist. crumeniferum_, in ‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1847, tab. ii, s.
+30.--_Crisp, E._, “On the ‘Lamb-disease,’ of which Parasites in the
+Lungs are generally the Cause or Consequence,” repr. from ‘Journ. of
+Bath and West of England Soc.,’ in July to October Nos. of ‘Edin. Vet.
+Rev.,’ 1863.--_Idem_, “Note on _Str. filaria_,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’
+1856.--_Danford_ (see Cobbold, Bibl. No. 52).--_De Reck_, “On the
+Draconcule (_Strong. filaria aut veinulosus?_) of Lambs,” from ‘Ann.
+de Logelin,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. v, p. 521, 1832.--_Dupleune_,
+“Hydatids in the Brain of an Heifer,” from ‘Mém. de la Soc. Vét. du
+Calvados,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ix, p. 115, 1836.--_Dupuy_, “An
+Hydatid in the Lumbar portion of the Spinal Marrow of a Lamb, aged
+eighteen months,” from ‘Journ. Théorique et Prat.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. iv, p. 285, 1831.--_Engelmeyer_, ‘Thierärztliche Wochenschrift,’
+1850, p. 191.--_Findeisen_, “Ech. in der Lunge,” ‘Repert. f.
+Thierheilkund,’ 1875, s. 48.--_Fry, J._, “Worms in the Trachea (of
+cattle),” ‘The Hippiatrist,’ vol. iii, p. 5, 1830.--_Furstenberg_, “On
+_Pent. tænioides_ of the Sheep,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1863.--_Gamgee, J._,
+“On Parasitic Diseases,” extr. from his ‘Rep. to the Privy Council,’
+‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Dec., 1863.--_Idem_, “On Cattle Diseases (including
+those produced by Entozoa),” from letters in the ‘Times’ of Oct.
+22, Nov. 10 and 13, &c.; in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Dec., 1863.--_Idem_,
+“On Diseased Meat (especially in relation to Trichina),” ‘Pop. Sci.
+Rev.,’ Jan., 1864.--_Idem_, “On Sturdy in Sheep (with figs. from Van
+Beneden, Leuckart, and Cobbold),” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i, p. 440,
+1859.--_Idem_, “Gleanings from the Researches of Eschricht, Haubner, A.
+Thomson, &c., respecting the Origin and Development of the Entozoa,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1855.--_Giacomini_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Gulliver_,
+“On the Structure of the Entozoa belonging to the genus Cysticercus,”
+‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ 1840-41.--_Idem_,
+“Notes on the Ova of _Dist. hepaticum_, and on certain Corpuscles
+obtained from the genus Cysticercus,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ March, 1840,
+and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. vi, 1841; also ‘Month. Journ. Med.
+Sci.,’ vol. ii, 1842, and ‘Micros. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 95,
+1842.--_Hewlett_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Holmes, J._, “Filaria in the
+Bronchi of a Calf,” ‘Vet. Rec.,’ vol. i, p. 125, 1845.--_Hunter, J._,
+“Ileum of a Ruminant containing Acephalocyst Hydatids;” see description
+of preparation No. 863 in the ‘Catalogue of Mus. Roy. Coll. Surg.
+Lond.’ (“Pathology,” vol. ii, p. 201), 1847.--_Idem_, “Hydatid in the
+Humerus of an Ox” (_ibid._, prep. No. 864).--_Idem_, “On Hydatids of
+the Sheep,” in supp. to his paper on ‘Human Hydatids,’ in ‘Trans. of
+Soc. for the Improvement, &c.,’ vol. i, 1793, p. 34.--_Huxley_, “On
+the Anatomy and Development of Echinococcus (from a Zebra),” ‘Proc.
+Zool. Soc.,’ and ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1852.--_Karkeek, W. F._, “Notes
+on the _Rot_ (or _iles_ of the Cornish graziers),” ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. iv, p. 573, 1831.--_King, E._, “On the Propagation of Rot (by
+means of the eggs of _Fasc. hepatica_) in Sheep,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol.
+ix, p. 95, 1836.--_Krabbe_, “Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,” ‘Tidsskrift
+for Vet.’ (See also my notice of the memoir in ‘Lond. Med. Rec.’ for
+1872; repr. in ‘Veterinarian,’ May, 1873.)--_Küchenmeister_ (see Bibl.
+No. 13).--_Leaver, T._, “Cases of the Husk (from worms) in Cattle,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ii, p. 355, 1829.--_Lepper_, “Hydatids in the
+Kidney of a Lamb (with remarks by Prof. Varnell),” ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxxvi, p. 524, 1863.--_Lewis_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Lord, J._,
+“On some of the Parasites principally affecting Ruminants,” ‘Trans.
+Vet. Med. Assoc.,’ 1842-43.--_Masse_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Mayer,
+T._, “On Hoose in Cattle (from Filaria),” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xiii,
+p. 227, 1840.--_M’Call, J._, “On Sturdy in Sheep,” _ibid._, vol.
+xxx, p. 267, 1857.--_Mégnin, P._, “Le _Str. minutissimus_,” ‘Bullet.
+de la Soc. Centrale Vét.,’ in ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ July, 1878, and
+in ‘Ann. de Méd. Vét.,’ Oct., 1878, p. 563.--_Moorcroft_, “Brain
+Hydatids,” ‘Med. Facts and Observ.,’ 1792.--_Morton, W. J. T._, “On
+the Entozoa affecting Domesticated Animals, and particularly on _Fasc.
+hepatica_ or Liver Fluke in Sheep,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xii, p. 735,
+1839.--_Mosler_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Murie, J._, “On the occurrence of
+_Œstrus tarandi_ in a Reindeer in the Zoological Society’s Gardens,”
+‘P. Z. S.,’ 1866, with woodcuts.--_Idem_, “On a Leech (Trocheta) found
+in the Viscera of a Molluscan Deer (_Cervus moluccensis_, _Müller_),”
+_ibid._, 1865.--_Numan_, “Over den Veelkop-blaasworm der Hersenen” (this
+beautifully illustrated memoir, in the ‘Trans. of the Dutch Soc. of
+Sciences,’ supplies an elaborate bibliography of continental writings
+on _Cœnurus cerebralis_--T. S. C.), ‘Œrste Kl. Verh.,’ 3e Reeks, 2e
+Deel, p. 225 _et seq._--_Oliver_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Padley, G._, ‘On
+Entozoa from a Sheep;’ see Sandie.--_Parsons_, “On Diarrhœa in Lambs
+(with bronchial worms),” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1855, p. 685.--_Patellani_,
+“Sturdy in Cattle,” from ‘München Jahresbericht,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxx, p. 81, 1857.--_Pellizzari_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Perroncito_
+(see Bibl. No. 13).--_Pourquier_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Ralph, T. S._,
+“On the Parasitic Nature of Pleuro-pneumonia,” &c., two papers in
+‘Austr. Med. Journ.,’ 1865.--_Ranke_, “Pulmonary Entozoic Disease of
+Sheep,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1858; see also ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxx, p.
+708, 1857.--_Raynaud_, “A Word on the Cachexia, or Rot in Ruminants,”
+trans. from the ‘Journ. des Vét.,’ by W. Ernes, in ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxxiii, p. 488, 1859.--_Read, R._, “Destruction of Strongylus and
+Filaria in the Bronchial Passages of Calves, through nasal inhalation
+of ether, chloroform, oil of turpentine, or rectified oil of amber,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxi, p. 604, 1848.--_Reck_ (see De Reck).--_Reed,
+R._, “Congenital Hydatids in a Lamb,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. viii, p.
+551, 1835.--_Rhind_, “Description of a species of Worm (Pentastoma)
+found in the Frontal Sinus of a Sheep,” ‘Farrier and Naturalist,’ vol.
+iii, p. 277, 1830, and ‘Lancet,’ 1829.--_Robertson_, “Remarks on Tænia
+in Lambs,” ‘Rep. of Scottish Med. Vet. Soc.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ 1875,
+p. 80.--_Rochard_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Rose, C. B._, “On Cœnurus and
+Acephalocysts,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ vol. xxiv, p. 525, 1844.--_Idem_,
+“On the Anat. and Physiol. of the _Cysticercus tenuicollis_,” ‘Roy.
+Med.-Chir. Soc. Trans.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ 1848.--_Idem_, “On the Vesicular
+Entozoa, and particularly Hydatids,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ vol. xiii, p.
+204, 1833-34.--_Sandie_ (with _Padley_), “On Entozoa in the Lungs of
+a Sheep,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1849.--_Schwarzmeier_, “Die Trepanation
+des Rindes bei Cœnurus,” ‘Wochenschr. f. Thierheilk.,’ 1875, s.
+295.--_Shenton_, “Worms from the Stomach of a Cow,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+1844, p. 487.--_Siedamagrotzky_, “Hydatids in the Liver of a Cow,”
+‘Bericht üb. das Veterinawesen im Kön. Sachsen,’ 1875, s. 29.--_Simonds,
+J. B._, “Death of Sheep from Worms in the Stomach (abomasum), being
+remarks on Mr. Haywood’s case,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxiv, p. 525,
+1861.--_Idem_, ‘The Rot in Sheep, its nature, cause, treatment,
+and prevention,’ London, 1862.--_Idem_, “On Filariæ in the Bronchi
+of Calves,” ‘Trans. Vet. Med. Assoc.,’ 1843, p. 517.--_Idem_, “On
+Strongylus in the Bladder and Intestines,” _ibid._, 1843.--_Idem_,
+“On Hydatids of the Liver of a Sheep (Mr Scruby’s case),” _ibid._, p.
+331.--_Idem_, “On Disease of the Mesenteric Artery from Strongyli within
+the Vessel,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.--_Idem_, “Lecture on the Nature
+and Causes of the Disease known as Rot in Sheep,” vol. xxxiv, p. 274,
+1861.--_Spence, G. W._, “On Œstrus of the Ox,” ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’
+1858, and ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i, p. 400.--_St Cyr_ (see Bibl. No.
+13).--_Stoddart, J._, “Case of Hydatids in the Liver (of a Cow),”
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xi, p. 637, 1838.--_Sutton_ (Lecture), ‘Gardiner’s
+Chronicle,’ June 29, 1872.--_Sylvester, F. R._, “Cases of Parasites
+infesting the Brains and Intestines of Lambs,” ‘Vet. Rec.,’ vol. ii, p.
+40, 1846.--_Thudichum_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Idem_, “Echinococci from
+the Sheep’s Lungs,” ‘Rep. Med. Soc. Lond.,’ in ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’
+1856, p. 195.--_Tommasi_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Van Beneden_, “On the
+Development of Cœnurus,” from ‘Comp. Rend.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol.
+xiv, 1854.--_Watson, K. W._, “Experiment for the Cure of the _gidd_
+(Cœnurus) in a Sheep,” ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1815.--_Willemoes-Suhm_, in
+‘Sieb. and Köll. Zeitschr.,’ Bd. xxv, s. 176.--_Wilson, E._, “On the
+Anatomy of _Trichocephalus affinis_,” ‘Vet. Rec.,’ 1846.--_Wymann_,
+“Note on Filaria in the Bronchi of a Sheep,” see Anon. on “Entozoa and
+Parasites,” in ‘Amer. Journ. Sci.,’ vol. xxxix, p. 183, 1840.--_Youatt_,
+“On Hydatids in the Sheep (symptoms, prevention, treatment, &c.),”
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ii, p. 519, 1834.--_Idem_, “On the peculiar
+Bronchitis in young Cattle, accompanied by Worms in the Bronchial
+Passages,” part of lecture, in ‘Lancet,’ 1832.--_Idem_, “Hydatids in
+the Brain of a St Domingo Goat,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ix, p. 443,
+1836.--_Idem_, “Bronchitis from Worms (in Cattle),” _ibid._, vol. vi,
+p. 177, 1833.--_Idem_, “Hydatids in the Brain (in Cattle),” _ibid._,
+vol. vii.--_Yvart_, “Brain Hydatids,” _ibid._, 1828, p. 19.--_Zahn_,
+“Lungenwürmer beim Reh,” ‘Œsterr. Vierteljahrschr. f. w. Vet.,’ 1875,
+s. 125.--_Zurn_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--For further references to the
+literature of Hydatids in Animals, see Bibliography No. 20, _o_, in the
+first half of this work.
+
+
+PART IX (SOLIDUNGULA).
+
+It will naturally be expected that I should give a full account of
+the parasites of the solipedal, solidungulate, or equine mammals. As
+regards the horse I regret that I cannot meet this expectation in so
+complete a manner as the subject deserves; nevertheless, with the aid of
+an extended bibliography the summary here offered will be found to be
+tolerably exhaustive. At all events I think I may say that no similar
+record has hitherto been attempted.
+
+The liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_), though not very frequent in
+the horse, is not uncommon in the ass. In dissecting-room subjects
+at the Royal Veterinary College it is often encountered. In France
+it was originally found in the horse by Daubenton. As I learn from
+Sonsino, Dr. Abbate Bey recently recorded a similar find at Cairo. In
+solipeds generally the liver fluke appears to be almost harmless, for,
+notwithstanding the frightful ravages produced by rot amongst a variety
+of animals besides sheep, we have no evidence of the destruction of
+horses from this cause. In the German outbreak of 1663-65 multitudes of
+cattle and deer perished, and in the French outbreak of 1829-30 five
+thousand horned beasts succumbed in the arrondissement of Montmédy
+alone. In neither of these epizoötics were the solipeds affected. More
+importance attaches itself to the study of the amphistomatoid flukes.
+These parasites, though in a scientific sense only recently discovered
+in equine bearers, have been long known to the natives of India. They
+appear to be capable of producing serious intestinal irritation. I
+have described two forms (_Amphistoma Collinsii_ and _A. Coll._, var.
+_Stanleyi_), which infest the colon. The specimens sent to Prof. Simonds
+from India by Mr Stanley, V.S., were much larger than those sent to me
+from Simla by Mr Collins, V.S., some ten years later (1875). As in all
+other amphistomes obtained from the intestines of elephants and cattle,
+the worms, when fresh, were of a bright brick-red color. By the natives
+of India these parasites are called _Masuri_; but no description of
+the worms had been published prior to the account which I gave of the
+contributions forwarded by Major-General Hawkes, Mr Collins, and Mr
+Stanley.
+
+I shall have occasion to speak of the elephant’s _Masuri_ further
+on; but in the meantime I must remark that the generally received
+notion as to the parasitic cause of the earth-eating propensities of
+various animals seems to have some foundation in fact. Not alone from
+Major-General Hawkes in Madras, from Mr Folkard in Ceylon, and from
+various other trustworthy sources, have I been informed of this habit on
+the part of Indian horses, but Dr Rowe told me that Australian horses,
+and even sheep, infested with stomach-worms, are in the constant habit
+of consuming large quantities of sand. From all the facts that have come
+before me, I am inclined to think that gastric or intestinal irritation,
+however brought about, may induce the habit in question, parasites being
+only one of the many sources of irritation giving rise to symptoms
+of colic in solipeds and pachyderms alike. At all events the African
+elephants at the London Zoological Society’s Menagerie, as repeatedly
+witnessed by myself, are in the habit of swallowing large quantities of
+soft mud during the summer months, but no traces of _masuri_ have as yet
+been detected in their fæces.
+
+When by letter I informed Major-General Hawkes of an interesting find
+by Mr Collins of _about a thousand_ Amphistomes in the colon of a horse
+that had died at Simla, the announcement called forth a reply which
+is sufficiently instructive to be quoted. Writing from Secunderabad
+in July, 1875, he says, respecting this “find:”--“Your statement has
+incidentally thrown light upon a subject which has puzzled many of
+us in this country. It occasionally happens that a horse, on being
+opened after death, is found to have accumulated in his intestines
+large quantities of sand and gravel. In a recent case this accumulation
+amounted to 14-1/2 lbs. Until recently it was always held that this
+gravel or sand could only be introduced with the animal’s food. All
+grain in this country is trodden out by bullocks on an earthen floor,
+and the grain undoubtedly contains a proportion of sand and gravel
+derived from this source. Although this _ought to be_ carefully washed
+out before it is given to the horse, still, owing to the carelessness
+of the native horse-keepers, this cleaning is, I expect, often omitted.
+In the daily ‘feed’ of eight or ten pounds of grain given to each horse
+the utmost quantity of sand or gravel that could be found admixed
+therewith would not probably exceed two or three ounces; consequently
+it would take from 77 to 116 days to accumulate so large a quantity
+as 14-1/2 lbs. Now, the advocates of the theory of the gradual
+accumulation of sand in this way have never been able to explain why
+the grain, grass, hay, and other ingesta should pass in the ordinary
+way through the intestines, whilst this sand or gravel remains behind.
+One can understand the possibility of such substances as wool, hair, or
+similar matters concreting in the alimentary canal, though I believe
+they are usually found in the stomach, and not in the intestines; but
+how a most incohesive substance like sand can possibly accumulate
+in the gradual way required by their theory I have never heard even
+plausibly explained. On the other hand, the fact that horses are often
+excessively addicted to eating earth is well known; and if my memory
+serves me correctly, it was found necessary, about twenty years ago, to
+remove the mud-walls of the pickets surrounding some of the horses of
+a mounted corps in this presidency in consequence of this habit. Now,
+given the fact that the amphistoma has been found in the horse (as your
+specimens prove), may we not fairly suppose it possible that the animal
+resorts to the same mode of ridding himself of this parasite as does the
+elephant? and also, would it not in a much more natural manner account
+for the large quantity of gravel or sand found in the intestines than
+does the theory of gradual accumulation? Reasoning from analogy, as
+in the case of the elephant, this eating of earth in the horse would
+be an instinctive effort on the part of the “host” to rid himself of
+the parasite. This self-taken remedy is doubtless in many cases quite
+effectual, _though unnoticed_. The fatal cases are probably those in
+which the horse has either overdone the remedy or where the system was
+too debilitated to carry off a quantity of sand or gravel that would
+otherwise have safely passed through the intestines of a horse in more
+robust health. The actual fact must, of course, be verified by careful
+investigation.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Gastrodiscus Sonsinonis._ _a_, Mouth; _b_,
+caudal sucker and posterior mesial cleft; _c_, left lip of the gastric
+disk; _d_, anterior mesial cleft; _e_, e. gastric suckerlets; _f_,
+reproductive papilla. Enlarged. Original.]
+
+Closely allied to the Masuri is an amphistome which I originally named
+_Gastrodiscus Sonsinoii_, but which should be altered as opposite
+(Fig. 62). It exceeds 1/2″ in length and 1/3″ in breadth (16 mm. long
+by 10 broad). Its discovery by Dr Sonsino was one of the results of
+his examination of sixteen carcases of solipeds that died during the
+Egyptian plague of 1876. Specimens having been forwarded to Panceri,
+Von Siebold, Leuckart, and myself, most of us at once agreed that the
+worm was new to science. Pointing to the genera, _Notocotylus_ and
+_Aspidocotylus_, I explained its close affinity to the latter more
+particularly. Whilst _Notocotylus_ has fifty supplementary suckers on
+its back, _Aspidocotylus_ has nearly two hundred small ventral suckers
+seated on a convex disk. In _Gastrodiscus_ a still larger number of
+suckerlets are placed in the deep concavity of a large gastric disk
+formed by the outstretched and inrolled margins of the body of the
+parasite. Zoologically speaking, the odd thing about this singular
+worm lies in the circumstance that its nearest fluke-relation, so
+to speak (_Aspidocotylus mutablis_), dwells in a spiny-finned fish
+(Cataphractus); and this fish itself forms an aberrant genus of the
+family to which it belongs (Triglidæ). From what has been said it
+will be seen that our _Gastrodiscus_ must not be confounded with
+_Cotylegaster cochleariform_ (or with its synonym _Aspidogaster
+cochleariformis_), to which parasite Von Siebold was, I believe,
+induced to refer it. Like most of the true amphistomes, the worm in
+question infests the intestines. Although discovered by Sonsino at
+Zagazig in plague-affected corpses, there is no reason to suppose that
+this helminth was in any way etiologically connected with the Egyptian
+epizoöty.
+
+The tapeworms of the horse are of great interest practically. Excluding
+Sander’s _Tænia zebræ_, which was doubtless _T. plicata_, at least
+five species have been described, but they may probably be all reduced
+to two distinct forms and their varieties. Whilst _Tænia plicata_
+acquires a length of three feet, the strobile of _T. perfoliata_ never
+exceeds five inches. The lobes at the base of the head in the latter
+are distinctive. The former is usually confined to the small intestine,
+but the perfoliate worm often occupies the cæcum and colon in great
+numbers. As regards _T. mamillana_, I may say that neither Gurlt’s
+descriptions nor his figures are convincing. The worm is, I believe,
+identical with _T. perfoliata_. In like manner, after going into the
+matter with some care, I am accustomed to speak of Mégnin’s _T. inerme_
+as _T. perfoliata_, var. _Mégnini_, and of Baillet’s _T. innomé_ as
+_T. perfoliata_, var. _Bailletii_. I have examined great numbers of
+equine tapeworms, but whether my determinations on this point are
+correct or not, the case recorded by Mégnin is of remarkable interest.
+Clinically, indeed, it is not entirely unique, since a somewhat similar
+case has been recorded by Mr Poulton. In Mégnin’s equine patient the
+autopsy revealed the presence of 200 bots, 153 lumbricoids, upwards of
+400 oxyurides, and several thousand palisade worms, besides numerous
+tapeworms. In Mr Poulton’s patient large quantities of tapeworms were
+found in the duodenum (and in large sacs of the walls of other sections
+of the small intestine), and also myriads of the little four-spined
+strongyle, in addition to about a score of palisade worms. Both Mégnin’s
+and Poulton’s patients died suddenly; but the great interest attaching
+to Mégnin’s case arises from the boldness of manner in which the
+French _savant_ interprets the phenomena of the intestinal sacculation
+in relation to the development of the tapeworms. M. Mégnin assumes
+that the sacs are due to the formation of polycephalous or cœnuroid
+scolices. Without contradicting Mégnin’s ingenious interpretation of
+the phenomena in question, I may say that the difficulty I have in
+accepting his view arises from the circumstance of the rarity of the
+occurrence of these sacs. In Poulton’s case of _Tænia perfoliata_, the
+sacs were present, and they were productive of similar results; but
+in the scores of other recorded cases of sudden death from the same
+species of tapeworm (as published by Mr Rees Lloyd, and myself), the
+presence of such sac-formations is not once mentioned. To be sure,
+their presence may have been overlooked, but this is scarcely likely,
+seeing the great care taken by Mr Lloyd in conducting the autopsies.
+I cannot dwell upon the subject at greater length. The presence of so
+many sexually-immature strobiles, combined with the existence of the
+intestinal wall sacs, certainly does seem to point to the existence of
+cœnuroid bladder-worms, but until the existence of the polycephalous
+scolex be actually demonstrated one must be cautious in concluding “that
+the horse nourishes at the same time the strobila and scolex of the
+unarmed tapeworm.” Practically, we now know for certain that not only
+are tapeworms capable of producing a fatal issue in isolated cases,
+such as those recorded by Mégnin and Poulton, but that they may also be
+productive of disastrous epizoöty, as proved by Mr Lloyd in the case of
+Welsh mountain ponies.
+
+In this connection I may perhaps be pardoned for saying that this
+discovery in 1875 was one of the practical results directly issuing
+from the publication of my ‘Manual’ in 1874. The attention of the
+veterinary profession having been called to the subject of parasitic
+epizoöty, Mr Lloyd was the first to make search for helminths amongst
+some few of the carcases of the hundred and more equine animals that
+perished in South Wales. Two totally distinct epizoötics prevailed. In
+the Beacons district tapeworms alone were the cause of death, whilst
+in the Deangunid district scores of animals perished from strongyles.
+In another district a hundred animals perished from tapeworms. These
+parasites I identified as examples of _Strongylus tetracanthus_ and
+_Tænia perfoliata_. Taking all the helminthological facts together
+we have made a great advance both in hippopathology and equine
+epidemiology; and, as I observed at the time, the scepticism which not
+unnaturally still exists (in reference to entozoa as a frequent cause of
+death amongst animals, both wild and domesticated) will sooner or later
+be dispersed by that wider attention to the subject which our labors
+have invoked.
+
+In relation to equine disease the facts brought forward are too
+important to be dismissed in a single paragraph. As two distinct kinds
+of parasitic epizoöty were discovered, the circumstances connected with
+their separate detection must be noticed at greater length. Further
+on, I shall again deal with the helminthiasis due to strongyles. It
+was on the 17th of April, 1874, that I received from Mr Lloyd, of
+Dowlais, Glamorganshire, a communication calling my attention to a
+fatal epizoötic affecting ponies. He supposed the outbreak to be due
+to parasites. On the following day I also received a parcel containing
+portions of the lower intestines, which had been removed from one of the
+diseased animals. The victim in question, a pony mare, had died on or
+about the 12th of April, at Llangunider, Breconshire. Mr Lloyd states
+in his letter that he “presumes” that the pony’s death was caused “by
+the presence of small worms,” examples of which he now forwarded for
+the purposes of identification and investigation. He also sent some
+equine tapeworms. Mr Lloyd had already inferred that his small worms
+were “strongyles;” and in regard to the tapeworms he says:--“This
+species of parasite has caused, or is supposed to have caused, the
+death of at least one hundred mountain ponies.” The investigation
+being immediately proceeded with, I may so far anticipate my record of
+the results obtained as to state at once that the facts observed by
+me confirmed Mr Lloyd’s suspicions--proving, beyond a doubt, that the
+pony above mentioned had succumbed to injuries inflicted by myriads of
+minute strongyles. Not only did I find the fæcal matter of the colon
+loaded with mature strongyles, but the walls of the intestine were also
+occupied with encysted and immature forms of the same nematode species.
+To such an extent had infection taken place, that I was enabled to
+count no less than thirty-nine strongyles within the space of the one
+fourth of a square inch. All parts of the sections of the colon under
+examination were almost equally invaded; so that, taking the average,
+I am clearly within the mark in saying that every square inch of the
+gut yielded at least one hundred parasites. The walls of the entire
+colon must therefore have been occupied by tens of thousands of these
+creatures, to say nothing of the scarcely less numerous examples lying
+free or lodged within the fæcal contents of the bowel.
+
+In a second and more extended communication, sent in reply to inquiries
+as to the cestodes, Mr Lloyd (whose letter I have abridged) writes:--“I
+regret that I cannot give you very full particulars respecting the
+tapeworms. During the last twelve months mountain ponies grazing on
+the lower districts of Breconshire, which comprise some of the highest
+mountains in South Wales, have been dying in great numbers, from what
+the farmers indefinitely term inflammation. From what I have seen and
+heard, it appears that there are three causes of death, the tapeworm,
+the small worms (which I presumed were a kind of strongyle), and
+catarrhal disorders, such as have been common among horses of late.
+By far the greater number of deaths (from what I can glean) have been
+caused by the parasites. In the Ystradfellte or Penderin districts there
+has been no investigation, although the disease has reigned there for a
+longer period, about eighteen months, with (from what I have heard) a
+larger number of deaths than elsewhere; so I shall let these remain for
+the present, as I have not had an opportunity to see or hear anything
+authentic about them. In the Talybont district the cause appears to
+be the small worms (like those I sent). The owner of the animals said
+that a month ago, when he went to look after his ponies, they were
+appearing quite well, and looked as well as he could expect them at
+this season, but he was astonished to find some of them a fortnight ago
+looking very lean and wasting, and he thought that the weather was the
+cause of it, yet resolved to see them oftener; the next time he saw
+them one was dead, and knowing of the loss in the neighbourhood, and
+fearing he would be a sufferer, he sought aid, applying to me. When I
+arrived two days following two more were dead, and they presented an
+emaciated appearance. The post-mortem examination revealed a healthy
+condition of the whole of the intestines, save slight thickening of some
+parts of the colon and rectum, which contained, enclosed in the mucous
+membrane, in cysts or minute sacs, worms coiled upon themselves. Each
+cyst, containing one worm, was best seen by transmitted light. The colon
+was nearly full of fæcal matter, which contained thousands of parasites
+scarcely visible. The largest were very few in number, not exceeding
+an inch in length and barely one sixteenth in diameter at the middle
+portion. They somewhat tapered at both ends. The cæcum was half full
+of fluid fæces, containing no visible worms; the rectum, with fæces of
+natural consistence, the examination of which revealed only two or three
+evident worms; so that the examination of fæces of living animals giving
+results like this would not assist the diagnosis, unless suspected.
+Small intestines--these latter contained about a dozen bots, which
+were nearly free, but had pierced to the muscular coat. I should think
+they had participated in the disease. The right lung had been slightly
+congested; nothing else abnormal to be seen. Possibly congestion of
+lungs would arise from the distress when pained with worms, for the pony
+was found on its back with its head in a thicket--it had not appeared to
+have struggled--with its teeth firmly closed.
+
+“Respecting the animals affected with Tænia, it is remarkable that, as
+a rule, they are in fair condition. The average time they appear to be
+troubled with the worms is two months, and the symptoms observed have
+been many. They are at first seen to be unable to keep up with the
+other ponies, extending the head and turning the upper lip up, rubbing
+the quarters, staring coat, suddenly appearing distracted, seizing
+turf in mouthfuls when being griped or pained, others running away as
+fast as they can go, or rolling and kicking on the ground for five or
+ten minutes, then walking away as if nothing had happened, if coming
+down a slope quickly almost sure to fall headlong, easier caught, not
+unfrequently coughing, groaning noise, appetite good, and, what is
+peculiar in some of them, lameness of one of the hind limbs, mostly the
+near hind leg, with slight knuckling over at fetlock.
+
+“_Post-mortem appearance._--Abdominal viscera normal, save rectum,
+which is in some places slightly congested; colon nearly full of fæces,
+no worms; cæcum, in which worms are alone found, is nearly full of
+fæcal matter of thicker consistence than usual, and nearly half made up
+of worms; stomach half full of partly digested food; heart and lungs
+healthy; Schneiderian membrane injected; mucous membrane of trachea and
+part of larger bronchiæ of a more or less livid colour (which may be
+owing to asphyxia); corner of tongue bitten off; mouth very close.
+
+“Several animals were found at times lying dead together.
+
+“Of the _Tænia_ as many as three or four ponies, which some hours
+previous had been seen grazing unaffected, were found dead on the same
+spot; and this to my own knowledge, one farmer having lost ten.
+
+“Of the small worms I have been told by a farmer that in his district
+one of his neighbours had lost twelve ponies.”
+
+As I had partly misunderstood my informant’s original statement, Mr
+Lloyd, in a third communication, repeated the evidence, emphatically
+reminding me that “the ponies affected with tapeworms are in a district
+six or seven miles distant from those affected with strongyles. Those
+troubled with tapeworms are in good condition, as a rule, up to death;
+they are noticed to be troubled generally for two months previous to
+death, and may be seen at one hour grazing and apparently well, and dead
+or dying the next hour. As many as four have been found dead at the same
+spot. In this (the Beacons) district the tapeworms alone have been found
+and not a single strongyle. In the Deangunid district strongyles only
+have been found, such as I sent you. The ponies have been noticed ailing
+for three or four weeks, becoming rapidly emaciated and dying from
+exhaustion. In tapeworm-affected animals the cæcum is nearly half full
+of these parasites. The animals thus affected are on the red sandstone
+formation, whilst those affected with strongyles occur on the limestone
+formation--the latter affording the drier situation.”
+
+Being on the teaching staff of the Royal Veterinary College I was
+particularly glad to have the authority of an experienced veterinary
+practitioner to testify to the injuriousness of _Tænia perfoliata_ in
+the horse. Over and over again I had pointed out to the members of my
+class the desirability of examining the fæces of solipeds where obscure
+symptoms of intestinal irritation existed. Not only so; at the request
+of friends I wrote out prescriptions suitable for equine patients
+suffering from tapeworm. I felt the more indebted to Mr Lloyd, inasmuch
+as his practical views served to strengthen the propositions I had
+advanced in connection with internal parasites as a frequent cause
+of epizoötics. My views were criticised at the time with a vigour and
+warmth well worthy of those who are afraid of advancing epidemiological
+science too rapidly; but it seems that so far from my having overstepped
+the bounds of moderation in this matter I had, in reality, been too
+cautious. Certainly it can now no longer be said that “the symptoms
+created by tapeworms in the horse are of little or no consequence.”
+Here, therefore, I repeat, we have made a clear and rapid advance in
+our knowledge of helminthic disease; and from the impulse thus given to
+hippopathology it is only reasonable to look for still further advances
+in veterinary medicine. By-and-by, the scepticism which not unnaturally
+exists in reference to entozoa as a frequent cause of death amongst
+animals, will be dispersed by even yet clearer enunciations regarding
+the important part these parasites play in the destruction of our most
+valuable creatures.
+
+Apart from the question incidentally raised by Mégnin as to their origin
+and mode of development, the presence of larval cestodes in horses
+cannot be passed over. The common hydatid (_Echinococcus veterinorum_),
+though not of frequent occurrence, is occasionally productive of fatal
+consequences. Very interesting cases are recorded by Messrs Henderson
+and Kirkman, aided by the valuable comments of Professor Varnell. Mr
+Hutchinson observed an hydatid in a horse’s eye, and Mr Vincent noticed
+lameness, as resulting from hydatids. But one of the most interesting
+cases of hydatids in solipeds is that described by Professor Huxley,
+from a zebra that died at the Zoological Gardens in 1852. As stated
+in Huxley’s elaborate memoir (freely quoted in the first part of this
+work), the liver was found to be “one mass of cysts, varying in size
+from a child’s head downwards.” The zebra’s death was purely accidental,
+as it broke its neck while at play in the paddock. The long bladder-worm
+of the horse (_Cysticercus fistularia_) is entirely unknown to me, and,
+as before suggested, may be a mere variety of the _C. tenuicollis_ of
+ruminants. An authentic instance of the occurrence of the gid hydatid
+(_Cœnurus cerebralis_) in the horse is recorded by Gurlt. Lastly,
+in relation to the question of food, it is worthy of remark that
+whilst beef, veal, pork, and even mutton, are apt to be measled, the
+muscle-flesh of horses is not liable to be infested by Cysticerci. This
+is a fact in favor of hippophagy.
+
+The nematodes of solipeds are very numerous, and first in importance
+must be placed the palisade worm (_Strongylus armatus_). This worm was
+known to Ruysch (1721). The old naturalists recognised two varieties
+(_major_ and _minor_). These we now know to be merely the final stages
+of growth of one and the same entozoon; and in both stages the worm
+inflicts severe injury upon the bearer, chiefly, however, whilst
+wandering through the tissues. The palisade worm has acquired notoriety
+principally on account of its causing verminous aneurism, nevertheless,
+this pathological change is not, in itself, the most disastrous evil
+produced by the worm. In the adult state the female reaches a length
+of two inches, whilst the male rarely exceeds an inch and a half. The
+posterior ray of the caudal membrane or hood of the male is three-cleft.
+In both sexes the head is armed with numerous, closely-set, upright
+denticles, presenting the appearance of the teeth of a circular saw
+or trephine. The eggs are elliptical and somewhat constricted at the
+centre, their contents forming embryos after expulsion from both
+parent-worm and host. The larvæ are rhabditiform, changing their skin,
+in moist earth, in about three weeks, at which time they part with
+their long tails. According to Leuckart, they pass into the body of an
+intermediate bearer before entering the stomach of the definitive or
+equine host. From the alimentary canal they pass to the blood-vessels,
+causing aneurism, and thence they seek to regain the intestinal canal,
+where they arrive at sexual maturity. It is during their migratory
+efforts that they give rise to dangerous symptoms in the bearer, not
+unfrequently causing the death of young animals, especially yearlings.
+In the adult state the worm is also dangerous to the bearer, as it
+produces severe wounds by anchoring to the mucous membrane of the gut.
+
+The proofs we possess as to the frequency of abdominal, especially
+mesenteric, aneurism from this source are overwhelming. Prof.
+Brüchmüller estimated the percentage of aneurismal horses, six years old
+and upwards, at 91 per cent., and it is a matter of common observation
+in veterinary dissecting rooms that verminous aneurism is rarely or
+never absent in the ass. Professors Dick, Simonds, Pritchard, Williams,
+and many other English and Scotch veterinarians of eminence, have all
+borne testimony of this kind, and, for myself, I may say that one of the
+earliest pathological appearances with which I became familiar, some
+thirty years back, was that presented by mesenteric arterial disease of
+the ass. In relation to fatal colics in the horse the study of verminous
+aneurism is of the highest moment. On this subject Prof. Friedberger
+has published some valuable lectures, in which, amongst other points,
+he incidentally remarks upon the comparative freedom of military horses
+from aneurism as compared with ordinary laboring horses. This arises
+partly from the fact that the latter are not cared for to the same
+extent, dietetically and otherwise; and, moreover, cavalry horses are,
+as a rule, younger than ordinary working animals. Whilst Friedberger,
+in his suggestive brochure, does ample justice to the writings of
+his colleague, Dr Bollinger, it may be said, in like manner, that he
+does not fail to recognise his great indebtedness to the researches
+of Leuckart. So practically important, however, do I deem Bollinger’s
+summary of the whole subject in relation to the hippopathological
+aspects of parasitism, that I feel it desirable to record his
+conclusions at full length. No professional man having any pretensions
+to a knowledge of the veterinary art--or, for that matter, to parasitism
+in relation to sanitation--should remain uninformed on this subject. Dr
+Bollinger’s results are thus stated:
+
+1. The worm aneurism of the visceral arteries of the horse, existing in
+90 to 94 per cent. of adult horses, has a general correspondence with
+the _aneurisma verum mixtum_ of man. It is, however, distinguishable
+from the same by its seat, cause, character of its walls, contents, and
+mode of termination. The worm-aneurism arises from a parasitism of the
+palisade worm (_Strongylus armatus_), owing to an inflammatory affection
+of the arterial walls which it causes, and which one may describe as a
+recurrent traumatic endo-arteritis. This holds good for all the visceral
+arteries, with the exception of the abdominal aorta, in which an
+aneurism may arise from local increase of pressure.
+
+2. The formation and further development of the aneurism is also
+favored by the narrowing of the arterial calibre, which is caused by
+the inflammatory swelling of its walls, and also by the contemporaneous
+formation of a thrombus (clot), this latter still further supporting and
+exciting the inflammation of the inner coat.
+
+3. Whilst the causes above mentioned (and of these more particularly the
+continued presence of the palisade worms and the plugging of the smaller
+arteries by thrombi) favor the growth of the worm-aneurism, the small
+size of the same, notwithstanding the years it has existed, is explained
+by the considerable hypertrophy of the muscular layer, by the tough
+fibrous capsule formed in many cases by the connective tissue of the
+mesentery, and by the adhesion of the intestines to the perpendicular
+and free-lying anterior mesenteric artery; in particular this last-named
+circumstance does not allow of any very considerable shortening of
+the mesenteric artery, which would necessarily be accompanied by
+considerable dilatation of the arterial tube.
+
+4. The favorite seat of the worm-aneurism is the trunk of the anterior
+mesenteric artery, directly at its origin from the abdominal aorta. Most
+frequently that part of the arterial trunk is dilated from which the
+arteria ilea, cæcales, and colica inferior (_arteria ileo-cæco-colica_)
+arise, less frequently the arteria colica superior at its origin, and
+the arteries of the cæcum and colon in their course in the meso-cæcum
+and meso-colon. The verminous aneurism also occurs in the cœliac artery
+(Bauchschlagader), in the posterior mesenteric artery (Gekrös-arterie),
+in the renal artery, and in the abdominal aorta. A horse is not
+unfrequently afflicted with several aneurisms of this kind at one and
+the same time. Thus in one case (described by Bollinger) there were six
+of these aneurisms affecting the abdominal aorta and its branches in the
+same horse. The verminous aneurism may occur from the sixth month of
+life onwards, and with increasing age; the number of horses free from
+such aneurisms becomes continually smaller.
+
+5. The size of the aneurism varies between that of a pea and that of a
+man’s head. The dilatation is, as a rule, equal on all sides, the form
+being usually thumb-shaped or bottle-shaped, passing into that of a cone
+or long oval figure. This general configuration is principally due to
+the free and moveable situation of the anterior mesenteric artery.
+
+6. In contrast to aneurisms in man, the walls of the worm-aneurism of
+the horse are almost without exception indurated. In addition to the
+mesenteric connective tissue, all the arterial coats, and especially the
+_tunica media_, generally take part in this induration. The hypertrophy
+of the media, which stands unique in respect of what is known of
+arterial disease, forms a compensatory action of the arterial wall,
+analogous to the muscular hypertrophy of the heart in valvular disease.
+This change in the media points to the fact that in the development of
+aneurism in man the early disturbance of the nutritive process in the
+_tunica media_ is not a less essential factor than the degeneration of
+the _tunica intima_.
+
+The changes in the _intima_ are the least constant. They present all
+stages of progressive and retrogressive metamorphosis, from simple
+induration to ulceration and calcification. In the walls of the
+verminous aneurism one not unfrequently finds all the pathological
+changes exhibited by _atheroma_ in man. Calcification is a common form
+of the retrograde process, and, in very rare cases, may pass on to the
+formation of true bone.
+
+7. In addition to the palisade worms, one almost constantly finds a
+parietal thrombus contained in the aneurism. It covers the inner wall
+either partially or completely, being in the latter case perforated
+for arterial offshoots. This clot may occlude the artery, and it is
+not unfrequently continued into the arterial branches (peripherally)
+or into the aorta (centrally). Amongst the various changes that the
+clot undergoes, organisation of its outermost layer and softening are
+the most frequent. The constant occurrence of this clot is due to the
+presence of the worms, to the inflammation, ulcerative and regressive
+affection of the intima, and to the dilatation of the arterial tube.
+
+8. The palisade worms are seldom absent from aneurisms of the horse.
+Their not being present is merely an accidental circumstance. On the
+average, nine palisade worms go to a verminous aneurism, and eleven in
+the horse. The highest number of worms found in one horse reached 121.
+Not unfrequently, also, palisade worms, or their coverings in the form
+of larval skins, are found in the aneurismal walls. The immigration and
+emigration of the palisade worms out of the intestine into the aneurism,
+and the reverse, take place probably, as a rule, within the arterial
+circulation. The path of the worm does not appear to be always the same,
+inasmuch as they can also wander through the peritoneal cavity. The
+worms found in the aneurismal walls are probably mostly only strayed
+specimens.
+
+9. From a comparative pathologico-anatomical point of view, the
+developmental history of the aneurysma verminosum proves that a
+circumscribed endo-arteritis can determine the formation of an aneurism.
+
+10. Like the worm-aneurism itself, atheroma of the abdominal arteries
+arises from a circumscribed acute and subacute endo-arteritis. The
+histological changes in the secondary atheroma of horses are perfectly
+analogous to those of the spontaneous atheroma of man. Idiopathic
+atheroma, as seen in man, does not occur any more in the horse than in
+the other domestic animals. Atheroma in the horse is always secondary.
+To be sure, one observes an idiopathic chronic endo-arteritis in
+many abdominal arteries of the horse, which, however, never exhibits
+indications of atheromatous degeneration.
+
+11. In consequence of its position the worm-aneurism of horses is not
+open to physical examination, and on that account cannot be diagnosed
+by physical signs; moreover, it offers no characteristic symptoms.
+Its termination by rupture is extremely rare, the aneurisms of the
+abdominal aorta being more disposed to rupture than those of the
+anterior mesenteric artery. Of eighteen cases of known perforation,
+fifteen opened into the peritoneal cavity, and three into the bowel. The
+dangerous symptoms of the worm-aneurism are exclusively due to embolism
+and thrombosis of the affected artery, arising from the parietal clot.
+The latter becomes especially dangerous through its increasing size and
+the softening which often accompanies it. The absorption and shrinking
+of this parietal clot, be it organised or not, is materially assisted by
+the high pressure to which it is exposed.
+
+12. The very marked symptoms of vascular obstruction--the
+sero-hæmorrhagic intestinal infarct--in embolism and thrombosis of the
+mesenteric arteries are easily explained by paralysis of the muscular
+coat of the intestine, by the absence or paucity of valves in the portal
+vein, by the readiness with which meteorismus (or flatus) arises,
+especially in herbivora, and by the loose consistence of the intestinal
+walls or villi.
+
+13. The occlusion of the intestinal arteries, especially that arising
+suddenly, always has for its result a partial or complete paralysis
+of the portion of bowel which they supply. The palsy of the intestine
+causes the forward movement of the intestinal contents to cease, a
+stoppage of the fæces, a hindrance to the discharge of fæces and
+gas, and also that exceedingly dangerous formation of gas (within
+the intestinal tract) which in the herbivora is so abnormal, both
+quantitatively and qualitatively.
+
+14. In embolism and thrombosis of the mesenteric arteries the symptoms
+during life are entirely identical with those observed in the so-called
+colic of horses, as has been determined by numerous observations. The
+partial paralysis of the bowel, which is brought on by the embolism and
+thrombosis of the mesenteric arteries, forms in great part the chief
+and leading feature of the series of symptoms known as the “colic” of
+horses. The palsy of the bowel which arises in this way may explain also
+the frequent ruptures of the digestive canal and the greater number
+of its changes in position. The latter are specially favored by the
+structure of the abdominal viscera in the horse.
+
+15. The old changes which one finds in the peripheral branches of the
+anterior mesenteric artery, in the form of expired and partly absorbed
+embolic and thrombolic processes (pigmentation, arterial and venous
+thrombi), particularly in connection with those arteries which are seats
+of the aneurism, decisively prove that the large majority of colics
+resulting in recovery, so far as they do not depend upon known injuries,
+are caused by paralysis of the bowel from embolism and thrombosis. The
+sudden occurrence, course, and result of these kinds of colics also
+testify to their embolic origin.
+
+16. The œdematous, inflammatory, and hæmorrhagic processes that one
+often finds described as the cause of death in colic, almost exclusively
+depend on thrombosis and embolism of the mesenteric arteries, the cases
+forming about 40 to 50 per cent. of all fatal colics.
+
+17. The rapid course in fatal colics, as well as the preponderating
+symptoms of dyspnœa in cases of recovery, is finally due to the
+abnormal development of gas in the alimentary canal. In addition to
+the diminution of the respiratory surface by the lofty position of
+the diaphragm, a direct gas-poisoning (carbonic acid and sulphuretted
+hydrogen) probably contributes to the intensity of the symptoms and the
+rapid course by diffusion of the abnormally developed gas out of the
+intestinal canal into the blood.
+
+18. The variety of the anatomical derangements caused by embolism and
+thrombosis of the intestinal arteries is faithfully mirrored by the
+variety of the clinical symptoms and the different degrees in the
+intensity and course of the colic.
+
+19. Amongst every 100 horses afflicted with internal disease, 40 are
+ill with colic. Among any hundred deceased horses 40 have perished from
+colic, and among 100 colic patients 87 recover and 13 die. The figures
+prove that neither amongst the epizoötic nor sporadic diseases of horses
+is there any other affection which occurs so frequently, or claims
+anything like so many victims. Like the frequency of the worm-aneurism,
+the amount of disease and mortality increases with advancing age. The
+etiology of the colic of horses finds in the thrombosis and embolism of
+the mesenteric arteries, with the consequent paralysis of the bowel, an
+all-sufficient explanation, whilst the causes of colic hitherto accepted
+were for the most part insufficient.
+
+20. In a great number of cases the thrombus of the worm-aneurism is
+continued past the mouth of the anterior mesenteric artery, into
+the lumen of the aorta, and, as such, is the exclusive cause of the
+embolisms of the pelvic and crural arteries which bring about the
+intermittent hobblings (the author says “intermitterenden Hinken,” not
+“Hahnentritten,” the usual equivalent term for stringhalt). Considering
+the excessive frequency of the thrombus being continued into the
+aorta, it becomes highly probable that a great part of the diseases
+and lameness of the posterior extremities (“Hüft und Kreuzlähme,
+unsichtbarer Spath, &c.,” which may be rendered “sciatic and hip or
+spinal lameness, obscure spavin, &c.”) are due to occlusion of the
+arteries.
+
+21. Owing to the fibrous thickening of the connective tissue of the root
+of the anterior mesenteric round the aneurism, and to the considerable
+size of the latter, disturbances of the innervation of the intestine,
+(as well as) hindrances to the passage of the chyle, and irregularities
+in the portal circulation may be created, which may well lie at the root
+of many chronic disturbances of digestion in horses.
+
+22. Considering the great losses and heavy social disadvantages that are
+occasioned by the colic of horses to the horse-breeder, to agriculture,
+and to the general welfare, it is of the highest importance to discover
+means which should prevent the introduction of the embryos with the
+food, and, as a consequence, the migration of the palisade worms into
+the mesenteric arteries of the horse.
+
+I wish it to be distinctly understood that the above summary is
+translated from Bollinger (_Die Kolik_; s. 257). Instructive cases have
+been recorded both at home and abroad. Prof. Varnell has remarked that
+“foals and yearlings suffer more from parasites in the paddocks than
+they do on adjoining farms where only a few animals are bred.” This is
+explained by the relatively greater amount of egg-dispersion proceeding
+from the infected brood-mares. It is quite evident that the lives of
+many valuable animals are annually sacrificed by the neglect of hygienic
+arrangements. The palisade worm is chiefly destructive to young animals,
+and as Mr. Percivall has well remarked, these parasites are “commonly
+the cause of lingering and hidden disease, terminating in death,”
+without any suspicion on the part of the practitioner as to the nature
+of the malady. Instructive cases of this form of helminthiasis are given
+by Messrs Littler, Wyer, Harris, Meyrick, Litt, Percivall, Tindal,
+Walters, Brett, Aitken, Mead, Clancy, Baird, Mercer, Wright, Seaman,
+Hepburn, and others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Larvæ of _Strongylus tetracanthus_. _a_, from
+the walls of the intestine (natural size); _b_, the same (enlarged);
+_x_, an injury; _c_, younger specimen (_in sitû_); _d_, the same
+(enlarged). Original.]
+
+Second only in clinical importance is the little four-spined strongyle
+(_S. tetracanthus_). The sexes, often seen united, are nearly of equal
+size, the largest females reaching nearly 3/4″. They infest the cæcum
+and colon, and have been found in all varieties of the horse, ass, and
+mule. The worm occurs in immense numbers and is a true blood-sucker.
+Its presence occasions severe colic and other violent symptoms, often
+proving fatal to the bearer. As already announced, in connection with
+my account of the tapeworms of the horse, this little worm may produce
+a virulent epidemic (epizoöty). In the sexually-immature state the
+worm occupies the walls of the large intestine, where it gives rise to
+congestion, ecchymosis, inflammation, and the formation of pus deposits.
+The species is readily recognised by its bright red color, by the four
+conical spines surrounding the mouth, by the two neck-bristles, and by
+the long three-lobed hood of the male, the posterior three-cleft ray
+having a rudimentary or fourth branch attached to its outer edge. In
+some specimens sent to me by Mr Whitney, I found this supplementary
+process fully twice as long as Schneider has represented it.
+
+From the earliest times this entozoon has been confounded with the
+palisade worm. Rudolphi and several of his successors, and also in
+recent times Ercolani and Colin, regarded this worm as the progeny of
+_Strongylus armatus_. During my earlier examinations I likewise fell
+into the error of describing the immature worm as representing a new
+species. The parasites described by me as Trichonemes (_T. arcuata_)
+were identical with those which Prof. Dick had previously described as
+“worms at different stages of growth,” in his MS. sent to Dr Knox, 1836.
+Parasites of this kind were described by Dr Knox as “Animals similar
+to _Trichina_;” by Diesing as the “Nematoideum equi caballi;” by Mr.
+Littler as “Extremely small ascarides,” in a letter to Mr Varnell; by Mr
+Varnell himself as “Entozoa in various stages of growth;” and by Prof.
+Williams as “Entozoa from the intestinal walls,” in a letter to myself,
+dated March 13th, 1873. In reference, however, to Mr Varnell’s account
+of Mr Littler’s specimens I may observe that the appearances which he at
+first merely described as “blood spots,” he afterwards characterised as
+dark points “containing young worms in various stages of growth.”
+
+As regards the course of development of this worm we have yet much to
+learn. Although the worm is a frequent cause of epizoöty in this country
+it appears to be but little known on the Continent. Krabbe makes no
+mention of the helminthiasis set up by the four-spined strongyle, but he
+points out that the young occupy the mucous membrane, in which situation
+they lie coiled so as to present to the naked eye the appearance of
+little dark spots (_Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme_, 1872, p. 17, ‘Aftryk. of
+Tidsskr. for Vet.’). However, Leuckart’s account of the appearances
+presented in a case brought under his notice is instructive. He
+writes:--“I have hitherto had only a single opportunity of examining
+the strongyle capsules in the intestinal membrane of the horse. Their
+presence is limited to the cæcum and colon, but they are so abundant in
+this situation that their numbers may be estimated by many hundreds. It
+was thus likewise in the case in question, the investigation of which by
+myself was rendered possible through the friendliness of Prof. Haubner
+of Dresden. The capsules were of oval form, and glimmered through the
+mucous membrane as opaque spots, mostly from one to three millimètres
+in size. In several of these capsules nothing was found beyond a greasy
+mass of a brownish color, which might readily be taken for a tuberculous
+substance; but the greater number of them contained a coiled worm,
+from three to six millimètres long, their breadth being 0·15 to 0·26
+mm. (which is 1/166″ to 1/99″). They exhibited a highly colored stout
+intestine, and a thick-walled oral capsule of 0·022 mm. in depth and
+0·025 mm. in breadth. On the dorsal side two three-cornered chitinous
+lamellæ arise from the shallow floor of the small oral capsule. The
+cuticle, notwithstanding its firm structure, was still destitute of
+annulations. The tail (0·15 to 0·18 mm. in length) was strongly marked
+off from the rest of the body, being of a slender cylindrical form with
+a rounded-off extremity. The development of the sexual apparatus had not
+yet commenced. Notwithstanding the great differences of size presented
+by the body, the structure of all examples was exactly the same to the
+minutest particular, without exception. Also the smallest specimens,
+which scarcely measured one millimètre, found in capsules of 0·3 mm.
+in diameter, were distinguishable only by the absence of the oral cup,
+whose position was represented by a slender and thickened chitinous
+cylinder, as obtains in the earliest parasitic juvenile condition of
+_Dochmius trigonocephalus_. The transformation to the form presenting
+an oral cup occurs through a moulting, which is accomplished already in
+examples of 1·5 mm. in diameter. Later, also, the worms cast their skins
+in their capsules, without, however, changing the oral cup. In regard
+to the final purpose of this metamorphosis, my investigations have left
+me entirely in the lurch; nevertheless, I do not entertain the smallest
+doubt that the worms which I have here described are the larval forms of
+_Strongylus tetracanthus_.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--Fæcal cysts or pellets containing the larvæ of
+_Strongylus tetracanthus_. Specimen (_a_) being enlarged (_b_) to show
+the protruding head and tail (_c_) of the worm. Original.]
+
+From numerous examinations I have satisfied myself that the worms after
+escaping the walls of the intestine--and they may often be observed in
+the very act of passing--re-enter the lumen of the bowel to undergo
+another change of skin prior to acquiring the adult state. This they
+accomplish by rolling themselves within the fæcal matter of the horse’s
+intestine. The best examples I have seen of this phenomenon occurred
+in a case for the clinical particulars of which I am indebted to Mr
+Cawthron. Most interesting was it to notice these immature worms, each
+coiled within a sort of cocoon, which Mr Cawthron termed a cyst. All
+the forty little cocoons more or less resembled pills, the bright red
+color of their contained worms strongly contrasting with the dark color
+of the cocoons. They consisted of compressed _débris_, which under the
+microscope showed many common forms of vegetable hairs and parenchyma,
+besides raphides and chlorophyll-granules. Internally, there was a
+cavity corresponding with the shape of the worm. In one instance I
+noticed that the worm had nearly completed its ecdysis, a portion of
+the old skin still remaining attached to the tail.
+
+As already remarked, the evidence respecting the frequency and
+destructiveness of this little worm in England is now quite
+overwhelming. In a series of papers contributed to the ‘Veterinarian’
+(too long for full quotation here), I have endeavoured to do justice
+to the “finds” and observations of those members of the veterinary
+profession who were good enough to supply me with valuable notes and
+communications. In particular must my indebtedness to Mr Rees Lloyd
+be acknowledged, for, as previously observed, he it was who first
+recognised the parasitic character of the Welsh epizoötic outbreaks. In
+the Deangunid and Talybont districts these strongyles proved terribly
+fatal to mountain ponies. It appears that the owners of the animals,
+as soon as they perceived anything amiss, at once disposed of them by
+sale, evidently anticipating fatal results sooner or later. The facts
+connected with some of the isolated cases brought under Mr Lloyd’s
+care are especially interesting, as showing the virulence of the
+symptoms set up. Thus on the 9th of Feb., 1875, some time after I had
+identified the species from specimens he had sent me, Mr Lloyd writes
+as follows:--“The last case I had was one which had been sold in this
+way, and which had suffered now and then from colicky pains for the
+space of about two months. The animal had been drenched with febrifuges
+and rubbed with stimulating liniments about the throat. However, I
+was sent for one evening, about an hour before the patient’s death. I
+soon diagnosed the case as parasitic, and at the same time considered
+it to be a hopeless one. I remained with it the whole of the time, of
+which about forty-five minutes of the most acute pain was borne by the
+trembling beast, which was leaping, rolling, and tossing itself about
+with astonishing rapidity. The bulging eyes, gnashing teeth, foaming
+mouth, and sharp peculiar hoarseness, were pitiable to behold; when
+suddenly all was silent, he quietly rose to his feet, and nipped the
+grass as if nought had troubled him. I then trotted him quietly up a few
+yards of rising ground in the corner of the field, when he immediately
+got down to rise no more. The next day I examined him, and found myriads
+of the four-spined strongyles, a large number being encysted.” Mr Rees
+Lloyd’s account of this case is so graphic that I have reproduced it
+without abridgment. Speaking of another patient, a mare, he says,
+“she had voided thousands of these parasites, and was in a frightfully
+emaciated condition, but beyond a craving appetite there was little else
+to be noticed.” Notwithstanding the few diagnostic indications afforded,
+Mr Lloyd, being led by the history of the case to suspect worms, at
+once examined the fæces, when he discovered thousands of these minute
+nematodes. Clinically, these facts ought not to be lost sight of. In
+addition to Mr Lloyd’s cases I have received valuable particulars of
+others at the hands of Prof. Williams, Messrs Cawthron, A. Clarke, T.
+Gerrard, D. M. Storrar, and J. W. Whitney.
+
+Practically, it is important to inform the persons most interested that
+an active “drench” may be serviceable in dislodging the free intestinal
+worms, but the administration of purgatives must not be persevered in.
+As in the somewhat parallel case of Trichinosis in the human subject,
+the fatality of the disorder depends not upon the free and mature worms,
+but upon the migrating and sexually-immature forms. All attempts by
+means of active drugs to poison the entozoa, when once they have gained
+access to the tissues (whether actually capsuled or not), are worse
+than useless. By all means let the animals have a dose of aloes in the
+first instance, followed by warm bran mashes; but thereafter let every
+care be taken to support the patient’s strength. Especially should the
+exhibition of turpentine be avoided. Without doubt the cause of this,
+as of other similar epidemics, is primarily referable to atmospheric
+conditions which favor the multiplication of parasites. As the practical
+man cannot alter these climatal changes, he must do his best to check
+the disorder by removing the victims to new localities; or, if the
+animals must remain in infected districts, by supplying them with
+various kinds of artificially prepared fodder, supplemented by carefully
+filtered water. In this way, I believe, epidemics may be arrested,
+but they cannot be stamped out altogether, except by the adoption of
+measures which would be alike impracticable and unwarrantable.
+
+Passing to the consideration of other intestinal nematodes, the next in
+importance is the large lumbricoid (_Ascaris megalocephala_) found in
+all solipeds, including the zebra. Whilst the male worms rarely exceed
+seven inches in length, the females sometimes reach seventeen inches.
+Science is indebted to Schneider for setting at rest all doubt as to
+the specific distinctness of this worm. The far larger number of caudal
+papillæ at once distinguishes it from the lumbricoid of man and the
+hog. The equine Ascaris may occur in any part of the alimentary canal,
+but the small gut forms its proper head-quarters. The entire course of
+development of this worm has not been traced; nevertheless, Heller found
+human lumbricoids measuring less than the eighth of an inch. It is not
+likely that any intermediate host is necessary for the growth of the
+larvæ, prior to their access to the definitive host. I have reared the
+larvæ in impure water and in moist horse-dung, up to the size of 1/30
+of an inch. They were then furnished with a completely-formed digestive
+apparatus. Davaine kept the intra-chorional embryos alive in water for
+five or six years. His experiments on rats, dogs, and on a cow, led
+to no decisive results; but it is important to know that the eggs of
+lumbricoids effectually resist dryness. According to Davaine, however,
+embryonal development is thus arrested (except in _Ascaris tetraptera_
+of the mouse).
+
+Seeing how readily the most ordinary attention to cleanliness must
+suffice to prevent lumbricoid helminthism, it is scandalous that so
+many severe cases of disease from this source should ever and anon turn
+up and be reported. In no properly conducted stable are these large
+entozoa ever to be seen in any considerable numbers; for so long as
+the water-supply is good and the fodder clean there is no possibility
+of infection. A fertile source of infection, however, results from
+allowing horses to drink at foul road-side ponds and from open waters
+in the vicinity of stables and paddocks where foals are reared. Into
+the clinical bearings of the subject I do not enter, but a host of
+interesting records of lumbricoid disease may be found in veterinary
+journals, both home and foreign. These have their counterpart in the
+very similar cases recorded in the medical journals, and quoted by me in
+the 34th bibliography of this work. From Sonsino’s report these worms
+do not appear very common in Egypt, but the veterinary inspector, Dr
+Zunhinett, had occasionally met with them. From Messrs W. Awde, J. B.
+Wolstenholme, and other English veterinary surgeons, I have received
+notes of interesting cases, but in this connection I can only further
+refer to the published cases of Messrs Anderson, Boddington, Cartwright,
+Harrison, Moir, and Wallis. The French cases, by M. Cambron and by
+M. Véret, are particularly instructive. Many of the cases give fatal
+results. In one fatal instance a pupil of mine counted over 1200 of
+these worms, and in a similar fatal case Mr Lewis reports that he found
+the small intestine literally crammed, some thousands of worms being
+huddled together in large masses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--Head of _Oxyuris curvula_. Highly magnified.
+After Busk.]
+
+The next nematode of general interest is the pinworm (_Oxyuris
+curvula_). Professional men often confound it with the palisade worm,
+and it has even been mistaken for the rat-tail maggot (_Helophilus_).
+The longest males measure 1-3/4″, and the females often beyond 4
+inches. This worm infests the colon in great numbers, the species being
+easily recognised by its long subulate tail. Like its much smaller
+congener infesting man, this worm occasions severe local irritation,
+clusters of the eggs often accumulating to form yellow incrustations
+at the verge of the anus. Equine pinworms are vegetable feeders, and,
+like human Oxyurides, are conveyed to the bearer in a direct manner.
+No horse properly looked after can be infested by these worms. Local
+washings and stable cleanliness being secured by an attentive groom, the
+animals are safe. Prophylactic measures of this kind are all-powerful
+against infection. Notwithstanding the ease, however, with which the
+oxyuris disorder may both be prevented and cured, we find it prevails
+extensively everywhere, alike in mankind and in solipeds. Dr Sonsino
+found these parasites abundant in Egypt, some of the worms reaching
+a length of nearly five inches (120 mm.). Mr Emmerson has given an
+interesting account of the prejudicial effects of these entozoa in the
+horses of Singapore.
+
+One of the most remarkable equine parasites is that which I am in the
+habit of calling the large-mouthed maw-worm (_Spiroptera megastoma_),
+in contra-distinction to the small-mouthed species (_S. microstoma_).
+In this country the worm has attracted little notice, but through the
+kindness of Mr Spooner Hart, of Calcutta, and of Mr Percivall, of the
+11th Hussars, stationed at Umballa, I have had abundant opportunities
+of examining this entozoon and the singular pathological appearances
+which it occasions. This parasite was first described by Rudolphi,
+who says:--“Spiroptera capitis discreti ore magno nudo, cauda feminæ
+rectiuscula acuta, mavis simpliciter spirali, corpusculis rotundis ad
+basim penis styliformis.” The worm was afterwards observed by Schultze,
+Chabert, and frequently also by Andral, but the best accounts of it are
+those given by Gurlt, Valenciennes, and Dujardin. Schneider has likewise
+done much to set at rest disputed points. Respecting the _Spiroptère du
+Cheval_, Dujardin, writing in 1844, observes that “Rudolphi at first
+studied this helminth from examples found in great number by Reckleben,
+at Berlin, in tubercles of the stomach of two horses. Quite recently,
+M. Valenciennes, at Paris, has found it frequently in tumours, from
+twenty to forty millimètres in size, in the stomach of eleven horses
+out of twenty-five that he had subjected to this kind of research.
+These tumours, lodged between the mucous and muscular layers of the
+digestive canal, are perforated by several holes traversing the mucous
+membrane. They are divided internally by a number of folds into numerous
+intercommunicating cavities, and sometimes filled with solid mucus and
+very many spiropteras. It is from examples collected by M. Valenciennes
+that I have been able to study the parasite.”
+
+As regards the description of the worm, it is almost needless to say
+that Dujardin’s account is minute and admirable in all respects. In
+fact, no naturalist ever exceeded the Rennes _savant_ in carefulness
+and accuracy of detail. An interesting point connected with these
+stomach-worms lies in the circumstance that Gurlt recognised two
+varieties, one of which he termed _Sp. meg._, var. _major_. It remained
+for Schneider to show that the larger worms formed an altogether
+distinct species, which he termed _Filaria microstoma_ (‘Monogr.,’ l.
+c., 1866, s. 98). It was not unnatural that Rudolphi and his successors
+should confound these two forms together, and it is also not a little
+curious that the smaller of the two species has the larger mouth.
+Practically, veterinarians will probably rest content to know that
+whilst the _Spiroptera megastoma_ occupies tumours in the walls of the
+stomach, the _S. microstoma_ is always to be found free in the cavity
+of that organ. Any helminthologist who may chance to have read the
+Ceylon Company’s report on the fatal epidemic affecting the mules
+of the Mauritius in 1876 can scarcely fail to have observed that the
+worm called _Ascaris vermicularis_ by Mr Bradshaw is none other than
+our _Sp. megastoma_. The description of the tumours as “reticulated”
+sufficiently explains their honeycomb-like appearance, but I think that
+the expression “alveolar” would better convey their true pathological
+character. Mr Spooner Hart compared these structures, which he terms
+“abodes,” to mole-hills, but there is no good ground for supposing that
+the wanderings of the parasites are in any sense comparable to the
+burrowings of the mole. In like manner the expression “nidus,” employed
+by Mr Bradshaw, though suggestive of their nest-like appearance, is
+to some extent misleading, as it implies that the worms form a nide
+or brood. Possibly, it may turn out that all the nematodes in each
+tumour have been bred in the spot where they are found, but hitherto
+they have only been seen in the adult state. Earlier stages of growth
+should be diligently sought for. Widely dissimilar as the two maw-worms
+are, it would not greatly surprise me to learn that _Sp. megastoma_
+and _S. microstoma_ are dimorphic conditions of one and the same
+entozoon. At all events, Ercolani’s determination of the relations
+subsisting between _Ascaris inflexa_ and _A. vesicularis_ suggests a
+possible analogy of this kind. I may mention that the male _Spiroptera
+megastoma_ reaches nearly one third and the female one half of an inch
+in length. A constriction separates the head from the body. The mouth is
+surrounded by four thick horny lips, the dorso-ventral pair being the
+larger. The tail of the male is spirally twisted, and furnished with
+lateral bands supported by three or four ribs. It carries two curved
+spicules of unequal size. There are five pairs of caudal papillæ, the
+tail being bluntly pointed in both sexes. The vulva of the female is
+placed about 1/7″ below the head. The eggs are linear or very narrow,
+and furnished with thick shells. According to Sonsino, who found _Sp.
+megastoma_ in five out of sixteen Egyptian horses, the verminiferous
+growths are usually seated near the pyloric end of the stomach, as many
+as four tumours occurring at one time. Neither Sonsino nor any other
+observers already quoted appear to think that these morbid changes in
+any way interfere with the healthy performance of the gastric functions.
+However, I am of opinion that at least one recorded fatal case of
+parasitism, producing rupture of the stomach, affords an instance,
+however rare, of the injurious action of this entozoon. It is reported
+under the signature of “Argus,” quoted below.
+
+In this connection I may mention that in 1864 Prof. Axe observed some
+small worms, scarcely visible to the naked eye, in the mucous membrane
+of the stomach of a donkey, the same worms being subsequently observed
+in three other donkeys brought to the dissecting room of the Royal
+Veterinary College. From the examination of a drawing of one of the male
+worms, executed by Prof. Simonds, I am led to believe that the parasites
+are entirely new to science. The hood being well marked there can be no
+doubt as to the strongyloid affinities of the worm. I therefore propose
+to call the worm after its discoverer (_Strongylus Axei_).
+
+In regard to _Sp. microstoma_, the males measure up to 2/3″, whilst
+the females have a long diameter of 3/4″ or rather more (10‴). The
+small-mouthed maw-worm lives free in the stomach, and, as Krabbe
+observes, not unfrequently in very considerable numbers. It does not
+appear to be capable of injuring the host.
+
+One of the most interesting equine nematodes is the eye-worm. Most
+veterinary writers speak of it as the _Filaria oculi_, but to
+helminthologists it is better known by the more correct designation, _F.
+papillosa_. Though commonly obtained from the eyeball and its tunics,
+the worm infests various tissues and organs of the body, being found
+in the thorax, abdomen, membranes of the brain, muscles, and cellular
+tissues. It infests the ass and mule, and also horned ruminants. The
+males attain a length of three inches and the females seven inches. The
+head is broad, with a gaping mouth armed with a ring of chitine and two
+prominent denticles. There are also two papillæ on the neck near the
+middle line, besides sixteen caudal papillæ, eight on either side. The
+tail of the male is spirally twisted, that of the female only slightly
+curved. Notwithstanding the many opportunities afforded of examining
+this parasite in the fresh state, very little is known respecting its
+origin and course of development. Dr Manson, who found that the mouth
+was armed with a five- or six-toothed oral saw, considers that the eye
+is not a proper resting place for the parasite, and that when one
+wandering worm comes across the track of another it follows it up from
+sexual instinct, and thus several may be found together in one place.
+The tracks are readily seen by the naked eye. Dr Sonsino speaks of it
+as a “yellow line.” This Italian observer found the worm in twelve
+out of the sixteen solipeds he examined during the plague. Each horse
+showed from two to a dozen worms “in the peritoneal cavity, wandering
+free on the serous lining, without causing any apparent mischief to
+the membrane.” On one occasion Sonsino found the worm in the liver.
+From the similarity of habit there can be little doubt that the cases
+of guinea-worm (_F. medinensis_) recorded by Clarkson and others, as
+occurring in the horse, were merely examples of _F. papillosa_. I think
+so all the more because the lamented Fedschenko verbally expressed to me
+his astonishment that I had in my introductory treatise (p. 387) spoken
+of the Dracunculus as an equine parasite. I did so on the authority of
+others. To the Rev. Horace Waller I am indebted for specimens of the
+eye-worm brought from Assam, and to Mr Spooner Hart for others sent from
+India. For examples occurring in England I am indebted to Mr Haydon
+Leggett, who, in 1875, sent me three specimens extracted from the eye
+of a five-year-old mare. Mr Steel has also given me an example of _F.
+papillosa_ taken from the peritoneum of a donkey. Similar cases are
+constantly occurring in the practice of veterinarians in Hindostan.
+Highly interesting Indian cases are recorded by Kennedy, Molyneux,
+Twining, and Breton, and in addition to these I may also particularise
+those of Macnamara, C. Percivall, Hickman, Clarkson, Skeavington, and
+Jeaffreson. The cases by Lee and Grellier also deserve attention.
+
+Another species of thread-worm (_Filaria lacrymalis_) is occasionally
+found in the horse between the lids and eyeball. It is a comparatively
+small and harmless parasite, the males measuring 1/2″ in length and the
+females 2/3″. It also infests the ox. Both the large and small eye-worms
+are viviparous, and, not improbably, both of them are the means of
+conveying embryonic Filariæ into the circulation. Be this as it may, we
+owe to Dr Sonsino the discovery of hæmatozoa in an Egyptian horse. The
+larval worm was provisionally named by him _Filaria sanguinis equi_.
+The microscopic nematodes closely resemble the larvæ of _F. sanguinis
+hominis_, but they are smaller. The horse from whose blood Dr Sonsino
+obtained the minute worms was also found, by post-mortem examination,
+to have been infested by _Filaria papillosa_, a circumstance which
+naturally suggested a genetic relation between the larval and adult
+parasites. Similar, if not the same, microscopic worms had been
+previously discovered by Wedl, who primarily and independently regarded
+them as embryos of _F. papillosa_. Another curious filaria-like entozoon
+is the reticulated threadworm (_Onchocerca reticulata_). In England we
+have no acquaintance with this singular parasite, but it appears to be
+tolerably common in Italy. Excellent figures of it have been given by
+Diesing. Both males and females are in the habit of coiling themselves
+within the muscles, where they are found invested by a capsule of
+connective tissue. When unrolled the sexes are found of equal size,
+acquiring a length of 1-1/2″. The worm has a simple unarmed mouth, its
+body being marked by a series of annulations formed of incompletely
+anastomosing rings. It does not appear to possess any clinical
+importance.
+
+In connection with the equine nematodes I need only mention the
+lung-worm (_Strongylus micrurus_). Its importance in relation to the
+production of husk or parasitic bronchitis in calves has already been
+considered. The worm is rarely productive of mischief amongst solipeds,
+nevertheless, in the dissecting-room subjects at the Royal Veterinary
+College, the presence of these parasites in the lungs is frequently
+noticed. Lastly, it only remains for me to observe that the renal
+strongyle (_S. gigas_) is occasionally seen in the horse. In 1792 M.
+Chabert found one in the left kidney, and similar cases have since
+either been witnessed or reported by Rudolphi and Leblanc.
+
+Of the numerous insect parasites and tormentors of solipeds the gadflies
+(_Œstridæ_) demand chief attention. For special description of the
+forms, Brauer’s monograph is the most, and, in fact, the only reliable
+authority. Here it is not possible to give the characters of the various
+equine species, of which at least half a dozen are known to science. As
+remarked by me in the special chapter contributed to Prof. Williams’
+well-known veterinary treatise, the common gad-fly (_Gastrophilus equi_)
+attacks the animal whilst grazing late in the summer, its object being,
+not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its eggs. This it accomplishes
+by means of a glutinous excretion, causing the ova to adhere to the
+hairs. The parts selected are chiefly those of the shoulder, base of the
+neck, and inner part of the fore legs, especially about the knees, for
+in these situations the horse will have no difficulty in reaching the
+ova with its tongue. When the animal licks those parts of the coat where
+the eggs have been placed, the moisture of the tongue, aided by warmth,
+hatches the ova, and in something less than three weeks from the time
+of the deposition of the eggs, the larvæ make their escape. As maggots
+they are next transferred to the mouth, and ultimately to the stomach
+along with food and drink. A great many larvæ perish during this passive
+mode of immigration, some being dropped from the mouth, and others being
+crushed in the fodder during mastication. It has been calculated that
+out of the many hundreds of eggs deposited on a single horse, scarcely
+one out of fifty of the larvæ arrive within the stomach. Notwithstanding
+this waste the interior of the stomach may become completely covered
+with “bots.” Whether there be few or many, they are anchored in this
+situation chiefly by means of two large cephalic hooks. After the bots
+have attained perfect growth they voluntarily loosen their hold, and
+allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until they
+escape with the fæces. Many persons suppose that during their passage
+through the intestinal canal they re-attach themselves to the mucous
+membrane, thereby occasioning severe intestinal irritation. This is an
+error. In all cases they sooner or later fall to the ground, and when
+transferred to the soil they bury themselves beneath the surface, in
+order to undergo transformation into the pupa condition. Having remained
+in the earth for a period of six or seven weeks they finally emerge
+from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterous insects. It thus appears
+that bots ordinarily pass about eight months of their lifetime in the
+digestive organs of the horse.
+
+That they are capable of giving rise to severe disease there can be no
+doubt, but it is not often that the disorder is correctly diagnosed,
+since it is only by the passage of the larvæ that the practitioner can
+be made aware of their presence. Mr J. S. Wood has published a case of
+tetanus in a mare, associated with the larvæ of _Œstrus equi_, and Mr
+J. T. Brewer has also given a case where the duodenum was perforated
+by bots. Mr Goodworth records an instance of pyloric obstruction from
+the same cause, and Mr W. Coupe informed me in 1876 that he had a drove
+of foreign ponies under his care, all of which suffered irritation
+from hæmorrhoidal bots. He removed them with a pair of forceps.
+Although frequently said to do so, the common bot does not attach
+itself to the rectum before finally escaping the host. The larvæ of _G.
+hæmorrhoidalis_ normally reside there. In this situation they seriously
+inconvenience the bearer. The bots of _G. nasalis_ are often confounded
+with those which ordinarily occupy the stomach of the bearer. The larvæ
+of _G. nasalis_ commonly reside in the duodenum near the pylorus.
+According to Schwab and Brauer, they rarely occupy the stomach. As
+occurs in the common species, this bot passes away with the fæces, and
+does not attach itself to the lower bowel. The bots of Brauer’s _G.
+inermis_ much resemble those of _G. equi_, but they are much smaller
+and attach themselves to the wall of the small intestine. The bots of
+_G. pecorum_, which dwell in the rectum, are readily recognised by
+their peculiar form and scanty spination. They are pointed in front
+and truncated posteriorly. An assinine variety of _G. equi_ has been
+described by Bilharz, whilst another distinct species (_G. flavipes_)
+attacks the ass and mule. The bot-larvæ of the latter host require
+recognition and description. A great variety of other equine bot-flies
+have been described, but all, or nearly all, of them are mere synonyms
+of the above-mentioned forms. For the limitation of the species I accept
+Brauer’s authority, and likewise his nomenclature. A great deal of
+nonsense has been written respecting bots. It is a relief to believe
+that _G._ (Œstrus) _veterinus_, _G. ferruginatus_, _G. jubarum_, _G._
+(Œ.) _Clarkii_, _G. salutiferus_, _G. subjacens_, and many others, are
+not good species, at least that they are mere synonyms. In regard to
+the occurrence of subcutaneous bot-like maggots in the horse and ass,
+no doubt need exist on this point. I am indebted to Mr Percy Gregory
+for characteristic specimens taken from the back, neck, and withers of
+a four-year-old gelding. They appear to correspond with the _Hypoderma
+Loiseti_ of Joly. Similar maggots have been found in the ass by Herr
+Erber, but Brauer refers these to _H. silenus_. Prof. Brückmüller
+published a case where the brain was infested by larvæ; and Mr Shipley
+has sent me an example of _H. equi_, which he states he removed from
+the choroid plexus of the brain. In addition to the cases by Woods,
+Goodworth, and Brewer, already quoted, others have been published by
+Tyndal and Cartwright.
+
+Amongst the numerous other parasitic dipterous larvæ one must notice the
+rat-tailed maggots (_Helophilus_). A genuine instance of this kind has
+been brought under my observation, but the example recorded by Professor
+Axe was spurious. Professor Simonds and myself saw this supposed maggot,
+which was merely a very stout and pregnant _Oxyuris curvula_. Another
+genuine case was published by Mr. Stanley. This is quoted by A. Numan in
+his essay on _Cœnurus_. I have previously mentioned my having received
+an Helophilus-larva that had passed from the human body. One of the
+most troublesome external parasites is the so-called horse-tick or
+forest-fly (_Hippobosca equina_). They attack the abdomen, flanks, and
+inner part of the thighs in great numbers, occasioning great distress
+to the bearer. Being of leathery toughness their bodies are not easily
+crushed, and they are removed only with great difficulty. There is
+an equine disease in Sweden called _Stackra_, which is erroneously
+attributed to injuries produced by a species of fly-maggot (_Lixus_)
+which lives on the fine-leaved water-drop wort (_Phellandrium_). As
+regards the so-called free parasites, or rather non-parasitic obnoxious
+insects, which torment solipeds, it is impossible even to enumerate
+them. The tsetse of South Africa (_Glossina morsitans_) is terribly
+fatal to the horse, but it is said that the mule, ass, and zebra
+do not suffer from its bites--an immunity shared by swine, goats,
+antelopes, and man himself. Major Vardon’s rash experiment (based on
+the supposition that horses deprived of fresh green food would not
+suffer from the attacks of the fly) proved fatal to an animal which he
+purposely exposed on a much infested hill-top. The horse died ten days
+after it was bitten. According to Chapman, the bites of four tsetse
+flies are sufficient to kill an ox, but in man the irritation produced
+is very slight. Amongst other insects proving troublesome to solipeds
+may be mentioned the leg-sticker (_Stomoxys calcitrans_), the clegg
+(_Hæmatopota pluvialis_) which is very abundant in the West Highlands,
+various species of _Tabanidæ_ and _Asilidæ_ (_Tabanus autumnalis_, _T.
+bovinus_, _Chrysops cæcutiens_, _Asilus crabroniformis_), and also a
+host of ordinary flies and gnats (_Muscidæ_ and _Tipulidæ_), as, for
+example, _Anthomyia meteorica_ and _Culex equinus_. In India the bite
+of a species of _Simulia_ gives rise to the formation of open sores of
+the most intractable character. As regards hemipterous insects it may
+be said that many species of lice (_Anoplura_) produce what is called
+phthiriasis or lousiness in the horse, some of them being derived
+from poultry. The best known species are _Trichodectes equi_, _T.
+scalaris_, _Hæmatopinus equi_, _H. vituli_, _H. eurysternus_, and the
+ass-louse (_H. asini_). Of the half dozen or more species infesting the
+hen (belonging to the genera _Goniocotes_, _Liotheum_, &c.) it is not
+probable that more than one or, at most, two of them are concerned in
+the production of poultry-lousiness in the horse. As an equine disorder
+this kind of phthiriasis was first described by Bouley. Cases in England
+have been observed by Messrs. Henderson, Moore, and Woodger. For some
+account of cases of lousiness due to _Hæmatopinus_ I am indebted to
+Mr S. Butters. As regards the scab, itch, and mange insects or mites
+(_Acaridæ_), three perfectly distinct forms are known. Adopting M.
+Mégnin’s classification they are _Sarcoptes scabiei_, var. _equi_,
+_Psoroptes longirostris_, var. _equi_ (being the _Dermatodectes equi_
+of Gerlach), and _Chorioptes spathiferus_, var. _equi_, which is the
+_Symbiotes equi_ of Gerlach. All the species have been beautifully
+illustrated by M. Mégnin, whose memoir has dispersed many of the
+clouds of error and misrepresentation which have hitherto surrounded
+the subject. Whilst _Psoroptes_ forms the true horse-mite, and attacks
+various parts of the body, _Chorioptes_ confines its attacks to the
+posterior regions. Messrs South and Day and myself have verified some
+of the facts recorded by Mégnin in respect of the structure and habits
+of this last species. Another kind of mite (_Glyciphagus hippopodos_)
+is stated to infest the ulcerated feet of horses. It would appear that
+no true ticks properly belong to solipeds; nevertheless, the common
+cattle-tick (_Ixodes bovis_) occasionally attacks horses. Probably
+several other species of Ixodidæ, known to infest other animals, behave
+in the same way. The Arachnidan called _Pentastoma tænioides_, though
+properly belonging to the dog, has on several occasions been detected in
+the nasal or frontal sinuses of the horse. Such instances are recorded
+by Chabert and Greve. The largest example of this singular entozoon seen
+by myself was obtained from the same situation, and presented to me
+by the late Mr C. B. Rose, whose writings I have frequently quoted in
+connection with the _Cœnuri_ of rabbits.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 50).--_Aitken, J._, “Worms in the Spermatic Artery
+of a Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 683, 1855.--_Anderson, J._, “A Case
+of Strangulation of the Ileum (with Lumbrici),” ‘Veterinarian,’ p.
+261, 1859.--(Anonymous), “Rupture of the Stomach, associated with the
+existence of Cysts between its Coats containing Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+March, 1864, p. 151.--(Anon.), “Extraction of _Filaria oculi_ from
+the Horse,” by “Miles,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1864, p. 218.--(Anon.), “Case
+of _F. oculi_ in the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1864, p. 218.--(Anon.),
+“Worms in the Coats of the Stomach of a Horse,” by “Argus,” in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1865, p. 151.--_Baird, W._, “Notice of _Sclerostoma_
+in the Testicle of the Horse,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1861.--_Blanchard_,
+“_Anoplocephala perfoliata_,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 3rd ser., tom. x,
+p. 345.--_Bollinger, O._, ‘Die Kolik der Pferde und das Wurmaneurisma
+der Eingeweidearterien,’ Munchen, 1870. (Reviewed by myself in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ Jan.-April, 1874.)--_Bovett_, “Existence of Filariæ
+in a Sinuous Ulcer of the Withers of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 515,
+1861.--_Bradshaw, C._, “Death of Mules from Parasitic Disease in the
+Mauritius (with remarks by Dr Cobbold),” ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1876, p.
+837.--_Brauer, F._, ‘Monographie der Œstriden,’ Wien, 1863.--_Idem_,
+“_Œstr. (Hypoderma) Clarkii_,” in ‘Verhandl. der zool.-bot. Gessellsch.
+in Wien,’ xxv, p. 75.--_Idem_, “On _Cephenomyia trompe_ from the
+Reindeer,” _ibid._, p. 77.--_Idem_, “_Hypoderma bonassi_ from the
+American Buffalo,” _ibid._ (all with figs.), 1875.--_Breton_, “On the
+Worm found in the Eye of the Horse,” ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc.
+Trans.,’ vol. i, 1825, p. 337.--_Brown, D. S._, “The _Œstrus equi_, or
+Horse-bot,” the ‘Veterinary Journal,’ July, 1877, p. 14.--_Brückmüller_,
+“Larvæ in the Brain of a Foal,” from ‘Viert. für wissensch. Vet.,’ in
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 82, 1857.--_Cartwright, W. A._, “On Strangulation of
+the Bowels, associated with about 150 Bots, and also some 150 Ascarides,
+in the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 413, 1833.--_Idem_, “Case of about 200
+‘Bots in the Œsophagus’ of a Horse,” _ibid._, p. 400, 1828.--_Chambron_,
+“On a Parasitic Malady in the Horse,” from ‘Ann. de Méd. Vét.,’ in
+‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1861; see also (_Cambron_) ‘Veterinarian,’ 1860, p.
+612.--_Clark, B._, “Obs. on the genus Œstrus,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol.
+iii, p. 289, 1797.--_Idem_, ‘An Essay on the Bots of Horses and other
+Animals,’ London, 1815.--_Clarkson, N. F._, “Case of _Filaria oculi_
+in the Horse,” ‘Vet. Rec.,’ vol. i, p. 73, 1845.--_Idem_, “Case of
+_Filaria medinensis_ in the Horse,” _ibid._, 1845.--_Cobbold_, “On the
+Diptera (bots),” in a chap. on the Parasitic Diseases of Animals, in
+Williams’ work (l. c., Bibl. No. 48).--_Idem_, “Obs. on rare Parasites
+from the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1874.--_Idem_, “Further remarks
+on rare Parasites from the Horse,” _ibid._, April, 1874.--_Idem_,
+“Fatal Epid. affecting Ponies,” _ibid._, June, 1874.--_Idem_, “Remarks
+on Mégnin’s Tapeworm,” _ibid._, Sept., 1874.--_Idem_, “Report on
+Parasites (sent from India by F. F. Collins and Spooner Hart),”
+_ibid._, Nov., 1874.--_Idem_, “Epizoöty in the Horse, more especially
+in relation to the Ravages produced by the Four-spined Strongyle (_S.
+tetracanthus_),” _ibid._, April, 1875.--_Idem_, “The Egyptian Horse
+Plague in relation to the question of Parasitism,” _ibid._, Nov.,
+1876.--_Idem_, “Description of the new Equine Fluke (_Gastrodiscus
+Sonsinoii_),” _ibid._, April, 1877.--_Idem_, “On Worm-like Organisms
+within the Mitral Valve of a Horse,” _ibid._, 1877.--_Idem_, “Entozoa
+of the Horse and Elephant” (see Bibl. No. 51).--_Idem_, “Observations
+respecting the Large-mouthed Maw-worm of the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+Jan., 1877.--_Couchman, T._, “Worms in the Kidney of a Colt,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 145, 1857.--_Coupe, W._, “Fatal Parasitism in a
+Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1876, p. 844.--_Davaine_, “Les Cestoides,”
+in ‘Dict. Encycl. des Sci. Méd.,’ p. 591.--_Dick_ (see Knox).--_Dickens,
+C._, “Joint-lameness in Colts, associated with and symptomatic of
+Lumbricoid Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 601, 1863.--_Dun, R._, “Remarks on
+Entozoa of the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1854, p. 445.--_Dupuy_ (with M.
+Prince), “Filariæ in the Great Mesenteric of a Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+1835, p. 570.--_Emmerson, C._, “Prevalence of Entozoa among Horses in
+the Island of Singapore,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1861, p. 514.--_Friedberger,
+F._, ‘Die Kolik der Pferde,’ Berlin, 1874. (Reviewed by me in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ Jan.-April, 1874.)--_Fry_, “Case of Worms in the Horse,”
+‘The Hippiatrist,’ &c., vol. iii, p. 10, 1830.--_Gamgee, J._ (senior),
+“On Bots,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ July, 1858.--_Goodworth, S._, “Obstruction
+of the Pyloric Orifice of the Stomach by Bots,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p.
+410, 1837.--_Grellier, J._, “On the Worm in the Eye (of the Horse),”
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 18, 1844.--_Harlan, R._, “Case of a Colt killed
+by Worms,” in his ‘Med. and Phys. Researches,’ p. 554; see also
+‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1836.--_Harris_, “A Case of Worms in the Arteries
+of a Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 307, 1834.--_Harrison, J. D._, “The
+singular effect of Worms in the Stomach of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p.
+331, 1842.--_Hickman, T._, “Worm in the Eye of the Horse,” ‘Edin. Vet.
+Rev.,’ 1864, p. 653.--_Hopkinson, F._, “Account of a Worm in the Horse’s
+Eye,” from ‘Trans. of Amer. Phil. Soc.,’ in ‘Med. Comment.,’ vol. xi, p.
+166, 1784.--_Hutchinson, J._, “Hydatid in the Eye of a Horse,” ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ and rep. in ‘Lancet,’ 1857.--_Huxley_, “On Echinococcus
+(from the Zebra),” see Bibl. No. 20, _o_.--_Jeaffreson, W._, “Case of
+Removal of a Worm from the Eye of an Arab Horse,” ‘Lancet,’ p. 690,
+1836-37, and ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 471, 1837.--_Kennedy, M._, “Account of
+a Nondescript Worm (_Ascaris pellucidus_) found in the Eyes of Horses
+in India,” ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,’ vol. xi, p. 107, 1816.--_Kirkman_,
+‘Hydatids’ (see Bibl. No. 20, _o_).--_Knox_, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1836.--_Krabbe_ (l. c., in text).--_Lee, C. A._, “On _Filaria
+papillosa_ in the Anterior Chamber of the Eye of a Horse (and on Filariæ
+in general, &c.),” ‘Amer. Journ. Sci. and Art.,’ vol. xxxix, p. 278,
+1840.--_Lessona, G._, “On the Bot (or Œstrus) of the Horse,” from
+‘Recueil de Méd. Vét.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 156, 1854.--_Leuckart_ (l.
+c., in text).--_Litt, W._, “A Singular Case (of an immense number of
+Worms in a Colt),” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 529, 1852.--_Macnamara_, “On _F.
+papillosa_ in the Eye of Man and the Horse,” ‘Indian Ann. Med. Sci.,’
+1864.--_Marcet_ (see Bibl. No. 34).--_Mead, J._, “A Worm in the Scrotum
+of a Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1843, p. 648.--_Mégnin_, “Petit _Tænia
+inorme_ du Cheval,” in ‘Bull. de la Soc. Cent. de Méd. Vét.,’ t. vi,
+3e série, p. 112.--_Idem_, ‘Monog. de la tribu des Sarcoptides,’ &c.;
+see also review by myself in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Aug., 1877.--_Mercer,
+J._, “On Entozoal or Worm-aneurism,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1847, and
+in part x of “Contrib. to Zool. Path.,” in the ‘Veterinarian,’ p.
+33, 1846.--_Meyrick, J._, “Death of a Colt from Entozoa within the
+Abdomen,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1859, p. 695.--_Moir, J._, “Rupture of the
+Ileum resulting from Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1857, p. 265.--_Molyneux,
+R._, “On Worm in the Eye of Horses in India,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1828,
+p. 309.--_Morgan, A._, “Case of Hydatid in the Brain of a Mare,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 396, 1855.--_Numan, A._, ‘Ueber die Bremsen Larven,
+im Magen der Pferde,’ 1837.--_Idem_, “Entozoon (_Monostoma settenii_)
+from the Eye of a Horse,” from ‘Tidschr. voor naturl. Geschied. en
+Physiol.,’ 1842, in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1842.--_Idem_ (for remarks
+on _Cysticercus fistularis_), ‘Over den veelkop blaasworm’ (l. c.,
+Bibl. No. 49), p. 263.--_Peall, T._, “A Discourse on ‘Worms,’” at
+p. 37, in his ‘Observations, chiefly practical, on some of the more
+common Diseases of the Horse,’ pub. at Cork, 1814.--_Percivall, C._,
+“Worm in the Eye of the Horse (two cases),” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 75,
+1828.--_Percivall, J._, “A Case of Ascarides in the large Intestines
+of the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 358, 1829.--_Poulton, T. J._, “Large
+numbers of Parasites in the Intestines of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+1866, p. 385.--_Seaman, J._, “Worms in the Blood-vessels of Horses and
+Colts,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1864, p. 520.--_Simonds_, “On Disease of
+the Mesenteric Artery, produced by Strongyli,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1854.--_Skeavington, G._, “On Worm in the Eye of the Horse (three
+cases),” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1834, p. 196.--_Sonsino, P._, “On the
+Entozoa of the Horse in relation to the late Egyptian Equine Plague,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ Feb. and March, 1877.--_Tyndal, J._, “Worms in the
+Intestines of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1843, p. 629.--_Twining, W._,
+“Obs. on the Filaria or Threadworm found in the Eyes of Horses
+in India,” ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. i, p. 345,
+1825; rep. in ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 114, 1828.--_Valenciennes_, “On the
+_Spiroptera megastoma_ of Gurlt,” abstract of a paper from Acad. Sci.
+of Paris, reported in ‘Lancet,’ 1843.--_Varnell_, “Remarks on Cases of
+Parasitic Disease in Horses,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 201, 1864.--_Veret_,
+“Perforation of the small Intestines by _Ascarides lumbricoides_ (in
+the Horse),” from ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 569,
+1837.--_Vincent_, “Curious case of Incurable Lameness from Hydatids,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1848, p. 674; see also p. 3, _ibid._--_Wallis_, “Note
+on the occurrence of (250) Lumbrici in a Horse,” ‘Veterinary Record,’
+1849, p. 300.--_Walters, R. G._, “Parasites in the Kidneys of a Mare,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1866, p. 265.--_Woodger_, “Hydatid in the Brain of a
+Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1863, p. 75.--_Woods, J. S._, “Tetanus in a
+Mare, associated with the Larvæ of _Œstrus equi_ within the Stomach
+and Duodenum,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1859, p. 693.--_Wright_, “Strongyli in
+the Scrotum of a Colt,” ‘Veterinary Record,’ 1849, p. 385.--_Youatt_,
+“Worms between the Tunics of the Stomach,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1835, p.
+571.--_Idem_, “Tetanus, Worms in the Trachea, and Dilatation of the
+Heart, in a Zebra,” _ibid._, p. 504, 1836.--_Idem_, “Worms in the Nasal
+Cavity of the Horse,” _ibid._, p. 329, 1832.--_Zangger_, “Remarks on
+Entozoa,” from the French, ‘Veterinarian,’ 1855, p. 463.
+
+
+PART X (PACHYDERMATA)
+
+Concerning the parasites and parasitic diseases of this miscellaneous
+assemblage of large mammals, I shall first speak of those of the
+proboscideans (Elephantidæ). Except by myself, they have been but
+little studied, and I am yet waiting for an opportunity to give further
+time to their consideration. When Diesing published his ‘Systema’ only
+two helminths were referred to the Indian elephant, namely, _Ascaris
+lonchoptera_ and an undescribed fluke supposed to be a distome. The
+whole subject requires revision, but I think the following species must,
+for the present at least, be allowed recognition:--_Fasciola Jacksoni_
+(mihi), _Amphistoma Hawkesii_ (mihi), _Ascaris lonchoptera_ (Diesing),
+_Sclerostoma Spinuliferum_ (Baird), and _Dochmius Sangeri_ (mihi).
+Either the _Ascaris_ or the _Sclerostoma_ is probably identical with
+Rudolphi’s _Strongylus elephantis_.
+
+At the Norwich Meeting of the British Association, in 1868, I exhibited
+two flukes received from J. S. Thacker, V.S., of the Madras Army. They
+were handed to me by the late Dr Baird, and were labelled “Distoma
+taken from liver of elephant and forwarded for classification.” I
+stated at the time that these entozoa were identical with certain
+flukes previously obtained from the duodenum and biliary ducts of an
+Indian elephant, and which, though carefully preserved in the Boston
+Museum, U.S., had never been properly described. They were only briefly
+noticed by Dr Jackson in his ‘Descriptive Catalogue’ of the Museum. In
+the summer of 1868 fifteen specimens of fluke, removed from Burmese
+elephants, had been forwarded to and received by Professor Huxley
+from Rangoon, accompanied by a statement to the effect that they were
+the cause of an extensive and fatal disease in Burmah. Through the
+kindness of Prof. Huxley I was allowed to make use of his specimens
+for the purpose of comparison and identification, and thus it became
+evident that our specimens were of the same species. It was also evident
+that the species could be none other than that represented by the
+Boston specimens. Further examination having made it clear that the
+organisation of these flukes departed from the ordinary distome type, I
+named the parasite _Fasciola Jacksoni_, at the same time offering the
+following description (‘Entozoa,’ Supp., 1869, p. 80):--“Body armed
+throughout with minute spines, orbicular, usually folded at either end
+towards the ventral aspect, thus presenting a concavo-convex form; oral
+sucker terminal, with reproductive papillæ about midway between it and
+the ventral acetabulum; intromittent organ 1/4″ in length; digestive
+apparatus with two main zigzag-shaped canals, giving off alternating
+branches at the angles thus formed, the ultimate cæcal ramifications
+occupying the whole extent of the body; length, when unrolled, from
+1/2″ to 5/8″, breadth 1/3″ to 1/2″.” Now, if reference be made to the
+appendix of the late C. M. Diesing’s ‘Systema Helminthum,’ it will be
+found that Jackson’s statement had not escaped that helminthologist’s
+notice, though, not having seen any specimens, he was not unnaturally
+led to place the species amongst the distomes proper. In Diesing’s
+subsequently published ‘Revision der Myzelminthen,’ the species
+is formally characterised as the _Distomum elephantis_ of Jackson
+(‘Sitzungsberichte d. Math.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad. d. Wissenchaften,’ Bd.
+xxxii, 1858). In my “Synopsis of the Distomidæ,” which appeared in the
+‘Journal of the Linnean Society’ for 1861, I had also placed it amongst
+the distomes, not considering it to be a doubtful form (‘Proceed.
+Linn. Soc.,’ “Zoology,” vol. v, p. 9). These references exhausted the
+literature of the subject up to the time of the issue of my ‘Manual’
+in 1873, where this fluke is again briefly noticed (p. 13). Several
+of Prof. Huxley’s specimens have been added to the entozoological
+department of the Hunterian Museum. It is clear that all these notices
+and descriptions point to the same parasite. The worm has since been
+more carefully described by Dr R. H. Fitz, from a series of dissections
+and preparations made by Dr H. P. Quincy, and deposited in the Warren
+Museum, Boston, U.S.
+
+About the middle of June, 1875, I received a letter from General Hawkes,
+of the Madras Staff Corps, dated Secunderabad, May 12th, 1875, and in
+reference to the subject before us he writes as follows:--“My attention
+has been recently directed to a very unusual mortality of elephants
+at this station. Out of twenty-eight elephants under my charge, no
+less than twelve have died within the last sixteen months, whereas the
+average annual mortality has been hitherto only two per annum out of
+thirty-eight in our establishment. In every case of death there appeared
+to exist serious organic disease quite sufficient to account for such
+death, but as the mortality increased I had a post-mortem examination
+made in each case; and although here also organic disease sufficient
+to account for death was present in each case, yet in every one of
+these elephants we found the liver-fluke in greater or less abundance.”
+General Hawkes adds:--“Meanwhile I have sent you a small box containing
+three bottles, one containing the liver-fluke (_Fasciola Jacksoni_)
+referred to in your work on the parasites of domesticated animals. It
+seems possible that the other two species of parasites may not have
+been brought to your notice. Both of these, namely, the “masuri” and
+the “soorti,” are very common in elephants. They are both found in the
+intestines only. The “masuri,” when present in any quantity, cause
+considerable disturbance, and the animal instinctively resorts to the
+_eating of earth_, which it consumes in large quantities until the
+bowels are acted on and the worm expelled. The soorti is more common
+than masuri, and does not seem to inconvenience the animal very much.
+When expelled from the animal the soorti is a round white worm, like
+most of the threadworms; the masuri, on the other hand, is of a delicate
+flesh color.” Shortly after the receipt of this letter I obtained the
+entozoa in a good state of preservation. Accordingly I wrote to General
+Hawkes, stating that the flukes were clearly referable to _Fasciola
+Jacksoni_; that the parasites to which the natives of Hindostan apply
+the term “soorti” were evidently examples of _Ascaris lonchoptera_
+(Diesing), previously called strongyles by Rudolphi; and that the
+worms which he called “masuri” were trematodes new to science. I named
+the species _Amphistoma Hawkesii_, in honor of the donor. The bottle
+contained as many as forty-nine specimens. I may here remark that I
+have made inquiries of the keepers of the elephants at the Zoological
+Gardens as to whether they have ever seen entozoa that were passed by
+the animals under their care. They replied in the negative, the keeper
+of the African elephants (Scott) having made frequent inspection of the
+fæces. I was the more anxious to secure information on this point since,
+during my frequent visits to the menagerie, I had observed that the
+African elephants were in the habit of swallowing large quantities of
+mud and dirt from small hollows in the ground near the great water-tanks
+in which they bathe. Prof. Garrod (who had dissected three elephants)
+also assures me that there has been no trace of an entozoon in any of
+the Indian elephants examined by him. In one dissected at Edinburgh
+the same negative result was obtained. From the facts at present in
+my possession, I conclude that the habit of earth-eating, displayed
+alike by Indian and African elephants (and, as stated in my account of
+the equine parasites, shared by horses), is not necessarily due to the
+presence of parasites. I apprehend rather, that it is resorted to by
+these animals under any circumstances of intestinal irritation, whether
+created by entozoa or other foreign agents. The notion of the elephant’s
+intelligent self-cure by eating earth is a very old fable. Captain
+Forsyth, as quoted by Mr Fleming, alludes to it in his ‘Highlands of
+Central India,’ and I find the same ideas recorded by Williamson and
+Howitt. Forsyth says:--“Elephants are very liable to intestinal worms.
+They generally cure themselves by swallowing from ten to twenty pounds
+of earth.” Captain Williamson says:--“They are much troubled with
+worms, for the cure of which the elephant eats earth. If the dung be
+inspected there will be seen an amazing number of moving objects, which
+much resemble pieces of chewed sugar-cane.” Some excellent practical
+remarks are added, testifying to the value of the native remedy called
+_Kallah-nimok_, or _bit-noben_, which is a saline purgative. In Lieut.
+Ouchterlony’s essay (quoted below) no allusion is made to the subject of
+worms.
+
+General Hawkes afterwards supplied me with further information. In a
+letter from Secunderabad, dated July 30th, 1875, he says:--“As regards
+the liver-fluke (_F. Jacksoni_), it appears from your treatise to
+have been first observed in 1847. The only other published notice
+that I have been able to find of it is contained in a letter to a
+newspaper, dated ‘Rangoon, 16th July, 1867,’ and is signed ‘R. B.’
+In this letter the unusual mortality of seven elephants in about
+fifteen days is attributed to the presence of this liver-fluke, the
+two other parasites (_Amphistoma_ and _Ascaris lonchoptera_) being
+also present in the intestines.” “Now (continues General Hawkes), in
+every case at which I was present _flukes were found in greater or
+less numbers_ in the gall-ducts of the liver, and the _Amphistoma_ was
+also as constantly present in the intestines, the soorti (_Ascaris
+lonchoptera_), contrary to the general experience of the elephant
+attendants, being less frequently met with, though from its color and
+slender shape it is not so easily detected among the huge mass of
+fæces as the larger _Amphistoma_.” Speaking of the amphistoma General
+Hawkes says:--“This internal parasite is well known to all who
+possess elephants. It is alluded to by Dr Gilchrist in his treatise on
+the ‘Diseases of Elephants,’ first published in 1841, but he merely
+mentioned it under its local name, _masuri_, and made no attempt
+either to describe it scientifically or to ascertain its place in the
+natural system. As far as my experience goes it is only found in the
+intestines. These parasites appear to be very generally present in the
+elephant. When their numbers are few the ‘host’ is probably not much
+inconvenienced, but when present in any great quantity they undoubtedly
+cause much irritation. When this is felt, the animal, as before
+remarked, instinctively resorts to a simple and effectual remedy. He
+eats a quantity of earth, which purges him thoroughly and expels the
+amphistoma. The mahawats are of opinion that whilst the elephant is
+eating earth to relieve himself of the pests the daily allowance of rice
+should be scrupulously withheld; and they say that if the rice, which
+is given uncooked, is eaten by the animal under these circumstances,
+excessive purgation is induced, which frequently results in death.
+How far this opinion is founded on fact I am unable to say, but the
+mahawat’s name for this disease means ‘fasting,’ and bears testimony to
+the generally received notion of the necessity of withholding the rice
+when the animal is eating earth.”
+
+When describing the parasites of the horse (p. 358), I spoke of
+Collins’ amphistome from that animal, but in the letter addressed to
+me from Simla, 22nd March, 1875, Mr. Collins made no allusion to the
+earth-eating habit. He wrote:--“I forward you by this mail parasites
+found in the colon of a horse that died, a subject of fever peculiar to
+this country. There were _about a thousand_ of the parasites, and nearly
+the whole of them were situated close to the cæcum, and were loose in
+the gut. Not having seen parasites at all similar to these, I have
+forwarded them for identification. They were of a brick-red color when
+first obtained.” These explicit statements by Mr Collins are interesting
+from many points of view. One has only to place his specimens side
+by side with those from the elephant in order to satisfy one’s self
+that the two forms are distinct. For the reasons already stated I
+provisionally called the worm _Amphistoma Collinsii_. It is probable
+that other veterinary surgeons have encountered this entozoon in India;
+but, unless they can point to some published account of the fact, Mr
+Collins is entitled to be considered as its discoverer. Doubtless many
+other European residents in India, Ceylon, and Burmah, must, like Dr
+Gilchrist, be well acquainted with the _masuri_ as such, though unaware
+of their zoological position.
+
+In a record of the post-mortem examination of one of the victims of the
+Secunderabad epizoöty, the veterinary surgeon said:--“No doubt disease
+of the lungs and subacute inflammation of the bowels were the immediate
+cause of death, but the large number of flukes in the liver and the
+intestinal parasites (_i. e._ the amphistomes) account in a great
+measure for some of the symptoms shown, and these symptoms accord in
+many respects with those shown in elephants that died in Burmah during
+the epizoöty (rot) in 1867, as recorded by R. B., notably, refusal of
+food, standing with mouth open, restlessness, and puffiness about the
+head and shoulders. The liver parasite is no doubt the same referred
+to by R. B., and is that termed by Dr Cobbold _Fasciola Jacksoni_.” In
+reference to a later case the same officer remarks:--“I carried out
+the post-mortem examination with special reference to inquiry as to the
+probability of the mortality amongst elephants at this station being
+of parasitic origin. This was suggested to me by the former case. The
+post-mortem appearances differed in every respect. There were flukes in
+the liver, but in no great quantity, and the structure of the liver was
+sound. Although not assisted by this case in attributing the mortality
+to parasitic origin, I am strengthened in my opinion that the death
+of the previous elephant was due to disease caused by the presence of
+the liver fluke.” This report, by Mr W. S. Adams, is to some extent in
+harmony with later information. An epizoötic outbreak amongst elephants
+has occurred in England, at Sanger’s Circus, and I had opportunity to
+examine one of the dead animals. In my own opinion, and in that of Mr F.
+Smith, the veterinary surgeon who attended the animals professionally,
+the disease was due to parasites. I obtained large quantities of
+_Amphistoma Hawkesii_ from the intestinal canal, and also other worms.
+The death of one of the elephants was made the subject of litigation,
+when, as might be expected, great diversity of opinion as to the cause
+of the fatal issue prevailed.
+
+Mr Smith, an old pupil of mine, regarding the amphistomes and strongyles
+as the cause of death, wrote to the effect that “some of the worms were
+found between the coats of the intestine, and others on the free surface
+of the gut, whilst the excretory ducts of some of the glands were found
+blocked with them.” The animal examined by myself on the 24th of August,
+1876, yielded numerous examples of _Amphistoma Hawkesii_, _Ascaris
+lonchoptera_, and _Dochmius Sangeri_, the last species being so named
+by me after the owner of the circus who lost the herd of elephants by
+the epizoöty. The male _Dochmii_ measured 5/8 and the females 3/4 of an
+inch in length. Here I must reluctantly quit the helminths of elephants,
+adding only an expression of surprise that Dr Max Schmidt should have
+had so little to say concerning them in his otherwise instructive memoir
+on ‘The Diseases of Pachyderms’ (quoted below).
+
+I have but a few words to offer respecting the ectozoa. A species of
+mite has been described whose generic position appears doubtful. I
+allude to _Homopus elephantis_ of Fürstenberg, or _Symbiotes elephantis_
+of Gerlach. According to Mégnin it is a _nymphe adventive_ or _hypope_
+of a variety of _Tyroglyphus siro_. This acarus is abundant in old
+forage. Another ectozoon is _Hæmatomyzus elephantis_. It differs
+from the lice proper in many respects, but, according to Piaget, the
+reproductive organs resemble those of _Hæmatopinus_. In ‘Science Gossip’
+for June, 1871, Mr H. C. Richter describes “a new form of parasite,”
+which is called _Idolocoris elephantis_. The insect, which was one line
+in length, was found upon an elephant in Ceylon. According to Walker it
+not only constituted the type of a new genus, but of an altogether new
+family of the Hemiptera Heteroptera, coming very near to the bed-bugs
+(_Acanthidæ_). It is a huge sucking louse. From the discussion which
+followed, it seems that the parasite had several times been seen before,
+and was none other than E. Piaget’s _Hæmatomyzus elephantis_. Excellent
+figures accompany Richter’s and Piaget’s descriptions. Notwithstanding
+Piaget’s explanation, I think the specific name, _longirostris_, would
+have been a more appropriate appellation.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 51).--(Anonymous), “Diseased Elephants,” see ‘Lancet,’
+Sept. 2, 1876; also “Report of the Case at Law (Jamrach _v._ Sanger),”
+given in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1877, p. 886.--_Cobbold, T. S._,
+“Description of a species of Trematode from the Indian Elephant, with
+remarks on its Affinities,” ‘Quart. Micros. Journ.,’ Jan., 1869; see
+also ‘Entozoa,’ supp., 1869, p. 80.--_Idem_, “On the Destruction of
+Elephants by Parasites, with remarks on two new species of Entozoa and
+on the so-called Earth-eating habits of Elephants and Horses in India,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1875.--_Idem_, “Further Remarks on Parasites
+from the Horse and Elephant, with a notice of new Amphistomes from the
+Ox,” _ibid._, Nov., 1875.--_Diesing_ (l. c., in text).--_Fitz, R. H._,
+“Anatomy of _Fasciola Jacksoni_,” ‘Rep. of Boston Soc. Med. Sci.,’ in
+the ‘New York Med. Journ.,’ Nov., 1876.--_Fleming, G._, “The Diseases
+of Elephants” (chiefly from Captain Forsyth’s work on the ‘Highlands of
+Central India’), ‘Veterinarian,’ March, 1873, p. 181.--_Mégnin_, “Mém.
+sur les Hypopes,” in Robin’s ‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol.,’
+1874 (_H. elephantis_), p. 248.--_Ouchterlony, J. W._, “An Essay on the
+Management of the Elephant, and its Treatment in ordinary Diseases,”
+‘Rep. of Vet. Med. Assoc.,’ Nov., 1872, and pub. in ‘Veterinarian,’
+Jan., 1873, p. 65.--_Piaget, E._, “Description d’un parasite de
+l’éléphant,” ‘Tijschrift voor Entomologie,’ 1869, p. 249.--_Richter,
+H. C._, “A new form of Parasite (_Idolocoris elephantis_),” ‘Science
+Gossip,’ 1871, pp. 131, 185, 211, 278.--_Schmidt, Max_, “Die Krankheiten
+der Dickhäuter,” ‘Deutsche Zeitschrift f. Thiermed. und vergleichende
+Pathologie,’ f. Nov., 1878, s. 360.--_Williamson, T._, ‘Oriental Field
+Sports,’ London, 1807, vol. i, p. 138.
+
+The parasites of the _Rhinoceridæ_ have been even less studied than
+those of elephants. In 1856 Prof. Peters described a tapeworm from
+Bruce’s rhinoceros (_R. Africanus_), which he named _Tænia gigantea_.
+In 1870 Dr Murie, under the provisional name of _T. magna_, published
+a description of the strobile of the same cestode from an Indian
+rhinoceros (_R. unicornis_). From a total misconception of the character
+of the proglottides, Murie was led to suppose that the segments of
+the strobile were very deep as well as broad; whereas the proglottids
+are remarkably narrow, thus partaking of the characters of the Tæniæ
+of the larger herbivora in general. In a subsequent paper Peters
+pointed out these errors. Murie had, in fact, rolled several segments
+into one. In 1877 Professor Garrod encountered the same cestode in
+_Rhinoceros sondaicus_, and, following Peters’ example, separated it
+from the Tæniæ proper (_Plagiotænia gigantea_). The idea of generically
+separating tapeworms possessing a more or less striking breadth of
+strobile is not one which commends itself to my view, seeing that
+many of the tapeworms of herbivora closely resemble the rhinoscerine
+cestodes in this respect. As Diesing hints, this tapeworm comes near
+to _T. perfoliata_, but Garrod’s and Peters’ figures both show that
+_Plagiotænia_ wants the neck-lobes. The presence of cephalic appendages
+may be regarded as generically distinctive, but it does not appear
+that Blanchard separated the perfoliate tapeworm of the horse from the
+Tæniæ proper on this ground. Therefore, in my account of the equine
+tapeworms, I have not adopted his genus _Anoplocephala_. I may remark,
+in passing, that if the distinctions, as between armed and unarmed, or
+between proboscis-bearing (_Rhynchotæniada_) and non-proboscis-bearing
+tapeworms (_Arhynchotæniada_), are to be maintained, they should
+be expressive of divisional or subordinate value. Dr Weinland’s
+arrangement, having reference to the thick- and thin-shelled ova
+(Sclero- and Malaco-leptidota), is, perhaps, preferable. The whole
+subject of classification requires revision, but it should be undertaken
+by some helminthologists practically acquainted with a large number of
+cestode types. As Garrod has well observed, _Plagiotænia_ enjoys a wide
+geographical distribution, infesting alike Indian and African hosts.
+Prof. Garrod, I observe, speaks of the _head_ of the mature tapeworm
+as the _scolex_--an extension of the meaning of a term not usually
+recognised. In this, however, he only follows Peters’ unfortunate
+example.
+
+The wide distribution enjoyed by Peters’ Plagiotænia is probably
+equalled by that of the rhinocerine stomach-bot (_Gastrophilus
+rhinocerontis_, Owen). This parasite was originally described in 1840,
+and since that time it has been frequently encountered both in India
+and Africa. To Mr Spooner Hart, of Calcutta, I am indebted for a large
+number of specimens; their size exceeding that of any other bots that
+have come under my notice. Probably this parasite infests the stomach of
+rhinoceroses generally; at all events, it occurs in _R. unicornis_, _R.
+bicornis_, and _R. simus_. At present the imago is unknown. The longest
+larvæ in my possession measure 1-1/8″, but Brauer records specimens
+up to 35 mm. in length by 10 mm. in thickness. In African hosts M.
+Delegorgue found these parasites in prodigious numbers.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 52).--_Brauer_, “Bot of the Rhinoceros,” ‘Monogr.
+der Œstr.,’ 1863, s. 92.--_Cobbold_, “Note on Parasites presented
+by Messrs Danford, Hart, and others,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1875, p.
+513.--_Coquerel_ and _Sallé_, in ‘Ann. Soc. Entom. de France,’ 1862
+(quoted by Brauer).--_Delegorgue_, ‘Voyage dans l’Afrique’ (quoted by
+Brauer).--_Garrod_, “On the Tænia of the Rhinoceros of the Sunderbunds
+(_Plag. gig._, Peters),” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ Nov. 20, 1877, p.
+788.--_Hope_, in ‘Trans. Entom. Soc.,’ 1840, p. 259.--_Joly, M. N._,
+“Recherches Zool. (&c.) sur les Œstrides (&c.),” in ‘Ann. des Sciences
+(&c.) de Lyon,’ 1846 (quoted by Brauer).--_Murie, J._, “On a probably
+new species of Tænia (_T. magna?_) from the Rhinoceros,” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ 1870, p. 608.--_Peters, W._, “Note on the Tænia from the
+Rhinoceros, lately described by Dr J. Murie,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1871,
+p. 146.
+
+Very little has been written respecting the parasites of the
+_Hippopotamidæ_ and _Tapiridæ_. I think it was Livingstone who first
+drew attention to the fact that the river-horse or sea-cow is much
+infested by tapeworms, but I have not seen any published description of
+the worm. Dr. Murie, during his sojourn in Egypt, found a solitary bot
+embedded in the soft parts surrounding the eye, and judging from his
+figure the species is new to science. Provisionally I speak of it as the
+_Hypoderma Muriei_. In the paper (quoted below) Murie appends a list of
+all the animals in which bots have been found. Though chiefly taken from
+Brauer, it is useful and tolerably complete. So far as I am aware no
+cestodes have been described as infesting tapirs; nevertheless, at least
+five other kinds of helminth have been found in _Tapirus Americanus_.
+Of these, two are flukes (_Amphistoma asperum_ and _A. pyriforme_),
+and three are nematodes (_Sclerostoma monostechum_, _Spiroptera
+mediospiralis_, and _Sp. chrysoptera_). The three species first named
+occupy the cæcum, whilst the others are found in the stomach. According
+to Molin’s description, both species occupy tuberous excrescences of
+the mucous membrane, thus reminding us of the similar habit enjoyed by
+_Sp. megastoma_ in the horse. The _Sp. chrysoptera_ is a comparatively
+large species, the males measuring an inch, and the females as much as
+an inch and a half in length. Both of the spiropteras were obtained from
+tapirs by the indefatigable Natterer, _Sp. mediospiralis_ being also
+procured by him from the aguti. If I have read Molin correctly, as many
+as thirty-four examples of _S. mediospiralis_ were taken from a single
+excrescence in the stomach of the tapir. Upwards of a hundred specimens
+were procured, collectively, from three similar stomach-excrescences
+in _Dasyprocta aguti_. These, and the other tapirine parasites above
+mentioned, were originally discovered in Brazil.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 53).--_Diesing_, “Neue Gattungen von Binnenwürmen
+nebst einem Nachtrage zur Monographie der Amphistomen,” in ‘Annalen
+d. Wien. Museums,’ Feb., 1839, s. 236.--_Idem_, ‘Systema,’ Bd. ii, s.
+306.--_Molin_, “Una monografia del genere Spiroptera,” in ‘Sitzungsb.
+der math.-naturw. Cl. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch.,’ Bd. xxxviii, s. 1001,
+1859.--_Murie_, “On a larval Œstrus found in the Hippopotamus,” ‘Proc.
+Zool. Soc.,’ 1870, p. 78.
+
+The osculant position of the anisodactyle pachyderms (_Hyracidæ_),
+formerly classed as rodents, renders it desirable that their parasites
+should be briefly noticed in this place. Probably these animals,
+zoologically speaking, come nearest to the rhinoceroses, but Prof.
+Owen showed that, anatomically, they possessed marked affinities with
+the sloths. The klipdas or dasse (_Hyrax capensis_) is infested by a
+tapeworm, of which hitherto the proglottides only appear to have been
+seen (_Tænia hyracis_, Pallas). Under the name of _Cœnurus serialis_ a
+larval cestode has been described by Gervais, the same parasite being
+called _Arhynchotænia critica_ by Pagenstecher (“Zur Naturgeschichte
+der Cestoden,” in ‘Sieb. u. Köll. Zeitschrift’). A variety of
+nematodes have also been observed in the Cape hyrax. Of these, the
+so-called _Physaloptera spirula_ is classed as doubtful by Molin and
+Diesing. Hemprich and Ehrenberg furnished brief descriptions of four
+other nematodes. Two of these worms were placed in the genus Oxyuris
+(_O. pugio_ and _O. flavellum_), and the other two in the new genus
+Crossophorus, which they formed for their reception (_C. collaris_ and
+_C. tentaculatus_). The whole of these nematoids were obtained either
+from the cæcum or large intestine.
+
+An able article in the ‘Natural History Review’ for July 1865,
+attributed to Professor Huxley, expressed very clearly the popular
+notion as to the great danger of the flesh of swine considered as a
+source of human parasites. No doubt the filthy pachyderms in question
+(_Suidæ_) are much infested by helminths, some of which gain access to
+man, but swine are neither attacked by a greater variety of entozoa
+than other domesticated animals, nor are they so frequently a source of
+human tapeworms as cattle. In the article above quoted the following
+passage occurs:--“Of all animals, feral or domestic, the common pig is
+beyond all doubt the most fertile source of human entozoa; at least, of
+important parasites, _Trichina spiralis_ and the tapeworm would, there
+is good reason to believe, cease to infest us, did not this favorite
+quadruped act the part of a communicating medium.” This paragraph was
+evidently written under the impression that “the tapeworm” most commonly
+found in man was derived from the hog. So far back as 1864 I showed that
+this was an entire mistake.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Head and neck of _Cysticercus_ from the Red
+River hog. Magnified 60 diameters. Original.]
+
+Flukes are rare in swine; nevertheless, _Fasciola hepatica_ and
+_Distoma lanceolatum_ are occasionally present in the domestic hog,
+and the peccaries (_Dicotyles_) are infested by an Amphistome (_A.
+giganteum_). This large species, 3/4″ in length, formed the basis
+of an admirable account of the anatomy of this genus of worms which
+the learned Vienna helminthologist, Diesing, wrote before he was
+deprived of his eyesight. The merits of that respected systematist’s
+investigations have, I think, been much underrated, in consequence, no
+doubt, of the artificial character of his system of classification.
+For all that, his writings remain invaluable. Turning to the cestodes
+of swine, there is not, so far as I am aware, any evidence of the
+occurrence of sexually-mature tapeworms either in the hog or its allies;
+but the frequency of larval cestodes, known as measles (_Cysticercus
+telæ cellulosæ_), was well known to the early Jewish writers. In the
+first part of this work I devoted as much space as I could spare to
+the consideration of Cysticerci in general, and the pork-measle in
+particular; but an exhaustive knowledge of the subject in relation
+to hygiene can only be acquired by consulting the principal original
+memoirs (quoted in the Bibliographies Nos. 13 and 14). In a Westphalian
+ham, part of which was sent to me for examination, I calculated that
+each pound of the flesh must have contained upwards of 600 Cysticerci.
+I was informed by the donor, Dr Prior, that in spite of the disgusting
+state of the meat much of it had been eaten by the well-to-do family
+who purchased the ham. Cysticerci occasionally occupy the brain of the
+pig in considerable numbers. Florman recorded a case of this kind where
+their presence gave rise to vertigo in all respects resembling the gid
+ordinarily produced by _Cœnurus_ in the sheep. As regards the larger
+cestode larvæ, _Cysticercus tenuicollis_ and _Echinococcus veterinorum_
+are of frequent occurrence. One not unfrequently encounters the former
+in the mesentery, whilst the liver of the hog is sometimes so crowded
+with hydatids that scarcely any of the glandular substance of the organ
+remains visible. It is surprising how little the infested bearers
+appear to be inconvenienced in such cases. In the winter of 1859, and
+in the autumn of 1860, I found large cystic entozoa in an African
+Wart-hog and in a Red River hog. These animals had died at the London
+Zoological Society’s Menagerie; and as the worms appeared to me at the
+time to be quite distinct from the ordinary slender-necked hydatid, they
+were named, respectively, _Cysticercus phacochæri æthiopici_ and _C.
+potamochæri penicillati_. The solitary example from the wart-hog was
+found in a cyst near the colon; whilst of the five large bladder-worms
+obtained from the Red River hog, one infested the liver and the other
+four were lodged in the folds of the mesentery. The caudal vesicle of
+the worm from the wart-hog measured 3-1/2″ in diameter, the vesicle of
+the other bladder-worm being much longer. A reference to the original
+figures will show that these forms are distinct. Swine are largely
+infested by nematodes. The best-known form is _Ascaris lumbricoides_,
+which Dujardin regarded as distinct (_A. suilla_). The hitherto disputed
+identity of this worm with the human lumbricoid being no longer
+questionable, the importance of the entozoon in relation to lumbricoid
+endemics must at once be obvious; I have already, however, dwelt upon
+this subject when treating of the human parasites. In like manner, the
+subject of the flesh-worm disease, which is due to _Trichina spiralis_,
+cannot be discussed in this place, as I have fully entered upon it
+in connection with trichinosis in the human subject. What may be the
+nature of the small threadworms found by Leidy in the extensor muscles
+of the hog I cannot say, but Diesing inferred that they might represent
+a distinct species (_Trichina affinis_). As regards the allied genus
+_Trichocephalus_, the common species infesting swine (_T. crenatus_),
+appears to be rarely absent. It not only infests the common domestic and
+wild hog, but the peccaries and wart-hogs. These entozoa are probably
+harmless to their bearers. In reference to them Krabbe says:--“When
+the eggs are expelled with the excrement and pass into water, then the
+embryos, after several months’ furlough, and there undergoing further
+development, are transferred to the swine’s intestinal canal.” If I
+rightly understand the paragraph (‘Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,’ p. 28),
+Krabbe states that the embryos are still within their egg-coverings when
+infection takes place. The maw-worm of the hog is known as _Spiroptera
+strongylina_. It was described and figured by Gurlt. The males measure
+1/2″ and the females 3/4″ in length. Specimens of this worm were
+supposed to have been found by Natterer in _Dicotyles albirostris_; but
+it seems that the worms in question represent a distinct species, if
+not an altogether new genus. In the year 1864 Professor Simonds placed
+in my hands a very singular nematode, to which I gave the binomial
+term _Simondsia paradoxa_. Numerous examples of this worm were found
+by Prof. Simonds occupying cysts within the walls of the stomach of a
+hog which had died at the London Zoological Society’s Menagerie. In my
+introductory treatise I wrote of it as follows:--“The worm in question
+has been regarded by Mr Simonds as a species of _Strongylus_, but I am
+inclined to think that its affinities will place it nearer to the genus
+_Spiroptera_. At present I have only examined the female, which is
+characterised by the possession of a multitude of large tentacle-like
+appendages surrounding the neck. These processes, by their aspect,
+remind one of the so-called branchial projections on the back of
+_Eolis_, but in this worm I believe them to be special folds formed for
+the lodgment of unusually developed uterine organs. The female worm is
+about 3/4″ in length.”
+
+In the interval that has elapsed I have been unable to supply further
+particulars, and unfortunately the original drawings of the worm
+have been lost. The habits of the parasite remind us of _Spiroptera
+megastoma_ infesting the walls of the stomach of the horse. Not
+improbably this singular entozoon may turn out to be identical with
+Molin’s _Spiroptera sexalata_, and if so, it may correspond with
+_Spiroptera strongylina_. However, Diesing afterwards recognising, as
+I had done, the desirability of separating this last-named worm from
+the Spiropteræ proper, formed for it his new genus _Physocephalus_. He
+then called the worm _Physocephalus sexalatus_. If, as is probable,
+my _Simondsia_ and Diesing’s _Physocephalus_ are identical, the
+species found by Simonds ought to be recognised by the generic title
+which Diesing proposed. His genus was established about four years
+before I described my _Simondsia_. Diesing was evidently led up to
+the recognition of the generic distinction of the worm by Molin’s
+examination and description of the worm. As, in my original account
+of the worm found by Simonds, I spoke of numerous appendages to the
+neck, it is evident that further investigation is necessary to clear
+up the question of identity. According to Molin and Diesing the male
+_Spiroptera sexalata_ measures rather beyond 1/4″ and the female beyond
+1/2″ in length. Neither Diesing nor Molin speak of Natterer’s worms as
+being found encysted. In fact they were free. Molin simply remarks:--“Io
+ne esaminai in oltre 6 esemplari maschi e 77 femine raccolti in parte
+dal muco che revestiva le pareti dello stomaco, ed in parte dal pasto
+contenuto nello stesso organo di un _Dicotyles albirostris_ femina ai 24
+Aprile, 1826.” After all that has been said it may be that my _Simondsia
+paradoxa_ and Diesing’s _Physocephalus sexalata_ are quite distinct,
+and that like the large- and small-mouthed maw-worms of the horse
+(_Spiroptera megastoma_ and _S. microstoma_) they play a corresponding
+rôle. Before very long I hope to set this question definitively at rest.
+
+Passing to the strongyloid nematodes one of the most remarkable and
+important species is _Stephanurus dentatus_. In the ‘Annalen des Wiener
+Museums’ for 1839 (s. 232) this worm was first described by Diesing,
+who employed the generic title as expressive of the crown-like figure
+of the tail of the male worm. Diesing wrote as follows:--“At Barra do
+Rio Negro, on the 24th of March, 1834, Natterer discovered this peculiar
+genus of worms occurring singly or several together in capsules situated
+amongst the layers of fat in a Chinese race of _Sus scrofa domestica_.
+The males measure from ten to thirteen lines long, the females from
+fifteen to eighteen lines, the former being scarcely a line in breadth
+at the middle of the body, whilst the latter are almost a line and
+a half in thickness. The curved body thickens towards the tail, is
+transversely annulated, and viewed with a penetrating lens is seen to be
+furnished with integumentary pores. The oral aperture opens widely. It
+is almost circular, and is supplied with six teeth at the margin. Two of
+these standing opposed to one another are larger and stronger than the
+rest. The tail of the male, when spread out evenly, is surrounded by a
+coronet of five lancet-shaped flaps; the combined flaps being connected
+together from base to apex by means of a delicate transparent membrane.
+The single spiculum situated at the extreme end of the tail projects
+slightly forward and is surrounded by three skittle-shaped bodies. The
+tail of the female is curved upon itself, rounded off, and drawn out at
+the extreme end into a straight beak-shaped point; whilst to both sides
+of the stumpy caudal extremity of the body short vesicular prominences
+are attached. The female reproductive outlet occurs at the commencement
+of the second half of the body. Thus, judging by its external characters
+this genus is most closely allied to _Strongylus_.” In reproducing
+Diesing’s description I have here rendered the translation somewhat more
+freely than in my previous record of the discovery given in ‘Nature’
+(1871). The original description is supplemented by a brief account of
+the internal anatomy of the worm.
+
+So far as I am aware no subsequent notice of this entozoon appeared
+until the year 1858, when Dr J. C. White gave some account of a “find”
+made in the United States. This re-discovery was reported in the sixth
+volume of the ‘Proceedings of the Boston Natural History Society.’ Dr
+White says:--“The worms were found in the leaf-yard of an apparently
+healthy hog, in the adipose tissue near the kidney. They occupied a
+space of the same about the size of a man’s fist and had burrowed
+through the mass in every direction, forming canals three or four
+millimètres in diameter, which terminated in cysts. On cutting open
+these cavities, which did not communicate with each other, they were
+found filled with pus, and in each were two worms, male and female.” Dr
+White expresses his opinion that the worms gained access to the tissues
+“by boring through the circulatory system while in the embryonic
+condition.” I think that Dr White deserves great credit for his correct
+diagnosis of the species, and all the more so because he was evidently
+not acquainted with Diesing’s original memoir. He expressly speaks
+of the “scanty descriptions” hitherto given of the worm. As Dr White
+had accurately determined the species in the presence of an American
+Scientific Society, it is remarkable that neither Verrill nor Fletcher
+should have identified the worm.
+
+On the 10th of January, 1871, I received a letter from Prof. W. B.
+Fletcher, of Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.A., and in it he announced that
+he had “found a worm” infesting the hog. The parasite was so abundant
+in swine that he obtained it in “nine out of ten hogs” which he had
+examined. Dr Fletcher sent me specimens of the worm for description
+and identification, when I at once recognised them as examples of
+Diesing’s _Stephanurus dentatus_. As Dr Fletcher’s first communication
+to myself was undated I do not know precisely when he first encountered
+the worm, but it was in 1870. In that same year Prof. Verrill received
+specimens of the worm. He says that they were received from Dr J. C.
+White. Failing to identify the parasites as _Stephanuri_, Verrill
+(making no allusion to the ‘Proceedings of the Boston Society’) not
+unnaturally supposed he had to deal with an entozoon that was new to
+science. Accordingly he immediately described and figured the worm
+under the combined title of _Sclerostoma pinguicola_. If these data
+are correctly given, the re-discovery of the worm in America was due
+to Dr J. C. White; its identity with _Stephanurus_ being subsequently
+acknowledged by Diesing, and afterwards, quite independently, by
+myself. I gather this partly from Diesing’s ‘Kleine helminthologische
+Mittheilungen’ (s. 281), published as a supplement to his ‘Revision
+der Nematoden’ (1860-61). Until quite recently Diesing’s recognition
+of the identity of White’s parasites with Stephanuri was unknown
+in America. My conclusions arose from an examination of the actual
+specimens, whereas Diesing was entirely guided by White’s description.
+In this connection, moreover, a still more interesting re-discovery
+remained to be recorded. The original announcement which I made in
+the ‘British Medical Journal’ for January 14th, 1871, was followed
+by another in the same periodical for September, 1871. As stated in
+my second letter and repeated in my notice of Krabbe’s memoir on
+“Parasites” (‘London Medical Record,’ April 2, 1873), the President
+of the London Microscopical Society (through Mr Slack, who was at
+that time the secretary) forwarded to me a box of microscopic slides
+received by the Society from Australia. The slides displayed parasites
+of various kinds. Having been requested to identify the parasites I had
+the good fortune to recognise amongst them characteristic examples of
+_Stephanurus dentatus_. Thus was first made known the fact that this
+singular genus was not confined in its geographical distribution to the
+two American continents, but that it extended to Australia. The order of
+the principal “finds” and descriptions may therefore be thus restated.
+Natterer discovered the worm in Brazil in 1834. Diesing described it in
+1839. Dr J. C. White re-discovered and identified the worm in 1858. It
+was subsequently found by Dr N. Cressy and by Dr Fletcher. These three
+observers all encountered the parasite in the United States (1858-70).
+Prof. Verrill re-described the worm as new to science in September,
+1870. Diesing confirmed White’s diagnosis in 1860. I identified the worm
+from Fletcher’s “find” in 1871. Dr Morris supposed he had discovered
+a new entozoon in Australia in July, 1871. The Australian worms were
+identified by me as examples of _Stephanurus dentatus_ in October, 1871.
+
+The importance of _Stephanurus_ in relation to porcine epizoöty and the
+supply of animal food cannot be ignored. As remarked in my communication
+to ‘Nature,’ it must be quite obvious that so large a parasite, when
+present in the hog in any considerable numbers, would give rise to
+serious disease, even if it were not productive of fatal results to
+the bearer. In one of his numerous communications to myself, Prof. W.
+B. Fletcher writes as follows:--“It is my opinion that this parasite
+is the cause, in some way, of the hog cholera, which has created such
+sad havoc within the past ten years over the pork-producing parts of
+America. One farmer told me, a few days ago, that within a month his
+loss alone from this cause was over one hundred head; and sometimes,
+in one neighbourhood, in a few days’ time, thousands have perished,
+although this season is not a cholera year, as our farmers say. I
+advised one farmer to burn or bury the dead animals, but he informed
+me that he believed that fewer hogs die of the disease after eating
+the dead animals than those kept from them. Unfortunately, in this
+State there is no law guarding the spread of disease, neither is there
+any reward of reputation or gain for pursuing any investigation that
+would bring pork and beef packers into disrepute. I myself could not
+get a pig’s kidney or beef’s liver in our city market, because I made
+investigations in some Texas cattle (being cut up in our market), which
+damaged their sale a few years ago.” In a third letter Dr Fletcher
+tells me that greater facilities for examining the carcases of hogs
+had since been accorded him through the liberality of a Liverpool
+firm of pork-packers, who had already killed 75,000 hogs during the
+summer season, _i.e._ up to the date of the first week in July. In hot
+weather the slaughtering is conducted in ice-houses. Prof. Fletcher’s
+views receive confirmation from the statements made by Dr Morris, who
+speaks of the pigs as dying from some mysterious disease, and thinks
+that the worms may be the cause of the porcine mortality. Writing to
+the President of the London Microscopical Society from Sydney (July
+12th, 1871), Dr Morris says:--“It is just possible that some pigs may
+survive the irritation such a swarm of young worms must set up; others,
+again, may die from peritonitis, hence the sudden deaths amongst the
+pigs.” I think Dr Morris’ view is perfectly correct, but whether it be
+so or not, it is (as observed by me in ‘Nature’) interesting to notice
+the remarkable correspondency of the conclusions arrived at by Drs
+Fletcher and Morris independently. It will probably not be difficult
+to ascertain hereafter whether or not the maladies respectively termed
+“hog cholera” and “mysterious disease” are one and the same disorder,
+but whatever happens in this respect, it is now quite clear that this
+parasite, hitherto little regarded, and for many years past persistently
+overlooked, is extraordinarily prevalent in the United States, and,
+perhaps, equally so in Australia; it being further evident that its
+presence in the flesh of swine is capable of producing both disease and
+death. The statement of the worthy American farmer that the swallowing
+of infested flesh by pigs does not necessarily involve the pig-eating
+hog in a bad attack of the so-called “cholera disease” requires to
+be further tested, and it also remains to be proven whether or not
+the _Stephanurus_ be capable of passing through all its developmental
+changes from the egg to the adult form within the body of the bearer
+without having at some time or other gained access to the outer world.
+The comparatively large size of the ova, which I find to be about
+1/105″, or more than four times the size of Trichina-eggs, is not
+without significance, but as yet we are entirely unacquainted with the
+larvæ of _Stephanurus_. If no intermediary bearers are necessary to its
+development, we ought not to have to wait long for a complete record
+of the life-history of _Stephanurus dentatus_. In conclusion, I will
+only further remark that since thousands of hogs are infested by this
+entozoon the subject is worth further investigation. I believe that
+Prof. Fletcher brought the matter under the notice of the United States
+National Swine Breeder’s Association, which met at Indianapolis in
+November, 1872, but with what success I have been unable to learn. The
+wealthy agricultural societies of Great Britain pay little or no regard
+to the subject of parasites, although thousands of valuable animals
+annually perish from the injurious action of entozoa.
+
+Of the remaining nematodes infesting swine I must particularly mention
+_Sclerostoma_ (_Strongylus_) _dentatum_ and _Strongylus paradoxus_,
+the last named being generally regarded as identical with Dujardin’s
+_S. elongatus_. The first of these two parasites infests the small
+intestines, the male and female worms alike measuring about 1/2″ in
+length. The females are sometimes a trifle longer. The _Sclerostoma
+dentatum_ is an abundant parasite, infesting all varieties of swine and
+also peccaries; but it is apparently incapable of serious injury to the
+bearer. Schneider selected the male _S. dentatum_ for classificatory
+purposes. In this worm the arrangement of the rays of the hood is
+simple, forming a good central type. Dr D. V. Dean, in his excellent
+report of St Louis Board of Health (1874), speaks of _Strongylus
+dentatus_ as if it were the same entozoon as _Stephanurus_. The
+confusion of nomenclature would have been avoided if Diesing had called
+the renal worm _Stephanurus Nattereri_. I hope this title will yet be
+adopted to prevent future mistakes. The lung-worm (_S. paradoxus_) is
+by no means harmless, being a frequent cause of fatal husk in young
+pigs. It is a viviparous worm, the females acquiring a length of 1-1/2″,
+whilst the males rarely exceed 3/4″. Under the title _Gongylonema
+pulchrum_, Molin has noticed yet another filariform nematode infesting
+the wild hog; and, lastly, the lamented Russian traveller, Fedschenko,
+has published a full description of a new species of Gnathostoma (_G.
+hispidum_), which infests the coats of the stomach alike of the wild
+and domestic hog. One of the most interesting parasites of swine is the
+large acanthocephalous entozoon (_Echinorhynchus gigas_). It infests
+the small intestines both of the wild and domesticated hog, and it
+was also obtained by Natterer from the collared peccary of Tayazou.
+Common as the great Echinorhynchus is in the United States (and it
+is scarcely less so on the Continent) I believe that few, if any, of
+the museums in the United Kingdom of Great Britain contain this large
+entozoon. It is a curious fact that it does not exist in the Hunterian
+Collection, where, however, there is displayed a very fine set of
+acanthocephalous parasites from whales. When in the year 1865 I mounted,
+with my own hands, 200 preparations of entozoa for the Museum of the
+Royal College of Surgeons, I had not so much as seen a specimen of
+this worm. Much scientific interest attaches to this parasite from the
+fact that Schneider discovered that the embryos of _E. gigas_ take up
+their residence in the larvæ of the cockchafer (_Melolontha vulgaris_).
+He thinks it identical with the _Echinorhynchus hominis_ of Lambl.
+Leuckart disputes this identity, and compares Lambl’s worm with the
+_Echinorhynchus angustatus_ of our fresh-water fishes. The _E. spirula_
+of certain Brazilian monkeys and of the Barbary ape bears a strong
+resemblance to the species from the hog. On the strength of Lambl’s
+case--and it is the only genuine instance of the kind on record--Prof.
+Leuckart devotes no less than 125 pages of his great work to the
+consideration of the structure and development of the thorn-headed
+intestinal worms. This worm demands especial attention. Speaking of
+the hog’s Echinorhynchus, Prof. Verrill, in his ‘Connecticut Report,’
+says that “sometimes the intestine of a hog is found perforated by so
+many holes that it cannot be used in the manufacture of sausages.” From
+Mr George Wilkins I learn that the pig-slaughterers of our English
+metropolis are well acquainted with these perforations, which are
+sometimes so numerous that the gut looks as if it had been “riddled”
+with swan-shot. No wonder that diseased hogs, afflicted with these
+formidable parasites, go about, as Verrill expresses it, “continually
+squealing and grunting, especially in the morning.” That they are
+also “cross and morose, and given to biting and snarling at their
+companions,” is by no means astonishing. “In severe cases,” remarks
+Verrill, “hogs afflicted with this parasite are weak in the loins, and
+have the membranes in the corners of the eyes swollen, watery, and
+lighter colored than usual.” It is some comfort to know that Lambl’s
+human case is unique, and that so long as people abstain from eating
+cockchafer larvæ they are not likely to be infested by _Echinorhynchus
+gigas_. In the first book of this work I have given my reasons for
+not regarding Welch’s “encysted _Echinorhynchus_ in man” as a genuine
+example of this curious genus of entozoa.
+
+The external parasites of swine are not so numerous as might be
+expected from the habits of their hosts. The most common ectozoon is
+the hog louse (_Hæmatopinus suis_). This disgusting little insect is
+about 1/8″ in length. Almost equally common is the hog mite. Though
+hitherto considered as a distinct species (_Sarcoptes suis_, Gurlt),
+it is regarded by Mégnin as a mere variety of _Sarcoptes scabiei_. As
+Gerlach and others have remarked, it is readily transmissible to man.
+The _Sarcoptes squammiferus_, of Fürstenburg, is only another name
+for this variety of _S. scabiei_. Speaking of this scab-insect Mégnin
+says:--“This parasite was first encountered by Spinola and Gurlt, and
+afterwards by Müller.” He then adds:--“A Ceylon wild boar died at the
+menagerie of the Museum of Paris of a chronic affection of the skin
+which had transformed its integument into a vast _lichen_.” Lastly, as
+regards the protozoal parasites I can only remark that the psorosperms
+(spoken of as Rainey’s corpuscles or as Miescher’s utricles) are often
+very abundant in the flesh of otherwise perfectly healthy swine.
+Having dwelt upon the character of such organisms in the first moiety
+of this work, I will only remark that the full significance of these
+singular bodies yet remains to be determined. Rainey’s notion that they
+represented early stages of cysticercal growth is altogether untenable.
+According to Behrens, as quoted by Davaine, psorosperms are especially
+abundant in the flesh of swine which have recovered from the disease
+called _mal rouge_. On the subject generally, the writings of Rivolta,
+Waldenburg, Eimer, and Siedamagrotsky are especially trustworthy. Full
+references to these and other authorities are given in the synopsis of
+the 2nd edition of Davaine’s well-known treatise.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 54).--(Anonymous), “On Parasitic Maladies, especially
+Measles, of the Pig,” from ‘Scottish Farmer and Horticulturist,’
+in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ p. 688, 1861.--_Ballard, E._, “On Diseased
+Meat, and what to observe in cases of suspected Poisoning by Meat or
+Sausages (infected with Entozoa, &c.),” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Jan.,
+1864.--_Bowditch, H. J._, “Raw Pork as an Aliment (without reference
+to the question of Entozoa.--T. S. C.),” ‘Boston Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ vol. lv, 1857; see also ‘Comments,’ vol. lvi, pp. 23 and
+69, 1857.--_Cobbold_, “On the Discovery of Stephanurus in the United
+States and in Australia,” in ‘Nature,’ Oct. 21, 1871, p. 508, and
+in ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Jan. and Sept., 1871; also in the ‘Monthly
+Micros. Journ.,’ Nov., 1871.--_Idem_, “Internal Parasites of the
+Hog,” in ‘Manual,’ chap. xii.--_Idem_, “On Cystic Entozoa from the
+Wart-Hog and Red River Hog,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1861.--_Idem_, “On
+Simondsia,” ‘Entoz.,’ p. 79.--_Idem_, “Note on Worms in the Lungs
+of a Pig,” in the ‘Field’ for Jan. 9, 1864.--_Idem_ (in relation to
+Cysticerci or Measles, see Bibl. Nos. 13 and 14, and, for remarks
+on psorosperms, Bibl. No. 41).--_Cressy, N._, ‘On the Diseases of
+Domestic Animals in Connecticut (2nd and 3rd Ann. Reports),’ Hartford,
+U.S., 1873-74.--_Idem_, “The demands of Agriculture on Veterinary
+Science,” in ‘Rep. of the Mass. Board of Agric.,’ 1874.--_Idem_,
+‘Find of Sclerostoma’ (quoted by Verrill).--_Crisp_, “Note on Hydatid
+Cysts in the Abdominal Cavity of various Hogs,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1863.--_Dardel_ (see Bibl. No. 14).--_Davaine_, “Ladrarie chez le
+porc,” in his ‘Traité,’ 2ème edit., p. 668 (see also the writings of
+Delpech, Guardia, and especially Reynal, quoted at p. 674).--_Dean,
+D. V._, “On Meats and Parasites,” in ‘Seventh Ann. Rep. of Board of
+Health of the City of St Louis,’ 1874, p. 58 _et seq._--_Diesing_, ‘On
+Stephanurus’ (quoted in text above).--_Dupuy_, “Hydatid in a Pig,” from
+‘Journ. Théorique et Prat.,’ in the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. iv, 1831,
+p. 285.--_Fedschenko_, ‘Description of new Species of Tetrastemma,
+Prorhynchus, and Gnathostoma’ (in the Russian language), Moscow,
+1872.--_Fleming, A._, “Measly Pork as Food for Man,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’
+vol. i, p. 485, 1858-59.--_Idem_, “On the Measle of the Pig, and on
+the Wholesomeness, as Food for Man, of Measly Pork,” ‘Dubl. Quart.
+Journ.,’ 1857.--_Fletcher_ (quoted in text above).--_Florman_ (quoted by
+Rudolphi, ‘Synops.,’ p. 620, 1819; and by Davaine, l. c., p. 723, 1878),
+in ‘Vetensk. Acad. Nya Handlingar,’ 1810, pp. 179-182.--_Gairdner,
+W. T._, “Case of Tapeworm occurring in connection with the Eating of
+Raw Pork,” ‘Edin. Month. Journ.,’ 1856, and in the ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxix, p. 228, 1856.--_Gamgee, J._, “On Diseased Meat,” ‘Pop.
+Science Rev.,’ Jan., 1861.--_Gordon_, “On Tapeworm from Unwholesome
+Food,” ‘Med. Gaz.,’ 1857.--_Gross, S. D._, “Note on the frequency
+of Acephalocysts in Swine at Cincinnati,” in his ‘Elements of Path.
+Anat.,’ p. 118, 1845.--_Gurlt, E. F._, ‘Lehrbuch der path. Anat. der
+Haus-Saügethiere,’ 1831, s. 46, 51, 142, 385.--_Heller_ (see Bibl. No.
+13).--_Krabbe_, ‘Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme’ (l. c., in text; see also
+review in ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ April 2, 1872, p. 206).--_Leidy_, “Note on
+_Trichina spiralis_ from the Pig,” from ‘Rep. Acad. Philad.,’ in ‘Ann.
+Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xix, 1847.--_Leuckart_ (see Bibl. No. 13).--_Lewis_
+(Bibl. No. 13).--_Martin, J._, “Case of Hydatids in the Liver of a Sow,”
+‘Trans. Vet. Assoc.,’ pp. 330 and 364, 1842-43.--_Mégnin_ (Bibl. No.
+14).--_Molin_, ‘Una Monog. del Gen. Spiroptera,’ Wien, 1860.--_Morris_,
+“Report on Australian Parasites,” ‘Month. Microsc. Journ.,’ Nov.,
+1871.--_Percy, S. R._, “On Diseased Meat in relation to Public Health
+(Prize Essay),” ‘New York Med. Journ.,’ 1866.--_Idem_, “On the Food
+of Cities (an Address),” ‘New York,’ 1864.--_Perroncito_ (Bibl. No.
+13).--_Putz_ (Bibl. No. 14).--_Rainey_ (Bibl. No. 14).--_Rigetti_ (Bibl.
+No. 14).--_Sawer, A._, “Trichina,” in ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1865, p. 16.--_Schmidt, Max_ (see Bibl. No. 51).--_Tartivel_ (Bibl. No.
+14).--_Thudichum_ (Bibl. No. 13).--_Tommasi_ (Bibl. No. 13).--_Verrill_,
+“On Sclerostoma,” ‘Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts,’ Sept., 1870.--_Idem_,
+“The External and Internal Parasites of Man and Domestic Animals,” from
+‘Rep. of the Conn. Board of Agriculture,’ 1870, p. 109.--_Walker_ (see
+Bibl. No. 20, _o_).--_Wheeler, E. G._, “Worms in the Lungs of Swine,”
+‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1841.--_White, J. C._, “On Stephanurus,”
+‘Proc. Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc.,’ vol. vi, p. 428, 1858.
+
+
+PART XI (CETACEA).
+
+The parasites of whales are excessively numerous. Unfortunately only
+a few of the species have been carefully studied, and much confusion
+necessarily exists as to the number of distinct forms. This statement
+is especially applicable to the entozoal group, which comprises upwards
+of a score of species. Probably Van Beneden has examined more of these
+parasites than any one else, and what little is known respecting them is
+for the most part due to his investigations. I have myself encountered
+and described several new species--a circumstance which Prof. Van
+Beneden appears to have altogether overlooked.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--_Distoma lancea._ Original.]
+
+Commencing with the flukes, the first species I notice is _Distoma
+lancea_. The late C. M. Diesing’s description of this worm was based
+upon specimens obtained by Natterer in Brazil. The worms were discovered
+in the biliary ducts of a male dolphin dissected at Barra do Rio Negro
+on 29th December, 1833. Natterer calls this cetacean the tacuschi, and
+in a letter to Diesing names the species _Delphinus tacuschi_, in order
+to distinguish it from the _D. amazonicus_ of Spix and Martius. Prof.
+Flower has shown that Spix and Martius’s _D. amazonicus_ is referable to
+the inia or Bolivian dolphin (_Inia Geoffroyi_). The views of Flower,
+Natterer, and Diesing are thus far in agreement; and the geographical
+position of Barra shows that Natterer’s dolphin could not be the inia,
+since, as Blyth long ago remarked, this last named cetacean “inhabits
+only the remote tributaries of the Amazon and the elevated lakes of
+Peru.” Several other dolphins from Brazil have been described, one of
+which Mr Gray named _Steno tacuxi_. I think that Gray’s cetacean answers
+to the _Delphinus tacuschi_ of Natterer; but Prof. Flower is of opinion
+that Gray’s species is an ordinary Delphinus. In this case it may,
+he thinks, probably be referred either to the _D. fluviatilis_ or to
+_D. pallidus_. Whichever view is correct, it is clear that Natterer’s
+parasite was obtained from a fluviatile cetacean, and not from an
+oceanic or even an estuary form. In Diesing’s original description it
+is stated that Natterer found the _Distoma lancea_ “once only,” when
+numerous examples were secured. To Dr Anderson I stand indebted for a
+solitary specimen, which he procured from the short-snouted dolphin
+(_Orcella brevirostris_, Owen). The obliging superintendent of the
+Calcutta Museum obtained this Distoma on the 3rd of January, 1873.
+He removed it from the duodenum, but it had probably escaped from
+the liver. Be that as it may, I easily recognised the species by the
+sinuosities of the margin of the body. Dr Anderson’s parasite does not
+exhibit these marginal irregularities so distinctly and sharply as they
+are shown in Diesing’s figures. Diesing remarks that the internal organs
+may be seen through the transparent body. The uterine organs, crowded
+with ova and of a purple color, are represented by him as branched
+after the fashion of a raceme. The artist has been misled. The uterine
+channel is not branched. Dr Anderson’s specimen showed two large oval
+testes placed one above the other in the middle line, and rather higher
+up than is usual with those distomes that have the organs presenting
+this simple form. The ducts were not visible. The yelk-forming glands
+were particularly well marked, consisting of two laterally-disposed
+masses, the left gland extending higher up than its fellow. The
+so-called yelk-cells or capsules were well seen. The oval-shaped eggs
+were tolerably distinct, yielding a length of 1/750″ from pole to pole,
+by about 1/900 in transverse diameter. The worm, when unrolled, did not
+exceed 1/6″ at most, whereas some of Natterer’s specimens measured 1/2″
+in length. The neck had lost that rounded character which Diesing called
+skittle-shaped (_kegelförmige_). The ventral acetabulum is very nearly
+twice as large as the oral sucker. Diesing represents the ventral sucker
+as circular; but in Anderson’s specimen this organ was broadly oval.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Distoma Campula._ Original.]
+
+The next fluke I have to notice (_Distoma Campula_) is better known to
+me. In the twenty-second volume of the ‘Linnean Society’s Transactions’
+I first described this new fluke, having secured numerous examples from
+the peripheral branches of the biliary ducts of a porpoise (_Phocæna
+communis_). The apparently healthy cetacean was shot by Mr Jardine
+Murray in the Firth of Forth, in April, 1855. I mention its condition
+because the bile-ducts were found to be diseased in a way similar to
+that ordinarily observed in cases of fluke-rot affecting sheep, cattle,
+and other animals. In my MS. note-book I remarked: “The liver-ducts were
+in several places thickened and knotted near the surface of the organ.
+On opening these they were found to be loaded with small distomata.” It
+was added that, so long as the flukes were alive, they displayed under
+the microscope a “double and peculiar intestinal tube,” the skin being
+clothed with spines arranged throughout with perfect regularity. When
+the superficial ducts were dissected out they presented a distinctly
+beaded appearance, the enlargements of the lumen being occupied by
+flukes closely packed together. At least twenty were found in one spot.
+One of these enlarged ducts is figured in my recent paper to the Linnean
+Society (quoted below). The most striking feature connected with the
+structure of _Distoma Campula_ is the twisted condition of the digestive
+canals. They present a zigzag appearance, the lateral folds being so
+sharp that they seem to constitute, as it were, a transition between the
+ordinary simple intestinal tubes of a true _Distoma_ and the branched
+tubes seen in _Fasciola_. This led me originally to place the worms in
+a distinct genus (_Campula_). Perhaps there were no sufficient grounds
+for this generic separation; but in all Dr Anderson’s specimens obtained
+from the liver-ducts of the Gangetic dolphin more or less decomposition
+of the contents of the intestinal tubes had occurred, consequently
+the angular appearance of the folds is entirely lost. From the other
+characters presented by the worms I believe that these flukes from
+the Ganges are specifically identical with those originally obtained
+from the porpoise of the Firth of Forth. For reasons elsewhere stated
+at full length I have merged my genus Campula into that of Distoma.
+Thus, _Campula oblonga_ is a synonym only. I cannot here treat of the
+morphology of trematode organisation as it deserves; but in relation to
+the question of transition-forms I may remark in passing that an extreme
+degree of intestinal folding seems as if it must result in branching.
+This, I think, would happen should any departure from the central
+distome type be rendered necessary by the exigences of the creature.
+At all events, the spirally-twisted and branched digestive organs
+constitute different ways in which nature attains one and the same
+end. I may add that this coiled condition of the tubes in _D. Campula_
+is by no means unique, since I have seen it in other trematode forms,
+as, for example, in my _D. compactum_ from the Indian ichneumon. Dr
+Anderson’s specimens of _D. Campula_ furnish a good general view of the
+reproductive organs. They show that the single, relatively narrow, and
+unbranched uterine canal is of great length, and coiled upon itself in
+a very tortuous manner. In this way the duct passes from side to side,
+crossing the central line of the body at least a dozen times, whilst
+every fold is likewise bent upon itself to such an extent as to increase
+its length to at least four times that of the animal. In short, the
+uterine folds may be described as passing from side to side, each
+separate coil being twisted upon itself so as to form secondary coils.
+In the fluke here drawn I have accurately represented every winding of
+the duct, from its vaginal outlet above to its termination, where it
+is joined by the ovarian and vitelligene ducts in the ordinary way.
+Only the merest traces of these smaller channels were visible; but the
+two oval testes were well defined, occupying a position somewhat lower
+down than usual. There was a third organ, apparently the ovary. This
+was less well defined, and situated higher up in the middle line. The
+vitelligene glands occupied the usual position. The terminal cells or
+capsules with their efferent ducts were well seen in several specimens.
+The water-vascular system was constantly visible, or at least that part
+of the main channel which expands into a large vesicle immediately above
+the central point of the tail. At this part several of the specimens
+ruptured. In all of the worms the lower end exhibited a sort of tail,
+resulting from _post-mortem_ changes. None of the Edinburgh specimens
+of Campula displayed either the slightest trace of this projection or
+of the water-vessel connected with it. The uterine duct was filled
+with eggs. Approximately, the ova gave a measurement of 1/1000″ from
+pole to pole by 1/2100″ in breadth. Although in Anderson’s specimens
+the integumentary spines had fallen off, they are still attached in
+my original specimens from Edinburgh. The spines average 1/500″ in
+length. With their shafts directed downwards they separately presented
+the form of a long cone, the base of which was only 1/1000″ broad.
+After describing the above-mentioned trematodes I received a letter
+from Dr Anderson, in which he enclosed a sketch of a parasite taken
+from the small intestine of another _Platanista_. The illustration
+evidently represented a new species of cetacean fluke which I called
+_Distoma Andersoni_, with the following diagnosis:--“Body oblong, smooth
+externally, uniform in thickness, six times as long as broad; head with
+lateral projections; ventral sucker large and prominent; neck much
+constricted; tail evenly rounded off, blunt. Length 1/8″, breadth about
+1/50″.” This worm, which was discovered by Anderson, in March, 1873,
+is figured in my memoir communicated to the Linnean Society. Only one
+parasite was found. The figure in question shows that in this species
+the testes are globular and placed high up in the middle line of the
+body. A small lobed gland immediately above the testes is probably the
+ovary. The vitelligene glands are largely developed. In the year 1858
+Van Beneden described a large fluke from the pike-whale (_Balænoptera
+rostrata_). The specimens were from Eschricht’s collection and had
+been removed from the liver. As some of the examples measured no less
+than 80 millimètres, Van Beneden described them as “the largest known
+distomes.” This is probably correct, but the great human fluke (_D.
+crassum_) reaches 2-1/2″, and the giraffe’s fluke (_Fasciola gigantea_)
+3 inches in length. The curator of the Australian Museum, at Sydney, Mr
+Gerard Krefft, mentions a _Distoma_ which himself and Mr George Masters
+obtained from _Delphinus Forsteri_. Not improbably it represents a
+new species. Of the single-suckered flukes, Creplin in 1825 obtained
+_Monostoma plicatum_ from the intestines and œsophagus of a northern
+whale. This cetacean was obtained on the coast of the island of Rugen,
+in the Baltic. It has been variously spoken of as _Balæna borealis_ or
+_B. rostrata_, but by Van Beneden this cetacean is called _Balænoptera
+musculus_. The flukes exceeded 1/4″ in length. Another species of
+monostome (_M. delphini_) was vaguely indicated by Blainville as
+occupying the cutaneous follicles of _Delphinus Dalei_, which cetacean
+is a synonym of _Micropteron sowerbiensis_. The same worm is supposed
+by Van Beneden to infest the bottle-head (_Hyperoodon butzkopf_),
+and perhaps it was the same or a similar worm which Poelman found in
+the flesh of _Lagenorhynchus Eschrichti_. By naturalists imperfectly
+acquainted with helminths, the monostomes are apt to be confounded with
+Cysticerci; nevertheless, these widely different types may coexist in
+the same host. The presence of larval cestodes has been indicated in
+various whales. Thus, F. Cuvier and Van Beneden state that Surgeon-Major
+Carnot, in 1822, found an enormous quantity of small hydatids in the
+nasal sinuses of a porpoise (_Phocæna compressicaudata_). These are
+supposed to be Cysticerci. In like manner Mr F. D. Bennett, in 1837,
+obtained numerous capsuled Cysticerci from the skin and blubber of
+_Catodon_ (_Physeter_) _macrocephalus_. It is unfortunate that so few
+of the cetacean helminths find their way into the hands of persons
+competent to decide upon their true character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--_Diphyllobothrium stemmacephalum_. _a_, Head,
+neck and upper part of the strobile; _b_, front, and, _c_, profile views
+of the head. Enlarged. Original.]
+
+Mr Bennett’s “find” was originally stated to have been made in _Balæna
+mysticetus_, but Van Beneden refers it to the northern sperm-whale or
+blunt-headed cachalot. The naturalist Bosc noticed a larval cestode
+found in the fatty tissues surrounding the reproductive organs of
+_Delphinus delphis_. He called it an hydatid (_Hydatis_), and Rudolphi
+placed it with the Cysticerci (_C. delphini_). According to Van Beneden
+the parasite in question is probably a sexually-immature example of the
+_Phyllobothrium delphini_ described by his son. Edouard Van Beneden
+found this scolex in great abundance in a dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_),
+which he dissected at Concarneau in 1868. The sexually-mature state of
+this worm is, as the Belgian _savans_ remark, to be looked for in some
+one or other of the larger sharks. The _Phyllobothrium_ has also been
+found in the black fish, tursio, or high-finned cachalot (_Physeter
+tursio_). M. Gerrard Krefft has described a cestode from the stomach of
+a dolphin (_Delphinus Forsteri_), which he terms _Tænia Forsteri_. The
+strobile only measured 2-1/2″ in length. It is just possible that the
+worm may be identical with the species found by Schott. Unfortunately
+M. Krefft did not find any ova, and his figures do not indicate the
+position of the reproductive pores, if, indeed, they were present. In
+this place, therefore, it is fitting to remark that, under the name
+of _Tetrabothrium triangulare_, Diesing has furnished the diagnosis
+of a small cestode found by Schott in _Delphinus rostratus_ off the
+coast of Portugal. The strobile measured only two or three inches in
+length, and showed a uniserial disposition of the reproductive pores.
+Remarking on this species Van Beneden has stated that this is the only
+sexually-mature tapeworm hitherto encountered in the intestines of
+the cetacea. This observation, made in 1870, is somewhat unfortunate,
+because I had already, in the year 1855, described a very large and
+mature form of cestode (_Diphyllobothrium stemmacephalum_) from the
+common porpoise (_Delphinus phocæna_). As stated by me to the Linnean
+Society in December, 1857, the small intestine of this porpoise was
+completely choked for the space of eight or nine feet by fine tapeworms
+so closely packed together that the gut presented the appearance of a
+solid cylinder. The same porpoise yielded the flukes already described
+(_D. Campula_). As afterwards remarked in my treatise on the ‘Entozoa’
+(1864), four of the tapeworms measured, respectively, from 7′ to 10′
+in length, the fifth example being relatively small (18″ only). For
+a full description of the worm I must refer either to the Linnean
+‘Transactions’ or to my introductory volume whence the figures here
+given are taken. Five of the finest examples of this remarkable cestode
+have been added to the small collection of entozoa which I prepared for
+the Museum of the Middlesex Hospital Medical College. The head of this
+large cestode is excessively minute. The same cetacean host not only
+yielded these new cestodes and flukes, but also great numbers of the
+well-known strongyloid lung-worms, called _Prosthecosacter inflexus_
+and _P. convolutus_. Another species (_P. minor_ or _Pharurus minor_)
+also infests the porpoise, and a fourth (_P. alatus_) the narwhal. As I
+have elsewhere observed (‘Entozoa,’ p. 91), the three first mentioned
+forms are readily distinguishable from each other by their relative
+size and length, and also more especially by the form of the tail. The
+females of _P. inflexus_ attain a length of nine inches, and those of
+_P. convolutus_ may be upwards of 1-1/2″ in length, whilst those of
+_P. minor_ do not exceed an inch. The species described by Leuckart,
+from _Monodon monoceros_, is only half an inch long. All the forms
+infesting the porpoise were met with by Professor Quekett, and one of
+them has been carefully anatomised by Professor Busk. Probably several
+other species will be discovered when the lungs and cranial sinuses of
+the larger cetacea are carefully examined for this purpose. The form
+(_P. convolutus_) here represented is the least known of the three
+infesting the porpoise. This species has been dissected by Kuhn and
+Eschricht, whilst the other species have not only been examined by
+these authors, but also by Raspail, Dujardin, Von Siebold, Van Beneden,
+Leidy, and several other helminthologists. Some of Professor Busk’s
+examples of the male worm (_P. convolutus_) were fully fifteen lines
+long, yet, from the condition of the internal reproductive organs, he
+was led to believe that they were not quite fully grown. I cannot here
+repeat the anatomical details given in my former work, but I may add
+that all the species of this genus reproduce viviparously. If the worms
+are examined in the fresh state the young may occasionally be seen
+escaping by the vagina. Professor Van Beneden noticed this phenomenon in
+_Prosthecosacter inflexus_, and the same thing was observed by Busk in
+_P. convolutus_. In the instance here drawn (Fig. 71) one of the embryos
+is in the act of emerging, its caudal extremity being still lodged
+within the vulva of the parent. In the fresh worm one may also see,
+under the magnifying glass, numerous young worms coiled together within
+the oviduct; the last-named organ widening out into a capacious sac at
+a little distance above the end of the tail. The embryos measure about
+1/300″ by 1/5000″ in breadth. Higher up, within the uterine and ovarian
+ducts, the ova may be seen in all stages of development, according to
+the particular region of the tube under examination. In their full-grown
+condition the eggs have a longitudinal diameter of 1/1100″ by a
+transverse measurement of about 1/1700″.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Tail of the male _Prosthecosacter convolutus_.
+Highly magnified. After Busk.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Tail of the female _Prosthecosacter convolutus_
+(magnified 60 diameters), with a section of the oviduct (magnified 220
+diameters), and a separate embryo (magnified 350 diameters). After Busk.]
+
+As regards the development and migrations of the young worms, it is
+highly probable that the embryos enter the bodies of various fishes
+before they have acquired sexual maturity. Thence they will be
+passively transferred to the stomachs of cetacea, whence they bore their
+way through the tissues to the bronchi and pulmonary vessels. Though
+usually found in these situations they also infest the cranial sinuses.
+_Prosthecosacter minor_ is frequently lodged within the cavity of the
+tympanum. Professor Quekett and myself, working independently, found
+examples of _P. inflexus_ occupying the chambers of the heart. Under
+the name of _Filaria inflexicaudata_, Prof. Von Siebold has described
+yet another pulmonary nematode from the porpoise. It occupied cysts
+in the lung. Like the strongyloids above mentioned, the females are
+viviparous, but the males are destitute of any caudal hood. In the
+whale (_Balænoptera_) killed off the isle of Rugen, and already alluded
+to, M. Rosenthal obtained a large number of Filariæ (_F. crassicauda_,
+Creplin). To employ Dujardin’s words the worms were situated “dans les
+corps caverneux du pénis d’une _Balæna rostrata_.” The males and females
+measured respectively 6-1/2 and 13 inches in length. Several forms of
+ascarides are known to infest cetaceans. The species called _Ascaris
+simplex_ by Rudolphi was originally procured from the œsophagus and
+stomach of the dolphin of the Ganges and afterwards by Albers from the
+common porpoise. According to Diesing the worms obtained by Dussumier
+from a dolphin, taken off the Maldive Islands, must be referred to
+the same species, but Van Beneden maintains that Dussumier’s “find”
+refers to a distinct species, which he calls _Ascaris Dussumierii_. To
+this view I cannot see any objection, but I think that Van Beneden’s
+retention of Lebeck’s _Ascaris delphini_ as distinct from _A. simplex_
+is untenable. Speaking of examples of this entozoon received from
+Calcutta, I have remarked in the ‘Zoological Society’s Proceedings’
+that Dr John Anderson’s collection of parasites showed four specimens
+of this species. The worms had been obtained from the intestines of
+_Platanista gangetica_. Singular to say, all the examples were of the
+female sex, the two largest measuring about 1-3/8″ from head to tail.
+The smaller worms did not exceed one inch in length. In connection with
+these specimens (all of which were carefully examined by me on the
+28th of September, 1875) I have only to add that they presented the
+peculiarly flexed state of the chylous intestine described by Dujardin.
+As that helminthologist had accurately surmised, the _Ascaris delphini_
+of Rudolphi must be regarded as identical with this species. It is
+impossible to say how many distinct species of cetacean lumbricoid worms
+exist. Messrs Krefft and Masters found a species of _Ascaris_ infesting
+a _Delphinus Forsteri_ taken off Sidney, New South Wales. Creplin also,
+in 1851, described a species (_A. angulivalvis_) from the intestines
+of _Balæna rostrata_. The males are less than three inches long, the
+females measuring 3-1/2″. The late C. M. Diesing received from Prof.
+Steenstrup a notice of some nematodes taken from a narwhal (_Monodon
+monoceros_), which appeared to the Vienna authority to be scarcely
+different from Creplin’s worm. Under the title _Conocephalus typicus_
+Diesing has both figured and described a remarkable nematode, two
+inches in length, which possesses the power of retracting its conical,
+or, rather, mushroom-shaped head within the body, somewhat after the
+manner of certain Echinorhynchi. His description is based upon museum
+specimens that were obtained from the stomach of a dolphin (probably
+_Delphinus delphis_) captured in the Atlantic Ocean. In addition to
+the above nematodes some few others remain to be mentioned. Thus, the
+_Peritrachelius insignis_ of Diesing was obtained by Natterer from the
+stomach of _Delphinus amazonicus_ (Spix and Martius). The largest males
+measured 3-1/2″ and the females 5-1/2″.
+
+Another singular parasite, named by its discoverer, Roussel de Vauzème,
+_Odontobius ceti_, was found by him in the mucus covering the bristles
+(_fanons_) of _Balæna australis_. The separate worms measured about
+1/5″ in length only, but they occurred in very great numbers. Lastly,
+Van Beneden points to certain filiform worms found by Pallas in the
+cavity of the ear of _Beluga leucas_ as probably representing another
+distinct species of nematode, which he designates _Strongylus Pallasii_.
+I suspect, however, they will only have been fine specimens of
+_Prosthecosacter minor_. Be that as it may, it is as well to be reminded
+that Albers and Mehlis, and also Klein, Camper, and Rosenthal, found _P.
+minor_ within the tympanic cavity of the common porpoise. When looking
+into the Museum stores of the Royal College of Surgeons, I found many
+choice examples of the genus _Prosthecosacter_. Some few were evidently
+Hunterian, but others had been separately contributed by Professors Owen
+and Quekett.
+
+The acanthocephalous entozoa are well represented in whales. One
+of the commonest species is _Echinorhynchus porrigens_, of which I
+possess specimens given me by Prof. Goodsir, who procured them from a
+_Balænoptera rostrata_, captured in the Firth of Forth. The Hunterian
+Collection contains examples of this worm, recorded as having been
+obtained from _Balæna mysticetus_; and also several Echinorhynchi from
+the pike-whale. Professor Owen regards these last-named entozoa as
+distinct (_E. balanocephalus_, Owen). Probably Hunter’s whale-worms,
+which resembled _E. filicollis_ of the eider duck, and which Van Beneden
+has characterised as representing a distinct species (_E. mysticeti_),
+were examples of _E. porrigens_. The specimens set up by me for the
+Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons were all of Hunterian origin.
+The whole subject of cetacean Echinorhynchi requires revision, and
+would well repay special investigation. The small, oval-shaped entozoa
+found by Murie in a whale which Van Beneden refers to _Balænoptera
+musculus_ were probably examples of a distinct species of this genus
+(_E. Muriei_). The Vienna helminthologist has described a small species
+(_E. turbinella_) obtained by Hyrtl from _Hyperoodon butzkopf_. The male
+worms measured 1/2″ in length. Another small species (_F. pellucidus_)
+was discovered by Leuckart in the intestines of _Delphinus delphis_,
+the males measuring less than 1/4″, and the females about 1/2 an inch.
+Lastly, under the name of _Echinorhynchus brevicollis_, Van Beneden has
+indicated another species found by Malm in the intestines of a curious
+whale (_Balænoptera Sibbaldii_) captured alive off the coast of Sweden.
+The Louvain _savant_ refers to the “take” of another example of this
+rare whale in the Firth of Forth about the same period. A good many
+whales have been captured of late years off our English and Scottish
+coasts, but, unfortunately, very little effort has been made to collect
+the numerous entozoa which they undoubtedly will have contained.
+
+The external parasites and fellow-boarders or messmates of Cetacea
+are almost as numerous as helminths. In this work, however, little
+account can be taken of them. Every naturalist is familiar with the
+common _Cyamus balænarum_, and voyagers tell us that the whales are
+sometimes so densely covered by these lice that they impart to the
+skin a white color, and so enable the fishermen to see their victims
+at a great distance. The _Cyami_ and _Caprellæ_ are closely allied
+forms of læmodipodous crustaceans. Professor Lütken, of Copenhagen, has
+enumerated about a dozen distinct species of _Cyami_ which are parasitic
+upon whales. Some of the _Pycnogonidæ_ are said to attach themselves
+to whales. In their young state they are known to be parasitic upon
+polyps. I obtained specimens of these in 1856. The barnacles found on
+whales are genuine messmates; when once they have attached themselves
+to the skin, they remain permanently fixed. Like the _Cyami_ or true
+whale-lice, these parasitic cirrhipeds are so numerous that almost
+every cetacean host may be said to carry its own species of louse and
+its own species of barnacle. The classification of these creatures is
+an admitted difficulty, even amongst skilled crustaceologists. The
+genera of cirrhipeds that are parasitic upon whales chiefly belong to
+the genera _Coronula_, _Diadema_, _Tubicinella_, and _Conchoderma_,
+but in addition to these, many lernæans of the genera _Penella_ and
+_Lerneonema_ are found on whales, and also, according to Van Beneden,
+at least one species of _Acarus_. This mite (_Acaridina balænarum_, Van
+Beneden) is found on _Balæna australis_. Here I must stop. The limits of
+this work preclude my attempting a more extended notice or enumeration
+of the crustacean and arachnidan parasites.
+
+Notwithstanding the known differences existing between the phytophagous
+manatee-dugong group and the true whales, the parasites of this
+remarkable order of mammals (_Sirenia_) will be most conveniently
+noticed in this place. Not much is known respecting them. A single
+species of Amphistome (_A. fabaceum_) of the usual size has been
+described and figured by Diesing from the cæcum and large intestine of
+Natterer’s manatee (_Manatus exunguis_), the same mammal yielding a
+rather peculiar nematode, _Heterocheilus tunicatus_. This worm possesses
+a complicated set of cephalic lobes and oral papillæ, which at first
+induced Diesing to call the genus _Lobocephalus_. These structures have
+been fully described and figured in Diesing’s account of the anatomy of
+the worm in the ‘Annals of the Vienna Museum.’ The males measure 1-1/4″
+and the females up to 1-1/2″ in length. From the stomach of an Indian
+dugong (_Halicore_) Rüppell and several other naturalists obtained
+lumbricoid worms (_Ascaris halicoris_, Owen), the males of which
+measured 2-1/4″ and the females from four to five inches in length.
+Rüppell’s specimens were from the Red Sea and Owen’s from Penang.
+From the now extinct _Rhytina Stelleri_ similar worms were obtained
+by Steller, who called them _Lumbrici caudidi_. Following Brandt’s
+nomenclature the species has since been recognised as _Ascaris rhytinæ_.
+The worms measured half a foot in length, and occupied the stomach and
+duodenum. They were obtained by Steller in July, 1742, the last of the
+Rhytinas having been seen in 1768.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 55).--_Baird_, “Entozoa of Cete,” ‘Brit. Mus.
+Catalogue,’ Index, p. 120, 1853:--_Idem_, “_Ascaris halicoris_,”
+in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1860, p. 329; see also “Description of a
+rare Entozoon from the Stomach of the Dugong,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’
+1859.--_Beneden, P. J. van_, “Les Cétacés, leurs commensaux et
+leurs parasites,” ‘Bullet. de l’Acad. Royale de Belgique,’ p. 348,
+1870.--_Idem_, ‘Animal Parasites,’ 1876.--_Beneden, E. van_, in
+‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1868.--_Bennett, D._, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1837, p.
+30.--_Brandt_, “_Asc. dugonis_ and _A. rhytinæ_,” in ‘Bull. P.-Math.
+de l’Acad. Imp. des Sci. de St Peters,’ tom. v, p. 192.--_Cobbold_,
+“Trematode Parasites from the Dolphins of the Ganges, _Platanista
+gangetica_ and _Orcella brevirostris_,” ‘Linn. Soc. Journ.,’ Zool. Div.,
+vol. xiii, p. 35, 1876.--_Idem_, “Entozoa of _Delphinus phocæna_,”
+‘Linn. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xvii, p. 167, 1858.--_Idem_, “Descript. of
+_Asc. Andersoni_,” in ‘Notes on Entozoa,’ part iv, in ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ March, 1876, p. 296.--_Idem_, ‘Catalogue of the Specimens of
+Entozoa in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons (Preps. Nos.
+39-43 and 98-101),’ 1866; see also Owen, for an account of the Hunterian
+specimens of Echinorhynchi.--_Creplin, F. C. H._, “Note on a Filaria and
+a Monostoma from a Whale (_Balæna rostrata_),” from ‘Nova Acta Acad. N.
+C.,’ xiv, in ‘Zool. Journ.,’ 1832-34, vol. v, p. 381; and in ‘Ersch. and
+Grube’s Encyclop.,’ 1846, s. 172.--_Idem_, “On _Asc. angulivalvis_,” in
+‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1851, s. 158.--_Diesing_, “On _Heterocheilus_ and
+_Amphist. fabaceum_,” in ‘Neue Gattungen von Binnenwürmen (u. s. w.),’
+‘Annalen des Wiener Museums,’ 1839.--_Idem_, “Descr. of Conocephalus,”
+in ‘Revision der Nematoden’ (1860), from ‘Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d. w.
+math.-naturw.,’ 1861, s. 669.--_Dujardin_, ‘On Odontobius,’ l. c., p.
+292.--_Idem_, ‘_Ech. porrigens_,’ p. 504.--_Idem_, ‘_Fil. crassicauda_,’
+p. 50.--_Idem_, ‘Stenurus,’ p. 266.--_Idem_, ‘_Asc. simplex_,’ p.
+220.--_Krefft_, “Parasites of Forster’s Dolphin,” in his ‘Australian
+Entozoa,’ from ‘Trans. Etom. Soc. of New South Wales,’ Sydney,
+1871.--_Lebeck_, “_Asc. delphini_” (quoted by Rudolphi), Synops., p.
+296, from ‘Neue Schriften der Berl. Gesellsch. Naturf. Freunde,’ Bd.
+iii, s. 282.--_Leuckart, R._, “On Pharurus,” in ‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’
+1848, s. 26.--_Murie_, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1865, p. 213.--_Owen_,
+“_Asc. halicoris_,” ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’ 1838, and in art. “Entoz.,”
+‘Todd’s Cyclop.’--_Idem_, “On Echinorhynchi,” in his ‘Catal. of the
+Contents of the Roy. Coll. Surg. Museum,’ part iv, fasc. i, p. 44; and
+for the “External Parasites of Whales,” _ibid._, p. 74, 1830.--_Quekett,
+J._, “On the Anatomy of four species of Entozoa,” abstract from ‘Proc.
+of Micros. Soc.,’ in ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. viii, 1842; also in
+‘Micros. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 125, and in the original series
+of ‘Trans. of the Micros. Soc. of Lond.,’ vol. i, p. 44, 1844.--_Idem_,
+in ‘Baird’s Brit. Mus. Catal. of Entoz.,’ p. 3, 1853.--_Roussel de
+Vauzème_, “On Odontobius,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1834, p. 326, and
+in ‘Isis,’ 1836.--_Rüppell_, “Entozoa Dugonis,” in ‘Abhandl. der
+Senkenbergschen Museums,’ i, s. 106.--_Siebold, Von_, “On _Filaria
+inflexicaudata_,” in ‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1842, s. 347.
+
+
+PART XII (MARSUPIALIA).
+
+The well-known fact that, in respect of their habits, the pouched
+mammals epitomise, as it were, the non-marsupial quadrupeds, would
+naturally lead us to look for a repetition of corresponding type-forms
+of entozoa as guests within their bodies. Speaking generally, the
+inference is correct; but very few of the entozoa hitherto found
+in marsupials correspond, as species, with those infesting man and
+non-pouched mammalia. A noteworthy exception occurs in the case of
+the common liver-fluke, which is abundant in the great kangaroo
+(_Macropus major_). This fact was well known to Bremser and all the
+older helminthologists, and it has since been confirmed by numerous
+observers resident in Australia. The late Dr Rowe, an acute observer
+and successful stock-breeder, who wrote chiefly in connection with the
+sanitary bearings of parasitism, remarked that “the native animals of
+Australia are much infested with internal parasites. Some of those now
+found in the kangaroo and the smaller marsupials may have been derived
+from our domestic animals; but tapeworms and other internal parasites
+have been met with in animals occupying regions wholly unsettled.”
+Precisely so. That is just what we should expect. The Australian
+indigenous mammals have their own entozoa as a matter of course, and, in
+addition, they have contracted a few species from the domestic animals
+introduced into the country. On the whole, however, it cannot be said
+that the parasites of marsupials are of much practical consequence
+to agriculturists, since, with the exception of flukes, and probably
+hydatids, the Australian marsupials do not appear to harbor any entozoa
+that are likely to prove injurious to man and his domestic companions.
+The amount of fluke-germ distribution by kangaroos must be infinitesimal
+as compared with that proceeding from sheep and other kinds of “stock;”
+therefore on the score of parasitism alone it is not desirable to hasten
+the slaughter of kangaroos. From the scientific standpoint, it is to be
+regretted that the naturalists of New South Wales and other colonies
+have done so little towards defining the various species of marsupial
+entozoa. Mr Krefft, in his interesting brochure on Australian entozoa,
+describes a few tapeworms, and also points to several round worms which
+may be new to science, but with the exception of the common fluke no
+trematode appears to have been encountered by himself or Mr Masters
+in the various marsupials which they examined in the neighbourhood of
+Sydney and Queensland. Dr Bancroft, of Brisbane, has placed in my hands
+a small collection of entozoa, several of which have been obtained from
+marsupials, but their identification remains partly in abeyance.
+
+Besides the liver-fluke, the only marsupial trematodes at present
+fairly described appear to be _Hemistoma alatum_, and two species of
+_Rhopalophorus_ (_R. coronatus_ and _R. horridus_). All of these were
+obtained by Natterer from the opossums of tropical America. One of these
+flukes was described at some length by Rudolphi, who called the species
+_Distoma coronatum_, and gave its length as varying from two to four
+lines. Diesing, in one of his best illustrated monographs, has shown
+that the opossums in question are infested by two distinct species of
+fluke, which must be generically separated from the distomes. These
+singular _Rhopalophori_ are furnished with a pair of armed retractile
+proboscides (Bohrüsseln), which must form powerful organs of anchorage.
+The worms are found attached to the walls of the stomach and small
+intestines.
+
+The tapeworms of marsupials are more numerous than flukes. Thus, we have
+Rudolphi’s _Tænia festiva_, eight to ten inches in length, occupying the
+gall-bladder and hepatic duct of _Macropus giganteus_. Dr Bancroft’s
+collection contains two almost perfect examples of a tapeworm which
+he procured from a small streaked kangaroo (_Halmaturus Derbyanus_).
+These I have identified as _T. festiva_. In this worm the reproductive
+papillæ, not hitherto observed, are biserially arranged. Fragments of a
+tapeworm (_T. didelphidis_) are preserved in the Vienna Museum, taken
+from the intestines of the American _Didelphis murina_. From different
+species of wallaby (_Halmaturus_) Mr Gerard Krefft has given more or
+less complete descriptions of two tapeworms (_Tænia fimbriata_, and _T.
+Mastersii_), and a probable Bothriocephalus (_B. marginatus_). I am not
+in a position to pronounce upon the distinctness of these Australian
+_Tæniæ_; but I may observe that Krefft’s _T. fimbriata_ comes very near
+to another species which Dr Bancroft has given me. The Brisbane _savant_
+obtained the worm from a koala (_Phascolarctos cinereus_). Provisionally
+I call this species _Tænia geophiloides_, in allusion to its general
+resemblance to a long millipede. The single, perfect strobile, with
+the head attached, measures thirteen inches in length. Prof. Leidy has
+furnished a description of another tapeworm (_T. bipapillosa_) from a
+wombat (_Phascolomys_), and Mr Krefft has described yet another species
+obtained from the common vulpine opossum (_Phalangista vulpina_). The
+single example in Krefft’s possession measures four inches in length.
+He has named it _Tænia phalangistæ_. Some of the American opossums
+(_Didelphys brachyura_, and _D. quica_) have been found to harbor a
+species of ligula (_L. reptans_, Diesing) in the sexually-immature
+state. Lastly, I find in Bancroft’s collection several tapeworms
+obtained from that small and interesting monotreme marsupial commonly
+known as the Australian hedgehog, echidna, or porcupine ant-eater of
+the colonists (_Tachyglossus setosus_). The strobiles, which are nearly
+perfect, average three inches in length, and are made of very narrow
+and closely-set proglottides. This species is evidently new to science,
+and as such I propose to call it _Tænia phoptica_, in allusion to its
+thick-set appearance and its consequent burdensome character to the
+bearer. The largest proglottides measure fully 3/8″ in width. There can
+be little doubt that the presence of any considerable number of such
+comparatively large tapeworms must seriously incommode, if they do not
+actually prove fatal to their unfortunate hosts.
+
+So far as regards mere variety of species, the nematode fauna of
+marsupials is probably far in excess of that of the trematodes and
+cestodes. I cannot therefore do much more than enumerate the species.
+The Hunterian Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons contains the
+original “worms found alive within the capsular ligaments of the
+knee-joint of a kangaroo,” which have been indicated as _Filariæ
+macropodis gigantei_. It would, in my opinion, be far better to call
+the worm, after its discoverer, Webster’s filaria (_F. Websteri_).
+Dr Bancroft has likewise encountered this same parasite in the great
+kangaroo. From the abdominal cavity of a wallaby Leidy has also obtained
+a filaria (_F. spelæa_). The American opossums (_Didelphys_) are much
+infested by _Ascaris tentaculata_, which is found in the cæcum, and many
+of them also harbor a small whipworm (_Trichocephalus minutus_). Another
+tolerably abundant nematode (_Physaloptera turgida_) was obtained by
+Natterer from the stomach of _Didelphys azaræ_, _D. myosurus_, and _D.
+cancrivora_. The only other nematode mentioned in Diesing’s ‘Systema’
+is _Aspidocephalus scoleciformis_. This is found in _D. murina_, and
+_D. domestica_. From the opossum of the United States (_D. virginiana_)
+Prof. Leidy has also obtained _Asc. tentaculata_, _Trichocephalus
+minutus_, and _Physaloptera_ (Spiroptera) _turgida_. According to Molin
+there are grounds for separating some of these stomach-worms into
+distinct species. Thus, he has recognised the examples found by Natterer
+in _Didelphys myosurus_ as belonging to the genus _Histiocephalus_, as
+emended by himself. If the separation be allowed, then we must add to
+the list Molin’s _Histiocephalus subulatus_. From Bancroft’s collection
+I am certainly in possession of two distinct kinds of nematode taken
+from the stomach of _Halmaturus Derbyensis_. I have also two species of
+nematode from _Macropus giganteus_. Their identification, however, is a
+matter for future consideration. Lastly, as regards the acanthocephalous
+parasites, only one species appears to have been described. This worm
+(_Echinorhynchus microcephalus_) was obtained by Olfers in Brazil,
+from the intestines of _Didelphus philander_. It also occurs in _D.
+virginiana_. Being a tolerably large species, that is to say 3″ in
+length, it seems surprising that it has not been found in the American
+opossums generally.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 56).--_Cobbold_ (see Rowe). _Diesing_, ‘Syst.,’ l. c.,
+p. 519; also monogr. ‘Binnenwürmen’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 55).--_Krefft,
+G._, ‘Australian Entozoa’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 55).--_Leidy_, ‘Proc.
+Philad. Acad.,’ 1856.--_Idem_, “Tapeworm from the Wombat,” _ibid._,
+1875, p. 6.--_Molin_, “Una monogr. del genere Physaloptera,” p.
+10, “Una monogr. del gen. Dispharagus,” and “Una monogr. del gen.
+Histiocephalus,” p. 37, aus dem xxxix Bd., d. ‘Sitz. d. m.-nat. Cl.
+d. k. Akad. der Wissensch.,’ s. 479-507 und s. 637-672, 1860.--_Rowe,
+J._, “Parasitism in Australia” (in which the author sought to benefit
+stock-owners by utilising, prophylactically, my published opinions),
+repr. from the ‘Melbourne Leader’ in the ‘Veterinarian,’ May,
+1874.--_Rudolphi_ (in ref. to _Dist. coronatum_), ‘Synops.,’ p. 116
+and 686.--_Webster_ (respecting his “Filaria,” see), ‘Catalogue of the
+Hunterian Collection of Entozoa,’ p. 7, prep. 49, 1866; also the old
+‘Catal. of the Museum Roy. Coll. Surg.’ (by Owen), part iv, fasc. i, p.
+37, No. 170; also Diesing’s ‘System,’ p. 280, and Froriep’s ‘Notizen,’
+Bd. xlii, s. 328.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+
+To give an air of completeness to this treatise, I shall devote the few
+pages remaining at my disposal to a brief summary of the general facts
+of parasitism as witnessed in birds, reptiles, fishes, and evertebrated
+animals. For details I must refer to the separate original works and
+memoirs quoted in the appended bibliographies.
+
+
+PART I (AVES).
+
+A prodigious number of entozoa are known to infest birds. So far from
+birds being less victimised than mammals, the contrary is the case.
+Every now and then avian epizoötics, due to parasites, sweep off
+hundreds of these attractive hosts, and in some cases even nestlings
+are not secure from entozoal invasion. It might be supposed that
+predacious birds would be more liable to invasion than the graminivorous
+species. Such is not the case. The eagles, hawks, vultures, and owls
+certainly harbor a great variety of helminths, but as much may be said
+of the grain-feeding game birds, and still more of the water birds.
+Pheasants and land-fowl, grouse and partridges, are largely infested;
+whilst, of water-fowl, herons and plovers, rails and snipe, ducks and
+geese, cormorants and divers, gulls and awks, play the rôle of host to
+a practically infinite variety of parasitic guests. The presence of
+the worm-guests does not imply any previously diseased condition of
+the host. Shoot any water bird, say an oyster catcher (_Hæmatopus_),
+or, still better, a grebe (_Podiceps_), and then carefully examine its
+intestinal contents. You will probably find in its interior flukes and
+round worms, tapeworms and Echinorhynchi. Capture and examine a frog or
+a salamander. The result is the same, except that the cestodes would
+probably be absent. As for fishes, if entozoa be a proof of cachexia,
+then it follows that the normal condition of all piscine hosts is a
+diseased state. Examine any tolerably well-grown salmon, trout, pike,
+perch, roach, chub, carp, or barbel, and probably any one of them will
+contain at least three different kinds of parasites, each of which will
+be present in more or less considerable numbers. From what is stated
+above it would be obviously futile to attempt even an enumeration of
+the species of avian entozoa--a remark which applies almost equally to
+the other groups of hosts that remain for consideration. Confining our
+attention to a few of the more noteworthy facts, I may observe that
+we have no very trustworthy data respecting the power for mischief
+possessed by flukes. From what we know of their destructiveness in man
+and certain other mammals, it would be hazardous to pronounce them
+harmless. Scientifically, they furnish particulars of great interest.
+One of the most striking facts of recent study relates to Zeller’s
+discovery that the little cercariæ (_C. exfoliata_) which are contained
+in a peculiar sporocyst (_Leucochloridium paradoxum_), infesting the
+tentacles of a snail (_Succinea amphibia_), are in reality larval forms
+of a fluke (_Distoma macrostomum_) which resides in the intestinal canal
+of warblers (_Sylviadæ_). By experiment Dr Zeller reared the _Distoma_
+in question in the intestines of whitethroats (_Curruca garrula_), in
+blackcaps (_C. atricapilla_), and in wagtails (_Motacilla_). Six days
+after transference the Cercariæ acquired sexual maturity. The odd thing
+is, that as the sporocystic _Leucochloridia_ resemble insect larvæ, they
+are attacked and swallowed by the birds under delusion. It is a curious
+example of mimetism in favour of the fluke’s welfare. To this and other
+equally brilliant scientific results helminthologists were gradually
+led up by the earlier researches of Steenstrup and Van Beneden. As
+remarked in my ‘Entozoa,’ ever since Steenstrup’s discovery of the fact
+that Cercariæ found in the bodies of water-snails were larval flukes,
+a peculiar interest has attached itself to this subject. Not only were
+the conclusions which he elicited novel in themselves, but they formed
+a basis for the enunciation of that interesting “law of alternate
+generation” with which the famous Danish naturalist’s name will ever
+remain associated. In all essential particulars Steenstrup’s statements
+have been verified.
+
+By way of illustrating the phases of development through which the
+distomes pass I cannot do better than recapitulate in an abridged
+form the account I have previously given of _Distoma_ (_Echinostoma_)
+_militare_ of the snipe and curlew. This account is based on the
+investigations of Van Beneden, Von Siebold, and Pagenstecher. I
+regret that it is out of my power to reproduce the illustrations
+that have already appeared on this head in my introductory treatise
+(see ‘Entozoa,’ figs. 5 to 9 inclusive). Our _Echinostoma militare_
+produces oval-shaped eggs, which give birth to a free ciliated embryo,
+and this embryo produces a sporocyst or scolex by internal budding.
+When the sporocyst separates itself from the embryo it presents a
+very simple appearance, but showing already a cæcal digestive tube.
+The tail end is fissured, indicating an early stage of formation of
+caudal appendages. In the next stage we have a well-developed head and
+body, the tail becoming strongly pronounced. Limb-like caudal lobes
+project on either side, and an oral sucker makes its appearance in
+front. This sucker communicates with the œsophageal bulb and passes
+directly into the digestive cæcum, which contains a variable number
+of rounded particles. At this stage, also, incompletely developed
+Cercariæ may be seen in the perivisceral cavity. These Cercariæ are
+at first shapeless organisms, but after passing through a series of
+gradations they ultimately assume a definite form, which, in many
+cases, is sufficiently distinctive to enable us to refer the Cercariæ
+to particular species of _Distoma_. The older writers regarded many
+of the cercarians as adult flukes. In the early state these larvæ are
+furnished with tails. They may be seen lodged within the cavity of the
+body of the sporocysts, being twisted and folded in various attitudes.
+The Cercariæ not only exhibit a cephalic and ventral sucker, but also a
+dark forked line representing the digestive system. At a still further
+stage other structures come into view, until the perfect Cercaria
+displays an oral sucker, a pharyngeal bulb, an œsophagus, two alimentary
+cæca, a ventral sucker, a water-vascular system consisting of two main
+excretory ducts, and a contractile vesicle, by means of which the ducts
+communicate with the external surface. The tail is conspicuous and
+furnished with a fringe. The alimentary organs conform to the general
+trematode type, but before passing into the sexually-mature condition
+other changes are undergone. The Cercariæ part with their tails, and
+subsequently they encyst themselves on or within the surface of the
+body of some mollusk. Their pupa condition is thus arrived at. The pupa
+itself differs from the cercaria in presenting a double crown of hooks
+surrounding the head, but the other organs correspond with those already
+described. According to Van Beneden the hooks make their appearance
+immediately after encystation. In this condition it is next transferred
+to the intestine of some higher animal, and in this final situation it
+gradually acquires all those organs the possession of which will entitle
+it to be called a sexually-mature or adult distome. In the immature
+fluke we may now discern the mouth, the buccal or cephalic sucker, the
+pharyngeal bulb, the œsophagus, the digestive cæca, the coronal spines,
+the contractile vesicle, the aquiferous system of vessels, the matrices
+of the yelk-forming glands, and also a central mass of cellules, from
+which all the other reproductive organs will in due time be developed.
+In the adult _Echinostoma militare_ the upper third of the body is
+clothed with little spines. Taking this example as illustrative of the
+ordinary mode of fluke development we find that a change of hosts is
+necessary, and that in the intermediate state they occupy the bodies
+of mollusks. Thus, for the continuation of the species, there must
+needs be a contemporaneity of vertebrate and evertebrate hosts. Surely
+no reasonable person can ascribe this concurrence to merely fortuitous
+circumstances. In this connection I may remark that Villot, in his
+account of the migrations of the trematodes, states that the cercarian
+forms of _Distoma leptosomum_ and _D. brachysomum_ of _Tringa alpina_
+occur in _Scrobicularia_ and _Anthura_. These parasites are also found
+encysted in the gizzard of _Tringa_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Head of _Tænia paradoxa_. _a_, Proboscis
+retracted; _b_, end of the rostellum expanded. Highly magnified. From an
+oyster-catcher (_Hæmatopus ostralegus_). Original.]
+
+The tapeworms of birds are undoubtedly injurious to their bearers. All
+the worms appear to be armed with cephalic hooks; at least, such is the
+case with the species described by Krabbe, who has supplied figures
+of the hooks drawn to a scale. Dr Krabbe’s beautiful monograph is a
+perfect model of its kind. In the accompanying figure the hooks have
+fallen (Fig. 72). On account of the frequency of their occurrence,
+some persons have supposed that tapeworms are not injurious to their
+hosts, forgetting that it is not the mere fact of the existence of
+tapeworms, but their excessive numbers during particular seasons that
+give rise to avian epizoötics. The same rule holds good with other
+parasites. Of course, in fledgelings, as also obtains in yearlings
+amongst our domesticated animals, a very few parasites are sufficient
+to prove destructive to the bearer. Thus, as regards the so-called
+“grouse-disease,” during one season it may be due to tapeworms, during
+another to strongyles, during a third to excessive abundance of both
+these parasites. Unfortunately, other avian epizoötics, not necessarily
+due to parasites of any kind, may be mistaken for helminthic epizoöty.
+The same thing happens amongst quadrupeds. We have, for example,
+parasitic equine epizoötic outbreaks, and likewise non-helminthic
+equine epidemics (as in the case of the Egyptian horse plague of 1876).
+The true nature of any epizoöty can only be determined by competent
+investigation. That was well shown in the grouse epidemic of 1872. In
+that epizoöty the greater number of the birds succumbed to the injuries
+produced by a nematode worm (_Strongylus pergracilis_, Fig. 73), but,
+without doubt, the occasional presence of numerous tapeworms (_Tænia
+calva_) hastened the consequent fatality. The following table, giving
+the results of examination of twelve diseased grouse from the Earl of
+Cawdor’s estate, will show how inconspicuous a part tapeworms played in
+the epidemic of 1872. For further details I must refer to my brochure
+on the ‘Grouse Disease,’ and to some other memoirs quoted in the
+bibliography below.
+
+  +----------+-----------+---------------+-----------+----------------+
+  |  No. of  | Condition |   State of    | Tapeworms |   Strongyles   |
+  | specimen.|  of bird. |   viscera.    |  present. |    present.    |
+  +----------+-----------+---------------+-----------+----------------+
+  |     1    | Good      | Full          |  None     | Abundant.      |
+  |     2    | Emaciated | Putrid        |  Two      | Very numerous. |
+  |     3    | Good      | Full          |  None     | Abundant.      |
+  |     4    |   "       |   "           |    "      |    "           |
+  |     5    |   "       |   "           |  One      |    "           |
+  |     6    |   "       | Shrunken      |  Two      | Very numerous. |
+  |     7    | Emaciated | Much shrunken |  None     |      "         |
+  |     8    | Thin      | Shrunken      |    "      |      "         |
+  |     9    |   "       |    "          |    "      |      "         |
+  |    10    | Emaciated | Distended     |  Man      |      "         |
+  |    11    | Thin      | Rather full   |  Several  | Abundant.      |
+  |    12    |   "       |      "        |  None     | Very numerous. |
+  +----------+-----------+---------------+-----------+----------------+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Strongylus pergracilis._ _a_, Head and neck;
+_b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, tail of the male in various positions; _f_, tail of
+the female; _g_, section showing termination of the oviducts; _h_, three
+eggs. Highly magnified. Original.]
+
+I have said that tapeworms prove fatal to young birds, even to
+nestlings. A notable instance of this is recorded by Mr Eames.
+The parasites were examples of _Tænia angulata_. Apart from the
+epidemiological aspects of the subject, it is not uninstructive to
+notice the variety of helminths that infest the common fowl and game
+birds. Accordingly, I append a similar but more extended list than that
+previously given in the supplement to my introductory treatise:
+
+  Key to Column Headings:
+
+  A = Common fowl.     E = Red Grouse.
+  B = Pheasant.        F = Grey Partridge.
+  C = Capercaillie.    G = Red Partridge.
+  D = Black Grouse.    H = Quail.
+
+  +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |  Entozoa of game birds and the   | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H |
+  |           common fowl.           |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+  |_Monostoma verrucosum_, Zeder     | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |_Distoma oxycephalum_, Rudolphi   | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |    "   _ovatum_, Rudolphi        | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |    "   _lineare_, Zeder          | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |    "   _dilatatum_, Miram        | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |    "   _fuscatum_, Rudolphi      |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | * |
+  |_Filaria Mansoni_, Cobbold        | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |_Ascaris vesicularis_, Froelich   | * | * | * |   | * | * |   | * |
+  |    "   _gibbosa_, Rudolphi       | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |    "   _inflexa_, Rudolphi       | * |   | * |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |    "   _compar_, Schrank         |   |   |   | * | * | * |   | * |
+  |_Spiroptera hamulosa_, Diesing    | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |     "     _helicina_, Molin      |   |   |   |   |   |   | * |   |
+  |_Dispharagus nasutus_, Dujardin   | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |     "      _spiralis_, Molin     | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |_Strongylus pergracilis_, Cobbold |   |   |   |   | * |   |   |   |
+  |_Sclerostoma syngamus_, Diesing   | * | * |   |   |   | * |   |   |
+  |_Trichosoma longicolle_, Rudolphi |   | * | * | * |   | * |   |   |
+  |_Tænia malleus_, Goeze            | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |   "  _microps_, Diesing          |   |   | * | * |   |   |   |   |
+  |   "  _exilis_, Dujardin          | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |   "  _calva_, Baird              |   |   |   |   | * |   |   |   |
+  |   "  _linea_, Goeze              |   |   |   |   | * | * |   | * |
+  |   "  _infundibuliformis_, Goeze  | * | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |
+  |_Ligula reptans_, Diesing         |   |   | * |   |   |   |   |   |
+  +----------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+
+In regard to this list I can only afford space to remark that several
+of the species are possibly mere varieties. Some of the worms are of
+great interest. It occasionally happens that _Distoma ovatum_ is found
+in the albumen of the fowl’s egg, and it is even more common to obtain
+_Ascaris inflexa_ from the same situation. For a recent example I am
+indebted to Dr Walker, of Peterborough. _Spiroptera helicina_ resides
+in the feet, occasioning enlargement of the joints and consequent
+distress to the bearer. Probably the most important in the list is my
+_Strongylus pergracilis_. Here I may mention that on the 10th of April,
+1878, I received a letter from Dr Manson, of Amoy, announcing his
+acquaintance with a filaria infesting the eye of the fowl. On the 9th of
+May I also received from Dr Manson the head of a bird showing examples
+of the worm. As the species is new to science I have proposed to call
+it _Filaria Mansoni_, after the discoverer. The male is 5/8″ and the
+female 3/4″ in length. Of the injurious nematodes, giving rise to avian
+epizoöty, probably one of the most destructive is _Ascaris maculosa_
+infesting pigeons. On the 9th of October, 1873, I received a letter from
+Dr J. Alexander Macdonald, of Woburn, Bedfordshire, stating that he
+had forwarded to me a pigeon which had been found dead on the previous
+morning. It seems that the owner of the bird had erected a large
+pigeon-house, and had imported a number of Antwerp smerles, these birds
+all continuing in a perfect state of health until about a week before
+the above-mentioned date, when, to use Dr Macdonald’s words “first one
+and then another was attacked, and so on, until four or five of the
+pigeons had died after a few hours’ illness.” The suddenness of these
+attacks not unnaturally suggested poisoning; and, accordingly, says my
+informant, the owner “had the curiosity to open one of the birds, when,
+to his astonishment, he found the intestines stuffed with worms.” Two
+days later I received a letter from Dr Macdonald, stating that several
+others of the flock had died, and it further appeared to him probable
+that the daily list of sick and dying would continue to increase. On
+the 14th of the month three more of the birds were dead. On the 4th of
+the following November, the same correspondent obligingly informed me
+that the epidemic had been “at last mastered.” It seems that altogether
+twelve birds had perished. On the 9th of October one of the birds was
+carefully examined by me, and the results were so interesting that I am
+constrained to give a few of the particulars originally communicated
+to the Zoological Society. As stated in my paper, the whole intestinal
+tract of the dead bird was crowded with these ascarides. The small
+intestine was inflamed throughout, and showed several large ulcerated
+patches; nevertheless, there were no traces of emaciation. From this
+it was evident that the parasites had grown quickly, the malady having
+a correspondingly rapid formation. The distribution of the parasites
+was curious. One specimen, two inches long, reached from the crop to
+the proventriculus. The cavities of this organ and of the gizzard were
+crammed with worms completely blocking the passage. Three of the worms
+had also placed themselves within the pyloric opening, their bodies
+partly lodging within the duodenum. The duodenum itself was crowded with
+worms, their numbers somewhat decreasing downwards. I removed thirty-six
+worms from the œsophagus, proventriculus, and stomach, besides 166
+others from the intestinal canal, thus obtaining a total of no less than
+202 nematodes from this small host. Considering the large size of these
+entozoa, the extent of infection must be pronounced remarkable. The
+largest females measured 2-1/2″ in length. One of the most interesting
+facts--serving to exemplify a well-known habit of lumbricoid worms
+generally--consisted in the circumstance that two of the parasites had
+succeeded in perforating the horny lining membrane of the gizzard. The
+injuries had been accomplished during the life of the host, for the
+walls of the gizzard were inflamed opposite the perforations. There
+was a little half digested food within the stomach, the _débris_ of
+which, when placed under the microscope, showed several ova. There
+were no free embryos, neither had the development of the freed eggs
+proceeded beyond yelk-segmentation. Free eggs were also found both in
+the small and large intestine. The eggs measured about 1/360″ by 1/700″
+in diameter. Referring to my paper for further anatomical details, I
+can only add that, despite these facts, the ascarides in question do
+not appear to be a very frequent source of epizoöty. It was remarked
+by Dujardin that Heister, at Rostok, and Gebauer, at Breslau, found
+this parasite abundant at the beginning of the eighteenth century; but,
+according to examinations conducted at Vienna, the worm was found in
+the common pigeon in only eleven instances out of 245, and thrice only
+in thirty-eight examples of the ring-dove; moreover, the examination
+of eighty-seven other pigeons and doves of different species yielded
+entirely negative results. The Dublin helminthologist, Bellingham,
+noticed the occurrence of this parasite in Ireland.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Tail of the male _Ascaris vesicularis_. From a
+ring-necked pheasant. Original.]
+
+Any attempt so much as to enumerate the species of nematoids infesting
+birds would carry me far beyond the aim and scope of this treatise. One
+of the commonest species is _Ascaris (Heterakis) vesicularis_. Many
+hundreds of forms have been described by Dujardin, Diesing, Molin,
+Krabbe, and other systematists, and it remains for some future laborer
+to condense the facts which are dispersed throughout a very wide-spread
+literature. As regards the particular species of nematoids that are
+either actually known or conjectured to be injurious to birds I can only
+find space to repeat some of the particulars which I have elsewhere
+recorded in respect of _Sclerostoma syngamus_. In 1799 a letter from
+Dr Wiesenthal, of Baltimore, U.S., was published in the ‘Medical and
+Physical Journal,’ containing an account of a parasite infesting the
+trachea of fowls and turkeys in America. The communication is dated May
+21st, 1797, and is the first public record concerning the entozoon. Dr
+Wiesenthal says: “There is a disease prevalent among the gallinaceous
+poultry in this country, called the _gapes_, which destroys eight-tenths
+of our fowls in many parts, and takes place in the greatest degree among
+the young turkeys and chickens bred upon old-established farms. Chicks
+and poults, in a few days after they are hatched, are found frequently
+to open their mouths wide and gasp for breath, at the same time
+frequently sneezing and attempting to swallow. At first the affection
+is slight, but gradually becomes more and more oppressive, and it
+ultimately destroys. Very few recover; they languish, grow dispirited,
+droop, and die. It is generally known that these symptoms are occasioned
+by worms in the trachea. I have seen the whole [windpipe] completely
+filled with these worms, and have been astonished at the animals being
+capable of respiration under such circumstances.”
+
+Any one who has witnessed the _gapes_ will at once recognise the
+accuracy of Wiesenthal’s description; and so far as the phenomena of
+the disease are concerned, very little more has been added in the
+numerous accounts which have since appeared. On the 1st of August, 1808,
+the English naturalist, George Montagu, communicated to the Wernerian
+Society a paper entitled “Account of a species of _Fasciola_ which
+infests the trachea of poultry, with a mode of cure.” Montagu does not
+appear to have been aware of the existence of any previous record. He
+gave a scientific description of the parasite, which led to its being
+noticed in the systematic works of Rudolphi, Dujardin, and Diesing,
+but the best accounts of the worm are due to Von Siebold. _Sclerostoma
+syngamus_ has been found in the trachea of the turkey, domestic cock,
+pheasant, partridge, black stork, magpie, hooded crow, green woodpecker,
+starling, and swift. In July, 1860, I obtained a fowl suffering from the
+gapes, and operated upon it in the following manner:--A small portion
+of wool having been dipped in chloroform and placed in front of the
+nostrils the bird soon became insensible. The skin of the neck was then
+divided and the trachea slit up to the extent of a quarter of an inch.
+With a pair of common dissecting forceps, I removed seven Sclerostomata.
+Six of these parasites were sexually united, the odd worm being a
+female. After I had closed the external wound with a single thread the
+bird woke out of its artificial sleep, when it soon recovered its legs,
+and ran about the table vigorously. Moreover, in a very few minutes it
+devoured the contents of a saucer partly filled with bread and milk. An
+occasional gape was caused by an accumulation of frothy mucus within
+the injured trachea, but this obstruction the bird soon got rid of by
+shakes of the head and sneezing. The only subsequent inconvenience to
+the bird arose from emphysematous distension of the cellular tissue of
+the head and neck. This was relieved by puncture, the emphysema ceasing
+to form after the external wound had healed. Some months afterwards I
+destroyed the bird, and on dissecting the neck, a distinct cicatrix was
+found indicating the site of the operation on the trachea. The divided
+cartilaginous rings, six in number, were united only by a thin layer of
+connective tissue. The female worms gave an average length of 5/8″, the
+males scarcely exceeding 1/3″. The mouth is furnished with six prominent
+chitinous lips. In both sexes the surface of the body is quite smooth,
+but the tail of the female exhibits a tendency to fold upon itself.
+The lower part of the body suddenly contracts to form a short, narrow,
+mucronate, pointed tail. The male is usually found rigidly affixed by
+means of a strong, membranous, sucker-like bursa, which proceeds from
+the lower end of its body. In regard to the peculiar mode of union of
+the sexes, it becomes an interesting point to ascertain whether there
+be an actual incorporation of the substance of the copulatory organs
+during or after the act of impregnation. In my specimens none of the
+three pairs were organically united, and I succeeded in separating one
+pair very readily. Dujardin speaks of them as being soldered together,
+whilst the statements of Von Siebold are still more explicit. In
+connection with this subject the latter observer makes the following
+comment (‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1836, s. 106):--“The two sexes of almost
+all round worms are united only at the time of copulation. The male
+of _Heteroura androphora_ has also the habit of remaining connected
+with its mate beyond the period of copulation; here, thus, there is
+a continuous union of the sexes without a growing together; and in
+_Syngamus trachealis_ there is ultimately a lasting continuity of the
+sexes by means of an actual growing together.” Having confidence in Von
+Siebold’s statement, I concluded that the sexual union in my specimens
+had only recently been effected. Admitting this to have been the case,
+one naturally asks how the mature eggs can make their escape. Clearly,
+the eggs can only escape by an eventual breaking up of the body of the
+parent. The eggs of _Sclerostoma syngamus_ are comparatively large,
+measuring 1/250″ in length. Many of the ova contained fully formed
+embryos, and in the centre of the lower third of the body of one of
+them I perceived an undulating, imperfectly formed intestinal tube. By
+whatever mode the young escape the shell, it is clear that they are
+already sufficiently developed to undertake an active migration. A
+change of hosts is probably necessary, but in the first instance they
+either enter the substance of fungi or other vegetable matters, or
+they bury themselves in the soil at a short distance from the surface.
+In view of checking the destructive influences of this parasite, the
+following methods have been recommended.
+
+_First._ The simplest plan consists, as Dr Wiesenthal long ago pointed
+out, in stripping a feather from the tube to near the narrow end of the
+shaft, leaving only a few uninjured webs at the tip. The bird being
+secured, the webbed extremity of the feather is introduced into the
+windpipe. It is then twisted round a few times and withdrawn, when the
+worms are found attached. In some instances this plan succeeds entirely.
+
+_Secondly._ The above method is rendered more effectual when the feather
+is previously steeped in some medicated solution which will destroy the
+worms. Mr Bartlett employs salt for this purpose, or a weak infusion of
+tobacco; and he informs me that the simple application of turpentine
+to the throat externally is sufficient to kill the worms. It should be
+borne in mind that the bird itself may be injuriously affected by these
+drugs if they are carelessly employed.
+
+_Thirdly._ The treatment recommended by Mr Montagu proved successful
+in his hands, although the infested birds were old partridges. One of
+his birds had died of suffocation; but he tells us that “change of
+food and change of place, together with the infusion of rue and garlic,
+instead of plain water, to drink, and chiefly hemp-seed, independent of
+the green vegetables which the grass plot of the menagerie afforded,
+recovered the others in a very short time.”
+
+_Fourthly._ The plan I employed in my experiment. This is only
+desirable in advanced cases, where suffocation is impending. It will
+afford instant relief, as the trachea may be cleared of all parasitic
+obstructions.
+
+_Lastly._ The essential point to be observed is the total destruction
+of the worms. This will help to put a stop to future epizoöties. If the
+parasites are merely killed and thrown away carelessly, the eggs will
+sustain no injury. Decomposition having set in, the young embryos will
+sooner or later escape their shells, migrate in the soil or elsewhere,
+and ultimately find their way into the air-passages of birds in the same
+manner as their parents did before them.
+
+In this place I must not omit to mention the remarkable circumstance,
+quoted in my pamphlet on the grouse disease, that Prof. Wyman, of
+Boston, found _Eustrongyli_ surrounding the cerebellum in seventeen out
+of nineteen snake-birds or water-turkeys that had been shot in Florida.
+These viviparous nematodes apparently occasion their avian bearers no
+inconvenience. No doubt, as Wyman observes, their presence must be
+regarded as a normal state of things: but should they occur in excessive
+numbers, then we can hardly doubt the result.
+
+As regards acanthocephalous parasites, although not so numerous as the
+nematodes, it is extremely probable that they play a similar rôle.
+Parasites which prove fatal to swine are scarcely likely to be harmless
+in birds. On the 18th of February, 1875, I received from Sir Joseph
+Hooker eleven worms for identification. Mr Charles P. Hooker, his son,
+subsequently informed me by letter that he had found them in a Redwing
+(_Turdus iliacus_) which he dissected in January, 1875. The worms
+(_Echinorhynchus transversus_) occupied the large intestine, probably
+to the number of one hundred in all. Hitherto this parasite has been
+found abundantly in the blackbird, thrush, and in most of the _Turdidæ_;
+but not in the redwing. It has also been obtained from the starling and
+red-breast. The presence of so many of these armed parasites in one
+small host could hardly fail to inflict severe injury on the bearer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Head of _Eustrongylus papillosus_. Magnified.
+Original.]
+
+In concluding this section of my work I can only find space to make
+a few acknowledgments. Most of the rare, new, or interesting avian
+entozoa which I have examined and described have been received either
+from the Zoological Gardens, or from personal friends. In particular I
+may mention the collections sent to me by Mr Charles Darwin, Mr Robert
+Swinhoe, Mr Charles W. Devis, Dr Murie, Dr John Anderson, and Mr Spooner
+Hart, of Calcutta. A great many correspondents have contributed single
+specimens, many of which I have already incidentally acknowledged
+in these pages. In this place I must particularise the new species
+(_Ascaris Cornelyi_) which I described from specimens sent to Mr
+Sclater. This worm infests the vulturine pintado (_Numida vulturina_).
+Mr Darwin’s collection contained fine examples of _Filaria horrida_ from
+the American ostrich (_Rhea_). When dissecting birds at the Zoological
+Society’s Menagerie, I obtained (in addition to the parasites already
+mentioned) _Distoma æquale_ from the American owl (_Strix perlata_);
+_Tænia multiformis_ from the night heron (_Ardea nyctocorax_); _T.
+infundibuliformis_ from a horned pheasant (_Phasianus_); _T. lævis_
+and _T. lanceolata_ and also _Ascaris tribothrioides_ from a dusky
+duck (_Anas obscura_); _Eustrongylus papillosus_ (fig. 75) from the
+larus crane (_Grus antigone_); _Trichosoma longicolle_ from the
+horned pheasant, and _T. brevicolle_ from the Sandwich Island goose
+(_Bernicla Sandwichensis_). This bird was also infested by _Spiroptera
+crassicauda_ and _Ascaris dispar_. From the ring-necked pheasant (_Ph.
+torquatus_) and from the black-backed Kaleege (_Euplocomus melanotus_),
+and also from a cheer pheasant (_Ph. Wallichii_), I obtained abundance
+of _Ascaris vesicularis_. From the ashy-headed goose (_Chloephaga
+poliocephala_) examples of _Str. tubifex_ and _Str. nodularis_. This
+bird also yielded a new species (_Str. acuticaudatus_). From a tinamou
+(_Tinamus_) I obtained the _Ascaris strongylina_ of Rudolphi (_Str.
+spiculatus_, mihi). From amongst our British birds I have obtained
+_Asc. depressa_, _Trichosoma falconum_ and _Hemistoma spathulum_,
+from the kite (_Falco milvus_). Of these three worms, the last named
+was also found in the long-eared owl (_Strix otus_), whilst the first
+likewise occurred in a kestrel (_Falco tinnunculus_) and in a honey
+buzzard (_Pernis apivorus_). I may add _Filaria attenuata_ from a
+peregrine (_F. peregrinus_); and _F. leptoptera_ from a sparrow
+hawk (_Accipiter nisus_). From the redshank (_Totanus calidris_) I
+obtained _Tænia variabilis_, and from the curlew (_Numenius arcuata_)
+_T. sphærophora_; and from various gulls (_Larus glaucus_ and _L.
+tridactylus_) the _Tetrabothrium cylindraceum_. Also from the grey
+gull _Echinostoma spinulosum_. From the red-throated diver I procured
+_Tetr. macrocephalum_. I found this tapeworm also in the guillemot
+(_Uria troile_), together with a nematode (_Ascaris spiculigera_)
+two examples of which were lodged in the right auricle of the heart.
+From a capercaillie (_Tetrao urogallus_) I have obtained a species of
+_Ligula_, and likewise numerous examples of _Trichosoma longicolle_. Of
+necessity, this brief notice only comprises a small part of the avian
+entozoa contained in my collection, many of which I have not had time to
+describe, whilst, as regards others, I can only say that they remain in
+abeyance for examination and identification.
+
+Mr Brotherston has recently recorded an interesting find (made Nov.
+25th, 1874) of nematodes in the legs of the lesser grebe (_Podiceps
+minor_), and also (Feb. 27th, 1878) in the waterhen (_Gallinula
+chloropus_). Both limbs of both birds were infested. The worms of the
+grebe were spirally coiled amongst the muscles and tendons near the
+lower end of the tibia, and when unrolled measured about an inch in
+length. The parasites of the waterhen were similar in appearance. Not
+improbably these were all sexually-imperfect female examples of _Filaria
+acuta_ hitherto found in the abdomen of grebes.
+
+The British Museum contains many interesting specimens purchased from
+the collection of Von Siebold, but they are practically inaccessible
+to investigators. The entozoa in the Hunterian Collection, though few
+in number, are in an excellent state of preservation, and at all times
+accessible to visitors.
+
+The ectozoa of birds are too numerous to be dealt with in these pages.
+References to recent papers by Haller, Mégnin, and Westwood will be
+found below. The insects infesting the domestic fowl have been alluded
+to in connection with the occurrence of poultry-lousiness in the horse.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 57).--(Anonymous), “On the (gape) Diseases of Fowls,”
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 267, 1841.--(Anon., initialed “Q.”), Letter on
+the “Grouse Disease,” in the ‘Times,’ Sept. 5, 1874.--(Anon.), “On
+Grouse and Partridge Disease,” being annotations in the ‘Lancet,’
+Sept. 4, 1875, pp. 360 and 361.--(Anon.), “Grouse Disease,” letter
+signed “R.” (probably from Lord Ravensworth), in ‘Land and Water,’ Aug.
+16, 1873.--(Anon.), “Grouse Disease,” article (from “W. C.”) in the
+‘Field,’ Aug. 2, 1873 (criticising my brochure.--T. S. C.).--_Arlong_,
+“Note on Tænia from the Fowl,” ‘Rec. Méd. Vét.,’ 1875.--_Baird, W._,
+“Descr. of _Tænia calva_ from the Grouse,” in ‘Brit. Mus. Catalogue,’
+p. 83.--_Blavette_, “Descr. of a Verminous Disease among Fowls,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 649, 1840.--_Brotherston, A._, “Parasitic Worms in
+Legs of Grebe (_Podiceps minor_) and Water-hen (_Gallinula chloropus_),”
+‘Science Gossip’ for April, 1878, p. 88, and in ‘Proceedings of the
+Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club,’ vol. viii, p. 288.--Carter, B. (see
+Cobbold).--_Chapman, H. C._, “Description of a new Tapeworm from Rhea,”
+‘Proceed. Phil. Acad.,’ 1876, p. 14.--_Chatin, J._, “Étude sur des
+helminthes nouveaux ou peu connus (treating of a Cyathostoma, from
+_Anas tadorna_ and _Sclerostoma pelecani_),” ‘Annales des Sciences
+Naturelles,’ 1875.--_Cobbold_, ‘The Grouse Disease, a statement
+of facts tending to prove the Parasitic Origin of the Epidemic,’
+London, 1874.--_Idem_, Letter in the ‘Field,’ Sept. 9, 1872.--_Idem_,
+“Contributions to our Knowledge of the Grouse Disease, with description
+of a new Species of Entozoon,” ‘Veterinarian,’ March, 1873; see also an
+article (by Brudenell Carter) in the ‘Times’ for Sept. 5, 1874; repr. in
+the ‘Veter.,’ Oct., 1874.--_Idem_, “Remarks on the Entozoa of the Common
+Fowl and of Game-birds, especially in relation to the Grouse Disease,”
+the ‘Field,’ Sept. 14, 1867, and ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1867.--_Idem_,
+“On Sclerostoma and the Disease it occasions in Birds,” ‘Linn. Soc.
+Proc.,’ 1861; repr. in the ‘Field,’ June 22, 1861, and in ‘Edin. Vet.
+Rev.,’ vol. iii, p. 439, 1861, also in Tegetmeier’s work on ‘Poultry;’
+see also a comment on “Gapes,” by “Umbra,” in the ‘Field,’ June 29,
+1861.--_Idem_, “Parasites from the Zoological Gardens,” ‘Intellectual
+Observer,’ 1862.--_Idem_., “Notes on Entozoa (species Nos. 1, 7, 9,
+12),” in ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’ 1873-76.--_Idem_, ‘Linn. Soc. Trans.,’
+1858.--_Idem_, “On Entozoa of Birds and Fishes, collected by Mr Charles
+W. Devis,” ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’ 1865.--_Idem_, “Note on Entozoa in
+the Crested Grebe,” the ‘Field,’ March 29, 1873.--_Colquhoun, W._,
+‘Remarks on the decrease of Grouse, and on the Grouse Disease (Gapes),’
+Edinburgh, 1858; see also a notice in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i, April,
+1859.--_Crisp, E._, “Note on Hydatids in an old Honduras Turkey,”
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1863.--_Idem_, “On Sclerostoma,” ‘Rep. of Path.
+Soc.,’ in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Oct. 26, 1876, p. 474.--_Idem_, “Note
+on Filaria in the Heart of a Peregrine Falcon,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1854.--_Davaine_, ‘Syngame de la trachée,’ p. 37, and ‘Synops.’ cxiv,
+in his ‘Traité.’--_Devis, C. W._ (see Cobbold).--_Diesing_, ‘Revis.
+der Myzelminthen,’ Abtheil. “Trémat.,” 1858.--_Idem_, “Tapeworm
+from Podiceps,” in his ‘Zwanzig Arten von Cephalocotyleen,’ Wien,
+1856.--_Idem_, see various species in his ‘Revisionen,’ given in Bibl.
+No. 58.--_Eames, C. J. L._, “On Tapeworm in Blackbirds,” letter to
+the ‘Lancet,’ June 9, 1877, p. 863.--_Farquharson, R._, “The Grouse
+Disease (due to a contagious fever),” letter to the ‘Lancet,’ Sept.,
+1874.--_Fergusson, J._, “On Grouse Disease,” letter in the ‘Times,’
+July 16, 1878.--_Gentles, T. W._, “Tapeworm in Birds,” letter to the
+‘Lancet,’ Jan. 18, 1868, p. 106.--_Haller, G._, “Freyana und Picobia,
+zwei neue Milbengattungen,” in ‘Sieb. u. Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1877, s.
+181.--_Johnston, D._, “On the Grouse Disease,” letter in the ‘Lancet,’
+Sept. 20, 1873, p. 441.--_Krabbe_, ‘Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes
+Bændelorme,’ Copenhagen, 1869 (contains a summary in French, ‘Recherches
+sur les Ténias des Oiseaux’).--_Linstow, O. von_, “Euthelminthologica”
+(containing descriptions and notes on worms from birds, fishes,
+reptiles, and mollusks), ‘Archiv für Naturgeschichte,’ 1877.--_Idem_,
+“New Flukes (_Dist. vitellatum_ and _D. macrophallus_) from _Totanus
+hypoleucus_, and _D. cælebs_ from Fringilla,” Beobacht. in ‘Arch. f.
+Naturg.,’ 1875, s. 189-193.--_Maclagan_, “Note on the Grouse Disease,”
+‘Proc. Roy. Soc. of Edin.,’ April 20, 1874, p. 378.--_Marion_, “Révis.
+des Némat. du Golfe de Marseilles,” ‘Compt. Rendus,’ 1875.--_Mégnin,
+P._, “On Harpirhynchus and other Mites,” in ‘Rev. f. Thierheilk.,’
+Oct., 1878, s. 146.--_Idem_, “Mémoire sur les Cheylétides Parasites
+(Picobia, &c.),” ‘Journ. d’Anat. et de Physiol.,’ 1878; see also
+‘Rev. f. Thierheilk.,’ Sept., 1878 _et seq._--_Molin_, in his various
+monographs (quoted in Bibl. Nos. 54, 56, and elsewhere).--_Montagu,
+G._, “Account of a species of Fasciola which infests the Trachea of
+Poultry, with a mode of Cure,” ‘Memoirs of the Wernerian Nat. Hist.
+Soc.,’ vol. i, p. 194, 1811.--_Perrier_, ‘On Syngamus’ (brochure, Paris,
+1875).--_Pulteney, R._, “On Ascarides discovered in _Pelicanus carbo_
+and _P. cristatus_,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. v, 1800, p. 24.--_Röll_,
+“Beitrag. zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Tænien,” ‘Verh. d. Würzb.
+p. m. Ges.,’ Bd. iii, 1852, s. 51.--_Sanderson, J. B._, “On Grouse
+Disease,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ May 15, 1875.--_Small, M._, “Worms
+in the Eyes of Geese,” from the ‘Irish Farmer’s Gaz.,’ in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1862, p. 19.--_Tait, L._, “Tapeworm in Birds,” letters
+to the ‘Lancet’ for Jan. 25, 1868, p. 145, and Feb. 8, 1868, p. 214;
+see also “Pediculus,” _ibid._, p. 180.--_Tegetmeier_, “On the Grouse
+Disease,” in the ‘Field,’ Sept. 12, 1874.--_Thick_, “Letter on the
+Cure of Gapes,” in ‘Land and Water,’ Aug., 1867, p. 77.--_Vaughan_,
+“The Grouse Disease,” in the ‘Field,’ Aug. 23, 1873.--_Villow, A._,
+“Sur les migrations, et les Métamorphoses des Trematodes,” ‘Comptes
+Rendus,’ 1875, and ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1875 (chiefly on flukes of the
+sea-lark, _Tringa alpina_).--_Idem_, “Sur le syst. nerveau,” &c.,
+_ibid._, 1875.--_Idem_, “On the Helm. Fauna of the Coast of Brittany
+(chiefly from birds),” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ from ‘Comp. Rend.,’ 1875,
+p. 1098, and from ‘Arch. de Zool. Expérim. et gén.,’ 1875.--_Idem_,
+“Sur l’appareil des Trematodes (_Dist. insigne_),” ‘Compt. Rend.,’
+1875.--_Wedl, K._, ‘Anatomische Beobachtungen ueber Trematoden,’ Wien,
+1858 (contains excellent descriptions of numerous flukes, chiefly
+from birds).--_Westwood, J. O._, “New Flea on a Fowl (Sarcopsillus),”
+‘Entom. Month. Mag.,’ xi, p. 246, 1875.--_Wiesenthal, A._, “Account of a
+Parasite infesting the Trachea of Fowls and Turkeys in America,” ‘Med.
+and Phys. Journ.,’ vol. ii, p. 204, 1799.--_Wyman_, “On Eustrongyli
+within the Cranium of Water-Turkeys,” ‘Proc. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc.,’
+1868.--_Youatt_, “On a Verminous Disease in Poultry” (being a letter to
+him), ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 648, 1840.--_Zeller_, “On Leucochloridium,”
+from ‘Zeitsch. f. wissensch. Zool.,’ 1874, s. 564, and from ‘Bibl. Univ.
+Bullet. Sci.,’ 1874, p. 366, in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Feb., 1875.
+
+
+PART II (REPTILIA).
+
+Much that I have advanced in respect of the parasitism of birds holds
+good in the case of reptiles. I cannot recapitulate. The saurians,
+ophidians, and chelonians are extensively infested, but in this respect
+the amphibian frogs, toads, and salamanders are probably the most
+victimised. If, on the one hand, comparatively few tapeworms have
+been found in reptiles, it may, on the other hand, be said that the
+Echinorhynchi come into prominence, causing serious injury to reptilian
+hosts. Serpents and chameleons are particularly liable to have their
+lungs infested by acanthocephalous entozoa, these organs being also
+attacked by pentastomes. I have received evidence of fatal epizoöty
+amongst chameleons from this source; and I have been requested to
+suggest a remedy. To prevent outbreaks of entozoal disease is one thing;
+to offer a radical cure when the parasites are firmly anchored within
+the pulmonary organs is quite another matter.
+
+As remarked in my ‘Entozoa,’ the trematodes display a great partiality
+for batrachians, more than half a dozen different species of fluke being
+known to infest the common frog. Flukes are likewise tolerably abundant
+in the saurian and chelonian reptiles. I regret that I cannot find space
+so much as to enumerate the species. As one would naturally expect,
+the frog has been exhaustively anatomised and examined for entozoa,
+and it was this creature that supplied Leuckart and Mecznikow with
+the materials which led to their well-known discovery and controversy
+respecting the development, dimorphism, and parthenogenetic phenomena
+exhibited by _Ascaris nigrovenosa_. I cannot give the facts in detail.
+Female examples of the worm live in the lungs of the frog. Their young,
+as embryos, pass into the damp earth and mud, where they grow up into
+sexually-mature forms different from the parent worms found in the frog.
+These free adult worms, male and female, produce rhabditiform embryos
+which present characters of their own and attain a certain stage of
+growth. At this stage they are conveyed into the lungs of the frog
+where they arrive at sexual maturity. As there are no male worms in the
+frog, it is probable that the embryos of these parasitic females are
+agamogenetically produced by internal budding, the sexual influence
+of the free males being, as it were, continued onward without actual
+contact with the parasitic females. Amongst the interesting parasites of
+the frog one must also mention _Amphistoma subclavatum_ and _Polystoma
+intergerrimum_. The former worm resides in the large intestine and the
+latter in the urinary bladder. The larvæ (_Cercaria diplocotylea_) of
+this amphistome reside in or upon the body of water-snails, and, like
+the cercarian larvæ of polystoma, they are furnished with eyes. I state
+this fact on the authority of Pagenstecher; and, since I cannot devote
+a special section to the entozoa of mollusks, I repeat, in part, the
+valuable results which Pagenstecher published many years back and which
+have a permanent value in relation to the origin of parasitic diseases
+resulting from flukes. In the memoir quoted below, Pagenstecher gives
+the following conclusions (_Schlussbemerkungen_):
+
+“(_a_).--The eggs of the trematoda vary in respect of size, form,
+and color, being either furnished or not with a lid, and accordingly
+distinguishable. In the mature condition they contain a ciliated or a
+non-ciliated embryo of unequal growth, this embryo partly increasing
+in size even after its birth. In various conceivable ways the eggs
+themselves, or the embryos which have quitted their shells, arrive in
+and upon the bodies of mollusks, where they are consequently found.
+In this situation the egg opens, or the ciliated covering decays, and
+the contained motionless germ--which in itself offers no distinctive
+characters--having become free, grows into a nurse, or forms several
+nurses within itself.
+
+“(_b_).--Whilst some of the trematodes display a highly organised nurse
+condition, others exhibit only a simple kind of germ-sac. Both forms,
+nevertheless, appear to occur in one and the same species, probably
+depending upon external causes.
+
+“(_c_).--The organised nurses (or _rediæ_, as they are termed) have a
+mouth and a strongly marked muscular œsophagus, which is continued into
+a short or prolonged, single, blind intestine, or the latter may be
+double. The expulsion of animals developed within them I have only seen
+to take place through an opening at the hinder extremity. Old rediæ lose
+their structure. I did not observe any vascular system. Tailed trematode
+larvæ (_Cercariæ_), as well as rediæ themselves, are developed within
+the rediæ, this variation of nurse-contents probably depending on the
+season.
+
+“(_d_).--No independent new germ-sacs are developed within the simple
+unorganised germ-sacs (sporocysts), and only such trematode larvæ as
+are capable of arriving at sexual maturity are furnished with special
+appendages.
+
+“(_e_).--When the immature contents of both nurse forms (_i.e._ of
+sporocysts and rediæ) are accidentally set free, and are situated within
+the organs of nutrition of the living host, then they appear prepared
+to develop themselves anew into nurse forms; and, moreover, cercariæ
+whose development has not yet attained a definite stage--and even their
+tails also--appear to enjoy a similar capacity. Some nurses are likewise
+capable of multiplication by division and budding.
+
+“(_f_).--Some germ-sacs have the property of developing within
+themselves cercaria-like larvæ--which are different from the true
+cercariæ--from whose body the development of a _distoma_ may take place,
+while their single or double tail-like appendages in all cases develop
+anew into germ-sacs. To this class belong _Bucephalus_ and _Distoma
+duplicatum_.
+
+“(_g_).--All the cercaria at present known are destitute of eyes,
+but other forms of trematode larvæ are furnished with visual organs.
+Accordingly, I never found eyes in young distomata whilst they were
+in their last dwelling-place, but eyes are certainly present in the
+young forms of _Polystoma_ and _Amphistoma_. The supposition that a
+spontaneous wandering is associated with eyes is not yet confirmed in my
+experience.
+
+“(_h_).--As a means of distinguishing the different forms of Cercariæ,
+amongst other indications, their places of dwelling may be useful,
+because each mollusk only harbors a limited number of species.
+Notwithstanding, Professor Filippi is in error if he believes that every
+species of mollusk carries only a single armed form of cercaria. A
+migration of the cercaria is indispensable to its perfection.
+
+“(_i_).--Many larval trematodes form cysts round themselves, probably
+by means of a special organ of secretion, and also by the epidermis.
+Their future destiny necessitates this. The sporocysts apparently fulfil
+towards the larvæ, which are developed within them, a similar purpose,
+namely, a protection against the stomachal digestion of the new host. In
+the pupa condition the development of the larva, which has now thrown
+off the tail, makes greater or less progress, according as to whether
+it is surrounded by nourishment or not. In particular, while in this
+stage, the different kinds of hooks for migratory purposes make their
+appearance, always, without doubt, after the shedding of the skin. Other
+trematodes pass through this tail-less sexually-immature stage without
+any cyst. I have not yet seen any larval trematode forms which had been
+produced in sporocysts or rediæ without appendages; they appear to
+occur, nevertheless.
+
+“(_k_).--As the larvæ exist only in a few hosts--and most of them dwell
+only in one species of animal--so, also, the continued progress towards
+sexual maturity only succeeds in the case of certain well-defined larval
+organisms, but the digestion of the cysts and liberation of the larvæ
+may be accomplished in various animals.
+
+“(_l_).--The armed Cercariæ appear to be larvæ of the spine-covered
+distomes of amphibia; for, as examples, the _Cercaria ornata_ becomes
+transformed into _Distoma clavigerum_, and _C. armata_ into _Distoma
+endolobum_; the _Dist. duplicatum_ and _Cerc. diplocotylea_ are,
+apparently, the juvenile forms of _Dist. cygnoides_ and _Amphistoma
+subclavatum_. The _Dist. echiniferum_ of Paludina could neither be
+advanced in development in the frog or duck, nor could all the other
+larvæ which I subjected to experiment be developed either in the green
+or brown frogs.
+
+“(_m_).--When young trematodes arrive at the right place for their
+maturation, then the male generative structures develop before the
+female organs, and in the subsequent excess of egg production the form
+and structure of the animal becomes obliterated.
+
+“(_n_).--The yelk-molecules surrounding the germinal vesicle are not
+directly transformed into an embryo.”
+
+As regards the acanthocephalous parasites of reptiles, I may observe
+that _Echinorhynchus anthuris_ is very common in the lesser water newt
+(_Lissotriton punctatus_). In the accompanying illustration (Fig. 76) I
+have represented the free ovarian egg-bearing bodies, the development of
+the ovum, and the adult worms. For anatomical details, however, I must
+refer to my earlier treatise (‘Entozoa,’ p. 100 _et seq._).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Echinorhynchus anthuris._ 1, Attached to the
+intestine; 2, specimen enlarged; 3, ovarian vesicle, including germs; 4,
+germs in various stages; 5, vesicle with germs more advanced; 6, 7, eggs
+in their capsules; 8, free egg. Original.]
+
+Amongst the species of entozoa that were found by me at the Zoological
+Society’s Menagerie I may mention _Distoma coronarium_ and _Ascaris
+lineata_, from the intestines of _Alligator mississippiensis_; _Dist.
+Boscii_, from an American snake (_Coluber_); an immature nematode, from
+the heart of _Coluber Blumenbachii_; and _Echinorhynchus inflexus_,
+attached to the intestines of a snapping turtle (_Chelydra serpentina_).
+I may add that the lungs of the alligator also contained examples of
+Diesing’s _Pentastoma oxycephalum_. An Egyptian hooded snake (_Naia
+haje_), which died at the Zoological Gardens in 1859, furnished a new
+species of pentastome (_P. multicinctum_). Dr George Harley described
+and anatomised this worm with remarkable care. To Harley’s memoir Prof.
+Leuckart did ample justice in his work on the ‘Pentastoma.’ Several
+new species of reptilian entozoa have recently been described by Dr
+von Linstow; and Dr Solger has found a new trichosome (_T. recurvum_)
+beneath the skin of a young crocodile (probably _Croc. acutus_). For
+further particulars I refer to the revised descriptions and additions by
+Diesing, Molin, Schneider, and other systematists.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 58).--_Baird, W._, “Description of a new Entozoon from
+the Diamond Snake,” in ‘Proceed. Zool. Soc.’ for 1865, p. 58, and in
+‘Ann. Nat. Hist.’ for July, 1865, p. 52.--_Blanchard_, “On Polystoma,”
+‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 3e ser., viii, p. 331.--_Canton, E._, “An
+account of some Parasites attached to the Conjunctivæ of the Turtle’s
+Eyes,” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ and ‘Dublin Med. Press,’ 1861 (with
+remarks by myself).--_Cobbold_, ‘Notes,’ &c. (l. c., Bibl. No. 57),
+and in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1857.--_Crisp, E._, “Note on Cysticerci and
+Trichocephali from an Alligator,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.--_Diesing_,
+‘Revision der Cercarieen,’ 1858; ‘Revis. der Myzelminthen,’ 1858;
+‘Nachträge (u. s. w.),’ 1859; ‘Revis. der Nematoden,’ 1860; ‘Revis.
+d. Turbellarien,’ 1861; ‘Revis. d. Cephalocotyleen,’ 1863.--_Idem_,
+‘Monographie d. Gatt. Amphistoma und Diplodiscus,’ and ‘Nachträge
+zur Monog. der Amph.,’ 1839.--_Dujardin_, ‘Hist. d. Helm.’ (l. c.,
+pp. 320, 526, &c.).--_Eberth_, “On _Myoryktes Weismanni_ from the
+Muscles of the Frog,” trans. by Busk, from ‘Siebold und Kölliker’s
+Zeitschrift,’ in ‘Lond. Micr. Journ.,’ Jan., 1864.--_Gastaldi_, ‘Cenni
+sopra alcuni nuovi Elmint.,’ Torino, 1854 (new flukes from frogs and
+salamanders).--_Glüge_, “On Entozoa in the Vessels of Frogs,” from
+‘Comptes Rendus,’ in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 207, 1842;
+see Grübe and Valentin.--_Grübe_, “On the Entozoa of the Frog, and on
+the Pathology of that Batrachian,” from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ in ‘Micr.
+Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 246, for 1842; see also Mandl.--_Harley,
+G._, “On the Anatomy of a new Species of Pentastoma found in the Lung
+and Air-sac of an Egyptian Cobra,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ June, part
+xxv, p. 115, 1857.--_Leuckart_, ‘Bau und Entwickelungsgeschichte
+der Pentastomen,’ Leipsig, 1860.--_Linstow_, ‘Enthelminth.’ (l.
+c., Bibl. No. 57).--_Macalister, A._, “On the presence of certain
+Secreting Organs in Nematoidea,” ‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ for
+1865.--_Idem_, “On the Anatomy of _Ascaris dactyluris_,” ‘Proc. Nat.
+Hist. Soc. of Dublin,’ vol. iv, 1865.--_Mandl_, “Development of
+Entozoa (_Ascaris nigrovenosa_ of the frog),” from ‘Rep. of French
+Acad. of Sci.,’ in ‘Month. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ vol. ii, p. 1081,
+1842.--_Molin_, ‘Monog. del gen. Myzelminth; Mon. del gen. Physaloptera;
+Mon. del gen. Histiocephalus; Mon. del gen. Spiroptera;’ Wien,
+1859-60.--_Pagenstecher_, ‘Trematodenlarven und Trematoden,’ Heidelberg,
+1857.--_Sibbald, J._, “On the _Nematoideum natricis_,” ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ vol. viii, 1857.--_Solger_, “Ueber eine neue species von
+Trichosoma,” ‘Arch. f. Naturg.,’ 1877.--_Valentin_, “On Parasites in the
+Bladder of the Frog” (from ‘Repertorium’), in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct.
+Record,’ 1842, p. 183.--_Vogt, C._, “On Filaria in the Vessels of the
+Frog,” from ‘Müller’s Archiv,’ in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’
+p. 241, 1842.--_Wedl, F._, “Beiträge zur Lehre von den Hæmatozoen,”
+‘Sitzungsb. Akad.,’ Wien, 1850 (from the blood of frogs, &c.).--_Zeller,
+E._, “Weiterer Beitrag zur Kentniss der Polystomen,” ‘Sieb. und Köll.
+Zeitschrift,’ 1875.
+
+
+PART III (PISCES).
+
+Swarms of entozoa infest fishes, and it is hard to say whether they
+are less numerous in the inhabitants of fresh water than in those of
+salt water. More attention has been paid to the helminths of the fishes
+than to the internal parasites of birds and reptiles, consequently,
+the number of known species must be estimated by many hundreds. In
+like manner a great deal has been written respecting the ectozoa of
+fishes. These parasites, often called fish-lice, belong chiefly to the
+haustellated crustaceans, and are better known by the title of _Epizoa_.
+No account of them can be afforded in this treatise, but some trifling
+notice of the literature of the subject will be given below.
+
+About a hundred distinct species of fluke have been described as
+infesting fishes. Not many of these worms possess more than a zoological
+interest; nevertheless, from that point of view certain types are very
+curious. Most of the species dwell in the stomach and intestines, but,
+as more or less remarkable exceptions, I may mention _Distoma seriale_
+infesting the kidney of _Salmo umbla_, _D. longum_ (Leidy) from the
+pharynx of _Esox estor_, _D. polymorphum_ from the urinary bladder of
+the common pike (_Esox lucius_), _D. obesum_ from the gall bladder of
+_Salminius_ and other Brazilian fishes (_Xiphostoma_, _Leporinus_), _D.
+tornatum_ attached to the gills of _Coryphæna hippuris_, _D. rosaceum_
+attached to the palate of _Lota communis_, and _D. contortum_ attached
+to the gills of _Orthagoriscus mola_. Most of the forms found encysted
+are sexually-immature worms. To these belong _D. annuligerum_, found
+by Nordmann in cysts in the vitreous humour of the eye of the perch
+(_Perca fluviatilis_), and _D. embryo_ from the liver and peritoneum
+of _Acerina vulgaris_. One of the largest and most remarkable of the
+flukes inhabiting marine fishes is the _Distoma clavatum_, found by
+Tilesius in the stomach of _Pelamys_, by Pohl in _Thynnus_, and by
+Bosc in _Coryphæna_. In the last-named fish it has been found adhering
+to the gills, in the liver, and in the intestines. In August, 1865, I
+obtained this parasite from a sword-fish (_Xiphias gladius_), and in
+the same piscine host I also found examples of four other species of
+helminths (_Tetrarhynchus attenuatus_, scolex of another tetrarhynch,
+_Bothriocephalus plicatus_, _Ascaris incurva_). Believing _Distoma
+clavatum_ to represent several forms hitherto regarded as distinct,
+I append a few particulars respecting it. Five examples of this worm
+were obtained by me from the stomach of a sword-fish. Generally they
+varied in length from four lines to two inches. They differed somewhat
+in shape, but all had the so-called head and neck directed backwards.
+Below the ventral sucker the two largest specimens were distended with
+eggs and black pigment. All of them likewise exhibited more or less
+well-marked transverse rugæ, the last ring surrounding an orifice which
+represented the outlet of a large contractile vesicle. The eggs averaged
+1/800″ in length.
+
+When revising the entozoa of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
+I encountered many parasites without labels attached. Amongst these were
+several flukes, which, though differing from each other in size and
+shape, appeared to be identical. One of these specimens turned out to
+be the particular _Distoma clavatum_ described and figured by Professor
+Owen in the ‘Zoological Society’s Transactions.’ Several of the others
+I made out to be part of a series contributed by Mr George Bennett, who
+also gave specimens to the British Museum, but the College Museum stores
+contained yet a third group of specimens of uncertain history. The large
+fluke described by Prof. Owen was formerly in the collection of the
+Rev. Lansdown Guilding. In Dr Baird’s catalogue the specimens presented
+by Mr Bennett are stated to have come from the stomach of a bonito, and
+probably Mr Guilding’s specimens may be referred to the same “host.” Be
+that as it may, the specimens differ from each other in a very striking
+manner. In the year 1730 M. Garsin first described this worm under the
+generic title of _Hirudinella_. He says:--“Cet insecte tiré de l’estomac
+de la Bonita ne vécut qu’environ deux heures. Exposé à l’air il étoit
+languissant, et reprenoit de la vivacité dans de l’eau de mer. Il
+diminua sensiblement de volume pendant qu’il vivoit encore.” M. Garsin’s
+description is accompanied by three figures. His specimens do not appear
+to have exceeded 1-1/2″ in length. In 1774 Pallas described a trematode
+(_Fasciola ventricosa_). It measured two inches in length. All that
+he says regarding its source is as follows:--“Ex Amboyna missum fuit
+singulare hoc molluscum, quod ad aliud quam Fasciolarum genus referre
+non potui, in quo quasi gigas erit.” He remarks upon its pale white
+color, and notices particularly the soft elastic body proper, which when
+wounded gave out a dark matter resembling soot. This material, when
+examined with the microscope, appeared fresh; it was not the result of
+decomposition. Pallas also gives many other details, accompanied by a
+figure. In 1790 Menzies likewise described and figured a fluke about two
+inches long. He calls it _Fasciola clavata_:--“It is of whitish color,
+somewhat pellucid, discharging at its mouth a black-colored fluid, which
+can easily be perceived through its body. I have often found it,” he
+adds, “in the maws of the bonito, between the tropics in the Pacific
+Ocean.” Notwithstanding the similarity of description, Menzies does not
+appear to have recognised the identity of his worm with that described
+by Pallas. Prof. Owen, however, subsequently established this identity,
+and referred to this species as the _Fasciola clavata_ seu _ventricosa_.
+On the other hand, the British Museum Catalogue represents Pallas’s worm
+as specifically distinct from that of Menzies, but as identical with the
+specimen described by Prof. Owen from Mr Guilding’s collection.
+
+In 1802 Bosc described and figured a trematode under the title
+of _Fasciola fusca_. This he obtained from the intestines of a
+dorado. In form it differs considerably from the foregoing species.
+Bosc’s description runs as follows:--“Brune, la partie postérieure
+très-renflée, presque ovale, la partie antérieure mince, cylindrique,
+inégale, avec deux petits tentacules en dessous. Le suçoir de l’anus
+très grand.” Bosc recognised the identity of this worm with the _Distoma
+coryphænæ_ of Rudolphi, and systematists generally have adopted his
+synonymy. In the British Museum Catalogue the _Fasciola fusca_ and _F.
+ventricosa_ of Pallas are regarded as one and the same species. The
+existence of two small tentacles is certainly peculiar.
+
+In 1827 Nardo obtained two very large flukes from the stomach of a
+fish captured in the Gulf of Venice during the month of September. He
+calls the fish _Prostostegus prototypus_, which appears to be the same
+as the _Luvarus imperialis_ of Rafinesque. One of the parasites, being
+five inches in length, he named _Distoma gigas_. His description is
+as follows:--“Distoma teres, rubrum, retractile; poro ventrali minimo
+cujus apertura magna, rotunda, ciliata; poro antico terminali, parvo;
+collo brevi, retrorsum divergente, extensili, apice angusto, basi lato;
+cauda longa, postice incrassata et in apice obtusa oscula donata.” The
+alleged ciliated character of the ventral sucker, was perhaps due to a
+wrinkled state of the lip. Apart from this character, I see no reason
+for supposing this parasite to be distinct from the _Distoma clavatum_
+procured by Mr Guilding, or the _Fasciola ventricosa_ described by
+Pallas. The intestines of the fish harbored another parasite (_D.
+Raynerianum_). Unfortunately, Nardo gives no figure of _Distoma gigas_.
+It is the longest fluke known to science.
+
+In the year 1835 Professor Owen communicated the memoirs already alluded
+to. In his paper he discussed questions relating to the structure of
+_Distoma clavatum_, and threw much light upon its anatomy, but I believe
+that the large “lateral cavities” described by Owen are neither more or
+less than the somewhat unusually distended alimentary cæca.
+
+In 1845 Dujardin placed the worm with the true distomes, yet, at the
+same time, expressed grave doubts as to whether it were, in any sense,
+a fluke. “Ce ver,” he remarks, “n’est certainement pas un distome ni
+même un trématode. Si sa forme extérieure et ses deux oscules lui
+donnent quelque ressemblance avec les distomes, sa structure musculeuse
+la rapproche davantage des Gordius, et son tégument ressemble à celui
+des siponcles.” M. Dujardin examined the specimens preserved in the
+Paris Museum, and with regard to one particular example, described as
+“Fasciola, trouvé dans la mer de Nice,” he says, it presents “une
+certaine analogie avec le prétendu _Distoma clavatum_.” Dujardin himself
+was somewhat puzzled by the resemblance in question. He does not
+appear to have examined fresh specimens, yet he mentions the species
+as tolerably common in the bonito, and occasionally present in the
+tunny. At all events, it appears that the rightly so-called _Distoma
+clavatum_ is not unfrequently taken from the ocean in the free state.
+In concluding my notice of this remarkable worm I can only add that
+after examining numerous specimens both in the fresh and preserved
+states, I have formed the opinion that the following specific names all
+refer to one and the same parasite:--_Distoma clavatum_, Rudolphi; _D.
+coryphænæ_, Rud.; _D. gigas_, Nardo; _Fasciola clavata_, Menzies; _F.
+coryphænæ_, Bosc; _F. coryph. hippuridis_ and _F. Scombri pelamidis_,
+Tilesius; _F. fusca_, Bosc; _Hirudinella marina_, Garsin; _H. clavata_,
+Baird. In this list of synonyms we may probably also include Rudolphi’s
+_Distoma tornatum_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--_Echinostoma hispidum._ Magnified. Original.]
+
+In addition to these distomes there are numerous piscine flukes which
+may fairly be relegated to other genera. Thus, provisionally, I elevated
+Dujardin’s sub-genus _Echinostoma_ into a separate genus; and on
+what I considered sufficient grounds I established several other new
+genera from amongst the more curious flukes that had been described as
+infesting fishes (_Wedlia_, _Köllikeria_). In the genus _Echinostoma_
+the oral sucker is either surrounded by a circle of little spines, or it
+occupies the centre of a disk, which is cleft at the ventral or anterior
+aspect. In the latter case the disk is either bordered both laterally
+and above by spines, or there are two large lobed appendages, whose
+margins are furnished with spines. In other respects this genus nearly
+corresponds with the distomes, the simple digestive tubes bifurcating
+immediately below the œsophageal bulb. The specimen of _Ech. hispidum_
+here drawn (Fig. 77) was taken by me from the spiral intestine of a
+sturgeon (1855), in which fish it occurs very abundantly. The figure
+represents a back view of the head and a lateral view of the body, the
+neck having been slightly twisted. The ventral sucker is concealed, but
+the transparency of the skin permits a view of the internal organs.
+
+Another remarkable genus, established by Von Siebold, is _Gasterostoma_.
+In this genus the ventral sucker has taken the position usually assigned
+to the oral opening; the latter being near the centre of the body. The
+digestive cæca also disappear, leaving only a short stomachal cavity,
+which reminds one of the same viscus in imperfectly organised sporocysts
+or rediæ. When _G. gracilescens_ first came under my observation I
+followed Rudolphi in describing it as a distome (_D. gracilescens_). The
+anatomy of the genus has been illustrated by Von Siebold; from whose
+observations also it may be inferred that the larvæ are various forms
+of _Bucephali_. Prof. Molin describes the water-vascular or respiratory
+apparatus as consisting (in _G. fimbriatum_) of a broad central tube,
+occupying the entire length of the body and opening externally at the
+tail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--_Gasterostoma gracilescens._ Magnified.
+Original.]
+
+Amongst the more remarkable fluke-types may be mentioned Van Beneden’s
+Nematobothrium (_N. filarina_), occupying the branchial cavity of
+_Sciæna aquila_, also _Holostoma clavus_, found by Molin in the
+intestines of _Gadus merlucius_, also _Köllikeria filicollis_,
+occupying open follicles in the branchial cavity of _Brama Raii_.
+The sexes in the last-named genus are distinct; male and female worms
+together occupying each cyst. The genus _Monostoma_ is also largely
+represented amongst fishes. Prof. Wedl found a species (_M. Wedlii_)
+occupying follicles in the intestinal mucous membrane, and also adhering
+to the fin rays of _Rhombus lævis_. I also found a species (_M. dubium_)
+in a cyst attached to the ovary of _Gasterosteus spinachii_. Several
+species of amphistomatoid worms were found by Natterer in Brazilian
+fishes (_Cataphractus_, &c.), some of these representing distinct genera
+(_Aspidocotylus_, _Notocotylus_), to which I found Sonsino’s remarkable
+fluke (_Gastrodiscus Sonsinonis_, mihi) from the horse to be very
+closely allied. In this connection must also be mentioned Grübe and
+Wagener’s curious _Amphiptyches urna_, found attached to the branchiæ,
+and also in the intestines of _Chimæra monstrosa_.
+
+In addition to the above families and genera of digenetic flukes
+infesting fishes we have the monogenetic tristomes and polystomes.
+As remarked in my introductory treatise, the Tristomidæ display a
+leech-like aspect, in consequence of which they have been placed either
+along with the _Malacobdellidæ_, or in some other allied family of
+the suctorial annelids. The tristomes are not strictly entozoa, yet
+their internal organisation conforms more to the _Trematoda_ than to
+the _Hirudinidæ_. Thus, they support two small suckers anteriorly and
+one large sucker posteriorly, the body being externally smooth and
+devoid of annulations. The tristomes have therefore no anus. In some
+species the large caudal sucker is sessile, in others it is stalked
+or pedunculated, being in either case bordered by a membranous fold
+(Dujardin). All the species are hermaphroditic. They attach themselves
+to the gills of fishes or to the general surface, selecting especially
+the neighbourhood of the fins. Some species are parasitic on crustacean
+parasites that are themselves attached to marine fishes. In the genus
+_Udonella_ the mode of development is known to be simple and direct.
+According to Van Beneden, the embryos are large and acquire the form and
+characters of their parents whilst they are still within the egg-shell.
+They are ready to assume an independent existence the moment they quit
+the shell. The eggs are oval, the chorion being prolonged into a single
+filamentary process or “holdfast.” Van Beneden compares a group of
+them to a “bouquet of vorticells.” On quitting the shell the embryonic
+_Udonella_ at once attaches itself to the _Caligus_, and there acquires
+the adult condition. The _Polystomidæ_ comprise a variety of remarkable
+genera. I accept this family as the equivalent of Dujardin’s first group
+of trematodes which he termed “_Onchobothriens_,” rejecting only his
+genus _Diporpa_, which is a juvenile condition of _Diplozoon_. In this
+family Van Beneden includes the genera _Calceostoma_ and _Gyrodactylus_.
+In all the polystomes we have a more or less ramified intestine, but
+the reproductive organs conform to the general trematode type. All are
+hermaphroditic, the eggs being supplied with filamentary appendages,
+in some only at one pole of the shell, in others at both ends. The
+water-vascular system is conspicuously developed. All the species are
+supplied with prehensile hooks.
+
+In the Diporpa condition of _Diplozoon_ there are two supernumerary
+hooks, associated with a dorsal sucker at the centre of the body, and it
+is by means of these organs that a conjugation between two such juvenile
+forms is effected. These two individuals become organically united for
+life, after the fashion of the Siamese twins. After conjugation the
+sexual organs appear. In _Onchotyle appendiculata_ the lower end of
+the body merges into a curious appendage, which is placed almost at a
+right angle with the body itself, and in this way, as Van Beneden justly
+remarks, the entire animal resembles a little hammer, the resemblance
+being very much heightened by the circumstance that one end of the
+appendage is cleft so as to correspond, as it were, with the notch which
+we employ in the action of nail-drawing. The _Onchotyle appendiculata_
+was first discovered by Kuhn attached to the gills of a dog-fish
+(_Scillium catulus_), but it has since been found ectoparasitically
+lodged upon other marine fishes. With the _Gyrodactylidæ_ I include Van
+Beneden’s genus _Calceostoma_. The gyrodactyles have been classed with
+the Polystomidæ. Amongst the characters standing out most prominently
+are those having reference to peculiar hooks which project from the
+great sucking disk. In _Calceostoma_ this mechanism is reduced to a
+single horny structure placed at the margin of the caudal sucker in
+the central line. In some Gyrodactyli the hooks are very numerous.
+In _Gyrodactylus elegans_ the caudal sucker supports a pair of large
+laterally-curved hooks, which are placed back to back in the centre
+of the disk, being connected at their upper ends by a supplementary
+semi-lunar bar. A series of tentacles serve to increase the prehensile
+action of the sucker. In many species the males are supplied with
+accessory horny developments. The genus _Gyrodactylus_ has been studied
+by Nordmann, Von Siebold, G. Wagener, Van Beneden, and especially by
+Wedl, who records the following results:--(_a._) “_Gyrodactylus_
+is found on the gills of fresh-water fishes under numerous specific
+forms, _G. elegans_ being also found by Creplin and Siebold on the
+fins. Moreover, as I have found nearly every species of fish supporting
+a particular gyrodactyle representative, it would seem that each
+finny creature supplies its own _Gyrodactylus_. Sometimes two of them
+are parasitic upon the same gill, being frequently associated with
+_Trichodinæ_, as well as with the still unintelligible _Psorospermiæ_.
+(_b._) The clasping apparatus at the posterior end of the body must--in
+an animal so soft and constantly exposed to the passage of regular
+currents--be comparatively strongly developed and accommodated to the
+peculiar dwelling-places, and probably the varying character of the
+latter supplies a reason why there should be so great a difference in
+the mechanism of the hooks belonging to the disk. (_c._) The hooked
+apparatus affords a very valuable and mathematically precise means of
+diagnosis in the determination of species. This differentiation may be
+accomplished by observing whether there are two or four large hooks;
+whether there be one or two connecting portions, and by noticing their
+several forms and relations to one another; and whether, again, there
+are hooklets or not, remarking in the first instance their position,
+form, distribution, and so forth. (_d._) The integument is sometimes
+wrinkled transversely, at other times appearing to be smooth. (_e._)
+The muscular apparatus is, in certain cases, very strongly developed.
+In the majority of instances special muscles are inserted into the
+handles of the hooks, and they are also very frequently directed into
+the transverse muscles of the skin. In _Gyrodactylus crassiusculus_ we
+find a _protrusor penis_ and _retractor palparum medius_. (_f._) Except
+in the case of _G. elegans_, four so-called eye-spots are observed
+at the anterior extremity of all Gyrodactyli. As Siebold says, they
+answer the purpose of light-refracting organs. The palpi, which in
+_G. crassiusculus_ are seen to contain muscular bundles, appear to be
+retractile touch-organs, extending more or less prominently forward.
+(_g._) Observations in regard to the alimentary canal are at present
+incomplete, for only in the case of _G. cochlea_ did I find a single
+gullet demonstrable. (_h._) _Gyrodactylus_ becomes sexually developed,
+and cannot be regarded merely as a kind of ‘nurse.’”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--_Gyrodactylus elegans_, containing an embryo.
+_a_, _a_, Œsophagus; _g_, testis; _h_, _h_, sucker; _i_, _i_, large
+hooks; _k_, spines. Magnified. After Van Beneden.]
+
+So much for Wedl, whose views I have elsewhere recorded at great length.
+The genetic relations subsisting amongst the Gyrodactyles have given
+rise to much controversy. Observing the singular mode of reproduction in
+_G. elegans_, Von Siebold arrived at the conclusion that Gyrodactyles in
+general were only nurse-forms of some higher organism, and he pointed
+out, with undeniable accuracy, all the birth-stages of the young
+one as it apparently pullulated within the parent and subsequently
+emerged an almost perfect Gyrodactyle. Von Siebold also remarked that
+the so-called “daughter,” at the time of birth, nearly equalled the
+“parent” in respect of size, whilst, moreover, it contained within
+its interior another very young Gyrodactyle, or, in other words, a
+“grand-daughter.” Van Beneden interpreted these facts very differently.
+I have myself noticed the second generation, or daughter, to contain
+in its interior evidences of a third generation. This I observed
+in specimens obtained from the tails of Gasterostei caught in the
+Serpentine, Regent’s Park. Indications of the third progeny were seen
+whilst the daughter still resided within the body of the nurse-parent,
+and the so-called grand-daughter became much larger immediately after
+birth. In one instance the “daughter” commenced showing herself by a
+slight bulging at the centre of the parent’s body, whilst the integument
+of the latter yielded on all sides of the bud-like projection, and in
+such a manner as to convey the idea of a vaginal opening. There was an
+evident struggle on the part of the young one to free itself from the
+so-called parent envelope, but the tissues showed no signs of injury. On
+partial protrusion it was seen that the budding portion corresponded
+with the centre of the daughter’s body, and this, in a little while,
+assumed the aspect of a semicircular band. Subsequently the upper end
+became detached, the freed extremity being now recognised as the head.
+An interval elapsed before the broad posterior end of the animal could
+be disengaged, but immediately after this was effected the sides of
+the parent envelope closed in upon the opening, and all that remained
+was a small cavity or sac, indicating the position recently occupied
+by the daughter. Altogether the process occupied about five minutes. I
+carefully compared the so-called “parent” with the “daughter,” but in
+regard to size I can scarcely say which was the larger of the two. As
+before hinted, Van Beneden demurs altogether to Von Siebold’s views. He
+does not admit the parent to be a kind of “nurse,” he does not consider
+the primary young one to be a “daughter,” and, consequently, he does
+not regard the embryo seen within the latter as a “grand-daughter.”
+Van Beneden says:--“According to our researches there is here a false
+interpretation; the little daughter is lodged within the side of its
+pretended mother, and not in its interior; instead of being its mother,
+it is its sister; there is a difference of shape because there is a
+difference of age; the Gyrodactyles are viviparous, and as among the
+Trematodes the eggs are formed one by one, one embryo is scarcely formed
+when another commences its evolution, and the egg-deposition is effected
+even whilst the embryo is being produced. The Gyrodactyles are therefore
+viviparous worms, which beget a single embryo at a time, as those of
+the trematode group, to which they are allied, beget a single egg at a
+time, and before the first embryo is expelled another is already partly
+developed. There, we believe, lies the correct interpretation of that
+phenomenon; instead of a bud it is an embryo, which has escaped from
+an egg. Here, therefore, we have no phenomenon of alternate generation
+or of digenesis, as Von Siebold supposes, but a simple viviparous
+reproduction.”
+
+Passing on to notice the cestodes of fishes, I may remark that they
+often display characters very distinctive from those inhabiting
+birds and mammals, being commonly furnished with special tentacular
+hook-appendages employed as supplementary organs of boring and
+anchorage. In the cartilaginous sharks and rays these cestodes are
+remarkably abundant, and in certain osseous species they are scarcely
+less frequent. The only noteworthy kinds of fish which are commonly
+free from the invasion of tapeworms are the sturgeons, blennies,
+gobios, mullets, sparoids, and Sciænæ. Some few of them are infested by
+_Ligulæ_, _Caryophyllæi_, &c. Cuttle fishes harbor a great variety of
+tapeworm-larvæ, forming one of the chief sources whence sharks and rays
+obtain the same parasites destined to arrive at sexual maturity within
+their own bodies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Section of the strobile of _Bothriocephalus
+proboscideus_. Magnified. After Busk.]
+
+Among the most interesting cestodes of fishes we may reckon the
+pit-headed tapeworms and their allies (Bothriocephalidæ). One of the
+most common species is _Both. proboscideus_ which is found, often in
+considerable numbers, lodged within the pyloric appendages of the
+salmon (_Salmo salar_ and _S. hucho_). It acquires a length of two
+feet. When in large numbers it cannot fail to prove injurious to the
+bearer. In this connection also must be mentioned _B. nodosus_. In the
+adult state this worm infests a great variety of water-birds (herons,
+gulls, and divers), but in the young or sexually-immature tænioid
+condition it is a frequent inhabitant of sticklebacks (_Gastereosteus
+aculeatus_ and _G. pungitus_), being also found in the salmon and
+in the bull-head, or father-lasher (_Cottus scorpio_). The immature
+tapeworm was formerly considered a separate species (_B. solidus_).
+Some years back Creplin discovered the connection subsisting between
+the two forms, and re-described the species in its two conditions under
+the name of _Schistocephalus dimorphus_, but it was reserved for Von
+Siebold to explain the full nature of this relationship. In his essay
+on “Tape and Cystic Worms” he shows that it is not until the worm
+reaches the intestine of the ultimate host that its segments acquire
+sexual completeness. As Von Siebold observes, “the extent of development
+in each individual will be found to be in proportion to the time the
+parasite has passed in the bird’s alimentary canal after its passive
+immigration.” A similar instance, it is added, “occurs in the case of
+the _Ligula simplicissima_, infesting the abdominal cavity of various
+species of carp, whose sexual organs are, and remain, undeveloped as
+long as the worm resides within the fish; whilst, when the latter is
+eaten by ducks, divers, waders, and other water-fowl, the entozoon
+being thus conveyed into their intestine, it attains perfect sexual
+development. In the older helminthological works the sexually-mature
+_Ligula simplicissima_ is described under various specific names (_L.
+sparsa_, _L. uniserialis_, _L. alternans_, _L. interrupta_).” These
+results have been confirmed by later observers, but it is now usual
+to recognise the sexually-mature worm as the _Ligula monogramma_ of
+Creplin. In 1876 Dr Duchamp published his beautiful memoir on this
+subject, treating the entire question exhaustively and adding important
+experimental details. M. Duchamp gives a list of about twenty species
+of fish that are infested by the immature worm, and amongst these the
+_Cyprinidæ_ play by far the most conspicuous part. M. Duchamp has
+recorded a fatal piscine epizoöty amongst tenches (_Tinca vulgaris_),
+occurring in the ponds of La Bresse. This is produced by _Ligula
+simplicissima_, which escapes by an aperture formed near the vent of
+the infested fish. M. Duchamp also gives important anatomical and
+embryological details, but the especially interesting part of his
+memoir refers to his feeding experiments, seven in number. He succeeded
+in rearing _L. monogramma_ in the domestic duck, by feeding this bird
+with examples of _L. simplicissima_ obtained from the abdomen of the
+tench (_Tinca vulgaris_). The interest of these experiments does not
+cease here, since they afford a probable clue to the source of human
+_Bothriocephali_, which in nearly all essential points of structure
+correspond with the Ligules. As remarked in the first part of this work,
+Leuckart long ago pointed to the Salmonidæ as probably furnishing the
+intermediate host of this worm; and he disproved the views of Knoch, of
+Petersburg, who thought he had reared _Bothriocephalus latus_ in the dog
+in a direct manner. I have already called attention to the opinion of
+Dr Fock, of Utrecht, who thinks the human bearer may become infested by
+the consumption of the little fresh-water bleak (_Leuciscus alburnus_).
+From the observations of Dr Bertolus, it is extremely probable that our
+_Bothriocephalus latus_ is the sexually-mature condition of _Ligula
+nodosa_ infesting the abdominal cavity and pyloric appendages of the
+common trout (_Salmo trutta_).
+
+Another cestode of general interest is the _Tricuspidaria_
+(_Triænophorus_) _nodulosus_, infesting many of our fresh-water fishes.
+It varies in length from one to two feet. The segmentation of the
+strobila is very indistinct, but the reproductive organs occur at
+regular intervals. All parts of the body are extremely contractile,
+especially the head. The tricuspid hooks support thin chitinous laminæ,
+which connect the two lateral horns of each hook to the central
+apophysis. The object of this arrangement is to afford additional
+security to the prong-like processes. Van Beneden appears to think it
+an error that the cusps of the hooks should have been figured in ‘Règne
+Animal’ as directed forwards, and he has drawn the hooks with the points
+downwards. In regard to the calcareous corpuscles, narrow vessels may
+be easily recognised passing off continuously from the capsules in
+closing the particles. These vascular prolongations are single, having
+their course directed towards the epidermis; doubtless they open at the
+surface, but I did not detect any aperture. I have figured the tubes in
+my ‘Entozoa’ (p. 132). Dr Guido Wagener figures similar structures as
+occurring in _Cercaria macrocerca_.
+
+Various species of _Tetrarhynchus_ dwell in the bodies of sharks and
+rays, whilst their larvæ inhabit fishes on which the plagiostomi
+feed. Immature tetrarhynchs occur in cuttle-fishes, but they are most
+abundant in such fish as the cod, haddock, turbot, whiting (Fig. 81),
+flounder, sole, gurnard, mackerel, mullet, and conger-eel. A tænioid
+scolex constantly infests the muscles and viscera of the great sunfish.
+The tetrarhynchs differ from one another as regards the form of their
+proboscides and the relative number and disposition of the hooks. I
+must refer to my ‘Entozoa’ for a full description, with figures, of
+a larval tetrarhynch from the wall of the intestine of a haddock.
+Some Tetrarhynchi exhibit a very complex armature, as may be seen
+in _Tetrarhynchus longicollis_ infesting the tope or penny dog-fish
+(_Galeus vulgaris_). In this species the hooks are uniform in size, and
+arranged in spirally disposed circles carrying from twenty to thirty
+hooks each. In the tetrarhynch from the whiting the hooks show much
+irregularity both as regards size and arrangement. A remarkable scolex
+infests the sun-fish (_Orthagoriscus mola_); it is a true tetrarhynch,
+but has been variously classed. According to view all the following
+titles refer to this parasite:--_Gymnorhynchus reptans_, Rudolphi;
+_G. horridus_, John Goodsir; _Acanthorhynchus reptans_, Diesing;
+_Bothriorhynchus continuus_, Van Lidth de Jeude; _Bothriocephalus
+patulus_, Leuckart; _Acanthocephalus elongatus_, Rudolphi; _A.
+macrourus_, Bremser; _Floriceps saccatus_, Cuvier; _F. elongatus_,
+Blainville; _Scolex gigas_, Cuvier; _Tetrarhynchus reptans_, Cobbold.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Portion of the proboscis of a scolex of
+_Tetrarhynchus_ infesting _Merlangus vulgaris_. Magnified. After Busk.]
+
+Five or six examples of the sunfish have been examined by me in the
+fresh state, all of them being infested by tetrarhynchs. In the fish
+here drawn (fig. 82) the liver and lateral muscles were extensively
+tunnelled by the parasite. In all instances the anterior part of the
+worm was found surrounded by a thick, clear, transparent cyst, which
+gradually diminished in thickness towards the tail. When liberated from
+its investing capsule the head of the worm presents a quadrilateral
+figure, each lateral half being furnished with a bipartite facet. The
+retractile boring organs are club-shaped, each supporting about 1600
+hooks. Nearly all the hooks display a uniform length and thickness, but
+at the lower part of each proboscis there are two conspicuous circles,
+the hooks of which are at least twice as large as the others. The
+joints of the immature strobile are well formed, but exhibit no trace
+of sexual organs. If it be asked “what is the object of this perpetual
+tunnelling,” and “does the boring cause suffering to the host,” I
+reply:--“The object of tunnelling is apparently twofold; first, that
+the parasite may constantly obtain fresh nourishment; and secondly,
+that it may acquire another residence.” It furnishes an example of
+a parasite perpetually striving to perform an act which it cannot
+accomplish; for, in order to arrive at sexual maturity, it must wait
+until the sunfish is devoured by a shark. In regard to the question as
+to the boring action giving rise to pain, one cannot, of course, speak
+with absolute certainty. When there are many parasites occupying the
+liver, or other important viscera, then, doubtless, they create pain,
+and cause decay of the organs infested; thus they enfeeble the vital
+powers of the host. At such a time the sunfish would be easily overcome
+by its natural enemies, and be the first to succumb in the struggle for
+existence. These wandering tetrarhynchoid scolices never escape the body
+of the intermediate host until they are passively transferred into the
+alimentary canal of the ultimate entertainer. In the sharks and rays
+they acquire sexual maturity. From these animals the proglottides pass
+into the water in the ordinary way. The ova are subsequently swallowed
+by sunfishes and other intermediate hosts, within whose stomachs the
+six-hooked embryos are liberated, and the scolices become developed in
+the ordinary manner. As obtains in _Cysticercus fasciolaris_ of the
+mouse the scolex of _Tetr. reptans_ becomes tænioid. I have seen the
+liver of an adult sunfish so infested by these parasites that the whole
+organ might be fitly described as a mere bag of worms, the immature
+strobiles being inextricably coiled together and defying separation. One
+of the parasites which I removed from this particular fish is preserved
+in the Hunterian Collection.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--_Tetrarhynchus reptans_. 1, Reduced figure of a
+sunfish, showing the worms _in sitû_; 2, head of a worm in its capsule;
+3, tænioid scolex; 4, section of the immature strobile, 5, proboscis; 6,
+row of hooks; 7, 8, large and small hooks (magnified 260 diameters); 9,
+head of the scolex viewed from above. Original.]
+
+In reference to the nematoids of fishes I can say but little. They are
+excessively abundant; sexually-immature filariæ being found in almost
+every marine fish that one examines. Even at our dinner and breakfast
+tables nothing is more common than to observe the little _Filaria
+piscium_ spirally coiled within the tissues of herrings, haddocks,
+cod-fish, and whiting. All the sexually-immature nematoids are, as it
+were, waiting to be passively transferred to their ultimate hosts. These
+final bearers are usually either fishes, birds, cetacea, or seals.
+Amongst fresh-water fishes the _Cucullanidæ_ play an important rôle.
+These parasites closely resemble the strongyloid _Sclerostomata_, but
+the absence of a true bursa seems to justify their separation into a
+distinct family. In most of them the body is truncated in front and much
+narrowed or drawn out posteriorly. The head is, broad and globular,
+and furnished with a powerful muscular pharynx. The mouth is seldom
+round; it is often subterminal, opening by a transverse slit. The tail
+of the male is recurved, and usually supplied with membranous winged
+appendages; sometimes there is a pre-anal sucking disk. In the female
+the tail is simple, and more or less sharply pointed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--_Cucullanus foveolatus._ Female. From the
+plaice (_Platessa vulgaris_). Magnified. After Busk.]
+
+The facts relating to the development of these parasites are especially
+interesting as having afforded Leuckart and Fedschenko a clue to what
+obtains in the guinea-worm (_Dracunculus_). The Cucullanus of the perch
+(_C. elegans_) is a viviparous species. The embryos are supplied with
+little boring teeth, or styles, which enable them to perforate the
+bodies of entomostracous crustaceans. Having in a direct manner gained
+access to the perivisceral cavity of _Cyclops_, they remain coiled
+within the intermediate bearer until it has been pursued, captured,
+and transferred to the stomach of the ultimate or piscine host. Once
+liberated within the stomach of the fish the young _Cucullani_ soon
+acquire sexual maturity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--1, _Echinorhynchus angustatus_ (natural
+size and enlarged); 2, _Echinorhynchus nodulosus_ (natural size and
+enlarged), with (3) two eggs (magnified 1000 diameters). Both species
+from a trout. After Busk.]
+
+The acanthocephalous _Echinorhynchi_ are very abundant in fishes.
+They also, like the _Cucullani_, require a change of hosts in order
+to ensure the continuance of the species. No less than six species of
+Echinorhynchi are known to infest the trout (_Salmo fario_). As many
+as four species likewise infest the eel (_Anguilla_); the same number
+of distinct forms being also found in the turbot (_Rhombus_) and ling
+(_Lota_), whilst three species may be met with in the common sole
+(_Solea_). What we at present know respecting the mode of development
+of Echinorhynchi infesting fishes is principally due to the researches
+of Leuckart. Some years back Dr Guido Wagener supplied admirable
+illustrations of the eggs and embryos of Echinorhynchi, but he was
+erroneously led to conclude that the larvæ were developed in a direct
+manner. The notion of a simple metamorphosis was entirely disproved
+by the experiments of Leuckart, who found the growth and development
+of the young to be accompanied by a true alternate generation. He
+showed this to obtain in _Echinorhynchus proteus_, a species abundant
+in the trout and in many other fresh-water fishes. The embryo of
+this parasite is broad and obliquely truncated at the ventral surface
+anteriorly, being gradually narrowed to a blunt point posteriorly, and
+at the front part, on each side of the middle line, there are five or
+six spines biserially disposed. Similar characters are seen in _E.
+filicollis_. Prof. Leuckart introduced a number of eggs into a vessel
+of water containing several small crustaceans (_Gammarus Pulex_). These
+little animals readily swallowed the ova, and in a few days the embryos
+were found emerging from their shells, boring their way through the
+intestinal walls, then passing into the general cavity of the body, and
+even into the appendages themselves. During the next fourteen days the
+embryos within the Gammari exhibited an increase of size; and in course
+of the third week a further metamorphosis caused the embryos to assume
+the readily recognisable characters of a young _Echinorhynchus_. Thus,
+in Leuckart’s own words, “the ultimate animal arises in the interior of
+the primordial body, by a process which presents so close an analogy
+with the production of an embryo, and, consequently, with the act of
+generation, that one feels inclined at once to identify it with such an
+act, and therefore, also, to regard the _Echinorhynchus_ as exhibiting
+an alternation of generation in its mode of development rather than a
+metamorphosis.”
+
+The young _Echinorhynchus_ afterwards grows rapidly, its several
+internal organs, proboscideal sac, and muscular apparatus, gradually
+coming into view. At last the young entozoon completely fills the
+interior of the embryo, the latter having scarcely undergone any
+change, and still remaining, of course, within its crustacean host.
+What may be regarded as even more extraordinary is the circumstance
+that the embryonic body next becomes firmly adherent to the young
+_Echinorhynchus_, thus ultimately forming the true integument of the
+adult _Echinorhynchus_. The original skin of the embryo, however,
+is cast off “as soon as the _Echinorhynchus_ occupies the whole
+interior of the embryo.” After this the sexual differences become
+clearly established. Leuckart remarks that the passage of the young
+Echinorhynchi into their ultimate host is probably unattended by any
+striking changes, whilst the metamorphosis of the embryo, as thus
+far detailed, occupies a period of about six weeks. In general the
+crustacean hosts appear to suffer little from the borings of the embryo
+parasites, but when the latter have assumed the Echinorhynchus-condition
+and happen to be particularly numerous they not unfrequently prove
+fatal to the unsuspecting Gammari. After their transference to the
+intestine of the ultimate host a period of about one week more is
+required for the completion of their development.
+
+From the large number of species of _Echinorhynchi_ infesting our
+fresh-water fishes, they present quite a feature of piscine parasitism.
+Almost every perch, chub, carp, pike, barbel, bream, or roach that
+one opens is found to have its intestines occupied by parasites which
+exhibit a light yellow color. These are Echinorhynchi, the common forms
+being _E. proteus_, _E. angustatus_ (Fig. 84, No. 1), _E. clavæceps_,
+_E. globulosus_, and _E. tuberosus_. In the Salmonidæ, besides several
+of the above, we may also find _E. clavula_, _E. fusiformis_, and _E.
+pachysomus_. As a group these parasites are more attractive looking than
+most other helminths, and they will well repay the zoological collector.
+The species infesting marine fishes are almost as numerous as those
+found in fresh-water hosts.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 59).--(Anonymous), “Note by ‘An Inquirer’ respecting
+Worms in Fish,” in the ‘Lancet,’ March 7, 1868, p. 336.--_Baer, K. E.
+von_, “On the Tapeworms found in the Waters of the Pregel by Linneus,”
+from the German, in ‘Edin. New. Phil. Journ.,’ 1829, p. 374, and in
+the ‘Edin. Nat. and Geo. Sci. Journ.,’ 1829-30, p. 311; also from the
+‘Trans. of Nat. Soc. of Dantzig,’ in the ‘Lancet,’ 1829.--_Badcock_;
+see _Slack_.--_Baird_, ‘British Entomostraca,’ London, 1850.--_Beneden,
+J. P. van_, “Les vers cestoides,” ‘Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg.,’ tom.
+xxv, 1850.--_Idem_, ‘Mém. sur les vers intest.,’ Paris, 1858.--_Idem_,
+“On Echinobothrium,” in ‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Brux.,’ 1849.--_Idem_,
+(with Hesse), ‘Rech. sur les Bdellodes ou Hirudinées et les Trématodes
+marins,’ 1863-65.--_Idem_, ‘Rech. sur les Turbellaries,’ 1861.--_Idem_,
+“On a new Lerneonema,” ‘Bull.,’ l. c., 1851, and in ‘L’Institut,’
+1851.--_Bertolus_, ‘Mém. sur le développement du _Dibothrium latum_
+(Bothriocéphale de l’homme),’ App. to Dr Duchamp’s work quoted
+below.--_Bosc_, ‘Hist. Nat. des Vers,’ 1802, p. 271.--_Bradley, C. L._,
+“On the occurrence of Gyrodactylus on Sticklebacks,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’
+1861.--_Brullé_, “Note on the Reproduction of Ligula,” from ‘Comptes
+Rendus,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1855.--_Chatin_, ‘On _Amphibdella
+torpedinis_ from the Gills’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 57).--_Chavannes_, “On
+Fluke-larvæ from Coregonus,” in ‘Bull. de la Soc. Vaud. des Sci.
+nat.,’ tom. iii.--_Claparède, E._, “Ueber die Gattung Tetracotyle,”
+&c., in ‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,’ 1857, s. 99 _et seq._--_Cobbold_,
+“The Sunfish (Orthagoriscus) as a Host,” ‘Intell. Observer,’ Sept.,
+1862.--_Idem_, “Notes on the Calcareous Corpuscles of Tricuspidaria,”
+‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1859.--_Idem_, “Notes on Tricuspidaria and
+Pentastoma,” _ibid._, 1859.--_Idem_, “Note on _Gyrodactylus elegans_,”
+_ibid._, 1862; see also Wedl.--_Idem_, “On _Distoma clavatum_ from the
+Sword-fish,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ 1867 (Zool. Sect., p. 200).--_Idem_,
+“Tapeworms in Trout,” letter to the ‘Field,’ July 26, 1873; see also
+F. Francis (below).--_Idem_, “Remarks on the Entozoa and Ectozoa of
+Fish,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1867, p. 671.--_Idem_, “On _Agamonema
+crenilabri_,” in ‘Science Gossip,’ 1876; see W. W. Wilson.--_Idem_, in
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1858.--_Idem_, ‘Note on Parasites from the Wolf-fish
+(Annarhicas) and Lump-sucker (Cyclopterus), collected by Mr Devis’ (l.
+c., Bibl. No. 57).--_Idem_, “Descr. of the Scolex of a Tetrarhynchus,”
+in a paper on ‘Parasite Larvæ,’ ‘Intell. Observer,’ 1863.--_Idem_,
+“Synopsis of the Distomidæ,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.’ (Zool. Div.),
+1860.--_Idem_, “Remarks on _Bothriocephalus latus_, in relation to Dr
+Fock’s supposition that the Bleak (_Leuciscus alburnus_) is concerned in
+its Production,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ July, 1878.--_Cornalia, E._, ‘Sopra
+una nuova specie di Crostacei Siphonostomi (_Gyropeltis doradis_),’
+Milano, 1859.--_Coughtrey, M._, “On the absence of Tapeworm in the
+Salmon-trout of New Zealand,” letter to the ‘Otago Daily Times,’ dated
+from the Otago University, Dec. 6, 1875.--_Diesing_, ‘Vierzehn Arten
+von Bdellideen,’ Wien, 1858; see also ‘Revisions,’ quoted in Bibl.
+No. 58.--_Donnadieu, A._, “Étude sur les Ligules,” in ‘Archives Zool.
+Expériment.,’ 1876.--_Duchamp, G._, ‘Recherches anat. et physiol. sur
+les Ligules,’ Paris, 1876; see also Bertolus.--_Fock_, ‘The Bleak as a
+source of the Broad Tapeworm.’ See Cobbold.--_Francis, F._, “Tapeworm in
+Fish” (with report by myself), in the ‘Field,’ June 28, 1873.--_Idem_,
+in the ‘Field’ for July 12, 1873.--_Garsin_, ‘Histoire de l’Acad.
+des Sci.,’ Paris, 1730, p. 44.--_Goodsir, J._, “On _Gymnorhynchus
+horridus_, a new Cestoid Entozoon,” ‘Edin. New Phil. Journ.,’ p. 9,
+1841.--_Houghton, W._, “On the occurrence of _Gyrodactylus elegans_ in
+Shropshire,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1862.--_Huxley_, “Note on Gyrodactylus,”
+‘Proc. Roy. Inst.,’ April 20, 1852, and ‘Edin. New Phil. Journ.,’
+1852, p. 172.--_Knoch, J._, ‘Entwickelungsgeschichte d. _Both.
+proboscideus_,’ 1862.--_Knox, J. F._, “Note respecting the occurrence
+of a peculiar Microscopic Entozoon in the Textures of the Herring,”
+‘Lancet,’ 1838.--_Kölliker_, “Zwei neue Distomen,” ‘Ber. v. d. K.
+Zoot. Anstalt zu Würzburg,’ 1849.--_Idem_, ‘Ueber Tristoma,’ _ibid._,
+1849.--_Leidy, J._, “Notice of a Tetrarhynchus (_T. tenuicaudatus_)
+in the Remova;” ‘Proc. Acad. N. S. Philad.,’ Oct. 15, 1878; and in
+‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Feb., 1879.--_Leydig_, “Ueber Argulus,” ‘Sieb.
+und Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1850.--_Maddox, R. L._, “Some Remarks on the
+Parasites found in the Nerves (and other parts) of the Common Haddock
+(_Morrhua æglefinus_),” ‘Trans. of the Roy. Micr. Soc.,’ 1867, p.
+87.--_Menzies_, ‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1790, p. 187.--_Miescher_, “On _Filaria
+piscium_,” &c., in ‘Excerpta Zoologica,’ communicated by Dr Frances,
+in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1842.--_M’Intosh, W. C._, “Notes on the Food
+and Parasites of the _Salmo salar_ of the Tay,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’
+1863; repr. in the ‘Zoologist,’ Feb., 1864.--_Müller, J._, “Note on
+a Parasitic Formation (Gregarina) in the Pike, with a statement from
+his ‘Neurologie der Myxinoiden,’ that _Diplostomum rachineum_ is to be
+found alive under the cerebral membranes of _Petromyzon fluviatilis_,”
+from ‘Müller’s Archiv,’ in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Record,’ p. 20,
+1842.--_Nardo_, in ‘Heisinger’s Zeitsch.,’ 1827, s. 68, and in ‘Isis,’
+1833, s. 523.--_Olsson, P._, “Researches on the Flukes and Tapeworms
+chiefly of Marine Fishes,” ‘Entozoa, iakttagna hos Skandanaviska
+Hafsfiskar,’ Lund (aftr. ur ‘Lunds Univ. Årsskrift,’ tom. iii, iv),
+1867-68.--_Owen_, ‘Zool. Soc. Trans.,’ 1835, p. 382.--_Pallas_,
+‘Spicilegia Zoologica,’ fasc. x, p. 18, 1774.--_Siebold, C. von_,
+‘Band und Blasenwürmer,’ s. 41, Huxley’s edit., p. 32.--_Idem_, “On
+_Diplozoon paradoxum_,” from ‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.’ (by Huxley), in
+‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1851.--_Idem_, “Ueber den Generationswechsel der
+Cestoden nebst einer Revision der Gattung Tetrarhynchus,” ‘Zeitschr. f.
+wiss. Zool.,’ 1850, s. 198.--_Idem_, “Gyrodactylus, ein ammenartiges
+Wesen,” _ibid._, 1849.--_Slack, H. J._, “On _Bucephalus polymorphus_,”
+in ‘Monthly Microsc. Journ.,’ April, 1875, p. 141.--_Van Beneden_ (see
+Beneden).--_Verrill, A. E._, “On the Parasitic Habits of the Crustacea,”
+from ‘American Naturalist,’ in ‘Scientific Opinion,’ Aug. 4, 1869, p.
+185.--_Idem_, “New Flukes (_Tristoma læve_ and _T. cornutum_) from
+the Mouth and Gills of _Tetrapturus albidus_,” ‘American Journ. of
+Science,’ p. 40, 1875.--_Von Baer_ (see Baer).--_Von Siebold_ (see
+Siebold).--_Wagener, R. G._, “Helminth. Bemerkungen,” in ‘Sieb. und
+Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1857.--_Idem_, “Enthelminthica,” ‘Müller’s Arch.,’
+1851.--_Idem_, “Ueber Eingeweidewurm (Amphiptyches) in _Chimæra
+monstrosa_,” ‘Müll. Arch.,’ 1852.--_Idem_, ‘Beiträge zur Entw.-Gesch.
+der Eingeweidewürmer (Preisschrift),’ 1857.--_Wedl_, “On Gyrodactylus”
+(see reference to my paper on ‘_G. elegans_’), ‘Quart. Journ. Micr.
+Sci.,’ 1862; trans. from his ‘Anhang,’ “Ueber die Gattung Gyrod.,” to
+‘Anat. Beobachtungen ueber Trematoden,’ Wien, 1858.--_Idem_, ‘Hæmatozoa
+in Fishes,’ &c. (l. c., Bibl. No. 58).--_Wigham, R._, “Note on
+_Holostomum cuticola_ from Roach and Bream,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ p. 235,
+1851.--_Wilson, W. W._, “On a Parasitic Worm infesting a Marine Fish
+(_Crenilabrus rupestris_),” in ‘Science Gossip,’ Jan., 1876.--_Yarrell,
+W._, “Note on _Tristoma coccineum_,” in his work on ‘Brit. Fishes,’ vol.
+ii, p. 353, 1836.
+
+
+PART IV (EVERTEBRATA).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--_Sphærularia bombi._ Showing the supposed male
+_in sitû_. After Lubbock.]
+
+Since a large proportion of all those helminths that require a change
+of hosts must needs pass into the bodies of insects, crustaceans,
+mollusks, or other evertebrated animals, it is evident that these
+lower creatures are almost as liable to be infested by parasites as
+the vertebrates themselves. As a rule, no doubt, the parasitic forms
+infesting individual evertebrated hosts are not numerous; nevertheless
+the water-snails form a noteworthy exception. Thus, some ten different
+species of parasite are found either in or upon the common _Planorbis
+corneus_; whilst _Lymnæus stagnalis_, _Paludina vivipara_, and _P.
+impura_, each support at least a dozen species. Of course, the parasites
+are not sexually mature, since nearly all of them are _Cercariæ_ or
+larval trematodes. Snails, oysters, mussels, whelks, and other mollusks
+afford harbour and anchorage to a variety of parasites and messmates;
+but, fortunately, few or it may be none of the strictly human parasites
+require to pass through these intermediate bearers. _Distoma crassum_
+is possibly an exception. Save the cuttle-fishes, not many evertebrated
+animals are infested by sexually-mature worms. One of the most notable
+exceptions is that of a nematoid infesting bees. This worm was known
+to John Hunter, who spoke of it as “the animal that breeds in the
+humble bee.” In the year 1836, M. Léon Dufour first applied the term
+_Sphærularia_ to this remarkable worm, which he discovered in the
+abdominal cavities of two species of bee (_Bombus terrestris_ and
+_B. hortorum_). The worm was subsequently found by Von Siebold in
+two other species of bee (_B. muscorum_ and _B. sylvarum_), but it
+remained for Sir John Lubbock to demonstrate that this parasite not
+only infests these insects, but also _Bombus lucorum_, _B. lapidarius_,
+_B. pratorum_, _B. subterraneus_, and _Apathus vestalis_. I possess
+specimens from _Vespa vulgaris_ and _V. rufa_. Sir J. Lubbock and Mr.
+Cole have separately given full anatomical descriptions of the worm.
+According to Lubbock the so-called female is about an inch in length,
+of a whitish color, and 1/15″ in thickness, being bluntly pointed at
+either extremity. _Sphærularia_ is everywhere covered by small warts
+or button-like projections, in all numbering about 800. The warts are
+transparent, each, according to Lubbock, projecting from 4/1000″ to
+6/1000″ above the general surface of the integument. There is neither
+mouth, œsophagus, intestine, nor anus; but in their place a large fatty
+mass or _corpus adiposum_. Sir J. Lubbock remarks that this peculiar
+organ “is homologous, not with the whole intestinal canal of nematodes,
+but only with the intestine; and we find, in fact, that in Gordius the
+œsophagus is very short, and opens at once into the anterior end of the
+_corpus adiposum_; so that to pass from this genus to _Sphærularia_ it
+would be necessary to shorten the œsophagus a little more, and then the
+wall of the _corpus adiposum_ would be immediately attached to that of
+the body. So far, therefore, as concerns the _corpus adiposum_ and the
+œsophagus, _Sphærularia_ agrees neither with Gordius nor Mermis, nor,
+indeed, with one more than the other; since, if it agrees with _Mermis
+albicans_ in the double series of large fat cells, it has no œsophagus,
+and in this respect more nearly resembles Gordius.” The reproductive
+organs consist of a single ovary, uterus, and terminally situated vulva.
+These organs in the full-grown females contain ova in all stages of
+development up to the condition of advanced yolk segmentation; but it
+does not appear that embryonic formation takes place whilst the eggs
+are still _in utero_. “The young animals are born soon after the eggs
+are laid. They are about 1/60″ in length, and 1/2500″ in diameter at
+the broadest part. Before Sir J. Lubbock conducted his inquiries the
+so-called male appears to have been overlooked. The male, if male it be,
+is extremely minute; that is to say, about 28,000 times smaller than
+the female.” Notwithstanding this very circumstantial account based on
+Lubbock’s determinations, Schneider has sought to show that the facts
+have been entirely misinterpreted. What Lubbock regards as the male
+worm is, in Schneider’s opinion, a female, whilst the so-called female
+is nothing more than a gigantic prolapsed uterus which has become many
+thousand times larger than the body of the worm whence it proceeded.
+It must be allowed that Schneider’s description and accompanying
+figures are very convincing. When revising the entozoa of the Hunterian
+Collection in 1866 I explained the specimens and dissections in
+accordance with Lubbock’s views. In the following year Prof. Huxley
+in his College Lectures supported the view of Schneider, but in his
+recently published manual the opinions of the Berlin helminthologist are
+not so much as alluded to.
+
+Another point of special interest in connection with the parasites of
+insects concerns the development of _Mermis albicans_. At or near the
+time of the maturation of the ova, the parent worm, hitherto lodged
+within the body of some insect, buries itself in the soil. It commences
+its migration by boring its way out of the body of the host. Some
+difference of opinion exists as to the condition of the parent at the
+time of its wandering, for Von Siebold asserted that it quitted its
+parasitical mode of life “in order to become sexually mature away from
+the animal” infested; whereas Van Beneden states that the embryos are
+always formed at the time of the wandering.
+
+From Von Siebold’s experiments it would appear that incompletely
+developed Mermes can become mature whilst still in the soil; but
+the normal condition requires the wandering to commence, as we have
+said, at or near the full time of embryonal development. The embryos
+are reproduced viviparously, and being set free, they pass a certain
+period of their existence in the soil. Here they grow rapidly, acquire
+sexual organs, and subsequently seek to “gratify their immigrative
+propensities,” as Von Siebold says, by selecting and penetrating the
+soft-bodied larvæ of lepidopterous and other insects. This entrance they
+accomplish by means of a sharply-pointed dentule or boring stylet, which
+at the time of disuse is concealed within the head. Having once gained
+access to the host they remain within its body until the caterpillar has
+become transformed into the perfect butterfly, or until their own sexual
+maturity is completed. Van Beneden thinks it probable that the males
+quit the host some time before the females, a view which, if correct,
+might alone account for the comparative scarcity of the males. According
+to Von Siebold, sexual congress occurs before the entrance of the
+worm into the caterpillar. This observation agrees with the generally
+admitted fact that hitherto no male Mermes have actually been detected
+in the bodies of insects. The Gordii, like Mermes, become free in damp
+earth and penetrate the bodies of certain insects or their larvæ. Some
+of them gain access to fishes. Like the free nematodes (_Anguillulidæ_),
+many of the Gordii will survive complete desiccation. The eggs of the
+mature worms are deposited in long agglutinated chains in water or damp
+situations.
+
+I must conclude. In the body of this work will be found many notices
+of insect parasites that are awaiting transference to some vertebrate.
+I need only allude to the rôle of the mosquito, to that of the
+louse of the dog, and especially to that of the little myriapod
+(_Glomeris_) which, like the common glow-worm (_Lampyris_), possesses
+phosphorescent properties. I mention this again partly in correction of
+an entomological error (at p. 296) which escaped me at the time of going
+to press. Leidy has described a mature nematode (_Ascaris infecta_)
+from _Passalus cornutus_, and numerous Filariæ are known to infest
+insects (_Blatta_, _Forficula_, _Phosphuga_, &c., &c.). From an earwig I
+obtained a filaria nearly five inches in length.
+
+We have seen that the larvæ of _Dracunculus_, _Cucullanus_, as well as
+those of other important nematodes, dwell in bodies of entomostracous
+crustacea, whilst those of _Echinorhynchus_ attack the Gammari and
+their allies. The well-known _Udonella caligorum_ attaches itself to
+crustacea that are themselves parasitic.
+
+As many of the so-called free nematodes live in the slime of animals,
+Villot is of opinion that no very distinct line of demarcation can
+fairly be drawn between the parasitic and free species. This work,
+however, having dealt only with genuine parasites, I have purposely
+omitted any detailed account of the so-called free nematoids. I mention
+this lest it should be supposed that I had shown a studied neglect
+of the more or less remarkable labours of Bütschli, Bastian, Eberth,
+Linstow, Marion, Villot, Claus, De Man, Carter, and many others.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY (No. 60).--_Bastian, H. C._, “Monograph on the
+Anguillulidæ, or free Nematoids, marine, land, and freshwater, with
+description of 100 new species,” ‘Linnean Trans.’ for 1865, vol.
+xxv, p. 73.--_Idem_ (see Bibliog. No. 2).--_Idem_, “Free Nematoids,”
+being an article in the ‘Popular Science Review’ for 1868, vol. vii,
+p. 163.--_Brady, G. S._, ‘Monograph of the free and semiparasitic
+Copepoda,’ London, 1878.--_Bütschli, O._, “Untersuchungen ueber
+freilebende Nematoden und die Gattung Chætonotus,” ‘Sieb. und Köll.
+Zeitschrift,’ 1876.--_Carter, H. J._, “On a Bisexual Nematoid Worm
+which infests the common House-fly (_Musca domestica_),” ‘Ann. Nat.
+Hist.,’ 1861, and in the ‘Bombay Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ new
+series, 1860.--_Claparède_ (see Panceri).--_Claus, C._, ‘Beobachtungen
+ueber d. Organis. und Fortpflanz. v. _Leptodera appendiculata_,’
+1869.--_Cobbold_, “Note on Insect Parasites,” in ‘Rep. of Entomological
+Club,’ in the ‘Midland Naturalist,’ March, 1878, p. 80.--_Cole, W._,
+“Remarks on a Parasite of Humble Bees,” in ‘Journal of the Quekett
+Microscopical Club,’ 1875.--_Dufour, L._, “Sphærularia,” ‘Ann. des Sci.
+Nat.,’ 1836.--_Dujardin_, “On Mermis,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 2e sér.,
+tom. 18, p. 129.--_Eberth_ (see Bibliog. No. 2).--_Garner, R._, “Note on
+a Distoma,” in his paper ‘On the Lamellibranchiate Conchifera,’ ‘Trans.
+Zool. Soc.,’ 1841.--_Ghaleb, O._, “Observations and Experiments on the
+Migrations of _Filaria rhytipleurites_, a Parasite of Cockroaches and
+Rats,” ‘Comptes Rendus,’ July 8, 1878, and ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Aug.,
+1878.--_Idem_, “Note sur l’anat. et les migrations de deux Nématoides
+parasites, le _Pæcilogaster blatticola et Fil. rhytipl._,” Paris,
+1876 (quoted by O. von Linstow).--_Giard, M. A._, “On the parasitic
+Isopoda of the genus Entoniscus (infesting Crustacea),” from ‘Comptes
+Rendus,’ Aug., 1878, in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Otc., 1878.--_Idem_,
+“On the Orthonectida, parasitic on Echinodermata and Turbellaria
+(Rhopalura),” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Feb., 1878.--_Grube, A._, “On Cyclops
+as a new Cestoid-bearing Host,” from ‘Zoologisch. Anzeiger,’ Bd. i,
+s. 74, in ‘Journ. Royal Microsc. Soc.,’ Nov., 1878, p. 254.--_Hunter,
+J._, “Filaria of the Bee,” in ‘Catal. (by Owen) of the contents of the
+Mus. Royal Coll. Surg.,’ part iv, fasc. i, p. 37, 1830.--_Kynston_,
+“Worms attached to a Grasshopper,” ‘Proc. Ashm. Soc.,’ in ‘Corbyn’s
+India Review,’ and in ‘Journ. of Foreign Sci.,’ 1837, p. 172.--_Lima,
+J. F. da S._, “Remarks on the _Filaria medinensis_ or Guinea-worm;
+on the occurrence of this parasite in the Province of Bahia; and on
+its entrance into the human body by drinking water;” trans. from the
+Portuguese by Dr J. L. Paterson, and pub. in the ‘Veterinarian’ for
+Feb., 1879 _et seq._--_Linstow_, “Helminthologische Beobachtungen,” in
+‘Archiv für Naturgeschichte,’ 1876.--_Lubbock, Sir J._, “On _Sphærularia
+bombi_,” ‘Nat. Hist. Rev.,’ 1861.--_Idem_, “Notes,” &c., _ibid._, 1864,
+p. 265.--_Mason, J. W._, “Note on the Geographical Distribution of
+the _Temnocephala chilensis_ (parasitic upon a freshwater crayfish,
+_Paranephrops setosus_, in New Zealand),” ‘Annals Nat. Hist.,’
+1875, p. 336.--_Marion, A. F._, ‘Revision des Nématodes (&c.),’
+Marseilles.--_Maund, B._, “A description of _Filaria forficulæ_,” ‘Rep.
+Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ in ‘Zool. Journ.,’ 1832-34, p. 263.--_Meissner_
+(see Thomson).--_Owen, R._ (see Hunter).--_Pagenstecher_ (see Bibl.
+No. 58).--_Panceri, P._ (e di E. D. Claparède), “Nota sopra une
+alciopide parassito dell _Cydippe densa_,” ‘Mem. della Soc. Ital. di
+Sci. Nat.,’ 1867.--_Sars_, “Intestinal Worm in an Acaleph.,” from
+‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1845.--_Siebold, C. J. von_,
+in ‘Wiegmann’s Arch.,’ 1835.--_Idem_, in ‘Ray Soc. Rep.’ (by Busk),
+1847.--_Idem_, “Worms,” &c., _ibid._, p. 503, 1847.--_Idem_, “Report
+on Helminthology, and on the Nemertinæ” (trans. by W. B. Macdonald, in
+‘Ray Soc. Rep. on Zool.,’ 1842, p. 280), Edinburgh, 1845.--_Idem_ (see
+Thomson).--_Thomson, A._ (for review of the writings of Meissner, Von
+Siebold, and others, respecting the development of Mermis, Gordius,
+&c., see the classical and elaborate art. “Ovum”), in ‘Supp. to Todd’s
+Cyclop.,’ 1859.--_Vogt, C._, “On some Inhabitants (Cercariæ) of the
+Fresh-water Mussels,” from ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+1850.--_Whitman, C. O._, “The Embryology of Clepsine (with valuable
+Bibliography),” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ July, 1878.
+
+APPENDIX.--The memoirs announced by Dr T. R. Lewis in the January
+issue of the ‘Microscopical Journal,’ and referred to at the close
+of my account of _Filaria Bancrofti_, having appeared, I fulfil the
+promise previously made (p. 202). In the few lines at my disposal I
+may observe that the beautiful brochure (quoted below) supplies fuller
+details of the results already announced by Lewis in the ‘Proceedings
+of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.’ In respect of the nematoid
+hæmatozoa, the memoir is chiefly important as confirming Manson’s
+observations regarding the changes undergone by the Filariæ that have
+been transferred to the stomach of the mosquito, and especially also,
+as advancing some novel facts in reference to the occurrence of bird’s
+blood-corpuscles, associated with embryonic nematoids, in the same
+viscus of the insect. The worms are regarded by Lewis as transferred
+avian hæmatozoa, a view which gains strength by their comparison with
+the similar larvæ which he had detected in the blood of Indian crows
+(_Corvus splendens_). In Egypt, as Sonsino had himself informed me by
+letter, similar hæmatozoa are to be found in crows, and avian filariæ
+of this kind were long previously described, as Lewis and Sonsino point
+out, by Borell, Herbert, Schmidt, and Virchow. Facts of this order
+undoubtedly complicate matters, and suggest that extreme measure of
+caution in drawing conclusions, which Lewis himself everywhere displays.
+
+Respecting the final changes undergone by the mosquito-filariæ before
+their re-entrance into the human body, Lewis does not appear to have
+gone further than Dr Manson. By rupturing the body of the most advanced
+larvæ, Lewis readily recognised the œsophagus and intestine, but he
+remarks, significantly, “I have not been able to distinguish any other
+differentiated viscus in any of the specimens, and certainly, nothing
+suggestive of differentiation of sex” (p. 83). In an earlier part of the
+memoir Dr Lewis takes objection to my view that the urinary nematoids
+found by me in a case of Bilharzia are genetically related to _Filaria
+sanguinis hominis_. His distinguished coadjutor, Dr D. Cunningham,
+also denies the possibility of such relationship. No doubt, if the
+urinary maternal worm was really oviparous my view is untenable; but the
+proved presence of imperfectly formed ovarian ova, in which no trace of
+embryonic formation was discernible, has forced upon me the conviction
+that prolapsus and rupture of the uterine tubes of the parent worm had
+occurred, and that their rupture had occasioned the escape of ova in
+various stages of growth. As free embryos were also detected, the adult
+worm was probably viviparous. There is an error in the representation
+of the oval-shaped ovum given in the figure (p. 183). I retain drawings
+of eighteen perfect nematoid ova from the Bilharzia case, and not one
+of these shows any double contour of the chorional envelope. In the
+case of the imperfect ova, the double contour is obviously due to the
+close apposition of the yelk-membrane to the shell-membrane, there being
+no true shell. As regards “a correction” which Lewis makes in respect
+of the question of priority of description of the mature _Filaria
+sanguinis hominis_ I can only find space to state frankly, that Lewis
+is perfectly correct. The error was quite unintentional on my part. The
+adult worm was first discovered by Bancroft, and upon the strength of
+his admittedly scanty record I named the worm _Filaria Bancrofti_. In
+the matter of supplying a proper diagnosis and an anatomical description
+I was completely anticipated by Lewis. No doubt, Dr Bancroft could have
+furnished a fuller description of the parasite, had he desired to do so,
+but here is what he says in the letter addressed to me from Melbourne on
+the 20th of April, 1877:--“I thought it better to send you this account
+of filariæ than to publish it _direct_, as you so kindly set me on the
+track of the investigation.” Here I feel constrained to remark that
+few, if any, of my many correspondents in helminthology, have displayed
+more engaging candour. Whilst actually writing this Appendix (April
+15th, 1879) I have received a new record of filarious cases from Dr
+Bancroft, who also sends me some mosquitoes captured by a victimised
+patient whose blood swarmed with filariæ. In one of the captured
+insects Bancroft himself detected forty-five filariæ. The cases have
+been forwarded to the ‘Lancet’ for publication. Lastly, in reference
+to the closing paragraph of Bancroft’s previous letter to me (pub. in
+the ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 1st), I have received the following interesting
+commentary at the hands of Dr Silva Araujo, whose letter is dated from
+Bahia, March 3rd, 1879:--“Je dois vous communiquer que ce fait vient
+confirmer l’idée qui existe chez nous, où le peuple croit et affirme
+que--quand une personne qui souffrait auparavant d’erysipèle a un abcès
+cela la préserve de nouveaux accès. La raison ne sera-t-elle pas que
+dans ce cas, avec l’ouverture de l’abcès, le ver sort? Je le crois.
+Ces faits viennent démontrer que la cause de la maladie est le ver.
+Cependant nous avons ici à Bahia plusieurs confrères qui ne le croient
+point! Et à Rio-de-Janeiro aussi il y en a, peut-être davantage (!).” I
+will only add that Dr Araujo deceives himself if he imagines that the
+full etiological significance of parasites in relation to disease will
+receive general professional recognition for many years to come.
+
+SUPPLEMENT TO BIBLIOGRAPHY No. 23, p. 202 (with emendations).--_Araujo_,
+‘Memoria sobre a Filariose ou a molestia produsida por uma nova especie
+de parasita cutaneo,’ Bahia, 1875.--_Idem_, “Da filariose,” ‘Globo,’
+Jornal do Rio de Janeiro, 1876, e ‘Revista Medica do Rio de Janeiro,’
+1876, anno 3o, No. 2, 15 de Julho, p. 107.--_Idem_, “Caso de chyluria,
+elephancia do escrôto, escrôto lymphatico, craw-craw e erysipela em
+um mesmo individuo; descobrimento da Wuchereria filaria na lympha do
+escrôto. Tratamento pela electricidade com excellentes resultados,”
+‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’ 2a serie, vol. 2o, No. 11, Nov. de 1876.--_Idem_,
+“A _Filaria Wuchereri_ no sangue,” ‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’ Mar. de 1878,
+p. 106, e seguintes.--_Idem_, “A muriçoca e as filarias Wuchereri,”
+‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’ Setembro de 1878.--_Idem_, “La _Fil. immitis_,”
+&c., Transl. of Mem. (_l. c._, Bibl., No. 45) in ‘Lyon Médical,’ Nov.,
+1878, p. 319 et 363.--_Bancroft_, “Instance of a European having taken
+leprosy in Queensland,” in a letter to myself; see “Case from Bancroft,”
+quoted at p. 203.--_Chassaniol, A._ (et _F. Guyot_), “Hématurie
+graisseuse ou chyleuse,” in their “Notes de Géographie Méd. recueillies
+à Taïti,” in ‘Archives de Méd. Navale,’ Jan., 1878, p. 65.--_Cobbold_,
+“Worms in the Heart of Dogs,” letter in the ‘Lancet,’ April 5, 1879,
+p. 498.--_Coles_, “On Lymph-scrotum,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ March 9,
+1878.--_Fayrer, Sir J._, “Lecture on Elephantiasis Arabum,” in the
+‘Lancet,’ March 29, 1879, p. 433.--_Idem_, ‘Report of Pathol. Soc.,’
+‘Lancet,’ Feb. 22, 1879, p. 267.--_Idem_, ‘Rep. of Epidemiological
+Soc.,’ _ibid._, p. 269.--_Idem_, ‘Letter on Filaria;’ see
+_Hoysted_.--_Ghaleb, O._ (with P. Pouquier), “On _Filaria hæmatica_,”
+from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ Feb. 5, 1877, in ‘Annals Nat. Hist.,’ April,
+1877.--_Hoysted, J._, “Notes of a Case of _Filaria sanguinis_ in a Dog;”
+see Bibliog. No. 49, p. 311.--_Lewis, T. R._, ‘The Microscopic Organisms
+found in the Blood of Man and Animals, and their relation to Disease,’
+Calcutta, 1879.--_Idem_, “The Hæmatozoa of Man (excerpt of the above),”
+‘Quart. Journ. of Microsc. Sci.,’ April, p. 245 (both from ‘14th Ann.
+Rep. of the San. Commissioner with the Govt. of India’).--_Makuna_,
+‘Letter respecting _Fil. sang. hom._ in Chyluria’ (l. c., Bibliog. No.
+23).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  _Acanthia lectularia_, or the common bed bug, 273
+
+  _Acanthocephala_ in birds, 446
+         "       include but one family, 5
+         "       in the Hunterian Museum, 413
+
+  _Acanthotæniadæ_, a family of tapeworms, 4
+
+  _Acaridæ_, a family of Arachnida, 5
+
+  Acephalocysts in cattle, Hunterian specimens of, 140
+
+  Agricultural societies, their indifference to helminthology, 412
+
+  Aguti, _Spiroptera mediospiralis_ from the, 403
+
+  Alligator, entozoa from an, 455
+
+  _Amphistoma_ and _Polystoma_ in the frog, 452
+        "    _hominis_, notice of Lewis’s and McConnell’s, 36
+        "    _subclavatum_, ciliated embryo of, 49
+
+  Amphistomes infesting deer, 332
+       "          "     elephants, 395
+       "          "     the horse, 357
+
+  _Amphistomidæ_, a family of flukes, 4
+
+  Anæmia, tropical, due to Anchylostomata, 203
+
+  Anchylostomum-helminthiasis, Wucherer’s account of the, 213
+
+  _Anchylostomum_ (_Dochmius_) _duodenale_, description of, 212
+
+  Aneurism of the horse, Bollinger’s account of, 368
+
+  _Anguillula_ (_Leptodera_) _stercoralis_, description of, 234
+
+  _Anguillulidæ_, a family of round worms, 5
+
+  Annelid parasites, ectoparasitic character of the, 5
+
+  _Anoplocephala perfoliata_ as a synonym, 401
+
+  Ant-eaters, internal parasites of, 321
+
+  Antelopes and deer, Pentastomes found in, 350
+
+  _Anthomyia canalicularis_ as a human parasite, 271
+
+  Arachnid parasites, various families of, 5
+
+  _Argulidæ_, a family of parasitic crustaceans, 6
+
+  _Arhynchotænia critica_ of the hyrax, 403
+
+  _Arhynchotæniadæ_, considered as a group, 4
+
+  Armadillo, parasites found in the, 321
+
+  _Ascaridæ_, a family of round worms, 4
+
+  Ascarides infesting cetaceans, 426
+      "     (Oxyurides) in relation to cleanliness, 232
+
+  _Ascaris alata_, Bellingham’s so-called, 237
+     "    _Cornelyi_ from the vulturine pintado, 447
+     "    _halicoris_ from the Indian dugong, 429
+
+  _Ascaris infecta_ from _Passalus cornutus_, 483
+     "    _lumbricoides_ as a human parasite, 243
+     "          "      Davaine’s experiments with, 244
+     "          "      development of the, 244
+     "          "      Heller’s “find” respecting the young of, 244
+     "          "      remarkable cases caused by the, 248
+     "    _maculosa_ causing avian epizoöty, 441
+     "        "    Unterberger’s experiments with, 245
+     "    _megalocephala_ and _A. lumbricoides_ not identical, 243
+     "          "       experiments with the eggs of, 246
+     "          "       of solipeds, 378
+     "    _mystax_ considered as a human parasite, 237
+     "       "   Leuckart’s experiments with, 244
+     "       "   researches of Nelson respecting, 240
+     "    _nigrovenosa_, parthogenesis of, 452
+     "    _suilla_ considered as a synonym, 243
+     "       "   of the hog, a synonym, 405
+     "    _tentaculata_ of opossums, 433
+     "    _tetraptera_, development of the embryos of, 245
+     "    _vesicularis_ from the ring-necked pheasant, 442
+
+  _Aspidocephalus scoleciformis_ of opossums, 433
+
+  _Aspidocotylus mutabilis_, a parasite of fish, 360
+
+  Ass, frequency of aneurism in the, 367
+   "   liver-fluke frequent in the, 356
+   "   strongyles from the stomach of the, 383
+
+  Australian entozoa, Mr Krefft’s _brochure_ on, 431
+       "     hedgehog, tapeworm from the, 433
+
+  Avian hæmatozoa, observations by Lewis on, 486
+    "   parasites in the British Museum, 448
+    "       "     in the Hunterian Museum, 448
+
+
+  _Bacteria_, the best known forms of, 277
+
+  _Bacteridæ_, as a family of protozoa, 7
+
+  _Balantidium_ (_Paramecium_) _coli_ of man, 282
+       "      semiparasitic character of, 7
+
+  _Balæna_, flukes occurring in the genus, 421
+     "    _rostrata_ infested by _Ascaris angulivalvis_, 426
+
+  _Balænoptera rostrata_, filariæ from, 425
+       "          "     fluke from, 421
+
+  Bats, entozoa and ectozoa infesting, 294
+
+  Bear, Cysticerci in the heart of a, 140
+
+  Beef, cyst-infected, quantity destroyed in India, 76
+    "   in India, prevalence of “measled”, 61
+    "   tapeworm, description of the so-called, 56
+
+  Bee, parasite of the, known to John Hunter, 480
+
+  Beetles (_Passalus_) infested by nematodes, 483
+
+  _Beluga leucas_, worm from the ear of, 427
+
+  _Bilharzia hæmatobia_, history and development of the, 38
+
+  Birds, frequency of entozoa in, 434
+    "    _Spiroptera helicina_ in the feet of, 440
+    "    the gape disease in, 443
+
+  Blackbirds, tapeworms destructive to young, 440
+
+  Blackcap, flukes reared by Zeller in the, 436
+
+  Blackfish or tursio, cestode from the, 422
+
+  Bladderworms and measles in cattle, 62
+
+  _Blaptidæ_ as parasitic insects, 7
+
+  _Blaps mortisaga_ as a human parasite, 270
+
+  Bleak, the (_Leuciscus_), a possible source of tapeworm, 301
+    "    the, in relation to _Bothriocephalus latus_, 470
+
+  Bonito, parasites from the, 458
+
+  _Bopyridæ_, a family of parasitic crustaceans, 6
+
+  _Bothriocephali_ of water-birds obtained from fish, 468
+        "       researches of Bertolus and Duchamp on, 110
+
+  _Bothriocephalus cordatus_, brief description of, 111
+         "         _cristatus_, brief description of, 111
+         "         in Holland, Dr. Fock’s remarks on, 109
+         "         _latus_, distribution and characters of, 106
+         "            "    source and proscolices of, 107
+         "         _proboscideus_ of the salmon, 468
+         "         _tropicus_, note on the so-called, 96
+
+  Bot infesting the stomach of the rhinoceros, 401
+
+  Bottle-head (_Hyperoödon_), flukes from the, 421
+
+  Brain, Cysticerci occurring in the human, 92
+
+  Bronchi of whales, worms in the, 425
+
+  _Bucephalus_ probably a larval state of Gasterostoma, 462
+       "      regarded as a germ-sac, 453
+
+  Bug, the common, as a human parasite, 273
+
+
+  Cachalot, cestode from the high-finned, 422
+
+  _Calceostoma_, hooks of the suckers of, 464
+
+  _Caligidæ_, a family of crustaceans, 6
+
+  _Campula oblonga_ regarded as a synonym, 419
+
+  Capercaillie, entozoa of the, 440
+        "       _Trichosoma_ and _Ligula_ from a, 447
+
+  _Carnivora_, internal parasites of the, 297
+
+  _Cataphractus_ infested by _Aspidocotylus_, 360
+
+  Cat, Australian, _Bothriocephalus_ from, 309
+    "  flukes and tapeworms infesting the, 308
+
+  Cattle diseased by parasites, natural cure of, 83
+     "   measles and bladderworms in, 61
+     "   of the Upper Punjab infested by cysts, percentage of, 75
+     "   plague bodies, nature of the so-called, 280
+     "   species of lice infesting, 352
+     "   tapeworms found in, 332
+
+  _Cercaria diplocotylea_ of water-snails, 452
+      "     of the common fluke, 325
+
+  _Cercariæ_ and _Rediæ_, Pagenstecher’s remarks on, 452
+
+  _Cercomonas hominis_ in cholera dejections, 282
+
+  _Cestoda_, families of the order, 4
+
+  Cestode (larval) in _Delphinus delphis_, 422
+
+  _Cetacea_, external parasites of, 428
+     "      parasites of, 416
+     "         "     in Hunterian collection, 427
+     "      worms in the lungs of, 423
+     "        "   in the cranial sinuses of, 425
+
+  Chacma, strongyles found in the, 291
+
+  Charbon, an anthracoid disease associated with bacterids, 278
+
+  Cheetah, tapeworm found in the, 300
+
+  _Cheiracanthidæ_, a family of round worms, 4
+
+  _Cheiracanthus robustus_ in Indian dogs, 305
+        "           "     mistaken for _Echinorhynchus_, 257
+
+  _Cheiroptera_ or bats, parasites of, 293
+
+  Chigoe or jigger as a human parasite, 274
+
+  Chinese missionary, flukes in the family of a, 21
+
+  Cirrhipeds, parasitic, upon whales, 428
+
+  Civets, parasites found in, 299
+
+  Classification of Schneider referred to, 4
+
+  _Clepsinidæ_, a family of suctorial annelids, 5
+
+  Coati, intestinal worms of the, 298
+
+  Cochin-China diarrhœa due to _Leptodera_, 235
+
+  Cockchafers harbor young Echinorhynchi, 413
+
+  Cockroaches (_Blatta_) infested by nematodes, 483
+
+  Codfish, frequency of filariæ in the, 472
+
+  _Cœnuri_ from rabbits in Guy’s Museum and at Oxford, 140
+     "   researches of Rose and Numan respecting, 334
+
+  _Cœnurus cuniculi_, specimen of, from Ayrshire, 140
+     "    _serialis_ of the hyrax, 408
+
+  _Conocephalus typicus_ from a dolphin, 426
+
+  _Conopidæ_, the larvæ of, as parasitic insects, 6
+
+  _Conorhinus nigrovarious_ or pampas benchucha, 273
+
+  _Cotylogaster cochleariforme_ not an equine parasite, 360
+
+  Crane, entozoa from a, 447
+
+  _Crossophorus collaris_ of the hyrax, 403
+
+  Crocodile, worm from beneath the skin of a, 456
+
+  Crows, hæmatozoa in Indian, 486
+
+  _Crustacea_, parasitic, upon whales, 428
+        "     the, as alleged human parasites, 269
+
+  Crustacean parasites, families of, 6
+
+  Crustaceans, entozoa infesting, 480
+
+  _Cucullanidæ_, a family of round worms, 4
+        "       development of the, 474
+
+  _Culex_, various species of, attacking man, 273
+
+  Curlew, entozoa from the, 447
+
+  _Cuterebra noxialis_, or Macaco worm, 271
+
+  Cuttle-fishes, tapeworm larvæ found in, 468
+
+  _Cyamidæ_ included with Pycnogonidæ, 5
+
+  _Cyamus balænarum_ or whale-louse, 428
+
+  _Cyclobdella lumbricoides_, the, of Brazil, 259
+
+  _Cyclops_ considered as an intermediate host, 223
+
+  _Cymothoidæ_, a family of parasitic crustaceans, 6
+
+  “Cyst”-affected meat in the Punjab, quantity of, 76
+
+  Cystic disease in cattle, Dr J. Fleming on, 76
+     "   entozoa are larval tapeworms, 4
+
+  Cysticerci, common situation of, in ration meat, 78
+       "      destruction of, by calcareous degeneration, 83
+       "      detected in the living animal, 78
+       "      from sheep, Dr Maddox on, 98
+       "      from the nasal sinuses of a porpoise, 421
+       "      from the skin of _Physeter_, 421
+       "      in the heart of a bear, 140
+       "      in the human body, seat of, 91
+       "      in the psoas muscles, Dr Joseph Fleming on, 75
+       "      in meat, Pellizzari’s and Tommasi’s researches on, 62
+       "      investigations of Lewis respecting, 66
+       "      monstrous varieties of, 105
+       "      of the sheep alleged to contain eggs, 98
+       "      prophylactic measures respecting, 83
+       "      researches by Perroncito on, 67
+       "      said to be capable of swimming, 97
+       "      temperature necessary to destroy, 69
+       "      voluntarily swallowed by Italian gentlemen, 71
+
+  _Cysticercus bovis_ found in the liver and lungs, 59
+       "        "   human feeding experiments by Oliver with, 72
+       "      _delphini_, nature of the so-called, 422
+       "      found in the dog, 302
+       "      from the Red River hog, 405
+       "      in the brain, cases of, 92
+       "      of the sheep, discovery of the, 97
+       "      report by Dr Neill respecting, 80
+       "      (_telæ_) _cellulosæ_, or pork measle, 89
+       "      _tenuicollis_ found in man, 101
+       "           "   , the self-feeding experiment by Möller with, 72
+
+  Cysts at the root of the tongue, diagnostic value of, 80
+    "   of the liver containing psorospermiæ, 282
+
+
+  _Dactylogyrus_, allusion to the eggs of, 42
+
+  Dasse (_Hyrax_), parasites of the, 403
+
+  _Dasyprocta aguti_, stomach excrescences in, 403
+
+  Deaths from worms, Registrar General’s returns of, 285
+
+  Deer, abundance of amphistomes in, 332
+    "   filariæ found in various kinds of, 350
+
+  _Delphinus Forsteri_, tapeworm found in, 422
+      "     _phocæna_, cestode (_Diphyllobothrium_) from, 422
+      "     _rostratus_, tapeworm from, 422
+      "     _tacuschi_, flukes found by Natterer in, 417
+
+  _Demodex folliculorum_ of man and dog, 266
+
+  _Dermatophagoides Schérémétewsky_, the so-called, 266
+
+  _Dibothridæ_ and _Bothriocephalidæ_ as synonyms, 4
+
+  _Dibothrium hians_, supposed monstrous state of, 105
+
+  _Dichelestidæ_, a family of crustacean parasites, 6
+
+  _Dicotyles_ (Peccary), parasites of the genus, 404
+
+  _Dicrocœlium Buskii_ as a synonym, 20
+
+  _Didelphys philander_, acanthocephalous worm of, 434
+
+  _Diphyllobothridæ_, a family of tapeworms, 4
+
+  _Diphyllobothrium stemmacephalum_ from a porpoise, 422
+
+  _Diplodiscus subclavatus_, water-vessels of the larvæ of, 51
+
+  _Diplozoon_ in the _Diporpa_ condition, 464
+
+  Diseased meat from “rot”, 331
+
+  _Distoma Andersoni_ from _Platanista_, 420
+      "    _campula_ of the porpoise, 418
+      "    _clavatum_, particulars respecting, 458
+      "    _conjunctum_ as a human parasite, 30
+      "    _crassum_ or Busk’s fluke, 20
+      "    _cygnoides_, ciliated embryo of, 49
+      "    _gigas_ of Nardo, description of the, 460
+      "    _hepaticum_ a synonym of Fasciola, 15
+      "    _heterophyes_, description of the, 34
+      "    _lancea_ infesting dolphins, 416
+      "    _lanceolatum_ as a human parasite, 17
+      "          "       ciliated embryo of, 49
+      "          "       description of the, 18
+      "    _leptosomum_ and _D. brachysomum_, source of, 438
+      "    _macrostomum_, development of, 435
+      "    _megastoma_, ciliated embryo of, 49
+      "    _militare_, development of, 436
+      "    _neuronaii Munroii_, the so-called, 52
+      "    _ophthalmobium_, notice of the so-called, 36
+      "    _sinense_, or the Chinese fluke, 29
+      "    species of, in _Delphinus Forsteri_, 421
+
+  _Distomata_ confounded with proglottides, 16
+
+  _Distomidæ_, a family of flukes, 4
+
+  _Distomum spatulatum_ as a synonym, 28
+
+  _Dochmius duodenalis_, discovery of, by Dubini, 211
+      "     _Sangeri_ from the elephant, 399
+
+  Dogs, destruction of dogs by heart-worms, 304
+
+  Dog, ectozoa and follicle mites of the, 307
+   "   internal parasites of the, 300
+
+  Dolphin, remarkable worm from the stomach of a, 426
+
+  Dolphins, fluke parasites of, 416
+
+  Dorado, _Fasciola fusca_ from the, 459
+
+  _Dracunculus_, description of the embryos of, 221
+        "        Fedschenko’s discovery respecting, 223
+        "        _medinensis_, description of the, 217
+
+  Duck, worms from a dusky, 447
+
+  Dugong, parasites of the, 429
+
+
+  Ear of the porpoise, worms found in the, 427
+
+  Earth-wolf, remarkable parasite from the, 299
+
+  Earth-worms as intermediate bearers, 346
+
+  Earwig, _Filariæ_ found in the, 483
+
+  Echidna, tapeworm from the, 433
+
+  Echinococci described by Leuckart and Naunyn, 117
+
+  Echinococcus brood-capsules known to Wilson and Busk, 117
+
+  _Echinococcus hominis_, synonyms of, 112
+        "       _multilocularis_ found in a calf, 116
+
+  _Echinorhynchidæ_ abound in fishes and reptiles, 5
+
+  Echinorhynchi found by John Hunter, 427
+        "       infesting monkeys, 292
+        "       in trout, frequency of, 475
+        "       of water newts, 455
+
+  _Echinorhynchus angustatus_ and _E. hominis_, 413
+         "        _gigas_ as a human parasite, 256
+         "           "   of the hog, 412
+         "        _hominis_, Lambl’s so-called, 256
+         "        in man, Welch’s supposed case of, 256
+         "        Leuckart on the development of, 476
+         "        _microcephalus_ from an opossum, 434
+         "        _Muriei_ from a whale, 427
+         "        _pellucidus_ and _E. brevicollis_, 428
+         "        _porrigens_ from whales, 427
+         "        _spirula_ of monkeys, 413
+         "        _transversus_ in birds, 446
+
+  _Echinostoma hispidum_ from a sturgeon, 462
+
+  Ectozoa of swine, 414
+     "    of the elephant, 399
+     "    of whales, 428
+
+  Edentata, parasites of the, 321
+
+  Eel, _Echinorhynchi_ in the, 475
+
+  Eggs, entozoa found in the interior of, 440
+
+  Elephants destroyed by “rot” in Burmah, 394
+      "     earth-eating habits of worm-infected, 395
+      "     ectozoa of, 399
+      "     in England destroyed by worms, 399
+      "     parasites infesting, 393
+      "     parasitic diseases of, 397
+
+  _Entozoa_ do not result from diseased states, 1
+      "     of game birds, list of, 440
+      "     their relation to the helminths, 8
+
+  Epidemics of rot disease, 327
+
+  _Epizoa_, haustellated crustacean parasites, 6
+
+  Epizoöty amongst elephants from flukes, 394
+      "    amongst pigeons, 441
+      "    in birds, very destructive to life, 435
+      "    in cats, Dr Romano’s account of, 308
+      "    in swine from _Echinorhynchus_, 413
+      "    in tenches from _Ligulæ_, 469
+      "    in the hog from _Stephanurus_, 411
+      "    in the Mauritius from worms, 382
+      "    in the pig from _Strongyli_, 412
+      "    in young blackbirds from tapeworms, 440
+
+  _Eustrongyli_ within the skull of water-turkeys, 446
+
+  _Eustrongylus gigas_, description of, 207
+        "         "     in dogs and wolves, 305
+        "         "     source of the, 208
+        "         "     wild animals infested by, 207
+        "       _papillosus_ from a crane, 447
+
+  Eye-worms in cattle, 349
+
+  Eye of the fowl infested by filariæ, 440
+
+
+  _Fasciola clavata_, description of the so-called, 459
+      "     _hepatica_ as a human parasite, 14
+      "         "      as a “zoological” individual, 325
+      "         "      ciliated embryo of, 48
+      "     _Jacksoni_ infesting elephants, 397
+
+  _Fauna_, parasites form a peculiar, 2
+
+  Ferret, ectozoon infesting the ears of the, 307
+
+  _Filaria acuta_ in the limbs of birds, 447
+      "    _Bancrofti_, history of the discovery of, 180
+      "    _gracilis_ infesting monkeys, 291
+      "    _hominis oris_, description of the, 206
+      "    _horrida_ from the American ostrich, 447
+      "    _immitis_ in the heart of dogs, 304
+      "    _inflexicaudata_ from _Balænoptera_, 425
+      "           "         of the porpoise, 425
+      "    _labialis_, description of the, 206
+      "    _lacrymalis_ as a synonym, 206
+      "    _lentis_, notice of the so-called, 205
+      "    _loa_, notice of the so-called, 205
+      "    _macropodis gigantei_ in the Hunterian Museum, 433
+      "    _Mansoni_ in the eye of a fowl, 441
+      "    _medinensis_ considered as a synonym, 217
+      "    _microstoma_ and _F. megastoma_,
+                        temperature necessary to kill, 70
+      "    _oculi_ considered as a synonym, 383
+      "    _papillosa hæmatica canis domestici_, 184
+      "         "     in the horse, 383
+      "    _Salisburyii_ considered as a synonym, 187
+      "    _sanguinis_, Bancroft’s account of the, 189
+      "         "       _equi_, the so-called, 384
+      "         "       _hominis_, correction respecting, 487
+      "         "           "      discovery by Lewis of, 183
+      "    _spelæa_ from a wallaby, 433
+      "    (_Strongylus_) _bronchialis_, description of, 207
+      "    _terebra_ in the black-tailed deer, 349
+      "    _trachealis_, remarks on the, 207
+      "    _Websteri_ proposed as a synonym, 433
+
+  _Filariæ_ as a cause of abscess and erysipelas, 487
+      "     discovery of microscopic, by Wucherer, 183
+      "     hæmatozoal, of Grube and Delafond, 303
+      "     in human blood, Sonsino’s verification of, 185
+      "     of the mosquito, Manson’s description of, 194
+
+  _Filaridæ_, a family of round worms, 5
+
+  Fishes largely infested by _Echinorhynchi_, 477
+     "   of Brazil, amphistomes in the, 463
+     "   parasites of, 457
+
+  Flea, the common, of man, 274
+
+  Fluke, description of the common liver, 15
+    "    description of the large human, 24
+    "    origin and meaning of the term, 4
+
+  Flukes abundant in the great kangaroo, 431
+     "   causing “rot” in elephants, 394
+     "   found in fishes, 457
+     "   found in ruminating animals, 323
+     "   Pagenstecher’s researches on, 452
+     "   their destiny favored by mimetism, 436
+
+  Fox, fluke of the American red, 299
+   "   source of tapeworms infesting the, 300
+
+  Fowl, entozoa infesting the common, 440
+
+  Free nematoids, Villot’s opinion respecting the, 483
+
+  Frog, _Ascaris nigrovenosa_ of the, 452
+
+
+  _Galeodes araneoides_ or canal tick, 267
+
+  _Gallinula chloropus_, worms in the limbs of, 447
+
+  _Gamasidæ_, a family of Arachnida, 5
+
+  Game birds, list of entozoa infesting, 440
+
+  _Gammarus pulex_ as an intermediate host, 476
+
+  Gape disease, methods of preventing and treating the, 445
+
+  “Gapes” in birds due to _Sclerostoma_, 443
+
+  _Gasterostoma gracilescens_, probable larval condition of, 52
+         "      peculiarities of the genus, 462
+
+  _Gastrodiscus Sonsinonis_ of the horse, 359
+
+  _Gastrophilus rhinocerontis_, a bot-fly, 401
+
+  Gid hydatid found in various animals, 333
+   "  in the hog noticed by Florman, 405
+
+  Giraffe, large fluke found in the, 323
+
+  _Glossina morsitans_ as a human parasite, 273
+
+  Glow-worm (_Lampyris_), correction respecting the, 483
+
+  Gluttons, internal parasites of the, 298
+
+  _Gnathostoma hispidum_ of the hog, 412
+
+  Goat, the beef-measle discovered by Zenker in a, 83
+
+  _Gongylonema pulchrum_ of the hog, 412
+
+  Goose, worms from the ashy-headed, 447
+    "      "   from the Sandwich Islands, 447
+
+  _Gordiidæ_, a family of round worms, 5
+
+  _Gordius_ survives desiccation, 483
+
+  Grebe, worms found in the legs of the lesser, 447
+
+  _Gregarinidæ_, as a family of protozoa, 7
+
+  Grouse-disease, parasites producing the, 438
+     "   entozoa of the red, 440
+
+  _Gubleria_ proposed as a generic title, 7
+
+  Guillemot, entozoa from the, 447
+
+  Gulls, entozoa found in, 447
+
+  Guinea-worm, development of the, 223
+       "       geographical distribution of the, 218
+
+  _Gymnorhynchus horridus_ as a synonym, 471
+
+  _Gynæcophorus hæmatobius_ considered as a synonym, 39
+
+  _Gyrodactylidæ_, a family of flukes, 4
+
+  _Gyrodactylus_, conclusions of Wedl respecting, 465
+        "         _elegans_, development of, 466
+
+
+  Haddock, frequency of filariæ in the, 472
+
+  _Halmaturus Derbyensis_, nematodes of, 434
+
+  Hams, Cysticerci in Westphalian, 405
+
+  Hares and rabbits, entozoa of, 318
+
+  Hawk, entozoa from the sparrow, 447
+
+  _Hæmatomyzus_ (Idocoloris) _elephantis_, 399
+
+  _Hæmatopinus_ of the hog, 414
+
+  _Hæmatopota pluvialis_ or the clegg, 273
+
+  Hæmatozoa in dogs, discovery by Grube and Delafond of, 184
+      "     in Egyptian and Indian crows, 486
+      "     of the dog, 303
+
+  Hæmaturia caused by _Bilharzia hæmatobia_, 54
+
+  _Hæmenteria_, American leeches of the genus, 259
+
+  _Hæmopis sanguisorba_ attacking French soldiers, 258
+
+  Heart of whales, worms in the, 425
+
+  Hedgehog, parasites of the common, 295
+      "     tapeworm from the so-called Australian, 433
+
+  _Helmintha_, the term in relation to “worms”, 8
+
+  Helminthology, practical results from the study of, 3
+
+  _Helophilus_, larva of, found in man, 273
+       "        larvæ found in the horse, 387
+
+  Herring, frequency of filaria in the, 472
+
+  _Hesslingia_ proposed as a generic title, 7
+
+  _Heterocheilus tunicatus_ from Natterer’s manatee, 429
+
+  _Heteroura androphora_, sexual peculiarities of, 445
+
+  _Hexathyridium pinguicola_ and _H. venarum_, 36
+
+  _Hippoboscidæ_ contain parasitic insects, 6
+
+  Hippopotamus, parasites of the, 402
+
+  _Histiocephalus_, a genus of nematodes, 433
+
+  Hog, absence of tapeworms in the, 404
+   "   cholera, supposed connection with _Stephanurus_, 410
+   "   skin affection from parasites in the wild, 414
+
+  Hog’s flesh, supposed injuriousness of, 404
+    "   intestines perforated by parasites, 413
+
+  Hogs, _Stephanurus_ discovered in a Chinese race of, 408
+
+  Horse, aneurism in the, from parasites, 368
+    "    a thousand amphistomes found in the, 358
+    "    bladderworms found in the, 366
+    "    bots or larval gadflies of the, 385
+    "    earth-eating habits of, in relation to worms, 357
+    "    ectozoa liable to attack the, 388
+    "    epizoöty from strongyles in the, 374
+    "    eye-worms from the, 383
+    "    giant strongyle found in the, 385
+    "    hæmatozoa discovered by Sonsino in the, 384
+    "    hydatids from the, 366
+    "    internal parasites of the, 357
+    "    plague, parasites not the cause of the, 360
+    "    poultry lousiness of the, 388
+    "    psorospermial sac in the mitral valve of a, 281
+    "    scab or mange mites of the, 389
+    "    Sonsino’s amphistomatoid fluke from the, 359
+    "    stomach-worms of the, 380
+    "    tapeworm epizoöty in the, 361
+    "    tick, the so-called, 388
+    "    worm-aneurism of the, 368
+
+  Husk in young pigs caused by strongyles, 412
+    "  or parasitic bronchitis in cattle, 335
+    "  or verminous bronchitis in dogs, 304
+
+  Hydatid disease, deaths in Victoria from, 287
+     "       "     possibility of stamping out, 141
+
+  Hydatids as the source of _Tænia echinococcus_, 113
+     "   exogenous, endogenous, and multilocular, 115
+     "   frequently infest the head of the tibia, 129
+     "   hygienic considerations respecting, 126
+     "   in animals, Dr Cleghorn’s statistics of, 124
+     "   in Guy’s Hospital Museum, 135
+     "   in King’s College Anatomical Museum, 130
+     "   in Royal Veterinary College Museum, 139
+     "   in St Bartholomew’s Hospital Museum, 128
+     "   in St George’s Hospital Museum, 133
+     "   in St Mary’s Hospital Museum, 129
+     "   in St Thomas’s Hospital Museum, 134
+     "   in the Brighton and Sussex Hospital Museum, 136
+     "   in the Calcutta Medical College Museum, 137
+     "   in the Cambridge Anatomical Museum, 136
+     "   in the Charing Cross Hospital Museum, 131
+     "   in the London Hospital Museum, 133
+     "   in the Melbourne Hospital Museum, 141
+     "   in the Middlesex Hospital Museum, 130
+     "   in the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital Museum, 137
+     "   in the Oxford Anatomical and Pathological Museum, 136
+     "   in the Royal College of Surgeons Museum, 132
+     "   in the Westminster Hospital Museum, 128
+     "   in University College Museum, 131
+     "   in Victoria, number of deaths from, 123
+     "   mortality in England from, 285
+     "   occupying the bones of cattle, specimens of, 140
+     "   occupying the heart of a sow, 139
+     "   occupying the nasal sinuses of a porpoise, 421
+     "   of animals in metropolitan museums, 139
+     "   of the tibia in the Nottingham Hospital Museum, 130
+     "   preserved in museums, their value, 128
+     "   prevalence of, in Australia, 123
+     "   probable percentage of fatal cases of, 122
+     "   successful treatment of, by MacGillivray, 128
+     "   their distribution in the organs of the body, 122
+     "   the so-called daughter vesicles of, 121
+
+  _Hydrachnidæ_, a family of Arachnida, 5
+
+  _Hymenolepis_, as a new genus of cestodes, 102
+
+  _Hyperoödon_, Echinorhynchus found by Hyrtl in, 427
+
+  _Hyperæmia_ and _Anæmia_ due to parasites, 213
+
+  _Hyrax_, parasites of the Cape, 403
+
+
+  Ichneumon, the Indian, fluke from the, 299
+
+  _Insectivora_, entozoa found in the, 295
+
+  Insect parasites, various families of, 6
+
+  Insects, entozoa of, 480
+
+  Intestinal worms, popular ideas respecting, 8
+
+  Itch or scab insect, description of the, 266
+
+  _Ixodes_, species of, attacking man, 267
+
+  _Ixodidæ_, a family of Arachnida, 5
+
+
+  Jigger or chigoe as a human parasite, 274
+
+
+  Kaleege, worms from the black-backed, 447
+
+  Kangaroo, tapeworm in the gall-bladder of a, 432
+      "     worms from the knee-joint of a, 433
+
+  Kestrel, entozoa from the, 447
+
+  Kite, entozoa from the, 447
+
+  Klipdas (_Hyrax_), parasites of the, 403
+
+  Koala (_Phascolarctos_), tapeworm from a, 432
+
+  _Köllikeria filicollis_, habitat of, 462
+
+
+  _Lagenorhynchus Eschrichti_, worm found in, 421
+
+  Lambs, tapeworm epizoöty in, 333
+
+  _Lampyris_, correction of an error respecting, 483
+
+  Larvæ of flukes, Pagenstecher’s researches on, 452
+
+  Leeches considered as human parasites, 258
+     "    of India, Ceylon, Japan, and Java, 258
+     "    semiparasitic character of, 5
+
+  Lemurs, cœnuri or polycephalous hydatids in, 290
+
+  Leporines, acarine parasites of, 319
+
+  _Leptodera_ (_Anguillula_) _stercoralis_, description of, 234
+       "      _intestinalis_, description of the, 235
+
+  _Leptus autumnalis_ a human parasite, 268
+
+  Lernæan parasites found on whales, 428
+
+  _Lernæidæ_, a family of crustacean parasites, 6
+
+  _Leuciscus_, the bleak, a possible source of tapeworm, 108
+
+  _Leucochloridium_, experiments by Zeller with, 435
+
+  Lice, various species found on man, 274
+
+  _Ligula nodosa_, as an immature _Bothriocephalus_, 110
+      "      "     the young state of _Bothriocephalus_, 470
+      "   _simplicissima_, researches by Duchamp on, 469
+
+  _Lindermannia_ proposed as a generic title, 7
+
+  Ling, Echinorhynchi in the, 475
+
+  Lion, hydatids from the, in the Hunterian Museum, 139
+
+  _Liotheidæ_, a family of parasitic insects, 6
+
+  Liver fluke, the common, in man, 14
+
+  Louse of the elephant, 400
+
+  _Lucilia hominivora_, habits of the, 272
+
+  Lumbrici, geographical distribution of, 247
+      "     in the Mauritius, remarks by Dyco on, 247
+      "     remarkable cases of, in children, 248
+      "     violent symptoms caused by, 249
+
+  Lumbricoid worms, poisonous effects produced by, 250
+
+  Lungs of the porpoise, worms in the, 425
+
+
+  Maggots, rat-tailed, found in the horse, 387
+     "     various species of, found in man, 272
+
+  _Malacobdellidæ_, a family of suctorial annelids, 5
+
+  Manatees, parasites of the, 429
+
+  Marmoset monkeys, parasites of, 291
+
+  Marsupial animals, parasites of, 430
+
+  Martens, internal parasites of, 298
+
+  Masuri and soorti, parasites of elephants, 395
+     "   or amphistomes occur in man, 38
+
+  Measle-cysts in the Punjab, report respecting, 75
+
+  Measled cattle cured by removal from sources of infection, 83
+     "    meat, Giacomini’s observations on, 65
+
+  Measles and bladderworms in cattle, 61
+     "    and _Tæniæ_, observations of Marchi on, 73
+     "    found in mutton brought to table, 97
+     "    of pork reared by experiment, 93
+
+  Meat question, the, in relation to “rot”, 331
+    "  served as rations, Cysticerci in the, 78
+
+  _Melolontha_ considered as an intermediate host, 257
+        "      _vulgaris_ as an intermediate “host”, 413
+
+  _Melophagus_, a genus of parasitic insects, 6
+
+  _Mermis albicans_, development of, 482
+
+  Messmates and parasites of mollusks, 480
+
+  Miana bug of Persia, or _Argas_, 267
+
+  Mice, internal parasites of, 315
+
+  _Micrococci_ considered as human parasites, 277
+
+  _Micropteron_ (_Delphinus_), flukes in, 421
+
+  Mimetism favoring fluke development, 436
+
+  Mite found upon _Balæna australis_, 428
+
+  Mole, parasites of the common, 296
+
+  Mollusks, entozoa of, 480
+
+  Monads, parasitic forms of, 282
+
+  Monkeys, hydatids obtained from, 141
+     "     parasites of, 289
+
+  _Monodon monoceros_, nematode worms of, 423
+
+  _Monostoma plicatum_ from a northern whale, 421
+       "     _verrucosum_, allusion to the eggs of, 41
+
+  _Monostomidæ_, a family of flukes, 4
+
+  Mosquito, avian hæmatozoa in the, 486
+
+  Mosquitoes of Queensland, filariæ in the, 487
+
+  Mules, fatal epidemic affecting, 382
+
+  _Musca_, larvæ of, as human parasites, 272
+
+  Musk-rat, cestode parasite found in the, 296
+
+  Mutton measles, their existence denied, 97
+
+
+  Narwhal, _Prosthecosacter_ infesting the, 423
+
+  _Nematobothrium filarina_, habitat of, 462
+
+  _Nematoda_, families of the order of, 4
+
+  Nematodes abundant in marsupials, 433
+
+  Nematoids, opinion of Villot respecting the “free”, 484
+
+  Nestlings destroyed by tapeworms, 440
+
+  Newts, _Echinorhynchus anthuris_ of water, 455
+
+  _Nycteribiidæ_ as parasitic insects, 6
+
+
+  _Octobothrium lanceolatum_, allusion to the eggs of, 41
+
+  _Odontobius ceti_ from _Balæna australis_, 427
+
+  _Œstridæ_, the, a family of parasitic insects, 6
+       "      infesting the ox and sheep, 351
+
+  _Œstrus_ (Gastrophilus) _equi_ of the horse, 385
+      "     _hominis_, Mr Higginson’s case of, 271
+
+  Olulaniasis of the cat, 310
+
+  _Onchocerca reticulata_ of the horse, 385
+
+  _Onchotyle appendiculata_ from a dog-fish, 464
+
+  Opossum, _Echinorhynchus_ in a Brazilian, 434
+
+  Opossums, flukes infesting American, 432
+      "     much infested by nematodes, 433
+
+  _Orcella brevirostris_, fluke found by Dr Anderson in, 417
+
+  _Orthagoriscus mola_ as a “host”, 471
+
+  Ostrich, entozoa from the American, 447
+
+  Otters, flukes and other entozoa of, 298
+
+  Ox, insect parasites and tormentors of the, 351
+   "  species of _Strongylus_ infesting the, 347
+
+  _Oxyuridæ_, a family of round worms, 5
+
+  Oxyurides, sanitary precautions in respect of, 232
+      "      source and mode of development of, 230
+      "      voluntary swallowing of human, 72
+
+  _Oxyuris curvula_ of the horse, 380
+      "    _vermicularis_, description of the, 227
+
+  Oysters as bearers of fluke larvæ, 26
+
+
+  Pachydermata, parasites of the, 393
+
+  Palisade worms in relation to aneurism, 368
+
+  _Paramecium_ (Balantidium) _coli_ of man, 282
+
+  _Paramecium_, semiparasitic character of, 7
+
+  Parasites from birds at the Zoological Gardens, 447
+      "     from cetacea in the Hunterian Museum, 427
+      "     in grouse from the Earl of Cawdor’s estate, 439
+      "     of savages, little known respecting, 27
+      "     popular delusions concerning, 1
+      "     their etiological significance not fully recognised, 488
+
+  Partridge, entozoa of the, 440
+
+  Peccaries (_Dicotyles_), parasites of the, 404
+
+  _Pediculidæ_, a family of parasitic insects, 6
+
+  _Pediculus_, various forms of, infesting man, 274
+
+  _Pentastoma constrictum_, description of the, 263
+       "      _tænioides_ as a human parasite, 260
+       "           "     found in the horse, 389
+       "           "     in the dog, 306
+
+  Pentastomes infesting monkeys, 293
+
+  _Pentastomidæ_, a family of Arachnida, 5
+
+  Perch, flukes from the eye of the, 458
+
+  _Peritrachelius insignis_ from a dolphin, 427
+
+  Pheasant, entozoa of the, 440
+      "     parasites from various species of, 447
+
+  _Philopteridæ_, a family of parasitic insects, 6
+
+  _Phocæna communis_, flukes found in, 418
+
+  _Phyllobothrium delphini_, source of, 422
+
+  Pigeon, two hundred ascarides in a, 442
+
+  Pig, hydatids from the, in the Hunterian Museum, 139
+   "   occurrence of Cysticerci in the brain of the, 405
+
+  Pigs, the cause of “husk” in young, 412
+
+  Pike-whale, large fluke from the, 421
+
+  Pike, worms from the urinary bladder of the, 458
+
+  _Pinnipedia_, parasites of, 314
+
+  Pintado, ascarides in the vulturine, 447
+
+  _Physaloptera turgida_ infesting opossums, 433
+
+  _Plagiotænia gigantea_ of the rhinoceros, 401
+
+  Plagues, parasites considered as a cause of, 2
+
+  _Platanista gangetica_, fluke from, 420
+
+  _Podiceps_ and _Gallinula_, legs of, infested by filariæ, 447
+
+  Polecats, filariæ in the cranial sinuses of, 298
+
+  _Polystoma_ and _Amphistoma_ of the frog, 452
+       "      _appendiculata_, allusion to the eggs of, 41
+
+  Polystomes, general characters of the, 463
+
+  _Polystomidæ_, a family of flukes, 4
+
+  Ponies, Welsh mountain, epizoöty affecting, 362
+
+  Porcupine ant-eater, tapeworm from the, 433
+
+  Pork tapeworm, general description of the, 87
+         "       sources of infection by the, 94
+
+  Porpoise, flukes found in the common, 418
+      "     remarkable cestode from the common, 422
+      "     worm from the tympanic cavity of the, 427
+
+  Porrigo, mortality in England from, 285
+
+  Poultry lousiness not a human disorder, 274
+
+  _Proglottides_ mistaken for _Distomata_, 16
+
+  _Prosthecosacter_, several species of, 423
+          "          specimens of, in Hunter’s Museum, 427
+
+  _Proteles_ or earth-wolf, parasites of, 299
+
+  _Protozoa_, parasitic families belonging to the, 7
+       "      parasitic forms of, and gregarinæ, 278
+
+  _Psorospermiæ_ as a family of Protozoa, 7
+        "        considered as human parasites, 277
+
+  Psorosperms abundant in the hog, 414
+       "      in the flesh of animals, 281
+
+  _Pulex penetrans_, gigger or chigoe, 274
+
+  Pulmonary vessels of whales, worms in the, 425
+
+  _Pycnogonidæ_, a family of Arachnida, 5
+
+
+  _Quadrumana_, entozoa and ectozoa of, 289
+
+  Quail, entozoa of the, 440
+
+  Queensland, Bancroft’s collection of entozoa in, 431
+
+
+  Rabbits and hares, internal parasites of, 318
+     "    attacked by the autumnal spider, 320
+     "    _Cœnuri_ found in the soft parts of, 333
+
+  Racoons, parasites infesting, 298
+
+  Rats, internal parasites of, 316
+
+  _Rediæ_ and _Cercariæ_, Pagenstecher’s remarks on, 452
+
+  Redshank, entozoa from the, 447
+
+  _Reduvius_, or fly bug, various species of, 274
+
+  Redwing, _Echinorhynchi_ from a, 446
+
+  Reptiles, internal parasites of, 451
+
+  _Rhea Americana_, filariæ obtained by Darwin from, 447
+
+  Rhinoceroses, parasites of, 400
+
+  _Rhopalophorus_, a genus of flukes, 432
+
+  _Rhynchotæniada_ considered as a group, 4
+
+  _Rhytina stelleri_, parasites of, 429
+
+  Rodentia, parasites of, 315
+
+  “Rot” affecting the liver of porpoises, 418
+    "   disease, conclusions respecting the, 323
+
+  Round worms, various families of, 4
+
+  Ruminating animals, ectozoa found on, 350
+           "          entozoa of, 323
+
+
+  Salmon, pit-headed tapeworms of the, 468
+
+  _Salmo umbla_, worms in the kidney of, 457
+
+  _Sanguisuga medicinalis_ or the grey leech, 258
+
+  Sanitation in connection with “rot”, 331
+
+  _Sarcoptes_ of the hog, 414
+       "      _scabiei_, description of the, 265
+
+  Savages, little known about the parasites of, 27
+
+  Scabies, mortality in England from, 285
+
+  Scab or itch insect of man, 265
+
+  _Scalops canadensis_, nematode found in, 297
+
+  _Schistosoma_, considered as a synonym of Bilharzia, 39
+
+  _Sclerostoma_ and _Anchylostoma_ as synonyms, 211
+
+  _Sclerostoma dentatum_ of the hog, 412
+         "     _pinguicola_ of Verrill, the so-called, 409
+         "     _syngamus_ in birds, 443
+
+  Seals and walruses, parasites of, 314
+
+  Sheep, hydatids from cattle and, 139
+    "    of New South Wales, fatal epizoöty in, 347
+    "    parasitic bronchitis affecting, 335
+    "    whip-worms occasioning “scour” in, 349
+
+  Shrews, parasites known to infest, 296
+
+  _Simondsia paradoxa_, description of, 406
+
+  _Simulium reptans_ or the creeping gnat, 273
+
+  Skunk, tapeworm infesting the, 298
+
+  Sloths, nematode worms found in, 322
+
+  Snake-birds, parasites in the cranium of, 446
+
+  Snake, larval nematode from the heart of a, 455
+    "    worms from an Egyptian hooded, 456
+
+  _Solidungula_, parasites of the, 356
+
+  _Solpugidæ_, a family of Arachnida, 5
+
+  Soorti and masuri parasites of elephants, 395
+
+  _Sphærularia bombi_, Sir J. Lubbock’s description of, 481
+        "     found in various bees, 480
+        "     Schneider’s account of the development of, 482
+
+  _Spirilla_, found in the blood of fever patients, 277
+
+  _Spiroptera helicina_ in the feet of birds, 440
+       "      _megastoma_ of the horse, 380
+       "      _sanguinolenta_, Lewis’s remarks on, 303
+       "      _sexalata_ infesting _Dicotyles_, 407
+       "      _strongylina_ of the hog, 406
+
+  Sporocysts or unorganised germ-sacs, 453
+
+  Squirrels, internal parasites of, 315
+
+  _Stephanurus dentatus_ discovered by Natterer, 407
+        "      Diesing’s description of, 408
+        "      in Australia, announcement respecting, 409
+        "      in relation to porcine epizoöty, 411
+        "      _Nattereri_, proposed synonym, 412
+        "      Professor Fletcher’s account of, 411
+        "      rediscovered by Dr. White, 409
+
+  Sticklebacks, _Gyrodactylus_ from the tail of, 466
+
+  Stoat, parasites found in the common, 299
+
+  _Stomoxys calcitrans_, or the leg-sticker, 273
+
+  Strongyle, meaning and origin of the term, 4
+
+  Strongyles, Welsh equine epizoöty from, 377
+
+  _Strongylidæ_, family of round worms, 5
+
+  _Strongylus acuticaudatus_ from a Tinamou, 447
+       "      _armatus_ of the horse, 367
+       "      _dentatus_ confounded with _Stephanurus_, 412
+       "      (_Eustrongylus_) _gigas_, found in man, 208
+       "      _filaria_, experiments by Leuckart with, 337
+       "          "      temperature necessary to kill the, 70
+       "      _micrurus_, or cattle lung-worm, 335
+       "          "       original experiments with, 337
+       "      _minutissimus_ in Algerian sheep, 346
+       "      _Pallasii_ from _Beluga leucas_, 427
+       "      _paradoxus_ a cause of husk, 412
+       "      _pergracilis_ and the grouse disease, 439
+       "      _tetracanthus_, larvæ of, 374
+
+  Sturgeon, _Echinostoma hispidum_ from a, 462
+
+  _Suidæ_, rarity of flukes in the, 404
+
+  Sun-fish, _Tetrarhynchus_ infesting the, 471
+
+  Swine Breeders’ Association, U.S. National, 412
+    "   external parasites of, 414
+    "   internal parasites of, 404
+
+  Sword-fish, parasites of the, 458
+
+  Sydney, entozoa collected by Krefft and Masters near, 431
+
+  _Syngamus_ (_Sclerostoma_) _trachealis_ in birds, 443
+
+  _Syrphidæ_ include rat-tailed maggots, 7
+
+
+  _Tachyglossus setosus_, tapeworm found in, 433
+
+  Tacuschi, parasites of the so-called, 417
+
+  Tapeworm, Cullingworth’s monstrous variety of, 103
+      "     from the vulpine opossum, 432
+      "     in the Baikal, statements of Kaschin respecting, 82
+      "     mortality in England from, 285
+      "     the broad, derived from fish, 107
+
+  Tapeworms infesting marsupials, 432
+      "     injurious to avian bearers, 438
+      "     (_Ligulæ_) causing piscine epizoöty, 469
+      "     of the dog, 300
+      "     symptoms occasioned by, 90
+      "     various families of, 4
+
+  Tapir, parasites of the American, 402
+
+  _Tænia abietina_, a variety of _T. mediocanellata_, 102
+     "   _acanthotrias_, remarks on the so-called, 103
+     "   and _cysticercus_, coexistence of, 94
+     "   _angulata_ in nestling blackbirds, 440
+     "   _bipapillosa_ from the wombat, 432
+     "   _calva_ and the grouse disease, 439
+     "   _canina_ identical with _T. elliptica_, 101
+     "   _crassicollis_, its source suggested by Goeze, 57
+     "         "         possessing two heads, 105
+     "   _cyathiformis_, allusion to the eggs of, 41
+     "   _echinococcus_, its prevalence in Iceland, 125
+     "          "        reared from hydatids, 113
+     "   _elliptica_ as a human parasite, 101
+     "   _festiva_ in _Macropus_ and _Halmaturus_, 432
+     "   _flavopuncta_, brief description of the, 101
+     "   from the Cape of Good Hope, variety of, 104
+     "   _geophiloides_ a new tapeworm, 432
+     "   _lata_ of Pruner, probable synonym of, 96
+     "   _lophosoma_, considered as a species, 99
+     "   _Madagascariensis_, brief description of the, 100
+     "   _magna_ of the rhinoceros, 401
+     "   _marginata_, as a human parasite, 100
+     "   _mediocanellata_, description of the, 66
+     "           "         Cullingworth’s specimen of, 99
+     "           "         feeding experiments with, 68
+     "           "         Mussulmans infested by, 78
+     "   _megaloön_, doubtful character of the, 105
+     "   _nana_, brief description of the, 100
+     "   _perfoliata_, temperature necessary to kill the, 70
+     "   _phalangistæ_ from the vulpine opossum, 482
+     "   _phoptica_, a new tapeworm, 483
+     "   remarkable Hunterian specimen of, 102
+     "   _saginata_, considered as a synonym, 67
+     "   _serrata_, temperature necessary to kill, 69
+     "   _solium_, general description of the, 87
+     "       "     sources of infection by, 94
+     "   _tenella_, probable source of the, 95
+     "   _variabilis_, allusion to the eggs of, 41
+
+  _Tetrarhynchi_ of sharks and rays, 470
+
+  _Tetraphyllobothridæ_, a family of tapeworms, 4
+
+  _Tetrarhynchus reptans_ of the sun-fish, 472
+
+  Tenches destroyed by _Ligulæ_, 469
+
+  _Tetrastoma renale_, notice of the so-called, 86
+
+  _Tetrabothrium triangulare_, from _Delphinis_, 422
+
+  _Thecosoma_ considered as a synonym of _Bilharzia_, 89
+
+  Thorn-headed worms resemble nematodes, 6
+
+  Thread-worm, description of the common, 227
+
+  Tinamou, worms from the, 447
+
+  Tongues of living animals inspected for “cyst”, 80
+
+  Tope, or penny dog-fish, _Tetrarhynchus_ of the, 471
+
+  Trachearian arachnida, parasitic families of, 5
+
+  _Trematoda_, families of the order of, 4
+
+  Trematode-larvæ, Pagenstecher’s researches on, 462
+
+  Trematodes infesting opossums, 432
+
+  _Triænophoras nodulosus_ with two heads, 105
+
+  _Trichina affinis_, the so-called, 406
+      "     _spiralis_, discovery of, in man, 194
+      "         "       description of the mature, 153
+      "         "       experiments conducted in England with, 157
+      "         "       in relation to diseased meat, 166
+      "         "       temperature necessary to kill the, 70
+
+  _Trichinidæ_ form a family of round worms, 5
+
+  Trichinosis in animals, symptoms of, 163
+       "      in England, an outbreak of, 169
+       "      in Germany, outbreaks of, 168
+
+  Trichocephalidæ, a family of round worms, 5
+
+  _Trichocephalus affinis_ in sheep, 349
+         "        _crenatus_ of the hog, 406
+         "        _dispar_, description of the, 178
+
+  _Trichosoma_, new species found by Solger, 456
+
+  _Tricuspidaria nodulosa_, with two heads, 105
+         "       (_Triænophorus_) _nodulosa_ infesting fishes, 470
+
+  Tristomes not strictly entozoa, 463
+
+  _Tristomidæ_, a family of flukes, 4
+
+  Trout, _Echinorhynchi_ in the, 475
+    "    the, a probable source of _Bothriocephalus_, 470
+
+  Tsetse fly fatal to the horse, 388
+
+  Turbellarians, remark concerning the, 8
+
+  Turbot, _Echinorhynchi_ in the, 475
+
+  Turkeys, water, parasites found by Wyman in, 446
+
+  Turtle, worms from a snapping, 455
+
+  Tympanum of whales, worms in the cavity of the, 425
+
+  _Tyroglyphus Méricourti_ of Laboulbène, 266
+
+
+  _Urobales palustris_ in connection with the guinea-worm, 219
+
+  _Udonella caligorum_, peculiar habit of, 484
+      "     mode of development of, 463
+
+
+  Wagtail, flukes reared by Zeller in the, 436
+
+  Wallaby, _Filaria_ from the abdomen of a, 433
+     "     tapeworms observed in the, 432
+
+  Warblers, development of flukes in, 435
+
+  Warbles formed by the larvæ of Œstrus, 351
+
+  Wasps (_Vespa_), _Sphærularia_ in, 481
+
+  Water-hen, worms found in the legs of the, 447
+
+  Water-turkeys, worms in the cranium of, 446
+
+  Weasles, internal parasites of, 298
+     "     source of tapeworms in, 296
+
+  Whale-lice (_Cyami_ and _Pycnogonidæ_), 428
+       "     (_Cyamidæ_), zoological position of, 5
+
+  Whale-worms found by John Hunter, 427
+
+  Whales, ectozoa of, 428
+     "    internal parasites of, 416
+
+  Whip-worm (_Trichocephalus_) of the hog, 406
+
+  White-throat, flukes reared by Zeller in the, 436
+
+  Wombat, tapeworm found in the, 432
+
+  Worm-aneurism, Bollinger’s researches on, 368
+
+  Worm-like sac in the mitral valve of a horse, 281
+
+  Worms are not a criterion of previous disease, 435
+    "   from the heart of a guillemot, 447
+    "   infesting the Virginian opossum, 433
+    "   in the knee-joint of a kangaroo, 433
+    "   in the tympanic cavity of whales, 425
+    "   in whales, found by John Hunter, 427
+    "   mortality in England from, 285
+    "   of the kangaroo in the Hunterian Museum, 433
+
+
+  Zebra, hydatids from the liver of the, 366
+    "        "    from a, described by Huxley, 117
+
+              PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
+
+
+
+
+                       WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+
+                  Post 8vo, price 5_s._, Illustrated.
+
+               THE INTERNAL PARASITES OF OUR DOMESTICATED
+                                ANIMALS:
+
+         A Manual of the Entozoa of the Ox, Sheep, Dog, Horse,
+                             Pig, and Cat.
+
+   “En fait d’helminthologie, M. Cobbold est considéré en Angleterre
+                 comme la première autorité.”--COSMOS.
+
+             London: ‘The Field’ Office, 346, Strand, W.C.
+
+
+
+                  Price 1_s._, with Two Illustrations.
+
+                          THE GROUSE DISEASE:
+
+       A Statement of Facts tending to prove the Parasitic Origin
+                            of the Epidemic.
+
+             London: ‘The Field’ Office, 346, Strand, W.C.
+
+
+
+                 Third Edition, Re-written, price 5_s._
+
+                       TAPEWORMS (HUMAN ENTOZOA):
+
+                THEIR SOURCES, VARIETIES, AND TREATMENT.
+
+                        With One Hundred Cases.
+
+ “It treats upon a subject of which the author is the first scientific
+          exponent in this country.”--POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW.
+
+                        London: Longmans and Co.
+
+
+
+                              Price 2_s._
+
+               CATALOGUE OF ENTOZOA IN THE MUSEUM OF THE
+                       ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS.
+
+             London: Hardwicke and Bogue, 192, Piccadilly.
+
+
+
+
+      [Illustration]                   _London, New Burlington Street.
+                                                 May, 1879._
+
+                               SELECTION
+
+                                  FROM
+
+                       MESSRS J. & A. CHURCHILL’S
+
+                           General Catalogue
+
+                               COMPRISING
+
+                   ALL RECENT WORKS PUBLISHED BY THEM
+
+                                 ON THE
+
+                            ART AND SCIENCE
+
+                                   OF
+
+                                MEDICINE
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                  PAGE
+
+  Acton on the Reproductive Organs, 8
+
+  Adams (W.) on Clubfoot, 6
+    --  (R.) on Rheumatic Gout, 19
+
+  Allingham’s Diseases of the Rectum, 7
+
+  Anatomical Remembrancer, 11
+
+  Anderson (McC.) on Eczema, 19
+    --     (McC.) on Parasitic Affections, 19
+
+  Aveling’s Influence of Posture, 14
+
+
+  Balfour’s Diseases of the Heart, 16
+
+  Bantock’s Rupture of Perineum, 14
+
+  Barclay’s Medical Diagnosis, 12
+
+  Barker’s Puerperal Diseases, 13
+
+  Barnes’ Obstetric Operations, 14
+    --    Diseases of Women, 14
+
+  Basham on Diseases of the Kidneys, 8
+
+  Beale on Kidney Diseases, 8
+    --  on Microscope in Medicine, 11
+
+  Bellamy’s Guide to Surgical Anatomy, 10
+
+  Bennet’s Winter and Spring on the Mediterranean, 17
+    --     Pulmonary Consumption, 17
+    --     Nutrition, 18
+
+  Bennett (J. R.) on Cancerous Growths, 19
+
+  Berkart’s Asthma, 15
+
+  Bigg’s Orthopraxy, 6
+
+  Binz’s Elements of Therapeutics, 12
+
+  Black on the Urinary Organs, 8
+
+  Blakiston’s Clinical Reminiscences, 11
+
+  Bose’s Rational Therapeutics, 11
+    --   Recognisant Medicine, 11
+
+  Braune’s Topographical Anatomy, 11
+
+  Brodhurst’s Orthopædic Surgery, 6
+
+  Bryant’s Practice of Surgery, 4
+
+  Burdett’s Cottage Hospital, 15
+
+  Burnett on the Ear, 6
+
+  Buzzard on Syphilitic Nervous Affections, 8
+
+
+  Carpenter’s Human Physiology, 10
+
+  Carter (H. V.) on Mycetoma, 20
+
+  Carter (W.) on Renal and Urinary Diseases, 8
+
+  Cauty on Diseases of the Skin, 20
+
+  Chapman on Neuralgia, 19
+
+  Charteris’ Practice of Medicine, 11
+
+  Clark’s Outlines of Surgery, 4
+    --    Surgical Diagnosis, 5
+
+  Clay’s Obstetric Surgery, 13
+
+  Coles’ Dental Mechanics, 23
+
+  Cormack’s Clinical Studies, 12
+
+  Cottle’s Hair in Health and Disease, 20
+
+  Cullingworth’s Nurse’s Companion, 14
+
+  Curling’s Diseases of the Rectum, 7
+    --      Diseases of the Testis, 7
+
+
+  Dalby on the Ear, 6
+
+  Dalton’s Human Physiology, 9
+
+  Day on Children’s Diseases, 13
+    -- on Headaches, 18
+
+  Dobell’s Lectures on Winter Cough, 15
+    --     Loss of Weight, &c., 15
+
+  Domville’s Manual for Hospital Nurses, 15
+
+  Druitt’s Surgeon’s Vade-Mecum, 4
+
+  Duncan on the Female Perineum, 14
+
+  Dunglison’s Medical Dictionary, 22
+
+
+  Ellis’s Manual of Diseases of Children, 12
+
+  Emmet’s Gynæcology, 14
+
+  Eulenburg and Guttmann’s Sympathetic System of Nerves, 19
+
+
+  Fayrer’s Observations in India, 4
+
+  Fergusson’s Practical Surgery, 4
+
+  Fenwick’s Guide to Medical Diagnosis, 12
+
+  Flint on Phthisis, 16
+    --  on Percussion and Auscultation, 16
+
+  Foster’s Clinical Medicine, 11
+
+  Fox (C. B.) Sanitary Examinations, 21
+
+  Fox (T.) Atlas of Skin Diseases, 20
+
+  Frey’s Histology, 9
+
+
+  Gamgee on Fractures of the Limbs, 4
+    --   on Treatment of Wounds, 4
+
+  Gant’s Science and Practice of Surgery, 4
+    --   Diseases of the Bladder, 8
+
+  Gaskoin on Psoriasis or Lepra, 20
+
+  Glenn’s Laws affecting Medical Men, 20
+
+  Godlee’s Atlas of Human Anatomy, 11
+
+  Gowan on Consumption, 15
+
+
+  Habershon on Diseases of the Liver, 18
+    --      on Diseases of the Abdomen, 18
+    --      on Diseases of the Stomach, 18
+    --      on the Pneumogastric Nerve, 18
+
+  Hamilton’s Nervous Diseases, 18
+
+  Hancock’s Surgery of Foot and Ankle, 6
+
+  Harris on Lithotomy, 7
+
+  Harrison’s Stricture of Urethra, 7
+
+  Hayden on the Heart, 16
+
+  Heath’s Minor Surgery and Bandaging, 5
+    --    Diseases and Injuries of Jaws, 5
+    --    Operative Surgery, 5
+    --    Practical Anatomy, 10
+
+  Higgens’ Ophthalmic Practice, 22
+
+  Holden’s Landmarks, 10
+    --     Human Osteology, 10
+
+  Hood on Gout, Rheumatism, &c., 19
+
+  Hooper’s Physician’s Vade-Mecum, 11
+
+  Horton’s Tropical Diseases, 17
+
+  Hutchinson’s Clinical Surgery, 5
+
+  Huth’s Marriage of Near Kin, 9
+
+
+  Ireland’s Idiocy and Imbecility, 21
+
+
+  James’ Sore Throat, 16
+
+  Jones (C. H.) and Sieveking’s Pathological Anatomy, 10
+    --  (C. H.) on Functional Nervous Disorders, 18
+
+  Jones (H. McN.) Aural Surgery, 6
+    --        Atlas of Diseases of Membrana Tympani, 6
+
+  Jones (Wharton) Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery, 23
+
+  Jordan’s Surgical Inflammations, 6
+
+  Jordan’s Surgical Inquiries, 6
+
+
+  Leber and Rottenstein’s Dental Caries, 23
+
+  Lee (H.) on Syphilis, 8
+
+  Leared on Imperfect Digestion, 18
+
+  Liebreich’s Atlas of Ophthalmoscopy, 22
+
+  Liveing on Megrim, &c., 18
+
+
+  Macdonald’s (A.) Disease of the heart, 16
+
+  Macdonald’s (J. D.) Examination of Water, 21
+
+  Mackenzie on Diphtheria, 16
+
+  Macnamara on Diseases of the Eye, 22
+
+  Madden’s Health Resorts, 17
+
+  Marsden on certain Forms of Cancer, 19
+
+  Mason on Harelip and Cleft Palate, 5
+    --  Surgery of the Face, 5
+
+  Maunder’s Operative Surgery, 4
+    --      Surgery of Arteries, 4
+
+  Mayne’s Medical Vocabulary, 22
+
+  Morris (H.) Anatomy of the Joints, 10
+
+
+  Ogston’s Medical Jurisprudence, 20
+
+  Osborn on Hydrocele, 7
+
+
+  Parkes’ Manual of Practical Hygiene, 21
+
+  Parkin’s Epidemiology, 23
+
+  Pavy on Food and Dietetics, 18
+    -- on Diabetes, 18
+
+  Peacock’s Valvular Disease, 16
+
+  Phillips’ Materia Medica, 12
+
+  Pirrie’s Surgery, 4
+
+  Pollock’s Rheumatism, 19
+
+
+  Ramsbotham’s Obstetrics, 13
+
+  Reynolds’ Uses of Electricity, 22
+
+  Roberts’ (C.) Manual of Anthropometry, 9
+
+  Roberts’ (D. Lloyd) Practice of Midwifery, 13
+
+  Roussel’s Transfusion of Blood, 5
+
+  Routh’s Infant Feeding, 13
+
+  Roy’s Burdwan Fever, 17
+
+  Royle and Harley’s Materia Medica, 12
+
+  Rutherford’s Practical Histology, 9
+
+
+  Salt’s Medico-Electric Apparatus, 22
+
+  Sanderson’s Physiological Handbook, 9
+
+  Sansom’s Diseases of the Heart, 16
+
+  Savage on the Female Pelvic Organs, 4
+
+  Savory’s Domestic Medicine, 15
+
+  Sayre’s Orthopædic Surgery, 6
+
+  Schroeder’s Manual of Midwifery, 13
+
+  Semple on the Heart, 15
+
+  Sewill’s Dental Anatomy, 23
+
+  Shapter’s Diseases of the Heart, 16
+
+  Sheppard on Madness, 21
+
+  Sibson’s Medical Anatomy, 10
+
+  Sieveking’s Life Assurance, 21
+
+  Smith (E.) Wasting Diseases of Children, 13
+    --       Clinical Studies, 13
+
+  Smith (Henry) Surgery of the Rectum, 8
+
+  Smith (Heywood) Gynæcology, 14
+
+  Smith (J.) Dental Anatomy, 23
+
+  Smith (W. R.) Nursing, 15
+
+  Spender’s Bath Waters, 17
+
+  Steiner’s Diseases of Children, 13
+
+  Stillé and Maisch’s Dispensatory, 12
+
+  Stocken’s Dental Materia Medica, 12
+
+  Stowe’s Toxicological Chart, 20
+
+  Sullivan’s Tropical Diseases, 17
+
+  Swain’s Surgical Emergencies, 5
+
+  Swayne’s Obstetric Aphorisms, 14
+
+
+  Taft’s Operative Dentistry, 23
+
+  Tait’s Hospital Mortality, 15
+
+  Taylor’s Principles of Medical Jurisprudence, 20
+    --     Manual of Medical Jurisprudence, 20
+    --     Poisons in relation to Medical Jurisprudence, 20
+
+  Teale’s Dangers to Health, 21
+
+  Thomas on Ear and Throat Diseases, 6
+
+  Thompson’s Stricture of Urethra, 7
+    --       Practical Lithotomy and Lithotrity, 7
+    --       Diseases of Urinary Organs, 7
+    --       Diseases of the Prostate, 7
+    --       Calculous Disease, 7
+
+  Thornton on Tracheotomy, 16
+
+  Thorowgood on Asthma, 15
+    --       on Materia Medica, 12
+
+  Thudichum’s Pathology of Urine, 8
+
+  Tibbits’ Medical Electricity, 22
+    --     Map of Motor Points, 22
+
+  Tilt’s Uterine Therapeutics, 13
+    --   Change of Life, 13
+    --   Health in India, 17
+
+  Tomes’ (C. S.) Dental Anatomy, 23
+    --   (J. and C. S.) Dental Surgery, 23
+
+  Tuke on the Influence of the Mind upon the Body, 21
+
+
+  Van Buren on Diseases of the Genito-Urinary Organs, 8
+
+  Veitch’s Handbook for Nurses, 15
+
+  Virchow’s Post-mortem Examinations, 10
+
+
+  Wagstaffe’s Human Osteology, 9
+
+  Walton’s Diseases of the Eye, 22
+
+  Ward on Affections of the Liver, 17
+
+  Waring’s Practical Therapeutics, 12
+    --     Bazaar Medicines of India, 17
+
+  Wells (Soelberg) on Diseases of the Eye, 23
+    --             Long, Short, and Weak Sight, 23
+
+  Wells (Spencer) on Diseases of the Ovaries, 14
+
+  West’s Diseases of Women, 14
+
+  Whistler’s Syphilis of Larynx, 17
+
+  Wilks’ Diseases of Nervous System, 18
+    --   Pathological Anatomy, 10
+
+  Wilson’s (E.) Anatomist’s Vade-Mecum, 11
+    --          Diseases of the Skin, 19
+    --          Lectures on Ekzema, 19
+    --          Lectures on Dermatology, 19
+
+  Wilson’s (G.) Handbook of Hygiene, 21
+
+  Woodman & Tidy’s Forensic Medicine, 21
+
+
+                       CATALOGUE OF RECENT WORKS
+
+  THE PRACTICE OF SURGERY:
+     a Manual by THOMAS BRYANT, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Guy’s Hospital.
+     Third Edition, 2 vols., crown 8vo, with 672 Engravings, 28s.
+     [1878]
+
+  THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SURGERY,
+     by WILLIAM PIRRIE, F.R.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the
+     University of Aberdeen. Third Edition, 8vo, with 490 Engravings,
+     28s. [1873]
+
+  A SYSTEM OF PRACTICAL SURGERY,
+     by Sir WILLIAM FERGUSSON, Bart., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. Fifth Edition,
+     8vo, with 463 Engravings, 21s. [1870]
+
+  OPERATIVE SURGERY,
+     by C. F. MAUNDER, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the London Hospital.
+     Second Edition, post 8vo, with 164 Engravings, 6s. [1872]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  SURGERY OF THE ARTERIES:
+     Lettsomian Lectures for 1875, on Aneurisms, Wounds, Hæmorrhages,
+     &c. Post 8vo, with 18 Engravings, 5s. [1875]
+
+  THE SURGEON’S VADE-MECUM,
+     a Manual of Modern Surgery, by ROBERT DRUITT. Eleventh Edition,
+     fcap. 8vo, with 369 Engravings, 14s. [1878]
+
+  THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF SURGERY:
+     a complete System and Textbook by F. J. GANT, F.R.C.S., Senior
+     Surgeon to the Royal Free Hospital. 8vo, with 470 Engravings, 24s.
+     [1871]
+
+  OUTLINES OF SURGERY AND SURGICAL PATHOLOGY,
+     including the Diagnosis and Treatment of Obscure and Urgent
+     Cases, and the Surgical Anatomy of some Important Structures and
+     Regions, by F. LE GROS CLARK, F.R.S., Consulting Surgeon to St.
+     Thomas’s Hospital. Second Edition, Revised and Expanded by the
+     Author, assisted by W. W. WAGSTAFFE, F.R.C.S., Assistant-Surgeon to
+     St. Thomas’s Hospital. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1872]
+
+  CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN INDIA,
+     by Sir J. FAYRER, K.C.S.I., M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., F.R.S.E.,
+     Honorary Physician to the Queen. 8vo, with Engravings, 20s. [1873]
+
+  TREATMENT OF WOUNDS:
+     Clinical Lectures, by SAMPSON GAMGEE, F.R.S.E., Surgeon to the
+     Queen’s Hospital, Birmingham. Crown 8vo, with Engravings, 5s.
+     [1878]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  FRACTURES OF THE LIMBS
+     and their Treatment. 8vo, with Plates, 10s. 6d. [1871]
+
+  THE FEMALE PELVIC ORGANS,
+     their Surgery, Surgical Pathology, and Surgical Anatomy, in
+     a Series of Coloured Plates taken from Nature: with Commentaries,
+     Notes, and Cases, by HENRY SAVAGE, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.S., Consulting
+     Officer of the Samaritan Free Hospital. Third Edition, 4to, £1 15s.
+     [1875]
+
+  SURGICAL EMERGENCIES
+     together with the Emergencies attendant on Parturition and the
+     Treatment of Poisoning: a Manual for the use of General
+     Practitioners, by WILLIAM P. SWAIN, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Royal
+     Albert Hospital, Devonport. Second Edition, post 8vo, with 104
+     Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  TRANSFUSION OF HUMAN BLOOD:
+     with Table of 50 cases, by Dr. ROUSSEL, of Geneva. Translated
+     by CLAUDE GUINNESS, B.A. With a Preface by SIR JAMES PAGET, Bart.
+     Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  ILLUSTRATIONS OF CLINICAL SURGERY,
+     consisting of Coloured Plates, Photographs, Woodcuts, Diagrams,
+     &c., illustrating Surgical Diseases, Symptoms and Accidents; also
+     Operations and other methods of Treatment. By JONATHAN HUTCHINSON,
+     F.R.C.S., Senior Surgeon to the London Hospital. In Quarterly
+     Fasciculi, 6s. 6d. each. Fasciculi I to X bound, with Appendix and
+     Index, £3 10s. [1876-9]
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF SURGICAL DIAGNOSIS
+     especially in Relation to Shock and Visceral Lesions, by F. LE
+     GROS CLARK, F.R.C.S., Consulting Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital.
+     8vo, 10s. 6d. [1870]
+
+  MINOR SURGERY AND BANDAGING:
+     a Manual for the Use of House-Surgeons, Dressers, and Junior
+     Practitioners, by CHRISTOPHER HEATH, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to
+     University College Hospital, and Holme Professor of Surgery in
+     University College. Fifth Edition, fcap 8vo, with 86 Engravings,
+     5s. 6d. [1875]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE JAWS:
+     JACKSONIAN PRIZE ESSAY. Second Edition, 8vo, with 164 Engravings,
+     12s. [1872]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  A COURSE OF OPERATIVE SURGERY:
+     with 20 Plates drawn from Nature by M. LÉVEILLÉ, and coloured
+     by hand under his direction. Large 8vo. 40s. [1877]
+
+  HARE-LIP AND CLEFT PALATE,
+     by FRANCIS MASON, F.R.C.S., Surgeon and Lecturer on Anatomy at
+     St. Thomas’s Hospital. With 66 Engravings, 8vo, 6s. [1877]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  THE SURGERY OF THE FACE:
+     with 100 Engravings. 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  DISEASES AND INJURIES OF THE EAR,
+     by W. B. DALBY, F.R.C.S., M.B., Aural Surgeon and Lecturer
+     on Aural Surgery at St. George’s Hospital. Crown 8vo, with 21
+     Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1873]
+
+  AURAL SURGERY:
+     A Practical Treatise, by H. MACNAUGHTON JONES, M.D., Professor
+     of the Queen’s University in Ireland, Surgeon to the Cork
+     Ophthalmic and Aural Hospital. With 46 Engravings, crown 8vo, 5s.
+     [1878]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  ATLAS OF DISEASES OF THE MEMBRANA TYMPANI.
+     In Coloured Plates, containing 62 Figures, with Text, crown 4to,
+     21s. [1878]
+
+  THE EAR:
+     its Anatomy, Physiology, and Diseases. A Practical Treatise, by
+     CHARLES H. BURNETT, A.M., M.D., Aural Surgeon to the Presbyterian
+     Hospital, and Surgeon in Charge of the Infirmary for Diseases of
+     the Ear, Philadelphia. With 87 Engravings, 8vo, 18s. [1877]
+
+  EAR AND THROAT DISEASES.
+     Essays by LLEWELLYN THOMAS, M.D., Surgeon to the Central London
+     Throat and Ear Hospital. Post 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  CLUBFOOT:
+     its Causes, Pathology, and Treatment: Jacksonian Prize Essay by
+     WM. ADAMS, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Great Northern Hospital.
+     Second Edition, 8vo, with 106 Engravings and 6 Lithographic Plates,
+     15s. [1873]
+
+  ORTHOPÆDIC SURGERY:
+     Lectures delivered at St. George’s Hospital, by BERNARD E.
+     BRODHURST, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Royal Orthopædic Hospital.
+     Second Edition, 8vo, with Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  OPERATIVE SURGERY OF THE FOOT AND ANKLE,
+     by HENRY HANCOCK, F.R.C.S., Consulting Surgeon to Charing
+     Cross Hospital. 8vo, with Engravings, 15s. [1873]
+
+  THE TREATMENT OF SURGICAL INFLAMMATIONS
+     by a New Method, which greatly shortens their Duration, by
+     FURNEAUX JORDAN, F.R.C.S., Professor of Surgery in Queen’s College,
+     Birmingham. 8vo, with Plates, 7s. 6d. [1870]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  SURGICAL INQUIRIES.
+     With numerous Lithographic Plates. 8vo, 5s. [1873]
+
+  ORTHOPRAXY:
+     the Mechanical Treatment of Deformities, Debilities, and
+     Deficiencies of the Human Frame, by H. HEATHER BIGG, Associate
+     of the Institute of Civil Engineers. Third Edition, with 319
+     Engravings, 8vo, 15s. [1877]
+
+  ORTHOPÆDIC SURGERY:
+     and Diseases of the Joints. Lectures by LEWIS A. SAYRE, M.D.,
+     Professor of Orthopædic Surgery, Fractures and Dislocations, and
+     Clinical Surgery, in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York.
+     With 274 Wood Engravings, 8vo, 20s. [1876]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE RECTUM,
+     by THOMAS B. CURLING, F.R.S., Consulting Surgeon to the London
+     Hospital. Fourth Edition, Revised, 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1876]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  DISEASES OF THE TESTIS, SPERMATIC CORD, AND SCROTUM.
+     Third Edition, with Engravings, 8vo, 16s. [1878]
+
+  FISTULA, HÆMORRHOIDS, PAINFUL ULCER, STRICTURE,
+     Prolapsus, and other Diseases of the Rectum: their Diagnosis
+     and Treatment. By WILLIAM ALLINGHAM, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to St.
+     Mark’s Hospital for Fistula. Third Edition, 8vo, 10s. [1879]
+
+  HYDROCELE:
+     its several Varieties and their Treatment, by SAMUEL OSBORN,
+     F.R.C.S., late Surgical Registrar to St. Thomas’s Hospital. With
+     Engravings, fcap. 8vo, 3s. [1878]
+
+  STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA
+     and Urinary Fistulæ; their Pathology and Treatment: Jacksonian
+     Prize Essay by Sir HENRY THOMPSON, F.R.C.S., Emeritus Professor of
+     Surgery to University College. Third Edition, 8vo, with Plates,
+     10s. [1869]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  PRACTICAL LITHOTOMY AND LITHOTRITY;
+     or, An Inquiry into the best Modes of removing Stone from the
+     Bladder. Second Edition, 8vo, with numerous Engravings. 10s. [1871]
+
+                                 ALSO,
+
+  DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS:
+     (Clinical Lectures). Fifth Edition, 8vo, with 2 Plates and 71
+     Engravings, 10s. 6d. [1879]
+
+                                 ALSO,
+
+  DISEASES OF THE PROSTATE:
+     their Pathology and Treatment. Fourth Edition, 8vo, with numerous
+     Plates, 10s. [1873]
+
+                                 ALSO,
+
+  THE PREVENTIVE TREATMENT OF CALCULOUS DISEASE
+     and the Use of Solvent Remedies. Second Edition, fcap. 8vo,
+     2s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA,
+     and other Diseases of the Urinary Organs, by REGINALD HARRISON,
+     F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Liverpool Royal Infirmary. With 10 plates.
+     8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  LITHOTOMY AND EXTRACTION OF STONE
+     from the Bladder, Urethra, and Prostate of the Male, and from the
+     Bladder of the Female, by W. POULETT HARRIS, M.D., Surgeon-Major
+     H.M. Bengal Medical Service. With Engravings, 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  THE SURGERY OF THE RECTUM:
+     Lettsomian Lectures by HENRY SMITH, F.R.C.S., Professor of
+     Surgery in King’s College, Surgeon to King’s College Hospital.
+     Fourth Edition, fcap. 8vo, 5s. [1876]
+
+  KIDNEY DISEASES, URINARY DEPOSITS,
+     and Calculous Disorders by LIONEL S. BEALE, M.B., F.R.S., F.R.C.P.,
+     Physician to King’s College Hospital. Third Edition, 8vo, with 70
+     Plates, 25s. [1868]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE BLADDER,
+     Prostate Gland and Urethra, including a practical view of Urinary
+     Diseases, Deposits and Calculi, by F. J. GANT, F.R.C.S., Senior
+     Surgeon to the Royal Free Hospital. Fourth Edition, crown 8vo,
+     with Engravings, 10s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  THE DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS,
+     with Aids thereto, by W. R. BASHAM, M.D., F.R.C.P., late Senior
+     Physician to the Westminster Hospital. 8vo, with 10 Plates, 5s.
+     [1872]
+
+  RENAL AND URINARY DISEASES:
+     Clinical Reports, by WILLIAM CARTER, M.B., M.R.C.P., Physician
+     to the Liverpool Southern Hospital. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
+     in Childhood, Youth, Adult Age, and Advanced Life (Functions and
+     Disorders of), considered in their Physiological, Social, and
+     Moral Relations, by WILLIAM ACTON, M.R.C.S. Sixth Edition, 8vo,
+     12s. [1875]
+
+  URINARY AND REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS:
+     their Functional Diseases, by D. CAMPBELL BLACK, M.D., L.R.C.S.
+     Edin. Second Edition. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1875]
+
+  LECTURES ON SYPHILIS,
+     and on some forms of Local Disease, affecting principally the
+     Organs of Generation, by HENRY LEE, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to St.
+     George’s Hospital. With Engravings, 8vo, 10s. [1875]
+
+  SYPHILITIC NERVOUS AFFECTIONS:
+     Their Clinical Aspects, by THOMAS BUZZARD, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond.,
+     Physician to the National Hospital for Paralysis and Epilepsy.
+     Post 8vo, 5s. [1874]
+
+  PATHOLOGY OF THE URINE,
+     including a Complete Guide to its Analysis, by J. L. W. THUDICHUM,
+     M.D., F.R.C.P. Second Edition, rewritten and enlarged, with
+     Engravings, 8vo, 15s. [1877]
+
+  GENITO-URINARY ORGANS, INCLUDING SYPHILIS:
+     A Practical Treatise on their Surgical Diseases, designed as a
+     Manual for Students and Practitioners, by W. H. VAN BUREN, M.D.,
+     Professor of the Principles of Surgery in Bellevue Hospital Medical
+     College, New York, and E. L. KEYES, M.D., Professor of Dermatology
+     in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. Royal 8vo, with 140
+     Engravings, 21s. [1874]
+
+  HISTOLOGY AND HISTO-CHEMISTRY OF MAN:
+     A Treatise on the Elements of Composition and Structure of the
+     Human Body, by HEINRICH FREY, Professor of Medicine in Zurich.
+     Translated from the Fourth German Edition by ARTHUR E. J. BARKER,
+     Assistant-Surgeon to University College Hospital. And Revised by
+     the Author. 8vo, with 608 Engravings, 21s. [1874]
+
+  HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY:
+     A Treatise designed for the Use of Students and Practitioners of
+     Medicine, by JOHN C. DALTON, M.D., Professor of Physiology and
+     Hygiene in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. Sixth
+     Edition, royal 8vo, with 316 Engravings, 20s. [1875]
+
+  HANDBOOK FOR THE PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORY,
+     by E. KLEIN, M.D., F.R.S., Assistant Professor in the Pathological
+     Laboratory of the Brown Institution, London; J. BURDON-SANDERSON,
+     M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Practical Physiology in University
+     College, London; MICHAEL FOSTER, M.D., F.R.S., Prælector of
+     Physiology in Trinity College, Cambridge; and T. LAUDER BRUNTON,
+     M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Materia Medica at St. Bartholomew’s
+     Hospital; edited by J. BURDON-SANDERSON. 8vo, with 123 Plates, 24s.
+     [1873]
+
+  PRACTICAL HISTOLOGY:
+     By WILLIAM RUTHERFORD, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of
+     Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. Second Edition, with 63
+     Engravings. Crown 8vo (with additional leaves for notes), 6s. [1876]
+
+  THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN,
+     Considered with respect to the Laws of Nations, Results of
+     Experience, and the Teachings of Biology, by ALFRED H. HUTH. 8vo,
+     14s. [1875]
+
+  MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY:
+     A Guide to the Measurement of the Human Body, containing an
+     Anthropometrical Chart and Register, a Systematic Table of
+     Measurements, &c. By CHARLES ROBERTS, F.R.C.S., late Assistant
+     Surgeon to the Victoria Hospital for Children. With numerous
+     Illustrations and Tables. 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO HUMAN OSTEOLOGY,
+     By WILLIAM WARWICK WAGSTAFFE, F.R.C.S., Assistant-Surgeon and
+     Lecturer on Anatomy, St. Thomas’s Hospital. With 23 Plates and 66
+     Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY,
+     by W. B. CARPENTER, C.B., M.D., F.R.S. Eighth Edition by HENRY
+     POWER, M.B., F.R.C.S., Examiner in Natural Science, University
+     of Oxford, and in Natural Science and Medicine, University of
+     Cambridge. 8vo, with 3 Steel Plates and 371 Engravings, 31s. 6d.
+     [1876]
+
+  LANDMARKS, MEDICAL AND SURGICAL,
+     By LUTHER HOLDEN, F.R.C.S., Member of the Court of Examiners
+     of the Royal College of Surgeons. Second Edition, 8vo, 3s. 6d.
+     [1877]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  HUMAN OSTEOLOGY:
+     Comprising a Description of the Bones, with Delineations of the
+     Attachments of the Muscles, the General and Microscopical
+     Structure of Bone, and its Development. Fifth Edition, with 61
+     Lithographic Plates and 89 Engravings. 8vo, 16s. [1878]
+
+  PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY:
+     Lectures by SAMUEL WILKS, M.D., F.R.S., Physician to, and
+     Lecturer on Medicine at, Guy’s Hospital; and WALTER MOXON, M.D.,
+     F.R.C.P., Physician to, and Lecturer on Materia Medica at, Guy’s
+     Hospital. Second Edition, 8vo, with Plates, 18s. [1875]
+
+  PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY:
+     A Manual by C. HANDFIELD JONES, M.B., F.R.S., Physician to St.
+     Mary’s Hospital, and EDWARD H. SIEVEKING, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician
+     to St. Mary’s Hospital. Edited by J. F. PAYNE, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+     Assistant Physician and Lecturer on General Pathology at St.
+     Thomas’s Hospital. Second Edition, crown 8vo, with 195 Engravings,
+     16s. [1875]
+
+  POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS:
+     a Description and Explanation of the Method of Performing them,
+     with especial Reference to Medico-Legal Practice. By Professor
+     RUDOLPH VIRCHOW, of Berlin. Fcap 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  STUDENT’S GUIDE TO SURGICAL ANATOMY:
+     a Text-book for the Pass Examination, by E. BELLAMY, F.R.C.S.,
+     Surgeon and Lecturer on Anatomy at Charing Cross Hospital. Fcap
+     8vo, with 50 Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1873]
+
+  ANATOMY OF THE JOINTS OF MAN,
+     by HENRY MORRIS, F.R.C.S., Senior Assistant-Surgeon to, and
+     Lecturer on Anatomy and Demonstrator of Operative Surgery at, the
+     Middlesex Hospital. With 44 Lithographic Plates (several being
+     coloured) and 13 Wood Engravings. 8vo, 16s. [1879]
+
+  MEDICAL ANATOMY,
+     by FRANCIS SIBSON, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. Imp. folio, with 21
+     coloured Plates, cloth, 42s., half-morocco, 50s. [1869]
+
+  PRACTICAL ANATOMY:
+     a Manual of Dissections by CHRISTOPHER HEATH, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to
+     University College Hospital, and Holme Professor of Surgery in
+     University College. Fourth Edition, crown 8vo, with 16 Coloured
+     Plates and 264 Engravings, 14s. [1877]
+
+  AN ATLAS OF HUMAN ANATOMY:
+     illustrating most of the ordinary Dissections, and many not usually
+     practised by the Student. To be completed in 12 or 13 Bi-monthly
+     Parts, each containing 4 Coloured Plates, with Explanatory Text. By
+     RICKMAN J. GODLEE, M.S., F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon to University
+     College Hospital, and Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy in University
+     College. Parts I to VII. Imp. 4to, 7s. 6d. each Part. [1877-9]
+
+  THE ANATOMIST’S VADE-MECUM:
+     a System of Human Anatomy by ERASMUS WILSON, F.R.C.S., F.R.S.
+     Ninth Edition, by G. BUCHANAN, M.A., M.D., Professor of Clinical
+     Surgery in the University of Glasgow, and HENRY E. CLARK, F.F.P.S.,
+     Lecturer on Anatomy at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary School of
+     Medicine. Crown 8vo, with 371 Engravings, 14s. [1873]
+
+  ATLAS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY,
+     after Plane Sections of Frozen Bodies. By WILHELM BRAUNE, Professor
+     of Anatomy in the University of Leipzig. Translated by EDWARD
+     BELLAMY, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Anatomy, &c., at,
+     Charing Cross Hospital. With 34 Photo-lithographic Plates and
+     46 Woodcuts. Large Imp. 8vo, 40s. [1877]
+
+  THE ANATOMICAL REMEMBRANCER;
+     or, Complete Pocket Anatomist. Eighth Edition, 32mo, 3s. 6d.
+     [1876]
+
+  THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE,
+     by MATTHEW CHARTERIS, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Anderson’s
+     College, and Lecturer on Clinical Medicine in the Royal Infirmary,
+     Glasgow. Second Edition, with Engravings on Copper and Wood, fcap.
+     8vo, 6s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  THE MICROSCOPE IN MEDICINE,
+     by LIONEL S. BEALE, M.B., F.R.S., Physician to King’s College
+     Hospital. Fourth Edition, with 86 Plates, 8vo, 21s. [1877]
+
+  HOOPER’S PHYSICIAN’S VADE-MECUM;
+     or, Manual of the Principles and Practice of Physic, Ninth
+     Edition by W. A. GUY, M.B., F.R.S., and JOHN HARLEY, M.D., F.R.C.P.
+     Fcap 8vo, with Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1874]
+
+  A NEW SYSTEM OF MEDICINE;
+     entitled Recognisant Medicine, or the State of the Sick, by
+     BHOLANOTH BOSE, M.D., Indian Medical Service. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1877]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF RATIONAL THERAPEUTICS.
+     Commenced as an Inquiry into the Relative Value of Quinine and
+     Arsenic in Ague. 8vo, 4s. [1877]
+
+  CLINICAL MEDICINE:
+     Lectures and Essays by BALTHAZAR FOSTER, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond.,
+     Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College, Birmingham. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
+     [1874]
+
+  CLINICAL REMINISCENCES:
+     By PEYTON BLAKISTON, M.D., F.R.S. Post 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS,
+     by SAMUEL FENWICK, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the London
+     Hospital. Fourth Edition, fcap. 8vo, with 106 Engravings, 6s. 6d.
+     [1876]
+
+  A MANUAL OF MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS,
+     by A. W. BARCLAY, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to, and Lecturer
+     on Medicine at, St. George’s Hospital. Third Edition, fcap 8vo,
+     1Os. 6d. [1876]
+
+  CLINICAL STUDIES:
+     Illustrated by Cases observed in Hospital and Private Practice, by
+     Sir J. ROSE CORMACK, M.D., F.R.S.E., Physician to the Hertford
+     British Hospital of Paris. 2 vols., post 8vo, 20s. [1876]
+
+  ROYLE’S MANUAL OF MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS.
+     Sixth Edition by JOHN HARLEY, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant Physician
+     to, and Joint Lecturer on Physiology at, St. Thomas’s Hospital.
+     Crown 8vo, with 139 Engravings, 15s. [1876]
+
+  PRACTICAL THERAPEUTICS:
+     A Manual by E. J. WARING, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond. Third Edition,
+     fcap 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1871]
+
+  THE ELEMENTS OF THERAPEUTICS.
+     A Clinical Guide to the Action of Drugs, by C. BINZ, M.D.,
+     Professor of Pharmacology in the University of Bonn. Translated and
+     Edited with Additions, in Conformity with the British and American
+     Pharmacopœias, by EDWARD I. SPARKS, M.A., M.B. Oxon., formerly
+     Radcliffe Travelling Fellow. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  THE NATIONAL DISPENSATORY;
+     containing the Natural History, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Actions and
+     Uses of Medicines, including those recognised in the Pharmacopœias
+     of the United States and Great Britain. By ALFRED STILLÉ, M.D., and
+     JOHN M. MAISCH, Ph. D. 1628 pp., with 201 Engravings, royal 8vo,
+     34s. [1879]
+
+  THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO MATERIA MEDICA,
+     by JOHN C. THOROWGOOD, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Physician to the City
+     of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest. Fcap 8vo, with
+     Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1874]
+
+  MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS:
+     (Vegetable Kingdom), by CHARLES D. F. PHILLIPS, M.D., F.R.C.S.E.
+     8vo, 15s. [1874]
+
+  DENTAL MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS,
+     Elements of, by JAMES STOCKEN, L.D.S.R.C.S., Lecturer on Dental
+     Materia Medica and Therapeutics to the National Dental Hospital.
+     Second Edition, Fcap 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  THE DISEASES OF CHILDREN:
+     A Practical Manual, with a Formulary, by EDWARD ELLIS, M.D., late
+     Senior Physician to the Victoria Hospital for Children. Third
+     Edition, crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  THE WASTING DISEASES OF CHILDREN,
+     by EUSTACE SMITH, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Physician to the King of
+     the Belgians, Physician to the East London Hospital for Children.
+     Third Edition, post 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1878]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  CLINICAL STUDIES OF DISEASE IN CHILDREN.
+     Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  INFANT FEEDING AND ITS INFLUENCE ON LIFE;
+     or, the Causes and Prevention of Infant Mortality, by CHARLES
+     H. F. ROUTH, M.D., Senior Physician to the Samaritan Hospital for
+     Women and Children. Third Edition, fcap 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  COMPENDIUM OF CHILDREN’S DISEASES:
+     A Handbook for Practitioners and Students, by JOHANN STEINER,
+     M.D., Professor in the University of Prague. Translated from the
+     Second German Edition by LAWSON TAIT, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the
+     Birmingham Hospital for Women. 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1874]
+
+  THE DISEASES OF CHILDREN:
+     Essays by WILLIAM HENRY DAY, M.D., Physician to the Samaritan
+     Hospital for Diseases of Women and Children. Second Edition, fcap
+     8vo. [In the Press]
+
+  PUERPERAL DISEASES:
+     Clinical Lectures by FORDYCE BARKER, M.D., Obstetric Physician
+     to Bellevue Hospital, New York. 8vo, 15s. [1874]
+
+  THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF MIDWIFERY,
+     by D. LLOYD ROBERTS, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to St. Mary’s
+     Hospital, Manchester. Second Edition, fcap. 8vo, with 111
+     Engravings. 7s. [1879]
+
+  OBSTETRIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY:
+     Their Principles and Practice, by F. H. RAMSBOTHAM, M.D., F.R.C.P.
+     Fifth Edition, 8vo, with 120 Plates, 22s. [1867]
+
+  OBSTETRIC SURGERY:
+     A Complete Handbook, giving Short Rules of Practice in every
+     Emergency, from the Simplest to the most Formidable Operations
+     connected with the Science of Obstetricy, by CHARLES CLAY,
+     Ext.L.R.C.P. Lond., L.R.C.S.E., late Senior Surgeon and Lecturer
+     on Midwifery, St. Mary’s Hospital, Manchester. Fcap 8vo, with 91
+     Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1874]
+
+  SCHROEDER’S MANUAL OF MIDWIFERY,
+     including the Pathology of Pregnancy and the Puerperal State.
+     Translated by CHARLES H. CARTER, B.A., M.D. 8vo, with Engravings,
+     12s. 6d. [1873]
+
+  A HANDBOOK OF UTERINE THERAPEUTICS,
+     and of Diseases of Women, by E. J. TILT, M.D., M.R.C.P. Fourth
+     Edition, post 8vo, 10s. [1878]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  THE CHANGE OF LIFE
+     in Health and Disease: a Practical Treatise on the Nervous and
+     other Affections incidental to Women at the Decline of Life. Third
+     Edition, 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1870]
+
+  OBSTETRIC OPERATIONS,
+     including the Treatment of Hæmorrhage, and forming a Guide to the
+     Management of Difficult Labour; Lectures by ROBERT BARNES, M.D.,
+     F.R.C.P., Obstetric Physician and Lecturer on Obstetrics and the
+     Diseases of Women and Children at St. George’s Hospital. Third
+     Edition, 8vo, with 124 Engravings, 18s. [1875]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  MEDICAL AND SURGICAL DISEASES OF WOMEN:
+     a Clinical History. Second Edition, 8vo, with 181 Engravings,
+     28s. [1878]
+
+  THE DISEASES OF WOMEN.
+     By CHARLES WEST, M.D., F.R.C.P. Revised and in part Re-written
+     by the Author, with numerous Additions by J. MATTHEWS DUNCAN, M.D.,
+     Obstetric Physician to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Fourth Edition,
+     8vo, 16s. [1879]
+
+  OBSTETRIC APHORISMS:
+     for the Use of Students commencing Midwifery Practice by J. G.
+     SWAYNE, M.D., Consulting Physician-Accoucheur to the Bristol
+     General Hospital, and Lecturer on Obstetric Medicine at the Bristol
+     Medical School. Sixth Edition, fcap 8vo, with Engravings, 3s. 6d.
+     [1876]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE OVARIES:
+     their Diagnosis and Treatment, by T. SPENCER WELLS, F.R.C.S.,
+     Surgeon to the Queen’s Household and to the Samaritan Hospital.
+     8vo, with about 150 Engravings, 21s. [1872]
+
+  PRACTICAL GYNÆCOLOGY:
+     A Handbook of the Diseases of Women, by HEYWOOD SMITH, M.D. Oxon.,
+     Physician to the Hospital for Women and to the British Lying-in
+     Hospital. With Engravings, crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF GYNÆCOLOGY.
+     By THOMAS ADDIS EMMET, M.D., Surgeon to the Woman’s Hospital of
+     the State of New York. With 130 Engravings, 8vo, 24s. [1879]
+
+  RUPTURE OF THE FEMALE PERINEUM,
+     Its treatment, immediate and remote, by GEORGE G. BANTOCK, M.D.,
+     Surgeon (for In-patients) to the Samaritan Free Hospital for
+     Women and Children. With 2 plates, 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1875]
+
+  PAPERS ON THE FEMALE PERINEUM, &c.,
+     by JAMES MATTHEWS DUNCAN, M.D., Obstetric Physician to St.
+     Bartholomew’s Hospital. 8vo, 6s. [1878]
+
+  INFLUENCE OF POSTURE ON WOMEN
+     In Gynecic and Obstetric Practice, by J. H. AVELING, M.D.,
+     Physician to the Chelsea Hospital for Women, Vice-President of
+     the Obstetrical Society of London. 8vo, 6s. [1878]
+
+  THE NURSE’S COMPANION:
+     A Manual of General and Monthly Nursing, by CHARLES J.
+     CULLINGWORTH, Surgeon to St. Mary’s Hospital, Manchester. Fcap.
+     8vo, 2s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  A MANUAL FOR HOSPITAL NURSES
+     and others engaged in Attending on the Sick by EDWARD J. DOMVILLE,
+     L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Exeter Lying-in Charity. Third
+     Edition, crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  LECTURES ON NURSING,
+     by WILLIAM ROBERT SMITH, M.B., Honorary Medical Officer, Hospital
+     for Sick Children, Sheffield. Second Edition, with 26 Engravings.
+     Post 8vo, 6s. [1878]
+
+  HANDBOOK FOR NURSES FOR THE SICK,
+     by ZEPHERINA P. VEITCH. Second Edition, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  A COMPENDIUM OF DOMESTIC MEDICINE
+     and Companion to the Medicine Chest; intended as a Source of Easy
+     Reference for Clergymen, and for Families residing at a Distance
+     from Professional Assistance, by JOHN SAVORY, M.S.A. Ninth Edition,
+     12mo, 5s. [1878]
+
+  HOSPITAL MORTALITY
+     being a Statistical Investigation of the Returns of the Hospitals
+     of Great Britain and Ireland for fifteen years, by LAWSON TAIT,
+     F.R.C.S., F.S.S. 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  THE COTTAGE HOSPITAL:
+     Its Origin, Progress, Management, and Work, by HENRY C. BURDETT,
+     the Seaman’s Hospital, Greenwich. With Engravings, crown 8vo,
+     7s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  WINTER COUGH:
+     (Catarrh, Bronchitis, Emphysema, Asthma), Lectures by HORACE
+     DOBELL, M.D., Consulting Physician to the Royal Hospital for
+     Diseases of the Chest. Third Edition, with Coloured Plates, 8vo,
+     10s. 6d. [1875]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  LOSS OF WEIGHT, BLOOD-SPITTING, AND LUNG DISEASE.
+     With Chromo-lithograph, 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  CONSUMPTION:
+     Its Nature, Symptoms, Causes, Prevention, Curability, and
+     Treatment. By PETER GOWAN, M.D., B. Sc., late Physician and
+     Surgeon in Ordinary to the King of Siam. Crown 8vo. 5s. [1878]
+
+  NOTES ON ASTHMA;
+     its Forms and Treatment, by JOHN C. THOROWGOOD, M.D. Lond.,
+     F.R.C.P., Physician to the Hospital for Diseases of the Chest,
+     Victoria Park. Third Edition, crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  ASTHMA
+     Its Pathology and Treatment, by J. B. BERKART, M.D., Assistant
+     Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest.
+     8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE HEART:
+     Their Pathology, Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment (a Manual),
+     by ROBERT H. SEMPLE, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the Hospital for
+     Diseases of the Throat. 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1875]
+
+  PROGNOSIS IN CASES OF VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE
+     Heart, by THOMAS B. PEACOCK, M.D., F.R.C.P., Honorary Consulting
+     Physician to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  CHRONIC DISEASE OF THE HEART:
+     Its Bearings upon Pregnancy, Parturition and Childbed. By ANGUS
+     MACDONALD, M.D., F.R.S.E., Physician to, and Clinical Lecturer on
+     the Diseases of Women at, the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. With
+     Engravings, 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  PHTHISIS:
+     In a series of Clinical Studies, by AUSTIN FLINT, M.D., Professor
+     of the Principles and Practice of Medicine and of Clinical Medicine
+     in the Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 8vo, 16s. [1875]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  A MANUAL OF PERCUSSION AND AUSCULTATION,
+     of the Physical Diagnosis of Diseases of the Lungs and Heart,
+     and of Thoracic Aneurism. Post 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  DIPHTHERIA:
+     its Nature and Treatment, Varieties, and Local Expressions, by
+     MORELL MACKENZIE, M.D., Physician to the Hospital for Diseases of
+     the Throat. Crown 8vo, 5s. [1878]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE HEART AND AORTA,
+     By THOMAS HAYDEN, F.K.Q.C.P. Irel., Physician to the Mater
+     Misericordiæ Hospital, Dublin. With 80 Engravings. 8vo, 25s. [1875]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE HEART
+     and of the Lungs in Connexion therewith--Notes and Observations by
+     THOMAS SHAPTER, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Senior Physician to the Devon
+     and Exeter Hospital. 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1874]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE HEART AND AORTA:
+     Clinical Lectures by GEORGE W. BALFOUR, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician
+     to, and Lecturer on Clinical Medicine in, the Royal Infirmary,
+     Edinburgh. 8vo, with Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES OF THE HEART.
+     Lectures by ARTHUR E. SANSOM, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant Physician
+     to the London Hospital. Second Edition, with Engravings, fcap.
+     8vo, 4s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  TRACHEOTOMY,
+     especially in Relation to Diseases of the Larynx and Trachea,
+     by PUGIN THORNTON, M.R.C.S., late Surgeon to the Hospital for
+     Diseases of the Throat. With Photographic Plates and Woodcuts, 8vo,
+     5s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  SORE THROAT:
+     Its Nature, Varieties, and Treatment, including the Connexion
+     between Affections of the Throat and other Diseases. By PROSSER
+     JAMES, M.D., Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics at the
+     London Hospital, Physician to the Hospital for Diseases of the
+     Throat. Third Edition, with Coloured Plates, 5s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  SYPHILIS OF THE LARYNX
+     (Lesions of the Secondary and Intermediate Stages). Lectures
+     delivered at the Hospital for Diseases of the Throat and Chest,
+     London, by W. MACNEILL WHISTLER, M.D., M.R.C.P., Physician to the
+     Hospital; Honorary Physician to the National Training School for
+     Music. With Engravings, crown 8vo, 4s. [1879]
+
+  WINTER AND SPRING
+     on the Shores of the Mediterranean. By HENRY BENNET, M.D. Fifth
+     Edition, post 8vo, with numerous Plates, Maps, and Engravings,
+     12s. 6d. [1874]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION
+     by Hygiene, Climate, and Medicine. Third Edition, 8vo, 7s. 6d.
+     [1878]
+
+  PRINCIPAL HEALTH RESORTS
+     of Europe and Africa, and their Use in the Treatment of Chronic
+     Diseases. A Handbook by THOMAS MORE MADDEN, M.D., M.R.I.A.,
+     Vice-President of the Dublin Obstetrical Society. 8vo, 10s. [1876]
+
+  THE BATH THERMAL WATERS:
+     Historical, Social, and Medical, by JOHN KENT SPENDER, M.D.,
+     Surgeon to the Mineral Water Hospital, Bath. With an Appendix on
+     the Climate of Bath by the Rev. L. BLOMEFIELD, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
+     8vo, 7s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  ENDEMIC DISEASES OF TROPICAL CLIMATES,
+     with their Treatment, by JOHN SULLIVAN, M.D., M.R.C.P. Post
+     8vo, 6s. [1877]
+
+  DISEASES OF TROPICAL CLIMATES
+     and their Treatment: with Hints for the Preservation of Health
+     in the Tropics, by JAMES A. HORTON, M.D., Surgeon-Major, Army
+     Medical Department. Second Edition, post 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1879]
+
+  HEALTH IN INDIA FOR BRITISH WOMEN
+     and on the Prevention of Disease in Tropical Climates by EDWARD
+     J. TILT, M.D., Consulting Physician-Accoucheur to the Farringdon
+     General Dispensary. Fourth Edition, crown 8vo, 5s. [1875]
+
+  BURDWAN FEVER,
+     or the Epidemic Fever of Lower Bengal (Causes, Symptoms, and
+     Treatment), by GOPAUL CHUNDER ROY, M.D., Surgeon Bengal
+     Establishment. New Edition, 8vo, 5s. [1876]
+
+  BAZAAR MEDICINES OF INDIA
+     and Common Medical Plants: Remarks on their Uses, with Full
+     Index of Diseases, indicating their Treatment by these and other
+     Agents procurable throughout India, &c., by EDWARD J. WARING, M.D.,
+     F.R.C.P. Lond., Retired Surgeon H.M. Indian Army. Third Edition.
+     Fcap 8vo, 5s. [1875]
+
+  SOME AFFECTIONS OF THE LIVER
+     and Intestinal Canal; with Remarks on Ague and its Sequelæ,
+     Scurvy, Purpura, &c., by STEPHEN H. WARD, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P.,
+     Physician to the Seamen’s Hospital, Greenwich. 8vo, 7s. [1872]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE LIVER:
+     Lettsomian Lectures for 1872 by S. O. HABERSHON, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+     Senior Physician to Guy’s Hospital. Post 8vo, 3s, 6d. [1872]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  DISEASES OF THE STOMACH: DYSPEPSIA.
+     Third Edition, crown 8vo, 5s. [1878]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  PATHOLOGY OF THE PNEUMOGASTRIC NERVE,
+     being the Lumleian Lectures fur 1876. Post 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1877]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  DISEASES OF THE ABDOMEN,
+     comprising those of the Stomach and other parts of the
+     Alimentary Canal, Œsophagus, Cæcum, Intestines, and Peritoneum.
+     Third Edition, with 5 Plates, 8vo, 21s. [1878]
+
+  FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISORDERS:
+     Studies by C. HANDFIELD JONES, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Physician
+     to St. Mary’s Hospital. Second Edition. 8vo, 18s. [1870]
+
+  LECTURES ON DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM,
+     by SAMUEL WILKS, M.D., F.R.S., Physician to, and Lecturer on
+     Medicine at, Guy’s Hospital. 8vo, 15s. [1878]
+
+  NERVOUS DISEASES:
+     their Description and Treatment, by ALLEN MCLANE HAMILTON, M.D.,
+     Physician at the Epileptic and Paralytic Hospital. Blackwell’s
+     Island, New York City. Roy. 8vo. with 53 Illustrations, 14s.
+     [1878]
+
+  NUTRITION IN HEALTH AND DISEASE:
+      A Contribution to Hygiene and to Clinical Medicine. By HENRY
+      BENNET, M.D. Third (Library) Edition. 8vo, 7s. Cheap Edition,
+      Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  FOOD AND DIETETICS.
+     Physiologically and Therapeutically Considered. By FREDERICK W.
+     PAVY, M.D., F.R.S., Physician to Guy’s Hospital. Second Edition,
+     8vo, 15s. [1876]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  CERTAIN POINTS CONNECTED WITH DIABETES
+     (Croonian Lectures). 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  HEADACHES:
+     their Causes, Nature, and Treatment. By WILLIAM H. DAY, M.D.,
+     Physician to the Samaritan Free Hospital for Women and Children.
+     Second Edition, crown 8vo, with Engravings. 6s. 6d. [1878]
+
+  IMPERFECT DIGESTION:
+     its Causes and Treatment by ARTHUR LEARED, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+     Senior Physician to the Great Northern Hospital. Sixth Edition,
+     fcap 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1875]
+
+  MEGRIM, SICK-HEADACHE,
+     and some Allied Disorders: a Contribution to the Pathology of
+     Nerve-Storms, by EDWARD LIVEING, M.D. Cantab., F.R.C.P., Hon.
+     Fellow of King’s College, London. 8vo, with Coloured Plate, 15s.
+     [1873]
+
+  NEURALGIA AND KINDRED DISEASES
+     of the Nervous System: their Nature, Causes, and Treatment, with a
+     series of Cases, by JOHN CHAPMAN, M.D., M.R.C.P. 8vo, 14s. [1873]
+
+  THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM OF NERVES:
+     their Physiology and Pathology, by A. EULENBURG, Professor of
+     Medicine, University of Greifswald, and Dr. P. GUTTMANN, Priva
+     Docen in Medicine, University of Berlin. Translated by A. NAPIER,
+     M.D., F.F.P.S. 8vo, 5s. [1879]
+
+  RHEUMATIC GOUT,
+     or Chronic Rheumatic Arthritis of all the Joints; a Treatise by
+     ROBERT ADAMS, M.D., M.R.I.A., late Surgeon to H.M. the Queen in
+     Ireland, and Regius Professor of Surgery in the University of
+     Dublin. Second Edition, 8vo, with Atlas of Plates, 21s. [1872]
+
+  GOUT, RHEUMATISM,
+     and the Allied Affections; with a chapter on Longevity and the
+     Causes Antagonistic to it, by PETER HOOD, M.D. Second Edition,
+     crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1879]
+
+  RHEUMATISM:
+     Notes by JULIUS POLLOCK, M.D., F.R.C.P., Senior Physician to, and
+     Lecturer on Medicine at, Charing Cross Hospital. Second Edition,
+     with Engravings, fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1879]
+
+  CERTAIN FORMS OF CANCER,
+     with a New and successful Mode of Treating it, to which is prefixed
+     a Practical and Systematic Description of all the varieties of this
+     Disease, by ALEX. MARSDEN, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Consulting Surgeon to
+     the Royal Free Hospital, and Senior Surgeon to the Cancer Hospital.
+     Second Edition, with Coloured Plates, 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1873]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE SKIN:
+     a System of Cutaneous Medicine by ERASMUS WILSON, F.R.C.S., F.R.S.
+     Sixth Edition, 8vo, 18s., with Coloured Plates, 36s. [1867]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  LECTURES ON EKZEMA
+     and Ekzematous Affections: with an Introduction on the General
+     Pathology of the Skin, and an Appendix of Essays and Cases. 8vo,
+     10s. 6d. [1870]
+
+                                 ALSO,
+
+  LECTURES ON DERMATOLOGY:
+     delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons, 1870, 6s.; 1871-3,
+     10s. 6d., 1874-5, 10s. 6d.; 1876-8, 10s. 6d.
+
+  ECZEMA:
+     by MCCALL ANDERSON, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in the
+     University of Glasgow. Third Edition, 8vo, with Engravings, 7s. 6d.
+     [1874]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  PARASITIC AFFECTIONS OF THE SKIN
+     Second Edition, 8vo, with Engravings, 7s. 6d. [1868]
+
+  ATLAS OF SKIN DISEASES:
+     a series of Illustrations, with Descriptive Text and Notes upon
+     Treatment. By TILBURY FOX, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the
+     Department for Skin Diseases in University College Hospital. With
+     72 Coloured Plates, royal 4to, half morocco, £6 6s. [1877]
+
+  PSORIASIS OR LEPRA,
+     by GEORGE GASKOIN, M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the British Hospital
+     for Diseases of the Skin. 8vo, 5s. [1875]
+
+  MYCETOMA;
+     or, the Fungus Disease of India, by H. VANDYKE CARTER, M.D.,
+     Surgeon-Major H.M. Indian Army. 4to, with 11 Coloured Plates, 42s.
+     [1874]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE SKIN,
+     in Twenty-four Letters on the Principles and Practice of Cutaneous
+     Medicine, by HENRY EVANS CAUTY, M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Liverpool
+     Dispensary for Diseases of the Skin, 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1874]
+
+  THE HAIR IN HEALTH AND DISEASE,
+     by E. WYNDHAM COTTLE, F.R.C.S., Senior Assistant Surgeon to the
+     Hospital for Diseases of the Skin, Blackfriars. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d.
+     [1877]
+
+  THE LAWS AFFECTING MEDICAL MEN:
+     a Manual by ROBERT G. GLENN, LL.B., Barrister-at-Law; with a
+     Chapter on Medical Etiquette by Dr. A. CARPENTER. 8vo, 14s. [1871]
+
+  MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE.
+     Its Principles and Practice, by ALFRED S. TAYLOR, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+     F.R.S. Second Edition, 2 vols., 8vo, with 189 Engravings,
+     £1 11s. 6d. [1873]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  A MANUAL OF MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE.
+     Tenth Edition. Crown 8vo, with Engravings, 14s. [1879]
+
+                                 ALSO,
+
+  POISONS,
+     in Relation to Medical Jurisprudence and Medicine. Third Edition,
+     crown 8vo, with 104 Engravings, 16s. [1875]
+
+  MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE:
+     Lectures by FRANCIS OGSTON, M.D., Professor of Medical
+     Jurisprudence and Medical Logic in the University of Aberdeen.
+     Edited by FRANCIS OGSTON, Jun., M.D., Assistant to the Professor of
+     Medical Jurisprudence and Lecturer on Practical Toxicology in the
+     University of Aberdeen. 8vo, with 12 Copper Plates, 18s. [1878]
+
+  A TOXICOLOGICAL CHART,
+     exhibiting at one View the Symptoms, Treatment, and mode of
+     Detecting the various Poisons--Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal: with
+     Concise Directions for the Treatment of Suspended Animation, by
+     WILLIAM STOWE, M.R.C.S.E. Thirteenth Edition, 2s.; on roller, 5s.
+     [1872]
+
+  A HANDY-BOOK OF FORENSIC MEDICINE AND TOXICOLOGY,
+     by W. BATHURST WOODMAN, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant Physician and
+     Co-Lecturer on Physiology and Histology at the London Hospital;
+     and C. MEYMOTT TIDY, M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry and of
+     Medical Jurisprudence and Public Health at the London Hospital.
+     With 8 Lithographic Plates and 116 Engravings, 8vo, 31s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  THE MEDICAL ADVISER IN LIFE ASSURANCE,
+     by EDWARD HENRY SIEVEKING, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to St. Mary’s
+     and the Lock Hospitals; Physician-Extraordinary to the Queen;
+     Physician-in-Ordinary to the Prince of Wales, &c. Crown 8vo, 6s.
+     [1874]
+
+  IDIOCY AND IMBECILITY,
+     by WILLIAM W. IRELAND, M.D., Medical Superintendent of the
+     Scottish National Institution for the Education of Imbecile
+     Children at Larbert, Stirlingshire. With Engravings, 8vo, 14s.
+     [1877]
+
+  MADNESS:
+     in its Medical, Legal, and Social Aspects, Lectures by EDGAR
+     SHEPPARD, M.D., M.R.C.P., Professor of Psychological Medicine in
+     King’s College; one of the Medical Superintendents of the Colney
+     Hatch Lunatic Asylum. 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1873]
+
+  INFLUENCE OF THE MIND UPON THE BODY
+     in Health and Disease, Illustrations designed to elucidate the
+     Action of the Imagination, by DANIEL HACK TUKE, M.D., F.R.C.P. 8vo,
+     14s. [1872]
+
+  A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL HYGIENE,
+     by E. A. PARKES, M.D., F.R.S. Fifth Edition, by F. DE CHAUMONT,
+     M.D., Professor of Military Hygiene in the Army Medical School.
+     8vo, with 9 Plates and 112 Engravings, 18s. [1878]
+
+  A HANDBOOK OF HYGIENE AND SANITARY SCIENCE,
+     by GEORGE WILSON, M.A., M.D., Medical Officer of Health for
+     Mid-Warwickshire. Third Edition, post 8vo, with Engravings, 10s.
+     6d. [1877]
+
+  SANITARY EXAMINATIONS
+     of Water, Air, and Food. A Vade Mecum for the Medical Officer
+     of Health, by CORNELIUS B. FOX, M.D., Medical Officer of Health of
+     East, Central, and South Essex. With 94 Engravings, crown 8vo, 12s.
+     6d. [1878]
+
+  DANGERS TO HEALTH:
+     A Pictorial Guide to Domestic Sanitary Defects, by T. PRIDGIN
+     TEALE, M.A., Surgeon to the Leeds General Infirmary. With 55
+     Lithographs, 8vo, 10s. [1878]
+
+  MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF DRINKING WATER:
+     A Guide, by JOHN D. MACDONALD, M.D., F.R.S., Assistant
+     Professor of Naval Hygiene, Army Medical School. 8vo, with 24
+     Plates, 7s. 6d. [1875]
+
+  HANDBOOK OF MEDICAL AND SURGICAL ELECTRICITY,
+     by HERBERT TIBBITS, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Senior Physician to the
+     West London Hospital for Paralysis and Epilepsy. Second Edition,
+     8vo, with 95 Engravings, 9s. [1877]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  A MAP OF ZIEMSSEN’S MOTOR POINTS OF THE HUMAN BODY:
+     a Guide to Localised Electrisation. Mounted on Rollers, 35 ×
+     21. With 20 Illustrations, 5s. [1877]
+
+  CLINICAL USES OF ELECTRICITY;
+     Lectures delivered at University College Hospital by J. RUSSELL
+     REYNOLDS, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine
+     in University College. Second Edition, post 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1875]
+
+  MEDICO-ELECTRIC APPARATUS;
+     A Practical Description of every Form in Modern Use, with Plain
+     Directions for Mounting, Charging, and Working, by SALT & SON,
+     Birmingham. Second Edition, revised and enlarged, with 33
+     Engravings, 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1877]
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE;
+     containing a concise explanation of the various subjects and terms
+     of Medicine, &c.; Notices of Climate and Mineral Waters; Formulæ
+     for Officinal, Empirical, and Dietetic Preparations; with the
+     Accentuation and Etymology of the terms and the French and other
+     Synonyms, by ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D., LL.D. New Edition, royal
+     8vo, 28s. [1874]
+
+  A MEDICAL VOCABULARY;
+     being an Explanation of all Terms and Phrases used in the various
+     Departments of Medical Science and Practice, giving their
+     derivation, meaning, application, and pronunciation, by ROBERT G.
+     MAYNE, M.D., LL.D. Fourth Edition, fcap 8vo, 10s. [1876]
+
+  ATLAS OF OPHTHALMOSCOPY,
+     by R. LIEBREICH, Ophthalmic Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital.
+     Translated into English by H. ROSBOROUGH SWANEY, M.B. Dub. Second
+     Edition, containing 59 Figures, 4to, £1 10s. [1870]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE EYE:
+     a Manual by C. MACNAMARA, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Westminster
+     Hospital. Third Edition, fcap. 8vo, with Coloured Plates and
+     Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE EYE:
+     A Practical Treatise by HAYNES WALTON, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to
+     St. Mary’s Hospital and in charge of its Ophthalmological
+     Department. Third Edition, 8vo, with 3 Plates and nearly 300
+     Engravings, 25s. [1875]
+
+  HINTS ON OPHTHALMIC OUT-PATIENT PRACTICE,
+     by CHARLES HIGGENS, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Assistant Surgeon to,
+     and Lecturer on Ophthalmology at, Guy’s Hospital. Second Edition,
+     fcap. 8vo, 3s. [1879]
+
+  OPHTHALMIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY:
+     a Manual by T. WHARTON JONES, F.R.C.S., F.R.S., Professor of
+     Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery in University College. Third
+     Edition, fcap. 8vo, with 9 Coloured Plates and 173 Engravings,
+     12s. 6d. [1865]
+
+  DISEASES OF THE EYE:
+     A Treatise by J. SOELBERG WELLS, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Surgeon
+     to King’s College Hospital and Surgeon to the Royal London
+     Ophthalmic Hospital. Third Edition, 8vo, with Coloured Plates and
+     Engravings, 25s. [1873]
+
+                          BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+  LONG, SHORT, AND WEAK SIGHT,
+     and their Treatment by the Scientific use of Spectacles.
+     Fourth Edition, 8vo, 6s. [1873]
+
+  A SYSTEM OF DENTAL SURGERY,
+     by JOHN TOMES, F.R.S., and CHARLES S. TOMES, M.A., F.R.S.,
+     Lecturer on Dental Anatomy and Physiology at the Dental Hospital of
+     London. Second Edition, fcap 8vo, with 268 Engravings, 14s. [1873]
+
+  DENTAL ANATOMY, HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE:
+     A Manual, by CHARLES S. TOMES, M.A., F.R.S., Lecturer on Dental
+     Anatomy and Physiology at the Dental Hospital of London.
+     With 179 Engravings, crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  A MANUAL OF DENTAL MECHANICS,
+     with an Account of the Materials and Appliances used in Mechanical
+     Dentistry, by OAKLEY COLES, L.D.S., R.C.S., Surgeon-Dentist to the
+     Hospital for Diseases of the Throat. Second Edition, crown 8vo,
+     with 140 Engravings, 7s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  HANDBOOK OF DENTAL ANATOMY
+     and Surgery for the use of Students and Practitioners by JOHN
+     SMITH, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., Surgeon-Dentist to the Queen in
+     Scotland. Second Edition, fcap 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1871]
+
+  STUDENT’S GUIDE TO DENTAL ANATOMY AND SURGERY,
+     by HENRY SEWILL, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., late Dentist to the West
+     London Hospital. With 77 Engravings, fcap. 8vo, 5s. 6d. [1876]
+
+  OPERATIVE DENTISTRY:
+     A Practical Treatise, by JONATHAN TAFT, D.D.S., Professor of
+     Operative Dentistry in the Ohio College of Dental Surgery. Third
+     Edition, thoroughly revised, with many additions, and 134
+     Engravings, 8vo, 18s. [1877]
+
+  DENTAL CARIES
+     and its Causes: an Investigation into the influence of Fungi
+     in the Destruction of the Teeth, by Drs. LEBER and ROTTENSTEIN.
+     Translated by H. CHANDLER, D.M.D., Professor in the Dental School
+     of Harvard University. With Illustrations, royal 8vo, 5s. [1878]
+
+  EPIDEMIOLOGY;
+     or, the Remote Cause of Epidemic Diseases in the Animal and in
+     the Vegetable Creation, by JOHN PARKIN, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. Part I,
+     Contagion--Modern Theories--Cholera--Epizootica. 8vo, 5s. [1878]
+
+
+The following Catalogues issued by Messrs Churchill will be forwarded
+post free on application:
+
+1. _Messrs Churchill’s General List of nearly 600 works on Medicine,
+Surgery, Midwifery, Materia Medica, Hygiene, Anatomy, Physiology,
+Chemistry, &c., &c., with a complete Index to their Titles, for easy
+reference._ N.B.--_This List includes Nos. 2 and 3._
+
+2. _Selection from Messrs Churchill’s General List, comprising all
+recent Works published by them on the Art and Science of Medicine._
+
+3. _A selected and descriptive List of Messrs Churchill’s Works on
+Chemistry, Materia Medico, Pharmacy, Botany, Photography, Zoology, the
+Microscope, and other branches of Science._
+
+4. _The Medical Intelligencer, an Annual List of New Works and
+New Editions published by Messrs J. & A. Churchill, together with
+Particulars of the Periodicals issued from their House._
+
+     [Sent in January of each year to every Medical Practitioner
+     in the United Kingdom whose name and address can be ascertained.
+     A large number are also sent to the United States of America,
+     Continental Europe, India, and the Colonies.]
+
+
+Messrs CHURCHILL have a special arrangement with Messrs LINDSAY &
+BLAKISTON, of Philadelphia, in accordance with which that Firm act
+as their Agents for the United States of America, either keeping in
+Stock most of Messrs CHURCHILL’S Books, or reprinting them on Terms
+advantageous to Authors. Many of the Works in this Catalogue may
+therefore be easily obtained in America.
+
+              PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
+
+
+
+
+List of transcriber's corrections and some inconsistencies noted.
+
+Corrections:
+
+  Acaris mystax-->Ascaris mystax
+  adminstration-->administration
+  althougth-->although
+  Anthomyia canicularis-->Anthomyia canalicularis
+  Arynchotænia-->Arhynchotænia
+  Arynchotæniada-->Arhynchotæniada
+  Biblliography-->Bibliography
+  Bilb.-->Bibl.
+  Bothrocephali-->Bothriocephali
+  C. simplicornis-->C. simplicicornis
+  Cænurus-->Cœnurus
+  Capercaille-->Capercaillie
+  chrisoptera-->chrysoptera
+  Conorhinus nigrovarious-->Conorhinus nigrovarius
+  consquently-->consequently
+  D[istoma]. megostomum-->D. megastomum
+  diplayed--> displayed
+  disloged-->dislodged
+  Dr.-->Dr
+  echinoccocus-->echinococcus
+  epizöoty-->epizoöty
+  favour-->favor
+  favoured-->favored
+  Gastereosteus-->Gasterosteus
+  Gymnorynchus-->Gymnorhynchus
+  Haus-Saügethiere-->Haus-Säugethiere
+  i. e.-->i.e.
+  Incidently-->Incidentally
+  Involdsorme-->Indvoldsorme
+  Lernæadæ-->Lernæidæ
+  Mallacobdellidæ-->Malacobdellidæ
+  Managerie-->Menagerie
+  mesentric-->mesenteric
+  Parasites of Wales-->Parasites of Whales
+  phemonenon-->phenomenon
+  reavealed-->revealed
+  reseaches-->researches
+  Scarcoptes-->Sarcoptes
+  Schleisner's-->Schleissner's
+  acuticudatus-->acuticaudatus
+  Structually-->Structurally
+  the the-->the
+  themelves-->themselves
+  they becomes-->they become
+  Thierarztliche-->Thierärztliche
+  Thierhielk-->Thierheilk
+  tres-->très
+  Tricocephalus-->Trichocephalus
+  Vieteljahrschr-->Vierteljahrschr
+  where-->were
+
+Common inconsistencies:
+
+a) spelling variations
+
+  approximate(ly)/approximative(ly)
+  Blaptidæ/Blapsidæ
+  color/colour (ed, ing)
+  Cotylogaster cochleariforme/Cotylegaster cochleariform
+  Didelphis/Didelphus/Didelphys
+  Distoma coronarium/Distoma coronatum
+  Entwickelungsgeschichte/Entwicklungsgeschichte
+  Fürstenberg/Furstenberg/Furstenburg/Fürstenburg
+  harbor/harbour (ed, ing, s)
+  Idolocoris/Idocoloris
+  imbedded/embedded
+  labor/labour (er, ing, s)
+  learnt/learned
+  Leipsic/Leipsig/Leipzig
+  Linnæus/Linneus
+  Paramecium coli/Paramæcium coli
+  racoon/raccoon
+  Sp. chrisoptera/Sp. chrysoptera
+  yolk/yelk
+
+b) accents
+
+  Böllinger/Bollinger
+  Cestoïdes/Cestoides
+  Corré/Corre
+  Crévaux/Crevaux
+  développement/dévélopment
+  escrôto/escroto
+  Glüge/Gluge
+  Grübe/Grube
+  Hyperoödon/Hyperoodon
+  mètre/mêtre – latter occurs in a quotation – ?accuracy
+  Sömmer/Sommer
+
+c) hyphenation
+
+  bladderworms/bladder-worms
+  widespread/wide-spread
+  post mortem/post-mortem
+
+d) possessive apostrophe
+
+  Charteris'/Ellis's
+  Peters'/Chambers's
+
+e) abbreviations
+
+  A. lumbricoides / Asc. lumbricoides
+  A. simplex / Asc. simplex
+  Bibl./Bibliog.
+
+f) capitalisation
+
+  van/Van
+  cercaria/Cercaria
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Parasites, by T. Spencer Cobbold
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PARASITES ***
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Parasites, by T. Spencer Cobbold
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Parasites
+       A Treatise on the Entozoa of Man and Animals, Including
+              Some Account of the Ectozoa
+
+Author: T. Spencer Cobbold
+
+Release Date: June 10, 2014 [EBook #45923]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PARASITES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Thiers Halliwell, TIA: American
+Libraries and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned
+images of public domain material from the Google Print
+project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="transnote"><p><b><a id="Transcribers_notes"></a>Transcriber’s notes</b>:</p>
+
+<p>In this transcription a black dotted underline indicates the presence
+of a hyperlink to a specific page or illustration; hyperlinks are also
+indicated by teal highlighting when the mouse pointer hovers over them.
+A red dashed underline indicates the presence of a transcriber&rsquo;s
+comment; hovering the mouse pointer over such underlined text will
+reveal the comment. Page numbers are shown in the right margin.</p>
+
+<p>The text contains numerous inconsistencies involving spelling,
+hyphenation, punctuation, and other aspects. Some of the spelling
+variations possibly represent authentic contemporary alternatives while
+others may be attributable to the variety of languages occurring in the
+book &ndash; English, Italian, German, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Dutch,
+French, Portuguese and possibly others.</p>
+
+<p>Spelling inconsistencies that are clearly typos have been corrected
+where appropriate but those representing alternative spellings have been
+left unchanged. A list of corrections and common inconsistencies is
+appended at the <a href="#List_of_corrections">end of the book</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Punctuation anomalies have been corrected silently (e.g. missing
+periods, commas and semicolons, incorrect or missing quotation marks,
+unpaired parentheses), particularly in the extensive bibliographic
+lists, in the index and in the Figure captions.</p>
+
+<p>There is significant inconsistency between the headings displayed
+in the Table of Contents (TOC) and those in the text, most noticeably
+in Book II where the last four entries in the TOC are appropriately
+identified as Sections II, III, IV, and V but the corresponding headings
+in the text are incorrectly named as Section II Part I, Part II,
+Part III and Part IV. TOC headings and text headings also vary in
+their specific wording and the presence or absence of parentheses and
+dashes.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent ways of expressing measurements are as in the original,
+for example, one fifth of an inch, 1/5th of an inch, 1/5 of an inch,
+1/5″ of an inch, 1/5″.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of many organisms are described using an archaic
+unit of length: the &lsquo;line&rsquo; which was equivalent to 1/12 of
+an inch. However, as the inch itself varied, both within and between
+countries, it was a non-standard measurement, e.g. in England one line
+was equivalent to 2.117&nbsp;mm but the French (Paris) ligne was equal
+to 2.256&nbsp;mm. The triple prime symbol ‴ was used to represent the
+unit and occasionally appears in this text (along with the more common
+′ and ″ symbols representing feet and inches). The ligne unit is still
+used by watchmakers.</p>
+
+<p>The closing pages of the book contain advertising material about
+other works from the same publisher. In some cases the date of
+publication could not be determined with certainty because of the
+inferior quality of the page scans.</p> </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<img src="images/i_title.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="Title page" />
+</div>
+
+<div id="title">
+<p class="fs160">PARASITES.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p class="fs240 ls01em">PARASITES;</p>
+
+<p class="fs60">A TREATISE ON THE</p>
+
+<p class="fs180">ENTOZOA OF MAN AND ANIMALS,</p>
+
+<p class="fs60">INCLUDING</p>
+
+<p class="fs100">SOME ACCOUNT OF THE ECTOZOA.<br /><br /><br /></p>
+</div>
+<p class="fs60 tac">BY</p>
+
+<p class="fs120 mb0em tac str">T. SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,</p>
+
+<p class="fs60 tac">HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE BIRMINGHAM NATURAL HISTORY<br />
+AND MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 67px;"><br /><br />
+<img src="images/ad_logo.jpg" width="67" height="91" alt="Logo" />
+<br /><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<p class="fs85 tac str">LONDON:<br />
+J. &amp; A. CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.<br />
+1879.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>My introductory treatise on the Entozoa having long been
+out of print, it occurred to me that instead of attempting
+another edition it would be better to write an entirely new
+work, employing only such fragmentary portions of the old
+treatise as would harmonise with the far wider design I have
+now in view. Whilst, therefore, I have freely utilised a
+selection of the illustrations given in the elementary volume,
+comparatively few of its pages have been incorporated in the
+present work.</p>
+
+<p>Dealing with parasites and parasitism after a manner not
+hitherto attempted I have purposely omitted minute anatomical
+descriptions, and, with rare exceptions, I have avoided the
+introduction of clinical details. While bringing to a focus the
+records of, and principal references to, a widely scattered, intricate,
+and voluminous literature, it has been my chief endeavour
+to supply abundance of original matter of a kind that cannot
+be found in the columns of any existing treatise. Whether I
+have succeeded or not the experienced helminthologist alone
+can judge. He, at all events, will perceive that the summary,
+though compressed within the space of a moderate-sized octavo,
+can only have resulted from sustained effort.</p>
+
+<p>This treatise is not professional, that is to say, it does
+not concern itself with therapeutics or the curative treatment
+of parasitic affections; yet it introduces and helps to solve<span class="pagenum" title="vi"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi"></a></span>
+many questions relating to epidemics, endemics, and epizoötics
+due to parasites. The medical man who only looks at the
+phenomena of parasitism as displayed within the human territory
+must of necessity acquire a cramped, narrow, and distorted
+conception of the rôle played by parasites in the production
+of disease. Let it be freely granted that to the practising
+physician, as such, it matters little how many beasts, birds,
+reptiles, or fishes perish annually from parasitic affections; yet,
+when it is demonstrable that a large proportion of the strictly
+human entozoa require a change of hosts&mdash;or, in other words,
+need to pass through the bodies of the lower animals&mdash;then it
+is evident that some acquaintance on his part with the entozoa
+infesting animals becomes a practical necessity. Knowledge of
+the kind here offered will often materially aid him in recommending
+prophylactic measures. Moreover, the study of
+comparative pathology, almost ignored in England, conveys
+with it other lessons of high value in relation to the healing
+art. The great mind of John Hunter comprehended all this
+long ago, as any student of the beautiful preparations contained
+in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons may readily
+convince himself; and this is all the more noteworthy, since the
+subject concerns the physician rather than the surgeon.</p>
+
+<p>To the naturalist the second half of this book addresses
+itself in a very direct manner. When engaged in his dissections,
+an appeal to its pages will often enable him to decide at
+once as to the species of parasite accidentally encountered, and if
+a full diagnosis be demanded it will guide him to better sources
+of information. Many hundreds of correspondents, not having
+ready access to the systematic writings of Rudolphi, Diesing,
+and Dujardin, have requested me to identify their “finds.” I
+have rarely or never failed to comply with their requests; but
+it is hoped that the present work may prove of ready service to
+subsequent inquirers, and thus place a reasonable limit upon the
+number of future applicants. Since the manuscript of this work
+was completed I have received Dr von Linstow’s <i>Compendium<span class="pagenum" title="vii"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a></span>
+der Helminthologie</i>, which, for the purposes held in view by the
+author, leaves little to be desired.</p>
+
+<p>Expressly to meet the requirements of the Sanitarian I
+have dwelt upon the developmental phenomena exhibited by
+those parasites that occasion fatal helminthiases; and, in this
+relation, I have not confined my remarks to the parasites that
+are injurious to man in a direct manner, but have extended my
+observations to the genesis of those entozoa that prove destructive
+to horses, to beasts of burden generally, and to other
+creatures which, like cats and dogs, are in various ways subservient
+to man’s wants. It will be seen that in this way
+several questions relating to the purity of water and flesh-food,
+respectively, have been incidentally brought under notice.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the magnitude of the task which my enthusiasm,
+perhaps unwarrantable, has led me to undertake, I know full
+well how considerately my foreign friends and correspondents
+will deal with the errors of omission and commission that they
+will certainly detect in these pages. If there be any educated
+persons at home who still affect to despise the revelations of
+helminthology, I can assure them that their prejudices are
+misplaced. The study of the structure and economy of a
+humble parasite brings to the investigator no slight insight
+into the workings of nature. If these workings cannot at all
+times be pronounced to be “good and beautiful,” they must at
+least be characterised as “true.” The knowledge of the true&mdash;especially
+if that knowledge by its practical applications be
+calculated to confer substantial benefits upon man and his
+inferior fellow-creatures&mdash;ought to be held in high esteem; but,
+apart from this purely utilitarian view, there remains for the
+investigator the delight occasioned by the in-rush of new scientific
+ideas. The average mind, being either essentially commercial
+or ridiculously sentimental, as the case may be, is totally incapable
+of comprehending the motive power that animates and
+guides the votary of science. The late Professor Faraday, a<span class="pagenum" title="viii"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a></span>
+man wholly untinged by the ambitions of wealth and power,
+once remarked to me that there were no people so difficult to
+instruct as those who were ignorant of their own ignorance.
+It is just these very persons who, when placed in high positions
+of social, political, or professional trust, most powerfully contribute
+to check a nation’s progress. There are too few
+genuine workers at science in this country. As one of the
+rank and file, I claim only to have honestly contributed my
+mite. I should like to see a small army of helminthologists
+rise up and lay siege to the fortresses at present securely held
+by thousands of death-dealing parasites.</p>
+
+<p class="inrt">T. S. C.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">74, <span class="smcap">Portsdown Road, London</span><br />
+<i>May, 1879</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2>SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table of contents">
+<col width="50" /><col width="10" /><col width="20" /><col width="20" /><col /><col width="20" />
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="tar">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5"><span class="smcap">General Introduction</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="tac ptb05">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="tac">BOOK I.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="tac">PARASITES OF MAN.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Section</span></td><td class="tar">I.</td><td colspan="3" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Trematoda (Flukes)</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac">"</td><td class="tar">II.</td><td colspan="3" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cestoda (Tapeworms)</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac">"</td><td class="tar">III.</td><td colspan="3" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nematoda (Roundworms and Threadworms)</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac">"</td><td class="tar">IV.</td><td colspan="4" class="tal">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2" class="tar"><span class="smcap">Part&nbsp;I.</span></td><td>&mdash;Acanthocephala (Thornheaded Worms)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">II.</td><td>&mdash;Suctoria (Leeches)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">III.</td><td>&mdash;Arachnida (Parasitic forms of)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">IV.</td><td>&mdash;Crustacea (alleged Parasitic forms of)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">V.</td><td>&mdash;Insecta (Parasitic forms of)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">VI.</td><td>&mdash;Protozoa (Parasitic forms of)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Appendix</span> (Statistics)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="tac ptb05">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="tac">BOOK II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="tac">PARASITES OF ANIMALS.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Section</span></td><td class="tar">I.</td><td colspan="4" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Parasites of Mammalia.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2" class="tar"><span class="smcap">Part&nbsp;I.</span></td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Quadrumana</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">II.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Cheiroptera</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">III.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Insectivora</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">IV.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Carnivora</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">V.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Pinnipedia</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">VI.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Rodentia</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">VII.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Edentata</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">VIII.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Ruminantia</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">IX.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Solidungula</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">X.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Pachydermata</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">XI.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Cetacea and Sirenia</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tar">&nbsp;"</td><td class="tar">XII.</td><td>&mdash;Parasites of Marsupialia and Monotremata</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_430">430</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac">"</td><td class="tar">II.</td><td colspan="3" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Parasites of Aves</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac">"</td><td class="tar">III.</td><td colspan="3" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Parasites of Reptilia</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac">"</td><td class="tar">IV.</td><td colspan="3" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Parasites of Pisces</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_457">457</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac">"</td><td class="tar">V.</td><td colspan="3" class="tal">&mdash;<span class="smcap">Parasites of Evertebrata</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_480">480</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" class="pb05"><span class="smcap">Appendix</span> (Hæmatozoa)</td><td class="tar pb05"><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_489">489</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2>LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES.</h2>
+
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+<col width="2%" /><col width="2%" /><col width="70%" /><col width="2%" />
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"></td><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal">No.</td><td class="tar">1.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">General and systematic treatises</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">2.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">Minor treatises, general memoirs, and monographs</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">3.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">Literature of <i>Fasciola hepatica</i> in man</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">4.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Distoma lanceolatum</i> in man</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">5.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp; <i>crassum</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">6.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp; <i>sinense</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">7.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp; <i>conjunctum</i> in man</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">8.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp; <i>heterophyes</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">9.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp; <i>ophthalmobium</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">10.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Tetrastoma</i> and <i>Hexathyridium</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">11.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Amphistoma hominis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">12.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">13.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> and the beef-measle</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">14.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;"&emsp;<i>solium</i> and the pork-measle</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">15.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;"&emsp;<i>tenella</i> and the mutton-measle</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">16.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;"&emsp;<i>lophosoma</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">17.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;"&emsp;<i>nana</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">18.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">Tapeworm varieties and monstrosities</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">19.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Bothriocephalus latus</i>, <i>B. cordatus</i>, and <i>B. cristatus</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">20<i>a.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;General literature of hydatids (English)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>b.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;Hydatids of the liver</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>c.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;and other organs together</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>d.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;Liver hydatids. American cases</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>e.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;Hydatids of the lungs and pleura</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>f.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of the kidney</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>g.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of the spleen, omentum, and abdominal cavity</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>h.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; within the pelvic cavity</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>i.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of the heart and blood-vessels</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>k.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of the brain and cranial cavity</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>l.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of the bones</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>m.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of the breast, muscles, and soft parts</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>n.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of uncertain seat</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>o.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; of animals</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar"><i>p.</i></td><td class="tal">&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; in man. Foreign literature</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">21.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Trichina spiralis.</i> English literature</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Foreign literature</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="pagenum" title="xi"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi"></a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">22.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Trichocephalus dispar</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">23.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Filaria Bancrofti</i> (<i>F. sanguinis hominis</i>)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td></td><td class="tal">Supplement (Hæmatozoa)</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_488">488</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">24.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Filaria loa</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">25.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;<i>lentis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">26.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;<i>labialis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">27.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;<i>trachealis</i> and <i>F. bronchialis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">28.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Eustrongylus</i> (<i>Strongylus</i>) <i>gigas</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">29.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Dochmius duodenalis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">30.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Dracunculus medinensis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">31.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">32.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Leptodera</i> (<i>Anguillula</i>) <i>stercoralis</i> and <i>L. intestinalis</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">33.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Ascaris mystax</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">34.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp; <i>lumbricoides</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">35.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Echinorhynchus gigas</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">36.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Sanguisuga medicinalis</i> and other leeches</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">37.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Pentastoma tænioides</i> and <i>P. constrictum</i></td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">38.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Demodex</i>, <i>Sarcoptes</i>, and other Arachnidan ectozoa</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">39.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Gammarus pulex</i> in man</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">40.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">Bugs, lice, and other insect parasites of man</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">41.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Psorospermiæ</i>, <i>Gregarinæ</i>, and other protozoa</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">42.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal"><i>Entozoa</i> of monkeys</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">43.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;and ectozoa of bats</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">44.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of insectivorous mammals</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">45.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of carnivorous mammals</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">46.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of seals</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">47.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of rodents</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">48.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of sloths and ant-eaters</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">49.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of ruminants</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">50.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;and ectozoa of solipeds</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">51.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp; of elephants</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_400">400</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">52.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of rhinoceroses</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">53.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of the hippopotamus and tapir</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">54.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;and ectozoa of swine</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">55.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of whales, dolphins, and dugongs</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">56.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of marsupial animals</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">57.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;and ectozoa of birds</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_448">448</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">58.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of reptiles</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">59.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;and ectozoa of fishes</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_477">477</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal"></td><td class="tar">60.&ensp;&#8204;</td><td class="tal">&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;of insects, crustaceans, and mollusks</td><td class="tar"><a href="#Page_484">484</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2><a id="ERRATUM"></a>ERRATUM.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Page <a href="#glow-worm">296</a>, line 24 from the top, for “in the glow-worm (<i>Glomeris</i>),” read <span class="pagenum" title="1"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></span>“in a
+myriapod (<i>Glomeris</i>) which is phosphorescent like the glow-worm.”</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>PARASITES.</h2>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+
+
+<p>No person can derive advantage from the study of parasites
+unless the subject be approached in a right frame of mind. In
+other words, the student of helminthology must, as a primary
+discipline, dispossess himself of all preconceived opinions whatsoever,
+and in an attitude of child-like simplicity seek truth
+for its own sake. Unless the mind be absolutely free and
+unfettered it cannot rightly interpret the facts of this peculiar
+department of biological science. Those students who are
+nervously anxious to reconcile the conclusions of modern science
+with the ideas of their forefathers are certain to remain just as
+ignorant of the true value and significance of nature-teachings
+as all their fathers were.</p>
+
+<p>Whether dealing with the external or internal forms, the
+study of parasites of man and animals is practically one of
+boundless extent; and there is probably no department of
+knowledge, possessing an equal value in relation to the welfare
+of man and beast, that is so thoroughly misunderstood by those
+who are directly concerned in the appreciation of its revelations.
+This has arisen from a total misconception as to cause and
+effect. Most people, not excluding even the votaries of the
+healing art, following tradition, regard the internal parasites or
+entozoa as creatures either directly resulting from certain
+diseased conditions of their <i>hosts</i> or as organisms which
+would not have existed if their <i>bearers</i> had been perfectly
+healthy. Nothing can be more absurd. Such a conclusion is
+utterly at variance with all logical deduction from known facts.
+It is, however, quite on a par with multitudes of other popular<span class="pagenum" title="2"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a></span>
+delusions which, in spite of the advance of science, will probably
+never become wholly eradicated from the public mind.
+People who hold these notions either cannot or do not desire
+to reject a view which has for them a dominating power almost
+equal to that of any known religious dogma. In conversation
+I have repeatedly noticed this to be the case. These people are
+the victims of educated ignorance and they will never allow
+that parasites are natural developments, accomplishing ends or
+parts of the orderly mystery which reigns everywhere. Some
+of then still cling to the creed that the presence of parasites,
+of internal ones at least, betokens evidence of Divine disfavor;
+and their minds are troubled with all sorts of distressing and
+childish conceptions. In the present age one would have
+thought that such ridiculous ideas could not be seriously maintained;
+but instead of being relegated to the limbo of similar
+“old wives’ fables” they dominate the opinions of thousands
+of our so-called educated people. The genuine searcher after
+truth does not need to be told that all preconceptions of this
+order hopelessly obscure the mental vision. They operate to
+render a just and adequate understanding of the science of
+helminthology impossible. The biologist may say what he lists,
+but he knows perfectly well that the superstitious mind will
+continue to ignore the precious and elevating results of scientific
+research, and that it will perseveringly continue to persuade
+itself that internal worms, parasites, and entozoa, of whatever
+kind, belong to the category of “plagues” liable to be distributed
+as special punishments for human wrong-doing.</p>
+
+<p>As remarked in my previous treatise, the best way of studying
+the entozoa is to regard them as collectively forming a peculiar
+<i>fauna</i>, destined to occupy an equally peculiar territory. That
+territory is the wide-spread domain of the interior of the bodies
+of man and animals. Each bearer or “host” may be viewed
+as a continent, and each part or viscus of his body may be
+regarded as a district. Each district has its special attractions
+for particular parasitic forms; yet, at the same time, neither
+the district nor the continent are suitable as permanent resting-places
+for the invader. None of the internal parasites “continue
+in one stay;” all have a tendency to roam; migration is the
+soul of their prosperity; change of residence the essential of
+their existence; whilst a blockade in the interior soon terminates
+in degeneration and death. I repeat it. The entozoa constitute
+a specialised fauna. What our native country is to<span class="pagenum" title="3"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a></span>
+ourselves, the bodies of animals are to them. To attack, to
+invade, to infest, is their legitimate prerogative. Their organisation,
+habits, and economy are expressly fashioned to this end.
+How remarkable and complex is their structure, and how peculiar,
+diverse, and varied are their ways and wanderings, the
+contents of this volume will, I trust, sufficiently explain. The
+puerile horror which even some scientific persons affect to
+display in regard to the subject is altogether out of place. To
+the rightly balanced mind the study of these much abused
+“worms” is just as attractive as any other section of zoology.
+Helminthology opens up to our view many of the strangest
+biological phenomena of which the human mind can take
+cognisance; whilst a profound and extended knowledge of the
+subject, in all its bearings, is calculated to secure to the community
+a rich practical reward by enabling us to do effectual
+battle with not a few of the many ills of life to which our flesh
+is heir.</p>
+
+<p>Further on the general advantages to be derived from the
+study of parasites I cannot here dilate, and it becomes the less
+necessary that I should do so, since I have entered upon the
+subject very fully elsewhere. The character of the present work,
+moreover, imposes brevity. If the plan which I now propose
+to follow should not be deemed altogether satisfactory from the
+purely zoological standpoint, it will nevertheless have the
+advantage of simplicity and novelty; and knowing full well the
+difficulties that must surround any attempt to give a perfect
+classification of the entozoa, considered as a natural group, I feel
+sure that my helminthological friends will credit me with
+exercising a wise discretion in selecting the simplest available
+method of arrangement. My plan, therefore, is to devote
+separate sections of this work to the parasites of the different
+classes of vertebrated animals, including man, treating of the
+various species in regular succession. This arrangement is
+merely one of convenience and has no reference whatever to
+conceptions of zoological equivalency as variously interpreted
+and maintained by authors and investigators. The parasitic
+groups will be taken up in the following order, quite irrespective
+of their relative importance, and also without any attempt to treat
+each group with equal fulness. In the matter of recent literature
+only will the present record and summary make any approach
+toward completeness, my hope being to render this treatise
+indispensable and trustworthy as a ready means of reference.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="4"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="smcap">Flukes. Trematoda.</span>&mdash;This group
+embraces several families of parenchymatous worms. The various species
+exhibit one or more suckers, which the older naturalists regarded
+as so many mouths or <i>perforations</i>. Hence the ordinal title. The
+term fluke is of Saxon origin, meaning anything flat. Thus, it has
+been applied to sole-fish or flounders, to the flattened halves
+of the tail of cetaceans, to the blades of anchors, and so forth.
+Although the common liver fluke is flat, many species of the order are
+round, biconvex, or even filiform organisms. I recognise six <span
+class="nowrap">families:&mdash;</span><i>Monostomidæ</i>, <i>Distomidæ</i>,
+<i>Amphistomidæ</i>, <i>Tristomidæ</i>, <i>Polystomidæ</i>, and <i>Gyrodactylidæ</i>. Most
+of the species are entozoal; but many adhere to the surface of the body
+of piscine hosts.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="smcap">Tapeworms. Cestoda.</span>&mdash;This
+comprises not only the tapeworms, but also the measles and other
+bladder-worms or cystic Entozoa of the old authors (Cystica). The Greek
+word <i>kestos</i> means a band or girdle; hence the ordinal term above
+given. The bladder-worms, including Hydatids, Cysticerci, &amp;c.,
+are the larval stages of growth of various tapeworms. The further
+reduction of this order into sub-orders or families requires careful
+attention. At present we have <i>Tæniadæ</i>, <i>Acanthotæniadæ</i>, <i>Dibothridæ
+(=&#8201;Bothriocephalidæ)</i>, <i>Diphyllobothridæ</i>, <i>Tetrarhynchidæ</i>,
+and <i>Tetraphyllobothridæ</i>. All the genera and species are entozoal.
+The proposal to separate the snouted or proboscidiform tapeworms
+(<i>Rhynchotæniadæ</i>) from those in which the rostellum is absent
+(<i>Arhynchotæniadæ</i>) does not recommend itself to my judgment.</p>
+
+<p>III. <span class="smcap">Roundworms. Nematoda.</span>&mdash;This
+series comprises not only lumbricoid or roundworms proper, but
+also threadworms. The term derives its origin from the Greek word
+<i>nema</i>, signifying a thread. It likewise includes the strongyles,
+the term <i>strongulos</i> meaning round or cylindrical. This is a very
+extensive group whose parasitic members are strictly entozoal,
+whilst the non-parasitic forms are either entirely free or they
+infest plants. Some of the so-called free nematoids live in the
+slime of animals. The artificial classification by Schneider, based
+on the muscular system, places these parasites in three well-marked
+groups, but I think it a disadvantage to separate widely many
+really closely allied forms. Thus, in his <i>Polymyarii</i> we have the
+genus Enstrongylus, and in his <i>Meromyarii</i> the Strongyli proper.
+Most of the genera may be fairly included in the following <span
+class="nowrap">families:&mdash;</span><i>Ascaridæ</i>, <i>Cheiracanthidæ</i>,
+<i>Cucullanidæ</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="5"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a></span>
+<i>Strongylidæ</i>, <i>Trichinidæ</i>, <i>Oxyuridæ</i>, <i>Trichocephalidæ</i>, <i>Filaridæ</i>,
+<i>Gordiidæ</i>, <i>Anguillulidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Thornheaded-worms.
+Acanthocephala.</span>&mdash;This group embraces a small series of
+parasites, which, in general appearance, resemble the nematode worms.
+They differ, however, essentially, being, as the term indicates,
+furnished with spine-covered heads. They are, moreover, destitute
+of digestive organs. The species are entozoal in habit, abounding
+particularly in fishes and reptiles. At present, all the known forms are
+included in one family (<i>Echinorhynchidæ</i>), which also comprises only a
+single genus.</p>
+
+<p>V. <span class="smcap">Annelid Parasites. Suctoria.</span>&mdash;In
+this category one must place all such suctorial annelids as affix
+themselves to hosts for a longer or shorter period. Many of the
+leech-like parasites (<i>Clepsinidæ</i>, and especially <i>Malacobdellidæ</i>)
+remind one of certain flukes (<i>Tristoma</i>, &amp;c.) possessing ectozoal
+habits; whilst the leeches, properly so called, afford instances of
+the passage from a semi-parasitic to what has been called the free
+parasitic mode of existence. In tropical countries these creatures very
+readily attach themselves to man and animals, often creating severe
+distress. The genera <i>Clepsine</i> and <i>Hæmocharis</i> attack mollusks and
+fishes respectively. The species are all ectoparasitic and exceedingly
+numerous. They cannot be described in this work.</p>
+
+<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Arachnid parasites, Arachnida</span> (part
+of).&mdash;The great class of articulated, limb-jointed, or, more
+strictly, arthropodous animals, includes a variety of parasites. The
+mites, true ticks, and such like creatures, belong to this group.
+Some few of them are entozoal in habit, others are only partially so,
+whilst the majority are entirely ectozoal. Of the two great sections
+of Arachnida, namely, Pulmonaria and Trachearia, the latter alone
+contains strictly parasitic forms. The parasitic species belong to the
+following <span class="nowrap">families:&mdash;</span><i>Pentastomidæ</i>,
+<i>Pycnogonidæ</i>, <i>Ixodidæ</i>, <i>Acaridæ</i>, <i>Gamasidæ</i>, <i>Hydrachnidæ</i>,
+<i>Solpugidæ</i>. The parasitism of some of the species is very partial or
+slight. Thus, certain of the water mites, in their juvenile state,
+dwell on aquatic insects only; and the tick-like <i>Gamasidæ</i> occur upon
+dung-beetles. The other ectozoal species attack vertebrated animals, and
+several attach themselves to man himself. The whale lice (<i>Cyamidæ</i>) are
+here included in the <i>Pycnogonidæ</i>, though often placed by zoologists
+with the Crustaceans.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="6"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>VII. <span class="smcap">Crustacean Parasites. Crustacea</span> (part
+of).&mdash;A large number of species belonging to various well-marked
+sections of this great class of Invertebrates are parasitic in their
+habits, most of them being comprised in the so-called haustellated
+group. They are familiarly known to zoologists as Epizoa. As this
+latter term implies, they are strictly ectozoal in character, most of
+the species victimising fishes by attaching themselves, not only to the
+general surface of the body, but also to the eyes, and especially to the
+gills or branchiæ. The species for the most part belong to the families
+<i>Lernæidæ</i>, <i>Caligidæ</i>, <i>Dichelestidæ</i>, and <i>Argulidæ</i>. In this category
+must likewise be placed two other families belonging to the so-called
+isopodous section of edriophthalmatous crustaceans. These are the
+<i>Cymothoidæ</i>, which attach themselves to the tails of fishes, and the
+<i>Bopyridæ</i>, which occupy the branchial cavity of shrimps. The nature of
+this work precludes any detailed notice of the numerous members of this
+section.</p>
+
+<p>VIII. <span class="smcap">Insect Parasites. Insecta</span>
+(part of).&mdash;The insects, properly so called (that is to say,
+arthropodous, evertebrated creatures, with six legs), are many of them
+essentially parasitic in their habits. The most important of these
+are “bots” and other larvæ or maggots of various flies (Diptera).
+The varieties of lice are also included in this group. Some few of
+the insect parasites are strictly entozoal in habit, at least for
+a part of their lifetime, being previously attached externally for
+a short period only. Most of the forms are essentially ectozoal. A
+very large number of insect tormentors, although deriving nourishment
+from their victims, attach themselves to the animals for so short
+a time that they cannot be classed as parasites under the ordinary
+acceptation of the term. As examples of the so-called free parasitism,
+the autumnal flies (<i>Tabanidæ</i>) and <i>Stomoxys</i> may be cited. Although
+embracing but few strictly parasitic forms we have the <span
+class="nowrap">following:&mdash;</span><i>Œstridæ</i>, <i>Hippoboscidæ</i> (with
+<i>Melophagus</i>), and <i>Nycteribiidæ</i>. In regard to the maggots of <i>Muscidæ</i>
+and <i>Sarcophagæ</i>, some of them are parasitic on animals and man, whilst
+others are parasitic upon insects themselves. The larvæ of <i>Conopidæ</i>
+attack humble-bees internally. Those parasitic insects, properly so
+called, which, like certain of the crustaceans, are sometimes spoken of
+as epizoa, comprise three well-marked families. Thus, we have Pediculidæ
+(the source of lousiness), <i>Philopteridæ</i>, and <i>Liotheidæ</i>. Both of the
+latter embrace numerous<span class="pagenum" title="7"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a></span>
+species which for the most part content themselves with devouring the
+feathers of birds and the hairs of quadrupeds. In addition to these it
+may be added that some of the rat-tailed larvæ or Helophilus maggots
+(<i>Syrphidæ</i>) are parasitic in man and quadrupeds, as are also the larvæ
+of the churchyard beetle (<i>Blaptidæ</i>). The closely allied <i>Tenebrionidæ</i>
+and other coleopterous families also supply various maggots possessed
+of parasitic habits. Fleas and bugs come under Van Beneden’s category
+of free parasites. This is equivalent to calling them non-parasitic
+parasites, an expression which looks very like a contradiction of
+terms.</p>
+
+<p>IX. <span class="smcap">Protozoal Parasites. Protozoa</span> (part
+of.)&mdash;This miscellaneous assemblage of minute creatures embraces
+a number of parasites of very low organisation. In the present work
+it is neither desirable nor necessary to hazard any statements
+respecting their precise zoological position. It is sufficient to say
+that the parasitic protozoa are for the most part entozoal in habit,
+not a few of them possessing vegetable affinities. The microscopic
+<i>Bacteridæ</i>, <i>Gregarinidæ</i>, and <i>Psorospermiæ</i>, comprise a multitude
+of organisms which are strictly parasitic in their habits, whilst
+amongst the <i>Infusoria</i> we find numerous forms which, though dwelling
+in the intestinal canal of their hosts, do not derive nourishment in
+a direct manner from their bearers. Of this kind are <i>Paramecium</i> and
+<i>Balantidium</i>. The separation of the psorospermiæ and gregarinæ into
+genera is attended with difficulty; nevertheless, I have for convenience
+long recognised various types under titles corresponding with the names
+of the observers who first discovered them (<i>Hesslingia</i>, <i>Gubleria</i>,
+<i>Lindermannia</i>, and so forth). Of necessity, the protozoal parasites
+will only be incidentally noticed in this work. In this category I
+place the falsely so called “cattle-plague bodies.” The micrococci and
+bacteria hardly come within the province of the helminthologist.</p>
+
+<p>Without prejudice to the foregoing restrictions I must at the same
+time observe that the varied characters presented by the above-mentioned
+groups show how impossible it is to treat the subject of parasitism
+adequately, if one is obliged to confine his remarks to the internal
+parasites or helminths proper. Many creatures possessed of entozoal and
+ectozoal habits are parasites in every legitimate sense of the term, and
+yet they do not belong to the class <i>Helmintha</i> in its common zoological
+acceptation. <i>That</i> class taken by itself may still be allowed to stand
+pretty<span class="pagenum" title="8"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a></span>
+much as I represented it in 1864; but in the present work I cease to
+speak of the Entozoa as in any sense the zoological equivalent of the
+<i>Helmintha</i>. I prefer to employ the term Entozoa in its popular and
+wider acceptation. It conveniently stands thus, moreover, in direct
+contradiction to the term Ectozoa.</p>
+
+<p>As this work treats of parasites only, I purposely refrain from
+dealing with the Turbellarians, and certain other creatures usually
+classed with <i>Vermes</i>. The vague term “worms,” so often employed as the
+equivalent of <i>Helmintha</i>, is misleading in many ways. I should like
+to see it adopted only when speaking of the Annelids proper. It would
+still have a sufficiently wide application, seeing that it would include
+Leeches, Earth-worms, Naids, Tubed-worms, Sea-lobworms, Sea-mice,
+Nereids, and a host of other setigerous species. Notwithstanding the
+remote connection subsisting between “intestinal worms” and worms
+properly so called, the notion that an intimate relation subsists
+between the lumbricoid helminths and earth-worms will probably never
+entirely disappear from the popular or even from the professional
+mind.</p>
+
+<p>Since one of the principal features of this treatise is to afford
+a handy means of reference to the rich and extended literature of
+parasitism, I here subjoin a list of general and systematic treatises.
+To most of these I shall constantly refer. Full special references to
+detached memoirs will appear in the bibliographies scattered throughout
+the body of the work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_1"></a>No.
+1).&mdash;<i>Bremser</i>, ‘Ueber lebende Würmer im lebenden Menschen,’
+Vienna, 1819; French edit., by Grundler, 1824.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Icones
+helminthium,’ Vienna, 1824.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, ‘Entozoa,
+an Introduction to the Study of Helminthology, with reference
+more particularly to the Parasites of Man,’ London, 1864; Supp.,
+1869.&mdash;Reviews in the ‘Lancet,’ Sept. 24th, 1864, p. 353; in the
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Oct. 29th, 1864, p. 474; in the ‘Athenæum,’
+Oct. 15th, 1864, p. 493; in ‘Cosmos,’ Oct. 27th, 1864, p. 463; in the
+‘Reader,’ Nov. 26th, 1864, p. 668; in the ‘Edinburgh Vet. Review,’ Nov.,
+1864, p. 662; in ‘Intellectual Observer,’ vol. vi, 1864, p. 190; in the
+‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ No. v, January, 1865, p. 145; in the
+‘Quart. Journ. of Micr. Science,’ New Series, No. 17, Jan., 1865, p. 43;
+in ‘Popular Science Review,’ Jan., 1865, p. 214; in the ‘Veterinarian,’
+Feb., 1865, p. 97; in the ‘Medical Mirror,’ Jan., 1865, p. 23; in the <span class="pagenum" title="9"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a></span>‘Natural History
+Review’ for July, 1865; in the ‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical
+Review,’ April, 1865, in the ‘Edinburgh Medical Journal’ for April, p.
+929; in the ‘Social Science Review’ for Feb. 1, 1866, p. 169; in ‘Dublin
+Quart. Journ. of Medical Science’ for Aug., 1867.&mdash;<i>Davaine,
+C.</i>, ‘Traité des Entozoaires et des maladies vermineuses de
+l’homme et des animaux domestiques,’ Paris, 1860, 2nd edit.,
+1877&ndash;79.&mdash;<i>Diesing, C. M.</i>, ‘Systema helminthum,’ Vienna,
+1850.&mdash;<i>Dujardin, F.</i>, ‘Histoire naturelle des helminthes ou vers
+intestineaux,’ Paris, 1845.&mdash;<i>Goeze, T. A. S.</i>, ‘Versuch einer
+Naturgeschichte der Eingeweidewürmer thierischer Körper,’ Blankenburgh,
+1782.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister, F.</i>, ‘Die in und an dem Körper des
+lebenden Menschen vorkommenden Parasiten,’ Leipsic, 1855, 2nd. edit.,
+1878&ndash;79; Eng. edit., by Lankester, 1857.&mdash;<i>Le Clerc, D.</i>, ‘A
+Natural and medicinal History of Worms bred in the bodies of men and
+other animals’ (<i>sic</i>), Browne’s edit., London, 1721.&mdash;<i>Leuckart,
+R.</i>, ‘Die menschlichen Parasiten, und die von ihren herruhrenden
+Krankheiten,’ Leipsic und Heidelberg, 1863&ndash;1876.&mdash;<i>Redi, F.</i>,
+‘De animalculis vivis quæ in corporibus animalium vivorum reperiuntur,
+observationes;’ Coste’s edition, Amstelædami, 1688.&mdash;<i>Rudolphi,
+C. A.</i>, ‘Entozoorum sive vermium intestinalium historia naturalis,’
+Amsterdam, 1808.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Entozoorum Synopsis,’ Berlin,
+1819.&mdash;<i>Van Beneden, P. J.</i>, ‘Animal Parasites and Messmates,’
+London, 1876.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the above works, while professing to deal with human
+parasites only, cover more or less of the whole ground of helminthology.
+Leuckart’s work is invaluable in this respect; and in the matter of
+literary references of a professional kind Davaine’s treatise is itself
+well nigh exhaustive. In any ordinary volume it is not possible to
+give a complete bibliography of parasitism. I make no pretension to do
+so here; nevertheless, the large number of modern memoirs that I have
+received from the distinguished writers themselves, enables me to render
+this part of my book very useful. As second only in importance to the
+above-mentioned works may be added the following&mdash;whether minor
+treatises, memoirs, monographs, comprehensive articles, or reports of a
+general or special character, respectively. As such it will be seen that
+some of them are sufficiently comprehensive, and their mere enumeration
+will enable the beginner to realise something like a fair estimate of
+the scope of helminthology. In the case of my own works I have ventured
+to add references to reviews<span class="pagenum" title="10"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a></span>
+and notices, because many of the latter contain valuable original
+suggestions made by the various anonymous writers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_2"></a>No.
+2).&mdash;<i>Bastian, H. C.</i>, “On the Anatomy and Physiology of the
+Nematoids, parasitic and free,” ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1865 (see
+also Bibliog., No. 60).&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, ‘Worms; a series of
+lectures on Practical Helminthology,’ London, 1872; Italian edition by
+Tommasi. Milan, Florence, &amp;c., 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘The Internal
+Parasites of our Domesticated Animals,’ London, 1873; Italian edit.
+by Tommasi, Florence, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Tapeworms (Human), their
+Sources, Varieties, and Treatment,’ London, 3rd edit., 1875. Reviews
+(1st and 2nd edit., with ‘Threadworms’), in ‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir.
+Review’ for 1867, p. 433; in ‘Edin. Med. Journ.’ for 1866&ndash;67,
+p. 107; in ‘Lancet,’ Nov. 10th, 1866; in ‘Popular Science Review,’
+Oct. 1st, 1866; in ‘Intellectual Observer,’ Oct. 1866; in ‘Med. Press
+and Circular,’ Jan. 16th, 1867; again in the ‘Lancet,’ for March
+13th, 1867; and in ‘Dublin Quart. Journ. of Medical Science’ for
+1867, 3rd edit.; in the ‘Field,’ Sept. 25th, 1875; and in ‘Popular
+Science Review’ for Jan., 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Catalogue of the
+Specimens of Entozoa in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of
+England,’ London, 1866; noticed in the ‘Lancet’ for March 24th, 1866,
+p. 321.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the best Methods of displaying Entozoa in
+Museums,” ‘Journ. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. viii, p. 170.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘New
+Entozootic Malady,’ &amp;c., 1864; popular brochure, reviewed in the
+‘Lancet,’ Feb. 4th, 1865, p. 128; in the ‘Athenæum,’ Jan. 21st, 1865,
+p. 87; in the ‘British Med. Journal,’ Jan., 1865; in the ‘Veterinary
+Review and Stockowners’ Journal,’ No. 2, New Series, Feb., 1865, p.
+76; in the ‘Reader,’ Feb. 4th, 1865, p. 142; in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’
+for June 2nd, 1865; in the ‘Field’ for March 18th, 1865.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Parasites of Man,” forming a series of articles contributed to the
+‘Midland Naturalist,’ 1878&ndash;79.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Notes on Entozoa
+contained in the various Metropolitan Museums,” in ‘Lancet,’ May 13th,
+1865, p. 503.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Report on <i>Plica polonica</i>, in reference to
+Parasites,” in ‘Pathological Soc. Trans.,’ 1866, p. 419.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Report on Experiments respecting the Development and Migrations of the
+Entozoa,” ‘British Assoc. Reports’ (Bath Meeting) for 1864, p. 111;
+and briefly noticed in ‘Lancet’ for Sept. 24th, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+Miscellaneous observations, including “Note on Parasites in the Lower
+Animals,” in ‘Dub. Med. Press’ for Feb. 11th, 1863, p. 154.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="11"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a></span>
+“Vegetables, Fruits, and Water considered as sources of Intestinal
+Worms;” in the ‘Popular Science Review’ for Jan., 1865, p.
+163.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (anonymously), “On Comparative Pathology and
+Therapeutics” (in relation to Entozoötics); leading art. in ‘Lancet’
+for Dec. 9th, 1865, p. 652.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “List of Entozoa, including
+Pentastomes, from animals dying at the Zoological Society’s Menagerie,
+between 1857&ndash;60 inclusive, with descriptions of several new
+species,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on all the
+Human Entozoa,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1862; abstracts in ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.’ for 1862, and in ‘Edinb. New Phil. Journ.,’ vol. xvii, new
+series, 1863, p. 145; in Report of the ‘Proceed. of the Brit. Assoc.
+at Cambridge,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Our Food-producing Ruminants, and
+the Parasites which reside in them; being the Cantor Lectures of the
+Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce,”
+delivered in 1871, and pub. in the ‘Journal of the Soc. of Arts’ for
+that year.&mdash;<i>Davaine, C.</i>, “Les Cestoïdes,” in ‘Dict. Encycl. des
+Sci. Med.,’ Paris, 1876.&mdash;<i>Eberth, C. J.</i>, ‘Untersuchungen ueber
+Nematoden,’ Leipsic, 1863.&mdash;<i>Heller, A.</i>, “Darmschmarotzer,” in Von
+Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch,’ Bd. vii, 1876; and in the American edition of
+the same, 1877.&mdash;<i>Jones, T. R.</i>, “List of Entozoa of Greenland,”
+taken from <i>Krabbe</i>; ‘Arctic Manual,’ 1875, p. 179.&mdash;<i>Krabbe, H.</i>,
+‘Helminthologiske Undersogelser,’ Copenhagen, 1865.&mdash;<i>Leuckart,
+R.</i>, ‘Die Blasenbandwürmer und ihre Entwicklung,’ Giessen,
+1856.&mdash;<i>Moquin-Tandon, A.</i>, “Epizoa and Entozoa,” in Hulme’s edit.
+of his ‘Elements of Medical Zoology,’ London, 1871.&mdash;<i>Nordmann,
+A. von</i>, ‘Mikrographische Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der wirbellosen
+Thiere,’ Berlin, 1832.&mdash;<i>Olsson, P.</i>, “Entozoa, iakttagna hos
+Skandanaviska hafsfiskar.,” Lund, ‘Univ. Årsskrift,’ 1867.&mdash;<i>Owen,
+R.</i>, “Entozoa,” art. in Todd’s ‘Cyclopædia of Anat. and Physiol.,’
+London, 1839.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Entozoa,” ‘Lectures (iv and v) on the
+Comp. Anat. and Physiol. of the Invertebrate Animals,’ London,
+1855.&mdash;<i>Pagenstecher, H. A.</i>, ‘Trematodenlarven und Trematoden,’
+Heidelberg, 1857.&mdash;<i>Rhind, W.</i>, ‘A Treatise on the Nature and Cure
+of Intestinal Worms, &amp;c.,’ London, 1829.&mdash;<i>Rolleston, G.</i>,
+“Characteristics of Nematelminthes and Platyelminthes,” in his ‘Forms
+of Animal Life,’ Oxford, 1870.&mdash;<i>Schneider, A.</i>, ‘Monographie der
+Nematoden,’ Berlin, 1866.&mdash;<i>Siebold, C. von.</i>, “Parasiten,” art. in
+Wagener’s ‘Handwörterbuch der Physiol., &amp;c.,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Helminthes,” Book v, in Burnett’s edit. of Siebold and Stannius’ ‘Comparative Ana<span class="pagenum" title="12"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a></span>tomy,’
+London and Boston, 1854.&mdash;<i>Thomson, A.</i>, “Entozoa,” in the art. “Ovum,” in Todd’s
+‘Cyclop. of Anat. and Physiol.,’ London, 1859.&mdash;<i>Van Beneden, P.
+J.</i>, ‘Mémoire sur les Vers Intestineaux,’ Paris, 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Les Vers Cestoïdes,” ‘Mém. de l’Acad. Roy.,’ Brussels,
+1850.&mdash;<i>Verrill, A. E.</i>, “The External and Internal Parasites
+of Man and the Domestic Animals,” ‘Rep. of Board of Agriculture,’
+Connecticut, U.S., 1870.&mdash;<i>Von Baer, K. E.</i>, ‘Observations on
+Entozoa;’ in an analytical notice of his article “Beiträge zur Kentniss
+der niedern Thiere,” from ‘Nova Acta Nat. Cur.,’ tom. xiii, in the
+‘Zool. Journ.,’ vol. iv, p. 250, 1828&ndash;29.&mdash;<i>Wagener, G. R.</i>,
+‘Beiträge zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Eingeweidewürmer,’ Haarlem,
+1857.&mdash;<i>Weinland, D. F.</i>, ‘An Essay on the Tapeworms of Man,’
+Cambridge, U.S., 1858.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2>BOOK I.</h2>
+
+<h3>PARASITES OF MAN.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Whatever notions people may entertain respecting the
+dignity of the human race, there is no gainsaying the fact that
+we share with the lower animals the rather humiliating privilege
+and prerogative of entertaining a great variety of parasites.
+These are for the most part entozoal in habit. As the parasites
+are apt to cause suffering to the bearer, a superstitious age
+sought to interpret their presence as having some connection
+with human wrong-doing. We can now afford to smile at such
+erroneous ideas. The intimate relation subsisting between
+parasitic forms dwelling in man and animals, and their interdependence
+upon one another, alone suffices to preclude the
+idea that parasites have been arbitrarily placed within the
+human bearer. It would seem, indeed, that our existence
+is essential to the welfare and propagation of certain species
+of parasites. Possibly it is only by accepting the hypothesis
+of “Natural Selection” that we can escape the somewhat
+undignified conclusion that the entozoa were expressly created
+to dwell in us, and also that we were in part designed and
+destined to entertain them. View the matter as we may, the
+internal parasites of man and animals strictly conform to a few
+well-known types of structure, but these types branch out into
+infinitely varied specific forms. The vulgar mind sees nothing
+attractive in the morphology and organisation of a parasitic
+worm, and common-place conceptions of the beautiful cannot
+be expected to embrace within their narrow grasp the marvelous
+harmony and order that pervade the structure and economy
+of the individual members of this remarkable class of beings.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="14"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>SECTION I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Trematoda</span> (Flukes).</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Fasciola hepatica</i>, Linneus.&mdash;The first form I have to consider
+is the common liver fluke. The part this entozoon plays
+in the production of disease will be fully stated when treating
+of the parasites of the sheep and other ruminants. About
+twenty instances of its occurrence in the human body have been
+recorded. It has been found beneath the skin in the sole of
+the foot (Giesker), and also under the scalp (Harris), and
+behind the ear (Fox). Its more frequent seat is in the liver
+and gall-ducts (Pallas, Brera, Bidloo, Malpighi) and gall-bladder
+(Partridge). The alleged cases by Bauhin, Wepfer, and Chabert
+are spurious, as is probably also that given by Mehlis. Duval’s
+case appears to be genuine, but the occurrence of the worm in
+the portal vein was accidental. Dr Murchison has recorded a
+case, occurring at St Thomas’s Hospital, where a solitary
+specimen was found in the liver. Dr H. V. Carter also met
+with the worm in a young Hindoo.</p>
+
+<p>In the second half of the present work I shall reproduce
+Blanchard’s admirable figure of the sexually mature worm
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig_61">61</a>), accompanied by a categorical statement respecting
+the known facts of development. In this place, however, I
+may observe that the cases recorded by Giesker, Harris, and
+Fox had clearly pointed to the circumstance that the higher larvæ
+of this fluke must be armed cercariæ, otherwise they could not
+have bored their way through the human skin. As we shall see,
+Dr Willemoes-Suhm’s investigations have furnished evidence
+as to the truth of this supposition. For anatomical details I refer
+to my introductory treatise. In the adult state the liver fluke
+has been known from the earliest times. We have clear
+evidences that it was described by Gabucinus in the year 1547,
+and also subsequently by Cornelius Gemma, who, in a work
+published some thirty years later, refers to an epizootic disease
+prevalent in Holland during the year 1552, and which was very
+justly attributed to the parasite in question. After this date
+many writers described the liver fluke more or less accurately,
+and entire volumes were devoted to the consideration of the
+formidable disease which it occasions. The nomenclature of
+the parasite has been a subject of controversy. Amongst
+naturalists in general the common liver fluke is often described
+under the combined generic and specific name of<span class="pagenum" title="15"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a></span>
+<i>Distoma hepaticum</i>; but the title is both incorrect and inappropriate.
+The proper generic appellation of this parasite is
+<i>Fasciola</i>, as first proposed by the illustrious Linneus (1767) and
+subsequently adopted by F. Müller (1787), Brera (1811), Ramdohr
+(1814), and others. Unfortunately Retzius (1786) and
+Zeder (1800) changed the generic title without good cause,
+and the majority of writers, following their authority, refused
+to employ the original name, although a consideration of the
+distinctive types of structure severally displayed by the genera
+<i>Distoma</i> and <i>Fasciola</i> fairly demanded the retention of the
+Linnean title. In later times M. Blanchard (1847) strongly
+advocated the original nomenclature, and I have myself continually
+urged its adoption. On somewhat different grounds
+Professor Moquin-Tandon followed the same course.</p>
+
+<p>In the sexually mature state the liver fluke commonly
+measures three fourths of an inch in length, occasionally reaching
+an entire inch or even sixteen <a href="#Transcribers_notes">lines</a>; its greatest breadth
+also varying from half an inch to seven or eight lines transversely;
+body very flat, presenting distinct dorsal and ventral
+surfaces, frequently curled toward the latter during life; upper
+or anterior end suddenly constricted, produced and pointed
+in the centre, forming the so-called head and neck; posterior
+extremity less acuminated, sometimes rounded, or even slightly
+truncated; margins smooth, occasionally a little undulated,
+especially towards the upper part; oral sucker terminal, oval,
+rather smaller than the ventral acetabulum, which is placed
+immediately below the root of the neck; reproductive orifices
+in the middle line, a little below the oral sucker; intromittent
+organ usually protruded and spirally curved; a central,
+light-coloured space, covering two thirds of the body from
+above downwards, marks the region of the internal male reproductive
+organs, being bordered on either side and below by
+a continuous dark band, indicating the position of the so-called
+yolk-forming organs; a small, brown-coloured, rosette-like
+body situated directly below the ventral acetabulum, marks
+the limits of the uterine duct; a series of dark lines, branching
+downwards and outwards on either side, indicate the position of
+the digestive organs; general color of the body pale brownish
+yellow, with a slight rose tint. The surface of the body, though
+smooth to the naked eye, is clothed throughout with small
+epidermal spines which diminish in size towards the tail.</p>
+
+<p>If any argument were necessary to show how desirable it is<span class="pagenum" title="16"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a></span>
+to furnish full descriptions of the commoner kinds of parasite,
+I could adduce numerous instances that have been brought
+under my notice where professional men and others have been
+entirely mistaken as to the essential nature of their parasitic
+finds. Thus, I have known an instance where a great authority
+on the diseases of dogs has persisted in asserting for the free
+proglottides of a tapeworm a nematode origin; and, in like
+manner, human tapeworm-segments have frequently been
+mistaken for independent fluke parasites. One of the most
+remarkable instances of this kind is that which I have elsewhere
+described as an error on the part of Dr Chabert. My
+reasons for so regarding his interpretation of the facts observed
+by him stand as follows:</p>
+
+<p>In the ‘Boston Medical and Surgical Journal’ for the years
+1852&ndash;53&ndash;54, Dr J. X. Chabert described several cases of Tænia,
+and he averred that the tapeworms were associated with
+numerous specimens of <i>Distoma hepaticum</i>. The passage of distomes
+by patients during life was even regarded by Dr Chabert
+as indicative of the presence of Tænia within the intestines.
+Surely, I remarked, Dr Chabert was mistaken. Are not these
+so-called distomes the well-known <i>proglottides</i>? Not willingly
+doubting Dr Chabert’s statements, but desirous, if possible, of
+verifying the accuracy of his conclusions, I wrote to him (March
+22nd, 1864) requesting the loan of a specimen, but I was
+not fortunate enough to receive a reply. In the “Case of
+Tænia” in a boy four and a half years old, given in the 49th
+vol. of the journal, Dr Chabert writes as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“In consequence
+of his passing the <i>Distoma hepaticum</i>, I concluded he
+must be afflicted with Tænia.” Further on it is added, that
+the administration of an astringent injection “caused the discharge
+of innumerable small worms (<i>Distoma hepaticum</i>).” I
+think this is quite decisive. The idea of “innumerable” flukes
+being expelled in this way is altogether out of the question.</p>
+
+<p>The only genuine case in which any considerable number of
+Distomata, of this species, have been observed in the human
+subject is the one recently recorded by Dr Prunac. In this
+instance two flukes were vomited along with blood immediately
+after the administration of salines (sel de Seignette), and about
+thirty were passed per anum. On the following day, some
+tapeworm proglottides having been evacuated, both salts and
+male-fern extract were administered. This caused the expulsion
+of an entire tapeworm, and also about twenty more flukes. Not<span class="pagenum" title="17"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a></span>withstanding
+this successful treatment the hæmatemesis returned
+in about a month, when, finally, three more flukes were vomited
+and the bleeding ceased. Had not the parasites been submitted
+for identification to a competent observer (Prof.
+Martins, of Montpellier), some doubt might have been entertained
+as to the genuineness of this remarkable case. In reference
+to Dr Prunac’s comments on the facts of fluke-parasitism
+in man, I will only remark that Dr Kerr’s Chinese cases, to which
+he refers, were probably due to <i>Distoma crassum</i> and not to <i>D.
+hepaticum</i>. The Chinese flukes will be noticed below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_3"></a>No. 3).&mdash;Full references to details of the cases
+by Partridge, Fox, and Harris are given in Appendix B. to
+Lankester’s Edit. of <i>Küchenmeister’s</i> Manual. See also the
+works of Davaine and <i>Leuckart</i> (<i>l. c.</i> Bibl. No. 1).&mdash;<i>Carter,
+H. V.</i>, “Note on <i>Distoma hepaticum</i>” (from a patient under the
+care of Mr Pandoorung), ‘Bombay Med. and Physical Soc.
+Trans.’ (Appendix), 1862.&mdash;<i>Chabert, J. X.</i> (quoted above).
+Murchison, C., ‘Clinical Lectures on Diseases of the Liver,’ (2nd
+Edit., Appendix), London, 1877.&mdash;<i>Prunac</i>, De la Douve ou
+Distome hépatique chez l’homme; in ‘Gazette des Hôpitaux’
+for December, 1878 (p. 1147). For further references in this
+work, see Bibliog. No. <a href="#No_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;">
+<img src="images/f01.jpg" width="150" height="517" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;The lancet-shaped fluke
+(<i>Distoma lanceolatum</i>), showing
+the disposition of the digestive
+and reproductive organs internally.
+Viewed from behind; mag.
+about 12 diameters. After Blanchard.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Distoma lanceolatum</i>, Mehlis.&mdash;At least three instances of the
+occurrence of this small fluke in the human body have been observed.
+The authority for these cases rests, severally, with Bucholz, who
+found them in the gall bladder in considerable numbers at Weimar; with
+Chabert, who expelled a large number from the intestines of a girl in
+France; and with Küchner, who obtained forty-seven specimens from a girl
+in Bohemia. Probably many similar instances have been overlooked, and
+Küchenmeister hints that Duval’s parasites (above mentioned) may have
+been this species. Although this worm will again be incidentally noticed
+in connection with bovine parasites (and its ciliated larvæ will also be
+referred to when discussing the characters of the embryo of Bilharzia),
+I here subjoin a diagnosis of the characters of the adult parasite. The
+lancet-shaped liver fluke is a small flat helminth, measuring rather
+more than the third of an inch in length, and about one line and a half
+in breadth, being also especially characterised by its lanceolate form;
+the widest part of the body corresponds with a transverse line drawn
+across the spot where the vitellaria terminate below, and from this
+point, on<span class="pagenum" title="18"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a></span>
+either side, the width of the animal becomes gradually narrowed towards
+the extremities; both ends are pointed, but the inferior or caudal one
+more obtusely than the anterior or oral end; the general surface is
+smooth throughout, and unarmed; the reproductive orifices are placed
+in the central line immediately in front of the ventral sucker, and
+below the point at which the intestine bifurcates; the oral sucker is
+nearly terminal, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">50</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth, the ventral acetabulum being about the same diameter; the
+testes form two lobed organs placed one in front of the other in the
+middle line of the body and directly below the ventral sucker; the
+uterine canal is remarkably long, forming a series of tolerably regular
+folds, which occupy the central and hinder parts of the body, reaching
+almost to the caudal extremity. The vitelligene glands cover a limited
+space, on either side of the centre of the body near the margin. The
+<i>foramen caudale</i> communicates with a contractile vesicle, which passes
+upwards in the form of a central trunk-vessel, early dividing into two
+main branches; these latter reach as far forwards as the œsophageal
+bulb, opposite which organ they suddenly curve upon themselves,
+retracing their course for a considerable distance backwards; the
+digestive canals are slightly widened towards their lower ends, which
+occupy a line nearly corresponding with the commencement of the lower
+fifth of the body; the ova are conspicuous within the uterine folds,
+which present a dark brownish color in front, passing to a pale yellow
+color below.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to Kichner’s remarkable case I reproduce an abstract
+of it from Leuckart’s account (‘Die menschlichen Parasiten,’ Bd. i, s.
+608), the original particulars of which were communicated to Leuckart by
+Dr Kichner <span class="nowrap">himself:&mdash;</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="19"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“Dr Kichner’s patient was a young girl, the daughter of the
+parish shepherd at Kaplitz, having been accustomed to look
+after the sheep ever since she was nine years old. The
+pasture where the animals fed was enclosed by woods, being
+traversed by two water dykes, and being, moreover, also supplied
+by ten little stagnant pools. These reservoirs harboured
+numerous amphibia and mollusks (such as <i>Lymnæus</i> and <i>Paludina</i>),
+and the child often quenched her thirst from the half
+putrid water. Probably she also partook of the watercresses
+growing in the ditches. At length her abdomen became much
+distended, the limbs much emaciated, and her strength declined.
+Half a year before death she was confined to her bed,
+being all the while shamefully maltreated by her step-mother.
+Dr Kichner only saw her three days before her death, and
+ascertained that she had complained of pain (for several years)
+over the region of the liver. A <i>sectio cadaveris</i> was ordered
+by the Government, when (in addition to the external evidences
+of the cruel violence to which the poor creature had been subjected)
+it was found that she had an enormously enlarged liver,
+weighing eleven pounds. The gall-bladder which was very
+much contracted and nearly empty, contained eight calculi and
+forty-seven specimens of the <i>Distoma lanceolatum</i>, all of which
+were sexually mature.”</p>
+
+<p>As I have remarked in a former comment on this singular
+case, one can have no difficulty in arriving at the conclusion
+that these parasites were obtained from the girl’s swallowing
+trematode larvæ, either in their free or in their encysted
+condition. Leuckart says it was not possible to ascertain
+whether the parasites had any connection with the gall-stones,
+or whether the two maladies, so to speak, were independent
+of each other; yet this question might possibly have been
+solved if the calculi had been broken up in order to ascertain
+their structure. It is just possible that dead distomes may
+have formed their nuclei, and if so, the circumstance would,
+of course, point to the worms as the original source of the
+malady.</p>
+
+<p>So far as I am aware, the actual transformations undergone
+by the larvæ of <i>Distoma lanceolatum</i> have not been observed.
+The <i>Planorbis marginatus</i> has been confidently referred to as
+the intermediate bearer of the cercariæ of the common fluke,
+and Leuckart supposes that the same mollusk harbours the
+larvæ of this species. The ciliated embryos carry a boring<span class="pagenum" title="20"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a></span>
+spine or tooth, and it is most probable that the higher larvæ
+are similarly armed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_4"></a>No.
+4).&mdash;<i>Kichner</i> (see <i>Leuckart</i>), quoted above.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>,
+‘Entozoa’ (p. 187).&mdash;The case by Bucholz (reported as one of
+<i>Fasciola hepatica</i>) is given by <i>Jördens</i> in his work (quoted by
+Diesing and Leuckart) ‘Entomologie und Helminthologie des menschlichen
+Körpers,’ (s. 64, tab. vii, fig. 14), 1802.&mdash;<i>Chabert’s</i> French
+case is quoted by <i>Rudolphi</i> in his ‘Entozoorum sive vermium,’ &amp;c.
+(<i>loc. cit.</i>, Bibl. No. 1), p. 326, 1808.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distoma crassum</i>, Busk.&mdash;This large species was originally
+discovered by Prof. Busk in the duodenum of a Lascar who
+died at the Seamen’s Hospital, 1843. It, however, remained
+undescribed until 1859, when, with the discoverer’s approval, I
+gave some account of it to the Linnean Society.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fourteen original specimens found by Mr Busk,
+several have been lost. The one that he himself gave me
+I handed over to Prof. Leuckart, and it is figured in his
+work (‘Die mensch. Par.,’ s. 586). A second is preserved in the
+museum attached to the Middlesex Hospital, and a third is contained
+in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. This
+last-named specimen is the best of the original set. It supplied
+me with the few details of structure figured in outline in my
+‘Introductory Treatise’ (fig. 42, p. 123), published in 1864;
+and it also in part formed the basis of the description of the
+species communicated to the Linnean Society in June, 1859
+(“Synopsis of the Distomidæ,” p. 5, ‘Proceedings,’ vol. v).
+The late Dr Lankester, it is true, was the first to give a distinctive
+title to this entozoon (<i>Distoma Buskii</i>); but as the
+discoverer objected to this nomenclature, and as Dr Lankester’s
+proposed terms were unaccompanied by any original description,
+I requested Mr Busk to suggest a new name for the worm,
+which he accordingly did. As I subsequently pointed out, Von
+Siebold had already employed the compound title <i>Distoma crassum</i>
+to designate a small fluke infesting the house-martin
+(<i>Hirundo urbica</i>); but for reasons similar to those which contributed
+to set aside Dr Lankester’s nomenclature, the title
+adopted in my synopsis at length came to be recognised by
+Leuckart and by other well-known helminthologists. Before
+this recognition took place, Dr Weinland, of Frankfort, had so
+far accepted Lankester’s nomenclature as to call the species
+<i>Dicrocœlium Buskii</i>. In my judgment there are no sufficient
+grounds for retaining Dujardin’s genus. Further, I may<span class="pagenum" title="21"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a></span>
+observe that, in addition to the above-mentioned specimens,
+two others are preserved in the Museum at King’s College. Thus,
+only five out of the fourteen specimens are still in existence.</p>
+
+<p>No well-authenticated second instance of the occurrence of
+this worm took place until the year 1873, when a missionary
+and his wife from China consulted Dr George Johnson respecting
+parasites from which they were suffering. After a
+brief interval, both of Dr Johnson’s patients were by an act of
+courtesy on the part of this eminent physician placed under my
+professional care. I need hardly add that Dr Johnson had
+from the very first recognised the trematode character of the
+parasites. From the patients themselves I ascertained that
+they had been resident in China for about four years. During
+that period they had together freely partaken of fresh vegetables
+in the form of salad, and also occasionally of oysters, but
+more particularly of fish, which, in common with the oysters,
+abound in the neighbourhood of Ningpo. From their statements
+it appeared to me that to one or other of these sources
+we must look for an explanation of the fact of their concurrent
+infection. Fluke larvæ, as we know, abound in mollusks and
+fish; but whether any of the forms hitherto found in oysters or
+in fish have any genetic relation to the flukes of man, is a question
+that cannot very well be settled in the absence of direct
+experimental proof. I should add that it was not until after
+their visit to the interior of the country, some 130 miles distant
+from Ningpo, that the symptoms (which Dr Johnson in the first
+instance, and myself subsequently, considered to have been due
+to the presence of the parasites) made their appearance. Whilst
+in the country the missionary and his wife freely partook of
+freshwater fish, and on one occasion they received a quantity of
+oysters that had been sent up from Ningpo. The husband
+assured me that the fish were always thoroughly well cooked.</p>
+
+<p>If it be asked what were the symptoms produced, I can only
+furnish such few and hitherto unpublished particulars as the
+missionary himself supplied. I need hardly say that he was a
+highly cultured and intelligent gentleman, since only such
+persons are chosen for missionary work in China.</p>
+
+<p>From inquiries made by me on the 29th of January, 1875, I
+learnt that they left Ningpo in November, 1872, and travelled
+thence 130 miles into the interior of the country. In the
+following September, or about ten months subsequently, the
+missionary was attacked with diarrhœa, which persisted until<span class="pagenum" title="22"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a></span>
+expulsion of some of the parasites had occurred. According
+to the patient’s statements this result, so far, was entirely
+due to his having been placed on a milk diet; this course
+of treatment having been recommended by Dr Henderson,
+of Shanghae. The patient himself always suspected the presence
+of intestinal worms of some sort or other, although a
+Japanese doctor laughed at the idea of such a thing. Some
+other doctor treated this missionary for parasites, administering
+both male-fern and santonine without effect.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until several months had elapsed that his wife
+was attacked with diarrhœa. In both cases there was more or
+less flatus. The motions were white, and there were other indications
+implying that the liver was affected. Later on, symptoms
+of indigestion, with heartburn, set in and became very severe.
+Streaks of blood appeared in the fæces, but there was no
+dysentery. For the most part these symptoms were attributed
+to the effects of climate.</p>
+
+<p>When, in the month of February, 1875, I saw the missionary
+a second time, professionally, I found that all the old symptoms
+had returned. He had a foul tongue, the surface of the
+body was cold, he felt chills, and the pulse, though regular,
+registered ninety-six to the minute. Indigestion, nausea, headache,
+and diarrhœa had reappeared. Notwithstanding these
+febrile symptoms, so satisfied was the patient himself that all
+his ailments were entirely due to the presence of parasites, that
+I felt inclined to take the same view of his case. Accordingly
+my attention was principally directed to an effort for their expulsion;
+and in this view I ordered an aloetic pill followed by a
+castor-oil emulsion. This having no effect, I subsequently
+prescribed aloes and assafœtida pills, followed by scammony
+mixture. The action of the latter drug did not occasion griping,
+but, although efficient, led only to negative results. I should
+mention that in the patient’s judgment none of the vermifuges
+administered to him at any time had exerted any influence in
+the expulsion of the flukes. He was still thoroughly impressed
+with the notion that the milk diet, ordered by Dr Henderson,
+was the sole cause of their expulsion.</p>
+
+<p>As even a missionary could not live by milk alone I insisted
+upon a more substantial diet. The milk, indeed, had occasionally
+been supplemented by Liebig’s extract of meat and by light
+farinaceous food. When I last saw him neither he nor his wife
+had passed any more flukes, but they did not feel satisfied that no<span class="pagenum" title="23"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a></span>
+more guests remained. Somewhat improved in general health,
+the missionary resolved to go back to his duties in China. I
+expressed my fears, however, that his strength would prove
+unequal to the work.</p>
+
+<p>From the size and almost leathery texture of the two flukes
+which were in the first instance submitted to my notice, I at
+once recognised the species; but as they were spirit-specimens,
+I requested that if any more examples were obtained they
+should be sent to me in the fresh state. Fortunately others
+were brought in a few days, when, from an examination
+conducted whilst they were still fresh, I was able to make out
+several details of structure which had hitherto escaped notice.
+Altogether I secured seven specimens, three of them being in a
+mutilated condition. In what way these mutilations (as shown
+by my dried specimens) occurred I have not been able to make
+out, either by personal observation or by questioning the
+bearers. Two of the parasites look as though portions had
+been carefully excised near the centre. The new facts I have
+gleaned were derived from the examination of two comparatively
+small specimens, one of which, dried, has, by Prof.
+Rolleston’s desire, been deposited in the anatomical department
+of the University Museum at Oxford. When I took occasion
+to bring some of the new specimens under Mr Busk’s attention,
+he at once recognised them as referable to the species he had
+long ago discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest literary notice of <i>Distoma crassum</i> appeared in
+Dr Budd’s classical treatise ‘On Diseases of the Liver;’ and in
+it the author correctly stated, from data supplied by Mr Busk,
+that these human flukes were “much thicker and larger than
+those of the sheep,” being, it is added, from “an inch and a
+half to near three inches in length.” The longest of my recent
+specimens, however, scarcely exceeds two inches, whilst the
+smallest and most perfect (the one at Oxford) measures less
+than an inch from head to tail. The greatest width of my
+broadest specimen is little more than half an inch, or <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">9</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">16</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+None of the twelve examples that I have examined approach
+the length of three inches; but Mr Busk assured me that,
+judging from his recollection, some of his specimens were even
+longer than that. I fear, nevertheless, that the estimate given
+in my Synopsis is somewhat exaggerated; at all events it is so
+for average specimens.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 290px;">
+<img src="images/f02.jpg" width="290" height="513" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;The large human fluke (<i>Distoma crassum</i>) <i>a</i>, Oral sucker;
+<i>b</i>, intestine; <i>c</i>, cæcal end of same; <i>d</i>, reproductive papilla;
+<i>e</i>, uterine rosette (the folds of which are not branched); <i>f</i>, one of
+the folds (in profile); <i>g</i>, vitellarium; <i>h</i>, hernial protrusion (the
+result of an injury to the specimen); <i>i</i>, upper testis; <i>j</i>, streaks
+or layers of seminal fluid which have escaped by rupture
+and assumed a branched appearance; <i>k</i>, lower testis uninjured
+(but slightly altered in outline from flattening); <i>l</i>, ventral sucker.
+Magnified 2 diameters. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The new anatomical facts made out by me bear reference<span class="pagenum" title="24"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a></span>
+principally to the reproductive apparatus. What else I have observed
+is for the most part confirmatory of the statements made by Mr Busk.
+In particular, his brief account of the position and character of the
+digestive organs was not only confirmed by my earlier examinations, but
+is now re-verified. In the representation given in my ‘Introduction’ I
+showed in dotted outline two large organs which I supposed to be the
+testes. I distinctly observed radiating lines proceeding from the centre
+in each; but I could not discover the slightest trace of any limiting
+border to either organ. I now found in the same position two nearly
+circular flattened masses with clearly defined limits (<i>i</i>, <i>k</i>). No
+doubt could be entertained as to the testicular character of the lower
+organ (<i>k</i>). In the original drawing I further indicated the presence
+of a third and much smaller globular mass, which I termed the ovary;
+but what I supposed to represent this organ in the particular specimen
+from which the accompanying illustration was drawn turns out to be
+merely a hernial protrusion resulting from injury (<i>h</i>). The radiating,
+broad, and branching seminal ducts are beautifully distinct in one of my
+specimens, forming the most attractive<span class="pagenum" title="25"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a></span>
+feature of the parasite’s organisation (<i>k</i>). In consequence of injury
+to the specimen which is here drawn, the upper testis (<i>i</i>) displays
+no seminal tubes. I made out the female reproductive organs with more
+completeness. In the outline drawing given in my introductory treatise
+I had indicated the probable position of the uterine folds; reducing
+the organ to the simplest expression of what I concluded must obtain in
+the normal condition. My conjecture was perfectly correct. The uterus
+consists of irregularly folded tubes, which, though here and there
+apparently branching from a central tube, are in reality folded evenly
+upon themselves. The oviduct can be distinctly traced to its outlet in
+the reproductive papilla, which, as usual in true Distomes, is placed in
+the middle line, immediately above the ventral sucker. In my examination
+of Mr. Busk’s original specimens I could not find the slightest trace of
+vitelligene organs; but in my fresh examples I not only obtained proof
+that these organs were largely developed, but that their limitations
+could be fixed with accuracy (<i>g g</i>). They consisted of two large
+elongated masses, one on either side of the body, occupying about two
+thirds of the entire length of the parasite. Their yolk-vesicles were
+distinctly seen; but the main efferent canals were only here and there
+traceable. Clearly, the position and character of the yolk-forming
+glands of this large human fluke are quite unlike those of any of its
+congeners. This fluke is a remarkably fine species, and, when viewed in
+the fresh state with a powerful pocket-lens, presents a most striking
+appearance. I did not observe any cutaneous spines. I found the eggs to
+present an average long diameter of about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">200</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">330</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth. They are therefore somewhat smaller than those of the
+common fluke. In the specimen preserved in the Hunterian Museum there
+was complete evidence of the presence of an excretory outlet at the
+caudal extremity; but I did not succeed in finding any trace of the
+water-vascular system higher up. I have no doubt, however, that it
+exists.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the affinities of <i>Distoma crassum</i>, it is clear that
+this Trematode has little in common either with the liver-fluke
+of cattle and sheep (<i>Fasciola hepatica</i>), or the still larger species
+obtained by me from the giraffe (<i>Fasciola gigantea</i>). The
+simple character of the digestive tubes obviously connects it
+more closely with the lancet-shaped fluke (<i>Distoma lanceolatum</i>),
+the last-named parasite being, as already shown, an occasional<span class="pagenum" title="26"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a></span>
+resident in the human liver, where its presence, moreover,
+undoubtedly contributed towards the production of the fatal
+result.</p>
+
+<p>In my remarks on the missionary’s diet it is hinted that
+the Ningpo oysters may have played the <i>rôle</i> of intermediary
+bearers to the parasite in question; and as tending in some
+measure to strengthen this notion, it should be borne in mind
+that Mr. Busk’s original fluke-bearer came from the east. It
+is not improbable that the Lascar host may have partaken of
+the same particular species of fish or shell-fish that the
+missionary and his wife partook of. Be that as it may, the
+frequency of the occurrence of Trematodes and their larvæ in
+marine mollusks is well known. According to Woodward,
+several species of oyster are sold in the Indian and Chinese
+markets. Thus, it would require the skill of a malacologist to
+determine the particular species of <i>Ostrea</i> to which the Ningpo
+oysters should be referred.</p>
+
+<p>Mons. Giard is of opinion that the singular larvæ known as
+<i>Bucephali</i> attain sexual maturity in sharks and dog-fishes;
+therefore it is extremely unlikely that the <i>Bucephali</i> should have
+been in any way concerned in the infection of our missionary
+and his wife; nevertheless there remains the probability that
+these human bearers swallowed other kinds of Trematode
+larvæ when they consumed the Ningpo oysters. Moreover, if
+it should happen that none of the other larvæ occurring in
+oysters are capable of developing into flukes in the human
+territory, it yet remains highly probable that some one or other
+of the various encysted (and therefore sexually immature)
+Trematodes known to infest marine fishes will turn out to be
+the representative of our <i>Distoma crassum</i>. In this connection
+we must not forget that the flesh of the <i>Salmonidæ</i> forms the
+probable source of human <i>Bothriocephali</i>; and there is some
+likelihood that salt-water fishes, if not actually the primary,
+may become (after the manner explained by M. Giard) the
+secondary intermediary bearers of fluke-larvæ. At all events,
+I am inclined to look to the Ningpo oysters, or to some
+other of the various species of marine shell-fish sold in eastern
+markets, as the direct source of <i>Distoma crassum</i>; for, in
+addition to the bucephaloid cercarians, we have abundant
+evidence of the existence of other and more highly developed
+fluke-larvæ in marine bivalve mollusks.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection I will only further observe that we possess<span class="pagenum" title="27"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a></span>
+very little knowledge of the parasites which take up their abode
+in the viscera of savages. This ignorance results partly from
+the fact that these untutored races, as proved by the statements
+of Kaschin and others, actually, in the matter of severe symptoms,
+suffer much less from the presence of intestinal worms
+than their civilised fellow-men do. The subject is worthy of
+further attention, but no one, so far as I am aware, has cared
+to institute the necessary inquiries in a methodical way. I
+strongly suspect that several of the human parasites which we
+now consider to be rare would be found to be abundant if by
+means of post-mortem examinations and other methods of investigation
+we could be made acquainted with the facts of helminthism
+as they occur amongst the raw-flesh and fish-eating
+savage tribes. Of course any person, notwithstanding the
+utmost care and cleanliness, as in the cases before us, may
+contract a noxious parasite; nevertheless, speaking generally,
+it may be said that the measure of internal parasitism affecting
+any given class of people bears a strict relation to the degree
+of barbarism shown by such persons in their choice of food and
+drink, and in their manner of eating and drinking. This
+statement, if true, is not destitute of sanitary importance;
+moreover, it applies not alone to ourselves, but also to all the
+domesticated animals that serve our wants. Cleanliness is just
+as necessary for their welfare as for our own.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1878 my patients returned from China.
+They had experienced fresh attacks from the parasite; moreover,
+one of their children, a little girl, was also victimised by
+the same species of fluke. Thus, in one family I have encountered
+three cases of fluke-helminthiasis due to <i>Distoma
+crassum</i>! One of the worms passed by the little girl <i>per anum</i>
+is now in my possession. It not only shows the upper testis
+perfectly, but also the many times transversely folded, simple,
+uterine rosette which is certainly not branched. There are
+also traces of an organ which I take to be the cirrhus-pouch;
+but I have never seen the penis protruded externally.</p>
+
+<p>For the purposes of diagnosis I subjoin the following characters.
+The <i>Distoma crassum</i> is a large, flat helminth varying
+from an inch and a half to two and a half inches in length,
+and having an average breadth of five eighths of an inch; it is
+especially also characterised by its uniform and considerable
+thickness, combined with the presence of a double alimentary
+canal which is not branched; the body is pointed in front, and<span class="pagenum" title="28"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a></span>
+obtusely rounded posteriorly; the integument being smooth and
+unarmed; the reproductive orifices placed immediately above
+the ventral sucker; the testes form two large rounded organs,
+situated below the uterine rosette, and disposed in the middle
+line, one in front of the other; the uterine folds occupy the
+front part of the body; near the lateral margins there are two
+large vitelligene glands, one on either side of the intestinal
+tube; the excretory organ probably consists of a central trunk
+with diverging branches, opening below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_5"></a>No.
+5).&mdash;<i>Budd</i>, original notice in his ‘Diseases of the Liver,’ 2nd
+edition, quoted by Lankester in Appendix B to Küchenmeister’s ‘Manual
+of Parasites,’ p. 437, 1857.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, “Synopsis of the
+<i>Distomidæ</i>,” in ‘Journ. of the Proceed. of the Linnean Soc.,’ vol. v,
+Zool. Div., 1860 (original description p. 5).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Entozoa,’
+p. 193, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on the Human Fluke Fauna, with
+especial reference to recent additions from India and the East,” the
+‘Veterinarian,’ April, 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the supposed Rarity,
+Nomenclature, Structure, Affinities, and Source of the large Human Fluke
+(<i>D. crassum</i>),” ‘Linn. Soc. Journ.,’ vol. xii, Zool. Div., 1876, p. 285
+<i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Observations on the large Human Fluke, with
+notes of two cases in which a missionary and his wife were the victims,”
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The new Human Fluke,”
+in a letter published in the ‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1875.&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>, in
+‘Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia;’ see also Dr McConnell’s
+paper quoted below (Bibl. No. 6).&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., Bd. I, s.
+560.&mdash;<i>Weinland</i>, l. c. (Bibl. No. 2), Appendix, p. 87.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<img src="images/f03.jpg" width="130" height="513" style="padding-left: 18px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;The Chinese fluke (<i>Distoma
+Sinense</i>). <i>a</i>, Oral sucker; <i>b</i>,
+œsophageal bulb; <i>c</i>, intestine;
+<i><span class="nowrap">c<span class="prime">′</span></span></i>, cæcal end; <i>d</i>, ventral sucker;
+<i>e</i>, genital pore; <i>f</i>, uterine
+folds; <i>g</i>, ovary; <i>h</i>, vitellarium;
+<i>i</i>, vitelligene duct; <i>k</i>, upper
+seminal reservoir; <i>l</i>, testes;
+<i>m</i>, lower seminal pouch; <i>o</i>,
+vas deferens; <i>p</i>, pulsatile vesicle;
+<i><span class="nowrap">p<span class="prime">′</span></span></i>, water vessel. After
+McConnell.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Distoma Sinense</i>, Cobbold.&mdash;The discovery of this species is
+due to Prof. J. F. P. McConnell, who “on the 9th of Sept., 1874,
+found a large number of flukes in the liver of a Chinese, obstructing
+the bile ducts.” The species measures <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">7</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">10</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length, by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">7</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth, the eggs being <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">833</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1666</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+Dr McConnell showed in his original memoir that the worm cannot well
+be confounded with <i>Fasciola hepatica</i>, with <i>Distoma lanceolatum</i>, or
+with <i>D. conjunctum</i>. In this conclusion he was supported by Dr T. R.
+Lewis, who examined the specimens with him. In a letter communicated to
+the ‘Lancet,’ quoted above, I proposed the nomenclature here given; but
+Prof. Leuckart, unaware of this step, afterwards suggested the terms
+<i>Distomum spatulatum</i>. Later on I received numerous specimens from
+Calcutta, the examination of which enabled me to confirm the<span class="pagenum" title="29"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a></span>
+accuracy of the original description. As regards the male organs in
+the subjoined figure, it will be seen, by comparing the lettering and
+references, that I have interpreted the facts of structure somewhat
+differently from Prof. McConnell.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of December, 1874, a Chinese died in the Civil Hospital
+at Port Louis, Mauritius, whilst he was under the care of Dr William
+Macgregor, chief medical officer of the Colony of Fiji. The post
+mortem revealed the presence of a very great number of flukes in the
+bile-ducts. Dr Macgregor described these parasites with great care, and
+having favored me with a copy of his manuscript I at once recognised the
+worms to be identical with the species discovered by McConnell. I also
+received through Dr Henry Clark, of Glasgow, two Mauritius specimens,
+which when compared with the Calcutta examples proved to be specifically
+identical. Dr Macgregor’s paper, communicated to the Glasgow
+Medico-Chirurgical Society, gives full particulars of the helminthiasis
+associated with this parasite, whilst both his and Prof. McConnell’s
+account of the structure of the worm are remarkably complete in details,
+and well illustrated. It is not a little curious to notice that although
+these parasites were obtained in countries far removed from China, they
+were in both instances taken from Chinese; moreover, from the statements
+of Macgregor, it appears very probable that the parasites in question
+are a common source of liver disease. Without doubt oriental habits are
+eminently favorable to fluke infection, for we are now acquainted with
+four species of flukes whose geographical range is limited to eastern
+parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_6"></a>No.
+6).&mdash;<i>McConnell, J. F. P.</i>, “Remarks on the Anatomy and
+Pathological relations of a new species of<span class="pagenum" title="30"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a></span>
+Liver-fluke,” ‘Lancet,’ Aug. 1875; repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Oct.,
+1875; also in the ‘Lancet,’ March 16th, 1878, p. 406.&mdash;<i>Macgregor,
+W.</i>, “A new form of Paralytic Disease, associated with the presence of
+a new species of Liver Parasite (<i>Distoma Sinense</i>),” ‘Glasgow Med.
+Journ.’ for Jan., 1877; also in the ‘Lancet’ for May 26th, 1877, p.
+775.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, in a note to the ‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1875, and
+in the Appendix to Macgregor’s paper, p. 15, 1877.&mdash;<i>Leuckart, R.</i>,
+l. c., Bd. ii, s. 871, 1876.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distoma conjunctum</i>, Cobbold.&mdash;The little fluke which I first
+discovered in the gall-ducts of an American fox (<i>Canis fulvus</i>) was
+fourteen years afterwards obtained from pariah dogs in India by Dr T.
+R. Lewis (1872); but it remained for Prof. McConnell to show that this
+entozoon also invades the human subject (1874). A second instance of its
+occurrence in man was recorded in 1876. We all figured the worm, and in
+respect of general details our descriptions for the most part agreed
+(fig. <a href="#Fig_56">56</a>). The worms from the dog and fox gave an
+average of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length, but the majority of those found by McConnell in man were fully <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+from head to tail.</p>
+
+<p>Writing in the spring of 1876 Dr McConnell <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“In
+the ‘Lancet’ for the 21st of August, 1875, I published the
+description of a new species of liver-fluke found in the bile-ducts
+of a Chinaman (<i>sic</i>) who died in this hospital. Dr Spencer
+Cobbold has very kindly interested himself in this discovery,
+and proposed the name of <i>Distoma Sinense</i> for the new fluke.
+This discovery (in September, 1874) has stimulated me to pay
+still greater attention to the morbid conditions of the biliary
+canals in our post-mortem examinations; but, although more
+than 500 autopsies have been conducted since that date, I have
+not met with another instance of distomata in the liver until
+within the last fortnight. On the 9th of January, 1876, in examining
+the liver of a native patient who had died in the hospital,
+I again found a large number of flukes in the bile-ducts, and
+having carefully examined many specimens, I recognise the
+species as the <i>D. conjunctum</i> of Cobbold. Dr Cobbold discovered
+this fluke in 1858; but, as far as I am aware, the human
+liver has never hitherto been found infested by these parasites,
+and this will give general interest and importance to the following
+case.”</p>
+
+<p>“Jamalli Khan, a Mahommedan, aged twenty-four, admitted
+into the hospital on the 25th of December, 1875. He is a
+resident of Calcutta, and an ordinary labourer (coolie). He<span class="pagenum" title="31"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a></span>
+states that he had been suffering from ‘fever’ for the last two
+months, at first intermittent in character, but for the last seven
+days more or less continued. He is much emaciated and reduced
+in strength. Complains of pain on pressure over the liver and
+spleen; the latter can be felt much enlarged, reaching downwards
+to nearly the level of the umbilicus; the lower border of
+the liver, however, can only just be felt below the ribs. Temperature
+on evening of admission 101°&nbsp;F. Conjunctivæ are
+anæmic, but not jaundiced. Has also a little bronchitis. The
+fever continued with slight remissions for ten days (January 4th,
+1876), the highest diurnal temperature (in the afternoon) varying
+from 103° to 104°&nbsp;F.; it then abated, but dysentery set in.
+He began to pass six or eight stools in the twenty-four hours,
+attended with much griping, and containing varying quantities
+of blood-tinged, gelatinous mucus. These became more frequent,
+in spite of treatment, during the next three days, and on the
+8th of January he was manifestly sinking; passed his evacuations
+into the bedclothes, became cold and collapsed, and died
+in this state that same evening.</p>
+
+<p>“A post-mortem examination was made on the following
+morning, thirteen hours after death. All the organs of the
+body were found more or less anæmic, but exhibited nothing
+remarkable with the following exceptions. The lungs towards
+their posterior margins and bases were dark, but still spongy
+and crepitant. The spleen was found greatly enlarged, heavy;
+capsule tense and stretched; substance soft, reddish brown,
+irregularly pigmented; weight 1&nbsp;lb. 13&nbsp;oz. The liver was of
+about normal size; its surfaces smooth, the capsule slightly
+hazy looking. Hepatic substance firm, but abnormally dark,
+and the bile-ducts particularly prominent and thickened.
+Numbers of small distomata escaped from the incisions made
+into the organ, and could be seen protruding from the dilated
+biliary canals. The gall-bladder was filled with thick greenish-yellow
+bile, measuring about an ounce and a half, but containing
+no parasites, and no ova even could be detected on microscopical
+examination of this bile and of scrapings from the
+lining membrane of the gall-bladder. The cystic duct was
+free from obstruction. The condition of the common choledic
+duct could not so well be ascertained, as the liver had been
+removed from the abdominal cavity before anything extraordinary
+had been detected in its condition, but, so far as it
+could be examined, it was found patent; the duodenal mucous<span class="pagenum" title="32"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a></span>
+membrane was well bile-stained, and there was evidence of
+biliary colouring matter in the fæcal contents of the bowels.
+On carefully dissecting out, and then laying open, the biliary
+ducts in a portion of the right lobe of the liver (the rest being
+preserved entire), numbers of distomata were found within them,
+lying singly, flattened, and generally with the anterior extremity,
+or “oral sucker,” directed towards the periphery of the organ,
+the posterior extremity towards its centre; or in twos, threes,
+or even little groups of fours, variously coiled upon themselves
+or upon each other. The lining membrane of the biliary canals
+was found abnormally vascular, its epithelial contents abundant
+(catarrh?), and, among these, ova could be detected under the
+microscope. Sections of the liver, hardened and then examined
+in glycerine, showed fatty infiltration of the lobular structure,
+but not to any advanced degree; the bile ducts considerably
+dilated, their walls thick and hypertrophied, but nothing else
+abnormal, or in any way remarkable. The weight of the liver
+was 3&nbsp;lbs. In the transverse and descending colon numerous
+indolent-looking, shallow, pigmented ulcers were found, and in
+the rectum others evidently more recent and highly injected.
+The submucous tissues throughout were abnormally thickened.
+The intestinal contents consisted of only about three ounces of
+thin yellowish (bilious) fæcal fluid, with small bits of opaque
+mucus. This was carefully washed and examined, but no flukes
+were discovered. About a dozen distomata escaped from the
+liver on making the primary incisions, and quite twice this
+number was found subsequently within the biliary canals. Only
+a portion of the right lobe has, as I have said, been dissected,
+so that it may be confidently stated that probably not less than
+a hundred of these flukes must have infested this liver. All
+were found dead, but it must be remembered that the autopsy
+was performed thirteen hours after the death of the patient.
+It is remarkable that in this case, as in the one before described
+by me, no distomata were found in the gall-bladder. The
+presence of these parasites in the bile-ducts seems to have led to
+catarrhal inflammation of their lining membrane and abnormal
+thickening and dilatation of their walls, but there is no evidence
+of their having caused sufficient obstruction to produce cholæmia,
+as in the case just referred to, and no marked pathological
+change could be detected in the lobular structure of the liver.”</p>
+
+<p>After referring to the anatomical descriptions of the worm,
+as recorded by myself (in ‘Entozoa’) and by Lewis (in the<span class="pagenum" title="33"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a></span>
+memoir quoted below), Professor McConnell further observes
+that the addition of a few more particulars seems necessary for
+the determination of the identity of the species. He then gives
+the following characters:</p>
+
+<p>“Body lanceolate, anterior and posterior extremities pointed,
+the latter obtusely. Surface covered with minute spines or hairs.
+Average length <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> (three eighths of an inch);
+average breadth <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">10</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+‘Ventral’ sucker slightly smaller than ‘oral.’ Reproductive papilla or
+genital orifice placed a little above and to one side of the former.
+Alimentary canal double and unbranched. Uterine folds and ovary placed
+in the median line, and above the male generative organs, the latter
+consisting of two very distinct globular bodies or testes. Ova of
+the usual type, <i>i.e.</i> oval in outline, having a double contour, and
+granular contents; average length, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">750</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>; average breadth, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1333</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The only point of note is that the average length of these flukes
+is greater than that of the same species found by the authors above
+referred to. The <i>D. conjunctum</i> in the American fox, and in the pariah
+dog, has an average length of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>;
+only two or three specimens of this size were found in this liver, and
+these showed evidences of immaturity; a few were found <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length; but the great majority exactly <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The anatomical characters are otherwise precisely identical.”</p>
+
+<p>Professor McConnell concludes his communication by a remark in
+reference to the common source of infection shared by mankind and dogs
+in India. The occurrence, however, of this entozoon in an American red
+fox points to a very wide geographical distribution of the species. It
+is hardly likely that the fox, though dying in the London Zoological
+Society’s Menagerie, should have contracted the parasite in England.
+In the second half of this work I shall reproduce my original drawing
+(fig. <a href="#Fig_56">56</a>) from the ‘Linnean Transactions;’ but I
+may refer to my Manual (quoted below) for a reproduction of McConnell’s
+figure. In my original specimens the integumentary spines had fallen,
+probably as a result of post-mortem decomposition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_7"></a>No.
+7).&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, “Synopsis of the Distomidæ,” (l. c.), 1859;
+and in “Further Observations on Entozoa, with experiments,” ‘Linn.
+Trans.,’ vol. xxiii (tab. 33, p. 349), 1860.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “List of
+Entozoa, including Pentastomes, from animals dying at the Zool. Soc.
+Menagerie between the years 1857&ndash;60,” ‘Proceed. Zool. Soc.,’
+1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 20, pl. ii, 1864; and in <span class="pagenum" title="34"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a></span>
+“Manual of the Internal Parasites of our Domesticated Animals,” p. 81,
+1873.&mdash;<i>Lewis, T. R.</i>, and <i>Cunningham, D. D.</i>, in a footnote to
+their ‘Microscopical and Physiological Researches,’ Appendix C., ‘Eighth
+Ann. Rep. of the San. Comm. with the Govt. of India,’ p. 168, Calcutta,
+1872.&mdash;<i>McConnell, J. F. P.</i>, “On the <i>Distoma conjunctum</i>,”
+in the ‘Lancet’ for 1875&ndash;76, quoted above; reprinted in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1876; also (a second case) in the ‘Lancet’ for March
+30th, 1878, p. 476.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;">
+<img src="images/f04.jpg" width="120" height="237" style="padding-left: 10px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;The small Egyptian
+fluke (<i>Distoma heterophyes</i>),
+viewed from behind. The
+large ventral sucker, supplementary
+disk, uterus, testes,
+simple divided intestine,
+vitellarium, and pulsatile
+vesicle are conspicuous.
+Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Distoma heterophyes</i>, Von Siebold.&mdash;This minute parasite,
+measuring only <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span>
+of a line in length, was discovered by Dr Bilharz, of Cairo, in the
+intestines of a lad, post-mortem, in the year 1851. A second similar
+instance occurred, when several hundred examples were collected and
+afterwards distributed amongst the helminthologists of Europe. Through
+the kindness of Leuckart two of the worms eventually reached myself.
+From one of these the accompanying figure was drawn. For the purpose
+of supplying a full diagnosis I have elsewhere described this worm
+as presenting an oblong, pyriform outline, attenuated in front, and
+obtusely rounded behind; body compressed throughout, the surface being
+armed with numerous minute spines, which are particularly conspicuous
+(under the microscope) towards the head; oral and ventral suckers
+largely developed, the latter being near the centre of the body, and
+about twice the diameter of the former; pharyngeal bulb distinct and
+separate from the oral sucker, and continued into a long œsophagus,
+which divides immediately above the ventral acetabulum; intestinal tubes
+simple, gradually widening below and terminating near the posterior
+end of the body; reproductive orifices inconspicuous, but evidently
+placed below and a little to the right of the ventral sucker, at which
+point they are surrounded by a special accessory organ, resembling a
+supernumerary sucker; uterine folds numerous and communicating with
+small but conspicuously developed vitelligene glands; testes spherical
+and placed on the same level in the lower part of the body; ovary
+distinct; aquiferous system terminating inferiorly in a large oval
+contractile vesicle, the latter opening externally by a central <i>foramen
+caudale</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from its minuteness, moreover, this trematode is especially
+characterised by the possession of a very remarkable apparatus
+surrounding the reproductive orifices. It consists of an irregularly
+circular disk, measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">125</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in diameter, and having a thick-lipped margin, which supports seventy fish-<span class="pagenum" title="35"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a></span>
+basket-like horny ribs comparable to the claw-formations seen in the
+genus <i>Octobothrium</i>. According to Bilharz these ribs give off five
+little branches from their sides, but Leuckart could not see them in his
+specimens. Leuckart estimated the length of these horny filaments
+to be <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+whilst their breadth was <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3570</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+On the whole we may regard this organ as a complicated form of
+“holdfast” designed to facilitate or give efficiency to the sexual act.
+I may here also state that this structure is by no means unique; for,
+if I mistake not, it exists in an equally developed degree in the young
+trematode which Dr Leared found infesting the heart of a turtle. Leared
+believed that he had found an ordinary distome; an opinion to which I
+could not give my assent, seeing that the organ described by him as a
+“folded, ventral sucker” presented a very different aspect to the oral
+sucker displayed by the same animal. Without doubt, however, the organ
+in his so-called <i>Distoma constrictum</i> is analogous to the supplementary
+“holdfast” existing in <i>Distoma heterophyes</i>. The views which I
+originally advanced as to the source and condition of the parasite are
+probably correct.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the structure of <i>Distoma heterophyes</i>, I have only to
+add that a special set of glandular organs is situated on either side
+of the elongated œsophagus, but the connection between these organs
+and the digestive apparatus has not been clearly made out. Leuckart
+compares them to the so-called salivary glands found in <i>Distoma
+lanceolatum</i>, and says, “The presence of such a glandular apparatus is
+also indicated by the more ventral position of the oral sucker, and
+the development of the cephalic margin.” The conspicuous contractile
+vesicle terminating the excretory system is developed to an unusually
+large extent, exhibiting in its interior multitudes of the well-known
+active molecular particles. Lastly, I have only to add that the eggs of
+<i>Distoma heterophyes</i> measure <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">990</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">666</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+transversely.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/f05.jpg" width="80" height="135" style="padding-left: 10px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;The eye fluke
+(<i>Distoma ophthalmobium</i>).
+Showing the
+suckers and intestinal
+tubes. After Von
+Ammon.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_8"></a>No.
+8).&mdash;<i>Bilharz</i>, “Beitrag zur Helminth. humana,” ‘Zeitsch. für
+wissenschaftl. Zool.,’ s. 62, 1851.&mdash;<span class="pagenum"
+title="36"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a></span><i>Cobbold</i>,
+‘Entozoa,’ p. 195, 1864.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister, F.</i>, ‘Parasiten,’
+1855, s. 210, Eng. edit., p. 276, 1857.&mdash;<i>Leared</i>, “Description
+of <i>Distoma constrictum</i>,” ‘Quarterly Journal of Micros. Science,’
+new series, vol. ii, 1862.&mdash;<i>Leuckart, R.</i>, l. c., s. 613,
+1863.&mdash;<i>Moquin-Tandon</i>, on the Genus <i>Fasciola</i>, l. c.,
+1861.&mdash;<i>Weinland</i>, on <i>Dicrocœlium</i>, l. c., p. 86, 1858.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distoma ophthalmobium</i>, Diesing.&mdash;There is every reason to
+believe that the small flukes found by Gescheid and Von Ammon in the
+human eye were sexually immature worms, but since it cannot be decided
+as to what adult species they are referable I prefer to notice them
+under the usual title. Possibly these eye-worms may be referred to <i>D.
+lanceolatum</i>, as suggested by Leuckart. However that may be, I deem
+it unnecessary to repeat the details recorded in the treatises quoted
+below. The largest examples measured only half a line or about one
+millimètre in length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_9"></a>No.
+9).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 191.&mdash;<i>Gescheid (D. oculi
+humani)</i>, in Von Ammon’s ‘Zeitsch. f. Ophth.,’ iii, and also in
+Ammon’s ‘Klin. Darstell. d. Krankheit d. Menschl. Auges.,’ vols. i and
+iii.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, Eng. edit., p. 287.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c.,
+s. 610.&mdash;<i>Nordmann (Monostoma lentis)</i>, “Mikr. Beitr.,” Heft. ii,
+‘Vorwort,’ s. ix, 1832.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetrastoma renale</i>, Chiaje; <i>Hexathyridium pinguicola</i>, Treutler;
+and <i>H. venarum</i>, Treutler.&mdash;Whether these forms are good species
+or not, the fact that they were genuine parasites cannot, I think, be
+disputed. The first-mentioned measured five lines in length, and was
+found by Lucarelli in the urine. The second, eight lines long, was found
+by Treutler in a small tumour connected with the ovary. The third,
+measuring three lines in length, was twice found in venous blood, and
+twice in the sputum of patients suffering from hæmoptysis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_10"></a>No.
+10).&mdash;<i>Delle-Chiaje</i>, ‘Elmintografia Umana,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i>
+(l. c., Bibl. No. 2), s. 265, 1819.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entozoa’
+(p. 204, et seq.).&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. 2), s. 265,
+1819.&mdash;<i>Treutler</i>, ‘Obs. Path. Anat. ad Helm. Corp. Humani,’ p. 19,
+1793.&mdash;<i>Zeder</i>, ‘Anleitung zur Naturg. der Eingeweidewürmer,’ s.
+230, 1803.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphistoma hominis</i>, Lewis, and McConnell.&mdash;The original
+account of this species is based upon two finds. The first
+series of specimens was procured from Dr J. O’Brien, of<span class="pagenum" title="37"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a></span>
+Gowhatty, and the second set from the Pathological Museum of
+the Calcutta Medical College. Dr O’Brien and Dr Curran
+together procured their specimens, post-mortem, from an Assamese.
+There were hundreds of worms present in the vicinity of
+the ileo-colic valve. The museum specimens were procured from
+a patient who died at the Tirhoot gaol hospital in 1857. They
+were (say the authors) presented to the museum by Dr Simpson,
+and in the catalogue their history was briefly recorded as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 340px;">
+<img src="images/f06.jpg" width="340" height="337" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;The human amphistome (<i>Amphistoma hominis</i>). Longitudinal section. <i>a</i>, Oral sucker;
+<i>b</i>, pharyngeal bulb; <i>c</i>, nerve ganglia; <i>d</i>, œsophagus; <i>e</i>, genital pore; <i>f</i>, vagina; <i>g</i>, ductus
+ejaculatorius; <i>h</i>, ventral nerve cords; <i>i</i>, intestinal canal; <i>j</i>, upper testis; <i>k</i>, water vessel;
+<i>l</i>, lower testis (ovary according to Lewis); <i>m</i>, principal ducts of the vitellarium; <i>n</i>, branches
+of the vitellary ducts; <i>o</i>, ventral pouch or bursa; <i>p</i>, caudal sucker. Magnified 12 diameters.
+After Lewis.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“The cæcum of a native prisoner who died from cholera in
+the Tirhoot gaol hospital, with a number of peculiar and,
+probably, hitherto unrecognised parasites, found alive in that
+part of the intestinal canal.” (<i>Presented by Dr Simpson through
+Professor E. Goodeve.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>In continuation of their narrative, Drs Lewis and McConnell
+go on to say that, “with reference to this preparation, the following
+very interesting particulars from the ‘Annual Jail Report of
+Tirhoot’ for 1857 have been very kindly placed at our disposal by
+the Surgeon-General, Indian Medical Department. The prisoner,<span class="pagenum" title="38"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a></span>
+Singhesur Doradh, aged 30, was attacked with cholera on the
+13th, and died on the 14th of July, 1857. Had not been in
+hospital previously, and was employed in cleaning the jail.”</p>
+
+<p>The post-mortem examination was made three hours after <span
+class="nowrap">death:&mdash;</span>“Colon externally livid, contracted;
+contains a little serous fluid with flakes of mucus. Mucous membrane
+healthy except venous injection. In the cæcum and ascending colon
+numerous parasites like tadpoles, alive, adhering to the mucous membrane
+by their mouths. The mucous membrane marked with numerous red spots like
+leech-bites from these parasites. The parasites found only in the cæcum
+and ascending colon, none in the small intestines.” This description
+is by Dr Simpson, who adds, “I have never seen such parasites, and
+apparently they are unknown to the natives. They are of a red colour,
+size of a tadpole, some young, others apparently full grown, alive,
+adhering to mucous membrane,&mdash;head round, with circular open mouth,
+which they had the power of dilating and contracting. Body short and
+tapering to a blunt point.”</p>
+
+<p>Drs Lewis and McConnell’s description of the worm is too long to be
+quoted in full. The parasites measure <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">5</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length, by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth. Science is much indebted to these eminent observers for
+having unearthed the museum specimens and for recording the facts they
+could gather. From a zoological point of view the most interesting fact
+connected with Lewis’s amphistome is the existence of a gastric pouch.
+This structure brings these human <i>Masuri</i> into close relation with the
+equine parasite which I have named <i>Gastrodiscus Sonsinoii</i>, and which
+will be found illustrated in this work (fig. <a href="#Fig_62">62</a>).
+In short, Lewis’s worm appears like a transition form; the absence of
+gastric supplementary suckerlets separating it from the new generic
+type.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_11"></a>No. 11).&mdash;<i>Lewis, T. R., and McConnell, T. F. P.,</i>
+“<i>Amph. hominis</i>; a new parasite affecting Man,” ‘Proceedings
+of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ Aug., 1876.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>, Cobbold.&mdash;This remarkable parasite was
+discovered by Bilharz in 1851. It was subsequently found by myself
+in an ape (1857); other species of the same genus having since been
+detected by Sonsino in the ox and sheep (1876). The human examples were
+originally obtained from the portal system of blood-vessels. Afterwards
+they were obtained by Bilharz, Griesinger, and others, from the veins of
+the mesentery and bladder. It was shown that they were not<span class="pagenum" title="39"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a></span>
+only associated with, but actually gave rise to a formidable and
+very common disease in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>In 1864 Dr John Harley made the interesting announcement that he
+had discovered specimens of this singular genus in a patient from the
+Cape of Good Hope. He also showed that the entozoon was the cause
+of the <i>hæmaturia</i> known to be endemic at the Cape. Harley believed
+his parasites to represent a new species (<i>Distoma capense</i>), but in
+this view I showed that he was mistaken. His admirable contribution,
+nevertheless, served not only to establish the wide range of this
+parasite on the African continent, but also to throw much light upon
+the subject of endemic helminthiasis. As this worm forms an almost
+altogether exceptional type of fluke-structure, it became necessary to
+supersede the original nomenclature proposed by Bilharz and Von Siebold
+(<i>Distoma hæmatobium</i>). Accordingly I proposed the term <i>Bilharzia</i>,
+whilst other helminthologists subsequently proposed various titles
+(<i>Gynæcophorus</i>, Diesing; <i>Schistosoma</i>, Weinland; <i>Thecosoma</i>,
+Moquin-Tandon). On various grounds, and chiefly on account of priority,
+most writers have at length definitely accepted the nomenclature which
+employed the discoverer’s name for generic recognition.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/f07.jpg" width="150" height="234" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;The blood fluke (<i>Bilharzia
+hæmatobia</i>). The lower end of the
+female is withdrawn from the gynæcophoric
+canal of the male. After
+Küchenmeister.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i> may be described as a trematode helminth
+in which the male and female reproductive organs occur in separate
+individuals; the male being a cylindrical vermiform worm, measuring only
+half an inch or rather more in length, whilst the female is filiform,
+longer, and much narrower than the male, being about four fifths of
+an inch from head to tail; in both, the oral and ventral suckers are
+placed near each other at the front of the body; in the male the suckers
+measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">100</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+in the female <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">314</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in diameter; in either, the reproductive orifice occurs immediately
+below the ventral acetabulum. The comparatively short, thick, and
+flattened body of the male is tuberculated and furnished with a
+<i>gynæcophoric</i> canal, extending from a point a little below the ventral
+sucker to the extremity of the tail; this slit-like cavity being<span class="pagenum" title="40"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a></span>
+formed by the narrowing and bending inwards of the lateral borders of
+the animal, the right side being more or less completely overlapped by
+the left margin of the body; caudal extremity pointed; intestine in
+the form of two simple blind canals. Female with a cylindrical body
+measuring only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">312</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+of an inch in thickness in front of the oral sucker; lodged in the
+gynæcophoric canal of the male during the copulatory act; thickness of
+the body below the ventral acetabulum being about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">357</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+and at the lower part <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">96</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>;
+surface almost smooth throughout; intestinal canals reunited after
+a short separation to form a broad, central, spirally twisted tube
+extending down the middle of the body; vitelligene and germigene canals
+combining to form a simple oviducal canal, which is continued into
+a simple uterine tube, finally opening near the lower margin of the
+ventral sucker; eggs pointed at one end, or furnished with a projecting
+spine near the hinder pole.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f08.jpg" width="220" height="193" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Two eggs of <i>Bilharzia</i>. <i>a</i>, With the yolk
+coarsely segmented; <i>b</i>, with the yolk granulated and
+the spine wanting. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The study of the structure and formation of the contents of the
+ova possesses great interest. When fully developed the eggs are oval,
+measuring from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">180</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">160</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length, with an average transverse diameter of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">325</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+Some are a trifle larger, others smaller. Occasionally one encounters
+narrow specimens, and also aberrant forms presenting a pear-shaped
+outline. I have met with eggs not exceeding <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in their long diameter, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+transversely, whose yolk-contents had already arrived at an advanced
+stage of segmentation.</p>
+
+<p>The shell is transparent, of a brown colour, and free from any
+markings, lines, or sculpturing. One pole of the shell is invariably
+narrower than the other, and usually presents a more or less pointed
+extremity (fig. 8). This narrow end commonly displays a sharp,
+projecting, beak-like spine, which, at its base, constantly rests
+upon the centre of the pole of the shell, but occasionally it is
+eccentrically placed (fig. 8<i>a</i>). In some few examples the spine is
+removed to a little distance from the actual extremity of the shell; but
+even in these instances, so far as my observations go,<span class="pagenum" title="41"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a></span>
+its apex always projects beyond the level of the curved end of the
+pole. Now and then the spine is altogether absent (fig. 8<i>b</i>); and when
+present it is, as already hinted, very unequally developed. In size the
+spine ranges from a mere point, having an extreme length of only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+up to the comparatively large magnitude of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+lengthways.</p>
+
+<p>According to the best evidence there is no good ground for asserting
+the existence of any specific differentiation between the parasites
+coming from the Cape and Egypt respectively.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;">
+<img src="images/f09.jpg" width="240" height="204" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Two eggs of <i>Bilharzia</i>, with eccentrically placed
+spines. That to the left shows mulberry cleavage of
+the yolk; the other having lost its embryonal contents
+by rupture. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Taking a more extended view of the significance of these singular
+chorional spines, I think we may here recognise the early efforts of
+Nature, so to speak, to form or evolve a special organ, which, in
+the eggs of certain other parasites, becomes capable of attaining
+a relatively prodigious degree of development. To me it seems that
+the little process in question is a kind of rudimentary holdfast;
+and, as such, it may be reckoned as the homologue of a variety of
+egg-appendages. Eleven years ago Mr Edwin Canton discovered some curious
+ova attached to the conjunctiva of a turtle’s eye. I had no hesitation
+in pronouncing them to be referable to some ectozoon or entozoon
+belonging to one or other of the allied genera <i>Polystoma</i>, <i>Tristoma</i>,
+<i>Octobothrium</i>, and <i>Dactylogyrus</i>. Now, whilst the Bilharzia ova
+display only a solitary and imperfectly developed holdfast, placed at
+one end of the shell, the singular eggs described by Mr Canton develop
+organs of anchorage at both extremities. Parasitic ova exhibiting
+analogous processes, spines, and filamentary appendages at both poles,
+have been observed in various species of parasite&mdash;as, for example,
+in <i>Monostoma verrucosum</i> infesting the fox, in <i>Tænia cyathiformis</i>
+infesting the swallow, in <i>Tænia variabilis</i> of the gambet, in
+<i>Octobothrium lanceolatum</i> attached to the gills of the common herring;
+and in <i>Polystoma appendiculata</i>, from the branchiæ of various marine
+fishes. Eggs of parasites which,<span class="pagenum" title="42"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a></span>
+like <i>Bilharzia</i>, are furnished with a single appendage, may likewise
+be seen in the ova of different species of <i>Dactylogyrus</i> infesting
+the gills of the pike. In the more strongly pronounced developments
+it is easy to perceive how admirably these outgrowths are adapted to
+the necessities of the different species of parasite to which they are
+severally referable; and, even in the case of <i>Bilharzia</i>, the trifling
+amount of anchorage furnished by a projecting point is not absolutely
+thrown away. The resistance will also be greater where the spine is
+situated a little on one side of the pole of the egg, which seems to
+need steadying during the violent struggles of the embryo to escape from
+its temporary abode.</p>
+
+<table class="figct" summary="figures 10-11">
+<tr class="vat"><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 140px; padding-top: 52px;">
+<a id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/f10.jpg" width="110" height="270" style="padding-left: 15px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Free ciliated embryo
+of <i>Bilharzia</i>, with pear-&#8203;shaped
+rudimentary organs below the
+head. Original.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 240px;">
+<a id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/f11.jpg" width="240" height="322" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Two ciliated embryos of <i>Bilharzia</i>; showing sarcode
+spherules in their interior. That to the left has
+recently escaped the shell. Original.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>When any number of ova are removed from the urine and examined, it
+will be found that a large proportion of them contain embryos in an
+advanced stage of larval growth. The structural appearances presented
+by the embryos whilst still in the eggs are remarkably uniform; since,
+in all, the yolk appears to have resolved itself into a mass of rounded
+sarcode-globules, one or two of these particles being conspicuously
+larger than the rest (fig. <a href="#Fig_12">12</a>). At this stage,
+except towards the cephalic division of the larva, no tendency to
+differentiation is perceptible; but<span class="pagenum" title="43"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a></span>
+some time after the embryo has escaped, one may notice elongated masses
+of sarcode formed by the coalescence of the globules. Whilst still in
+the egg, one end of the primitive embryonal mass becomes gradually
+narrowed, cilia at the same time appearing. This part becomes the
+future head, eventually acquiring the form of a cowl. Whatever form
+the body of the embryo may display after extrusion from the shell,
+the head retains its conical shape, the cone itself being narrowed or
+widened only when the larva is subjected to abnormal conditions (fig. <a
+href="#Fig_14">14</a>). Whilst the head is undergoing development within
+the shell, one, two, or sometimes three, pyriform masses make their
+appearance within the cone; and after the embryo has escaped, these
+structures become more marked (fig. 10). The sarcode-globules refract
+light strongly; and, when the larva is not compressed in any way, they
+move freely within the somatic cavity. In well-developed embryos,
+whilst still in the egg, the cilia are observed to clothe every part of
+the larva except the oral papilla. This minute nipple-like projection
+measures about the <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3000</span></span>
+of an inch transversely, forming a very simple kind of unarmed
+proboscis. When the head of the free embryo is viewed from above,
+the proboscis looks like a central ring surrounded by a series of
+regular folds, which radiate outwards like the spokes of a wheel. The
+ridges thus formed support numerous cilia, these latter projecting at
+the circumferential margin of the cephalic cone in such a way as to
+present the figure of a star. Dr Harley has admirably represented this
+character, which is shared by many other parasitic larvæ. Throughout the
+greater part of the time, whilst the embryo is still resident within the
+egg, the broad neck or base of the cephalic cone forms a fixed point of
+resistance by its firm attachment to the inner wall of the shell; and
+this structural union, so long as it remains intact, enables the embryo
+to move not only its head and body from side to side synchronously, but
+also each part independently. When the time for final escape is drawing
+near, the vigorous movements of the cone-shaped head seem chiefly
+concerned in loosening the membranous<span class="pagenum" title="44"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a></span>
+connection just referred to; and when, at length, the ciliated
+animalcule has succeeded in overcoming this first difficulty, it is
+ludicrous to witness its frantic efforts to find an opening in the
+shell. While thus partially liberated, it will rush to and fro from
+one pole of the egg to the other, performing a series of summersaults,
+and at the same time occasionally rolling itself over laterally. This
+activity becomes gradually more and more violent, until at length
+its excitement is worked up into a sort of frenzy. I have many times
+watched these performances, which, however, are only to be seen within
+those ova whose shells, for some reason or other, refuse to yield to
+the earlier and ordinary efforts of the prisoner. In all cases where
+these phenomena are witnessed the eye readily detects a number of
+small free globules between the embryo and the inner wall of the shell
+(fig. <a href="#Fig_13">13</a>). These minute particles are likewise
+tossed about tumultuously during the rapid rotatory movements of the
+imprisoned larva. Except as regards their size, these globules do not
+differ in character from the sarcodic contents of the animalcule. They
+are probably superfluous detachments from the primitive yolk-mass, but
+it is possible that they may afford some aid in the final breaking
+up of the shell. Whilst the embryo remains fixed its tail is usually
+directed towards the narrower or spine-bearing pole of the egg, but
+in a few instances I have seen this position reversed. As regards the
+precise mode of emerging from the shell, and the time occupied by the
+larva in freeing itself, there are several points of interest. Speaking
+generally, the purer the medium into which the ova are transferred, the
+more rapid will be the movements of the larvæ. To give an example of
+observed facts in relation to the rapidity of development, I cite the
+<span class="nowrap">following:&mdash;</span>“On the 20th of August,
+1870, I placed twelve eggs of <i>Bilharzia</i> under the microscope. The
+medium in which they were immersed consisted of eight parts of ordinary
+drinking water to one of urine. At the expiration of seventeen minutes
+the first-born made its escape. In the course of<span class="pagenum" title="45"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a></span>
+another minute two more emerged. In twenty-six minutes the fourth, in
+twenty-eight the fifth, in thirty-two the sixth, in thirty-four the
+seventh, in thirty-seven the eighth, in thirty-eight the ninth, in forty
+the tenth, in forty-three the eleventh, and in forty-six minutes the
+twelfth, respectively made their appearance.”</p>
+
+<table class="figct" summary="figures 12-14">
+<tr class="vat"><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 130px; padding-top: 64px;">
+<a id="Fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/f12.jpg" width="130" height="264" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Egg of <i>Bilharzia</i>,
+with contained embryo and
+free sarcode globules. Original.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 160px; padding-top: 5px;">
+<a id="Fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/f13.jpg" width="120" height="392" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Free ciliated embryo
+of <i>Bilharzia</i>, slightly
+deformed, and having the
+pear-&#8203;shaped organs largely
+developed. Original.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<a id="Fig_14"></a>
+<div><img src="images/f14.jpg" width="200" height="397" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Ciliated embryos of <i>Bilharzia</i>, deformed
+by the application of reagents. Original.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Now, this rapid mode of birth and emergence from the shell is very
+much more striking in the case of eggs which are placed in perfectly
+pure water; for, whilst the eggs are still in the urine, there appears
+to be neither the power nor the inclination on the part of the embryo to
+escape; but, on isolating and placing them in suitable conditions, their
+behaviour is even more remarkable. In a space of less than two minutes
+I have repeatedly seen the hitherto motionless embryo alter its shape
+by contractions, become violently agitated, and burst out of its shell
+in the condition of a free-swimming animalcule. Moreover, it is worthy
+of remark that the eggs and larvæ of <i>Bilharzia</i> soon perish in stale
+urine. “On the 16th of August, 1870, I placed about a thousand eggs in a
+quart of fountain-water, to which only a drachm or rather less of urine
+had been added. At the expiration of forty-eight hours not a single
+living embryo could be found. I subsequently ascertained that I could
+not keep the embryos alive for twenty-four hours in any water in which
+I had introduced the smallest trace of mucus, blood-corpuscles, urinary
+crystals, or decomposing matters of any kind. All sorts of reagents
+speedily killed the larvæ. Mere discoloration by carmine solution, or
+by the addition of a drop of the solution of permanganate of potash,
+instantly caused them to assume grotesque and unnatural shapes (figs. 13
+and 14), death sooner or later following as a result<span class="pagenum" title="46"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a></span>
+of the disintegration and resolution of their delicate bodies into mere
+sarcode-masses. Still more rapidly poisonous effects were produced by
+the addition of a little sherry or alcohol. In solutions where the
+amount of spirit did not exceed one part of spirit, proof strength, to
+fifty parts of water the effect was the same.”</p>
+
+<p>The development of the larva is equally well accomplished in
+distilled water, in well-water, and in brackish water. In pure sea-water
+the process goes on less satisfactorily. It was found, indeed, that the
+addition of slightly saline water to ciliated embryos, which were on the
+point of expiring in fresh water, had the effect of reviving them for a
+time. These facts have an important practical bearing.</p>
+
+<p>I have thus shown that the escape of the embryo is by no means the
+slow process that Bilharz has described. Almost invariably the shell
+bursts by a longitudinal slit extending over fully two thirds of its
+long diameter, the first point of rupture being commonly situated midway
+between the spine and the centre of the shell. In normal births, so
+to speak, the head of the animalcule emerges first; but occasionally
+the animal escapes sideways, and I have even seen the embryo extricate
+itself tail foremost. Not unfrequently it has a difficulty in detaching
+itself from the shell, in which case the egg is whirled round and round
+by the half-freed prisoner (fig. <a href="#Fig_15">15</a>). The lodgment
+of the spine, however, against any foreign substance affords the
+necessary leverage for ensuring escape.</p>
+
+<p>The larva never displays its proper elongated, spindle-shaped, or
+cylindro-conical figure, until some short time after its escape from
+the shell; and, as a consequence of this, its powers of locomotion
+are less marked at first than they are subsequently. At the time
+of extrusion the larvæ are commonly more or less hour-glass shaped
+(fig. <a href="#Fig_11">11</a>); this particular form being sometimes
+retained for many minutes or even for an hour. Usually the larvæ have
+a tendency to acquire their normal shape immediately after quitting
+the shell; the oval, pear-shaped, and variously contracted forms
+gradually merging into the characteristic cone-shaped animalcule (fig.
+<a href="#Fig_10">10</a>). In their fully developed condition, they
+exhibit the most lively movements; and to witness several hundreds of
+them rushing about with unceasing activity is a curious sight. The
+phenomenon, moreover, loses none of its interest from the consideration
+that only a few hours, or it may have been minutes, previously, these
+now actively<span class="pagenum" title="47"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a></span>
+gyrating animalcules were lodged <i>in ovo</i> within the blood-vessels of
+their human host. From persons who are infested, myriads of these eggs
+of <i>Bilharzia</i> daily make their escape during the act of micturition;
+and, when this act is accomplished by the host out-of-doors, it is
+easy to perceive how readily the ova may be subjected to conditions
+favorable to the development of larvæ. The direct passage of the urine
+into any considerable receptacle of natural or fresh water would in a
+few minutes ensure the hatching of all the eggs; and in the absence
+of any such direct aid to development, the accidental occurrence of a
+shower of rain would, in all localities where the <i>Bilharzia</i> disease is
+endemic, readily transfer the ova into ditches, ponds, rivers, lakes,
+and ultimately, perhaps, even into the sea itself.</p>
+
+<table class="figct" summary="figures 15-16">
+<tr class="vat"><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 180px;">
+<a id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/f15.jpg" width="180" height="211" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Egg of <i>Bilharzia</i>, with the shell adhering
+to the escaped ciliated embryo. Original.</div>
+</div></td>
+<td>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 160px; padding-top: 34px;">
+<a id="Fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/f16.jpg" width="120" height="177" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Ciliated embryo of <i>Bilharzia</i> in
+the act of dying from the escape of the
+sarcodic contents. Original.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The behaviour of the embryo under the action of reagents of various
+kinds is remarkable. Thus, when on the 5th of Sept., 1870, I placed some
+ova in brackish water, of the strength of two parts of fresh water to
+one of pure sea-water, their contents were readily developed, though
+the escaping embryos did not swim vigorously. When again I placed some
+other eggs in pure sea-water, their contained embryos became instantly
+transfixed, the vibratile cilia of the head being rigid and motionless.
+At first I naturally concluded that the embryos were killed outright;
+but, to my great surprise, the shock passed away in about half an hour,
+when they revived and were soon afterwards hatched. One of the larvæ
+thus set free carried off several of the loose intra-chorional globules
+which had, during the period of transfixion, become firmly adherent
+to the ends of the caudal cilia. Here I may remark upon a decided
+difference observable<span class="pagenum" title="48"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a></span>
+between the cilia of the head and body respectively. The former are at
+all times vibratile, active, and conspicuous, whilst the latter are more
+delicate, capable of comparatively little motion, and partaking more of
+the character of fine setæ. In length their general measurement varies
+from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The action of pure sea-water on the free animalcules, previously
+immersed in fresh or brackish water, was equally striking. All,
+without exception, immediately became paralysed and almost motionless;
+nevertheless, on again adding fresh water, several entirely recovered.
+It is worthy of notice that in these cases the cephalic cilia furnished
+the first indications of returning viability. I was particularly struck
+with the behaviour of one embryo, which, under the stimulus of the
+sudden shock, retracted its cone-shaped head almost entirely within
+the general cavity of the body (fig. <a href="#Fig_14">14</a>, lower
+specimen). In their moribund condition, whatever shape the embryo
+retained, the sarcodic contents gradually faded away; the outline of the
+creature, however, becoming more marked (fig. <a href="#Fig_16">16</a>).
+Usually the body of the animalcule became elongated whilst expiring in
+sea-water. Under other circumstances the embryo frequently bursts; the
+sarcodic contents escaping in the form of amœba-like bodies and the
+cilia retaining their powers of movement long after all traces of the
+sarcode have disappeared.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/f17.jpg" width="95" height="231" style="padding-left: 17px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Ciliated embryo
+of <i>Fasciola hepatica</i>,
+showing the
+so-&#8203;called eye-spot.
+After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The larvæ of <i>Bilharzia</i> closely resemble those of <i>Fasciola
+hepatica</i>, which latter may be appropriately noticed in this place. The
+ciliated embryo of the common liver fluke has the form of a long cone
+inverted; the anterior end or head being flatly convex. In the centre is
+a short proboscis-like papilla destitute of cilia (fig. 17). The general
+covering of cilia rests on a well-defined granular epidermis; this
+latter being succeeded by a dense peripheral layer of large nucleated
+cells, each of them measuring about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in diameter. The epidermis measures <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in thickness. In the central mass of parenchyma no internal organs
+are recognisable, but Leuckart observed indications of a canal which
+he thought might open at the tail, though the opening itself was not
+actually visible.</p>
+
+<p>As long as the ciliated covering remains intact the embryo, like
+other animalcules, displays great activity, whirling round<span class="pagenum" title="49"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a></span>
+and round on its own axis, and also describing gyrations and circles
+of different degrees of range in the water, the latter movements being
+accomplished by bending the body upon itself to a greater or lesser
+curvature. The embryos of <i>Bilharzia</i> and other infusoria exhibit the
+same behaviour, and, as Leuckart observes, when these embryos knock
+against any obstruction, they pause after the blow, as if to consider
+the nature of the substance they have touched. As in the case of fluke
+embryos generally, the ciliated covering eventually falls off and the
+embryo reassumes a more or less oval figure, at the same time changing
+its swimming mode of progression for the less dignified method of
+creeping. In the free ciliated condition the embryo of the common
+liver-fluke measures, according to Leuckart, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">190</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length, the anterior broad end being <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The cilia have a longitudinal measurement of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1388</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/f18.jpg" width="100" height="107" style="padding-left: 15px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;‌Ciliated embryo
+of <i>Distoma lanceolatum</i>. After
+Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>According to the observations of Dr Willemoes-Suhm, the cilia of the
+embryos of the <i>Distoma megastoma</i> are limited to the anterior pole of
+the body. This is also the arrangement, as Leuckart first pointed out,
+in <i>Distoma lanceolatum</i> (fig. 18). On the other hand, Pagenstecher
+has shown that the embryos of <i>Distoma cygnoides</i> and <i>Amphistoma</i>
+(<i>Diplodiscus</i>) <i>subclavatum</i> are ciliated all over, an observation
+which, as regards the latter species, has been confirmed by Wagener
+and others. Dr Pagenstecher’s original statement to the effect that
+“intrachorional germs of trematodes offer no distinctive characters,”
+must, therefore, in the present state of our knowledge, be accepted as
+a general conclusion admitting of many exceptions. In the early stages
+of development the embryo of <i>Distoma lanceolatum</i> occupies the centre
+of the egg, and according to Leuckart has its conical head invariably
+directed towards the upper pole of the shell, or, in other words, to
+that end of the egg which is furnished with a lid-like operculum.
+Leuckart describes the embryo itself as “finely granular and armed
+at the tip with a dagger-like spine, which, with the simultaneous
+displacement of the adjacent granular mass, can be pushed forward and
+drawn back again.” Besides this so-called cephalic granular mass, there
+are within the embryonic body two other granular masses widely separated
+from each other, but occupying the posterior half of the embryo. These
+Leuckart supposes to be the rudiments of a future brood, to be developed
+at the time when the free embryo shall have lost its ciliated swimming
+apparatus, shall have bored its way by means of the cephalic<span class="pagenum" title="50"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a></span>
+spine into the tissues of a mollusk, and shall have become metamorphosed
+into a sac-like larva (Nurse, Sporocyst, or Redia, as the case may be).
+Whatever be the full significance of these internal developments, we
+have at least satisfactory evidence that the complete and free embryo is
+a globe-shaped animalcule, having the anterior third or cephalic end of
+the body covered with cilia, and armed with a central boring spine. In
+consequence of this limitation of the ciliated covering, its swimming
+movements are less vivacious than those of the embryo of <i>Fasciola
+hepatica</i>; it will, therefore, probably take up its residence in a less
+active host than that chosen by the embryo of Fasciola, selecting one
+of those mollusks which either move slowly or are prone to keep at the
+bottom of the water. The mature eggs have a length of <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">625</span></span> to <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">555</span></span>
+of an inch, and a breadth of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">833</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The long diameter of the free embryo varies from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">990</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">833</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+the transverse diameter being <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1562</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+Whilst the embryos were still in the egg Leuckart could see no ciliary
+motion. With most observers, both the ciliary apparatus and the boring
+spine appear at this stage to have altogether escaped observation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<img src="images/f19.jpg" width="155" height="456" style="padding-left: 10px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Outline representation of
+a ciliated embryo of <i>Bilharzia</i>,
+showing the arrangement of the
+water vessels and the vacuoles.
+Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As regards the intimate structure of the ciliated embryo of
+<i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>, I have further to observe that, shortly after
+its extrusion from the shell, the hitherto loose, globular sarcode
+particles coalesce. This is apparently a preliminary step towards the
+subsequent differentiation process. Respecting the pedunculated blind
+sacs formed within the head, I think that we must regard the largest one
+as representing the stomach of the larva in its future cercarian stage.
+Under the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">12</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+objective I distinctly recognised, in the cavity of the central blind
+sac, numerous highly refracting granules, the diameter of which averaged
+not more than <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">12000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The rudimentary stomach is often traceable whilst the larva is still
+within the egg. It measures about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length, including the peduncle, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">14000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth. The width of the narrow stalk does not exceed <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">9000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The other two-stalked bodies appeared to have the character of
+<i>lemnisci</i>. They were occasionally well seen whilst the embryo was still
+within the egg. As regards the integument, it is easy to recognise
+two layers. In careful adjustments of the focus the inner wall of the
+transparent dermis presents a beaded appearance. These minute and<span class="pagenum" title="51"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a></span>
+regular markings do not undergo alteration during the contractions
+of the body of the larva.</p>
+
+<p>A highly developed water-vascular system exists in these little
+animalcules. On many occasions I saw traces of this set of vessels,
+and in several instances I obtained a most satisfactory view of the
+entire series of branches. Anxious to receive confirmation of my
+discovery, I demonstrated the existence of these vessels to a skilled
+microscopist&mdash;the late Mr J. G. Pilcher, of H. M. Army. In the
+briefest terms it may be said that the water-vascular system of
+<i>Bilharzia</i>, in the larval condition, consists of two main stems, which
+pursue a tortuous passage from head to tail, and which, in the course
+of their windings, give off several anastomosing branches (fig. 19). As
+also obtains in the corresponding larvæ of <i>Diplodiscus subclavatus</i>,
+there is no excretory outlet visible at the tail.</p>
+
+<p>Encouraged by the experiences and determinations of Pagenstecher,
+Filippi, Wagener, Leuckart, and others, I sought for the intermediate
+hosts amongst fresh-water mollusks and small crustacea. Failing of
+success in these, it occurred to me that the larvæ of <i>Bilharzia</i> might
+normally reside in fluviatile or even in marine fishes. This latter idea
+seems also to have struck Dr Aitken. In an appendix to his ‘Report to
+the Army Medical Department for 1868,’ dated from Netley, Nov., 1869, he
+gives a figure of a nurse-form, which he terms a cercaria, from the tail
+of a haddock&mdash;suggesting for <i>Bilharzia</i> some genetic relation. Dr
+Aitken also extends his views in reference to certain larval trematodes
+alleged to have been found in the so-called Delhi boils and Lahore
+sores. These parasitic forms have, however, been shown by Dr Joseph
+Fleming to be nothing more than altered hair-bulbs (‘Army Med. Reports,’
+1868&ndash;69).</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the flukes from the haddock, I have satisfied<span class="pagenum" title="52"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a></span>
+myself that these immature trematodes from the nerves of the
+cod-tribe can have no genetic relation with <i>Bilharzia</i>; and I
+think it due to Dr Maddox to say that I accept his conclusion
+respecting them. In his paper (‘Micros. Trans.,’ vol. xv, 1867,
+p. 87) he offers strong proof that the so-called <i>Distoma neuronaii
+Monroii</i> of the haddock (<i>Morrhua æglefinus</i>) is the juvenile
+condition of <i>Gasterostoma gracilescens</i> of the angler (<i>Lophius
+piscatorius</i>).</p>
+
+<p>I am sorry to have to state that all my experiments proved negative.
+I tried to induce the ciliated embryos to enter the bodies of a variety
+of animals, such as Gammari, Dipterous larvæ, Entomostraca, Lymnæi,
+Paludinæ, different species of Planorbis, and other mollusks; but
+neither in these, nor in Sticklebacks, Roach, Gudgeon, or Carp, did they
+seem inclined to take up their abode.</p>
+
+<p>The very peculiar and formidable helminthiasis produced by this
+parasite has been thoroughly investigated by Griesinger and Bilharz,
+and it has been fully described in the standard works of Küchenmeister
+and Leuckart. My own case from Natal also supplied many interesting
+clinical facts which were published in my ‘Lectures on Helminthology,’
+quoted below. The comparative prevalence of this disorder in Egypt is
+well established. Symptomatically, its principal feature consists in a
+general disturbance of the uropoietic functions. Diarrhœa and hæmaturia
+occur in advanced stages of the complaint, being also frequently
+associated with the so-called Egyptian chlorosis, colicky pains, anæmia,
+and great prostration of the vital powers. The true source of the
+disorder, however, is easily overlooked unless a careful microscopic
+examination be made of the urine and other evacuations. If blood be
+mixed with these, and there also be a large escape of mucus, a minute
+inspection of the excreta will scarcely fail to reveal the presence of
+the characteristic ova of <i>Bilharzia</i>. Besides the increase of mucus
+secretion, there may even be an escape of purulent matter, showing that
+the disorder has far advanced. The patient’s constitution eventually
+becomes undermined; pneumonia often sets in, and death finally ensues.
+On making post-mortem examinations the following pathological facts come
+to light. In cases where the disease has not advanced very far, minute
+patches of blood-extravasation present themselves at the mucous surface
+of the bladder, but in more strongly pronounced cases the patches are
+larger or even<span class="pagenum" title="53"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a></span>
+confluent. In some instances there are villous or fungus-like
+thickenings, ulceration and separation of portions of the mucous
+membrane, with varying degrees of coloration, according to the amount
+of the extravasation, which becomes converted into grey, rusty-brown,
+or black pigment deposits. A gritty or sandy deposit is often
+superimposed, consisting of ordinary lithic-acid grains mixed with eggs
+and egg-shells. Eggs are readily detected in the urine, these having
+escaped from the ruptured vesical vessels. The lining membranes of the
+ureters and renal cavities are also more or less affected; the kidneys
+being frequently enlarged and congested. It must, however, be borne
+in mind that in all these organs the true seat of the disorder is the
+blood, which forms the proper habitat of the <i>Bilharzia</i>; and this being
+the case, the worms as well as their escaped eggs may be found in any of
+the vessels supplying the diseased organs. In one instance, quoted by
+Leuckart, Griesinger found a number of empty eggs in the left ventricle
+of the heart, and from this circumstance it was supposed that they might
+be carried into various important organs, or even plug up the larger
+vessels. As before stated, however, the parasites are more particularly
+prevalent in the vessels of the bladder, mesentery, and portal system.
+The effects upon the intestinal mucous membrane are, in most respects,
+similar to those occurring in the urinary organs. Blood extravasations,
+with thickening, exudation, ulceration, and fungoid projections,
+appear in and upon the intestinal mucous and submucous tissues; these
+appearances, of course, being more or less strongly marked according to
+the degree of infection.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the treatment of the helminthiasis, I am precluded from
+entering into details here; nevertheless, I am glad to perceive that
+the principles which I long ago enunciated have received approval both
+at home and abroad. As stated in my ‘Lectures’ our object should be not
+to interfere with, but to promote nature’s curative efforts. If I read
+the pathological facts correctly, she seeks to bring about this result
+by erecting artificial barriers which serve to moderate the bleeding.
+In this way, under ordinary circumstances, the life of the bearer is
+sustained, or held in the balance until the parasites either perish or
+cease to be capable of causing active disease. Depend upon it, this is
+the principle which should guide physicians in their treatment of the
+Bilharzia disorder. If the adult parasite were merely attached to the
+lining membrane of<span class="pagenum" title="54"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a></span>
+the bladder, then powerful diuretics and medicated injections would
+probably prove serviceable; but since the entozoa reside in the
+blood we must be careful not to increase the patient’s troubles. In
+the case of intestinal worms the most powerful parasiticides may be
+prescribed without let or hindrance; but that drug must be a truly
+subtle worm-poison which, when taken into the system, shall kill the
+blood-flukes without exerting any injurious effects upon the parasite
+bearer.</p>
+
+<p>When, in 1872, I published my lectures on helminthology, I remarked
+that it was not improbable that, ere long, many more cases of Bilharzia
+disease would be brought to light. What has been added in this respect
+is chiefly due to the researches of Sonsino, but a case of some interest
+has been recorded comparatively recently by Dr W. K. Hatch, stationed
+at Bombay. From the particulars furnished it seems evident that the
+victim, an English gentleman, contracted the disease by drinking water,
+either in Arabia or in Egypt, in which latter country, however, he had
+only sojourned fifteen days. From the patient’s statements it appears
+that, hæmaturia is frequent amongst the Arabs. Incidentally, Dr Hatch
+mentions that Dr Vandyke Carter had informed him that, so early as
+the year 1862, he (Dr Carter) had detected the embryos of Bilharzia
+in the urine of an African boy admitted to the Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy
+Hospital. The treatment employed by Dr Hatch was that recommended
+by Dr Harley in his well-known memoir. Having myself energetically
+opposed Dr Harley’s views on pathological grounds, I am not surprised
+to see it stated that Dr Harley’s method of treatment effected “no
+diminution in the number of the parasites.” As I said in my lectures
+(now out of print) it is evident that “nature” in view of moderating the
+hæmaturia&mdash;by the formation of plugs at the ulcerated points of the
+mucous surface&mdash;sets up the artificial barriers above referred to;
+therefore if you catheterise and employ medicated injections you do more
+harm than good. As to the administration of belladonna internally, in
+view of retarding development, or of destroying the parasite, no good
+can be expected from this source. I certainly obtained better results
+with buchu and bearberry (<i>Arctostaphylos</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of sanitation it is quite evident, from the foregoing
+data, that the danger of infection cannot arise from the drinking of
+impure water, as ordinarily understood. The embryonal larvæ would be
+killed by an admixture of sewage.<span class="pagenum" title="55"><a
+name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a></span> It is obvious that infection can
+only occur from swallowing free cercariæ or freshwater mollusks which
+contain the higher larval forms in their encysted or pupa condition.
+Slow running streams or stagnant pools with sedgy banks are eminently
+favorable to the existence and multiplication of intermediary bearers,
+and consequently their waters are dangerous if employed for drinking
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_12"></a>No.
+12).&mdash;<i>Bilharz</i>, in Siebold and Köll., ‘Zeitsch. für wissensch.
+Zool.,’ iv, 1851.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Wiener medic. Wochenschrift,’
+1856.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, “On some new forms of Entozoa (<i>Bilharzia
+magna</i>),” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xxii, p. 364, 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Synopsis of the Distomidæ,” in ‘Proceed. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. v, Zool.
+Div., p. 31, 1860.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on Dr J. Harley’s <i>Distoma
+capense</i>,” in ‘Lancet,’ also in the ‘Veterinarian,’ and in ‘Intell.
+Observer’ for Feb. and March, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Entozoa,” l.
+c., p. 197, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Blood Worms,” Lecture xx in
+‘Worms,’ l. c., p. 145 et seq., 1872; Tommasi’s edit., Vermi, p. 141,
+1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Embryos of <i>Bilharzia</i>,” ‘Brit. Assoc.
+Rep.,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Development of <i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>,
+together with Remarks on the Ova of another Urinary Parasite occurring
+in a case of Hæmaturia from Natal,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ July, 1872;
+repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘New Entozootic
+Malady, &amp;c.’ (brochure), London, 1865.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Helminthes,”
+in Gunther’s ‘Record of Zool. Literature,’ p. 617, 1865.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Entozoa in relation to Public Health and the Sewage Question,” Rep.
+of the Proceed. of the Metrop. Assoc. of Officers of Health, in ‘Med.
+Times and Gazette,’ Jan., 1871, repr. in the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 359,
+1871.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Verification of recent Hæmatozoal Discoveries in
+Australia and Egypt,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ June, 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Sewage and Parasites, especially in relation to the Dispersion
+and Vitality of the Germs of Entozoa,” rep. in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’
+for Feb., and the ‘Veterinarian’ for May, 1871.&mdash;<i>Davaine, C.</i>,
+l. c., ‘Synops,’ and p. 312, 1860.&mdash;<i>Diesing, C. M.</i>, ‘Revis.
+d. Myzelmith,’ Vienna, 1858.&mdash;<i>Griesinger</i>, “Klin. und Anat.
+Beobachtungen über die Krankheiten von Egypten,” in ‘Arch. für physiol.
+Heilkunde,’ 1856.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Gesammelte Abhandlungen,’ Berlin,
+1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Arch. d. Heilk.,’ 1866.&mdash;<i>Harley, J.</i>, ‘On
+the Hæmaturia of the Cape of Good Hope, produced by a Distoma,’ rep.
+in ‘Lancet,’ and ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Feb., 1864; also in Ranking’s
+‘Abstract,’ p. 173, 1864, and fully in <span class="pagenum" title="56"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a></span>
+‘Medico-Chirurg. Trans.,’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Endemic Hæmaturia
+of the South Eastern Coast of Africa,” ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ vol. liv,
+1871.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in Hooper’s ‘Vade Mecum,’ 1869.&mdash;<i>Hatch, W.
+K.</i>, “Case of <i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>,” in ‘British Medical Journal,’
+Dec. 14, 1878, p. 875.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister, F.</i>, ‘Parasiten,’ 1855;
+Eng. edit., p. 277, 1857.&mdash;<i>Leuckart, R.</i>, l. c., s. 617,
+1863.&mdash;<i>Sonsino, P.</i>, “Richerche intorno alla Bilharzia hæmatobia
+in relazione colla Ematuria Endemica dell’ Egitto e nota intorno un
+Nematoideo trovato nel Sangue Umano,” ‘Estr. dal Rend., del. R. Accad.,’
+1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Della Bilharzia hæmatobia e delle alterazione
+Anatomo-patologiche che induce nell’ Organismo Umano, loro importanza
+come Fattori della Morbilità e Mortalità in Egitto, con cenno sopra
+una Larva d’Insetto Parassita dell’ Uomo. Estratto dall’ Imparziale,’
+Firenze, 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Sugli ematozoi come contributo alla Fauna
+Entozooca Egiziana,’ Cairo, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “La Bilharzia hæmatobia,
+et son rôle Pathologique en Egypte,” ‘Arch. Gén. de Médicine,’ for
+June, p. 650, 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Intorno ad un nuovo Parassita del
+bue (<i>Bilharzia bovis</i>),” ‘Estr. dal Rend. del. R. Accad. di Napoli,’
+1876.&mdash;<i>Weinland, D. F.</i>, l. c., p. 67, 1858.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>SECTION II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cestoda</span> (Tapeworms).</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>, Küchenmeister.&mdash;This cestode is
+frequently spoken of as the unarmed or beef tapeworm. In general
+appearance it is very similar to the armed form. It is, however, a
+larger and broader animal, being at the same time rather stouter.
+It varies usually from fifteen to twenty-three feet in length, but
+specimens have been described as attaining thirty feet. It is called
+the unarmed tapeworm in consequence of the absence of any coronet of
+hooks on the head; and consequently, also, from there being no prominent
+rostellum or proboscis. The place of the last-named structure, however,
+is supplied by a small rudimentary disk, which I have seen protruded
+on pressure (fig. <a href="#Fig_20">20</a>). Usually this disk forms a
+more or less conspicuous cup-shaped circular depression, which has been
+compared to and described as a fifth sucker. That it is not, in any
+structural sense, comparable to the true suckers, I have had abundant
+opportunity of ascertaining; nevertheless, I do not doubt that it is to
+a slight extent capable of being used by the parasite as a supernumerary
+holdfast. The anchorage thus secured, however, is by no means equal to
+that obtained by the armed species.<span class="pagenum" title="57"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a></span>
+This explains the comparative difficulty we find in procuring a
+specimen of the armed tapeworm with the head attached.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<a id="Fig_20"></a>
+<img src="images/f20.jpg" width="380" height="439" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>. Showing the calcareous corpuscles, suckers, rudimentary
+proboscis, and water vessels. Highly magnified. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The establishment of this species as distinct from <i>T. solium</i> is
+due to Küchenmeister; but it is curious to observe how accurately this
+determination was foreshadowed by the shrewd naturalist and theologian,
+J. A. E. Goeze, who clearly indicated two forms of the common tapeworm,
+remarking (l. c., Bibl. No. 1, s. 278):&mdash;“Die erste ist die
+bekannte grosse, mit langen dicken und gemästeten Gliedern, die ich
+<i>Tænia cucurbitina, grandis, saginata</i>, nennen will.” The same author
+(s. 245) pointed out the resemblance subsisting between the tapeworm
+of the cat (<i>T. crassicollis</i>) and the vesicles (“Krystallblasen”) and
+their contained “erbsförmige Blasen” (<i>Cysticercus fasciolaris</i>) of the
+mouse. Thus the celebrated pastor of St Blasius, in Quedlinberg, almost
+contemporaneously with Pallas, early<span class="pagenum" title="58"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a></span>
+arrived at the conclusion that the hydatid-measle was a kind of
+tapeworm.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 240px;">
+<img src="images/f21.jpg" width="240" height="133" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Free proglottides of
+<i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>. After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Respecting the organisation of this worm I may observe that the
+mature joints have a more complicated uterine organ than obtains in
+<i>Tænia solium</i>, presenting nearly double the number of lateral branches.
+They are more closely packed, running outwardly in an almost parallel
+manner. The first sexually mature proglottis occurs at about the 450th
+joint, but whereas, in the pork tapeworm, only some 200 subsequent
+segments share this perfect character in the beef tapeworm, according
+to Leuckart, as many as 360 or even 400 mature joint may be present.
+The joints are very liable to form monstrosities; these abnormalities
+sometimes affecting the reproductive organs, which become doubled
+or even trebled. In the Hunterian collection there is a proglottid
+showing twenty-two sexual orifices. Dr Cullingworth, of Manchester, has
+described a specimen in which the joints are curiously tripartite.</p>
+
+<p>As already hinted the true source of this parasite has been proved by
+experiment; the first successful worm-feeding having been accomplished
+by Leuckart. Mosler’s, and subsequently my own feeding experiments,
+immediately followed. Other successful experiments with this species
+have been conducted by Zurn, Probstmayer, St Cyr, Perroncito, Masse and
+Pourquier, and Zenker. As will be again mentioned below Dr Oliver, R.A.,
+whilst stationed at Jullundur, successfully reared the adult tapeworm in
+a Mohammedan groom and in a Hindoo boy. It will also be seen that Prof.
+Perroncito reared the worm in a student in fifty-four days. In my own
+experiments on animals I was assisted by Professor Simonds. The feeding
+materials were tapeworms expelled from my own patients. We obtained the
+following interesting results:</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 1.</i>&mdash;A calf. First feeding, Dec. 21st, 1864. Marked
+symptoms. Slaughtered April 3rd, 1865. Result positive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 2.</i>&mdash;A calf. First feeding, April 13th, 1865. Second,
+third, and fourth feedings in May and June. No symptoms. Died on Sept.
+3rd, 1865, after thirty-six hours’ illness with <span class="pagenum" title="59"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a></span>
+“cattle plague.” Result stated to have been negative as far as the
+muscles were concerned. Viscera not examined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 3.</i>&mdash;A Dutch heifer. First feeding, March 3rd, 1865. Three
+subsequent feedings. Symptoms only slight. Slaughtered April 4th, 1866.
+Result positive. Measles especially numerous in the diaphragm, but all
+had undergone calcareous degeneration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 4.</i>&mdash;A calf. Fed May 27th, 1872, with ripe proglottides.
+Marked symptoms set in on June 7th, which began to abate on the 12th,
+and had nearly disappeared by the 20th of the same month. The record of
+the post-mortem result has been lost; but the animal was infected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 5.</i>&mdash;A calf, which had been made the subject of a
+“glanders experiment.” First fed on Oct. 17th, 1872, and thrice in the
+following year, Jan. 1st and 11th, and March 8th. No symptoms having
+appeared the animal was kept for six or eight months after the last
+feeding. Seeming to be free from disease of any kind, it was sold as a
+sound heifer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 6.</i>&mdash;A young heifer calf, of six months. Fed Oct. 18th,
+1873, with the mature proglottides of a large beef tapeworm. No
+symptoms. Slaughtered several months afterwards. Result stated to have
+been negative. Unfortunately I was not present at the autopsy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 7.</i>&mdash;A young heifer. First fed May 19th, 1874, with
+the joints of a tapeworm, and again on June 12th. No apparent ill
+effects resulted, but the animal died in October. At the post-mortem
+examination, made by Prof. Simonds, no parasites were observed.
+Subsequently I found calcareous specks in the liver which proved to be
+degenerated measles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp. 8.</i>&mdash;A calf. Fed on or about March 24th, 1875, with
+sexually mature joints. The calf was put to and remained with a foster
+mother until it died from disease of the larynx on the 15th of the
+following July. The animal was ill-treated by its foster parent, and
+at the post-mortem I observed a large intercostal cicatrix, evidently
+the result of injury. In this case I devoted several hours to the
+exploration of the muscles and viscera. Not a trace of the <i>Cysticercus
+bovis</i> could be found in the muscles or connective tissues, but the
+liver contained scores of perfectly developed measles, besides hundreds
+of others in various stages of calcareous degeneration. On comparing
+some of the latter with those I had obtained from the preceding
+experiment the pathological appearances were at once seen to be<span class="pagenum" title="60"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a></span>
+identical. It was easy to find and pick out the measles in their cysts
+from the naturally friable liver. I also detected four Cysticerci in the
+lungs, two of which had degenerated. Microscopic examination confirmed
+my interpretation of the naked-eye appearances.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;">
+<img src="images/f22.jpg" width="440" height="432" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Section of the heart of a calf
+infested by cestode larvæ. After Mosler.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fragmentary as the above data are, they serve to show that we have
+hitherto been too hasty in concluding that beef and veal measles reside
+only in the voluntary and striated muscles of their hosts. The facts
+here recorded prove that the liver of a calf may be extensively invaded
+by cysticerci, and yet the animal will exhibit no sign of constitutional
+disturbance. The cestode tuberculosis may come and go without any
+diagnostic symptom, whilst a few months suffice for the natural death
+and decay of the parasite by calcareous degeneration. Thus it becomes
+extremely probable that many experiments hitherto regarded as negative
+in their results have really been positive; the pathological evidences
+having been either misinterpreted or<span class="pagenum" title="61"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a></span>
+altogether overlooked. Every pathologist is familiar with gritty
+particles in the various viscera of man and animals, but few are
+probably aware how constantly these are dead and degenerated Cysticerci.
+The gritty particle itself may be reduced to the merest point, no
+larger than the <i>receptaculum capitis</i> of the Cysticercus itself,
+and in course of time it will disappear entirely. Practically it is
+satisfactory to have experimental evidence of the fact that cattle, as
+well as other animals, however extensively measled they may have been,
+can become thoroughly cleansed of the disorder by nature herself. It is
+only necessary that the diseased animals be separated from infectious
+influences.</p>
+
+<p>Although the beef measle has never yet been found in man, I have
+for convenience sake introduced the facts of larval parasitism in this
+place. The sanitary bearings of this subject are far too important to
+be dismissed in a summary manner. I have shown that the prevalence or
+rarity of the beef tapeworm in man is strictly dependent upon the habits
+of the people; this same cause operating to produce healthy or diseased
+meat-food, according to the degree of civilisation. In this connection
+the oft-quoted statements of Kaschin respecting the prevalence of
+tapeworms among the Burätes, and the well-known frequency of this
+entozoon in Abyssinia, need only be alluded to.</p>
+
+<p>When discussing the food question in my ‘Manual,’ I freely availed
+myself of facts privately communicated by Dr Joseph Fleming, and I
+especially referred to the published labours of Lewis, Hewlett, Veale,
+and other observers stationed in India. Beef measles are extremely
+common in the cattle of the north-west provinces of India, so much
+so that severe restrictions have been imposed upon the consumption
+of ration beef. The presence of a few measles in the flesh of cattle
+has been deemed a sufficient excuse for condemning and burying entire
+carcases. The measle is easily distinguished from that of mutton and
+pork by the fact that its head is not furnished with hooks, whilst in
+the place of a rostellum there is a small, centrally placed, retractile
+disk, which assumes the appearance of a supplementary sucker as in the
+adult worm. The four true suckers are also comparatively large. The
+measle usually varies in size from the fourth to the half of an inch in
+length, but my cabinet contains a specimen nearly an inch long. This was
+contributed by Dr J. Fleming, who mentions having seen<span class="pagenum" title="62"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a></span>
+a measle which, when unrolled, measured nearly an inch and a half
+in length. Although thousands of these bladder worms must exist in
+the cattle of England, up to the present time not a single instance
+has been recorded of the occurrence of these cystic parasites in the
+United Kingdom, except in our experimental animals. Notwithstanding my
+inquiries, I have not yet found a butcher, flesher, meat-inspector,
+or veterinarian, who has encountered this parasite in any animal
+slaughtered for the market. Several butchers have denied their
+occurrence in meat sold by themselves. Even so late as June, 1874, the
+presence of measles in the flesh of cattle was denied before an assembly
+of French <i>savans</i>; yet for many years past I have constantly exhibited
+measly beef and veal in the lecture room of the Royal Veterinary
+College. (See the discussion of the Société de Thérapeutique, recorded
+in the ‘Bullétin Gén. de Thér.’ for June 30th, 1874, and also the ‘Jour.
+de Thér.,’ No. 14, for July, p. 556, where, however, special remarks on
+this head have been omitted; see also the ‘Lond. Med. Record’ for July
+29th, 1874, p. 472, and the ‘Lancet’ for Dec., 1874, p. 794.) Quite in
+contrast with the statements referred to are those of recent Italian
+observers.</p>
+
+<p>Some few years back Professor G. Pellizzari communicated to the
+Medico-Physical Academy, at Florence, the results of a series of
+experiments conducted by himself, with the assistance of Dr Tommasi, in
+regard to the temperature necessary for the destruction of cysticerci in
+measled meat. An account of these experiments is published in Tommasi’s
+edition of my ‘Manual.’ The researches were made in relation to certain
+sanitary measures effected by the Municipal Commission of Florence,
+the express object of these measures being to prevent the injurious
+distribution of measly meat, especially that of swine. Signor Bosi, the
+superintendent of the public slaughterhouses, granted every facility in
+his power. In a previously published memoir by Professor E. Perroncito
+it was stated that measly meat (<i>panicatura degli animali</i>) required a
+higher temperature than that of boiling point for the destruction of the
+bladder worms in question. In this opinion Signor Bosi shared. According
+to the original memoir of Perroncito we are told that “about twenty
+specimens of Cysticerci were collected by the author, and placed in
+boiling water. After twenty minutes’ boiling, not one of the parasites
+appeared to suffer. The head continued to be drawn into the body, and<span class="pagenum" title="63"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a></span>
+when the Cysticerci had their heads drawn out one by one they still
+appeared to possess all the elasticity of living bladder worms,
+displaying those movements of extension which are proper to parasites
+not yet dead. The hooks were observed regularly disposed on the
+proboscis, where they formed a double crown, the suckers remaining
+intact.” Perroncito remarked, however, that the Cysticerci showed a
+coloring tendency towards brown, and he added that “with the aid of
+two needles it became easy to lacerate the body of the Cysticercus,
+which appeared to be swollen, and possessed of diminished cohesion
+of its parts.” It was evident to all eyes, observed Professor
+Pellizzari, that these statements involved clear contradictions.
+Yet again, at page 28 of the memoir, Professor Perroncito <span
+class="nowrap">wrote:&mdash;</span>“During the past winter I introduced
+some little slices (<i>fettuccie</i>) of muscle-flesh (8 to 10 millimètres
+in thickness), infested with Cysticerci into a vessel (<i>cassolina</i>)
+containing fat at the temperature of 190 to 200° Cent. (374 to 400°
+Fahr.). At the expiration of ten or fifteen minutes the slices of meat
+were fried, and the Cysticerci lying at the surface had acquired a light
+brownish colour, as if they were roasted. By breaking up the slices
+one could still see the small reddish muscular bundles, whilst the
+Cysticerci in the middle remained entire and well preserved. Their heads
+displayed the hooks and suckers regularly distributed.” It is certainly
+singular, as Pellizzari observes, that these Cysticerci, having been
+thoroughly fried and roasted, should still remain alive and in their
+normal state; but the ultimate conclusion at which Perroncito arrived
+was still more startling, and one which, if it were true, would not fail
+to create a considerable stir among our officers of health. On reviewing
+the whole matter Perroncito <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“It appears
+to me that the melted fat alone of hogs (<i>maiali grandinosi</i>) should be
+utilised, and I am pleased to reckon the illustrious Gerlach and all
+other distinguished practitioners to be of the same opinion. Permit me,
+therefore, being well satisfied also with the results of many other
+experiments, once more to advance the conclusion that, if it is not
+certain that the Cysticerci die at from 80 to 100° Centigrade (176 to
+212° Fahr.), we are quite sure that they dry up and become completely
+mummified at 125, 130, and 150° Cent. (257, 268, and 302° Fahr.),
+temperatures which we could easily produce by means of a properly
+constructed apparatus.”</p>
+
+<p>After remarking upon the serious nature of the conclusion<span class="pagenum" title="64"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a></span>
+which Perroncito sought to establish, Professor Pellizzari makes further
+use of quotations which bear upon the question as to whether the quality
+of the vessels in which the fat of diseased hogs is melted down may not
+largely affect the degree of high temperature sought to be obtained (in
+view of a perfect destruction of the Cysticerci). Perroncito repeatedly
+witnessed the operations of pork-butchers; and when portions of meat
+were introduced, with water, into the cauldrons, he always saw that the
+temperature “was maintained between 97° and 98° Centigrade.” However,
+this part of the question may be dismissed in a very few words, since
+Perroncito himself finally allows that “the different composition of the
+vessels cannot elevate the temperature of the fat by many degrees.”</p>
+
+<p>With the praiseworthy intention of either verifying or refuting
+these conclusions, Pellizzari, with the approval of Bosi and with the
+assistance of Tommasi, instituted a fresh series of experiments at a
+private laboratory. The details of these experiments are exceedingly
+interesting; but as their record occupies several pages of Tommasi’s
+appendix already referred to, I must content myself with a general
+statement of the results obtained. Professor Pellizzari found that
+Cysticerci, so far from requiring a temperature of upwards of 100°
+Centigrade for their destruction, die at a temperature of 60° Centigrade
+(140° Fahr.). He had, it appears, previously taken the initiative in
+recommending certain measures to the Florentine municipality, in view of
+protecting the public health, and he had now the satisfaction of more
+than confirming the wisdom of these sanitary precautions. In excessively
+measled animals the fat is removed and boiled in suitable cauldrons, and
+has potash mixed with it to render it useful for industrial purposes.
+By the various measures adopted the entire animal is utilised, and with
+proper precaution there seems little chance for the measles to arrive at
+the tænioid or sexually mature condition.</p>
+
+<p>In the next part of his communication Pellizzari touches upon the
+question of measles in beef, referring especially to the experimental
+labours of Leuckart and myself. Finding additional support from our
+views Pellizzari declared the propositions of Dr Perroncito as of no
+value whatever. “But how is it,” he adds, “that notwithstanding that so
+low a temperature suffices to kill these cysticerci, yet cases of Tænia
+are continually occurring?” The answer to this question will appear in
+the sequel; but meanwhile it will be as well to refer to the<span class="pagenum" title="65"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a></span>
+recent <i>brochure</i> by Dr Giacomini. This author appears to have had no
+opportunity of perusing Pellizzari’s communication already cited, and
+consequently it is not surprising that he should, in common with others,
+have accepted the original conclusions of Perroncito. Dr Giacomini
+clearly perceives that, whatever precautions of a hygienic character are
+suitable for the prevention of disease arising out of the consumption
+of measly pork, the same, or at all events similar, measures ought
+to be adopted with the view of checking tapeworm affections arising
+from the ingestion of other kinds of meat, especially veal and beef.
+Like Pellizzari, he is satisfied as to the human origin of the small
+bladder worms found in cattle, and establishes this position not only
+from the oft-quoted experiments of Leuckart and Mosler, but also from
+those conducted by myself and Simonds in England, and by Professor
+F. Saint-Cyr in France. From a careful review and consideration of
+all the facts of the case, he recommended a more complete supervision
+over the flesh of oxen before it is employed commercially, and greater
+precaution when employing veal as food, by causing it to be subjected
+to a high temperature, in order that the parasites may be killed before
+it is ingested. It is evident that Giacomini thinks that a temperature
+exceeding that of boiling-point is necessary for the destruction of the
+beef and veal measles, since he immediately adds, “Though experiments
+have not been made with the object of ascertaining the amount of
+resistance of heat which the unarmed cysticercus can bear, yet, judging
+by those conducted by Professor Perroncito on the measle of the hog, we
+are in a position to say that a temperature of 135° Cent. (275° Fahr.)
+is necessary for the destruction of an isolated Cysticercus, whilst the
+heat should be raised from 150° to 200° Cent. (302° to 392° Fahr.) for
+ten or fifteen minutes, in order to ensure the complete destruction of
+the Cysticerci encapsuled in the interior of a piece of meat.” I have
+abridged this portion of Giacomini’s text, because his statements are
+pretty much the same as those already quoted from Perroncito (as cited
+by Tommasi). But, in the next place, Dr Giacomini is in error when he
+states that experiments had not been performed on the Cysticerci of
+the ox. So far from this being the case, similar experiments had long
+previously been conducted by Dr Lewis in India; and these researches
+had quite as much to do with the measles or Cysticerci of beef as they
+had with those of the hog, if not more. Naturally but few foreign
+investigators can<span class="pagenum" title="66"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a></span>
+have had access to the work in which Lewis’s experiments were originally
+recorded, and to which, therefore, I must call their attention. Thus, Dr
+Tommasi has fallen into the error of supposing that the investigations
+of Lewis were made in England. It is of very little moment where the
+experiments were carried on, but Tommasi’s statement (appendix, loc.
+cit., p. 161), wherein he says that Pellizzari’s experiments, in which
+he himself took part (<i>ai quali io stesso ho assistito</i>), are even more
+complete than those made in England by Dr Lewis, and in Germany by
+Dr Küchenmeister, cannot be allowed to pass unchallenged. If Tommasi
+had enjoyed the opportunity of consulting Lewis’s original memoir, he
+would not have underestimated our countryman’s labors. The memoir by
+Lewis is singularly complete, and well-nigh exhausts all the facts that
+can have any interest in relation to the question of public health.
+Towards the close of his essay he expressly states, as the result of
+investigation&mdash;“(1) That exposure to a temperature of 120° Fahr.
+for five minutes will not destroy life in Cysticerci, but that they may
+continue to manifest indications of life for at least two or three days
+after such exposure; (2) that exposure to a temperature of 125° Fahr.
+for five minutes does not kill them; but (3) after being subjected to
+a temperature of 130° Fahr. for five minutes, they may be considered
+to have perished. After exposure to this and higher temperatures, in
+no instance have I been able (he adds) to satisfy myself that the
+slightest movements took place in their substance when examined even
+under a high power. At least, it may be confidently asserted that, after
+exposure for five minutes to a temperature of 135° to 140° Fahr., life
+in these parasites may be considered as absolutely extinct” (p. 139).
+Thus the statements of Lewis and Pellizzari were in perfect accord; and
+seeing that their conclusions were alike the result of very careful and
+independent inquiry, it seemed as if the question at issue was finally
+solved. These investigations made it perfectly clear that Cysticerci of
+all kinds, whether found in veal, beef, or pork, could not retain their
+vitality when exposed to a temperature of 60° Centigrade, or, in other
+words, 140° Fahr.</p>
+
+<p>The rather severe strictures made on Perroncito’s earlier experiments
+induced the Turin professor to go over the subject more carefully, when
+he obtained excellent results. He finally ascertained that Cysticerci
+perished at a temperature below<span class="pagenum" title="67"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a></span>
+50°&nbsp;C. (122° Fahr.). In May, 1877, Dr Perroncito furnished me
+with an account of his researches. With the exception of a few verbal
+alterations, for which I am responsible, Perroncito wrote as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“In order to resolve the highly important question of the tenacity of
+life of the Helminths and corresponding larval forms, I made since 1871
+a very long series of experiments on the <i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i>, which
+were published almost at the same time with others of the same kind,
+made by Dr Lewis in Calcutta. Towards the end of 1874 Mr Pellizzari, of
+Florence, disputed the results of the investigations which I had made
+known two years before, <i>i.e.</i> in 1872, and agreed with Dr Lewis, who
+had stated already that the <i>Cysticercus</i> exposed to a temperature of
+55°&nbsp;C. can be held for dead after five minutes, and also with Dr
+Cobbold, who thought the temperature of 60°&nbsp;C. quite enough to
+kill it. But the characters he (Mr Pellizzari) relied upon, needing the
+exactness and precision required to enlighten and persuade in the most
+important scientific questions, gave rise to a mistrust in the most
+scrupulous amongst the men devoted to biological pursuits and to several
+hygienic measures on the part of the sanitary inspectors with regard to
+infected pork. Therefore, my conclusions, argued from the experiments
+made in 1871&ndash;72, were still those followed by the most important
+Italian cities, and approved in principle by the superior Board of
+Health in 1873. I expressed doubt then about the <i>Cysticercus</i> dying
+at a temperature lower than 100°&nbsp;C., and some person misconstrued
+these doubts, saying that I had contradicted myself in my work. However,
+as I could not assert they died at 80°&ndash;100°&nbsp;C., I only
+noticed the alteration of color and cohesion which happened in the
+<i>Cysticercus</i> exposed to various degrees of temperature, to the end that
+I might contribute usefully to the solution of the difficult question,
+and concluded that ‘if we could not be sure of the <i>Cysticercus</i>
+dying at 80°&ndash;100°&nbsp;C., it was certain at all events that
+they perished at 125° or 130°&nbsp;C.’ Not wishing to prejudice the
+question, I never said that they did not die at 80°&ndash;100° C., but
+simply stated that at this temperature we could not be certain of their
+death.</p>
+
+<p>“Now, after a large number of experiments, I have been able to
+ascertain with exactness the lowest degree of temperature required to
+kill infallibly the <i>Cysticercus</i> and other parasites of animals. The
+means I made use of for this kind of investiga<span class="pagenum" title="68"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a></span>tion
+were Mr Schulze’s heating table, the neutral tincture of carmine, the
+tincture of hæmatoxylon, and breeding experiments.</p>
+
+<p>“My method is founded <span class="nowrap">essentially&mdash;</span></p>
+
+<p>“(<i>a</i>) On the fact that the <i>Cysticercus</i> when it is fresh and is
+stretched and conveniently prepared in pure water, or in chloride of
+soda very much diluted, and afterwards brought gradually from the
+temperature of the ambient air to that of the body of higher animals and
+to degrees of heat still more elevated, until life is extinct, keeps
+moving to and fro with more or less energy throughout its body, using
+especially its suckers and proboscis.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>b</i>) On the greater imbibing power of the dead tissue generally,
+which is undoubtedly far more apparent in insects and plathelminths.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>c</i>) On the experiments made to ascertain the value of the two
+above-stated facts.</p>
+
+<p>“If, after having prepared a <i>Cysticercus</i>, newly extracted from a
+pig in the way we have pointed out, we examine it with a microscope
+on M. Schulze’s heating table, we find that usually it begins to move
+after 30° or 35°&nbsp;C., and each moment with greater activity,
+especially after 38°, 40°, 42°, 44°, 45°&nbsp;C. The temperature being
+raised progressively, we see that the <i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i> puts a
+stop to its movements occasionally at 45&ndash;46°&nbsp;C., seldom at
+47°&nbsp;C., more frequently at 48°&nbsp;C., sometimes at 49°&nbsp;C.;
+and, in fifty and more experiments, only one <i>Cysticercus</i> was able to
+live on beyond 49°&nbsp;C., standing still at 50°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“As soon as it stands still the parasite is dead. In fact, if we
+lower again the temperature gradually to that of the ambient air,
+and if afterwards we raise it a second time, we pass through all the
+intermediate temperatures without the Cysticercus showing the least
+signs of life.</p>
+
+<p>“But a more convincing proof of the death of the parasite is got from
+the greater imbibing power of the tissue when life is extinct, the same
+over the whole body of the plathelminths, and their larval forms. If
+we dip the <i>Cysticercus</i> alive with its head stretched in the neutral
+tincture of carmine or hæmatoxylon we can leave it there even two, four,
+eight, ten, or twelve hours and more, without the head coloring or a
+real imbibition taking place; this begins only after the <i>Cysticercus</i>
+is dead, so that if the <i>Cysticercus</i> is brought first to a temperature
+hot enough to kill it (with M. Schulze’s tables to one of 48°, 49°, 50°&nbsp;C.)
+and<span class="pagenum" title="69"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a></span>
+dipped afterwards in the above-mentioned tinctures, it colors intensely
+in less than 45°, beginning from the head, and onwards to the extremity
+of the cyst of the tail. The head colors more intensely and rapidly than
+the neck, as it is covered with very numerous calcareous corpuscles,
+which are not met with so frequently in the remaining part of the
+body.</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i> of the pig, and that of the <i>Tænia
+mediocanellata</i> of the calf, brought gradually to a final temperature,
+the first of 50°&nbsp;C., and the second of 44°, 45°, and 47° C., and
+then swallowed alone, or with a piece of butter or crumb of bread, never
+produced the <i>Tænia</i> in the valiant students who voluntarily undertook
+to make the experiment of swallowing them.</p>
+
+<p>“My investigations were extended to other kinds and forms
+of Helminths, and the results were always the same, so that,
+abiding by the same principles, I was able to ascertain <span
+class="nowrap">that&mdash;</span></p>
+
+<p>“1st. The <i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i> of the pig dies sometimes at
+45°&nbsp;C., more frequently at 47°&nbsp;C., ordinarily at 48°&nbsp;C.,
+very seldom reaches alive 49°&nbsp;C., and is quite an exception when it
+resists for a few moments the temperature of 50°&nbsp;C., so that we can
+say that the <i>Cysticercus</i> brought gradually up to this temperature most
+assuredly dies if it is kept there longer than one minute.</p>
+
+<p>“2nd. A <i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i>, extracted by Professor Raymond from
+the conjunctiva of a child’s eye, died between 45° and 46°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“3rd. The <i>Cysticercus</i> of the <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> dies sometimes
+at 44°&nbsp;C., very often at 45°&nbsp;C., and does not resist a
+temperature superior to 46°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“4th. The <i>Cysticercus pisiformis</i> of the rabbit, like the
+<i>cellulosæ</i>, dies sometimes at 45° and 46°&nbsp;C., but generally stands
+still and perishes at 47° and 48°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“5th. A <i>Cysticercus tenuicollis</i> died at 49°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“6th. The <i>scolici</i> of the <i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i> of a sheep died at
+42°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“7th. The <i>scolices</i> of the cysts of <i>Echinococcus polymorphus</i> die
+generally between 47° and 48°&nbsp;C., and in no case amongst those I
+have experimented on did it reach 50°&nbsp;C. alive.</p>
+
+<p>“8th. The <i>Tænia cucumerina</i> died, one at 43°&nbsp;C., and a second
+parasite at 45°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“9th. A few individuals of <i>Tænia serrata</i> of the dog died at
+50°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="70"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“10th. Two individuals of <i>Tænia perfoliata</i> of the horse died, the
+first at 45°&nbsp;C., the second at 50°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“11th. The embryos of the <i>Filaria microstoma</i> of the horse began to
+stand still at 46&ndash;47°, and all died at 48°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“12th. The embryos of the <i>Filaria megastoma</i> of the horse’s stomach
+died at 47°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“13th. The <i>Trichina spiralis</i>, both free and in a cyst, in several
+experiments always died at 48°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“14th. The embryos of the <i>Strongylus filaria</i> of the sheep stood
+still at 50°&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<p>“15th. Probstmayer’s viviparous oxyurids, the infusoria of the colon
+and cæcum of the solipeds, and the psorosperms of the liver of the
+rabbit did not stir at all.</p>
+
+<p>“Each experiment lasted about ten minutes, and the temperature
+rose from 8&ndash;10°&nbsp;C. to 45&ndash;46°&nbsp;C. in six to eight
+minutes; and from 46° to 50° in one minute. These experiments have a
+great value, both scientific and practical, as they show, on one side,
+which is the lowest intensity of heat sufficient to kill always the
+<i>Cysticercus</i>, the <i>Trichina</i>, and other parasites, reducing thus by
+far the tenacity of life generally attributed to a large number of
+Helminths and corresponding larval forms. They assure us, moreover, of
+the harmlessness of the flesh infected by the above-mentioned parasites,
+when it is cooked in such a manner as to reach the temperature of
+50°&nbsp;C. over all points of the pieces, even though it be kept at
+such a degree of heat not longer than five minutes.</p>
+
+<p>“In a piece of leg of pork the <i>Cysticerci</i> were found alive in
+all places not yet putrefied twenty-nine days after the animal had
+been slaughtered. On the other hand, in the dry muscles of a calf the
+<i>Cysticerci</i> of the <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> were all found dead fourteen
+days after the slaughtering of the animal. I have ascertained that
+putrefaction of the flesh is fatal for the two larval forms of these
+different kinds of helminths.”</p>
+
+<p>In a subsequent communication received from Professor Perroncito
+towards the close of the year 1877 he writes:</p>
+
+<p>“At the last meeting, held on April 23rd, I made a statement
+to the Medical and Surgical Society of Turin, of the results of
+other experiments tried by heating at M. Schulze’s table and by the
+imbibitions with the neutral tincture of carmine, through which I came
+to the conclusion that the <i>Cysticerci</i> of the <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>
+die sometimes at 44°&nbsp;C., now and then at 45°&nbsp;C., and always at
+46°&nbsp;C. I therefore concluded<span class="pagenum" title="71"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a></span>
+that they could in no case survive at 47°&nbsp;C. and 48°&nbsp;C. when
+they were maintained at this temperature at least five minutes. But to
+the end of more fully corroborating the facts I had thus communicated,
+I, contemporaneously with these, made some breeding experiments with the
+same <i>Cysticerci</i> on bold and courageous students who generously offered
+themselves for the benefit of science.</p>
+
+<p>“Consequently I am now enabled to state that neither Mr Gemelli
+nor Dr Ragni contracted the <i>Tænia</i>, though each of them had eaten a
+<i>Cysticercus</i> of the <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> previously, and respectively
+subjected to a temperature of 45°&nbsp;C. and 47°&nbsp;C. The larvæ
+were properly prepared and submitted to gradual heating on the
+above-mentioned table, and swallowed when they no longer gave signs of
+life. In like manner no generation of the <i>Tænia</i> took place in the
+body of Mr Martini, who ate the <i>Cysticercus</i> brought to a temperature
+of 44°&nbsp;C. It was maintained at this degree of heat during a period
+of about three minutes, and swallowed whilst a very slight movement was
+still visible in a portion of its neck.</p>
+
+<p>“In another student, on the contrary, who ate a living <i>Cysticercus</i>
+of the <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>, the tapeworm reached its maturation in
+fifty-four days and eliminated the two first proglottides. It threw
+off two more on the fifty-eighth day, and thirty on the sixtieth.
+Sixty-seven days after swallowing the <i>Cysticercus</i> this courageous
+young man, having, like his three companions, taken some kousso and
+castor oil, emitted the strobila. It was furnished with 866 rings, but
+destitute of the neck and head. Its measurement afforded a total length
+of 4·274 mètres.</p>
+
+<p>“Adding now to the 866 proglottides the thirty-four already
+eliminated, 900 would be the number of the segments; and reckoning the
+length of each of the latter to be fourteen millimètres, we should have
+had the <i>strobila</i> (deprived of the head and neck) reaching a length
+of 4·75 mètres. Further, calculating the head and neck to be eight
+millimètres long, a total length of 4·83 mètres would be the result.</p>
+
+<p>“From all these facts we may conclude that the <i>Tænia</i> has, in our
+instance, reached an approximative length of seventy-two
+
+millimètres a day, affording a daily production of 13·43 proglottides.”</p>
+
+<p>In relation to requirements of state medicine I have thought
+Perroncito’s researches sufficiently valuable to be quoted at some
+length; but their chief interest culminates in the worm-<span class="pagenum" title="72"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a></span>
+feeding experiments. Excellent in all respects as was the conduct of the
+medical students who, with Professor Perroncito’s approval, swallowed
+living specimens of the <i>Cysticercus bovis</i>, the intentional ingestion
+of beef measles is by no means a novelty. Eight or ten years back Dr
+Oliver (after explaining to one of the selected victims the possible
+consequences of the experiment) induced a Mahommedan syce or groom and a
+Hindoo boy to swallow perfectly fresh and living beef measles. In this
+way Dr Oliver successfully reared the <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> in India,
+and he was thus enabled to fix the amount of time necessary for the
+full growth of the strobila. Many other persons have displayed an equal
+amount of zeal in the cause of helminthology, by partaking of the larvæ
+or germs of other parasites. Thus, at the risk of repetition, I may
+state that Möller many years ago swallowed the slender-necked hydatid
+(<i>Cysticercus tenuicollis</i>) in the hope of infesting himself with <i>Tænia
+marginata</i>. Several persons have defiantly swallowed trichinised flesh.
+Professor Leuckart and some of his pupils also courageously swallowed
+the eggs of <i>Oxyurides</i>, and they had the infinite satisfaction of
+noticing the young worms in their fæcal discharges some fifteen days
+afterwards. Dr Crisp ate part of the cooked flesh of an animal that had
+died of cattle plague, and I myself partook of moderately cooked meat
+which I knew to be swarming with psorosperms. These obscure organisms
+were by some persons considered to be either a cause or product of
+the rinderpest. They will be noticed in my account of the Protozoal
+parasites.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of advancing science and the welfare of the people,
+there are scores of persons always to be found ready to make personal
+sacrifices of the kind undertaken by Drs Ragni, Martini, and Gemelli.
+Unfortunately for English science there are not wanting people in
+this country who are prepared to threaten with fines and imprisonment
+any <i>savant</i> who may think it desirable to perform a similar set of
+feeding experiments on animals. Invaluable for good as our experimental
+investigations have already been, it would seem as if it were the
+deliberate aim of these sentimental obstructives to put a stop to the
+acquisition of all useful knowledge in the future.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the rate of growth of tapeworms, Professor
+Perroncito’s determinations are useful, inasmuch as they verify certain
+ascertained facts with precision and confirm the general<span class="pagenum" title="73"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a></span>
+conclusion that had been drawn by practical helminthologists from
+various sources of information. In regard to the number of proglottides
+proper to a sexually mature tapeworm, the circumstance that Perroncito’s
+calculation was made without the head and a portion of the neck of
+the worm being present shows that it cannot be relied on absolutely;
+nevertheless, as far as it goes, it tends to confirm what Leuckart had
+long previously stated. I have possessed myself of upwards of thirty
+perfect beef tapeworms expelled from my patients, and in some of the
+specimens it was noticed that the segmentation-rings in the region of
+the neck were far more crowded together than they were in others. I also
+possess a perfect <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>, removed post mortem. Though
+the rate of growth may be the same from day to day, yet experience
+has shown that the number of proglottides actually cast off varies
+exceedingly. Küchenmeister’s estimate of the average number agrees in
+the main with what we have ourselves observed (five to twenty daily);
+and here again Perroncito’s investigations serve to verify the general
+correctness of our previous determinations.</p>
+
+<p>To return to Pellizzari’s researches, one of the most important
+questions is that which relates to the prevalence of tapeworm. In this
+connection he first brings forward some very interesting and instructive
+data that had been previously communicated to the Medico-Physical
+Academy of Florence by Professor Marchi. On the occasion referred to
+Marchi had stated that, out of thirty-five Tæniæ which he had examined,
+only one belonged to the species known as <i>Tænia solium</i>; all the other
+thirty-four being of the unarmed type, or <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>.
+Reflecting on this striking fact, and also on the circumstance that
+he had in vain begged his colleagues to send him specimens of <i>Tænia
+solium</i>, Marchi seems to have missed the very palpable explanation of
+this otherwise strange phenomenon. “How does it happen,” exclaimed
+Marchi, “that, notwithstanding the occurrence of 13,000 kilogrammes of
+the flesh of measled hogs in the public butcheries, I have seen but one
+specimen of <i>Tænia solium</i>, whilst thirty-four cannot have originated
+from the pig?” “The wherefore is obvious enough,” replies Pellizzari,
+“because our hygienic regulations demand that the flesh of the hogs be
+raised to a temperature of 60° Cent. (140° Fahr.);” and he then himself
+immediately proceeds to ask another question, namely, as to how it
+happens that the <i>Tænia solium</i> is so frequently seen in other places.
+To his own question Pellizzari responds by remarking&mdash;(1)<span class="pagenum" title="74"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a></span>
+that there are not so many precautions (of a sanitary kind) taken in
+other places; and (2) that the people elsewhere consume more slightly
+salted or uncooked meat, as sausages and so forth (<i>come salame giovane,
+salciccia e via dicendo</i>). Pellizzari, having explained that Marchi’s
+thirty-four tapeworms must all have arisen from the consumption of
+the Cysticercus of the ox, then goes on to speak of the prevalence of
+tapeworm in Florence, even in little children. This last-named feature,
+he says, is due to the circumstance that raw meat is frequently employed
+as a restorative (<i>come cura ricostituente</i>). “Thirty years ago,”
+remarks Professor Pellizzari, “it was just as difficult to find a single
+<i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> as it is now easy to find a great number of these
+worms; and all because it is nowadays customary to eat the flesh of
+the ox either insufficiently cooked or raw. This absolute inversion of
+the facts of the case affords proof of the correctness of the position
+sustained by me, to the effect that the cooking of meat up to the degree
+of temperature necessary for ebullition ensures the destruction of the
+Cysticerci.” Notwithstanding this statement of his own, Pellizzari
+thinks that the interference of inspectors may be pushed too far, and
+thus serve to bring about the very disasters which it should be their
+supreme object to prevent. Thus, he argues against the suggestions of
+those who would entirely prevent the sale of measly meat, and who would
+only permit, as obtains in the province of Modena, the melting down of
+the fat of hogs. Very strict measures of this sort would, as he says,
+constitute a radical means of entirely stamping out <i>Tænia</i>, but he also
+very judiciously reminds the sanitarian (<i>igienista</i>) that “such a step
+would be a serious thing for the tradesman, bringing injury not only
+to the municipal administration, but also proving an encouragement to
+smuggling. In this way the public health would sustain worse injury by
+the inducement held out to the owners of infected animals to slaughter
+them in secret butcheries, thus little by little withdrawing the meat
+from the superintendence of the public officials. By the adoption of
+fraudulent measures there would be a daily consumption of diseased
+meat; and thus also, while the public administration would suffer loss,
+the public health, on the other hand, would gain nothing.” In effect
+Pellizzari says, if we advise the employment of more severe and radical
+measures than those already in vogue in Florence, we should overburden
+the tradesman, almost compel him to<span class="pagenum" title="75"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a></span>
+defraud the exchequer by smuggling, and greatly injure the public
+health.</p>
+
+<p>The facts and explanations advanced by Italian writers regarding the
+causes of the endemic prevalence of tapeworm, are in perfect harmony
+with those previously obtained from other sources. Respecting these
+causes there is much that is both new and interesting. The eighth
+annual report of the sanitary commissioner of the Government of India
+had already made us acquainted with the fact that during the year 1869,
+out of 13,818 head of cattle slaughtered in the stations of the Upper
+Punjab, 768 beasts were found to be infected with measle-cysts. This,
+as I have remarked (Tommasi’s edit., p. 54), “affords a rate of 5·55
+per cent., being a considerable diminution of the proportion observed
+in 1868, when the percentage gave a total of 6·12. The reduction was,
+without doubt, due to the vigilance and enlightenment of the army meat
+inspectors. The prevalence, however, of tapeworm does not bear relation
+to the number of animals infested with Cysticerci so much as to the
+actual number of Cysticerci developed in infected animals. I have
+frequently pointed out the inadvisability of condemning and burying
+the carcases of measly oxen, whether there be few or many Cysticerci
+present, and I have stated, on trustworthy evidence, that even the
+presence of a few Cysticerci is deemed by some inspectors a sufficient
+reason for rejecting the entire animal. Such a waste should never be
+allowed. In regard to the numbers of ox-measles present in particular
+instances, I have elsewhere adduced some remarkable facts communicated
+to me by Dr Joseph Fleming, of the Indian Army Medical Staff. None of
+my experimental animals, though fed with scores of ripe proglottides,
+yielded such an abundance of Cysticerci as Dr Fleming encountered
+in Punjab cattle. In one pound weight of the psoas muscles Fleming
+counted no less than 300 Cysticerci.” From this it follows that the
+flesh of a largely infested animal is capable, under the circumstances
+of ration distribution and imperfect cooking, of originating numerous
+tapeworms.</p>
+
+<p>Not many years back the leading medical journal of this country
+challenged me to produce evidence as to the injuriousness of beef and
+mutton from Cysticerci. The writer stated in his article that I had
+“failed to produce a single specimen of beef or mutton measles” which
+had not resulted from experiments conducted “at the Royal Veterinary
+College;” and he<span class="pagenum" title="76"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a></span>
+said, further, “that butchers, fleshers, and veterinarians were
+practically right in refusing to adopt the opinion of Dr Cobbold,
+that measled beef or mutton is produced to any great extent”
+independently. How palpably I endured a species of unjust
+reproach for being somewhat in advance of the knowledge
+current at the time may be gathered from the voluminous
+evidence which has since cropped up from various parts of the
+world. It was, indeed, mainly through experiments conducted
+at the Royal Veterinary College, and reported in the ‘Lancet,’
+that professional men in India first became acquainted with the
+possibility of finding Cysticerci in beef.</p>
+
+<p>The statements of Dr Joseph Fleming, who was one of the
+foremost in discovering cystic disease in cattle, have since
+received abundant confirmation. The Indian Government
+Reports given in the February issue of the ‘Madras Monthly
+Journal of Medical Science’ for 1873 are especially instructive.
+Referring to the prevalence of Cysticercus in the ration beef at
+Jullundur, in the Punjab, the Inspector General (India Medical
+Department) reports as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“Cysticercus was first noticed here in the beef tendered at
+the Royal Artillery ration stand in May, 1868. For some two
+years previous to this date condemnations of cyst-infected meat
+had been frequent at Peshawur, Rawul Pindee, Meean Meer
+and several other stations in the upper part of the Punjab, and
+here I had often detected the parasite in meat exposed for sale
+in the bazaars, but no trace of it had been observed in the
+Commissariat beef, either by myself or any other medical officer
+who had preceded me.</p>
+
+<p>“From May, 1868, to November, 1869, ‘cyst’ was more or
+less frequently found both at the Artillery and 92nd Highlanders’
+ration stands; but since the latter date it has almost
+entirely disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>“The following table shows the quantity of meat destroyed
+on this account during 1868 and 1869:</p>
+
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+<col width="12%" /><col width="1%" /><col width="20%" /><col width="27%" /><col width="15%" /><col width="12%" />
+<tr><th colspan="2">Years.</th><th>Months.</th><th>Number of cattle<br />infected.</th><th colspan="2">Weight of meat<br />destroyed.</th></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="6" class="bl tac pt03">1868</td><td rowspan="6" class="br pt03"><div style="width: 10px; padding-top: 5px"><img src="images/90x10brk.png" width="10" height="90" alt="" /></div></td><td class="tal brl plt03">May</td><td class="tac pt03"><span class="hide">11</span>4</td><td class="bl tar pt03">412</td><td class="br pt03">&nbsp;lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">June</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>1</td><td class="bl tar">77</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">September</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>1</td><td class="bl tar">130</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">October</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">1</span>10</td><td class="bl tar">1,763</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">November</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">1</span>14</td><td class="bl tar">2,010</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">December</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">1</span>12</td><td class="bl tar">1,785</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="pagenum" title="77"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="10" class="bl tac pb03">1869</td><td rowspan="10" class="br"><div style="width: 10px;"><img src="images/160x10brk.png" width="10" height="160" alt="" /></div></td><td class="tal brl pl03">January</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">1</span>21</td><td class="bl tar">4,062</td><td class="br">&nbsp;lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">February</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">1</span>16</td><td class="bl tar">2,341</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">March</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">1</span>14</td><td class="bl tar">2,209</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">April</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>5</td><td class="bl tar">856</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">May</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>2</td><td class="bl tar">220</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">June</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>1</td><td class="bl tar">122</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">July</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>1</td><td class="bl tar">194</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">August</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>3</td><td class="bl tar">464</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">September</td><td class="tac"><span class="hide">11</span>2</td><td class="bl tar">218</td><td class="br">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl plb03">October</td><td class="tac pb03"><span class="hide">11</span>4</td><td class="blb tar pb03">615</td><td class="brb pb03">&ensp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blb" colspan="2"></td><td class="tac bb">Total</td><td class="tac bb">111</td><td class="tar blb">17,478</td><td class="brb">&nbsp;lbs.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>“The whole of this meat was otherwise well fed and of
+excellent quality. The waste of so much good food led me to
+make inquiries; 1st, as to the sources from which the cattle
+obtained the Tænia ova, and the best means for preventing their
+infection; and 2ndly, as to whether or not any evil results followed
+the consumption of this meat when properly cooked.</p>
+
+<p>“From information obtained from the Commissariat Officer
+I found&mdash;1st. That the infected cattle had been purchased by
+native dealers from various parts of the district, not from any
+particular locality. 2ndly. That when brought in they were
+lean, and on an average required from two to three months’
+feeding at the Commissariat cattle yards before they were fit
+for the shambles. 3rdly. That their food consisted of the grass
+they could pick up on the grazing grounds of cantonments,
+supplemented by such an allowance of grain and <i>bhoosâ</i> as their
+condition required.</p>
+
+<p>“They were supposed to be watered at a trough with water drawn
+from a well, but on closely inquiring as to this, it transpired that
+they very frequently were taken to a large dirty tank near the yard
+for their water. The question which occurred to me was, were the
+cattle infected before their purchase by the Commissariat, or was
+there anything in their feeding to account for it after purchase?
+I am inclined to the latter opinion for several reasons, <span
+class="nowrap">thus:&mdash;</span>In the large number of the diseased
+cattle, the Cysticerci were of remarkably small size; many of them
+having no capsules, except such as were formed by the surrounding
+structures, and not being more than <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span>
+to <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span>
+of an inch in diameter. Although the dry food given to the cattle
+was doubtless good, still much of the water they got during 1868 was
+probably filthy. The tank previously<span class="pagenum" title="78"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a></span>
+referred to was situated close to the huts of the camel drivers. These
+men are all Mussulmans from Cabul, Peshawur, or thereabouts, and many of
+them are infected with <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>. Human filth was often to
+be seen on the banks of the tank, and microscopic examination of mud and
+stagnant water taken from the margin exhibited <i>Tænia</i> ova.</p>
+
+<p>“The conditions above shown must have been eminently
+favorable to keeping up a constant supply of ova, and the fact
+that Cysticercus entirely disappeared from amongst the cattle a
+few months after means had been taken to secure them a good
+supply of well water, seems to confirm the view that this tank
+must have been the source of a large amount of, if not all, the
+infection.</p>
+
+<p>“It has been suggested that Cysticercus can be detected
+before the animal is killed by an examination of the tongue.
+In exceptionably severe instances this is probably correct, but
+then it would be equally observable in some other parts of the
+body. Major Biggs, Commissariat Officer here, tells me of an
+animal he saw at Rawul Pindee, in which immense clusters of
+cysts could be felt at the root of the tongue and under the
+skin in several parts. After examining a very large number of
+tongues of ‘cysted’ animals, my experience is that it is found in
+the soft muscles and cellular tissues at the root of the tongue,
+perhaps more frequently than anywhere else; but I have never
+seen a case in which there was a chance of detecting it before
+death.</p>
+
+<p>“The most common situations in which it has occurred in
+the ration meat have been the gluteal, psoas, and lumbar
+regions. In many instances only from one to ten cysts have
+been found on cutting the carcase into small pieces, and I have
+no doubt that it often passed without detection.</p>
+
+<p>“During 1868 and 1869 I from time to time obtained pieces
+of beef badly infected with <i>Cysticercus</i>, and made some experiments
+as to the results of its consumption under different conditions.</p>
+
+<p>“After explaining to them the possible consequences of
+eating it a buttock of beef studded with <i>Cysticercus</i> was given
+to three natives of low caste. They all declared that they were
+free from <i>Tænia</i>, or, to use their own term, “Kadhu dana.”
+The meat they cooked in their own way. These men were
+under my observation for some six months. Two of them had
+no symptom of <i>Tænia</i>, but the third, who was a low-class<span class="pagenum" title="79"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a></span>
+Mahommedan syce, and had probably eaten the meat in a very
+raw state, developed a <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> in about three
+months.</p>
+
+<p>“My own sweeper ate this cyst-infected beef regularly two
+or three times a week for some months. He cooked it well
+generally as an ordinary stew, and has never shown a sign of
+having tapeworm.</p>
+
+<p>“Into the food of a boy of low Hindoo caste, but who had
+never eaten beef, two scolices of Cysticercus were surreptitiously
+introduced, the result being that, between three or four months
+afterwards, he applied for some tapeworm medicine.”</p>
+
+<p>[The two successful experiments here reported are evidently
+the same as those that I have referred to (p. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>) as having
+been performed by Dr Oliver, of the Royal Artillery, stationed
+at Jullundur. The report continues as follows:]</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> is very common amongst the Mussulman
+population of the Punjab, and from reliable sources I
+am informed that the lower classes amongst them are in the
+regular habit of eating half-cooked beef; indeed, prefer it so,
+and it is amongst these people that tapeworm is so prevalent.</p>
+
+<p>“But it is not only thorough cooking that is required to
+guard soldiers in India from the ill effects of eating measly
+meat; there is want of cleanliness in the general arrangements
+of the kitchens and serving of meals, which must offer
+great facilities for the introduction into the food of Cysticercus.</p>
+
+<p>“Barrack cooks, unless constantly looked after, are utterly
+careless as to the washing of chopping blocks, tables, dishes,
+&amp;c. The dish or pot cover on which the meat is placed when
+raw is often used without washing for serving the piece up
+for dinner, and I have myself picked up a <i>Cysticercus</i> from the
+table on which a cook was preparing food. The dangers too
+of the parasite being conveyed by the cook’s unwashed hands
+to the plates in which meals are served, and the common
+practice of using the same knife for cutting up meat, and
+afterwards, without washing it, for other culinary purposes,
+must not be overlooked. With good selection and careful
+feeding there seems to be every probability that Cysticercus
+would soon almost or completely disappear from our Commissariat
+cattle. If they were entirely stall-fed and watered from
+wells there could scarcely be a possibility of infection after
+their purchase.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="80"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“Perhaps with the trench system of conservancy, which
+will necessitate the growing up crops, a sufficient quantity of
+root and other green produce may be obtained from cantonment
+lands set apart for this purpose, to supply green fodder
+for the cattle.”</p>
+
+<p>The important question as to whether the presence of cysts
+detected at the root of the tongue could be made available for
+the purposes of diagnosis was made the subject of special
+report through the agency of executive Commissariat officers,
+and they testified to its practical valuelessness in the following
+terms:</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Jullundur.</i>&mdash;No appearance of cyst has been found at the
+root of the tongues of any of the cattle. A medical officer was
+asked for assistance in making search for the cysts, but he also
+found none.</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Rawul Pindee.</i>&mdash;It is utterly impossible to discriminate
+before slaughter, from any outward symptoms, cattle that are
+cyst infected.</p>
+
+<p>“Every endeavour has been made to discover by close and
+careful scrutiny before slaughter the cyst-infected cattle, but
+the result has been in no way satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Sealkote.</i>&mdash;All endeavours to discover any symptoms of the
+infection by examination of their tongues, while the animals
+were living, have been unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Mooltan.</i>&mdash;The mouth and tongue of a large number of
+living cattle have been examined before slaughter, but in no
+single instance has the infection been so detected.</p>
+
+<p>“Dr Ross’s plan of examining the tongues of all animals at
+time of purchase is not feasible, as they are usually very wild
+and frightened, and often dangerous to approach.</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Peshawur.</i>&mdash;In probably 99 cases out of 100 it is utterly
+impossible to discover cyst infection in cattle previous to
+slaughter by examination of their tongues. In only one
+instance has it been so discovered, and that was from the
+animal’s having a number of small lumps over the body which
+were also apparent on the back part of the tongue. When the
+tongue is infected the ‘cyst’ lies so far at the very root of it
+that it cannot be seen in the live animal.”</p>
+
+<p>From Mooltan a specially interesting report was made by Dr
+Alexander Neill, who <span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span></span></p>
+
+<p>“I have carefully examined the mouth and tongue of a large
+number of living cattle, and of those slaughtered for issue as<span class="pagenum" title="81"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a></span>
+rations, and in no single instance did I find such cysts. These
+cattle were healthy.</p>
+
+<p>“In a case that died, and in which cysts existed, I could discover
+nothing abnormal in or under the tongue.</p>
+
+<p>“If such ‘cysts’ exist, or if such enlargements of the sublingual
+glands are found, I argue that they are not a diagnostic sign of what is
+termed ‘cyst infection,’ or more correctly ‘<i>Cysticercus bovis</i>,’ for
+in the recent outbreak of cattle disease in England, one most prominent
+symptom of that disease was a bunch of grape-like swelling under the
+tongue, which in advanced cases suppurated, and to a casual observer
+would have been called cysts or ‘bags of matter.’</p>
+
+<p>“If such swellings are found in a bullock that is sick, it is merely
+symptomatic of an inflamed condition of the whole mucous surface of the
+intestinal canal, and not of any localised disease, such as Cysticercus,
+the above-mentioned swellings being merely inflamed sublingual
+glands.</p>
+
+<p>“In the pig the diagnostic sign of swellings of the glands or ‘cyst’
+under the tongue is not found in ‘Cysticercus,’ and the disease called
+‘measles’ is not ‘Cysticercus,’ but a mere superficial inflammation of
+the skin and a symptom of fever. ‘<i>Cysticercus cellulosus</i>,’ as its
+name shows, infects the cellular tissue only of the pig, and cannot be
+discovered in life by any abnormal condition of skin.</p>
+
+<p>“In ‘measles’ these swellings are found, because intestinal mucous
+membrane sympathises with eruption on the skin and are then merely
+inflamed glands, not cysts.”</p>
+
+<p>Dr Neill concludes his report by remarking that the larvæ of the
+beef tapeworm can “only arrive at maturity in the mucous membrane of
+horned cattle,” and not in the cellular tissue. This is an error on
+Dr Neill’s part; but in adducing these instructive extracts from the
+Government Reports my chief object has been to show the prevalence of
+Cysticercus in the North-West Provinces of the Indian Peninsula. I may
+say that a large proportion of my tapeworm-infected patients have been
+officers from the Punjab, and one of these victims told me that when he
+superintended the serving out of rations to the troops, “he (and those
+who acted with him) sent the meat away to be burnt, even when they only
+detected a single cyst in any given carcase.” It is needless to remark
+that such a waste of valuable food is altogether reprehensible.</p>
+
+<p>Some people, including not a few of the profession, make<span class="pagenum" title="82"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a></span>
+light of the occurrence of tapeworm, and I have seen many patients who
+had been told by their usual medical advisers that the presence of the
+worms was of little consequence. To account for this wide-spread error
+there is some basis in the fact that by far the majority of infested
+persons suffer only the trifling inconvenience arising from the passage
+<i>per anum</i> of the proglottides; moreover, the less civilised the
+tapeworm-bearers happen to be, the less are they likely to suffer. The
+recorded experience of Kaschin, before referred to, where 500 hospital
+patients, in the Baikal district, had tapeworm, although all of them
+were being treated for other disorders, affords another argument
+tending to the same conclusion. On the other hand, amongst Europeans
+only a small percentage of tapeworm-patients suffer severely. But
+without trenching upon the symptomatology and prognosis of tapeworm
+disease, I may remark that I have (in my Manual) summarised the whole
+facts of cysticercal prevalence within the compass of two brief <span
+class="nowrap">propositions:&mdash;</span>1. The prevalence or the
+rarity of Cysticerci in cattle in any given country must be determined
+primarily by the habits of the people; for since the beef measle can
+only result from the ingestion by the ox of the eggs of the <i>Tænia
+mediocanellata</i>, it is clear that the degree of infection of cattle will
+correspond with the facilities offered by egg-dispersion. 2. It may
+be affirmed that the frequency of this particular species of tapeworm
+amongst the people occupying any given area will bear a strict relation
+to the amount of underdone measly beef consumed by the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Another question, and one of great interest to sanitary science,
+is that which I have raised in reference to the period that nature
+requires for the destruction of the Cysticerci, or, in other words,
+for the performance of a natural cure by calcareous degeneration of
+the parasites. I have shown that all kinds of tapeworm larvæ (measles,
+bladder-worms, cœnuri, and so forth) have a natural life-epoch assigned
+to them, and in one of my experiments on a Dutch heifer or young cow I
+demonstrated that a period of ten months was more than sufficient to
+ensure the perfect destruction of the Cysticerci of cattle. Moreover,
+this law or process of natural cure is not limited to cestode parasites,
+but affects all other kinds of internal parasites in one or other of
+their juvenile stages of growth. In the flesh of my experimental animal
+I estimated that there were not less than 12,000 of these degenerated
+Cysticerci. This positive contribu<span class="pagenum" title="83"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a></span>tion
+to our knowledge of the limits assigned by nature to the epoch of
+larval activity is not merely one of abstract scientific interest, but
+it has important practical bearings, inasmuch as it points out in what
+way an entire herd of cattle (known to be measled by the post-mortem
+examination of one animal previously selected for the purpose, or for
+that matter, by the rather barbarous act of excising and examining a
+fragment of the muscle of a living one) may be freed of its parasitic
+guests; and it also shows how all risk of propagating tapeworm, apart
+from the question of subjecting the flesh to a certain temperature,
+may be effectually prevented. The stockowner has but to remove his
+animals for six or eight months to localities where no fresh infection
+can occur, when, at the expiration of the time mentioned, all those
+Cysticerci that existed in the beasts at the time of the transfer will
+have perished. The flesh of the animals may then be eaten with impunity,
+whether well cooked or raw. This is an important teaching deducible from
+experimental inquiry, and I am rather surprised that it has hitherto
+escaped the notice of persons who, though they affect to ignore the
+value of scientific researches, are particularly anxious to parade their
+practical knowledge, which, unhappily, too often proves a mere cloak for
+ignorance.</p>
+
+<p>The memoir by Giacomini already quoted (p. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>)
+affords interesting details respecting a case in which there was a
+most unusual degree of infection of the human body by Cysticerci. Dr
+Giacomini instituted a searching comparison between the human measles
+procured by himself and those of the pig sent to him by Professor
+Perroncito. In the human Cysticerci he noticed a greater adherence
+of the capsule to the enclosed measle, and he also observed that
+while the human measle-heads either displayed thirty-two, or in some
+few cases thirty-four hooks, in two differently sized circles of
+fifteen or sixteen each, the pig-measles, on the other hand, carried
+only twenty-four hooks to the double circle of equal circumference;
+consequently the hooks appeared to be more crowded together in the human
+parasite. This fact, Giacomini remarks, does not of itself constitute
+an essential specific difference, since variations of the kind not
+unfrequently occur in Cysticerci occupying one and the same host. Even
+the beef-measle is not necessarily confined to one species of host,
+since Zenker has succeeded in rearing it in a goat.</p>
+
+<p>Although the substance of the above-recorded conclusions<span class="pagenum" title="84"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a></span>
+was originally communicated by me, anonymously, to a professional
+periodical, I have considered this work a suitable medium for a fuller
+discussion of the subject. Its importance in relation to the public
+health and the supply of meat-food has not received the attention it
+deserves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_13"></a>No.
+13).&mdash;<i>Balert, B.</i>, ‘Die Bandwürmer,’ &amp;c. (pamphlet),
+1877.&mdash;<i>Bertolus, G.</i>, ‘Diss. sur les metamorph. des cestoïdes,’
+Montpellier, 1856.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, “On the Production of the
+so-called ‘Acute Cestode Tuberculosis’ by the Administration of the
+Proglottides of <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>” (with Mr Simonds), in ‘Proc.
+of the Royal Society’ for May 4th, 1865; repr. in the ‘Veterinarian’
+for 1865, p. 513.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Experimental Investigations with
+Cestoid Entozoa,” in ‘Linn. Soc. Journ.,’ vol. ix, p. 170; also for
+July, 1865, p. 141.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Beef, Pork, and Mutton, in
+relation to Tapeworms,” in ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ for 1865, p. 102, and
+in ‘Appendix to Treatise on Tapeworms and Threadworms,’ 1st Edit.,
+1866, p. 73; also in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ for Sept. 23rd, 1865, p.
+343.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on Entozoa,” in ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ for
+1865, p. 102; also on “Cystic Entozoa from Veal and Mutton,” in the
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.’ for 1866, vol. xvii, p. 462.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Entozoa
+found in a Westphalian Ham;” report in ‘Athenæum’ for March 27th, 1869,
+p. 442; also in ‘Brit. Med. Journ.’ for March 20th, 1869.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Note on Beef Measles from a Cow,” in ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xvii,
+p. 463, 1866; also in the ‘Lancet’ for Feb. and August, 1865, p.
+249.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ &amp;c., p. 235 <i>et seq.</i>, 1864; and in
+‘Supp.,’ sections iii, iv, v, 1869.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Tapeworms,’ 3rd Edit.
+(with 100 cases), 1875, p. 11.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Manual of the Internal
+Par. of Domesticated Animals,’ chap. iii to vi, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Worms,’ Lectures i to xi, 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Parasites of
+our Food-producing Ruminants (Cantor Lectures),” in the ‘Journ. of
+the Soc. of Arts,’ 1871.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Entozoa of Abyssinia”
+(Lecture), in ‘Lancet,’ 1867.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on Eighty Cases
+of Tapeworm,” ‘Lancet,’ June, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Revised List of
+Entozoa, with notes and references (the beef tapeworm, No. 15, and the
+beef measle, No. 25),” in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1874, and Feb.,
+1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, (anonymously), “Cysticerci, being a review of the
+writings of Pellizzari, Tommasi, Perroncito, Lewis, Giacomini, &amp;c.,”
+contributed to the ‘Lond. Med. Record,’ 1874, p. 642 <i>et seq.</i>; repr. in
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan., 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="85"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a></span>
+“Notice of a Discussion by Paul, Martineau, Créquy, Delioux de
+Savignac, Trasbot, and others, respecting the Source and Treatment
+of Tapeworm,” ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ July, 1874, p. 472.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Review of the Writings of Oliver, Fleming, Hewlett, Lewis, and others,
+on the Cystic Disease of Animals,” ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ June, 1873, p.
+339.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Further Experimental Researches with the Eggs of
+the Beef Tapeworm,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Aug., 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Remarks on Perroncito’s Researches,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec.,
+1877.&mdash;<i>Dardel, A.</i>, “Sulla frequenza della Tenia in Savoia,”
+‘Giorn. d’Accad. di Med.,’ 1868.&mdash;<i>Davaine, C.</i>, ‘Traité’ (1.
+c. Bibl. No. 1), 1860.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Les Cestoides,” in ‘Dict.
+Encyclopédique des Sci. Med.,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Fleming, J.</i>, ‘Indian
+Med. Gaz.,’ 1869.&mdash;<i>Fock, H. C. A. L.</i>, ‘De Lintworm en het
+middel om hem mit te drijven,’ Utrecht, 1878.&mdash;<i>Fritsch, G.</i>,
+“Zur differentiellen Diagnose von <i>T. solium and T. mediocanellata</i>,”
+‘Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,’ 1874.&mdash;<i>Gamgee, J.</i>, “Entozoa
+in Veal and Beef” (Letter on), ‘Lancet,’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Giacomini, C.</i>,
+‘Sul <i>Cyst. cell. hominis</i> e sull <i>Tænia med</i>, contrib. alla studio
+dei Cestoidi Parrassiti dell’ Uomo,’ Torino, 1874.&mdash;<i>Heller,
+A.</i>, “Darmschmarotzer,” in von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch der speciellen
+Pathol. und Therapie,’ s. 598 <i>et seq.</i>, 1876.&mdash;<i>Hewlett</i>, ‘Health
+Officer’s Report,’ Bombay, 1870.&mdash;<i>Krabbe, H.</i>, ‘Beretning om 100
+Tilfælde af Bœndellorm hos Menesket iagttagne her i Landet (Aftryk
+af Ugeskrift for Læger),’ 1869.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister, F.</i>, ‘Ueber
+Cestoden im Allgemeinen und die des Menschen insbesondere, hauptsählich
+mit Berücksichtigung ihrer Entwickelungsgeschichte, geographischen
+Verbreitung, Prophylaxe und Abtreibung; specieller Theil. Zittau,’
+1853.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Parasiten’ (1. c. Bibl. No. 1), 1855, Eng. Edit.,
+London, 1857.&mdash;<i>Laboulbéne, A.</i>, “Sur les Tænias,” ‘Mém. de la
+Soc. Méd. des Hôpit.,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Anat. Pathologique,’ 1879,
+p. 962.&mdash;<i>Letheby</i>, “On Diseased Meat,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’
+1867.&mdash;<i>Leuckart, R.</i>, ‘Die Menschl. Par.,’ Bd. i, s. 285 and s.
+747, 1864.&mdash;<i>Levi</i>, “Della freq. della tenia,” &amp;c., ‘Giorn.
+Veneto di Scienz. Med.,’ 1874.&mdash;<i>Lewis, T. K.</i>, “A Report on the
+Bladder Worms found in Beef and Pork” (‘App. B. to 8th Ann. Rep. of the
+Sanit. Commiss. with the Gov. of India’), Calcutta, 1872.&mdash;<i>Masse,
+E.</i> et <i>Pourquier, P.</i>, “Le Tænia inerme et la lardrerie du Bœuf,
+Nouvelles Expériences,” &amp;c., in ‘Montpellier Med. Journ. Mens.
+de Méd.,’ p. 220, 1876.&mdash;<i>Mosler</i>, ‘Helminthogische studien und
+Beobachtungen,’ Berlin, 1864. <i>Neill, A.</i>, “Letter, forming the fifth
+of a series of important articles on Cyst-infected Cattle, and on the
+prevalence of Cysticercus<span class="pagenum" title="86"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a></span>
+in Beef,” reported by the Inspector General (I. M. D.), in the
+‘Madras Monthly Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ Feb., 1873; repr. in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ July, 1873.&mdash;<i>Nitsche, H.</i>, “Untersuchungen
+ueber den Bau der Tænien,” ‘Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschrift,’
+1873.&mdash;<i>Oliver</i>, “Rejections of Ration Beef on account of Cystic
+Disease” (l. c. <i>supra</i>), ‘7th Rep. of the Commiss.,’ p. 82, Calcutta,
+1871.&mdash;<i>Perroncito E.</i>, “Della panicatura negli animali,” ‘Annali
+della R. Accad. d’Agricolt. di Torino,’ vol. xv, 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Sulla morte del <i>Cyst. cell.</i> delle carni del majale;” <i>ibid.</i>,
+1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Ueber die Lebenszähigkeit des <i>Cyst. cell.</i> und
+anderer Eingeweidewürmer,” ‘Zeitsch. f. prakt. Veter.-Wissenschaften,’
+Bern, 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Della Grandine o Panicatura nell’ Uomo
+e negli animali,’ Torino, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Esperimenti sulla
+produzione del cisticerco nelli carni del bovini, coll’ amministrazione
+di anelli della <i>tænia med.</i> dell’ uomo,” ‘Lo Studente Vet.,’ Parma,
+1876, p. 146.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Sulla tenacita,” &amp;c., <i>ibid.</i>, 1877,
+p. 194.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Esperimenti sulla prod. del Cyst. della <i>T.
+med.</i> nelle carni dei Vitelli,” ‘Estr. della Annali d. R. Accad.
+d’Agric. di Torino,’ vol. xx, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Tenacity of
+Life of the Helminths, and their corresponding Larval Forms in Man and
+Animals,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ July, 1877, p. 457.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (with
+similar title, including notice of experiments), the ‘Veterinarian,’
+Dec., 1877; partly from ‘Osservatore Gaz. d. Cliniche di Torino,’ and
+from ‘Archivvo per le Sci. Med.,’ vol. i, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the
+Tenacity of Life of the <i>Cysticercus</i> in the flesh of Oxen, and on the
+rapid development of the corresponding <i>T. mediocanellata</i> in the Human
+Body,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1877, p. 817.&mdash;<i>Probstmayr</i>,
+‘Jahrb. der Münchener Thierarzneischule,’ 1869.&mdash;<i>Rochard</i>,
+“Note sur la fréquence du <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> en Syrie, et sur
+la présence du cysticerque qui lui donne naissance, dans la chaire
+musculaire des bœufs de ce pays,” in ‘Bulletin de l’Acad. de Méd.,’
+1877, tom. vi, p. 998.&mdash;<i>Thudichum, J. W. L.</i>, “On the Parasitic
+Diseases of Quadrupeds used as Food,” ‘Privy Council Med. Officer’s
+Rep.’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Sommer, F.</i>, “Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung
+der Geschlechtsorgane, von <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i> und <i>T. solium</i>,” in
+‘Siebold and Köll. Zeitschrift,’ Bd. xxiv, s. 499, 1874.&mdash;<i>St Cyr</i>,
+“Deux Experiences,” &amp;c., ‘Journ. de l’Anatomie, de Robin,’ p. 504;
+and in ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ by Higgs, vol. i, 582, 1873.&mdash;<i>Tommasi,
+T.</i>, ‘Appendice (to Cobbold’s) Parasiti Interni degli Animali
+Domestice,’ p. 161, Firenze, 1874.&mdash;<i>Van Beneden, P. J.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="87"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a></span>
+“Iconographie des Helminthes ou des vers parasites de l’homme” (Vers
+Cestoïdes, pl. ii), Louvain, 1860.&mdash;<i>Welch, F. H.</i>, “Observations
+on the Anatomy of <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>,” ‘Quart. Journ. of Microsc.
+Science,’ vol. xv, 1875.&mdash;<i>Zenker</i>, in ‘S. B. Soc.,’ Erlang. iv,
+s. 71.&mdash;<i>Zurn</i>, ‘Zoopathologische und physiol. Untersuchungen,’
+1872.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia solium</i>, Linneus.&mdash;This cestode was formerly known as the
+common tapeworm, but in England it is of far less frequent occurrence
+than the beef tapeworm. In contradistinction it is best to speak of it
+as the pork tapeworm. Though only one specimen is usually present, the
+bearer may entertain several worms of this species at one and the same
+time. The parasite has been known to science from the earliest times,
+though possibly not earlier than the measles, or Cysticerci, from which
+it originates. Hippocrates, Pliny, and Aristotle describe the full-grown
+worm; and, in regard to the larvæ, some have gone so far as to express
+their belief that the prohibition of swine’s flesh as food amongst the
+Jews and other Oriental people, was dictated by sanitary considerations.
+Weinland has suggested that the Mosaic commandment not to eat pork may
+have originated in an old popular notion “of the fact that tapeworm
+sometimes comes from this food.” Weinland’s hypothesis is probably
+correct, for if one supposes Moses to have been supernaturally informed
+that pork would produce tapeworm disease, one naturally asks why veal
+and beef should not also have been prohibited, seeing that these meats
+also frequently harbour tapeworm larvæ.</p>
+
+<p>A perfect pork tapeworm presents itself to the eye of the observer as
+a long, soft, white, jointed strobile, which, when alive, elongates and
+contracts itself with facility. Though commonly spoken of as a single
+creature, it is a compound of many individuals. These are variously
+called “cucurbitini,” “zooids,” “proglottides,” “segments,” “links,”
+or “joints.” When fully grown the segments are capable of detaching
+themselves and of enjoying a free and independent existence. Very
+annoying it is to the human bearer to be continually reminded of his
+unwelcome “guests” as they seek to quit his interior.</p>
+
+<p>The head of <i>Tænia solium</i> is seldom seen in anatomical museums,
+although the evacuation of pork tapeworms is not of rare occurrence.
+Placed under the microscope, the head displays a quantity of dark,
+almost black, pigment granules, which are abundant at the base of the
+rostellum and in the<span class="pagenum" title="88"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a></span>
+neighbourhood of the hook-fangs. They are equally present and abundant
+in the pork measle proper, and in measles derived from the human
+subject. The cephalic hooks of this cestode are comparatively large,
+those of the greater circle individually measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">156</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+whilst the smaller hooks have a length of about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">220</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/f23.jpg" width="300" height="374" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Tænia solium</i>.
+Highly magnified. After Van Beneden.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The male reproductive organ consists of a number of small
+vesicles or sacs, in which filiform spermatozoa have been
+detected, these latter, when ripe, being conducted by a <i>vas
+deferens</i> into a seminal pouch, from which a canal passes
+laterally into the penis; the latter organ, in its retracted condition,
+being lodged within a flask-shaped sheath or cirrhus-pouch.
+The female organs are somewhat more complicated.
+They consist of two masses of vitelligene glands occupying a
+limited space, a small ovarium, a centrally-placed and largely-developed
+branched uterus, canals of outlet leading from all
+these organs, and enlargements of the main passages to form
+internal seminal reservoirs; also, a vaginal canal, which is
+widened at its termination to form a receptaculum for the
+curved penis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="89"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above-named structures, the entire series
+of joints from the head downwards are traversed by a set of
+vascular canals, which are doubled in the region of the head.
+These form the so-called aquiferous system. There are two
+main channels, one passing down on either side of the worm,
+both being connected by transverse vessels, which occur singly
+at one end of every joint.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs in their mature condition are globular, and contain
+a six-hooked embryo. They present an average diameter of <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">694</span></span>
+of an inch, the shell itself measuring about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in thickness. In 1856 I observed that many of the eggs, whilst still
+within the uterine branches, displayed an outer envelope, very delicate
+in structure and totally dissimilar from the egg-shell proper. This
+has since been more accurately described by Weinland, Van Beneden, and
+Leuckart. The outer membrane, according to the last-named authority,
+constitutes the primitive yolk-membrane, within which a part of the
+yolk-contents separates to form the true egg and embryo by a process of
+daughter-cell formation. The remaining part of the yolk forms a granular
+mass, being probably concerned in the formation of the true chitinous
+shell. The true shell displays a series of radiating and circular lines;
+the former, however, are more conspicuous than the latter, being due,
+according to Leuckart, to the presence of a series of fine rod-like
+chitinous elements, which are formed on the external surface of the
+original true shell-membrane. The enclosed embryo is furnished with six
+boring spines, arranged in three pairs, its granular body being invested
+by an extremely delicate skin-membrane, which is separated from the
+inner surface of the shell by a clear transparent fluid. The embryo
+measures <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The scolex or higher larval stage of growth forms the well-known pork
+measle or <i>Cysticercus</i> (<i>telæ</i>) <i>cellulosæ</i> of authors. The smallest
+measles found by Leuckart measured <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length. They were obtained from the brain, liver, and intermuscular
+substance of a pig fed with proglottides about thirty days previously.
+Only those specimens, however, occurring in the liver at this early
+period displayed an outer membrane proper to the worm itself, the others
+being simply invested with capsules formed out of the connective tissues
+of the host. Many measle-masses in the same host were much larger,
+presenting an average diameter of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The smallest already displayed a smooth, transparent, homogeneous, outer, cuticular<span class="pagenum" title="90"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a></span>
+membrane, overlying a double, finely-granular corium, the latter being
+traversed by a branched system of aquiferous vessels. These vessels
+proceed from a central spot, which marks the position of the so-called
+head-cone, or <i>receptaculum capitis</i>. It is, in fact, the first
+well-marked indication of that flask-shaped capsule within which the
+head, neck, and body of the Cysticercus is formed, and which Goeze long
+ago very aptly compared to a lantern. As growth proceeds, a central
+granular mass forms the true foundation of the head, its upper or
+stalk-like extension becoming the future neck and body. Further changes
+result in the evolution of the internal water-vascular system, the
+calcareous corpuscles, the marginal transverse foldings of the body, the
+four suckers, the rostellum, and, in particular, the double coronet of
+hooks. All these metamorphoses were minutely followed and described by
+Leuckart, who found the development of the larva to be completed within
+the space of ten weeks.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the injurious effects of this parasite upon man, it may
+be said to act prejudicially in three separate ways. I have remarked in
+my ‘Entozoa,’ that this parasite may cause disease and death both by
+its action in the larval and adult states. It may likewise injure us by
+rendering the flesh of swine unwholesome.</p>
+
+<p>When one or more sexually-mature tapeworms have developed themselves
+within the human intestine, they are apt to give rise to a variety
+of unpleasant symptoms, more or less marked according to the habit
+or irritability of the patient. According to Davaine (p. 103 of his
+‘Traité’) the principal features are “vertigo, noises in the ears,
+impairment of sight, itching of the nose and anus, salivation, dyspepsia
+and loss of appetite, colic, pains over the epigastrium and in different
+parts of the abdomen, palpitation, syncope, the sensation of weight
+in the abdomen, pains and lassitude in the limbs, and emaciation.” In
+ordinary cases there is always more or less anxiety and restlessness;
+but in severe cases the sympathetic symptoms are very strongly
+marked, showing themselves in hysterical fits, chorea, epilepsy, and
+epileptiform seizures, attended by more or less alarming convulsions.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst some of the more interesting and remarkable cases
+recorded in our English journals, I may instance that of Mr
+Hutchings, where a complete cure followed the evacuation of
+the worm which had produced convulsions. Mr Tuffnell records<span class="pagenum" title="91"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a></span>
+a case where irritability of the bladder and stricture of the
+urethra were entirely dependent on tapeworm, as proved by
+the subsequent recovery. At a meeting of the Pathological
+Society, in 1853, Dr Winslow mentioned his experience of
+three or four cases of mania arising from tapeworm; whilst on
+the same occasion Drs Ryan and Davey each recorded a similar
+instance. A case has also been previously published by Mr W.
+Wood. At a meeting of the London Medical Society, held on
+the 10th of April, 1837, Dr Theophilus Thomson (during an
+interesting discussion on this subject) stated the facts of a
+case where the presence of tapeworm had given rise to a
+tumultuous action of the heart, this symptom entirely disappearing
+after evacuation of the worm. Our journals likewise (anonymously)
+record a considerable number of cases from foreign
+sources. Thus, in the ‘London Medical Gazette’ for 1840, there
+is the case of a lady, aged thirty-seven, who had convulsions
+attended with a complete loss of consciousness, the separate fits
+lasting an hour at a time. The passage of the worms effected
+a complete cure. In the same journal for 1838, there is also
+the case of a younger lady (aged twenty-seven) suffering from
+epilepsy, in whom a complete cure had been similarly brought
+about; here, however, in addition to a single specimen of the
+<i>Tænia solium</i>, there were two lumbrici present. This journal
+also gives Ettmüller’s case, where eighteen tapeworms were
+the cause of hysteria; and likewise the case published by
+Steinbeck, where the symptoms presented an altogether peculiar
+character. More precise references to some of the above cases
+will be found in the ‘Bibliography’ below; and I may also
+refer to my published lectures on Helminthology and especially
+to my separate work on Tapeworms, where particulars of one
+hundred cases are briefly recorded. These were all average
+cases occurring to me whilst in private practice. Davaine’s
+book also abounds with remarkable cases.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst the adult worm is capable of producing serious
+and even fatal mischief to the bearer, the larvæ or measles
+much more frequently prove fatal. The Cysticerci may
+develop themselves in almost any situation in the human body,
+but they occur most commonly in the subcutaneous, areolar,
+and intermuscular connective tissue; next, most commonly in
+the brain and eye, and lastly, in the substance of the heart and
+other viscera of the trunk.</p>
+
+<p>In my ‘Entozoa’ I have stated that probably not less than<span class="pagenum" title="92"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a></span>
+one hundred cases have been observed where death had resulted
+from Cysticerci in the brain. Griesinger alone collected
+between fifty and sixty such cases. Mental disturbance occasioned
+by the presence of measles in the brain may occur with
+or without epilepsy. When Griesinger states that “the epilepsy
+from Cysticercus is in all respects like cerebral epilepsy
+and the psychical disturbances have nothing characteristic
+about them,” he tacitly admits the impossibility of correct
+diagnosis during life.</p>
+
+<p>Since the publication of Griesinger’s well-known memoir on
+Cysticerci of the brain, many similar cases have appeared, and
+amongst the more recent of these is one by Dr Frédet in which
+the victim was a young man twenty-two years of age. Though
+apparently in good health he fell dead in the street; the
+fatal result being due to the presence of a Cysticercus within
+the <i>pons Varolii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many other cases of earlier date are especially noteworthy. Thus Mr
+Toynbee recorded a case where an hydatid (which I take to have been the
+<i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i>) situated in the middle cerebral fossa beneath
+the <i>dura mater</i>, but in this instance death ensued from other causes.
+Mr Ottley gives the case of a woman aged forty, where an undoubted
+Cysticercus in the brain gave rise to distressing fits, convulsions,
+and death. Then, again, there was Dr Burton’s workhouse patient, only
+twenty years of age, who was found dead in bed, but who at the time
+of admission merely complained of pain in the head. After death, four
+hydatids (<i>Cysticerci</i>) were found in the <i>tuber ancillare</i> at the
+summit of the spinal marrow. M. Bouvier’s similar case is also reported
+in our periodicals. Of instances where Cysticerci occupied the cavity
+of the eye, we have one or two cases by Mackenzie of Glasgow, one by
+Mr Rose of Swaffham, and others by Windsor, Logan, and Estlin. Amongst
+the more peculiar cases, I may mention that described by Dr Greenhalgh
+in the ‘Lancet’ (1848), where the Cysticercus was lodged within the
+substance of the lip. Five similar cases are likewise recorded by Heller
+of Stuttgard. Then there is Dupuytren’s case of a Cysticercus ensconced
+within the great peroneus muscle; and also Fournier’s, where several of
+these scolices were said to have been found in a boil. The so-called
+<i>Trachelocampylus</i>, discovered by Frédault in the human brain, was
+neither more nor less than a common <i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f24.jpg" width="250" height="181" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Head of a <i>Cysticercus</i> removed from the
+brain. Magn. 5 diam. with detached hooks. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is worthy of remark, as Griesinger has also observed, that<span class="pagenum" title="93"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a></span>
+in cases where the Cysticerci have taken up their temporary residence in
+the brain, they are usually found, post mortem, in the grey cortical or
+peripheral substance of the cerebrum. The particulars of such a case are
+given in my ‘Entozoa’ where the victim suffered from epileptic fits due
+to the presence of numerous Cysticerci (fig. 24). The patient was under
+Mr Hulke’s care.</p>
+
+<p>As regards infection by the adult worm it is not alone sufficient
+that we avoid underdone <i>meat</i>, as brought to the dinner-table, but
+we must be especially careful to have our sausages well cooked.
+Under ordinary circumstances, we are safe for the following <span
+class="nowrap">reasons:&mdash;</span>No respectable butcher will
+knowingly supply us with pork or with sausages which are measled. Even
+in the case of underdone meats, in whatever way prepared, it is usually
+only a small portion which is unaffected by cooking. As we have seen a
+temperature of 140° Fahr. is sufficient to kill the Cysticerci.</p>
+
+<p>The successful rearing of pork measles by experimentation with the
+eggs of <i>T. solium</i> has been accomplished by many helminthologists,
+amongst whom may be particularised Van Beneden, Leuckart, Küchenmeister,
+Haubner, Gerlach, and Baillet. The converse experiment of rearing the
+adult worm from the Cysticercus was first successfully undertaken by
+Küchenmeister on a condemned criminal; Leuckart, Humbert, and others
+having repeated this method with more or less success.</p>
+
+<p>The dangers arising from infection by swallowing the larval worms or
+six-hooked embryos are not easily avoided. Our flesh, like pork, thus
+becomes measled, although certainly not to the spawn-like extent so
+often seen in the lower animals. A single measle is sufficient to prove
+fatal; and this humiliating contingency, moreover, is one which we can
+never be absolutely certain of avoiding. We become the “host” or bearer
+of the measle by swallowing the fully-developed eggs of the <i>Tænia
+solium</i>. This we may do directly by handling fresh tapeworms, whose
+eggs, being concealed under our<span class="pagenum" title="94"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a></span>
+nails or in our clothing, may subsequently be swallowed, and develop
+within us accordingly. Even a thorough washing of the hands will not
+ensure absolute security. In like manner, those who partake of choice
+salads, prepared from the stores of the market-gardener, run a certain
+amount of risk. The vegetables may have been manured with night-soil
+containing myriads of tapeworm eggs, or they may have been watered
+with fluid filth into which the eggs were accidentally cast. In such
+cases, one or more tapeworm ova will be transferred to the digestive
+organs, unless the vegetables have been very carefully cleansed. In
+the same way, one perceives how fallen fruits, all sorts of edible
+plants, as well as pond, canal, and even river water procured from
+the neighbourhood of human habitations, are liable to harbour embryos
+capable of gaining entrance to the human body. One individual suffering
+from tapeworm may infect a whole neighbourhood by rendering the swine
+measly, these animals, in their turn, spreading the disease far and
+wide. As already remarked, measles sometimes occur in great numbers in
+different parts of the body. Among the more remarkable cases of the
+multiple Cysticerci are those recorded by Delore (1864) and Giacomini
+(1874). In M. Delore’s case, about 2000 were obtained post mortem. Of
+these, 111 occurred in connection with the nervous centres, eighty-four
+being in the cerebrum, twenty-two in the membranes of the brain, four in
+the cerebellum, and one within the substance of the medulla oblongata.
+Dr Knox published a less notable instance in the ‘Lancet’ (1838); and in
+the year 1857, Dr Hodges, of Boston, U.S., published a case where the
+cysts, which in size he compared to rice grains and coffee beans, were
+felt subcutaneously. The coexistence of Tænia and Cysticerci in the same
+individual has also recently been observed in France (‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’
+1875). Besides these, several remarkable instances have lately been
+reported by Davy, Tartivel, and others.</p>
+
+<p>To the literature already quoted in connection with the beef tapeworm
+the following may be added:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_14"></a>No.
+14).&mdash;<i>Aran</i>, in ‘Archives Gén. de Médecine,’
+1841.&mdash;<i>Baillet</i>, “Helminthes,” art. in ‘Bouley and Reynal’s
+Dict. Vétérin.,’ tom. viii, 1869.&mdash;<i>Bécoulet</i> and <i>Giraud</i>, “On
+Cysticercus in the Brain,” ‘Bullet. de la Soc. Méd. de Gand,’ 1872; and
+in ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ Feb., 1873.&mdash;<i>Birkett, J.</i>, Cases, ‘Guy’s
+Hosp. Rep.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Bouchut</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="95"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a></span>
+“Cyst. in the Brain,” ‘Gaz. des Hôp.,’ 1857, and ‘Journ. für
+Kinderkrankheit.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Bouvier</i>, ‘Bullet. de l’Acad.,’
+1840.&mdash;<i>Burton</i>, in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ (supposed hydatids),
+1862.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “On Measly Meat and Measles in Man,” the
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Czermack</i>, “Cysticerci causing Insanity,”
+Corresp.&mdash;Blatt, 1838.&mdash;<i>Dalton, J. C.</i>, “Cyst in the
+Scrotum,” ‘New York Journ. of Med.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i> (see his
+‘Traité’ for many additional references; p. 676).&mdash;<i>Davy, R.</i>,
+“Cysticerci in the Muscles,” ‘Rep. of Lond. Med. Soc.,’ ‘Lancet’ for
+Nov., 1876.&mdash;<i>Estling</i>, “Cases of Cysticercus,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1838&ndash;39.&mdash;<i>Frédet</i>, “Cysticercus in the <i>pons Varolii</i>,”
+in the ‘Lancet’ for June 23rd, 1877 (p. 925), from ‘Giornale Veneto
+de Scienze.’&mdash;<i>Fournier</i>, ‘Journ. des Connois. Med. Chir.,’
+1840.&mdash;<i>Griesinger</i>, “On Cysticerci of the Brain,” from ‘Med.
+Jahrb.’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Review,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Harley, J.</i>, “Cyst. in
+the Brain,” ‘Lancet,’ 1867.&mdash;<i>Hodges, R. M.</i>, “Specimens of
+<i>Cyst. cell.</i>, felt as small tumours just beneath the skin, varying in
+size from that of a grain of rice to that of a coffee bean,” ‘Rep. of
+Boston Soc. for Med. Improvement,’ in ‘Brit. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1857.&mdash;<i>Hogg, J.</i>, “Obs. on Cysticercus,” in his ‘Manual of
+Ophth. Surgery,’ 3rd edit., 1863.&mdash;<i>Holler, A.</i>, “<i>Cyst. cell</i>.,
+im Gehirne einer Geisteskranken,” ‘Allgem. Wiener Med. Zeitung,’
+1878.&mdash;<i>Logan, R.</i>, “Probable Cases of <i>Cyst. cell</i>.,” removed
+by Robertson, ‘Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Mackenzie,
+W.</i>, “Cyst in the Eye,” ‘Lancet,’ 1848, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1839.&mdash;<i>Mazotti, L.</i>, “Caso di numerosi cisticerchi del cervello
+e delle meningi,” ‘Rivista Clin. di Bologna,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Mégnin,
+P.</i>, “La Ladrerie du porc et le <i>Tænia solium</i>,” ‘La France Médicale,’
+1876.&mdash;<i>Putz, H.</i>, “Ueber die Lebenszähigkeit des <i>Cysticercus
+cellulosæ</i>,” &amp;c., ‘Zeitsch. f. pr. Vet.-Wissenschaften,’
+1876.&mdash;<i>Rainey, G.</i>, “On the Structure, &amp;c., of <i>Cyst. cell.</i>,”
+‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Rizzetti, G.</i>, “Rendiconto Statistico
+dell’ufficio d’igiene di Torino per l’Anno 1873.”&mdash;<i>Rudall, J. T.</i>,
+“Cyst. in the Brain,” ‘Australian Med. Journ.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Tartivel,
+De A.</i>, “Cysticerques multiples dans le tissu cellulaire sous-cutané et
+dans certain viscères,” ‘Rec. de Méd. Vet.,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Von Gräfe,
+A.</i>, in ‘Arch. für Ophthal.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Wells, S.</i>, Bourman’s Case,
+‘Ophth. Hosp. Rep.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Windsor, J.</i>, “Cyst. in the Eye,”
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1861.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia tenella</i>, Cobbold.&mdash;I have long been acquainted with the
+fact that there is a comparatively small human tapeworm which cannot be
+referred to either of the foregoing species. In<span class="pagenum" title="96"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a></span>
+the absence of experimental proof, I incline to the belief that the worm
+in question owes its existence to measly mutton. The sheep harbours an
+armed Cysticercus (<i>C. ovis</i>), which I regard as the scolex of <i>Tænia
+tenella</i>. The specific name (<i>tenella</i>) was originally applied by
+Pruner to a cestode six feet in length, which he found associated with
+a larger tapeworm. This latter he called <i>Tænia lata</i>. Whilst Diesing
+has pronounced Pruner’s <i>Tænia lata</i> to have been a <i>T. mediocanellata</i>,
+I, on the other hand, consider Pruner’s <i>T. tenella</i> to have been
+a <i>T. solium</i>. Mr J. C. Mayrhofer has suggested its identity with
+<i>Bothriocephalus tropicus</i>. When, some years back, I applied the term
+<i>T. tenella</i> to a new tapeworm (of which I possess several strobiles)
+I was quite unaware than any similar nomenclature had been adopted by
+Pruner. From the few facts supplied by Pruner and Diesing, I cannot
+suppose that our cestodes are identical. Unfortunately my specimens are
+imperfect, wanting the so-called head. It is not possible to estimate
+the length of the worm accurately, but the perfect strobile must measure
+several feet.</p>
+
+<p>On one slide I have mounted nine mature proglottides of a worm which
+I procured on the 15th Dec., 1875. The segments measure, on the average,
+exactly <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">10</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length, and only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">20</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth. The uterine rosettes are all full of eggs, and their
+branches so crowded together that I am unable to ascertain their
+average number. The segments are perfectly uniform in character, their
+reproductive papillæ alternating irregularly at the margin.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1872 I caused a lamb to be fed with the
+proglottides of a tapeworm which I referred to this species.
+The animal was slaughtered on the 22nd of January, 1873,
+when the result was stated to have been negative. As I had
+no opportunity of examining the carcase, I cannot feel quite
+sure that there actually were no Cysticerci present. On several
+occasions I have detected measles in the flesh of animals, when
+none were supposed to be present by those who either assisted
+me or were professional on-lookers. Assuming my <i>Tænia tenella</i>
+to be derived from the sheep’s Cysticercus, I think it fitting to
+describe the mutton measle in this place. Even if <i>T. tenella</i>
+be not actually the adult representative of the mutton measle
+(<i>Cyst. ovis</i>), it is quite certain that the scolex in question
+gives rise to an armed tapeworm, and it is almost equally certain
+that the adult armed cestode resides in man. In Pruner’s case,<span class="pagenum" title="97"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a></span>
+which is by no means unique, we have seen that two distinct
+species of cestode may coexist in the human bearer. It is
+quite possible that some one may yet have the good fortune to
+detect the beef tapeworm, the pork tapeworm, and the mutton
+tapeworm, all together in one and the same host.</p>
+
+<p>On five separate occasions I have detected measles in “joints”
+of otherwise excellent and healthy mutton brought to my own
+table, and supplied by the family butcher. On several other
+occasions I have had these parasites brought under my notice;
+nevertheless, many persons are either unaware of, or actually
+deny, the existence of these ovine parasites. Thus, MM.
+Masse and Pourquier, in the ‘Montpellier Med. Journ.’ for
+Sept., 1876, make the following statement: “The sheep, not
+being subject to measles, it seems to us natural to employ the
+raw meat of that animal whenever it is required for nourishment
+in the treatment of diarrhœa, in weaning children, in phthisis,
+and for anæmics.” Clearly, if MM. Masse and Pourquier
+could have brought themselves to believe that English literature
+is worth consulting on such matters, they would not have
+made this statement. Incidentally they also observe, when
+speaking of beef <span class="nowrap">measles:&mdash;</span>“Un fait que nous avons remarqué
+et que nous tenons à signaler, c’est que nous avons trouvé des
+cysticerques nageant librement dans l’eau où nous avions plongé
+de la viande infestée de ladrerie.” Certainly this is a novel
+experience. That measles should not only get out of their
+cysts, but should have the power of “swimming freely” in the
+water is a phenomenon which requires explanation. There must
+have been some error of observation.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the year 1865 that I discovered the mutton
+measle (<i>C. ovis</i>, mihi); but I am not prepared to say that the
+parasite had never been seen before, since it is alleged that a
+two-headed Cysticercus was obtained by Fromage from the liver
+of a sheep (as cited by Davaine). Be that as it may, my discovery
+was announced in a communication made at the Birmingham
+meeting of the British Association in the autumn of
+1865, and subsequently at a meeting of the Pathological Society
+of London, on the 3rd of April, 1866 (‘Path. Trans.,’ vol. xviii,
+p. 463). After these dates further announcements and verifications
+appeared, amongst which I can only refer to my
+remarks “On Beef, Pork, and Mutton, in relation to Tapeworms,”
+forming an appendix to the first edition of my work
+on Tapeworms, 1866; to the <span class="pagenum" title="98"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a></span>“Remarks on Cysticerci from
+Mutton,” contained in the fourth chapter of the Supplement to my
+introductory treatise on Entozoa, where a figure of the parasite
+is given, 1869, p. 27; to Dr Maddox’s paper “On an Entozoon
+with Ova, found encysted in the Muscles of a Sheep,” recorded
+in ‘Nature,’ May 15th, 1873, p. 59; to the ‘Monthly Microscopical
+Journal,’ June, 1873, p. 245; to my further communications
+in the ‘Lond. Med. Record,’ Aug. 6th, 1873; to my
+‘Manual,’ 1874, pp. 74 and 105, Ital. edit. ‘Nota Dell’ Autore,’
+p. 133; and especially to the article headed “The Mutton
+Tapeworm,” contained in the 3rd edit. of my little volume on
+‘Tapeworms,’ p. 12, et seq., 1875.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the measle itself, I spoke of it as smaller than
+the common pork measle. The head is <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">30</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth, and is armed with a double crown of hooks, twenty-six in
+all, the larger hooks each measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">160</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length. The suckers are four in number, each having a breadth
+of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">100</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+The neck and head are abundantly supplied with calcareous corpuscles,
+being at the same time marked by transverse rugæ. The data on which I
+founded my brief description of the scolex were chiefly based on the
+examination of a specimen which had been procured by Prof. Heisch from
+the interior of a mutton chop. Subsequently much fuller details of the
+structure of the scolex were supplied by the illustrated memoir of Dr
+Maddox (above quoted). This excellent microscopist, however, announced
+the presence of immature ova within the Cysticerci themselves. As the
+notion of the existence of eggs in larval cestodes was altogether
+at variance with what we know of the phenomena of tapeworm life, I
+suggested that the author might have mistaken the egg-shaped calcareous
+corpuscles (which I found so abundant in my own specimens) for the ova.
+In the interests of truth I felt bound to characterise certain of the
+conclusions arrived at by Dr Maddox as simply incredible, but I regarded
+his memoir as forming “an important contribution to our knowledge of
+the structure of the mutton measle.” I had no idea that in pointing to
+errors of interpretation I should offend the excellent author. However,
+a long letter appeared in the ‘London Medical Record,’ in which Dr
+Maddox showed that he was much vexed that I should have “impugned” the
+“accuracy of his conclusions.” He defended his position with the support
+of no less an authority than Dr Macdonald, F.R.S., the distinguished
+Assistant Professor of Naval Hygiène at the Victoria Hospital, Netley.
+Dr Maddox <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span><span class="pagenum" title="99"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a></span>
+“We were quite alive to the anomalous position. Hence the
+exceptionability of the case rests on more than my own evidence.” In
+regard to this unfortunate dispute I will only add the expression of
+my conviction that Drs Maddox and Macdonald will eventually become
+satisfied that no cestode scolex is capable of displaying either mature
+or immature ova in its interior.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_15"></a>No. 15).
+<i>Cobbold</i> (l. c., <i>supra</i>), 1865&ndash;75.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Measly
+Meat, &amp;c.,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The
+Mutton Tapeworm (<i>T. tenella</i>),” No. 16 in my revised list of Entozoa,
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1874.&mdash;<i>Diesing, C. M.</i> (<i>Tænia tenella</i>,
+Pruner nec Pallas), in “Revis der Cephalocotyleen,” ‘Sitzungsb. der
+Math.-Mat. Class d. k. Akad. der Wissenschaften,’ Bd. xlix, s. 369,
+1864.&mdash;<i>Maddox</i> (l. c., <i>supra</i>), 1873.&mdash;<i>Mayrhofer, J.
+C.</i>, ‘Die helminth. des Menschen,’ Erlangen, 1854.&mdash;<i>Pruner</i>,
+‘Krankheiten des Orients,’ s. 245, 1847.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia lophosoma</i>, Cobbold.&mdash;This is a good species notwithstanding
+the doubts that have been expressed by Heller
+and others regarding it. I have called it the ridged tapeworm
+in consequence of the presence of an elevated line coursing the
+whole length of the body, which measures about eight feet.
+The reproductive papillæ are remarkably prominent and uniserially
+disposed throughout the entire chain of proglottides.
+It is quite an error to suppose that this species is a malformed
+cestode, or that it has any resemblance to Küchenmeister’s
+variety of tapeworm from the Cape of Good Hope. Neither
+does it in the slightest degree resemble the remarkably malformed
+<i>T. mediocanellata</i> described by Mr Cullingworth. Of
+the distinctiveness of this parasite as a species, any one may
+satisfy himself by an inspection of the nearly complete strobile
+preserved in the Pathological Museum attached to the Middlesex
+Hospital Medical College. From the examination of several
+mature proglottides detached from this specimen, I find their
+average breadth to be one fifth of an inch, by three quarters
+of an inch in length. Their greatest thickness does not exceed
+the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">13</span></span>th</span>
+of an inch. The eggs resemble those of other tapeworms,
+and offer a diameter of about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">850</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+from pole to pole.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_16"></a>No. 16).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Parasites of Man,” in
+the ‘Midland Naturalist,’ April, 1878, p. 98.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Tapeworms,’
+1st edit., p. 52, 1866; 3rd edit., p. 27, 1875.&mdash;<i>Cullingworth</i>
+(see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_18">18</a>).&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Les Cestoïdes,’ l. c., p. 573.&mdash;<i>Heller</i>,
+l. c., s. 594.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="100"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia nana</i>, Siebold.&mdash;As regards the dwarf tapeworm, unless
+Spooner’s case be genuine, there is but one solitary instance on record
+of its occurrence in the human body; moreover, we have no evidence of
+its having existed in any other host. It was discovered by Dr Bilharz,
+of Cairo, at the post-mortem examination of a boy who died from
+inflammation of the cerebral membranes. Prodigious numbers existed. The
+largest specimen measured only one inch in length. To the naked eye
+these worms resemble short threads, and consequently they might very
+readily be overlooked. The head is broad and furnished with a formidable
+rostellum armed with a crown of hooks. These hooks have large anterior
+root-processes, which, extending unusually forward, impart to the
+individual hooks a bifid character. By far the best account of this worm
+is furnished by Leuckart, to whom I am indebted for a specimen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_17"></a>No. 17).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 244.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>
+(l. c., Bibl. No. 2), p. 574.&mdash;<i>Heller</i>, l. c., s. 606.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>,
+l. c., Eng. edit., p. 141.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., Bd. i,
+s. 393.&mdash;<i>Von Siebold</i> and <i>Bilharz</i>, in Von Sieb. and Köll.
+Zeitschr., Bd. iv.&mdash;<i>Spooner</i>, ‘Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1873.&mdash;<i>Van
+Beneden</i>, ‘Iconographie,’ l. c., pl. iii, fig. 17.&mdash;<i>Weinland,
+‘Diplacanthus nanus,’</i> l. c., p. 85.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia Madagascariensis</i>, Davaine.&mdash;This appears to be a
+well-defined species although the head has not yet been seen. It
+probably forms the type of a distinct genus. Dr Grenet, stationed at
+Mayotte (Comores), twice encountered single specimens passed by two
+young children, eighteen and twenty-four months of age respectively. The
+proglottides have their genital pores uniserially arranged, and they
+show, in their interior, remarkable egg-capsules, from 120 to 150 in
+number in all, each containing from 300 to 400 eggs. These give a long
+diameter of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">625</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> for the outer envelope and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+for the inner, or shell proper. The embryo measures only the <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2500</span></span>
+of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>A full account of this parasite, with figures, is given by
+Davaine (‘Les Cestoïdes,’ l. c., Bibl. No. 2, p. 577 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia marginata</i>, Batsch.&mdash;Although I possess no certain
+evidence of the occurrence of this parasite in its adult condition
+in the human bearer, yet there is a tapeworm in the Edinburgh
+Anatomical Museum referable to this species, which was said
+to have been obtained from the human body. This worm is
+very common in the dog.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="101"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The principal evidence demonstrating the occurrence of the
+larval representative of this species (<i>Cysticercus tenuicollis</i>) in
+man, rests upon the two cases recorded in Schleissner’s ‘Nosography’
+of Iceland. One of the alleged instances, however, has
+been proved by Küchenmeister and Krabbe to be that of an
+echinococcus; so that, after all, there only remains the solitary
+case observed by Schleissner himself, in which the parasite can
+fairly be considered as the “slender-necked hydatid.”</p>
+
+<p>To the above, however, may probably be added a specimen
+preserved in the Anatomical Collection at King’s College, London.
+It was found connected with an ovarian cyst.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia elliptica</i>, Batsch.&mdash;This parasite is readily recognised
+not merely by its delicate form and small size, but also by the
+circumstance of its supporting two sets of reproductive organs
+in each mature joint. Their outlets are situated at the centre
+of the margin of each segment, one on either side. Ordinarily
+infesting the cat, this worm is a mere variety of the common
+<i>Tænia cucumerina</i> of the dog. At all events, from the evidence
+put forth by Eschricht, seconded by Leuckart, there is every
+reason for believing that one or other of these closely-allied
+varieties is liable to infest the human body. It was originally
+stated by Eschricht that he had received a <i>Tænia canina</i> which
+had been passed by a negro slave at St Thomas, Antilles. This
+is a synonym of <i>T. elliptica</i>, which must therefore be very rare
+in the human body, possibly only occurring in the negro race.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the source of this parasite, it has been shown
+by Melnikow that the scolex of <i>Tænia cucumerina</i> resides in
+the louse of the dog (<i>Trichodectes latus</i>), and thus it is
+exceedingly probable that the scolex of <i>Tænia elliptica</i> resides
+in the louse of the cat (<i>Trich. subrostratus</i>). How man becomes
+infested is not so clear. Melnikow’s paper on the juvenile state
+of this cestode is contained in the ‘Archiv für Naturgeschichte’
+for 1869, and is illustrated by a figure of the measle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia flavopuncta</i>, Weinland.&mdash;Regarded as a new species,
+the discovery of this little tapeworm is due to the investigations
+of Weinland. In Dr Jackson’s ‘Catalogue of the Boston
+Medical Improvement Society’ an account of the contents of a
+phial is recorded as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“Specimen of Bothriocephalus,
+three feet in length, and from half a line to one line and a
+quarter in width, from an infant. The joints are very regular,
+except at one extremity, where they approach the triangular
+form, are very delicate, and but slightly connected, as shown in<span class="pagenum" title="102"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a></span>
+a drawing by Dr Wyman.” It is further stated that the infant
+was nineteen months old, and that the worm was discharged
+without medicine, its presence having never been suspected. It
+was presented by Dr Ezra Palmer in the year 1842. On
+examining the fragments, Dr Weinland found, instead of a
+solitary specimen, at least six different tapeworms, all of them
+being referable to a hitherto undescribed species. There were
+no heads; nevertheless, it was ascertained that the worms varied
+from eight to twelve inches in length, the joints or segments
+being very broad, and at the same time narrowed from above
+downwards. The parasite was named “the spotted tapeworm,”
+in consequence of the presence of yellow spots near the middle
+of the joint. They represent the male organs of reproduction,
+the outlets of which, as in my <i>T. lophosoma</i>, occur all along one
+side of the body or strobile. In Weinland’s estimation this
+parasite forms the type of a new genus which he calls <i>Hymenolepis</i>.
+A full account of the worm is given in his well-known
+essay (l. c., Bibl. No. 2).</p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia abietina</i> and other varieties. I can only notice very
+briefly certain cestodes which either present malformations or
+which may be regarded as mere <i>varieties</i>. First in this series is
+Weinland’s <i>T. abietina</i>. No one who has studied his ‘Beschreibung
+zweier neuer Tænioiden aus dem Menschen,’ Jena, 1861, can
+doubt that it is a mere variety of <i>T. mediocanellata</i>. The
+monstrosity described by him as referable to <i>T. solium</i> must also
+be referred to the beef tapeworm. The variations in the character
+of cestode proglottides is practically infinite. A museum
+might be filled with them. Most common with <i>T. mediocanellata</i>,
+these varieties more or less prevail with other species.
+Thus I have seen them in Tæniæ and Bothriocephali alike. I
+have obtained segments of <i>T. mediocanellata</i> having sexual
+outlets on both sides of the proglottis, so regularly disposed in
+a few segments as to suggest the notion of a new species. The
+coalescence of several segments into one compound segment is
+frequent, but the most remarkable specimen that I have seen is
+one contained in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons.
+In the old Hunterian catalogue the specimen is described as
+“two joints of the <i>Tænia solium</i>, with a number of orifices in
+unequal series on either side.” As stated in the new catalogue
+of the series, prepared by myself, the “lower segment is furnished
+with twenty-two sexual orifices, one of which is situated in the
+central line” on the ventral surface (as in Bothriocephali).<span class="pagenum" title="103"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a></span>
+References to this and other specimens in the Hunterian
+Collection will be found below (see <i>Pittard</i>). In regard to
+Weinland’s conjectural <i>Tænia acanthotrias</i>, based on the
+circumstance of his having found a Cysticercus that presented
+three rows of hooks on its rostellum, I need only say that if
+such a <i>Tænia</i> were found it would only turn out to be a
+malformed <i>T. solium</i>. The specimens, however, are none the
+less interesting. Very remarkable and altogether exceptional
+characters are presented by the strobile of the cestode described
+by Mr Cullingworth, of Manchester, and of which I possess
+specimens. Here, apparently, at least two tapeworms are joined
+together throughout the entire chain of proglottides without
+intermission. The three margins of each compound segment
+project at equi-distant angles. Could we have secured the head
+we should certainly have found six or eight suckers present,
+since the finest neck-segments showed that the malformation
+pervaded the entire colony of zooids, sexually mature and
+otherwise. Mr Cullingworth’s specimen is so remarkable that
+I subscribe full particulars of the case in his own words. He
+<span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“A respectable married woman, named Ann <span class="nowrap">H&mdash;</span>, forty
+years of age, residing in Salford, brought to my out-patient
+room at St Mary’s Hospital, Manchester, on September 3rd,
+1873, a few segments of tapeworm as a sample of what she had
+been passing per anum for about two years. Although never
+in the habit of taking meat absolutely raw, she told me, on
+inquiry, that she was particularly fond of tasting it when only
+partially cooked. The segments were unlike anything I had
+seen before, and I took them home for examination, ordering the
+patient meanwhile a draught containing a drachm of the oil of
+male fern, and giving her strict injunctions to bring to me every
+fragment that passed away as a result.</p>
+
+<p>“On September 17th she brought me portions of a tapeworm
+corresponding throughout to the segments I had already seen,
+and measuring altogether nine feet in length. Unfortunately,
+the head was not to be found. Along the middle line of every
+segment in the body a crest or ridge runs longitudinally, and in
+the centre of the margin of this crest the genital pore is situated.
+[In 304 segments examined, only four had the genital
+opening placed laterally. One segment had two openings,
+viz. one at the lateral margin and the other in the crest.]
+Underneath the segment there is a longitudinal groove, and
+the lateral portions are folded together by the apposition of their<span class="pagenum" title="104"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a></span>
+under surfaces. When hardened in spirit the section of a
+segment presents a three-branched appearance, the branches
+being of unequal length, but placed at equal angles. The
+uterus sends vessels into the crest as well as into the sides of the
+segment; and the contained ova are exactly like the ova of an
+ordinary <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>. Wedged in between, or
+attached to, the segments here and there, is a stunted and
+ill-shaped joint, with irregular and unequal sides. A mature
+joint measures from five eighths of an inch to three quarters of
+an inch in length, and about half an inch in breadth, and
+the breadth or depth of the crest is usually one eighth of
+an inch.</p>
+
+<p>“There are only two specimens that I can find on record at
+all similar to the one here described, and both of these differ
+from it in several important particulars. Küchenmeister mentions,
+as a variety of <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>, a tapeworm sent
+to him from the Cape of Good Hope by Dr Rose. This worm
+possessed a longitudinal ridge, but he describes its mature
+segments as ‘extremely massive’&mdash;more than an inch in length
+and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">5</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth. The genital pores, too, were irregularly
+alternate, and not situated on the crest. On March 20th, 1866,
+Dr Cobbold exhibited to the Pathological Society of London a
+specimen of crested tapeworm which was discovered in the
+museum of Middlesex Hospital, and to which he proposed to
+give the name <i>Tænia lophosoma</i> (λόφος, crest; σῶμα, body). The
+reproductive papillæ were all on one side of the chain of segments,
+a peculiarity which entirely distinguished it from the
+Cape of Good Hope variety of Küchenmeister. The head of
+the creature was wanting. It will thus be seen that my
+specimen does not correspond with either of these in the situation
+of the genital aperture. Here it is placed in the crest
+itself, and not unilaterally, as in Dr Cobbold’s specimen, or
+alternately, as in Küchenmeister’s. It further differs from the
+Cape variety in the more moderate dimensions of its proglottides.
+I have adopted, however, the name suggested by
+Dr Cobbold in the communication referred to, inasmuch as it
+sufficiently indicates the principal distinguishing feature of the
+specimen. I may mention that Dr Cobbold saw the specimen
+during his visit to Manchester, and that he regarded it as a
+most remarkable and unique abnormality.”</p>
+
+<p>Further, in connection with abnormal cestodes, I may observe
+that Weinland’s case of a triple-crowned Cysticercus does not<span class="pagenum" title="105"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a></span>
+stand alone, since a similar specimen is, I believe, in the
+possession of the Rev. W. Dallinger. This was removed from
+the human brain. Curious as this subject is, I cannot dwell
+upon it. Not only are the mature tapeworms and their Cysticerci
+liable to present monstrosities, but even also their proscolices
+or six-hooked embryos. Thus, twelve hooks were observed
+by Salzmann in the embryo of <i>T. elliptica</i>, and Heller also
+figures two embryos of <i>T. mediocanellata</i> (<i>T. saginata</i>, Gœze)
+with numerous hooklets. Dujardin saw seven in a <i>Bothriocephalus</i>
+embryo. Occasionally there have been errors of interpretation
+made by observers. Thus, Diesing has given beautiful
+figures of <i>Dibothrium hians</i> in such a way as to suggest different
+degrees of monstrosity affecting the tail end of the strobile; but
+this splitting has clearly resulted from injury. Thus also, when
+I removed five specimens of a new cestode (<i>Diphyllobothrium
+stemmacephalum</i>) from the intestines of a porpoise, one of them
+was cleft nearly half way up the strobile. This had been done
+by the scissors employed in slitting up the gut; but owing to
+perfect contraction of the incised edges, it was some time
+before I discovered that the apparent monstrosity had been
+artificially produced. Lastly, I may add that many of the
+older writers were well acquainted with larval and other
+anomalies. Thus Rudolphi described a two-headed Cysticercus
+from a Lemur, and also a double-headed <i>Tænia crassicollis</i>. This
+worm had a tripartite body; as had likewise a <i>Tænia crassicollis</i>
+of which he did not possess the head (<i>corpore prismatico</i>).
+Other monstrosities were described and figured by Bremser
+and Creplin. Pallas mentions a two-headed Tricuspidaria
+(<i>Triænophori nodulosi bicipites</i>), and, as already stated at p. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>,
+a double-headed Cysticercus has been obtained from the liver
+of a sheep.</p>
+
+<p>Before quitting the <i>Tæniæ</i> proper, I may observe that several
+other species have been indicated, based on ovular and other
+insufficient characters. To these belong Ransom’s supposed
+tapeworm, and also Weinland’s <i>Tænia megaloön</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_18"></a>No. 18).&mdash;<i>Bonnet, C.</i>, ‘Œuv. Compl.,’ tom vi,
+p. 191, 1791.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i>, Atlas, by Leblond, Pl. iv.&mdash;<i>Chaussat</i>,
+‘Comptes Rendus,’ p. 20, 1850.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Catalogue of the
+specimens of Entozoa in the Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons of England,’ Nos. 118&ndash;121, London, 1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Worms,’ l. c., p. 78.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On a Cysticercus from the
+Human Brain,” ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1870.&mdash;<i>Creplin</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="106"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a></span>‘Tænia
+Monstrum, &amp;c.,’ Berlin, 1839.&mdash;<i>Cullingworth, C. J.</i>, “Notes on
+a remarkable specimen of Tapeworm (<i>Tænia lophosoma</i>, Cobbold),”
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Dec., 1873.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Les
+Cestoïdes,’ l. c., p. 570.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, ‘Zwanzig Arten von
+Cephalocotyleen,’ figs. 1 and 2, taf. ii (aus dem xii, Bd. d.
+denkschr. d. Math.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad.), Wien, 1856.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>,
+l. c., p. 619.&mdash;<i>Heller</i>, l. c., s. 600.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, l. c., Eng.
+edit., p. 139.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., s. 303 and 465.&mdash;<i>Levacher</i>, ‘Journ.
+l’Institut,’ p. 329, 1841.&mdash;<i>Pittard, S. R.</i>, Remarks in his article
+“Symmetry,” Todd’s ‘Cyclop.,’ vol. iv, p. 848, 1849&ndash;52, in
+which he refers to a monstrous Bothriocephalus (<i>T. lata</i>) in the
+Hunterian Museum, old ‘Catalogue of Nat. Hist.,’ pl. iv, p. 50,
+No. 205; see also my ‘Catalogue,’ l. c., <i>supra</i>, No. 167.&mdash;<i>Ransom</i>,
+in Reynolds’ ‘System of Medicine.’&mdash;<i>Rudolphi</i>,
+‘Synops.,’ p. 545 and 598&ndash;9, with fig. showing the heads of
+<i>Cystic. Simiæ</i> (biceps), widely apart, 1819.&mdash;<i>Weinland</i> (<i>T.
+megaloön</i>), in Zoolog. Garten, Frankf., 1861, s. 118.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Essay,’ l. c., p. 11.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 155px;">
+<img src="images/f25.jpg" width="115" height="499" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Head and neck
+of <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i>.
+<i>a</i>, Front view. The
+smaller figure represents
+the head as seen from the
+side. After Knoch.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Bothriocephalus latus</i>, Bremser.&mdash;This species, though seldom
+seen in England, is sometimes brought hither by persons who
+have been residing for a time in foreign countries. It is indigenous
+in Ireland, and, though by no means common there, has
+been called the Irish Tapeworm. As regards its distribution
+in Europe it is much more prevalent in some districts than in
+others. On this point Leuckart remarks that “foremost amongst
+these are the cantons of West Switzerland, with the adjacent
+French districts. In Geneva, according to Odier, almost a
+fourth part of all the inhabitants suffer from Bothriocephalus.
+It is also common in the north-western and northern provinces
+of Russia, in Sweden, and in Poland. In Holland and Belgium it
+is likewise found, but, on the whole, not so frequently as in the
+first-named countries. Our German fatherland also harbours
+them in some districts, especially in eastern Prussia and Pomerania,
+and there have appeared cases in other places, as in
+Rhenish Hesse, Hamburg, and even in Berlin; these being
+apparently spontaneous instances.”</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the ordinary tapeworms, the segments of the broad tapeworm
+do not individually separate so as to become independent organisms, a
+circumstance which is highly favorable to the bearer. Its remarkable
+breadth, and the extremely numerous and closely-packed proglottides,
+impart a sufficiently distinctive character; but this parasite may be
+more fully characterised as<span class="pagenum" title="107"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a></span>
+the largest human cestode at present known, attaining a length of
+more than twenty-five feet, and sometimes measuring nearly an inch in
+breadth; the so-called head <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in width, bluntly pointed at the tip, much elongated or club-shaped,
+slightly flattened from behind forwards, and furnished with two
+laterally disposed slit-like fossæ or grooves, but destitute of any
+armature: anterior or sexually-immature segments of the body extremely
+narrow, enlarging in a very gradual manner from above downwards; joints
+of the lower half of the body gradually decreasing in width, but
+enlarging in depth; sexually-mature segments usually about <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span>
+of an inch in depth, but those near the caudal extremity frequently <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+and quadrate in form; body flattened, but not so uniformly as obtains
+in the ordinary tapeworms, being rather thicker near the central
+line; total number of joints estimated at nearly 4000, the first
+sexually-mature ones being somewhere about the six hundredth from the
+head; reproductive orifices at the central line, towards the upper
+part of the segment at the ventral aspect, the vaginal aperture being
+immediately below the male outlet, and both openings surrounded by
+papillæform eminences; uterus consisting of a single tube, often
+seen regularly folded upon itself, forming an opaque, conspicuous,
+centrally-situated rosette; eggs oval, measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">350</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">550</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth,
+having three shell-coverings, and a lid-like operculum at one end, as
+occurs in the fluke-worms. Owing to the dark color of the egg shells,
+the uterine rosette is readily seen by the naked eye as a conspicuous
+deep brown spot at the centre of each successive segment.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;">
+<img src="images/f26.jpg" width="160" height="182" style="padding-left: 10px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Proscolex, or six-  &#8203;hooked embryo
+of <i>Bothriocephalus</i>, escaping from
+its ciliated covering. After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The source and development of this parasite are points of
+considerable interest. The eggs are of comparatively large size,
+and after expulsion and immersion in water they give passage
+to beautifully ciliated embryos, which latter produce larvæ
+furnished with a boring apparatus. These larvæ resemble the
+six-hooked embryos of other tapeworms. In what animals the<span class="pagenum" title="108"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a></span>
+larvæ subsequently develop themselves is not ascertained with certainty,
+but it is probable that persons become infested by eating imperfectly
+cooked fresh-water fish. Leuckart has suggested that the intermediary
+bearers are species of the salmon and trout family. Dr Knoch, of
+Petersburg, thought that there was no need of the intermediate host. He
+believed that he had succeeded in rearing young broad tapeworms in the
+intestines of dogs. It was Leuckart who first explained the source of
+Knoch’s errors of interpretation. Although Knoch administered eggs of
+<i>Bothriocephalus latus</i> to dogs, and afterwards found young tapeworms
+of the species in question in the intestines of the dogs, it did not
+logically follow that any genetic relation (as between the egg-contents
+and the adult worms) had been thereby established. The circumstance that
+ripe ova of the Bothriocephalus always contain six-hooked embryos, must
+alone imply that an intermediate host is necessary for the formation of
+Cysticerci or measles. If the broad tapeworm could be reared in a direct
+manner by the administration of Bothriocephalus eggs, there would be no
+need for the presence of boring hooklets in the proscolex. These are
+necessary for invading the flesh of some intermediate host.</p>
+
+<p>Dr Fock, of Utrecht, has sent me particulars of an interesting
+case, and he suggests that infection comes from the little river
+bleak (<i>Leuciscus alburnus</i>). Writing from Utrecht in December,
+1877, Dr Fock, after referring to a former case, goes on to <span
+class="nowrap">say:&mdash;</span>“Permettez moi, cher confrère,
+que je rappelle à votre souvenir que vous avez eu l’obligeance de
+communiquer au public une observation, de ma main, sur un cas très rare
+de ver rubanaire, d’un Bothriocephale, chez une petite fille juive.
+Malheureusement je n’ai pu en donner de plus amples détails, parce que
+cette enfant n’a plus, depuis ce temps-là, rendu la plus petite parcelle
+de ver. Il y a maintenant quinze mois, et voilà que de nouveau un cas
+pareil se présente. Une femme mariée, frisonne, et, cette fois-ci
+encore, juive, s’est adressée à moi pour la débarasser de son ver. Elle
+me disait avoir rendu, il y a quelque temps, des fragments, ou plutôt un
+fragment de la<span class="pagenum" title="109"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a></span>
+longueur d’un mêtre, d’un ver solitaire, pour lequel elle avait été
+traitée, sans succès, par son médecin ordinaire. A cause de cela elle
+s’adressa à moi, et je lui ai repondu qu’elle devrait revenir la
+première fois qu’elle rendrait de nouveau, spontanément, un nouveau
+fragment. Après un mois d’intervalle elle est revenue en me montrant
+un fragment de la longueur d’un demi-mêtre qu’elle venait de rendre
+spontanément, après avoir jeûni par précepte réligieuse, et deux
+jours après cela, traitée par l’écorce de grenadier, elle a rendu un
+Bothriocephale parfaitement conditionné en entier.</p>
+
+<p>“Ce cas me semble assez intéressant pour être communiqué
+de nouveau, d’abord parce que jusqu’ici personne n’a pu dire par
+quel chemin a pu s’introduire un tel helminthe, et ensuite parce
+que ce chemin doit se présenter bien rarement dans nos
+contrées (ou en Angleterre) puisque dans le courant d’une
+trentaine d’années ayant rencontré des centaines de tænias, ce
+cas-ci est seulement le second dont je suis gratifié. Il me
+semble digne de réflexion que ce cas-ci se présente cette fois-ci
+de nouveau chez une juive. Est ce cas-ci fortuit, ou bien y-a-t’il
+un lien de causalité entre ce ver rare et le genre de nourriture
+ou de boisson de ces bonnes gens? La dame me recontait
+que, en Frise, il y a un poisson très recherché qui s’appelle en
+Hollandais blèck, en Anglais blay ou bleak, et dont ils sont très
+friands, dans lequel, ils rencontrent très souvent un très grand
+ver rubanaire. Une autre personne me disait avoir été à
+table chez un ami, qui ne sachant probablement ce qu’il
+mangeait, savoura avec beaucoup de délice cette friandise dégoutante.”</p>
+
+<p>After describing the specimen, Dr Fock concludes his remarks
+with a suggestion as to the possibility of introducing tapeworm
+into the human body by potable water, into which Cysticerci
+have accidentally found their way. Dr Fock <span class="nowrap">remarks:&mdash;</span>“J’ajoute
+une réflexion par rapport à la provenance des autres tænias, qui
+jusqu’ici sont introduits par l’usage de la viande non assez cuite
+ou rôtie, ou saignante; mais, ne se pourrait-il pas que des débris
+de la chair d’un animal ladre fussent introduits fortuitement
+dans l’eau, par example, d’un fossé, et que celle-ci employée
+comme boisson contint des Cysticerques et par ainsi aussi une
+cause de Tænia? Ce n’est qu’une conjecture que je propose en
+terminant cet article.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;">
+<img src="images/f27.jpg" width="150" height="554" style="padding-left: 10px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Strobile of <i>Bothriocephalus
+cordatus</i>. After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although I cannot at all agree with Dr Fock in regarding
+water as a source of infection in the manner he indicates, yet<span class="pagenum" title="110"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a></span>
+the still more recently expressed opinions of MM. Bertolus and Duchamp,
+based on experimental researches, render it tolerably certain that
+Leuckart’s original surmise was correct, and that we must look to
+freshwater fishes for the larvæ of the broad tapeworm. In the section
+of this work devoted to the parasites of fishes I shall make particular
+allusion to the experiences of Dr Bertolus; but as confirming the view
+of Leuckart I may here observe, that Bertolus has almost proved that
+the so-called <i>Ligula nodosa</i> infesting the common trout is merely
+a sexually incomplete example of <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i>. The bleak
+(<i>Leuciscus alburnus</i>) shares with other freshwater fishes the privilege
+of harbouring a species of <i>Ligula (L. digramma)</i>; but whether this
+form bears any genetic relation to our human <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i>
+can only be determined by actual experiment. If, as Duchamp and others
+have either indicated or implied, <i>Ligula alburni</i> is a synonym of the
+bleak’s cestode in question, then it is evident that the sexually mature
+form of the <i>Ligula</i> of the bleak is the well-known <i>L. simplicissima</i>
+of many water birds and of a few other avian species. Probably the
+bleak-eaters of Holland consume many kinds of freshwater fishes,
+including various species of the salmon and trout family.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms occasioned by <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i> do not differ
+materially from those produced by other tapeworms. According to Odier,
+as quoted by Davaine, there is not unfrequently a tumid condition of
+the abdomen, with sickness, giddiness, and various hysterical phenomena
+occurring at night. Pain in the region of the heart, palpitations, and
+faintness are also mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>As already hinted, this cestode is very liable to present<span class="pagenum" title="111"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a></span>
+abnormalities of structure, the proglottides frequently displaying
+double sexual orifices, with corresponding duplication of the
+reproductive organs internally. For details respecting the anatomy
+of <i>Bothriocephalus</i> I must refer to the works of Küchenmeister and
+Leuckart; and more particularly to the memoir of Drs F. Sömmer and L.
+Landois, who have supplemented the previous researches of von Siebold,
+Leuckart, Böttcher, Stieda and others by beautiful investigations of
+their own. In the pages of ‘Nature,’ for 1872, I gave a <i>résumé</i> of
+Sömmer’s memoir, which will be found quoted below.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 145px;">
+<img src="images/f28.jpg" width="115" height="380" style="padding-left: 15px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Bothriocephalus
+cristatus</i>, viewed
+from the front. After
+Davaine.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Bothriocephalus cordatus</i>, Leuckart.&mdash;This species is identical
+with a worm long ago described by Pallas and Linneus. At present it
+is only known to infest the residents of North Greenland, but it is
+probably distributed throughout the north generally. It attains the
+length of about one foot, and has a small heart-shaped head, whose apex
+is directed forwards. The neck is so obscure that it may be said to
+be altogether wanting, the segmentation of the body being well marked
+immediately below the head. Though so small a species, Leuckart, who
+first described it, counted between six and seven hundred joints. As
+in the broad tapeworm, the reproductive orifices are serially disposed
+along the centre of the ventral line, but a close inspection shows that
+the folds of the egg-bearing organ are comparatively more numerous. This
+worm does not appear to be a frequent resident in the human body, though
+it is by no means uncommon in the dog. Possibly it may yet be found in
+the inhabitants of some of our northern and western isles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bothriocephalus cristatus</i>, Davaine.&mdash;This cestode measures
+between nine and ten feet in length, and is characterised by the
+presence of two remarkable prominences, together forming a sort of
+rostellum or crest which is covered by numerous minute papillæ. The
+full-grown segments are less than half an inch in breadth; the body of
+the parasite being narrower than that of the broad species. The original
+description of the parasite by Davaine<span class="pagenum" title="112"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a></span>
+is based on two specimens, one of which, quite perfect, was obtained
+from a child five years old, under Dr Féréol’s care at Paris. The
+other was passed spontaneously by an adult residing at Haute-Saône. I
+have here copied one of Davaine’s original figures of the head of the
+worm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_19"></a>No.
+19).&mdash;<i>Bertolus</i>, “Mém. sur le development du <i>Dibothrium latum</i>”
+(in Appendix to Duchamp’s work, see Bibliog. No. 59).&mdash;<i>Blanchard</i>,
+“Recherches, &amp;c.,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ ser. 3, Zool., Pl. 11,
+12, 1848.&mdash;<i>Böttcher</i>, “Studien ueber den Bau des <i>Both. latus</i>,”
+‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ s. 97 <i>et seq</i>, 1864.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i>, l. c.,
+Bibl. No. 1, s. 88, 1824.&mdash;<i>Chiaje</i>, ‘Compendio, &amp;c.,’
+Tab. iii, figs. 1&ndash;5, 1833.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entoz.,’ p. 289,
+1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on the Broad Tapeworm” (with a letter from
+Dr Fock), the ‘Veterinarian,’ July, 1878.&mdash;<i>Creplin</i>, in Ersch and
+Gruber’s ‘Encyclop.,’ 1839, p. 296.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Traité,’ l. c.,
+1860; 2nd edit. (<i>passim</i>), 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, art. ‘Les Cestoïdes,’
+l. c., Bibl. No. 2, p. 580&ndash;591, 1876.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>,
+l. c., Bibl. No. 1, p. 612, 1845.&mdash;<i>Eschricht, D. F.</i>,
+‘Anat-physiol. Untersuchungen ueber die Bothriocephalen,’ Breslau,
+1840.&mdash;<i>Fock</i> (see Cobbold).&mdash;<i>Heller</i>, ‘Darmschmarotzer,’
+l. c., s. 606, 1876.&mdash;<i>Knoch</i>, ‘Petersburger Med. Zeitschrift,’
+1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Die Naturgeschichte des breiten Bandwurms (<i>B.
+latus</i>, auct.),’ St Petersburg, 1862.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, ‘Ueber
+cestoden,’ l. c., 1853.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, ‘Die Blasen Bandwürmer,’
+1856.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Die mensch. Par.,’ Bd. i, s. 414&ndash;448, und
+757, 1863; and Bd. ii, s. 866, 1876.&mdash;<i>Owen</i>, Todd’s ‘Cyclop.,’
+1837.&mdash;<i>Sömmer</i> und <i>Landois</i>, aus Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschr.,
+‘Beiträge zur Anatomie der Plattwürmer,’ Leipsig, 1872; see also the
+<i>résumé</i> in ‘Nature’ for Aug., 1872, p. 278.&mdash;<i>Wawruch</i>, ‘Pract.
+Monograph. d. Bandwürm-Krankheit,’ 1844, s. 33.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 134px;">
+<img src="images/f29.jpg" width="134" height="700" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;<i>Tænia echinococcus</i> Strobile.
+Mag. 30 diam. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Echinococcus hominis</i> (the common hydatid).&mdash;This larval
+entozoon has acquired various names according to the kind of bearer
+in which it happens to have been found; but all the true hydatids or
+acephalocysts, whether infesting man or animals, are referable to one
+and the same species of parasite. They have been termed <i>Echinococcus
+hominis</i>, <i>E. veterinorum</i>, <i>E. polymorphus</i>, <i>E. exogena</i>, <i>E.
+endogena</i>, <i>E. multilocularis</i>, according to circumstances. All
+of them represent a juvenile stage of the <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> or
+hydatid-forming tapeworm which infests the dog and wolf. Experimental
+proof of this fact has been furnished by Von Siebold (1852), Haubner,
+Leuckart, Küchenmeister, Van Beneden, Naunyn, Nettleship, Krabbe, and
+others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="113"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first successful rearing of <i>Tæniæ</i> with human hydatids
+was accomplished by Naunyn (1864), his results being subsequently
+verified by Krabbe and Finsen (1865). Zenker, Ercolani, and several
+others, including myself, also conducted feeding experiments with
+human hydatids which were attended with negative results. In the
+case of one of my experimental dogs the animal was liberated by an
+ill-disposed person before I had opportunity to destroy it. As the
+experiment was carefully conducted, the animal may have proved a
+source of fresh echinococcus-infection. Mr E. Nettleship’s eminently
+successful experiment was made with hydatids obtained from a sheep. The
+converse experiment, namely, that of rearing hydatids with the mature
+proglottides of <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> administered to animals, has been
+performed most successfully by Leuckart, and by Krabbe and Finsen; by
+the former in the pig, by the latter in a lamb, with tapeworms that had
+also been reared by experiment. Zenker, later on, reared the <i>Tænia</i>
+from hydatids obtained from an ox.</p>
+
+<p>The sexually mature <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> may, for the purposes of
+diagnosis, be characterised as a remarkably small cestode, seldom
+reaching the fourth of an inch in length and developing only four
+segments, including that of the head; cephalic extremity capped by
+a pointed rostellum, armed with a double crown of comparatively
+large-rooted hooks, from thirty to forty in number; the four suckers
+prominent, and succeeded by an elongation of the segment forming the
+so-called neck; final segment, when sexually mature, equalling in length
+the three anterior ones; reproductive papilla at the<span class="pagenum" title="114"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a></span>
+margin of the proglottis rather below the central line; proscolex
+or embryo giving rise to the formation of large proliferous
+vesicles, within which the scolices or echinococcus-heads are
+developed by gemmation.</p>
+
+<p>When an animal is fed with the mature proglottides of <i>Tænia
+echinococcus</i> the earliest changes that take place are the same
+as obtain in other cestodes. The segments are digested; the
+shells of the ova are dissolved; the six-hooked embryos
+escape. The embryos bore their way into the organs of
+circulation, and thence they transfer themselves to the different
+organs of the host; being especially liable to take up their
+abode in the lungs and liver. Having arrived at this, their
+resting stage, the embryos are next metamorphosed into
+hydatids. According to Leuckart’s investigations the juvenile
+hydatid is spherical at the earliest stages; being surrounded by
+a capsule of connective tissue formed from the organs of the
+host. After removal from its capsular covering, the vesicle
+consists of a thick laminated membrane, forming the so-called
+cuticular layer, and a central granular mass, which subsequently
+becomes enveloped by a delicate granular membrane. At the
+fourth week the echinococcus capsule measures about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+diameter, its contained hydatid being little more than half this
+size. Its future growth is by no means rapid, seeing that at
+the eighth week the hydatid has attained only the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">15</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter.
+At this period the central granular mass develops a number of
+nucleated cells on the inner surface of the so-called cuticle.
+These cells, which at first are rounded or oval, become angular
+or elongated in various directions, and even distinctly stellate;
+and in this way a new membrane is formed, constituting the
+so-called inner membrane or granular layer. The intermediate
+stages between this condition and that of the fully-formed
+echinococcus hydatid have not been satisfactorily traced in
+detail; nevertheless, Krabbe and Finsen’s experiment on a lamb
+showed that within a period of little more than three months
+well-developed echinococcus-heads may be formed in the interior
+of the vesicles. It is thus clear that the production of scolices
+immediately follows the formation of the granular layer, and
+this is succeeded, though not invariably, by the formation of
+daughter- and grand-daughter-vesicles, which are sometimes
+termed “nurses.” These latter may be developed exogenously
+or endogenously.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 270px;">
+<img src="images/f30.jpg" width="270" height="406" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Ectocyst, endocyst, and brood capsule of Echinococcus.
+From a Zebra. After Huxley.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The appearance of hydatids varies very much according to<span class="pagenum" title="115"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a></span>
+their mode of formation, to the kind of host in which they are present,
+and to the character of the organs in which they happen to take up their
+residence. The so-called exogenous type occurs sparingly in man, whilst
+the endogenous type is very abundant. The peculiar form known as the
+multilocular echinococcus is probably a mere variety of the exogenous
+type. The exogenous and endogenous hydatids may coexist in the same
+bearer. In the lower animals we commonly find the organs of the body
+occupied by numerous lobulated cysts, varying in size from a walnut to
+a goose’s egg, but sometimes rather larger. They are rarely solitary,
+being particularly liable to occupy both the liver and lungs in the same
+animal. The viscera are sometimes crowded with cysts. The hydatids do
+not usually protrude much beyond the surface of the infested organ, but
+lie imbedded within its parenchymatous substance.</p>
+
+<p>The multilocular variety was first described by Virchow. In
+reference to it Leuckart writes as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“Hitherto we know this growth only from the liver, in which it forms
+a firm, solid, and tolerably rounded mass of the size of the fist or
+even of a child’s head. At first sight it looks more like a pseudoplasm
+than a living animal parasite. If you cut through the tumour, you
+recognise in its interior numerous small caverns, mostly of irregular
+shape, and separated from one another by bundles of connective tissue,
+more or less thick, and including a tolerably transparent jelly-like
+substance. In the intervening stroma a blood-vessel or a collapsed
+bile-duct runs here and there; but there is nowhere any trace of
+true liver substance. The outer boundaries of the tumour are in most
+cases pretty well defined, so that the attempt to cut these growths
+out is not difficult. In particular spots, especially at the surface,
+one sometimes sees white, moniliform, jointed lines passing off from
+the tumour, and even thicker terminations which, perhaps, expand in
+the neighbouring liver-parenchyme into new (multilocular) groups of
+different size. In one case, recorded by Virchow, the growth extended,
+together with Glisson’s capsule, a long way towards the intestine.” To
+this description it may be added, that the growth on section presents
+an appearance not altogether unlike alveolar colloid, having, in point
+of fact, been confounded with that pathological product, with which,
+however, as stated by Virchow, it has nothing in common. This is proved
+not only by the occurrence of the pathological features above mentioned,
+but also, more<span class="pagenum" title="116"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a></span>
+particularly, by the well-ascertained presence of echinococcus-heads in
+most of the so-called alveoli. Several hypotheses have been broached
+with the view of explaining the mode in which these multilocular hydatid
+growths are formed. Virchow thought that the echinococcus vesicles were
+primarily formed in the lymphatic vessels, whilst Schröder van der Kolk
+supposed that they originally took up their abode in the biliary ducts.
+Although, thanks to the courtesy of Professor Arnold Heller in giving me
+a specimen, I have been enabled to confirm much that has been written
+in respect of the morbid appearances, I can add nothing towards the
+solution of the difficulty in question. Until lately it was supposed
+that the multilocular variety of hydatids only existed in man, but
+Professor Böllinger has encountered it in the liver of a calf.</p>
+
+<table class="figrt" summary="figures 31-32">
+<tr><td><div class="figright" style="width: 390px;">
+<img src="images/f31.jpg" width="390" height="339" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Group of Echinococcus-heads, from an hydatid found in the liver of a sheep.
+Magnified about 25 diameters. From a drawing by Professor Busk.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><div class="figright" style="width: 390px;">
+<img src="images/f32.jpg" width="390" height="167" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Three brood-capsules, containing Echinococcus-heads. Magnified 76 diameters.
+After Professor Erasmus Wilson.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Selecting any ordinary fresh example of the exogenous kind,
+and laying the tumour open with a scalpel, we notice in the first
+instance an escape of a clear transparent, amber-coloured fluid. This
+previously caused the distension of the sac. If the tumour is large,
+this escape will probably be followed by a falling in, as it were, of
+the gelatiniform hydatid membrane, in which case the inner wall of the
+external adventitious investment or true fibrous cyst will be laid
+bare. If the hydatid be next withdrawn from the cyst, it will be seen
+to display a peculiar tremulous motion, at the same time coiling upon
+itself wherever there is a free-cut margin. Further examination of
+portions of the hydatid will show that we have two distinct<span class="pagenum" title="117"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a></span>
+membranes; an outer, thick, laminated, homogeneous elastic
+layer (the <i>ectocyst</i> of Huxley), and an internal, thin, soft, granulated,
+comparatively inelastic layer&mdash;the <i>endocyst</i> of the same
+author. The terms are convenient. The ectocyst is structureless,
+consisting of a substance closely allied to chitine. For this
+and other reasons it has been called the cuticular layer, but
+the endocyst is the essential vital part of the animal, representing
+a huge compound caudal vesicle. In an hydatid from
+the zebra, Huxley found that the endocyst was “not more than
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2000</span></span>th</span> of an inch in thickness, being composed of very delicate
+cells of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">5000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter, without obvious nuclei; but
+often containing clear, strongly refracting corpuscles, generally
+a single one only in a cell.” Prof. Huxley adds: “These
+corpuscles appear to be solid, but by the action of dilute acetic
+acid the interior generally clears up very rapidly, and a hollow
+vesicle is left of the same size as the original corpuscle. No
+gas is developed during this process, and sometimes the
+corpuscles are not acted upon at all by the acid, appearing then
+to be of a fatty nature. A strong solution of caustic ammonia
+produces a concentrically laminated or fissured appearance in
+them. Under pressure and with commencing putrefaction a
+number of them sometimes flow together into an irregular or
+rounded mass.”</p>
+
+<p>The precise mode of development of the echinococcus-heads
+or scolices has been a subject of lengthened discussion between
+Leuckart and Naunyn. According to Leuckart the earliest
+indication of the scolex consists of a slight papillary eminence on
+the inner surface of the granular endocyst. After a short
+period this prominence displays in its interior a vacuole-like
+cavity, the latter being occupied, however, with a clear limpid
+fluid. Its margins become more and more clearly defined, until
+the cavity is by and by seen to be lined with a distinct cuticular
+membrane. The papilla increasing in size, becomes at first
+elongated or oval, eventually scoleciform, or even, perhaps, a
+true echinococcus-head. Thus far the description bears out, in
+a measure, the theoretical notions entertained by the older
+authors; but the developmental process does not stop here. The
+scolex-development has now to sacrifice itself by developing in
+its interior a brood of scolices or echinococcus-heads. In other
+words, it becomes transformed into the so-called brood-capsules
+of Leuckart and other authors. These structures were previously
+well known to Professors Erasmus Wilson and George<span class="pagenum" title="118"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a></span>
+Busk. Mr Wilson spoke of the capsule as “<i>a delicately thin
+proper membrane</i>, by which the Echinococci are connected with
+the internal membrane of the acephalocyst” (‘Med.-Chir.
+Trans.,’ 1845, vol. xxviii, p. 21). Mr Busk described the
+echinococcus-heads as <span class="pagenum" title="119"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a></span>“attached to a common central mass by
+short pedicles, which appear to be composed of a substance
+more coarsely granular, by far, than that of which the laminæ
+of the cyst are formed. This granular matter is prolonged
+beyond the mass of Echinococci into a short pedicle common
+to the whole, and by which the granulation is attached to the
+interior of the hydatid cyst.” What Mr Busk here describes
+as a granulation can only be equivalent to the brood-capsule
+and its entire contents, but he elsewhere speaks of the capsule
+itself as a “delicate membranous envelope.” It should be
+borne in mind that Busk’s paper was communicated to the
+Microscopical Society so early as the 13th Nov., 1844; being
+published in the ‘Transactions’ for that year.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/f33.jpg" width="210" height="374" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Separate <i>scolex</i>, or echinococcus-head.
+Magnified 500 diameters. After Huxley.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the completely developed state the echinococcus-heads exhibit
+somewhat variable characters as to size and form, the latter differences
+being, for the most part, dependent upon their degree of contraction and
+vitality. In the perfect condition they vary from the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">60</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+to the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">100</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in diameter, being usually about the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">80</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+They are solid, and when stretched out exhibit an hour-glass-like
+constriction at the centre of the body, which divides the scolex into an
+anterior part supporting the rostellum and suckers, and a posterior part
+which has been compared to the caudal vesicle of ordinary Cysticerci.
+The rostellum supports a double crown of hooks, but the disparity of the
+two series is scarcely sufficiently marked to render their distinction
+obvious. The hooks of the smaller row vary in size from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1040</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">830</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+of an inch, whilst those of the larger series are from <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">830</span></span>
+to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">555</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+In all instances the root-processes are incompletely developed, and
+consequently vary in thickness. They are, as Leuckart also has stated,
+apt to exhibit abnormalities.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the development of the echinococcus-heads it further
+remains for me to observe that a distinct water-vascular system is
+recognisable in the scolices. By the intervention of the pedicle of the
+scolex this system is connected with the brood-capsule, and also with
+the vessels of<span class="pagenum" title="120"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a></span>
+the maternal endocyst. In the scolex there exists a circular channel
+immediately below the rostellum, and this ring, on either side, gives
+off two vessels which pass downwards in a tortuous manner, internally,
+until they arrive at the pedicle where they unite to form two channels,
+which latter are continued into the vascular system of the maternal
+endocyst. In the retracted condition their position, of course, becomes
+very much altered, and they form loops on either side of the central
+line which marks the space leading down to the inverted head. Neither
+Prof. Huxley nor myself have seen these vessels, which Leuckart observed
+in the scolex itself, but Huxley discerned some apparently loose cilia
+in the granular parenchyma of the body; their longitudinal measurement
+being about the <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3500</span></span>
+of an inch.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 390px;">
+<img src="images/f34.jpg" width="390" height="359" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;An Echinococcus brood-capsule (flattened by pressure). Magnified about 120 diameters.
+From a drawing by Professor Busk.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As regards the production of “nurses” by the phenomenon
+of proliferation, I can only remark that the endocyst is
+primarily concerned. The secondary and tertiary vesicles must
+be regarded as so many special bud-developments which, instead
+of becoming brood-capsules, become daughter-vesicles and<span class="pagenum" title="121"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a></span>
+grand-daughter vesicles, constantly developing in their interior
+secondary and tertiary brood-capsules and scolices, but sometimes,
+it would appear, developing neither the one nor the other.
+This is the view of Naunyn, which is somewhat opposed by
+Leuckart, who holds that the vesicles ordinarily arise from within
+the layers of the ectocyst. Speaking of these daughter-hydatids
+Leuckart remarks that “Naunyn denies that they take their
+origin between the lamellæ of the mother bladder&mdash;a fact, however,
+which, in agreement with Kuhl and Davaine, I have seen
+more than once and have followed out step by step.” For my
+own part I incline to the belief that the process as observed by
+Leuckart is exceptional, and that under ordinary circumstances
+it occurs as Naunyn has described it. Thus the long and short
+of the whole matter appears to be that the endocyst is capable
+of forming solitary scolices. Some of the scolices become
+differentiated to form brood-capsules, a portion of whose individual
+echinococcus-heads may, in their turn, become secondary
+brood-capsules, whilst others fail to become either scolices or
+brood-capsules. It accords with our knowledge of the general
+plan of development to believe that the daughter and grand-daughter
+hydatids are likewise peculiarly modified scolices.
+They are, in short, buds of the endocyst.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of hydatids throughout the organs of the
+bearer, and their prevalence in particular countries, has especially
+engaged my attention. I have personally examined
+upwards of a thousand preparations of entozoa in our public
+collections; and of these, 788 are preserved in the anatomical and
+pathological museums of the metropolis. By this inspection I
+have obtained a tolerably accurate knowledge of the pathology,
+localisation and effects produced by the presence of bladder-worms
+in at least 200 unpublished cases of hydatid disease.
+Most of our museums exhibit one or more specimens that are
+unique. After making certain necessary deductions, I find that
+I have 192 new cases to add to the 135 cases of hydatid
+disease that I had previously recorded, affording a total of 327
+cases available for statistical purposes. If an analysis of these
+cases be made and compared with the statistics furnished by
+Davaine, and if the whole be reduced to the lowest number of
+practically available terms, we at length obtain a result which,
+although it may be only approximatively correct, is nevertheless
+of much practical value and significance. The statistics in
+question stand as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="122"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a></span></p>
+
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table showing incidence of hydatid disease in different body locations">
+<col width="55%" /><col width="15%" /><col width="15%" /><col width="15%" />
+<tr><th>Organs affected.</th><th>Davaine.</th><th>Cobbold.</th><th>Total.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl plt03 ">Liver</td><td class="tar pr53p pt03">165</td><td class="tar brl pr53p pt03">161</td><td class="tar pr53p brl pt03">326</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">Abdomen, including spleen</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">26</td><td class="tar pr53p">45</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">71</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">Lungs</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">40</td><td class="tar pr53p">22</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">62</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">Kidney and bladder</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">30</td><td class="tar pr53p">23</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">Brain</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">20</td><td class="tar pr53p">22</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">Bones</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">17</td><td class="tar pr53p">16</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">Heart and pulmonary vessels</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">12</td><td class="tar pr53p">13</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl plb03">Miscellaneous</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">63</td><td class="tar pr53p">25</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal pl40 bb">Total</td><td class="tar pr53p bb">373</td><td class="tar pr53p bb">327</td><td class="tar pr53p bb">700</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the main Davaine’s table and my own show a remarkable
+correspondency, as is seen in the numbers referring to hydatids
+of the liver, heart, and bones respectively. Where our results
+do not correspond the explanation of the discrepancy is sufficiently
+simple. The abdominal cases here credited as such in
+Davaine’s table are placed by him under <i>pelvis</i>, whilst the
+abdominal cases in my own table not only include the pelvic
+hydatids, but also two <i>spleen</i> cases, and nineteen others from
+the peritoneum and intestines.</p>
+
+<p>As the facts here stand, the liver cases comprise nearly
+<span class="nowrap">46<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> per cent. In a large number of cases the entozoon has
+taken up its abode in organs of vital importance. If statisticians
+and officers of health would obtain an adequate conception
+of the fatal capabilities of parasites, they should consider
+these data. In 6 per cent. of all these cases the bladder worm
+has found its way into the brain, and of course proved fatal to
+the bearers; in about <span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> per cent. more they took up their
+residence in the heart, also proving fatal; whilst of all the
+other cases put together I reckon that not less than 15 per cent.
+were concerned in bringing about the death of their hosts. I
+probably underrate the fatal capabilities of echinococcus disease
+when I express the conviction that hydatids prove fatal to 25
+per cent. of all their human victims.</p>
+
+<p>The recently published analysis of 983 cases by Dr Albert
+Neisser affords similar results. Of these, 451 were referable
+to the liver, or 45·765 per cent. The other cases, reduced as
+above, show in the main a similar correspondency.</p>
+
+<p>It may be asked if these facts afford us any assistance in
+determining the amount of injury that we, as a people, sustain
+either directly or indirectly from hydatids. On carefully
+reviewing all the data before me, I may say that it is difficult<span class="pagenum" title="123"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a></span>
+to draw very precise conclusions; albeit it is not mere guess-work
+when I assert that in the United Kingdom several hundred
+human deaths occur annually from this cause. In some
+other countries the proportion is far greater; the oft-quoted
+case of Iceland, where the disorder is fatally endemic, still
+standing at the head of the afflicted territories.</p>
+
+<p>Our Australian colonies are probably entitled to the next
+place of distinction in this respect. We have strong and
+recent evidence of the truth of this statement. Thus a writer
+in the ‘Australian Med. and Surg. Review’ says: “This disease
+is becoming unpleasantly frequent, and at present we have
+no reliable mode of treatment, either theoretical or empirical.”
+Another writer observes (‘Melbourne Argus,’ May 18th, 1874),
+“Hydatid disease is endemic in this colony; and, though not
+so constantly met with as in Iceland, we may probably claim
+the doubtful honor of holding the second place in the list of
+countries so affected.” In the ‘Argus’ for June 20th of the
+same year, another writer refers to the frequent notices of
+cases of hydatids published in the various local newspapers. A
+retired medical man, the late Mr J. P. Rowe, writing in the ‘Melbourne
+Leader’ (Sept. 7th, 1872), incidentally remarked on the
+“notable increase of hydatid disease in the human subject.”
+Again, still more satisfactory evidence is afforded by a reviewer
+in the ‘Leader’ of the 31st January, 1874. Commenting on
+my manual, he not only takes occasion to speak of the prevalence
+of hydatids generally, but also supplies that kind of
+accurate statistical evidence of which we so much stand in need.
+He gives the following table, showing the number of <i>deaths</i>
+from hydatids in Victoria for eleven years. It is instructive in
+many ways.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="124"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a></span></p>
+
+<table width="60%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table showing ">
+<col width="49%" /><col width="17%" /><col width="17%" /><col width="17%" />
+<tr><th>Years.</th><th>Males.</th><th>Females.</th><th>Total.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl plt03 ">1862</td><td class="tar pr53p pt03">3</td><td class="tar brl pr60p pt03">2</td><td class="tar brl pr53p pt03">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1863</td><td class="tar pr53p">3</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">2</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1864</td><td class="tar pr53p">6</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">3</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1865</td><td class="tar pr53p">9</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">6</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1866</td><td class="tar pr53p">18</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">7</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1867</td><td class="tar pr53p">13</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">12</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1868</td><td class="tar pr53p">21</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">12</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1869</td><td class="tar pr53p">12</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">10</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1870</td><td class="tar pr53p">10</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">7</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl03">1871</td><td class="tar pr53p">6</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">9</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl plb03">1872</td><td class="tar pr53p">24</td><td class="tar brl pr60p">5</td><td class="tar brl pr53p">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bb">Total deaths in eleven years</td><td class="tar pr53p bb">125</td><td class="tar pr60p bb">75</td><td class="tar pr53p bb">200</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>To employ the writer’s own words, “this mortality gives only
+a faint notion of the extreme prevalence of hydatids in Victoria,
+since numbers of cases are cured by tapping, and otherwise by
+medical treatment, or by spontaneous bursting of the cysts.”
+Hydatids are often found post mortem where their presence has
+never been suspected during life. “To meet with hydatids as a
+cause of deranged health is now a matter of daily expectation
+with every medical practitioner.” Lastly, Dr Dougan Bird, in
+his able brochure on ‘Hydatids of the Lung,’ fully confirms
+these statements, remarking that the rich and poor of the Australian
+metropolis suffer just as much from hydatids as do either
+the shepherds of the western plains, or the miners of Ballarat
+and Sandhurst.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the facts from Australia. As regards home evidence,
+so far as I am aware, little or nothing has been done
+towards securing an accurate estimate of the mortality in
+England from echinococcus disease. The reports of the Registrar
+General give no sufficient sign. The explanation is not far
+to seek, since for the most part hydatids are either classed
+with diseases of the liver, or with those of the other organs in
+which they happen to have been present.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most valuable contributions to our knowledge of
+the prevalence of hydatid disease affecting animals is that
+supplied by Dr Cleghorn, from a statistical table constructed
+by the executive commissariat officers stationed at Mooltan.
+The record in question shows that out of 2109 slaughtered
+animals, no fewer than 899 were affected with hydatid
+disease. This is equal to more than forty-two per cent. In
+the majority of cases, both the lungs and liver were affected,
+cysts were found 829 times in the liver and 726 times in the
+lungs. In a few instances they were present in the kidneys,
+and also occasionally in the spleen. The inference from all
+this is that in India, if not elsewhere, the echinococcus disease
+is much less common in man than it is in animals. The
+explanation is simple enough, since cattle have more ready access
+to, and less scruple in partaking of filthy water and food in
+or upon which the eggs of the <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> abound.</p>
+
+<p>Into purely professional questions connected with the treatment
+of the echinococcus malady I do not here enter; nevertheless,
+in connection with hygiene I may observe that the
+prevalence of hydatids in any country is strictly dependent
+upon the habits of the people. The close intimacy subsisting<span class="pagenum" title="125"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a></span>
+between the peasantry and their canine companions is the
+primary source of the endemic; and where dogs are not kept,
+it is well nigh impossible that the disease should be contracted.
+The fact that every Icelandic peasant possesses, on an average,
+six dogs, and that these dogs share the same dwelling (eating
+off the same plates and enjoying many other privileges of
+intimate relationship) sufficiently explains the frequency of
+hydatids in that country. According to Krabbe, the sexually
+mature <i>Tæniæ</i> occur in 28&nbsp;p.&nbsp;c. of Icelandic dogs, whereas in
+Copenhagen he found it twice only in 500 dogs examined. In
+his work (quoted below, p. 58, or Fr. Edit., p. 60) Krabbe
+comments on a sensational passage which, in my introductory
+treatise (p. 283), I had quoted from a popular memoir by
+Leuckart (‘Unsere Zeit,’ s. 654, 1862). The practitioners
+whom we had spoken of as “quacks” are mostly homœopaths;
+and it appears that even those who are not in any legal sense
+professional men “treat their patients much in the same way
+as ordinary medical men.” It simply comes to this, that,
+instead of <i>dog’s excrement</i> forming with the aforesaid “quacks”
+a conspicuous or common remedy (as Leuckart’s description had
+led me to infer), this nasty drug is now rarely administered,
+and by the grossly ignorant only.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the present time no person has seen the <i>Tænia echinococcus</i>
+in any English dog which has not been previously made
+the subject of experiment, but considering the prevalence of
+hydatid disease amongst us, there can be no doubt that
+English dogs are quite as much if not more infested than continental
+ones. Probably, at least one per cent. of our dogs harbour
+the mature tapeworm. Certainly a great deal of good might
+accrue from the acquisition of more extended evidence respecting
+the prevalence of this and other forms of entozoa infesting
+man and animals in this country.</p>
+
+<p>From Schleissner’s table it appears that hydatids are more
+frequent in women than in men. Apparently, it is not so in
+Australia. As regards Iceland the explanation must be sought
+for in the different habits of life. No doubt, water used as drink
+by women is constantly obtained from supplies in the immediate
+neighbourhood of dwellings, and in localities to which dogs
+have continual access. The comparative rarity of the echinococcus
+disease amongst sailors is not so much dependent upon
+the circumstance that seamen’s diet usually consists of salted
+provisions, as upon the fact that these men can seldom have<span class="pagenum" title="126"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a></span>
+opportunities of procuring water from localities where dogs
+abound. In regard to water drinking, there is ground for
+believing that the addition of a very little alcohol is sufficient
+to destroy the six-hooked embryos of <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> whilst
+still <i>in ovo</i>; and there is no doubt that water raised to a temperature
+of 212° Fahr. will always ensure the destruction of the
+larvæ. Boiled water by itself is by no means palatable. The
+reason why the upper classes comparatively seldom suffer from
+hydatids may be attributed to the circumstance that those few
+who drink water take the very proper precaution to see that it
+is either “pump” or fresh spring water in which no living
+six-hooked embryos are likely to exist. So far as hydatids are
+concerned, wine and beer drinking is preferable to water-drinking;
+yet if water is carefully filtered no evil of the parasitic
+kind can possibly result from its imbibition. An ordinary
+charcoal filter will effectually prevent the passage of the ova,
+since their diameter is nearly <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">370</span></span> of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been stated it follows that personal and
+general cleanliness are eminently serviceable as preventions
+against infection, but to ensure perfect success other precautions
+must be exercised, especially in relation to our contact with
+and management of dogs. Leuckart puts this very clearly when
+he <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“In order to escape the dangers of infection, the
+dog must be watched, not only within the house, but whilst he
+is outside of it. He must not be allowed to visit either
+slaughter-houses or knackeries, and care must be taken that
+neither the offals nor hydatids found in such places are accessible
+to him. In this matter the sanitary inspector has many
+important duties to perform. The carelessness with which
+these offals have hitherto been disposed of, or even purposely
+given to the dog, must no longer be permitted if the welfare
+of the digestive organs of mankind is to be considered.
+What blessed results may follow from these precautions may
+be readily gathered from the consideration of the fact that,
+at the present time, almost the sixth part of all the inhabitants
+annually dying in Iceland fall victims to the echinococcus
+epidemic” (l. c., s. 654). Similar measures had previously
+been recommended in less explicit terms by Küchenmeister,
+who in effect remarked that the principal thing was to ensure
+the destruction of the echinococcus vesicles. He also recommended
+the expulsion and annihilation of the <i>Tænia echinococcus</i>.
+In order to carry out this idea, it was suggested by Dr Leared<span class="pagenum" title="127"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a></span>
+that every dog should be periodically physicked, and that all
+the excreta, tapeworms included, should be buried at a considerable
+depth in the soil. I advised, however, that in place
+of burying the excreta, <i>they should, in all cases, be burnt.</i> I
+had, indeed, long previously urged this measure (in a paper
+“on the <i>Sclerostoma</i> causing the gape-disease of fowls,”
+published in 1861), with the view of lessening the prevalence of
+entozoa in general, whether of man or animals. The rule I
+suggested stood as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span><i>All entozoa which are not preserved
+for scientific investigation or experiment should be thoroughly
+destroyed by fire, when practicable, and under no circumstances
+whatever should they be thrown aside as harmless refuse.</i> As
+an additional security I recommended that boiling hot water
+be occasionally thrown over the floor of all kennels where dogs
+are kept. In this way not only would the escaped tapeworms
+be effectually destroyed, but also their eggs and egg-contents,
+including the six-hooked embryos. These measures were again
+advocated at the Cambridge Meeting of the British Association
+in 1862, and also more fully in a paper communicated to the
+Zoological Society, during the autumn of the same year (‘Proceedings,’
+vol. xxx, pt. 3, pp. 288, 315).</p>
+
+<p>As the scope and tendency of this work preclude the textual
+admission of clinical details, I must limit my remaining observations
+to the pathology of hydatid disease. At very great
+labor, pursued at distant intervals during a period of ten years,
+I sought to ascertain the probable extent and fatality of this
+form of parasitism in England, by going over such evidence as
+our pathological museums might supply. Although, from a statistical
+point of view, the investigation could hardly be expected
+to yield any very striking results; yet clinically viewed the
+study was most instructive. The evidence which I thus procured
+of numerous slow and painful deaths from echinococcus
+disease, further stimulated me to place a summary of the facts
+on record. Physicians, surgeons, scientific pathologists, and
+veterinary practitioners are alike interested in the study of
+hydatid disease; and I had not proceeded far in my careful
+investigation before it became evident to me that very great
+practical results would ensue if, in this kind of effort, the principle
+of division of labor had full play. At all events, within
+these museums lie concealed a mass of pathological data which,
+although well within reach, have not been utilised to the extent
+they ought to have been.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="128"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>As a student of parasites for some thirty years, I must
+without offence be permitted to protest against the too
+frequent omission of parasites in statistical evidence as a
+cause of mortality. From facts within my own knowledge I
+can confidently assert that parasites in general, and hydatids in
+particular, play a far more important part in the production of
+disease and death than is commonly supposed. In saying thus
+much, however, I am not insensible to the fact that, in recent
+times, new methods of treatment combined with higher surgical
+skill, have greatly tended to lessen the fatality of this affection.
+In this connection I would especially refer to the recorded
+experiences of an able colonial surgeon, Dr MacGillivray, as
+made known in the pages of the ‘Australian Medical Journal.’
+The able surgeon to the Bendigo Hospital, treated as in-patients,
+from 1862 to 1872, inclusive, no fewer than seventy-four cases
+of hydatid disease. He operated on fifty-eight of them. Two
+patients were tapped for temporary relief (as they were dying
+of other diseases); and of the remaining fifty-six only eleven
+died. No fewer than forty-five were discharged <i>cured</i>&mdash;a fact
+redounding largely, I should think, to the credit of Australian
+surgery.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to museum evidence I have no hesitation in
+saying that the pathological collections in the metropolis
+abound in rare and remarkable illustrations of hydatid disease;
+most of the preparations being practically known only to such
+few members of the medical profession as have been at some
+time or other officially connected with the museums. Not
+without justice, curators often complain that their work and
+catalogues are turned to little account. As a former conservator
+of the Edinburgh University Anatomical Museum (1851&ndash;56), and
+subsequently as museum-curator at the Middlesex Hospital
+Medical College, I am in a position to sympathise with them.
+Valuable, however, as the catalogues are, it is often necessary
+to make a close inspection of the preparations in order to arrive
+at a correct interpretation of the facts presented.</p>
+
+<p>Although the entozoal preparations in the museum attached
+to St Bartholomew’s Hospital are, comparatively speaking,
+few in number, there are some choice specimens of hydatid
+disease. There is a remarkable case in which hydatids invaded
+the right half of the bones of the pelvis; death resulting from
+suppurative inflammation of the cysts. This patient, a woman,
+had also another hydatid cyst which was connected with the<span class="pagenum" title="129"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a></span>
+ovary. Amongst the series contributed by Dr Farre, there is
+a case represented where a large cyst containing numerous
+hydatids “occupied the pelvis of an infant and produced retention
+of urine,” which ultimately proved fatal. There are also
+several fine examples of hydatids from the omentum (Dr Farre’s
+case), besides a good specimen of acephalocysts connected with
+the vesiculæ seminales. There are two other cases in which
+these larval entozoa were passed with the urine. At the time
+when I made my inspection, the entire series represented
+twenty-five separate cases, of which only one appears to have
+been published in detail (Mr Evans’s case, ‘Medico-Chirurgical
+Transactions,’ 1832). In addition to the above, I must not
+omit to particularise two instructive preparations illustrative
+of a case in which an hydatid was lodged in the right
+half of the cerebrum. This was from a girl in whom head
+symptoms showed themselves a year before death, and in whom
+there was partial hemiplegia of the left side. I may add that
+there is also in the series a doubtfully genuine example of
+hydatids of the breast.</p>
+
+<p>The collection in connection with the Westminster Hospital
+contains several highly interesting specimens of entozoa (one
+of which I believe to be altogether unique), but it is by no
+means rich in the matter of hydatids. Out of a score of
+preparations of parasites of various kinds, only four (apparently
+representing the same number of cases) are hydatids, all of
+which appear to have been connected with the liver. Two are
+certainly so, one of the latter (Mr Holthouse’s case) showing
+calcareous degeneration.</p>
+
+<p>The museum connected with St Mary’s Hospital Medical
+School, in addition to several liver cases, contains one interesting
+example of hydatids of the lung (Dr Chambers’s case), and
+also three valuable preparations illustrating Mr Coulson’s
+remarkable case of hydatids affecting the tibia. One of the
+preparations shows the bone itself, which was eventually removed
+at the joint, the operation having been performed by Mr
+Spencer Wells.</p>
+
+<p>Here, perhaps, it will not be out of place to mention as a
+fact of special clinical interest that I have encountered records
+of no fewer than nine other similar cases where hydatids
+have taken up their abode in the tibia, generally selecting
+the head or upper part of the bone. Some of my notes have
+been mislaid, but, speaking from recollection, one of the<span class="pagenum" title="130"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a></span>
+choicest specimens which I have examined is that contained
+in the pathological museum of the Nottingham Hospital.</p>
+
+<p>When I first went over the collection of the Middlesex
+Hospital Museum, I found it to contain fifty-four preparations
+of entozoa, of which some fourteen only were true hydatids,
+representing as many separate cases. There are now upwards
+of a score of preparations of hydatids, several of the cases
+having already had ample justice done to them by Dr Murchison
+in his well-known memoir (‘Edinb. Med. Journ.,’ Dec., 1865).
+Amongst the most interesting preparations I would especially
+call attention to two fine and genuine specimens from the
+kidney, another very large example of an hydatid situated
+between the bladder and rectum, a simple acephalocyst removed
+from the orbit (Mr Hulke’s case), and the hydatid removed
+from the axilla by the late Mr Charles Moore. There is a jar
+containing hundreds of hydatids that were taken from the
+thoracic cavity of a dissecting-room subject, who was reported
+to have died of phthisis; and there is another preparation of an
+hydatid of the heart, which also proved fatal, without there
+having been the slightest suspicion entertained as to the true
+nature of the disease. For this fine preparation the museum
+stands indebted to Dr Moxon, of Guy’s Hospital. Several of
+the liver cases are particularly instructive; but amongst the
+specimens presented by Mr Mitchell Henry is a small bottle full
+of minute hydatid vesicles, all of which were removed from the
+interior of the tibia. The history of this case has been lost;
+and, unfortunately, the bone from which the parasites were
+taken does not appear to have been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>The museum connected with King’s College contains at
+least a dozen good specimens of liver hydatids, several of the
+cases being of special interest from a pathological point of
+view. There are two remarkably fine examples of hydatids
+contributed by Dr Hooper, the parasites in one case affecting
+the spleen, and in the other involving the ovary and uterus.
+The spleen contained numerous encysted hydatids, whilst the
+uterine organs exhibited “an immense collection” of the same
+growths. In this place, also, I may refer to an hydatid-like
+entozoon, taken from a cyst in the ovary of a female who had
+been under the care of Dr Johnson (1860). It is, apparently, a
+genuine example of the slender-necked hydatid (<i>Cysticercus
+tenuicollis</i>); and if so (as might be determined by dissection),
+is, so far as I aware, the only specimen of the kind in existence<span class="pagenum" title="131"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a></span>
+from the human bearer. There is a renal hydatid (presented
+by Dr Pass, of Warwick) which was obtained from a lunatic,
+its presence being “quite unsuspected during life.” Amongst
+the liver cases (the majority of which are from Dr Hooper’s
+collection), there is one enormous hydatid that was obtained
+from a young woman who had died during a fit of laughter.
+The tumour had pushed the diaphragm up to a level with the
+fourth rib; and it is stated that, on puncturing the cyst, the
+fluid contents were ejected “in a jet nearly two feet high.”
+There is one case represented where numerous hydatids were
+expectorated after hepatitis, whence it was concluded that they
+were originally connected with the liver. There is a large
+solitary hydatid that was removed from a young female who
+died of phthisis, and in whom the consequent swelling had
+formed in the neighbourhood of the navel. Especially instructive,
+also, from a clinical point of view, is a case of peritoneal
+hydatids where the tumours had been diagnosed to represent a
+case of extra-uterine fœtation. It appears that there were two
+cysts, one of them being connected with the uterus. Two of
+the enormous hydatids taken from these cysts are preserved in
+the collection of the Anatomy School of Oxford. Several of
+the preparations show to perfection the stages of natural cure
+produced by calcareous degeneration; and there is one liver
+showing three of these so-called ossified cysts. The disease in
+this case proved fatal.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the entozoa displayed in the Charing Cross Hospital
+Museum have been contributed by Dr Wiltshire, the series
+being particularly strong in tapeworms. There are four characteristic
+examples of hydatids of the liver, representing as
+many separate cases. Two were from abscesses of this organ.
+In one of these, Mr Canton’s case, the hydatid was, I believe,
+expelled after operation; but in the other example (presented
+by Mr Rose, of Swaffham) the parasite was evacuated from an
+abscess, which burst of itself, externally.</p>
+
+<p>In the museum at University College, I examined sixteen
+preparations of hydatid disease, representing almost as many
+distinct cases. One is a wax model. Eight of the specimens
+were from the liver, five from the abdomen (including those of
+the omentum and mesentery), two from the lungs, and one
+from the heart. The model displayed ordinary hydatids of the
+liver bursting into the lungs. The mesenteric example is particularly
+fine, whilst that from the omentum is undergoing cal<span class="pagenum" title="132"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a></span>careous
+degeneration. Probably the most interesting of all is
+the example showing an hydatid lodged in the septum of the
+heart. This was from a middle-aged female, who died suddenly
+whilst pursuing her ordinary domestic avocations.</p>
+
+<p>The museum of the Royal College of Surgeons contains a
+fine collection of parasites, its chief strength in this respect
+being due to the special series of entozoa. Were visitors to
+judge by the contents of the catalogue of this series (which I
+prepared some years ago at the instance of the Council of the
+College), they might be led to suppose that the hydatids were
+only feebly represented. Out of nine preparations of hydatids
+in this section, only six have come from the human body.
+However, scattered throughout the collection, I found that
+there were no fewer than thirty-five preparations of hydatids
+belonging, apparently, to as many as thirty separate cases.
+Omitting, for the present, all mention of these derived from
+animals, I ascertained that, of the thirty human cases, thirteen
+were referable to the liver, four to the abdomen, three to the
+lungs (one of which was originally connected with the liver),
+and two to the brain. Five were of uncertain seat. With the
+abdominal cases we may also include one case of hydatids of
+the spleen, and another where these organisms were found in
+the region of the bladder. There is a characteristic breast
+case. One of the original Hunterian cases (in which “a prodigious
+number of hydatids were found in the sac of the liver
+and dispersed throughout the cavity of the abdomen”) appears,
+though it is not expressly so stated in the catalogue, to have
+been regarded as an ordinary example of abdominal dropsy.
+In one of the three lung cases two small hydatids were separately
+expectorated at an interval of about a month. This
+occurred in a female.</p>
+
+<p>I may here incidentally remark that many cases are on record
+where abdominal hydatids have been overlooked, the patient
+being supposed to be suffering from ascites. One such instance
+took place a few years ago at the Middlesex Hospital.
+I well remember a similar case of supposed hydrothorax, where
+the post-mortem examination revealed the presence of immense
+numbers of these formations occupying the right side of the
+chest. This case occurred at the Norfolk and Norwich
+Hospital, at the time when I was a student there, some
+thirty-five years ago.</p>
+
+<p>The pathological collection connected with St Georg<span class="pagenum" title="133"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a></span>e’s
+Hospital displays several good hydatid preparations, the entire
+series representing at least twenty-two separate cases. Of
+these, fifteen are referable to the liver, that is, if we include Dr
+Dickinson’s case, already published, where hydatids were found
+within the hepatic duct. There are two renal cases; also one
+from the brain (Dr Dickinson’s case), and another where an
+hydatid was expectorated. Besides these, there are three other
+highly characteristic examples of echinococcus disease affecting
+the region of the neck, breast, and axilla respectively.</p>
+
+<p>The museum of the London Hospital Medical School contains
+a large collection of parasites. Out of fifty-seven preparations
+of entozoa, I found twenty-two referable to hydatids; and, so
+far as I could gather, all of them belonged to different cases.
+Only one case seems to have been published in detail. This,
+though a very old preparation, is a fine example of an hydatid,
+nearly three inches in length, occupying one of the cerebral
+hemispheres (‘Edinb. Med. Journ.,’ vol. xv). There is a second
+brain case, where the vesicles were of small size, but very
+numerous. Of the other twenty cases, fourteen belong to the
+liver, two to the spleen, one to the lung, one to the uterus;
+one being a very large hydatid of doubtful seat, and another
+being referable to the lumbar region, where it formed a tumour
+containing “a large number of small hydatids.” Amongst the
+more remarkable specimens is that described in the MS. catalogue
+as “a true hydatid cyst developed in connection with the
+broad ligament.” This preparation, unique of its kind, shows
+no trace of the ovary, which, indeed, seems to have disappeared
+altogether. One of the liver cases should rather be classed as
+abdominal, since the large cyst is situated between the diaphragm
+and liver, pressing upon the latter organ below and also
+upon the lung above, but apparently not involving either of
+these viscera structurally. Another very striking case is that
+in which there is an external opening communicating with the
+cyst in the liver, and an internal opening through the diaphragm
+communicating with the lungs and bronchial tubes.
+The patient had actually coughed up liver hydatids by the
+mouth, and had passed others through the right wall of his
+abdomen. There is another liver case in which the hydatids,
+in place of escaping externally, had gained access to the inferior
+cava; and if I understand the MS. record rightly, in the same
+patient a second hydatid communicated with the portal vein,
+and a third with the hepatic vein. Lastly, I must add that<span class="pagenum" title="134"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a></span>
+there is yet another fine preparation of liver hydatids, occurring
+in a lad, nineteen years of age. He had, it seems, met with
+“a slight accident, and died with obscure head symptoms;” but
+the odd part of the case is that at the post-mortem examination
+there was positively nothing found that could explain the
+patient’s death. He was under the care of Mr Luke (1834).</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively recently I inspected the collection at St
+Thomas’s Hospital, which I found to be particularly rich
+in entozoa of various kinds, especially tapeworms and hydatids.
+I encountered seventy-six preparations of internal parasites;
+and of these, forty-two were of the hydatid kind, representing
+at least thirty-three different cases. I say “at least,” because
+it is often impossible to decide in instances where no history of
+the specimens can be obtained. Thus, there are three similar
+preparations of hydatids passed by the urethra, and, from their
+appearance, I judge them to have come from one and the same
+patient; yet there is no statement in the catalogue to that
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>Of the thirty-three cases of hydatids represented in this
+museum, I reckoned eighteen as referable to the liver, two to
+the brain, two to the bones, two to the urinary organs, and one
+to the lung, spleen, uterus, and soft parts of the thigh respectively.
+There are also three that may be classed as peritoneal.
+There is another choice example in which the disease cannot be
+referred to any particular organ. I allude to Dr Peacock’s case,
+already published (‘Pathological Transactions,’ vol. xv), where
+the lungs, liver, heart, spleen, and some other organs, were all
+occupied by hydatid formations. As an instance of extensive
+visceral infection by Echinococci in the human subject, I believe
+this case to be unique. The brain hydatids are particularly
+fine. In the specimen presented by Mr Boot, of Lincoln, the
+hydatid, two inches in diameter, is lodged in the anterior horn
+of the left ventricle. One of the peritoneal cases is remarkable
+for the amount of forward displacement of the pelvic viscera,
+caused by four or more hydatids, each of them nearly as large
+as a cricket-ball. Amongst the abdominal cases I have included
+a recent preparation, to which Mr Stewart has called my
+attention. The hydatid in question, of the size of a large
+lemon, existed near the fundus of the bladder, its walls being
+one third of an inch in thickness, and forming an unusually
+firm tumour. Of all the fine specimens of hydatids in the collection,
+however, none have struck me so much as those affect<span class="pagenum" title="135"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a></span>ing
+the bones. There is a humerus, taken from a man thirty-four
+years of age, in which the shaft is occupied throughout by
+small hydatids that have destroyed almost all the cancellous
+structure; in some places, also, the absorption of the cortical
+layer has gone on to such an extent as to have left little more
+than the periosteum. Of course, the bone was at last fractured
+easily. It is a beautiful specimen; and the existence of Echinococcus-heads
+was proved by microscopic evidence. Scarcely
+less interesting are two preparations illustrative of Mr Traver’s
+case of a man, thirty-eight years of age, in whom numerous
+small hydatids occupied both the head of the tibia and the lower
+end of the femur. Each set of parasites freely communicated
+with the knee-joint, necessitating amputation of the limb.</p>
+
+<p>The very large museum connected with Guy’s Hospital is
+rich in hydatids. When, some time ago, I spent several days
+in going over the collection, I examined seventy-six preparations,
+representing apparently seventy separate cases of this
+affection. Amongst the noteworthy specimens one lung
+hydatid was intimately associated with a thoracic aneurism,
+two others being connected with the pleura; and of seven
+abdominal cases, five were connected with the peritoneum, one
+with the mesocolon, and one with the aorta. This last-mentioned
+instance occurred in a woman of sixty years, who, until
+her death, was treated for dropsy. She complained of incessant
+pain, which was only relieved when she rested on her hands
+and knees. Of the three cases affecting the heart one has
+been published (Mr Henderson’s), where the patient, a girl of
+nineteen years, died suddenly whilst in the apparent enjoyment
+of perfect health. In one of the other two cases (Mr May’s, of
+Tottenham), the left lung was also involved. One case of
+hydatid disease affecting the spinal column appears to have been
+originally an ordinary liver case. In Mr Cock’s example of
+genuine mammary hydatids, the hooklets and echinococcus
+heads were detected; but I am not sure that a similar
+result of microscopic examination was obtained in the equally
+interesting example of hydatids of the thyroid gland (also
+removed by Mr Cock). There are five bladder cases, all
+apparently genuine (of which one has been published); and
+there are also five other cases referred in the catalogue to the
+kidneys, of which I regard two as doubtfully parasitic in
+character. Of three cases of hydatid growths occupying the
+soft parts of the thigh, two were under Mr Bryant’s care. The<span class="pagenum" title="136"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a></span>
+museum likewise contains an old preparation of hydatids of the
+tibia, but its history has been lost. There are also two brain
+cases, besides upwards of a score of more or less characteristic
+and instructive cases of hydatids affecting the liver.</p>
+
+<p>Scattered amongst the museums connected with the larger
+provincial schools and recognised hospitals there must be a
+great many valuable preparations of hydatid disease; at all
+events, I judge so from the inspection I have incidentally made
+of a few of the collections.</p>
+
+<p>Of eleven preparations of human hydatids which I observed
+in the Cambridge Anatomical Museum, apparently representing
+the same number of cases, seven were connected with the
+liver and one with the lungs. Those hydatids displayed in the
+“special series” of entozoa were of uncertain seat. From the
+recently published and valuable ‘Notes’ by Dr Bradbury, I
+have no doubt that considerable additions have been made to
+the Cambridge Collection since my last visit.</p>
+
+<p>The museum at Oxford contains some choice specimens of
+hydatids, but I have only personally inspected a few of them.
+In the absence of original notes, however, I am indebted to
+the kindness of Mr W. Hatchett Jackson for supplying me with
+several interesting particulars. The anatomical department of
+the Oxford Collection shows from one particular case two
+hydatids that were found “under the dura mater.” In the
+pathological department we find one hydatid from the liver of
+a male subject, and also a preparation showing a number of
+small hydatids that were “coughed up from the lungs of a
+female.” There are also in this department (Dr Acland’s)
+two examples of hydatids from the diaphragm, apparently
+belonging to two separate cases. One is described as a large
+“hydatid in the diaphragm covered by the pleura,” whilst the
+other is spoken of as “springing from the diaphragm and
+projecting into the sac of the pericardium.” There is likewise
+a preparation showing a number of small specimens of hydatids
+that were passed <i>per anum</i> by a female. It is conjectured
+that they came from the liver.</p>
+
+<p>The small pathological museum attached to the Brighton and
+Sussex Hospital is particularly rich in hydatids. Amongst
+others, it contains preparations illustrative of the remarkable
+case of hydatids in the region of the prostate, communicated
+by Mr Lowdell, in the ‘Lancet,’ in 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The comparatively large museum adjoining the Norfolk and<span class="pagenum" title="137"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a></span>
+Norwich Hospital displays a choice series of hydatids, chiefly
+from the collection of the late Mr Crosse. That eminent
+surgeon prepared a special set of specimens to illustrate the
+process of natural cure by calcareous degeneration; and I may
+here, perhaps, be pardoned for mentioning that it was the study
+of these and other entozoa in Mr Crosse’s Collection, some
+thirty or more years ago, that first drew my attention to the
+phenomena of parasitic life. Illustrations of the helminths in
+question are still in my possession. In one case (which is
+instructive as indicating the possibility of death from the
+simplest form and commonest habitat of an hydatid) a lad,
+twelve years old, received a slight blow from a playmate. Something
+gave way, and death speedily followed. It was found by
+post-mortem examination that a solitary liver hydatid, rather
+larger than a cricket-ball, had been ruptured. Although the
+case is almost unique, it is nevertheless by no means pleasant
+to reflect upon the fact that under similar circumstances a slight
+blow might prove fatal to any one, no matter in what internal
+organ the bladder worm happened to be situated.</p>
+
+<p>Before concluding my summary notice of the human
+hydatids contained in the metropolitan and certain other
+museums, there is an interesting literary contribution that I
+cannot pass unnoticed. In the November number of the
+‘Indian Medical Gazette’ for 1870 an article occurs in which it
+is stated that the Calcutta Medical College Museum contains
+eighteen specimens of hydatid cysts of liver. This fact was, it
+seems, originally adduced to show, not the frequency, but rather
+the rarity, of the occurrence of hydatids in India. However,
+from a valuable communication by Dr James Cleghorn, which
+was published in the same periodical for the following March, it
+appears that hydatids of the liver are much more common in
+India than is generally supposed. This, he says, is owing to
+the circumstance that many of the so-called cases of tropical
+abscess are neither more nor less than examples of hydatid cysts
+that have suppurated. Besides Cleghorn’s evidence, we have
+the previous testimony of the Inspector General I. M. D.,
+whose Report for 1868&ndash;69 I have already referred to in connection
+with <i>Cysticercus</i> in beef. He says: “During some
+three months’ regular observation of the animals killed at the
+Commissariat slaughter-house here, at least 70 per cent. of the
+beef livers may be calculated as thus affected. Cobbold,
+writing of the <i>Tænia echinococcus</i>, says that ‘this little tapeworm<span class="pagenum" title="138"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a></span>
+infests only the dog and the wolf.’ Therefore, considering the
+immense number of pariah dogs fed on the refuse of animals
+infected with hydatids, it seems more than probable that the
+parasite must attain its strobila condition in their intestines, and
+through them be eventually disseminated over the pastures on
+which the cattle graze.”</p>
+
+<p>I now turn to a neglected phase of the subject from which
+much practical instruction may be gathered. The consideration
+of the pathological phenomena of hydatid disease as it affects the
+lower animals is of high interest, and no prejudice should induce
+any medical man from accepting such useful data as may be
+gathered from this source. The facts of hydatid parasitism in
+animals, though often peculiar, are, for the most part, of an
+order similar to those presented in the human subject. If any
+medical practitioner thinks it beneath his dignity to study the
+pathology of the lower animals, the conduct of John Hunter in
+this respect is a standing protest against such narrowness.</p>
+
+<p>The museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
+contains some of the finest specimens of hydatids from the lower
+animals that are to be seen anywhere, the very choicest of them
+having been selected by Hunter himself. That distinguished
+man sought information from every available source, and
+hydatids were for him of almost equal interest, whether found
+in the body of a human being or in the carcase of an ox or an
+ass. Now, at all events, neither pathologists nor sanitarians can
+well afford to neglect comparative pathology; and, for myself, I
+am free to say that the yearly exposition to the students of the
+Royal Veterinary College of the phenomena of parasitic life
+amongst animals has brought with it an ever-increasing knowledge
+of the most curious and often unlooked-for information.
+Some of the data thus supplied are quite remarkable. Let me
+also add that my studies of the entozoa of wild animals have put
+me in possession of particulars of high value in regard to
+the larger question of the origin of epidemics. Beasts, birds,
+reptiles and fishes, of every description, are liable to succumb
+to internal parasites, and there is practically no end to the
+variety of useful information to be obtained from this source.
+I have collected materials almost sufficient for a separate treatise
+on this department of the subject, but I fear I shall never have
+either the time or opportunity to give the facts due publicity.
+Here, for obvious reasons, I must for the most part restrict
+myself to the hydatids properly so called.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="139"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Referring, in the first instance, to the hydatids of animals
+that have the same mode of origin and exhibit the same general
+characteristics as those found in man, I notice that four of
+the metropolitan museums exhibit nine examples of liver Echinococci.
+The Hunterian Collection shows specimens of this
+kind from the pig, monkey, zebra, and lion. The museum at
+St Bartholomew’s Hospital contains two examples from the pig
+and one from a cow; whilst the animal liver-hydatids preserved
+in the King’s College and Guy’s Museums, respectively, are from
+the pig and sheep. That from the latter is partly calcified.
+Respecting animal hydatids affecting the lungs, the Cambridge
+Museum exhibits a simple acephalocyst from a monkey, and
+the Guy’s Hospital Museum shows a pulmonary hydatid from
+the kangaroo. In the museum at Oxford, Dr Acland’s
+(pathological) department shows a preparation of “one large
+echinococcus cyst from the abdomen of a baboon,” whilst Dr
+Rolleston’s department (anatomical) displays the echinococcus
+itself from the “cavity of the abdomen of the same
+animal.” The collection also contains a variety of other
+bladder worms from different animals. The Hunterian Museum,
+Lincoln’s Inn, exhibits four or five alleged examples of hydatids
+from the kidney of the sheep, besides another from the spleen.
+Some of these are of very doubtful character. A cystic kidney
+from the sheep, preserved in the London Hospital Museum, and
+originally supposed to have been due to hydatids, is (as hinted
+in the MS. catalogue) certainly not of parasitic origin. In
+regard to the occurrence of hydatids in the heart of animals the
+Hunterian series shows two good examples from cattle, whilst
+the collection at University College exhibits one taken from the
+wall of the left ventricle of a sow. This was presented by Dr
+Elliotson.</p>
+
+<p>In the museum of the Royal Veterinary College there are a
+number of excellent preparations of true hydatids taken from
+various animals, especially from cattle, swine, and sheep; and
+there are also many kinds of bladder worms which, though
+often called “hydatid” by veterinarians, have a totally different
+origin from that of the true Echinococci. The so-called gid-hydatids
+(Cœnuri) and slender-necked hydatids (<i>Cysticercus
+tenuicollis</i>) are of this description. Specimens of the polycephalous
+brain hydatid, or Cœnurus, also exist in the museums
+connected with St Bartholomew’s, Guy’s, and St Thomas’s
+Hospital Medical Colleges, as well as in both the anatomical<span class="pagenum" title="140"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a></span>
+and pathological departments of the Oxford Museum. Specimens
+of large Cœnuri occurring in the soft parts of rabbits may
+be seen in the Guy’s Museum (presented by Mr Carpenter).
+Similar characteristic specimens exist in the Oxford Collection,
+labelled <i>C. cuniculi</i>, obtained from the “masseter and infraspinatus”
+muscles of a rabbit. My private collection also
+contains a recent addition of this remarkable hydatid, sent to
+me by Mr Alston from Ayrshire. It is the only one I have
+seen from Scotland. In the second half of this work these
+Cœnuri will again come under notice. Three examples of the
+slender-necked hydatid (from a monkey and two sheep respectively)
+may be seen in the Guy’s and University College Collections,
+and there are several in the museum of the Royal
+Veterinary College.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot go out of my way to speak of other bladder worms,
+except so far as to call attention to the heart of a bear preserved
+in the museum at Guy’s, the walls of which are crowded with
+Cysticerci. That unique preparation ought to be carefully
+examined and described. The Hunterian Museum contains two
+magnificent specimens of hydatids affecting the bones of cattle.
+In the one case a solitary vesicle occupies the shaft of the
+humerus; whilst in the other several “acephalocysts” have
+taken up their residence within the cancellous structure of the
+ilium.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of human mortality from hydatids I have
+already supplied statistical evidence of the unenviable distinction
+which our Australian colonies exhibit, and in addition to the
+facts brought forward I may add that Dr Lewellin has
+mentioned to me a fatal case in which an hydatid occupied the
+whole length of the vertebral canal. The patient was under
+Dr Annand’s care. There could be no doubt as to the genuineness
+of the case, as the spinal cyst was tapped during life,
+when echinococcus hooklets were found.</p>
+
+<p>Through Dr Lewellin I am also indebted to Dr H. B.
+Allen, pathologist at the Melbourne Hospital, for the particulars
+of a case of hydatids of the cerebrum, which are given as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>“J. <span class="nowrap">Q&mdash;</span>, aged 15, was admitted into the Melbourne Hospital
+on the 13th November, 1877, suffering from partial left
+hemiplegia. He rapidly became insensible and died next day.
+His mother furnished the following history.</p>
+
+<p>“He had been woodcarting in the bush for a considerable<span class="pagenum" title="141"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a></span>
+time, and while thus engaged eight weeks before admission
+began to lose power in his left arm and leg; gradually the
+paralysis increased, and he was taken home, where he remained
+for six weeks. During this time he had every week an attack
+of severe headache, and once he lost all sight for over half an
+hour. Gradually the symptoms increased, and he was taken to
+the hospital, but even then was able to walk with assistance
+part of the way.</p>
+
+<p>“At the autopsy, when the calvarium was removed, a large
+cyst about four inches in diameter was found on the mid-convexity
+of the right hemisphere of the cerebrum, slightly
+towards its anterior part. It formed a marked prominence on
+the anterior surface of the brain, and was bounded superficially
+by the pia mater and arachnoid, which were neither noticeably
+thickened nor adherent to the dura mater. On opening the
+cyst it was seen to extend inwards and abut on the wall of the
+lateral ventricle, and consisted of the ordinary gelatinous
+membrane, studded internally with little granular eminences,
+some pellucid, some opaque white. The contents were thin
+limpid fluid. The brain tissues around presented scarcely any
+induration. All other organs structurally healthy, congestion
+being the only morbid condition present.</p>
+
+<p>“The specimen is preserved in the hospital museum, which
+contains two other preparations of hydatids in the brain, and
+also an hydatid cyst of large size growing from the interior of
+the frontal bone.”</p>
+
+<p>In concluding this account of hydatids I may remark that,
+by the employment of sanitary measures, the disorder might,
+in course of time, be thoroughly stamped out. What these
+measures are I have already stated.</p>
+
+<p>I need hardly say that the following bibliography by no
+means exhausts the records of echinococcus disease. In Dr
+Albert Neisser’s recent monograph nearly a thousand separate
+cases are quoted and classified. The monograph of Dr Hearn,
+which is not mentioned in Neisser’s work, also contains a
+valuable bibliography.</p>
+
+<p>English literature. <i>Hydatids in general</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_a"></a>No.
+20 <i>a</i>).&mdash;<i>Ballard, E.</i> (review of Henoch), ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1854.&mdash;<i>Bird, S. D.</i>, ‘On Hydatids of the Lung; their diagnosis,
+prognosis, and treatment,’ 2nd edit., Melbourne, 1877.&mdash;<i>Busk</i>,
+“On the Nat. Hist. of the Echinococcus,” ‘Micr. Soc. Trans.,’
+orig. series, vol. ii, 1849.&mdash;<i>Budd, G.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="142"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a></span>‘Diseases of the Liver,’
+Lond., 1845.&mdash;<i>Carmichael, R.</i> (lecture), ‘Dub. Med. Press,’ 1840,
+p. 91.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ chap. vii and viii, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Hydatid Disease” (lecture), ‘Lancet,’ June, 1875,
+p. 850.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Hydatid Diseases of Man and Animals”
+(museum specimens), in a series of articles contributed to
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Oct., 1875, to Jan., 1876; fully reprinted
+in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1876.&mdash;<i>Copland, J.</i> (Art. “Hydatids”)
+in his ‘Dictionary,’ 1848.&mdash;<i>Davies, T.</i>, ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1835.&mdash;<i>Gairdner, J.</i>, and <i>Lee</i>, ‘Edinb. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1844.&mdash;<i>Goodsir, H. S. D.</i> (same ref., Lee’s case), 1844.&mdash;<i>Goodsir,
+J.</i> (same ref.), 1844.&mdash;<i>Gross, S. D.</i>, ‘Elements of
+Path. Anat.,’ chap. xv, Boston, U.S., 1839.&mdash;<i>Hawkins, C.</i>,
+‘Lancet,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Hjaltelin</i>, ‘Edinb. Med. Journ.,’ 1867; see
+also Dobell’s ‘Report on the Progress of Practical and Scientific
+Medicine,’ London, 1870.&mdash;<i>Hodgkin, T.</i>, in his ‘Lectures on
+the Serous and Mucous Membrane,’ 1838.&mdash;<i>Kerr, W.</i> (art.
+“Hydatids”) ‘Cyclop. of Pract. Med.,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Leared, A.</i>
+(prevention), ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>MacGillivray, P.
+H.</i> (see below, miscell. cases).&mdash;<i>Murchison C.</i>, in his ‘Clinical
+Lectures,’ Lond., 1868, p. 54; 2nd edit., 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Hydatid Tumours of the Liver; their danger, their diagnosis,
+and their treatment,” ‘Edinb. Med. Journ.,’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Nettleship,
+E.</i>, “Notes on the Rearing of <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> in the Dog
+from Hydatids, &amp;c.,” ‘Proc. Royal Soc.,’ 1866, p. 224.&mdash;<i>Rose,
+C. B.</i>, “On the Vesicular Entozoa, and particularly Hydatids,”
+‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1833&ndash;4, p. 204.&mdash;<i>Stephens</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1833;
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1831, p. 284.&mdash;<i>Thompson, T.</i> (remarks),
+‘Lancet,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Wilson, E.</i>, “On the Structure, Classification,
+and Development of the <i>Echinococcus hominis</i>,” ‘Med.-Chir.
+Trans.,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Yates, G.</i>, “On Hydatid Disease,” ‘Assoc.
+Med. Journ.,’ vol. iii, 1855.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the liver</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_b"></a>No. 20 <i>b</i>).&mdash;<i>Abercrombie,
+T.</i>, ‘Lond. Med. Journ.,’ vol. ii, p. 276, 1829.&mdash;<i>Alison, S. S.</i>,
+‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1844.&mdash;<i>Barclay</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Nov.,
+1868, p. 494.&mdash;<i>Barker, T. A.</i> ‘Lancet,’ and ‘Path. Soc. Trans.’
+1855.&mdash;<i>Barlow</i>, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Beith</i>, ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Bradbury, J. B.</i> (six cases), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+Oct., 1874, pp. 526&ndash;558.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1876,
+vol. ii, p. 646.&mdash;<i>Brinton</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+1858.&mdash;<i>Bristowe, T. S.</i>, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Broadbent, W. H.</i>, “Hydatids of
+the Liver; Paracentesis followed by free Incision;” <span class="pagenum" title="143"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a></span>‘British
+Med. Journ.,’ Nov. 30th, 1878.&mdash;<i>Brodie, B. C.</i> (supposed),
+‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1828.&mdash;<i>Brook, C.</i>, ‘Lancet.,’ Feb., 1868,
+p. 162.&mdash;<i>Buchanan</i>, ‘Surg. Med. Gaz.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Budd, W.</i>,
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Chambers, T. K.</i>, ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1846.&mdash;<i>Cox, T.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ and ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1838.&mdash;<i>Crosse,
+J. G.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1837.&mdash;<i>Curling T. B.</i>, ‘Med.-Chir.
+Trans.,’ 1840.&mdash;<i>Daly, O.</i> (supposed), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Davies
+H.</i>, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1848.&mdash;<i>Dickenson</i>, ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1861; ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Duncan, A.</i> (near the
+portal vein), ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1808.&mdash;<i>Duncan,
+P. M.</i> (several cases), ‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1850&ndash;52.&mdash;<i>Elliotson,
+J.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1832.&mdash;<i>Fearn, S. W.</i> (immense cyst),
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Nov., 1868, p. 496.&mdash;<i>Fletcher, T. B. E.</i>,
+‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1846.&mdash;<i>Freer, W. G.</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+and ‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Gaitskell, W.</i> (1000
+discharged) ‘Lond. Med. Repository,’ 1815.&mdash;<i>Gulland</i>, ‘Edin.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Harley, J.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ May, 1866, p. 538,
+and ‘Med. Chir. Trans.,’ 1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘St Thomas’s Hospital
+Reports,’ 1877, p. 291.&mdash;<i>Hastings, C.</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+1858.&mdash;<i>Heaton</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Oct. 31st, 1874, p. 557.&mdash;<i>Heckford,
+N.</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Sept., 1868, p. 332.&mdash;<i>Hillier</i>,
+‘Lancet,’ and ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Hutchinson, J.</i>,
+‘Lancet,’ Oct., 1862.&mdash;<i>Inglis, A.</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Leared
+A.</i> (Hjaltelm’s case), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Logan</i>
+(thousands present), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ and ‘Med. Times
+and Gaz.,’ March, 1865, p. 243.&mdash;<i>Lyon, E.</i> (several cases),
+‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1850.&mdash;<i>Murchison, C.</i> (rupture
+through pleura), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+July, p. 75, 1868.&mdash;<i>Page</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ Nov.,
+1864.&mdash;<i>Pavy, F. W.</i> (expectorated), ‘Med. Gaz.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1866, p. 234.&mdash;<i>Peacock</i>
+(two cases, expectorated), ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ and
+‘Lancet,’ 1850.&mdash;<i>Pemberton, O. A.</i> (rupturing diaphragm),
+‘Prov. Med. Journ.,’ 1848.&mdash;<i>Philipson</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+Oct. 31st, 1874, p. 557.&mdash;<i>Pollock, J.</i> (fatal), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1854.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (opening into lung), ‘Lancet,’ Jan., 1865, p. 63.&mdash;<i>Rees,
+G. O.</i>, ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1848.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (lecture), ‘Lond.
+Med. Gaz.,’ 1849.&mdash;<i>Richards, C. C.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ Jan., 1865,
+p. 261.&mdash;<i>Roberts</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Russell, J.</i>, ‘Prov. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Sadler, M. T.</i> (Cæsarean section), ‘Med.
+Times and Gaz.,’ Aug., 1864, p. 141.&mdash;<i>Salter; H.</i>, ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Savory, W. S.</i> (letter), ‘Lancet,’ May, 1866,<span class="pagenum" title="144"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a></span>
+p. 410.&mdash;<i>Sherwin, H. C.</i> (fatal), ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1823.&mdash;<i>Sibson, F.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ July, 1868, p. 76.&mdash;<i>Sloane, J.</i>
+(puncture), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Thompson H.</i>, ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Trimnell, G. C.</i>, ‘Lond.
+Med. Repos.,’ 1821.&mdash;<i>Ward, S. H.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1868, vol. ii,
+pp. 141, 305, and 474.&mdash;<i>Wearne, V.</i> (perforating diaphragm),
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ July, 1864, p. 31.&mdash;<i>Wilks</i> (escaping by
+gall-ducts), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Young, J.</i>, ‘Edin.
+Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1829.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the liver and other organs together</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span>
+<a id="No_20_c"></a>No. 20 <i>c</i>).&mdash;<i>Beale, L.</i> (kidney), ‘Arch. of Med.,’ vol. i, p. 31,
+1857; see also same case by <i>Bristowe</i>, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1853.&mdash;<i>Billing</i> (lungs), ‘Lond. M. and S. Journ.,’ 1831, p. 58.&mdash;<i>Griffith,
+J. W.</i> (abdomen), ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1844.&mdash;<i>Heslop,
+T. P.</i> (kidney), ‘Month. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ 1850.&mdash;<i>Richardson</i>
+(kidney, Dr Mackinder’s case), ‘Lancet,’ 1855.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liver cases occurring in America</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_d"></a>No. 20 <i>d</i>).&mdash;<i>Alexander,
+E.</i> (200 present), ‘Boston Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1838.&mdash;<i>Finnell</i>, ‘New York Med. Journ.,’ 1856, p. 216.&mdash;<i>Minot,
+T.</i> (expectorated), Bost. Soc. for Med. Improv., 1859, and
+‘Brit. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1860, p. 297.&mdash;<i>Webber, J. E.</i>,
+‘New York Med. Times,’ 1853, and ‘Bost. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1853, p. 126.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the lungs and pleura</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_e"></a>No. 20 <i>e</i>).&mdash;Cholmeley,
+‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1837.&mdash;<i>Dowling, F.</i>, ‘Australian
+Med. Journ.,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Duffin, A. B.</i>, ‘Beale’s Archives,’ 1857,
+vol. i, p. 253.&mdash;<i>Hare,</i> ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1857&ndash;8.&mdash;<i>Hill, J.</i>,
+‘Med. and Philos. Comm.,’ 1784, vol. ii, p. 303.&mdash;<i>Hutchinson,
+J.</i>, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Kirkes, W. S.</i>, ‘Med. Times
+and Gaz.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Leared, A.</i>, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Peacock</i>,
+‘Lancet,’ 1850.&mdash;<i>Ridge, J.</i>, ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1836,
+p. 507.&mdash;<i>Rigden, G.</i>, ‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Smith,
+F. G.</i>, ‘North Amer. Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1858, p. 333.&mdash;<i>Todd,
+R. B.</i>, ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1852.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the Kidney</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_f"></a>No. 20 <i>f</i>).&mdash;<i>Adams,
+A. L.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1864, p. 375.&mdash;<i>Barker, T. H.</i>, ‘Glasg. Med. Journ.,’
+1855&ndash;6, p. 439.&mdash;<i>Duncan</i>, ‘Liverpool Med. Journ.,’ 1834.&mdash;<i>Dunn,
+J.</i>, ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1817.&mdash;<i>Fussell, E. F.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Lettsom</i>
+(two cases), ‘Trans. Med. Soc. of Lond.,’ 1789, p. 33.&mdash;<i>Ward,
+W.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1846.&mdash;<i>Wilson, J.</i> (lecture) ‘Lond. Med.
+Repos.,’ 1822.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the spleen, omentum, and abdominal cavity</i><span class="pagenum" title="145"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a></span>
+(<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_g"></a>No. 20 <i>g</i>).&mdash;(Anonymous), ‘Edin. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1819, p. 50.&mdash;<i>Bailey, F.</i>, ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1826.&mdash;<i>Bright,
+R.</i> (remarks on cases) ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1838.&mdash;<i>Bryant,
+T.</i> (simulating ovarian disease), ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1868,
+p. 235.&mdash;<i>Budd, G.</i> (omentum), ‘Med. Times,’ 1838.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (rep.
+by Parsons), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Burman</i>, ‘Prov. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1847.&mdash;<i>Crowther, C.</i>, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1826, p. 49.&mdash;<i>Greenhow, E. H.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Little, W. I.</i>
+(simulating ovarian disease), ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Macleay,
+K.</i>, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1806.&mdash;<i>Morley, J.</i> (partly
+pelvic), ‘Lancet,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Newman, W.</i> (simulating ovarian
+disease), ‘Obstetr. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. iv, 1862.&mdash;<i>Obre</i> (peritoneal),
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Ogle, J.</i> (omentum), ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Simpson, A. R.</i> (peritoneal), ‘Edin. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1861&ndash;62.&mdash;<i>Simpson, J. Y.</i>, ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ 1854,
+p. 137.&mdash;<i>Thompson, T.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1843.&mdash;<i>Thompson, A. T.</i>
+(simulating ovarian disease), ‘Lancet,’ 1833.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids within the pelvic cavity</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_h"></a>No. 20 <i>h</i>).&mdash;<i>Birkett,
+J.</i> (voided), ‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.,’ 1851, p. 300.&mdash;<i>Bryant,
+T.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1865, pp. 566 and 589.&mdash;<i>Corrigan</i> (ovarian), ‘Dub.
+Quart. Journ.,’ vol. i, 1846.&mdash;<i>Crampton</i> (ovarian), ‘Dub. Quart.
+Journ.,’ vol. ii, 1846.&mdash;<i>Curling, T. B.</i> (bladder), ‘Med. Times
+and Gaz.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Farre, A.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Habershon</i>,
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Hughes</i>, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Hunter,
+T.</i>, ‘Trans. of Soc. for Improv. of Med. and Chir.
+Knowledge,’ 1793, p. 34.&mdash;<i>Jennings</i> (simulating pregnancy),
+‘Dublin Quart. Journ.,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Lowdell</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1846.&mdash;<i>Maunder</i>,
+‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1864, p. 351.&mdash;<i>Sadler, M. T.</i> (voided),
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Simon, J.</i> (voided), ‘Lancet,’
+1853.&mdash;<i>Wakley</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>White</i>, ‘Med. Gaz.,’ 1842.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the heart and blood-vessels</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_i"></a>No.
+20 <i>i</i>).&mdash;<i>Bigger</i>, ‘Dub. Path. Soc.’ Rep. in ‘Lancet,’ 1830.&mdash;<i>Budd,
+G.</i>, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1839.&mdash;<i>Coote, H.</i>, ‘Lond. Med.
+Gaz.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Goodhart</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Nov. 27, 1875.&mdash;<i>Price,
+D.</i>, ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1822.&mdash;<i>Smith, R.</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+1838.&mdash;<i>Trotter</i>, ‘Chem. and Med. Essays,’ 1736.&mdash;<i>Wilks</i> (Henderson’s
+case), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1860.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the brain and cranial cavity</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span>, <a id="No_20_k"></a>No. 20
+<i>k</i>).&mdash;(Anonymous) ‘Lancet,’ April, 1864, p. 444.&mdash;<i>Bailey, F.</i>,
+‘Lancet,’ 1825; ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1826.&mdash;<i>Barker, T. A.</i>,
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Bennett, J. R.</i>, ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’
+Jan., 1862.&mdash;<i>Berncastle, J.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1846.&mdash;<i>Bree, C. R.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="146"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a></span>‘Lancet,’
+1837.&mdash;<i>Brittan, F.</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Burton</i>, ‘Med.
+Times and Gaz.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Dagleish, G.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1832.&mdash;<i>Fletcher,
+T. B. E.</i>, ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ vol. iii, p. 161, 1855.&mdash;<i>Headington</i>,
+‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xv, 1819, p. 504.&mdash;<i>Helsham</i>,
+‘Med. Comment.,’ vol. xiii, 1788, p. 289.&mdash;<i>Macnamara,
+W. H.</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ vol. ii, p. 616, 1876.&mdash;<i>Rigden, G.</i>,
+‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Stewart, J.</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+1848.&mdash;<i>Sturton</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1840.&mdash;<i>Wilson, E.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ 1848.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the bones</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_l"></a>No. 20 <i>l</i>).&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>,
+“Notice of Specimens of Tibial Hydatids in Nottingham,” ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1865, and in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., 1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Notice of Specimens from the Tibia in the Mid. Hosp.
+Museum,” <i>ibid.&mdash;Cooper, A.</i>, “Foster and Lucas’s case affecting
+the Tibia,” ‘Surg. Essays,’ Lond., 1818.&mdash;<i>Coulson, W.</i> (tibia),
+‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1858; see also <i>Daubeny, H.</i>, ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Erichsen, J. E.</i>, in his ‘Surgery,’ 4th edit., pp.
+728, 823, and 948, Lond., 1864.&mdash;<i>Hunter, W.</i> (tibial, Mus. Spec.
+at Glasgow), quoted in ‘L’Expérience,’ 1838, p. 531.&mdash;<i>Keate,
+R.</i> (os frontis), ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’ 1819.&mdash;<i>Lambert, J.</i> (tibia),
+‘Lancet,’ 1826.&mdash;<i>Thompson, H.</i> (Hearne’s tibial case), ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Webster, F. W.</i> (tibia), ‘New Eng. Med.
+Journ. of Med. and Surg.,’ 1819.&mdash;<i>Wickham, W. J.</i> (tibia), ‘Lond.
+Med. and Phys. Journ.,’ 1827.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of the breast, muscles, and soft parts</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span>
+<a id="No_20_m"></a>No. 20 <i>m</i>).&mdash;<i>Adams, J.</i> (abdominal parietes), ‘Lancet,’ 1851.&mdash;(Anonymous),
+“Hyd. in the Eye of a Girl,” ‘Boston Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1849, p. 28.&mdash;<i>Baird, J.</i> (muscles), ‘Edin. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1821.&mdash;<i>Birkett, J.</i> (mammary), ‘Lancet,’ March,
+1867, p. 263.&mdash;<i>Brodie, B. C.</i> (near scapula), ‘Lancet,’ 1818.&mdash;<i>Bryant,
+T.</i> (thigh), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (thigh),
+‘Lancet,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (breast), ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ and
+‘Lancet,’ Nov., 1865, p. 565.&mdash;<i>Cholmeley</i> (from right side),
+‘Lancet,’ 1826.&mdash;<i>Cooper, B. B.</i> (neck and breast, two cases),
+‘Guy’s Hosp. Rep.’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in Birkett’s work on the
+‘Breast,’ p. 183; the ‘Institute,’ vol. i. p. 119, 1850.&mdash;<i>Dixon,
+J.</i> (neck), ‘Lancet,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Henry, M.</i> (breast), ‘Lancet,’ Nov.,
+1861, p. 497.&mdash;<i>Hewndon, A.</i> (neck), by Tyson, in ‘Phil. Trans.,’
+1706&ndash;7, vol. xxv, p. 2344.&mdash;<i>Jones, S.</i> (subperitoneal), ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Rankine, J.</i>, “Supposed Hyd. in Synovial
+Sheaths,” ‘Edin. M. and S. Journ.,’ 1830.&mdash;<i>Sands</i> (neck),
+‘Amer. Med. Times,’ 1861, vol. ii, p. 376.&mdash;<i>White</i> (breast and
+arm), ‘Lancet,’ 1839.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="147"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of uncertain seat, or miscellaneous cases and observations</i>
+(<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_n"></a>No. 20 <i>n</i>).&mdash;<i>Barrett</i>, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1838.&mdash;<i>Durrant, C. M.</i> (Ipswich Hosp.), ‘Prov. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Fagge, H.</i>, ‘Lancet,’ July, 1868, p. 76.&mdash;<i>Greenhow,
+J. M.</i> (intestinal), ‘Lancet,’ 1823.&mdash;<i>Howship, J.</i>
+(case, with speculative remarks), ‘Edin. M. and S. Journ.,’
+1835.&mdash;<i>MacGillivray, P. H.</i> (orbit, &amp;c.), ‘Austral. Med. Journ.,’
+Aug., 1865.&mdash;<i>Idem, ibid.</i>, March, 1867.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (3rd series of
+cases), <i>ibid.</i>, July, 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (treatment with kamala), <i>ibid.</i>,
+July, 1872.&mdash;<i>Markham, W. O.</i>, “On the ‘son hydatique,’”
+‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ 1856, p. 1072.&mdash;<i>Musgrave</i> (letter to Sir H.
+Sloane), ‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol. xxiv, 1704&ndash;5.&mdash;<i>Phillips</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+July, 1868, p. 77.&mdash;<i>Russell, J. J.</i>, ‘Dub. Journ.,’ 1838.&mdash;<i>Salter,
+H.</i>, ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Ward, T. O.</i>, ‘Lond.
+Med. Gaz.,’ 1837.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydatids of animals (acephalocysts)</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_o"></a>No. 20 <i>o</i>).&mdash;<i>Böllinger</i>
+(see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_49">49</a>).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Manual,’ l. c. (Bibl.
+No. 2), 1874.&mdash;<i>Crisp, E.</i> (in a turkey and in hogs), ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>East, J.</i> (see Steel).&mdash;<i>Findeisen</i>, “Echin.
+in der Lunge,” ‘Repertorium für Thierheilkund.,’ 1875,
+s. 48.&mdash;<i>Gross, S. D.</i> (in swine), ‘Elements of Path. Anat.,’
+1845, p. 118.&mdash;<i>Hunter, J.</i>, “A Cyst (hydatid) which was
+filled with water, formed in and filling up the Bone (humerus)
+of an Ox (from Hunterian MS.),” more fully described in the
+‘Catalogue of the Mus. Lond. Coll. Surg.,’ “Path.,” vol. ii,
+prep. No. 864, p. 201, 1847.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Hydatids in Sheep”
+(supp. to Trans. of a Soc., l. c., <i>supra</i>), 1793.&mdash;<i>Hutchinson, J.</i>,
+“Hydatid in the Eye of a Horse,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ and
+‘Lancet,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Huxley, T. H.</i>, “On the Anatomy and Development
+of <i>Echinoc. veterinorum</i> (from a Zebra),” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Kirkman, J.</i>, “Chronic Disease of the Bones of
+the Cranium of a Horse, associated with the existence of Hydatids
+within a Cyst at the inferior part of the Orbit,” the ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxxvi, p. 77, 1863.&mdash;<i>Lepper</i>, “Hydatids in the
+Kidney of a Lamb,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1863, p. 524.&mdash;<i>Martin,
+J.</i> (in the liver of a sow), ‘Vet. Assoc. Trans.,’ 1842&ndash;3, pp.
+330 and 364.&mdash;<i>Moorcroft, W.</i> (in the brain of a cow), ‘Med.
+Facts and Observ.,’ vol. iii, 1792.&mdash;<i>Morgan, A.</i> (in the brain of
+a mare), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1855, p. 396.&mdash;<i>Peech, S.</i> (in the
+muscles of a horse), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1854, pp. 80 and 209.&mdash;<i>Siedamagrotzky</i>
+(see Bibliog. No. <a href="#No_49">49</a>).&mdash;<i>Simonds, J. B.</i>, “Remarks
+on Mr. Scruby’s case of Hydatids in the Liver of a<span class="pagenum" title="148"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a></span>
+Sheep,” ‘Trans. of Vet. Assoc.,’ 1842&ndash;3, p. 331.&mdash;<i>Steel, J. H.</i>
+(in liver of a cow; Mr East’s case), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1878,
+p. 441.&mdash;<i>Stoddart</i> (in liver of a cow), the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1838,
+p. 637.&mdash;<i>Thudichum, J. L. W.</i> (in sheep), ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’
+1856, p. 195.&mdash;<i>Vincent, J. P.</i> (in horse, causing lameness), the
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1848, p. 674.&mdash;<i>Walker, A.</i> (in the liver of a sow),
+‘Vet. Record,’ 1846, p. 185.&mdash;<i>Woodger</i> (in the brain of a horse),
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1863, p. 75.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foreign Literature. Human Hydatids</i> (<span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> <a id="No_20_p"></a>No. 20
+<i>p</i>).&mdash;<i>Böcker</i>, ‘Zur statistik der Echinoc.,’ Berlin, 1868.&mdash;<i>Davaine,
+C.</i>, ‘Traité’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 1), p. 350, 1860; 2nd edit. p. 369,
+1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Recherches sur les hydatides, les échinoc., &amp;c.,”
+‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Recherch. sur le frémissement
+hydatique,” ‘Gaz. Med.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Eschricht</i>, ‘Danske videnskab.
+selsk. forhandl.,’ 1853.&mdash;<i>Finsen</i>, ‘Ugeskrift for Läger,’
+Bd. iii, 1867; see also ‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1868,
+p. 324; also ‘Schmidt’s Jahrb. für Med.,’ 1867, s. 181.&mdash;<i>Guérault</i>,
+“Sur la maladie hydatique, &amp;c.,” ‘Gaz. des Hôp.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Hearn,
+A. W.</i>, ‘Kystes hydatiques du poumon et de la plèvre,’
+Paris, 1875.&mdash;<i>Heller, A.</i>, “Die Schmarotzer der Leber,” von
+Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch d. Spec. Pathol. und Therapie,’ Bd. viii,
+s. 559.&mdash;<i>Krabbe, H.</i>, “Maladie causée en Island par les Échinocoques,”
+in his ‘Recherches Helminthologiques,’ p. 41, Paris,
+1866; ‘Helm. Undersøgelser,’ Copenhagen, 1865, p. 40.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Die echinoc. der Islander,” ‘Archiv für Naturg.,’ 1865, and in
+‘Den med. Skole i Reykjavik,’ 1868.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (see T. R. Jones,
+Bibl. No. 2).&mdash;<i>Leuckart, R.</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. 1), Bd. i, s. 335,
+1863; Bd. ii, s. 859, 1876.&mdash;<i>Linder</i>, ‘Echinococcen der Leber,’
+Leipsic, 1869.&mdash;<i>Naunyn</i>, ‘Archiv für Anat., Physiol.,’ &amp;c.,
+1862&ndash;3.&mdash;<i>Neisser, A.</i>, ‘Die echinococcen Krankheit.,’ Berlin,
+1877.&mdash;<i>Rassmussen</i>, ‘Bidrag til Kundskab om Echinoc.,’ &amp;c.,
+1865; see also ‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1866, p. 285,
+and 1867, p. 424.&mdash;<i>Schmalfuss</i>, ‘Ueber Leberechinococcus,’
+Breslau, 1868.&mdash;<i>Tommasi, T.</i>, ‘Storia di un caso di Echinoc.,’
+&amp;c., in an appendix (Nota) to his edition of my ‘Lectures’
+(Vermi, &amp;c.), Milan, 1873, p. 153.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;As Leuckart, Davaine, and especially Neisser offer
+exhaustive analyses of the French and German literature of
+human hydatids, I will only give the authors’ names attached
+to such additional foreign memoirs and cases as have been
+published in England. These are quoted in my ‘Introductory
+Treatise on the Entozoa.’ Full references will be found in the<span class="pagenum" title="149"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a></span>
+“Bibliography” of that work under the following <span class="nowrap">heads:&mdash;</span><i>Andral</i>
+(pulmonary veins), <i>Angeli</i>, <i>Auglagnier</i> (bladder), <i>Baillarger</i>
+(brain), <i>Boinet</i> (liver), <i>Chaubasse</i> (abdominal), <i>Cruveilhier</i> (liver
+and spleen), <i>Dupuy</i> (hydatids in animals), <i>Demarquay</i> (liver),
+<i>Dupuytren</i> (muscles and viscera, &amp;c.), <i>Fouquier</i> (lungs), <i>Gayet</i>
+(liver), <i>Goyrand</i> (liver), <i>Guérard</i>, <i>Guillot</i>, <i>Hedinger</i> (brain),
+<i>Heintz</i> (liver), <i>Held</i> (thigh), <i>Heller</i> (lip), <i>Klencke</i> (blood, &amp;c.),
+<i>Kuhn</i>, <i>Lafforgue</i> (liver), <i>Legroux</i>, <i>Livois</i>, <i>Luschka</i> (liver), <i>Martinet</i>
+(brain, liver), <i>Maug</i> (hand), <i>Meissner</i>, <i>Micheá</i> (brain), <i>Moissenet</i>
+(liver), <i>Montault</i> (brain), <i>Morrisseau</i>, <i>Nicolai</i> (liver), <i>Oerstelen</i>
+(kidney), <i>Pohl</i> (abdominal), <i>Quinquirez</i> (bladder), <i>Récamier</i>
+(abdominal), Richard (liver), Roget (lungs), Roux (pelvic),
+<i>Rüttel</i> (brain), <i>Schleissner</i>, <i>Sichel</i>, <i>Sömmering</i> (eye), <i>Skoda</i>,
+<i>Tomowitz</i> (bladder), <i>Zeder</i> (brain).</p>
+
+<p>Additional references to the echinococcus disease as it occurs
+in animals will be found at the close of the section devoted to
+the parasites of Ruminants (Bibliography No. <a href="#No_49">49</a>), and I shall
+recur to the subject of mortality from “worms” further on.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>SECTION III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nematoda</span> (Round Worms).</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Trichina spiralis</i>, Owen.&mdash;The progressive triumphs of
+biological science are well epitomised in the history of the
+discovery, and in the record of the gradual manner in which we
+have obtained our present complete knowledge of the structure
+and development of this small entozoon.</p>
+
+<p>Although the facts connected with the original discovery are
+clear and indisputable, much error still pervades foreign literature
+on this head. Without a doubt Mr Hilton was the first to
+suggest the parasitic nature of the capsules first spoken of as
+“gritty particles.” With Sir James Paget, however, rests the
+true discovery and determination of the nematoid character of
+the worm itself. With Professor Owen remains the honor of
+having first scientifically verified, described, and named the
+entozoon. Some have sought, without good reason, to alter
+Owen’s nomenclature; yet not only the generic title, but nearly
+all else that he wrote concerning the parasite, must be allowed
+to stand.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to the capsules, it is true that prior claims of
+discovery have been put forward; but whilst Peacock’s preparation
+of the “little bodies” testifies to the fact of his having<span class="pagenum" title="150"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a></span>
+seen the capsules before other English observers, including
+Wormald, it was Hilton who first surmised their parasitic
+character. As for the claims of Klencke and Tiedemann, they
+are practically of no value, even if it be admitted that the
+former may have at an early period seen something resembling
+this nematode, and that the “stony concretions” encountered
+by the latter were degenerated capsules.</p>
+
+<p>On no subject have I desired to write with more accuracy
+and precision than on this, and lest the above remarks should
+appear to be somewhat partial, I now purposely re-state the
+facts as they have presented themselves to me during a full and
+prolonged study of the entire literature of the subject. If it be
+asked with whom rests the discovery of <i>Trichina</i>, the reply
+must be framed with a due regard to precise issue at stake.
+The first recognition of the capsules as parasitic products is
+fairly claimed by Hilton; the worm by Paget; the zoological
+allocation and nomenclature by Owen; the adult worm by
+Virchow; the developmental phenomena by Leuckart; the
+rearing of the larvæ by Herbst; and to crown all, the clinical
+importance of the parasite by Zenker. Due regard being had
+to these relative claims, I think the following more extended
+statement will be found to be true and just in all its bearings.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 115px;">
+<img src="images/f35.jpg" width="85" height="553" style="padding-left: 12px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Sexually
+mature <i>Trichina
+spiralis</i>; male.
+After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the year 1834 Sir James Paget, then a student, first
+actually determined the existence of the nematode entozoon,
+which was subsequently more completely described by Professor
+Owen. The discoverer was assisted by the celebrated
+botanist, Robert Brown, who lent his microscope for the
+purposes of examination. In the following year Professor
+Owen first scientifically described and named the flesh-worm
+(<i>Trichina spiralis</i>) in the published transactions of a learned
+society. He first fully interpreted the true zoological position
+of the parasite. Sir J. Paget’s colleague, Mr. Wormald, had
+“more than once” previously noticed the characteristic specks
+“in subjects dissected at St Bartholomew’s Hospital.” He
+transmitted the individual specimens which enabled Owen to
+draw up his valuable paper. It is clear, however, that Mr
+Hilton was the first to suggest the parasitic and animal nature
+of the specks observed in human muscle. As the “find” was
+made in 1832, he anticipated Wormald in his observation of
+the “gritty” particles in dissecting-room subjects, describing
+the bodies as “probably depending upon the formation of very
+small Cysticerci.” Nevertheless, according to Dr Hodgkin,<span class="pagenum" title="151"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a></span>
+“the first observation of these little bodies was made in 1828”
+by Mr H. Peacock. The latter made a dry preparation of the
+<i>sterno-hyoideus</i> muscle to display the specks. That preparation
+is the oldest in existence, and may be seen in Guy’s Museum.
+It may further be remarked that Henle, Küchenmeister,
+Davaine, myself, and others, have pointed to a notice by
+Tiedemann as probably, or possibly, indicating a prior observation
+of the specks. Leuckart rejects the evidence. Dr Pagenstecher
+appears to be in doubt as to the nature of the bodies in
+question. As the passage in question possibly gave a rough
+and imperfect description of the now familiarly known calcified
+Trichina capsules, I give a translation of it (Froriep’s ‘Notizen,’
+1822, Bd. i, s. 64):&mdash;“At a post-mortem examination of a man
+who had been a great brandy-drinker, and who died from
+thoracic dropsy after several severe attacks of gout, Tiedemann
+found white stony concretions in most of the muscles,
+especially at the extremities. They lay in the cellular tissue
+between the fibre-bundles, frequently also attached to (or near)
+the walls of the arteries, being from two to four lines long,
+and roundish. The chemical examination conducted by Gmelin
+yielded seventy-three parts phosphate of lime, seven parts carbonate
+of lime and twenty parts animal matter, resembling albumen
+or fibrin.” In regard to this notice Dr Pagenstecher (‘Die
+Trichinen,’ s. 4) has remarked that Tiedemann’s “communication
+was also referred by Henle to such a parasitic development
+when he subsequently found Trichina; and in this sense it was
+afterwards received by Diesing, Küchenmeister, and Davaine.
+But it has been rejected by Leuckart on account of the size (from
+two to four lines) and seat of the concretions. True, it has
+never yet been observed that the capsuled Trichina (not measuring
+a tenth part of that diameter) subsequently constituted centres
+of gouty deposit exceeding their own bulk, nor is it likely that
+they should. Seeing, however, as we often do, that errors
+respecting size have crept into works on Trichina, we shall not
+need to lay much stress upon these statements; still less so
+since the notice is very superficial, and its character is essentially
+of a physiologico-chemical nature. But this, at least,
+seems to us decisive, that when Bischoff, at Heidelberg, wrote
+on a case which occurred in Heidelberg, not one single word
+was mentioned respecting a former case, if such should have
+happened, although Tiedemann and himself were on terms of
+close intimacy.” So much for Tiedemann. In regard to<span class="pagenum" title="152"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a></span>
+Klencke’s claims, the same observer <span class="nowrap">writes:&mdash;</span>“Klencke has
+asserted that he had already drawn Trichinæ in the year 1829,
+and that he had seen them again in 1831. This subsequent
+statement has no kind of confirmation. The unreliableness,
+mistakes, and self-deceptions in the helminthological writings of
+Klencke have been repeatedly exposed some twenty years ago.”
+Prior to this criticism by Pagenstecher, Professor von Siebold
+and several other well-known helminthologists had already commented
+on Klencke’s assertions in the same destructive manner.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the experimentation and the valuable instruction
+thus acquired, it appears that Herbst was the first
+to rear muscle-flesh-worms, or encapsuled Trichinæ,
+in animals (1850); whilst Virchow was probably the
+first to rear and recognise sexually-mature intestinal
+Trichinæ in a dog (‘Deutsche Klinik,’ 1859, s. 430);
+yet, without doing injustice to others, it must be
+added that it remained for Prof. Leuckart to offer a
+full, complete, and correct solution of the principal
+questions relating to the source and mode of genesis
+of the flesh-worm (1860). Leuckart likewise did
+good service by disproving the erroneous views
+that had been put forth by Küchenmeister. Lastly,
+all these brilliant results culminated in the clinical
+observations of Zenker, who opened out a new
+epoch in the history of trichinal discovery. Professor
+Zenker was the first to detect the young in
+the act of migration, and he likewise primarily
+demonstrated the fact that the larval parasites
+were capable of producing a violent disease in the
+human body.</p>
+
+<p>Never in the history of biological science have
+more valuable issues followed the method of experiment
+upon animals. Not only has human life
+been thus saved, but animal life also. State-medicine
+and sanitation have received an immense
+impulse. The good that has already resulted is
+simply incalculable; nevertheless, in the eyes of a
+set of ignorant fanatics who infest this country,
+all experiments “involving cruelty to animals”
+ought to be prevented at any cost. The further
+progress of biological science in England has
+hereby sustained a severe check.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="153"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Trichina spiralis</i> in its sexually-mature state is an extremely
+minute nematode helminth, the adult male measuring
+only the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">18</span></span>th</span> of an inch, whilst the perfectly developed female
+reaches a length of about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. The body is rounded and filiform,
+usually slightly bent upon itself,
+and rather thicker behind
+than in front, especially in the
+males. The head is narrow,
+finely pointed, unarmed, with a
+simple, central, minute oral aperture.
+The posterior extremity
+of the male is furnished with
+a bilobed caudal appendage, its
+cloacal or anal aperture being
+situated between these divergent
+appendages. The penis consists
+of a single spicule, cleft above,
+so as to assume a V-shaped
+outline. The female is stouter
+than the male, bluntly rounded
+posteriorly, having the genital
+outlet placed far forward, at
+about the end of the first fifth
+of the long diameter of the
+body. The eggs measure <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1270</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+from pole to pole. The mode
+of reproduction is viviparous.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/f36.jpg" width="220" height="592" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Larval Trichina coiled within its
+capsule. After Bristowe and Rainey.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As commonly observed in the
+human body our young Trichinæ
+appear as spirally-coiled worms
+in the interior of small, globular,
+oval, or lemon-shaped cysts,
+which latter appear as minute
+specks scarcely visible to the
+naked eye. These specks resemble
+little particles of lime, being
+more or less calcareous according
+to the degree of degeneration
+which their walls have undergone. In shape and general
+aspect they are not altogether unlike the eggs of certain nematoid
+worms, but their size alone sufficiently distinguishes them.
+They measure on an average <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">78</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">130</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth.<span class="pagenum" title="154"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a></span>
+The organised capsules are not essential to the further development
+of the parasite, and are rather to be regarded as abnormal
+formations, or rather, perhaps, as products resulting from an
+effort of nature to protect and thus prolong the life of the
+occupant. They are frequently altogether wanting. The capsuled
+Trichinæ measure <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">23</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length by about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">630</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth.
+When fully formed they not only exhibit a well-marked digestive
+apparatus, but also reproductive organs, which are often, indeed,
+sufficiently developed to determine the sex.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the large number of experiments that have
+been more or less recently made by investigators, little or
+nothing has been discovered calculated to disturb the conclusions
+set forth by Leuckart, who writes as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“(1) <i>Trichina
+spiralis</i> is the juvenile state of a little round worm, previously
+unknown, to which the generic title of Trichina must
+remain attached. (2) The sexually mature Trichina inhabits
+the intestinal canal of numerous warm-blooded animals, especially
+mammalia (also of man), and constantly in great numbers.
+The duration of its life extends from four to five
+weeks. (3) At the second day after their introduction the
+intestinal Trichinæ attain their full sexual maturity. (4) The
+eggs of the female Trichinæ are developed within the uterus of
+the mother, into minute filaria-like embryos, which, from the
+sixth day, are born without their egg-shells. The number of
+young in each mother-worm is at least from ten to fifteen
+thousand. (5) The new-born young soon after commence
+their wandering. They penetrate the walls of the intestine and
+pass directly through the abdominal cavity into the muscles of
+their bearers, where, if the conditions are otherwise favorable,
+they are developed into the form hitherto known. (6) The
+directions in which they proceed are in the course of the intermuscular
+connective tissues. (7) Only the striped muscle
+(that of the heart excepted) contains Trichinæ. The majority
+of the wandering embryos remain in those sheathed muscular
+groups which are nearest to the cavity of the body, especially
+in those which are smaller and most supplied with connective
+tissue. Speaking generally, their number decreases with the
+distance from the abdomen, being, however, more numerous in
+the anterior half of the body. (8) The embryos penetrate
+into the interior of the separate muscular bundles, and here
+already, after fourteen days, acquire the size and organisation
+of the well-known <i>Trichina spiralis</i>. (9) Soon after the intrusion<span class="pagenum" title="155"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a></span>
+of the parasite the infested muscular fibre loses its
+original structure, the fibrillæ collapse into a finely granular
+substance, whilst the muscular corpuscles change into oval
+nucleated cells. (10) The infected muscular bundle retains
+its original sheathing up to the time of the complete development
+of the young Trichinæ, but afterwards its sarcolemma
+thickens, and begins to shrivel at the extremities. (11) The
+spot inhabited by the rolled-up parasites is converted into a
+spindle-shaped widening, and within this space, under the
+thickened sarcolemma, the formation of the well-known lemon-shaped
+or globular cysts commences by a peripheric hardening
+and calcification. This degeneration commences several months
+after the wandering. Immature muscle-Trichinæ are not
+capable of producing
+infection. (12) The
+migration and development
+of the embryos
+also take place
+after the transportation
+of impregnated
+Trichinæ into the intestines
+of a new
+host. (13) The further
+development of
+the muscle-Trichinæ
+into adult animals is
+altogether independent
+of the formation
+of the calcareous
+shell, and occurs as soon as the former have reached their
+completion. (14) Males and females are already recognisable
+in their larval state. (15) The immigration of the
+Trichina-brood in masses produces very grave or even fatal
+consequences, such as peritonitis (from the embryos perforating
+the intestinal walls), pain, and paralysis (resulting from the
+destruction of the infected muscular fibres). (16) The infection
+of man occurs especially through swine. (17) The muscle-Trichinæ
+are so capable of resistance that they are by no means
+in all cases destroyed by the ordinary methods of roasting,
+cooking, pickling and smoking. (18) As a rule, swine obtain
+Trichinæ from rats, to which latter we also as the natural
+bearers have to convey them. Microscopic examination of<span class="pagenum" title="156"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a></span>
+flesh is, therefore, urgently recommended as a public preventive
+against all danger from Trichinæ.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 285px;">
+<img src="images/f37.jpg" width="285" height="253" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Immature female Trichina from muscle.
+After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a summary the above conclusions are well nigh exhaustive;
+but whilst I purposely avoid entering into mere clinical details,
+there are points of hygienic interest to which I must allude.
+Thus, as regards the number of larval Trichinæ in any one
+“bearer” at a time, this, of course, must be extremely variable,
+but it may amount to many millions. In one of the cats on
+which Leuckart experimented, he estimated a single ounce of
+its muscle-flesh to harbour no less than 325,000 Trichinæ. I
+find that a relatively similar degree of infection in an ordinary
+human “bearer” would yield thirty millions. In the case of one
+of my own experimental animals, a pig, I reckoned that there
+were at least sixteen millions of Trichinæ. The larvæ were about
+ten months old and enclosed within perfectly formed capsules;
+nevertheless, the animal had never displayed any symptom of
+irritation. In a trichinised human subject, examined by Dr
+Thudichum, it was estimated that 40,000,000 parasites were
+present. My own estimate, calculated from specimens of
+muscle obtained from the same case, gave 100,000,000 as the
+approximate number of worms present. In the only outbreak
+of Trichinosis occurring in England, details of which will be
+given further on, I found that the flesh of the hog that had
+caused the local endemic contained upwards of 80,000 Trichinæ
+to the ounce. The consumption of a pound of such flesh
+would be capable of producing a collective progeny of something
+like 400,000,000 within the human “bearer.”</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1865 I conducted a series of experiments upon
+upwards of a score of animals, including seven birds, the latter
+all yielding only negative results. So far as muscle-Trichinæ
+were concerned my experiences accorded with those of Professors
+H. A. Pagenstecher and C. J. Fuchs, at the Zoological Institute
+in Heidelberg. These experimenters found that the ingested
+muscle-Trichinæ acquired sexual maturity within the intestinal
+canal of their avian “hosts;” but they never found young
+Trichinæ in the muscles of the birds, nor did they perceive
+any evidences of an attempt on the part of the escaped embryos
+to effect a wandering or active migration on their own account.
+Clearly, if the bird’s intestinal canal were a proper territory
+for the residence of sexually mature Trichinæ, we should have
+found abundance of wandering non-encapsuled flesh-worms and
+also sexually-immature muscle-Trichinæ enclosed in well-formed<span class="pagenum" title="157"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a></span>
+capsules. Not a few persons still entertain the notion that
+Trichinæ are liable to infest all kinds of warm-blooded, and
+even also many kinds of cold-blooded animals, such as reptiles
+and fishes. Certain nematodes found in earth-worms have been
+described as Trichinæ; and consequently, pigs and hedgehogs
+were said to become trichinous through eating these annelids.
+The minute flesh-worms described by Bowman from the muscle
+of the eel are not true Trichinæ, any more than the somewhat
+similar parasites which Eberth found to infest the muscles of
+the frog. The same may also be said of Dr Salisbury’s
+urinary Trichinæ, which are the larvæ of <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Deducting the seven birds, and also six other animals where
+no examination after death was possible, I ascertained the
+result of my worm-feedings in sixteen instances. Nine of the
+experiments were entirely successful, the infected animals
+comprising four dogs, two cats, one pig, one guinea-pig, and a
+hedgehog.</p>
+
+<p>Carnivorous mammals, especially those subsisting on a
+mixed diet, are the most liable to entertain Trichinæ, but it is
+quite possible to rear them in herbivora. Thus, Pagenstecher
+and Fuchs succeeded in rearing muscle-Trichinæ in a calf, and
+they found three female intestinal Trichinæ in a goat, but
+apparently no muscle-flesh-worms, although twenty-seven days
+had elapsed since the first feeding with trichinised rabbit’s flesh.
+In three sheep on which I experimented no trace of Trichinæ
+could be found. There is no practical need for any further experiments
+on herbivora, for it is quite clear that, in their natural
+state, herbivorous mammals can seldom have an opportunity of
+infesting themselves, whilst the reverse is the case with
+swine, carnivorous mammals, and ourselves. Because many
+quadrupeds become trichinous, it does not follow that all
+mammals are liable to be infested. In the case of most
+parasites we find the species limited to a larger or smaller
+number of hosts. On the other hand, in not a few cases, the
+range of the entozoon is limited to a single territory or host.</p>
+
+<p>In conducting the experiments above mentioned I was
+assisted by Professors Simonds and Pritchard, of the Royal
+Veterinary College. As they were the only researches conducted
+on any considerable scale in England, I subjoin a few
+details of them. Dr Thudichum’s experiments were, I believe,
+confined to rabbits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exps.</i> 1 and 2.&mdash;On the 15th of March, 1865, an ounce of<span class="pagenum" title="158"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a></span>
+flesh containing Trichinæ was administered by myself to a black
+bitch. The dog being destroyed five days subsequently,
+neither intestinal nor muscle-Trichinæ were discovered. It was
+thought that the dog had thrown up the bolus, which was
+strongly saturated with chloride-of-zinc solution. The bolus
+consisted of a portion of the <i>pectoralis major</i> of a subject
+brought to the dissecting-room at the Middlesex Hospital. The
+cysts were highly calcified, but the majority contained living
+embryos, which were quite unaffected by the zinc solution
+injected into the body to prevent decomposition. At the same
+date a small white puppy was experimented on and examined
+with precisely the same results. In either case it was too early
+to expect muscle-flesh-worms to have become developed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 3.&mdash;Half an ounce of the same trichinous human flesh
+was given (at the same date) to a black-and-tan puppy reared
+at the Royal Veterinary College, a second “feeding” being
+administered on the 21st of March, or six days after the first.
+In this case Mr Pritchard, who fed the animal, took the precaution
+to chop the muscle into small pieces, and to mix it with
+other food, in order that the flesh might be the more readily
+retained in the stomach. The puppy was not destroyed until
+the 15th of the following June, when, on examination, numerous
+encysted but non-calcified muscle-Trichinæ were found in all the
+voluntary muscles subjected to microscopic scrutiny.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 4.&mdash;An ounce of the same flesh was given to a dark-colored
+pig on the 15th of March, and again on the 20th,
+several other “feedings” being also administered during the
+month of April, 1865. It was destroyed on the 16th of May, but
+no Trichinæ were detected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 5.&mdash;An ounce of the same human muscle-flesh administered
+to a small sheep (which was subsequently killed on the
+29th of June) also produced negative results.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exps.</i> 6 and 7.&mdash;“Feedings” were at the same time administered
+to a rat and mouse. The mouse died on the 2nd April,
+when I examined its muscles without success. On the following
+day the rat unfortunately made its escape, but whether
+trichinised or not cannot be said.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 8.&mdash;An ounce of trichinous human flesh was given to a
+donkey, in the form of “balls,” on the 20th of March; and
+during the month of June four other separate “feedings” with
+trichinous dog’s flesh were also administered. The animal was
+removed from the College without the result being ascertained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="159"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 9.&mdash;From the 15th to the 20th March, 1865, inclusive,
+three small Trichinæ “feedings” were likewise administered to
+a guinea-pig. This little animal was not destroyed until the
+15th of the following June, when a positive result was obtained.
+The <i>pectoralis transversus</i> and other muscles were found to
+harbour a considerable number of encysted Trichinæ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 10.&mdash;On the 20th March, and again on the 21st (1865),
+“feedings” from the same human subject were administered to
+a hedgehog. On the 26th of April the animal seemed to be
+attacked with symptoms of Trichinosis. It refused food, kept
+its head extended, and the eyelids closed. On the 27th it
+appeared much worse, and on the morning of the 28th it was
+found dead. On the 29th I examined the flesh, and found abundance
+of living Trichinæ in the muscles. The capsules were
+very thin and transparent. A few days later Mr Simonds also
+examined the flesh, and confirmed this result.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exps.</i> 11 and 12.&mdash;Two chickens were fed, on the 21st of
+March, with the same material. One of the birds died on the
+24th, when I examined the intestines and detected one or two
+very minute nematodes, which, at the time, I believed to be
+imperfectly developed Trichinæ, but subsequently saw reason
+to alter my opinion. The other bird died on the 3rd of April,
+and certainly contained no muscle-Trichinæ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 13.&mdash;On the 22nd and 23rd of March “feedings,”
+amounting to an ounce of flesh in all, were given to a mole.
+This animal was returned to the care of Mr Charles Land, who
+had previously sent it to the Veterinary College. He subsequently
+reported that, after observing the mole to be “working”
+for two or three days, he lost all trace of it, and concluded that
+it had either escaped or was dead.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 14.&mdash;On the 1st and 2nd of May portions of the left
+fore extremity of the hedgehog (in which we had successfully
+reared Trichina from the Middlesex-Hospital subject) were
+offered by Mr Simonds to a cat. It ate the flesh very readily,
+consuming the entire limb. On the 15th of the following June
+the cat was killed, when living Trichinæ were found within all
+the muscles which we examined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 15.&mdash;At the same dates a young terrier dog was similarly
+treated, but did not take the “feeding” so readily. In
+this case the left hind extremity of the hedgehog was employed,
+and what was not eaten voluntarily was forcibly introduced. On
+the 1st of June the dog was attacked with “distemper,” and<span class="pagenum" title="160"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a></span>
+died on the 8th of the same month. On examination we found
+several living Trichinæ in the <i>sterno-maxillaris</i> and other
+muscles. Some of the parasites were encysted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 16.&mdash;From the 9th to the 12th of June inclusive four
+separate worm-feedings with the flesh of the trichinised
+terrier-dog were administered to a crow. The bird was killed
+some months afterwards and sent to me for examination. Its
+muscles were entirely free from Trichinæ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 17.&mdash;From the 9th to the 17th of June inclusive seven
+separate worm-feedings were administered to a pig. One of
+the “feedings” was with the trichinised guinea-pig’s flesh, the
+others from the dog. This animal was not destroyed until the
+4th of April, 1866, when all the muscles which I examined were
+found extensively infested with Trichinæ. There were probably
+not less than 16,000,000 present, all being alive and enclosed
+within perfectly-formed capsules, none of which latter exhibited
+any traces of calcareous deposition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 18.&mdash;Four separate feedings with trichinous dog’s flesh
+were likewise, at the same dates as the foregoing, administered
+to a rat. This experimental animal, however, like the one
+previously mentioned, contrived to make its escape. I fear it
+was well trichinised.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 19.&mdash;About the same date trichinous “feedings” were
+given to a black puppy (bred at the Veterinary College). The
+dog was killed on the 18th of August, 1866, having also been
+made the subject of an echinococcus-feeding, when I found
+abundance of encysted Trichinæ within the voluntary muscles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 20.&mdash;Four separate worm-feedings with the flesh of the
+trichinised guinea-pig were given to a sheep on the 15th, 16th,
+17th, and 19th days of June, 1865. The experimental animal
+was destroyed on the 29th of the same month, but the result
+was negative.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exps.</i> 21 and 22.&mdash;“Feedings” with the guinea-pig’s flesh&mdash;four
+in the one case and three in the other&mdash;were also administered
+by Mr Simonds (from the 15th to the 19th of June,
+inclusive) to a chicken and goose respectively. These birds were
+destroyed some months afterwards and sent to me for examination,
+but the most careful scrutiny failed to detect any
+Trichinæ within their muscles. The goose was cooked and
+eaten without the slightest hesitation. The chicken I found
+too tough for consumption.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 23.&mdash;On the 28th of March, 1866, I obtained a small<span class="pagenum" title="161"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a></span>
+quantity of muscle from a highly trichinised German subject,
+who died from the effects of an accident at the London
+Hospital the day previous. The case was fully reported by
+Dr Thudichum in a new journal, called ‘Scientific Opinion’
+(No. 4, April 25th 1866, p. 55). During the same day (at
+2.30&nbsp;p.m.) I fed a dog with part of this human flesh. On the
+morning of the 31st I killed the dog, and examined the
+intestinal canal (at 11.30&nbsp;a.m.), which revealed the presence of
+sexually-mature living Trichinæ. The males (of one of which
+I retain an accurate figure) displayed the characteristic bilobed
+caudal appendage, leaving no doubt as to their source and
+nature. I have mentioned the precise time of the experiment,
+in order to show that a period of sixty-nine hours proved amply
+sufficient for the development of the young muscle-flesh-worms
+of the human subject into the sexually-mature adult Trichinæ
+of the dog.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 24.&mdash;With another portion of this human flesh (taken
+from the muscles of the tongue) in which the Trichinæ were
+extraordinarily abundant, I fed a cat. In about ten days the
+animal showed the most marked symptoms of trichinosis. It
+refused to eat; the eye lost its lustre; the body became very
+thin, and I thought the animal would die. By very great care,
+keeping it warm before the fire, and subsequently inducing it
+to take a little milk, the creature improved, gained flesh, and
+eventually recovered. About three months afterwards I destroyed
+this cat, when on examining the <i>panniculus carnosus</i>,
+<i>latissimus dorsi</i>, and other superficial muscles, I found great
+quantities of well-developed, capsuled Trichinæ. Although the
+animal had swallowed scarcely a quarter of an ounce by weight
+of the infested flesh, yet thousands of parasites had been propagated
+and dispersed throughout its muscular system. In
+this way the helminthiasis nearly proved fatal to my cat. As
+has been already stated, Dr Thudichum, who I believe had
+an opportunity of examining the corpse of this trichinised
+German, estimated the number of parasites in his body at
+40,000,000. I do not think this estimate likely to be exaggerated,
+for if all the flesh had been infested to the extent I
+found to obtain in respect of the muscles of the tongue, I
+believe 100,000,000 would have been nearer the mark. In
+places the point of a needle could scarcely be thrust between
+the capsules, so closely were they agglomerated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exp.</i> 25.&mdash;From the 19th to the 25th of April, 1866, inclusive,<span class="pagenum" title="162"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a></span>
+daily administrations of trichinous pork, in the form of bolus,
+were made to a sheep by Mr Pritchard. The Trichinæ were
+obtained from one of our experimental animals at the Veterinary
+College, about two ounces of the flesh being given at each
+feeding. The flesh of this sheep (destroyed in the following
+November) failed to give any indication of the presence of
+parasites.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exps.</i> 26 and 27.&mdash;About the same time, and occasionally at
+intervals extending over a period of five weeks, Mr Pritchard
+also fed two young fowls with the same trichinous pork.
+Towards the close of October, 1866, both birds died, when Mr
+Pritchard carefully examined the flesh of them, but failed to find
+any trace of Trichinæ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exps.</i> 28 and 29.&mdash;From April 2nd to the 9th of the same
+month, 1866, inclusive, feedings with trichinous pork were
+likewise given to two dogs. These animals were destroyed and
+examined by Mr Pritchard in November, 1866, but the result
+appears to have been negative.</p>
+
+<p>It is perfectly certain that the infection of man by Trichina
+is invariably due to the ingestion of verminiferously
+diseased meat, and as remarked in my ‘Lectures,’ whenever the
+parasites are taken in large numbers unpleasant symptoms soon
+show themselves in the infested person. There is, first of all,
+restlessness, loss of appetite, and more or less prostration.
+This is succeeded by rheumatoid pains in the limbs, with the
+frequent accompaniment of considerable swelling. The pain is
+not situated in the joints, but in the intermediate soft parts.
+In severe cases the limbs are drawn up and half bent, as in
+instances of severe and continued cramp. Sometimes the
+suffering is excruciating and unbearable, patients having been
+known to request the surgeon to put an end to their lives. In
+the worst forms of the malady death rapidly ensues from
+diarrhœa and exhaustion. If the parasites have gained admission
+to the muscles all hope of destroying them is at an end;
+but if a person suspects himself to have eaten diseased or
+trichinised meat he should lose no time in seeking professional
+assistance, seeing that the administration of suitable anthelmintics
+might be the means of saving his life, whereas a few
+days’ delay would probably prove fatal. So long as the worms
+remain in the stomach or intestinal canal they can be got rid
+of, but when once the trichinal brood have invaded the flesh
+then they cannot be expelled. As remarked in my <span class="pagenum" title="163"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a></span>‘Entozoa,’
+it is easy to perceive that although, in the majority of instances,
+Trichiniasis does not cause death, yet the percentage of fatal
+cases is by no means insignificant.</p>
+
+<p>The notion that particular breeds of swine are more liable to
+be infested than others is absurd, since infection must be due
+to the facilities offered for swallowing garbage, especially dead
+rats. According to Drs Belfield and Atwood 8 per cent. of
+slaughtered American swine contain Trichinæ. In infested
+hogs they found from 35 to 13,000 parasites in a cubic inch of
+muscle, and by repeated feedings they succeeded in rearing
+about 100,000 Trichinæ in the body of a rat.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the disease in man let us glance at the
+phenomena that presented themselves in Plauen, a town of
+Central Saxony. Drs Böhler and Königsdörffer, who first
+saw this disease and treated it, state, according to Leuckart,
+that “the affection began with a sense of prostration,
+attended with extreme painfulness of the limbs, and, after
+these symptoms had lasted several days, an enormous swelling
+of the face very suddenly supervened. The pain occasioned by
+this swelling and the fever troubled the patients night and day.
+In serious cases the patients could not voluntarily extend their
+limbs, nor at any time without pain. They lay mostly with
+their arms and legs half bent&mdash;heavily, as it were, and almost
+motionless, like a log. Afterwards, in the more serious cases,
+during the second and third week, an extremely painful and
+general swelling of the body took place; yet, although the fifth
+part of all the patients were numbered amongst the serious
+cases, only one died.”</p>
+
+<p>Satisfactory as it may be to note the numerous recoveries
+which take place, this circumstance is very much marred by
+the fact that a large proportion of the patients suffer the most
+excruciating agony. In the main it will be observed that
+Böhler’s and Königsdörffer’s experience, as recorded by
+Leuckart, corresponds very closely with that given by other
+observers. The symptoms, moreover, are very similar to those
+produced in the original case published by Zenker. In this case,
+which occurred in the Dresden Hospital (1860), the patient was
+a servant girl, aged twenty, and the principal symptoms were
+loss of appetite, prostration, violent pains, contraction of the
+limbs, and finally œdema, which, in association, perhaps, with a
+certain amount of pneumonia, terminated her career within a
+period of thirty days. The post-mortem appearances showed<span class="pagenum" title="164"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a></span>
+that the larval Trichinæ were the cause of death. The intestinal
+canal contained numerous sexually-mature worms.</p>
+
+<p>The effects produced by Trichinæ on animals are similar to
+those occasioned in man. The phenomena were summarised
+by Davaine (in the journals quoted below) in 1863 as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“The first phase is characterised by intestinal disorder, produced
+by the development of the larvæ in large numbers, and
+their adhesion to the mucous membrane of the intestine. In
+this stage M. Davaine has seen rabbits die with intense diarrhœa;
+one of two cats which he fed with trichinised meat had
+diarrhœa for at least a fortnight, but survived. Of five or six
+rats fed on a similar diet, one only, which was pregnant, died
+of diarrhœa, after abortion, on the eighth day. According to
+M. Leuckart, the passage of the embryos of Trichinæ through
+the intestinal walls sometimes produces peritonitis. This intestinal
+phase often becomes blended with the next; it may be
+relieved by the expulsion of the worms by means of the diarrhœa,
+or may cease with the natural death of the worms.</p>
+
+<p>“The second stage presents general symptoms&mdash;muscular
+pains, &amp;c. These phenomena are dependent on the introduction
+of the Trichinæ into the muscles; they rapidly acquire
+their maximum intensity, and have not a long duration. The
+appearance and duration of this stage are in complete relation
+with the development and length of sojourn of the Trichinæ in
+the intestines; in fact, in this entozoon, oviposition is not slow
+and of long duration, as in many nematoid worms; the genital
+tube is rapidly formed, and the ova, in its whole length, are
+developed almost simultaneously, so that the embryos, arriving
+soon at maturity, are at once thrown out in large numbers into
+the intestine, and the mother Trichina dies exhausted. If it
+be remembered that the embryos do not escape before the
+eighth day, that a certain number of days are required for their
+arrival in the muscles, and that new ones are not produced
+after six or seven weeks, it will be understood that the first
+symptoms of this stage can scarcely appear until the end of a
+fortnight after ingestion of the diseased food, that they must
+continue four or five weeks, and that after this they may disappear.
+This course of events is observed in animals; and in
+man the symptoms of this stage have shown themselves and
+become aggravated from the third to the sixth week after
+infection. Most animals die during this stage; rabbits rarely
+survive; rats, on the contrary, generally resist it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="165"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“If the animals do not die of the general symptoms or local
+disturbances proper to these two stages, the inflammatory symptoms
+cease, respiration becomes natural, and order is re-established.
+But, in some cases, the number of cysts formed in
+the muscles are sufficiently great to impede them in the proper
+exercise of their functions, and hence arises general debility, a
+kind of consumption which persists or becomes aggravated, and
+the animal dies of marasmus. M. Davaine has noticed this in
+rabbits, but especially in a rat.</p>
+
+<p>“Recovery from these phases of trichinal infection may be
+apparently perfect. A rabbit which M. Davaine kept during
+five months became large and fat, although it had a large
+number of Trichinæ in its muscles; a rat which had had these
+entozoa in considerable numbers during six months was, to all
+appearance, in good health. Hence he concludes that the
+Trichinæ produce symptoms only when they are in the intestinal
+canal, and when they are entering the muscles. Having
+become lodged in their cysts among the muscular fibres, they
+may remain harmless for an indefinite time. In every case
+except one, down to 1859, Trichinæ have been found in the
+bodies of persons who have died of disease (generally chronic)
+or by accident; or in the dissecting-room, in bodies regarding
+which the previous history could not be obtained. In most cases
+the cysts contained a cretaceous or fatty deposit, showing that
+they had probably existed several years.</p>
+
+<p>“The observations which have been made on the human
+subject, in regard to the symptoms caused by Trichinæ, show
+that they belong, as in animals, to the initial period of infection.
+They consist in intestinal and in muscular lesions; the
+latter coincide with the entrance of the parasite into the
+muscles, and are truly traumatic. In Zenker’s case the intestinal
+symptoms were swelling and pain; in a case described by
+Friedreich diarrhœa was present. In all cases the most
+remarkable symptoms were violent rheumatoid pains in the
+muscles, not in the joints, which were considerably aggravated
+by attempts to extend the half-bent limbs. The other symptoms
+have been variable, but have had a strong resemblance
+to those of typhoid fever. In several cases there has been
+abundant sweating; and in one there was a very remarkable
+miliary and furuncular eruption. The animal heat was diminished
+in Friedreich’s case; and in those observed in Voigtland
+by Freytag the temperature never exceeded 102° Fahr.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="166"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“The progress, duration, and severity of the disease in man
+are in relation to the number of Trichinæ taken into the
+digestive canal. Of sixteen patients observed at Plauen by
+Drs Böhler and Königsdörffer, eight, who were moderately
+affected, recovered in a month; four, more severely diseased,
+were ill two months; of four others, one died with ascites and
+colliquative diarrhœa at the end of two months, and three
+recovered slowly at the end of three or four months. Recovery
+does not imply the death of the Trichinæ, it follows their
+enclosure in cysts.</p>
+
+<p>“The diagnosis of trichinal infection has several times been
+made in the living human subject by removing a portion of
+muscle. M. Davaine thinks it probable that, during the first
+six or eight weeks of the disease, the diagnosis may be confirmed
+by searching for adult Trichinæ in the alvine evacuations,
+produced naturally or by means of a purgative.</p>
+
+<p>“The prophylactic treatment consists simply in the avoidance
+of uncooked meat. The medicinal treatment must vary with
+the stage of the disease. At first, attempts must be made to
+expel the parasites from the intestines by purgatives and
+anthelmintics. Which amongst the latter is the most energetic
+is not yet determined. Calomel is, perhaps, M. Davaine
+thinks, the best. After six or eight weeks all treatment
+directed towards the intestines is superfluous. It is scarcely
+probable that any substance will act on the larvæ disseminated
+through the muscles. Friedreich has recommended picronitrate
+of potash; but, in the case in which he used it, live Trichinæ
+were found in the muscular tissue after the patient was considered
+to be cured.”</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the possibility of curing trichiniasis by the
+administration of drugs which should act as trichinacides upon
+the parasites in the condition of flesh-worms, the absurdity of
+the proposal only equals that which was made in reference to
+the destruction of hydatids by the administration of kamala.
+As has been shown in the record of my first experiment the
+flesh of a trichinised corpse may be thoroughly saturated with
+a strong solution of chloride of zinc, and yet the worms will
+remain quite unaffected.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the dangers arising from the consumption of
+diseased meat, Professor Gamgee has very cogently put two
+<span class="nowrap">questions:&mdash;</span>“Did Moses know more about pigs than we do?”
+<span class="pagenum" title="167"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a></span>“Was it a knowledge of the parasitic diseases of swine and man
+that led Moses to condemn pork as human food?” Mr
+Gamgee answered both questions negatively, <span class="nowrap">thus:&mdash;</span>“The
+wisdom of the Mosaic law can only be justly estimated with a
+knowledge of the accidents arising in warm countries from
+eating pork throughout long and hot periods of the year; and
+there is no doubt that the direct evil results, as manifested by
+human sickness, led to the exclusion of pork from the list of
+Israelitish viands. The masses of measly pork which may be
+seen hanging from the butchers’ stalls in Southern Europe
+prove that the long-legged swine which hunt the forests for
+acorns, and rove about to pick up all kinds of offal, are often
+unfit for human food, and that they were so to no less extent
+in the land of Israel is probable.” As supplementing Professor
+Gamgee’s argument, I may remark that, if Moses had
+been furnished with special knowledge beyond that of his contemporaries,
+he would not, in the matter of meat-parasitism,
+have confined his restrictions to pork. Had he possessed any
+knowledge of measly beef, he would not have spared the ox on
+the ground that although “it divideth the hoof, yet it cheweth
+the cud.” As regards home-reared animals, Professor Gamgee
+cogently remarked: “It is interesting to observe that parasitic
+maladies in the pig specially abound in that section of the
+United Kingdom where swine live most amongst human beings.
+The Yorkshire and Berkshire pigs, in their native counties
+enclosed in the farmyards of their breeders, are free from worms
+which are likely to live in the body of man. The Irish pig
+is the one most commonly injured by entozoa, and the reason
+for this is evident when we know how much the cottager relies
+on rearing a porker which is permitted the free range of house
+and road, where every description of filth is devoured, charged
+with the ova of parasites expelled by man or some of the lower
+animals.” He also adds: “The conditions under which we live
+in the British isles are certainly much less favorable to the
+propagation of worms; but we disregard, in our ignorance, the
+most common precautions to protect ourselves from loathsome
+diseases, and not only permit dogs to eat any kind of offal
+in and around slaughterhouses, but sanction the existence of
+piggeries where all kinds of garbage, charged with worms or
+their eggs, are daily devoured by swine. The majority of
+germs calculated to engender parasites are to be found in
+abundance in the contents of the alimentary canal of human
+beings and domestic quadrupeds. If pigs are permitted to eat<span class="pagenum" title="168"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a></span>
+these, as in Ireland or in many British piggeries, we must
+expect hams, bacon, and pork sausages to be charged with the
+embryonic forms of human entozoa. Whereas in Iceland the
+<i>dog</i> is the victim of human negligence, and <i>en revanche</i> the
+cause of human disease, in the British isles the <i>pig</i> holds this
+unenviable position. We have good reason to believe, with
+Moses, that the pig is an unclean beast; but without discarding
+him from the scanty list of animals to be eaten, it is evident
+that we can purify the race of swine, and thus prevent human
+as well as porcine maladies.”</p>
+
+<p>On the authority of Rupprecht, as quoted by Davaine, I
+append a list of the principal epidemics observed in Germany
+during the first six years immediately following the discovery
+of trichinosis:</p>
+
+<p>1. Two slight epidemics in 1860 in the Island of Rügen;
+10 to 20 patients (Dr Landois).</p>
+
+<p>2. An epidemic at Stolberg, 1860 (Dr Fricinus). The
+number of trichinised persons was not stated with certainty.</p>
+
+<p>3. Five epidemics during five summers, 1858 to 1862, at
+Magdebourg. The number of patients was 300, two only died
+(Dr Sendler).</p>
+
+<p>4. An epidemic at Plauen in 1862, 20 patients (Böhler).</p>
+
+<p>5. Gusten, 1861, 40 cases, all cured (Fränkel).</p>
+
+<p>6. Epidemic in the Province of Armsted (Mansfeld), 1861,
+8 patients.</p>
+
+<p>7. Hettstädt, January and March, 1862, 8 to 10 patients.</p>
+
+<p>8. Blankenburg, 1862, 278 cases, 2 deaths.</p>
+
+<p>9. Calbe (Prussia), 1862, 38 cases (9 men, 25 women, 4
+children), 8 deaths (Dr Simon and Dr Herbst).</p>
+
+<p>10. Burg, in Magdebourg, 1863, 50 patients, 10 deaths
+(Dr Klusemann).</p>
+
+<p>11. Quedlinburg, 1863, 9 patients, 1 death (Dr Behrens).</p>
+
+<p>12. Plauen, 1863, 21 patients (Königsdörffer).</p>
+
+<p>13. Falkenstein, 1863, 4 patients (Drs Bascher and Pinter).</p>
+
+<p>14. Posen, August and September, 1863, 37 patients (Dr
+Samter).</p>
+
+<p>15. Hamburg, 1863, 2 patients (Dr Tüngel).</p>
+
+<p>16. Blankenburg, 1863, 32 patients, 2 deaths; new cases in
+1864 (Dr Scholz).</p>
+
+<p>17. Hettstädt (Prussian-Saxony), October, 1863, 158 patients,
+27 deaths (Rupprecht).</p>
+
+<p>18. Eisleben, December, 1863, and January, 1864, 18 cases,<span class="pagenum" title="169"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a></span>
+no deaths. This result was attributed to the employment of
+phosphoric acid (Rupprecht).</p>
+
+<p>19. Hettstädt, February and March, 1864, 8 patients, no
+deaths. Two cats were also attacked, one of which died.
+Nearly 50,000 Trichina were counted in an infected leg of pork
+(Rupprecht).</p>
+
+<p>20. Quedlinburg, 1864, 120 patients, 2 deaths; benzine was
+employed (Dr Wolf).</p>
+
+<p>21. Hettstädt, January, 1865, 15 patients (Rupprecht).</p>
+
+<p>22. Berlin, 1864, 3 cases (Dr Cronfeld). Several butcher
+boys (Frischer).</p>
+
+<p>23. Leipzig, 1864, 14 patients, 2 deaths; 4 were infested
+after having eaten raw beef hashed on a block which had
+previously received the flesh of a trichinised hog (Dr E. Wagner).</p>
+
+<p>24. Potsdam, 1864, 5 slight cases (Dr Mollendorf).</p>
+
+<p>25. Celle (Hanover), 1864, 8 patients (Dr Scheller and Dr
+Baring); Trichina proven in the pork by Gerlach. In 1855, 12
+Trichina (?) patients were treated by Schuchart.</p>
+
+<p>26. Hedersleben, 25th October, 1865, a pig was killed and
+sold; on the 28th the malady appeared amongst the workmen;
+350 patients, 100 deaths. Of 100 children infected, none died.
+Trichina found in the autopsies (Dr F. Kratz).</p>
+
+<p>Dr Davaine also adds the following outbreaks:</p>
+
+<p>In Massachusetts, 1867, 6 patients from having eaten raw
+ham, 1 death (‘Medical Times,’ 20th April, 1867, p. 431).</p>
+
+<p>Ravecchia (Bellinzona), 1868, 5 patients, 4 deaths (Dr Zangger
+in <i>Landbote</i> of Winterthur).</p>
+
+<p>Up to a comparatively recent date no case of trichinosis had
+been recognised in England during the life of the victim. As
+regards diagnosis, what was happening every day on the Continent
+was utterly unknown here. Whilst, however, not a
+single instance of Trichina-disease had been observed by British
+physicians in actual practice, as many as thirty or forty instances
+had occurred where the parasites in question had been found
+post mortem. I had myself examined the trichinised flesh
+taken from a dozen of these corpses, but in no instance had
+the faintest suspicion of trichinosis been entertained during
+life. The circumstances attending the only outbreak of trichiniasis
+that has been witnessed in England are very interesting.
+In the month of April, 1871, I received from Dr
+W. L. Dickinson, of Workington, Cumberland, specimens of
+pork which he requested me to examine; and in complying with<span class="pagenum" title="170"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a></span>
+his request I confirmed his opinion that the diseased meat was
+infested with Trichinæ. A few days afterwards I announced
+the discovery in the pages of the ‘British Medical Journal’
+for April 22, p. 435. It happened, also, that at the time
+I was delivering a course of lectures before the Society
+of Arts; consequently, in my second discourse (which was
+devoted to the parasites of cattle) I gave full details of the facts
+that were obtained. Taking a small portion of the flesh which
+I judged to be affected to an average extent I addressed the
+audience as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“If you calculate from one portion only, you might, if
+you had stumbled upon a part which was more infested with
+parasites than another, be led to over-estimate the degree
+of trichinisation. Taking proper precautions I have calculated
+that one scruple of this trichinous flesh would give us
+4320 parasites, and two scruples would therefore yield 8640.
+Without speaking so precisely to numbers, I do not hesitate
+to aver my belief that there are at least 5000 of these
+parasites inside this small piece of ham. The number is probably
+close upon 8640. In one drachm that would give us 12,000,
+and in an ounce 103,000, according to the old apothecaries’
+weight. If, however, we calculate according to the ordinary
+weight used by butchers, we should say that one ounce contains
+<span class="nowrap">437<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> grains of meat, and therefore the number of parasites in one
+ounce would be 85,000. Thus, in one ounce of meat from this
+particular pig you have 85,000 Trichinæ, calculated at the rate
+of 200 in the grain, for I have purposely cut off the odd numbers.
+You may say, if a person can survive 18, 20, 30, or 40 millions,
+he would not take much harm from eating a piece of flesh
+containing only 8640 parasites. Such a portion, however,
+would be quite sufficient to make any one of us extremely
+uncomfortable were we to eat it, for supposing its contained
+parasites to be alive, it might prove dangerous to life. Why?
+The explanation is <span class="nowrap">this:&mdash;</span>Half of those 85,000 parasites, at the
+very least, will, in forty-eight hours after ingestion, have become
+fully-developed females; and from each of these 42,000 there will
+proceed at least 1000 as a brood, so that the entire progeny
+(and it is they that do the mischief by their independent
+migrations through our tissues) will eventually yield about
+42,000,000 entozoa. If we should be so voracious as to eat a
+pound of such trichinised flesh, then there would be 400,000,000
+as the result of a single meal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="171"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“Having detailed these facts and inferences, I now wish to
+bring to your notice some other particulars connected with the
+Cumberland outbreak.</p>
+
+<p>“Dr Dickinson, of Workington, tells me that he was at first
+suspicious that his patients were suffering from fever, but was
+not quite able to make out what the disorder was. At length
+certain symptoms occurred, which suggested that it might
+possibly be the German flesh-worm epidemic making its appearance
+in this country for the first time, and, therefore, in view of
+verifying the facts of the case, he sent me portions of the flesh of
+the pig. He describes the symptoms, which in their character
+corresponded with those previously recorded as experienced by
+persons similarly attacked. Dr Dickinson remarks, towards the
+close of his communication, that the victims form a small family
+who have carefully reared their own swine. The British farmer
+is thus here introduced to us at his own table playing the part
+of ‘host’&mdash;at her own table, I should say, for, to be more precise,
+it is a widow, her daughter, and a man-servant who are
+suffering. Dr Dickinson informs me that for two or three weeks
+before he was called to see them they had been eating sausages
+and boiled pork from one of their own home-fed pigs, which
+pig, by the way, turns out to have been an old sow. He
+brought away some sections of the leaner portions of the flesh
+for microscopic examination. You will observe that there can
+be no mistake about the source of the food on this occasion.
+Hitherto, Trichina has not been observed in our British-fed
+swine in more than one or two, or possibly three instances.
+Therefore it would be very interesting to ascertain how it happened
+that this poor pig became trichinised. In my communication
+addressed to the ‘British Medical Journal,’ I wrote as
+<span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“Dr Dickinson has at the present time under his care
+a family suffering from the so-called flesh-worm disease,
+resulting from the consumption of ham prepared from pigs
+reared by the family themselves. A portion of ham sent to me
+swarmed with recently encapsuled Trichinæ. Dr Dickinson being
+thus the first person who has diagnosed trichiniasis in the living
+subject in England, I hope he may be induced to give us further
+particulars.” The editor, in commenting upon this letter,
+added a practical point, which I wish especially to bring to your
+notice. He <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>‘The subject of parasitic diseases of
+domestic animals is one of widespread and increasing interest.<span class="pagenum" title="172"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a></span>
+It is immediately related to the irrigation of fields with
+sewage.’ The editor, of course, made this statement on
+independent grounds, and on his own responsibility. If
+he had said the subject bears an indirect relation to the
+sewage question, he would have said no more than is absolutely
+true, for, as I shall take occasion to explain, there is
+every reason to suppose that certain forms of parasitic disease
+may be propagated by means of sewage. In this connection
+some of you may be disposed to ask the <span class="nowrap">question:&mdash;</span>‘Are there
+any sources of comfort to be gathered from the facts?’ Or
+you may say, supposing that in future our British swine are not
+as free from Trichinæ as they have been hitherto, can we possibly
+avoid the contingency of playing the part of host to those creatures?
+Certainly, I reply, it is simply a question of properly cooking
+the food. If these farmers have not cooked their food at all,
+or scarcely at all, that will at once account for their being laid up.
+I should tell you that the lady and the daughter are recovering,
+and that they are convalescent, but the man-servant is very ill.
+If, during cooking, the flesh consumed by these persons had
+been raised to a persistent temperature of 170° Fahr., then,
+doubtless, the ingestion of trichinised pork would have done
+no harm. You observe that Dr Dickinson says in his letter
+that they partook of it roasted and boiled. Now, few of us are
+in the habit of eating underdone pork, although there are other
+meats that we devour very readily in an imperfectly cooked
+state. It must be remembered, also, that although the exterior
+may have been subjected to a temperature of 212 degrees, it by
+no means follows that the whole of the joint throughout must
+have been submitted to that temperature. Under rapid cooking,
+the centre of a large joint may remain much below even 140
+degrees. If the man-servant ate only one ounce of the flesh
+with living Trichinæ in it, he will probably have at this present
+moment at least 42,000,000 of these guests in his muscles.
+You will ask, ‘Will he recover?’ ‘Yes; if he ate no more than
+that.’ If he has eaten 2&nbsp;oz. thoroughly underdone, depend
+upon it he has 80,000,000, and if he has eaten 3&nbsp;oz. he will have
+over 100,000,000 of Trichinæ in his muscles. Could he survive
+if he had eaten over 3&nbsp;oz., and thus have 100,000,000 and
+upwards of these inhabitants? I think he could. We have
+evidence on this point from the case in which I estimated that
+there were upwards of 100,000,000 of Trichinæ present, and yet
+the man survived the attack.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="173"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“Incidentally I may remark that in the course of the last
+twenty years, although millions of parasites and their eggs have
+passed through my hands, I have almost entirely escaped infection.
+It is something to know what you are either handling
+or looking at, because there are many parasites besides Trichina
+which are dangerous. There are gregariniform entozoa
+residing in meat which we eat every day without any bad
+consequences. They are as harmless as cheese-mites. There
+is no need to be in the slightest degree nervous about flesh-food,
+provided it is properly cooked. I believe there will be
+no fatal issue in the case of any of the three individuals just
+alluded to, but the chief practical point before us arises out of
+the fact that we have here, for the first time in England, an
+epidemic of trichiniasis. By calling attention to the subject, it
+will, to say the least, suggest precautions by which future
+epidemics may be avoided.”</p>
+
+<p>The above remarks form the substance of a lecture given
+on the 24th of April, 1871. A week later I delivered the third
+of the Cantor lectures for that year, when I took occasion to
+add the following particulars:</p>
+
+<p>“It has been asked whether the so-called muscle-Trichinæ,
+after they have arrived at their destination within the flesh of
+man, are capable of producing any more unfavorable consequences?
+The answer is, Certainly not. In the case of man
+it would be necessary that his muscles should be eaten in
+order for the Trichinæ to become sexually-mature worms;
+and in those countries where cannibalism exists, the man-eater
+would himself become trichinised, and would certainly
+deserve his fate. I was very desirous to follow up the
+account of this outbreak by inquiries respecting the particular
+animal which had been the cause of the outbreak. I may
+therefore mention that my informant, Dr Dickinson, states
+that the family, including the man-servant, all fed together, and
+that they had for upwards of a fortnight eaten daily, and sometimes
+twice a day, sausages made from the flesh of the trichinised
+animal. And he adds: The meat cut from the ham and
+flitches, and what is called the spare-rib, was roasted before
+the fire or in the frying-pan. Occasionally it was cooked in
+the oven. Dr Dickinson ascertained from the mother that she
+liked her meat to be underdone, and thus, therefore, there is
+very little doubt that the meat was generally undercooked.
+The man, a strong labourer, had a good appetite, and would<span class="pagenum" title="174"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a></span>
+therefore get a large share. He is improving slowly. Dr
+Dickinson adds in a postscript, what is still more to the point,
+that the sausages would be most likely undercooked; they
+would be cooked in the frying-pan, and if only brown on the
+outside would be eaten. It is probable that the outbreak was
+due therefore to eating underdone meat from this pig, cooked
+in various ways, and not alone from the ham itself.”</p>
+
+<p>If the facts connected with this outbreak be honestly faced,
+it must be rendered clear to any unprejudiced observer that
+Dr W. Lindow Dickinson was the first person to observe,
+recognise, and treat the Trichina disorder in this country. No
+other English, Scotch, or Irish physician has encountered any
+similar case. If I lay stress upon this fact it is because I
+have learned from Dr Dickinson that another person has
+asserted priority in this relation. Sir Dominic Corrigan is
+stated to have told a gentleman in the House of Commons,
+“that he had often met with trichiniasis in his practice in
+Dublin,” further averring that the disease “was quite common
+in many parts of Ireland.” If Sir D. Corrigan merely desired
+it to be understood that he had repeatedly encountered the
+Trichina at post-mortem examinations, then there is nothing
+surprising in his statement, but if, on the other hand, the disease
+itself has been frequently recognised in the living Irish
+human subject, one can only express astonishment that hitherto
+no single instance of the kind appears to have been recorded
+either in the public or professional journals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_21"></a>No. 21).&mdash;<i>English Literature.</i>&mdash;<i>Allman, G. J.</i>,
+“Exhib. of Specimens,” ‘Micr. Jrn. and Structural Record,’
+1842, p. 94.&mdash;<i>Althaus, J.</i>, ‘Essay on Trichinosis,’ London, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On a Suspected Case,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1864,
+p. 161; see also pp. 362 and 390.&mdash;<i>Atwood</i>, see <i>Belfield</i>.&mdash;<i>Ballard,
+E.</i>, “On Diseased Meat,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Belfield</i>
+(with <i>Atwood</i>), “Trichinæ in Pork;” ‘New York Med. Rec.,’
+Dec. 28, 1878; ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Feb. 15, and ‘Lancet,’
+Feb. 22, 1879.&mdash;<i>Bellingham, O. B.</i>, ‘Dublin Med. Press,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Bowditch,
+H. J.</i>, “Cases of Trichina,” ‘Boston Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1842&ndash;43&ndash;44.&mdash;<i>Bristowe, J. S.</i> (and <i>Rainey</i>), ‘Trans.
+Path. Soc.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Chevers, N.</i>, “Sanitary Efforts in regard to
+Trichiniasis,” ‘Lancet,’ 1864, vol. ii, p. 733.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, “On
+the Discovery of Trichina, in relation to the question of Priority,”
+‘Lancet’ for March 3, 1866, p. 244.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Parasites, and the
+part they play in the Economy of Nature’ (lecture), Manchester,<span class="pagenum" title="175"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a></span>
+1873, p. 46; also in the ‘Veterinarian,’ March, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+Remarks in the ‘Journ. Soc. of Arts,’ 1866, p. 399; also in
+‘Med. Times. and Gaz.,’ 1867, p. 24; also in ‘Lancet,’ Feb.,
+1864 and 1866, p. 538.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Our Food-producing Ruminants
+and the Parasites which reside in them’ (Cantor Lectures),
+1871.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Experiments with Trichina,” ‘Proceed. Linn.
+Soc.,’ vol. ix, p. 205, 1867; see ‘Lancet’ for Jan. 13, 1866,
+p. 52; ‘Brit. Med. Journ.’ for Dec. 22, 1866, p. 713; also
+‘Lancet’ for Jan. 9, 1867, p. 91.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Worms” (l. c.,
+Bibliog. No. 2, Lecture xviii), 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Outbreak of
+Trichinosis in England,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1871, p. 435.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Trichinæ in Fish” (alleged to have been found in a pike
+by Dr Elendenen at Ostend), in the ‘Lancet’ (anonymous
+annotation) for Nov. 16, 1878.&mdash;<i>Curling, T. B.</i>, two cases,
+‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1836.&mdash;<i>Davaine, C.</i>, quoted in ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ see foreign lit., below.&mdash;<i>Delpech</i>, abstr. of his Report,
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 375.&mdash;<i>Dickinson, W. L.</i>, ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1871.&mdash;<i>Elendenen</i>, “Trichinæ in Fish” (newspaper
+report respecting his “find”); see Cobbold, above.&mdash;<i>Farre, A.</i>,
+“Observations,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1835&ndash;36.&mdash;<i>Friedreich, N.</i>
+(trans. by Ogle), ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1863, repr. in ‘Edin.
+Vet. Rev.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Furstenburg</i>, ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1864, p. 513.&mdash;<i>Gordon</i>
+(see Chevers).&mdash;<i>Gamgee, J.</i>, “On Diseased Meat,”
+‘Pop. Sci. Rev.,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Goodsir, J.</i>, ‘Month. Journ. Med. Sci.,’
+1842.&mdash;<i>Harr</i>, ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 532.&mdash;<i>Harrison</i>,
+“On a peculiar Species of Entozoon occasionally found
+in the Voluntary Muscles of the Human Subject,” ‘Rep. of Brit.
+Assoc.,’ Aug. 12, 1835; in ‘Dub. Journ.,’ vol. viii, 1835&ndash;36;
+in ‘Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag.,’ and in ‘Amer. Journ. Med.
+Sci.,’ vol. xviii, p. 187, 1836.&mdash;<i>Herbst</i>, “Trichinæ in the
+Badger,” ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ 1853, p. 491.&mdash;<i>Hilton, J.</i>, “Notes
+on a peculiar appearance observed in Human Muscle, probably
+depending upon the formation of very small Cysticerci,” ‘Lond.
+Med. Gaz.,’ vol. xi, p. 605, 1833.&mdash;<i>Jackson, J. D.</i>, “Trichiniasis,”
+in ‘Hay’s Amer. Journ.,’ 1867, p. 82.&mdash;<i>Kiefer, H.</i>, cases,
+‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 208.&mdash;<i>Kobelt</i>, ‘Micr.
+Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ 1842, p. 147.&mdash;<i>Kratz</i>, “On the Hedersleben
+Epidemic,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 76.&mdash;<i>Krombein</i>,
+“Trichiniasis in New York,” ‘Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1864,
+and ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1864, p. 292.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister, F.</i>,
+Symptoms, &amp;c., ‘Lond. Med. Rev.,’ 1860, p. 457.&mdash;<i>Langenbeck</i>,
+case, ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Feb., 1864.&mdash;<i>Leidy, J.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="176"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a></span>“Trichina in
+the Pig,” ‘Annals of Nat. Hist.,’ and ‘Pr. Ac. N. S. Philad.,’
+1847.&mdash;<i>Leuckart, R.</i> (translations from), in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+1860; in ‘Qrt. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1860; and in ‘Bost. Med.
+and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. liii, p. 198, 1860&ndash;61.&mdash;<i>Liveing, R.</i>, “Path.
+Soc. Rep.” in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1865, p. 374.&mdash;<i>Mosler</i>,
+“On Trichinous Flesh,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1864, p. 554.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Benzine in Trichinosis,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Oct.,
+1864, p. 444.&mdash;<i>Nunneley, T.</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1866, p. 252.&mdash;<i>Owen,
+R.</i>, “Description of a Microscopic Entozoon infesting
+the Muscles of the Human Body,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ and ‘Lond.
+Med. Gaz.,’ 1835; ‘Trans. Zool. Soc.,’ vol. i, 1835.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+Remarks in ‘Journ. Soc. of Arts,’ 1866, p. 399.&mdash;<i>Paget, J.</i>,
+“Letter relating to the Discovery of Trichina,” ‘Lancet,’ March,
+1866, p. 269.&mdash;<i>Rorie, J.</i>, Letter, ‘Lancet,’ Feb., 1864.&mdash;<i>Salisbury,
+J. H.</i>, On a supposed Species of Trichina (<i>T. cystica</i>) from
+the Human Bladder; in his paper on “Parasitic Forms,” in
+‘Hay’s Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1868, p. 376.&mdash;<i>Sanders, R.</i>,
+‘Edin. Month. Journ.,’ 1853.&mdash;<i>Sawer, A.</i>, ‘Bost. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1865, p. 16.&mdash;<i>Sutton, G.</i>, Report on Trichinosis;
+Indiana, U.S., 1874.&mdash;<i>Thudichum, J. W. S.</i>, ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ Jan., 1864, repr. in ‘Glasgow Med. Journ.,’ April, 1864,
+p. 116; also letter in ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ Feb., 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Rep. on the Parasitic Diseases of Quadrupeds used
+as Food,” pub. by the Med. Officer of the Privy Council,
+London, 1865.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The Diseases of Meat as affecting
+the Health of the People,” ‘Journ. Soc. of Arts,’ April 20,
+1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “German Sausages and the Trichina Disease,”
+‘Scientific Opinion’ for April 25, 1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Lancet’ for
+Jan. 6, 1866, p. 16.&mdash;<i>Turner, W.</i>, “On the <i>Trichina spiralis</i>,”
+‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ Sept., 1860; in the ‘Year-Book,’
+p. 109, for 1860; in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1862; and in ‘Bost.
+M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lxiii, p. 294.&mdash;<i>Ude</i>, “Rep. on the
+Inspection of Pigs,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Aug., 1868, p. 141.&mdash;<i>Valentin</i>,
+‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ 1842, p. 87.&mdash;<i>Virchow,
+R.</i>, Extr. from his brochure on ‘<i>Trichina</i>’ (by myself),
+in ‘Gunther’s Record’ for 1864, p. 611.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Cure
+of Trichinosis,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ April, 1866, p. 368.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+from “Comptes Rendus,” in ‘Qrt. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+from his ‘Archiv,’ 1860, Bd. xviii, Heft. 4, p. 330; in
+‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ vol. xxvi, p. 515, 1860.&mdash;<i>Wedl</i>,
+Report, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Dec., 1866, p. 618.&mdash;<i>Wilks,
+S.</i>, “Letter respecting the Discovery of Trichina,” <span class="pagenum" title="177"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a></span>‘Lancet,’
+March 10, 1866, p. 269; see also the ‘Times,’ Feb. 13, 1866.&mdash;<i>Windsor,
+J.</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ March 4, 1866, p. 319.&mdash;<i>Wood,
+H.</i>, case, ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1835.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foreign Literature</i>:&mdash;<i>Ardenghi, E.</i>, “Sulla <i>Trichina spiralis</i>,”
+‘Lo Studente Veterinario,’ 1876, p. 115.&mdash;<i>Behrens</i>, “Ein Fall
+von Trichiniasis,” ‘Deutsche Klinik,’ No. 30, 1863 (quoted by
+Davaine).&mdash;<i>Bette, F.</i>, <i>ibid.</i>, 1876.&mdash;<i>Bischoff</i>, ‘Path. Anat. des
+menschl. Körp.,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Med. Annalen,’ 1840.&mdash;<i>Böhler</i>,
+‘Die Trichinenkrankheit in Planen,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Boudin</i>, “Des
+épidémies de Trichina spiralis observées en Allemagne dans ces
+dernières années,” ‘Journ. de Méd. Vét. Milit.,’ August and
+September, 1864 (quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Claus</i>, ‘Wurzb. nat.
+Zeitschr.,’ 1860.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Ueber die Trichine’ (a discourse),
+1877.&mdash;<i>Colberg</i>, ‘Deutsche Klinik,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Davaine, C.</i>, ‘Traité’
+(l. c., Bibl. No. 1), 1860, p. 672, 2nd edit., p 732&ndash;768.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Faits et Considerations sur la Trichine,” ‘Mémoires de la
+Société de Biologie’ for the year 1862, tom. iv, ser. 3, 1863;
+in ‘Gazette Médicale de Paris,’ 1863; in ‘British Medical
+Journal’ for April 25, 1863; and in my ‘Entozoa,’ p. 349.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“La Trichine” (popular exposition), in ‘Revue des
+Deux Mondes’ for May, 1865.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i> (l. c., Bibl.
+No. 1), p. 24.&mdash;<i>Fiedler</i>, ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Fleckles,
+F.</i>, ‘Die Trichinen und die Trichinenkrankheit’ (popular
+exposition), Prag., 1866 (quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Friedrich,
+N.</i>, ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Fürstenberg</i>, “Wochenblatt
+d. Ann. der Landwirthsch., in d. Königl. Preuss. Staaten,”
+1865.&mdash;<i>Gerlach, C.</i>, ‘Die Trichinen,’ 1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Hannöversche
+Zeitschrift,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Hagen</i>, in ‘Pharmaceutische
+Centralhalle,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Henle</i>, ‘Muller’s Archiv,’ 1835, s. 526.&mdash;<i>Herbst</i>,
+‘Nachrichten v. d. Georg-Aug. Univ. zu Göttingen,’
+1852; ‘L’Institut,’ 1852, p. 135.&mdash;<i>Heschl, R. L.</i>, ‘Ueber
+Trichinen, die Trichinenkrankheit und die Schützmassregeln
+dagegen,’ Gratz, 1866 (quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Kestner</i>, “Etude
+sur le Trichina,” ‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Klusemann</i>,
+“Die Erkrankung durch den Genuss von Nahrungsmittel aus
+dem Thierreiche,” ‘Deutsche Klinik,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Kobelt</i>, ‘Valentin’s
+Repertorium,’ 1841.&mdash;<i>Krabbe</i>, “Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,”
+‘Tiddsskrift for Vet.,’ 1872.&mdash;<i>Kratz</i>, ‘Die Trichinenepidemie
+zu Hedersleben,’ 1866.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, ‘Parasiten,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>,
+‘Untersuchungen ueber <i>Trichina spiralis</i>,’ 1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Die mensch. Par.,’ Bd. ii, s. 409.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Die
+neuesten Entdeckungen ueber menschliche Eingeweidewürmer<span class="pagenum" title="178"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a></span>
+und deren Bedeutung für die Gesundheitspflege,” ‘Unsere
+Zeit.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Lion</i>, ‘Zur Geschichte, Therapie, Prophylaxis,
+und Sanitätspolizei der Trichinen’ (quoted by Pagenstecher).&mdash;<i>Luschka</i>,
+“Zur Naturgeschichte der <i>Trichina spiralis</i>,” ‘Zeitschr.
+für wissenschaftl. Zool.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Meissner</i>, ‘Zeitschr. f. rat.
+Med.,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Ueber Trichinenkrankheit,” ‘Schmidt’s
+Jahrbücher,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Ordonez, E. L.</i>, ‘Note sur la Distinction
+des Sexes et le Développement de la Trichina spiralis des
+Muscles,’ Paris, 1863; and ‘Compt. Rend. Soc. Biologie,’ p. 61,
+1863 (quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Pagenstecher</i>, ‘Verhandl. d. Naturhist.-Med.
+Vereins zu Heidelberg,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (und <i>Fuchs</i>),
+‘Die Trichinen,’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Perroncito</i>, “La <i>Trichina spiralis</i>” in
+‘Italia. Estr. degli Annali R. Accad. d’Agric. di Torino,’ vol. xx,
+1877.&mdash;<i>Reyher, O.</i>, ‘Die Trichinenkrankheit,’ Leipzig, 1862.&mdash;<i>Rodet,
+H.</i>, ‘De la Trichine et de la Trichinose,’ Paris, 1865
+(quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Rupprecht, B.</i>, ‘Die Trichinenkrankheit
+im Spiegel der Hettstedter Endemie betrachtet,’ Hettstedt,
+1864.&mdash;<i>Seidel</i>, ‘Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Med. u. Nat.’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Siebert</i>,
+‘Ueber die Trichinenkrankheit und ihre Vermeidung,’
+Jena, 1863.&mdash;<i>Siebold</i>, art. “Parasiten,” ‘Wagner’s Handwörterbuch,’
+1844.&mdash;<i>Simon, G.</i>, “Eine Trichinen-epidemic in
+Calbe,” ‘Preussische Medicinal Zeitung,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Tommasi</i>,
+‘La Trichina spiralis e la Malattia prodotta da esso,’ Torino,
+1863.&mdash;<i>Tüngel</i>, ‘Archiv von Virchow,’ xxvii, 3, 421, 1863
+(quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Virchow</i>, ‘Deutsche Klinik,’ 1859;
+‘Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des Sci.,’ tom. xlix.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Archiv f. Path. Anat. und Physiol.,’ Bd. xviii.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Darstellung
+der Lehre von den Trichinen’ (fur Laien und
+Aerzte), 1864.&mdash;<i>Vogel</i>, ‘Die Trichinenkrankheit,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Wagner</i>,
+“Eine Trichinenepidemie in Leipzig,” ‘Arch. der Heilkunde,’
+1864.&mdash;<i>Wunderlich, C. A.</i>, “Sur la diagnose probable
+de l’affection trichinale,” ‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’ p. 311, 1863;
+from ‘Wagner’s Archiv der Heilkunde,’ ii, 3, p. 269,
+Leipzig, 1861 (quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Zenker</i>, “Zur Lehre
+von der Trichinenkrankheit,” ‘Deutsches Archiv. für Klin.
+Med.,’ Bd. viii, s. 387.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ 1855 and
+1860.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trichocephalus dispar</i>, Rudolphi.&mdash;This well-known worm
+possesses a long filiform neck, occupying about two thirds of the
+entire length of the body. The surface of the skin though
+smooth to the naked eye is furnished on one side with a longitudinal
+band of minute wart-like papillæ. The tail of the male<span class="pagenum" title="179"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a></span>
+is curved, and emits at the extremity a short, tubular penis-sheath,
+armed with minute retroverted spines. The tail of the
+female is straight and bluntly pointed. The eggs measure <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">480</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">447</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in their long diameter. The whipworm infests the
+cæcum, and also the upper part of the colon. Upwards of one
+thousand were found by Rudolphi in a woman.</p>
+
+<p>The original name of <i>Trichuris</i>, given to this worm by
+Buttner, could not, of course, be allowed to stand when it
+became evident that the so-called tail was in reality the head
+and neck. The <i>Trichocephalus</i> is not uncommon in England
+and Ireland. It is less frequent in Scotland. On the
+continent, however, it is so abundant that M. Davaine calculates
+that not less than one half of the inhabitants of Paris are
+infested by it. From what Dujardin has said it can be
+scarcely less abundant in Northern France, for M. Duval, the
+distinguished director of the Rennes School of Medicine,
+supplied that helminthologist with numerous specimens on
+various occasions. The worm abounds in Italy and Egypt;
+being scarcely less prevalent in the United States. The
+lamented Mr Noel, one of my old pupils at the Middlesex
+Hospital College, brought me specimens which he found post-mortem
+on three or four occasions. Dr Haldane, of Edinburgh,
+once or twice obtained large numbers (post-mortem). In
+Ireland, Bellingham found the worm in eighty-one out of ninety
+post-mortem examinations. Mr Cooper, of Greenwich, met
+with it, post-mortem, in eleven out of sixteen instances. When
+treating patients for tapeworm I have repeatedly expelled the
+whipworm.</p>
+
+<p>The organisation of <i>Trichocephalus dispar</i> has been investigated
+by Dujardin, Mayer, Von Siebold, Eberth, Bastian, and
+others. Prof. Erasmus Wilson and myself have carefully
+studied the anatomy of the closely-allied whipworm of ruminants
+(<i>T. affinis</i>) which is discussed in my ‘Entozoa.’</p>
+
+<p>The statement of Küchenmeister that there are no external
+appendages in the female <i>Trichocephalus</i> comparable to those
+known to exist in the allied <i>Trichosomata</i>, is incorrect. Leuckart’s,
+and especially Virchow’s, researches disproved Küchenmeister’s
+and Meissner’s notion that <i>Trichinæ</i> were the young
+of <i>Trichocephalus</i>. The experiments of Davaine render it
+probable that the young get into the human body in a direct
+manner. He finds that the eggs undergo no development
+whilst yet lodged within the host’s intestines. The eggs are<span class="pagenum" title="180"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a></span>
+expelled per anum in the immature condition in which they first
+escape from the body of the parent worm. It further appears
+that, after their expulsion, a period of six months must elapse
+before embryonic formation commences. The fully-developed
+embryo measures <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">333</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, and resembles the parent to a
+certain extent.</p>
+
+<p>Whipworms rarely put their bearers to inconvenience; nevertheless,
+both human and animal hosts occasionally suffer from
+their presence. Thus, Felix Pascal quotes a remarkable and
+fatal instance of cerebral symptoms from this cause in a girl of
+four years of age; and Mr Gibson has recorded an instance in
+which these worms produced paralysis and loss of speech.
+According to Professor Axe, sheep suffer severely from the
+allied species.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_22"></a>No. 22).&mdash;<i>Bastian, H. C.</i>, “On the Anatomy
+of the Nematoids,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1866, p. 545.&mdash;<i>Bellingham,
+O. B.</i>, “On the frequency of <i>Trichocephalus dispar</i> in the
+Human Intestines,” ‘Rep. of Brit. Assoc., in Dubl. Journ.,’
+1838, and in ‘Med. Chir. Rev.,’ 1838; see also Bibliog. No. 33
+(and the biography of Bellingham by Dr Mapother, in ‘Dubl.
+Jrn. Med. Sci.,’ 1877, p. 471).&mdash;<i>Busk, G.</i>, “Anat. of <i>T. dispar</i>,”
+‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. vii, 1841.&mdash;<i>Chiaje</i>, sul <i>Tricocephalo
+disparo</i>, &amp;c., 1836.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ pp. 69 and 329.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Worms,’ pp. 31 and 67.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, l. c., p. 205.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1858, p. 1217, and ‘Journ. de Physiol.,’ 1859,
+p. 296.&mdash;<i>Dubini</i>, ‘Entozoografia umana,’ p. 83.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>, l. c.,
+p. 32.&mdash;<i>Eberth</i>, “Die Generationsorgane von <i>T. dispar</i>,”
+‘Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschr.,’ 1860, s. 384.&mdash;<i>Gibson, D.</i>, “On a
+Case of Paralysis, with loss of speech, from intestinal irritation
+(produced by <i>T. dispar</i>),” ‘Lancet,’ Aug. 9th, 1862, p.
+139.&mdash;<i>Goeze</i>, ‘Naturg.,’ s. 112.&mdash;<i>Gurlt</i>, ‘Path. Anat.,’ p. 350.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>,
+l. c., s. 235; Eng. edit., p. 321.&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>, ‘Proc.
+Acad. Phil.,’ viii, p. 53.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., s. 465.&mdash;<i>Mayer</i>, Sieb.
+und Köll. ‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,’ Bd. ix, s. 367; Bd. x, s. 233,
+and s. 383, 1858&ndash;60.&mdash;<i>Mérat</i>, ‘Dict. Sc. Méd.,’ p. 560.&mdash;<i>Von
+Siebold</i>, ‘Wiegm. Arch.,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Wilson, E.</i>, ‘The Veterinary
+Record and Trans.,’ vol. ii, p. 47, 1846.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>, Cobbold.&mdash;The history of the discovery of
+this entozoon is second only in interest to that of <i>Trichina
+spiralis</i>. Step by step the facts have been evolved by a slow
+process of observation, and from the data thus afforded a tolerably
+connected narrative of the probable life-cycle of this<span class="pagenum" title="181"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a></span>
+entozoon may now be offered. To place matters beyond all doubt
+much remains to be done; yet that which has been accomplished
+is, or ought to be, of surpassing interest alike to the physician,
+the scientific pathologist, the epidemiologist, and the philosophic
+naturalist. In the case of Trichina, Owen’s nomenclature
+was most properly allowed to stand; but for reasons stated
+below I have not hesitated to employ for this worm, in its
+adult state, a name differing from that originally given to the
+hæmatozoon which turns out to be its representative larval
+state. Although the male parasite is at present unknown, the
+following characters will in the meantime suffice for a diagnosis
+of the <span class="nowrap">species:&mdash;</span>Body capillary, smooth, uniform in thickness.
+Head with a simple circular mouth, destitute of papillæ. Neck
+narrow, about one third of the width of the body. Tail of
+female simple, bluntly pointed; reproductive outlet close to the
+head; anus immediately above the tip of the tail. Length of
+largest females, <span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span>&nbsp;in.;</span> breadth, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">90</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>; embryos, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">200</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">125</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+length, by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth; eggs, averaging <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1650</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+from pole to pole.</p>
+
+<p>The first discovery of this entozoon, in its embryo state, was
+made by Wucherer on the 4th of August, 1866. To use Dr
+Da Silva Lima’s <span class="nowrap">words:&mdash;</span>“At the moment when Wucherer
+was seeking for the <i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>, he found instead of it
+an unknown worm. Our illustrious collaborator,” adds Dr
+Lima, “has made his important discovery known under the
+modest title of ‘Preliminary Notice on a species of Worm at
+present not described;’ and still more modestly Wucherer formulated
+in the following manner his judicious and prudent
+<span class="nowrap">conclusions:&mdash;</span>It would be rash on my part to put forth a conjecture
+on the coexistence of these worms of the hæmatochyluria,
+and on the etiological signification which they might
+have. I shall therefore abstain until I have been able to make
+more ample investigations, and until I have been permitted
+to examine the corpse of a hæmaturic, which has not yet
+been possible.” (‘Gazeta Medica da Bahia,’ Dec., 1868,
+p. 99.)</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1868 Dr J. H. Salisbury referred certain ova
+which he found in the urine to a new and distinct species of
+nematode. Although he had no acquaintance with the adult
+parasite, Dr Salisbury at once placed the “species” in the
+genus Trichina. Here is what he <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“<i>Trichina cystica</i>
+(Salisbury).&mdash;This is a small species which I have found in the<span class="pagenum" title="182"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a></span>
+human bladder. In all my examinations I have met with this
+little entozoon in three cases only. In two of these it was
+only occasionally met with in the urine. In the other it
+occurred in great numbers. Frequently from ten to fifteen ova
+were found in a single drop of urine.”</p>
+
+<p>It is important to remark, that there was no hæmaturia in
+the last-named case, which Dr Salisbury describes as one of
+“cystinic rheumatism,” or “severe cystinæmia associated with
+rheumatism and paralysis.” The patient “had been insane for
+several years. Her urine was passed milky, with granular
+cystine, and was dense and scanty.” It is likewise added:
+“No examination was made of the muscles after death to
+determine whether this species burrowed in the tissue, like the
+(<i>Trichina</i>) <i>spiralis</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>So much for the principal facts recorded by Dr Salisbury.
+His paper is accompanied by two woodcut figures of the ova
+(×&nbsp;300 diam.), and one representation of the embryo (×&nbsp;1000
+diam.). If these figures give the size correctly, the ova measure
+only about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">800</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1560</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth, whilst the
+embryo would be about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from head to tail.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 140px;">
+<img src="images/f38.jpg" width="140" height="168" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Group of eggs and
+embryos in a case of endemic
+hæmaturia (1870). Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 17th of May, 1872, I communicated to the Metropolitan
+Counties Branch of the British Medical Association a
+paper on ‘<i>Bilharzia</i>,’ and in an Appendix to it I wrote as
+<span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“A most interesting circumstance connected with
+this case of ‘<i>Bilharzia</i>’ from Natal lies in the fact that I
+obtained from the patient some other urinary parasites in the
+egg-condition (fig. 38). On five separate occasions I obtained
+one or more specimens of the eggs or embryos of a minute
+nematode. In one instance there were about fifty of these ova
+in the urine, their contained embryos being well developed and
+in a state of activity. Usually they were all in this advanced
+condition; but on the 25th of July, 1870, several were observed
+in much earlier stages of development. One of these was of a
+triangular form; its shape, granular contents, and clearly
+defined limiting membrane, indicating separation from the
+rachis within the ovarian tube. Another early form was perfectly
+spherical, with a well marked chorional envelope and
+double contour. These forms measured about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">750</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter.
+The fully grown eggs observed at the same time gave a
+longitudinal measurement of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth. On
+adding any stimulus, such as diluted sulphuric acid, the embryos
+moved themselves freely within the egg. After allowing the<span class="pagenum" title="183"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a></span>
+urine to stand for forty-eight hours, I found, on the 27th of
+July, that the shells of the ripe ova had
+dissolved, leaving the embryos dead, but
+still coiled within a fine transparent envelope.
+In this state they were easily
+separated and examined, when they gave
+a measurement of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">300</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth. On two occasions, whilst
+engaged in rearing the larvæ of <i>Bilharzia</i>
+in water, I noticed single specimens
+of these embryos lying dead;
+and one of the examples thus observed
+gave a length of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">150</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+breadth.”</p>
+
+<p>Knowing what errors of interpretation have often crept into
+helminthological literature I was more than usually cautious in
+pronouncing upon the source of these urinary parasites. Accordingly,
+I remarked that “future discoveries might enable us
+to identify the species of nematode to which these ova are
+referable.” I also <span class="nowrap">added:&mdash;</span>“Notwithstanding discrepancies as
+to size, I am inclined to think that Dr Salisbury and myself
+have been made acquainted with nematode eggs and embryos
+referable to one and the same species of parasite. I do not
+care to speculate as to the origin of these ova. Long ago I
+gave in my adhesion to the determinations of Schneider in
+respect of the so-called <i>Spiroptera hominis</i>, but I am by no
+means certain that his position may not be disturbed by fresh
+discoveries. It is not a little remarkable that the parents of my
+patient should have averred that she passed three small vermiform
+entozoa by the urethra, corresponding, to judge from their
+verbal statements, very closely with the ordinary appearances of
+<i>Filaria piscium</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>Having written thus much seven years back, it is with natural
+pleasure that I find my anticipations already verified. Knowing
+that I was dealing with parasites in their earliest larval stages,
+it never occurred to me to give a specific name to them, and I
+could not possibly approve of Dr Salisbury’s nomenclature, for
+which there was no good ground.</p>
+
+<p>In the original discovery Dr O. Wucherer procured the worms
+from the chylous urine of a female in the Misericordia Hospital
+at Bahia; and on the 9th of the following October, 1866, he
+obtained similar worms from another female suffering from<span class="pagenum" title="184"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a></span>
+hæmaturia. He also afterwards found them in a man whose urine
+was slightly chylous, but not hæmatic. In all cases these
+sexually-immature nematodes were alive. In September, 1872,
+Dr A. Corre furnished a careful description of similar worms
+found by Dr Crévaux in a hæmato-chylurous patient at Guadeloupe.
+Dr Crévaux frequently examined the blood of this
+patient but found no hæmatozoa. In like manner in Brazil,
+Dr J. Silva Lima sought in vain for worms in the blood of no
+less than five patients, all of whom suffered from hæmaturia,
+and whose urine contained numerous nematoid worms.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the year 1872 the biological world was
+startled by the announcement of the discovery of minute Filariæ
+in human blood. Dr T. R. Lewis had found microscopic worms
+in the blood, and also in the urine, of persons suffering from
+chyluria. The worms could be obtained from day to day by
+simply pricking any portion of the body with a finely pointed
+needle. To this hæmatozoon Lewis gave the trinomial term
+<i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>, which thus fitly distinguished it from
+the <i>Filaria papillosa hæmatica canis domestici</i> described by
+Grube and Delafond. Dr Lewis found the average size of the
+parasite to be <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">75</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth. He observed
+that while it exists in the blood the body is enclosed in a
+delicate transparent tunic or cyst. The worm was never absent
+from urine in chyluria. In a case in which there was a milky
+discharge from the eyes the worms were also detected. In one
+case Lewis calculated that 140,000 Filariæ were present in the
+blood&mdash;a number certainly not relatively large seeing that MM.
+Grube and Delafond estimated the verminiferous blood of their
+several dogs to contain numbers varying from 11,000 to 224,000.
+Lewis also found Filariæ in the kidneys and supra-renal
+capsules of a woman who died of chyluria. It did not appear
+probable that the worms underwent further development in the
+human body. On this point Lewis <span class="nowrap">remarks:&mdash;</span>“Not only may
+those hæmatozoa found in man live for a period of more than
+three years, but there is no evidence that they have any
+tendency to develop beyond a certain stage as long as they
+remain in the circulation.” Dr Lewis judged that the form of
+chyluria associated with this condition of the blood was local
+and intimately related with a tropical climate. The milky
+condition of the urine comes on suddenly, not only at first, but
+on succeeding occasions also. It is frequently accompanied by
+more or less distinctly marked symptoms of various other<span class="pagenum" title="185"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a></span>
+obscure diseases, including temporary swellings in the face or
+extremities. From certain appearances of intestinal ulceration
+Lewis thought that the parasites might gain access to the
+system by the alimentary canal, possibly from the tank-water
+or the fish inhabiting it. He considered the state of the urine
+to be due to the mechanical interruption offered to the flow of
+the nutritive fluids of the body. The accidental aggregation of
+the Hæmatozoa might give rise to obstruction of the currents
+within the various channels, or occasion rupture of their
+extremely delicate walls, and thus cause the contents of the
+lacteals, lymphatics, or capillaries, to escape into the most
+conveniently placed excretory channel.</p>
+
+<p>Compressed into a small compass, I think the above is a
+fair statement of the leading facts and phenomena discovered
+by Lewis. The whole subject of hæmatozoology immediately
+received additional impulse, the consequences of which have not
+yet terminated. In this country Welch was stimulated to
+investigate the structure of <i>Filaria immitis</i> in the dog, whilst
+others sought diligently for nematoid hæmatozoa abroad.</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th of April, 1874, Dr Prospero Sonsino communicated
+to the Neapolitan Royal Academy his memoir entitled
+“Researches concerning <i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i> in relation to the
+endemic hæmaturia of Egypt, with a notice concerning a nematoid
+found in the human blood.” In this brochure he made
+known the fact of his having discovered microscopic Filariæ in a
+young Egyptian Jew, in the following <span class="nowrap">words:&mdash;</span>“On the 1st of
+February last, having well washed the finger of the boy, I
+placed one drop of blood under the microscope, when with
+astonishment I discovered a living organism of the form of a
+nematode, resembling <i>Anguillula</i>, in the midst of the hæmatic
+corpuscles. The worms glided amongst the globules, which were
+tossed about by their lively movements, showing various appearances
+according as they presented themselves either from the
+sides, the edges, or the front of the disk” (‘Ricerche,’ &amp;c., pp. 11,
+12). Dr Sonsino took every precaution to prevent error, subsequently
+verifying his “find” from the same patient. Dr Sonsino
+directs attention to two of his own characteristic figures of the
+worm, and subsequently states not only that he found examples
+of the Filariæ in the urine of this same youth, but also “in the
+urine of another patient.” The parasites from these two sources
+being figured side by side, it was clear, from their resemblance,
+that they referred to one and the same species of entozoon. Dr<span class="pagenum" title="186"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a></span>
+Sonsino having compared the facts supplied by these cases, was
+satisfied that the nematodes in question were specifically identical
+with those that I had previously obtained from my little African
+patient. However, Dr Sonsino was of opinion that his Filariæ
+were not precisely the same as those that had been described
+by Lewis.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of April, 1876, I received from Dr William
+Roberts, of Manchester, some capillary tubes, charged with
+blood, obtained from a patient suffering from chyluria. The
+tubes had been transmitted by Dr Bancroft, of Brisbane,
+Queensland, Australia; and in fulfilment of the donor’s request,
+Dr Roberts afforded me an opportunity of examining their
+contents, he having himself verified Bancroft’s statement that
+they contained Filariæ. It was not until May 22nd that I
+found opportunity to confirm the observations of Drs Bancroft
+and Roberts. The contents of some of the tubes had by this
+time completely dried up; but in others, to which diluted
+glycerine had been added, the blood appeared tolerably fresh.
+In what might be reckoned as the sixth part of the contents of
+one of the tubes, spread on a glass slide, I detected about
+twenty Filariæ, three of which I sketched <i>in sitû</i>, in order to
+compare them with the figures of Lewis, and also with others
+that I had procured from my <i>Bilharzia</i>-patient in the year 1870.
+There could not, I thought, be any doubt as to the identity of
+all these sexually-immature nematoids. One novelty, however,
+presented itself in the presence of a solitary and empty egg
+envelope, measuring about <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span> of an inch in its long diameter,
+and thus corresponding precisely with the ova that I obtained
+from the urine in my <i>Bilharzia</i> case.</p>
+
+<p>According to Bancroft, chyluria is somewhat common in
+Brisbane; and the case here brought forward was not the only
+one of the kind which had already furnished Filariæ in the
+blood. The patient was a little girl ten years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Thus stood the facts in the spring of 1876. Having
+informed Dr Bancroft that a nematoid egg had been detected
+in the Australian blood transmitted to England, he was induced
+to make further investigations. These happily resulted in the
+discovery of the adult worm; the circumstances attending the
+“find” being recorded by Dr Bancroft in a letter written to
+myself and dated from Brisbane, Queensland, April 20th, 1877.
+He wrote as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“I have labored very hard to find the
+parental form of the parasite, and am glad to tell you that I<span class="pagenum" title="187"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a></span>
+have now obtained five specimens of the worm, which are waiting
+to be forwarded by a trustworthy messenger.</p>
+
+<p>“I have on record about twenty cases of this parasitic
+disease, and believe it will be the solution of chyluria, one form
+of hæmaturia, one form of spontaneous lymphatic abscess, a
+peculiar soft varix of the groin, a hydrocele containing chylous
+fluid, together with some forms of varicocele and orchitis. These
+I have verified. In the colony there are no cases that I can
+find of elephantine leg, scrotal elephantiasis, or lymph scrotum;
+but from the description of these diseases in the volume on skin
+and other diseases of India by Fox, Farquhar, and Carter, and
+from Wm. Roberts’ article on the latter in his volume on
+urinary diseases, I am of opinion that the parasitic nature of the
+same will be established.</p>
+
+<p>“The worm is about the thickness of a human hair, and is
+from three to four inches long. By two loops from the centre
+of its body it emits the Filariæ described by Carter in immense
+numbers.</p>
+
+<p>“My first specimen I got on December 21st, 1876, in a
+lymphatic abscess of the arm; this was dead. Four others I
+obtained alive from a hydrocele of the spermatic cord, having
+caught them in the eye of a peculiar trochar I use for tapping.
+These I kept alive for a day and separated them from each
+other with great difficulty. The worm when immersed in pure
+water stretches itself out and lies quite passive. In this condition
+it could be easily washed out of hydroceles through a
+large-sized trochar from patients known to suffer from Filariæ.”</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1877, I announced Bancroft’s discovery in the
+‘Lancet,’ naming the parasite <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>, and in the
+following September I sent the editor an account of the
+results of my study of the adult worms received from Brisbane
+in the interval. These examinations supplied me with the
+diagnosis already given (p. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>).</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of September, 1877, Dr Lewis published a paper in
+the ‘Lancet,’ wherein, after alluding to my previous announcement
+respecting the discovery of <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>, he describes
+under the name of <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i> a mature worm,
+which was evidently the same parasite. Not unnaturally Dr
+Lewis put aside the nomenclature I had employed, on the ground
+that the name originally given by himself to the embryonal
+form ought to be retained, and that “a new name, if not
+necessary on anatomical grounds, would only lead to confusion.”<span class="pagenum" title="188"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a></span>
+Personally I have no objection to Lewis’s specific name, but if
+the question of priority is to determine the nomenclature, then I
+fear we ought to call the species <i>Filaria Salisburyii</i>. Obviously
+the retention of Dr Salisbury’s nomenclature (<i>Trichina cystica</i>)
+would be unsuitable and misleading.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/f39.jpg" width="310" height="478" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;<i>Filaria Bancrofti.</i> <i>a</i>, Female (nat. size); <i>b</i>, head and neck (×&nbsp;55 diam.);
+<i>c</i>, tail; <i>d</i>, free embryo (×&nbsp;400 diam.); <i>e</i>, egg containing an embryo; <i>f</i>, egg, with
+mulberry cleavage of the yolk (×&nbsp;360 diam.). Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When (prior to Lewis’s discovery of the hæmatozoa) I had
+myself encountered larval nematodes of the same character as
+those described by Salisbury, I, like Wucherer, was careful not
+to employ a special name for an immature form, which might
+or might not represent a worm hitherto known to science.
+The paper in which I described the adult worm from specimens<span class="pagenum" title="189"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a></span>
+supplied by Bancroft appeared in the ‘Lancet,’ Oct. 6th, 1877,
+the facts being stated as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span></p>
+
+<p>On the 28th of August, 1877, I received a small collection of
+entozoa. The box contained the promised Filariæ, and also
+eight bottles filled with various intestinal worms taken from
+animals. The Filariæ were enclosed in four small tubes and
+preserved in glycerine. Three of the tubes (marked 1, 2, 3)
+contained sexually-mature worms, the fourth being labelled
+“Sediment from adult <i>Fil. sang.</i>&mdash;young and ova.” I described
+their contents in succession. Thus, on the 6th of September, 1877,
+I examined the Filaria in tube No. 3. The specimen was injured
+and in four portions, these collectively measuring three inches
+in length. Although, to the naked eye, the worm had appeared
+to Dr Bancroft to be of the thickness of an ordinary human hair,
+yet I found it about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">90</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> at the thickest part. It was a female.
+At the same time I examined the specimen in tube No. 1. This
+was also a female. Towards the centre of the body a hernial
+protrusion of the uterine horns and intestine had taken place.
+In a lithograph sent by Dr Bancroft this specimen was figured
+and described as the “parent worm of the <i>Filaria sanguinis</i>,
+emitting young Filaria from two loops.” Later on I examined
+the contents of tube No. 2. In it I found one tolerably perfect
+female Filaria, and also a delicate shred forming part of one of
+the uterine horns of another worm. This filament measured
+one inch and a half in length, and was coiled round the complete
+worm. On transferring it to a watch-glass containing
+water, hundreds of embryos made their escape. Owing to the
+transparency of the tissues I had much difficulty in finding the
+reproductive outlet, and the effort to find it was all the greater
+because Bancroft’s figure had misled me. At length I found
+the vagina and its orifice close to the head (about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">20</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from it),
+the anal orifice being placed within the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">90</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from the extremity
+of the tail. The vaginal pouch, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">100</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> long, was crowded with
+embryos, and a constriction marked its junction with the uterus
+proper, which appeared to divide lower down at a distance
+of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">10</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from the head. Towards the tail a fold of the tuba
+Fallopii was seen to extend to within <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">20</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> of the extremity. All
+sections of the uterine system were crowded with germs, eggs,
+and embryos in their usual relative situations.</p>
+
+<p>My examinations of the ova and embryos were chiefly made
+from the “sediment” sent in a special glass tube. The fully
+formed embryos were <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">125</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth. They<span class="pagenum" title="190"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a></span>
+each showed a double skin, the outer envelope in the more
+advanced specimens leaving clear spaces at either end of the
+body, resulting from commencing ecdysis. I saw no trace of
+intestinal tube, but a central line of condensation marked an
+early differentiation of the somatic granular contents. The less
+advanced embryos were mostly enclosed in a chorional envelope,
+the smallest free embryos measuring only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">200</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth. These had no double contour. The ova, whose
+yolk-contents were still in various stages of cleavage, gave an
+average long diameter of <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">900</span></span> to <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span> of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the facts I made out, and they enabled me to
+amend the characters of the species.</p>
+
+<p>As regards nomenclature, I associated Dr Bancroft’s name
+with the sexually-mature worm as being in harmony with the
+binomial method and little calculated to mislead; moreover, it
+helped to fix both the source and date of the discovery (Brisbane,
+Dec. 21st, 1876). The use of this nomenclature detracts
+nothing from the high merits of Lewis, who first named the
+immature worm <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>. As it now turns
+out, both Dr Salisbury and myself had previously been made
+acquainted with the young of <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>; but it was
+reserved for Lewis to discover the hæmatozoal character of the
+embryos of this worm, and actually to take them from the
+blood. It was a singular circumstance, that when I was
+engaged in treating my little African patient for trematode
+hæmatozoa, it never once occurred to me that the numerous
+nematoid embryos mixed with the Bilharzia ova were hæmatozoal.
+As before remarked, it was alleged that my patient
+had passed worms two or three inches long by the urethra. I
+therefore concluded that these were the parents of the eggs
+and embryos, and that all of them were urinary. The inference
+was wrong, but it has instructively shown how near one
+may go towards a great discovery without really making it.
+As regards the larvæ, notwithstanding some slight differences
+in regard to size and so forth, I have little hesitation in saying
+that all the embryo forms severally described by Salisbury, by
+myself, by Lewis, Sonsino, Wucherer, Crévaux and Corre,
+Silva Lima, Bancroft, Manson, and others, are referable to one
+and the same species.</p>
+
+<p>Into the clinical bearings of this subject it is impossible for
+me to enter at any length, but I may remark that these parasites
+appear to be associated with, if not actually the cause of,<span class="pagenum" title="191"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a></span>
+several distinct morbid conditions. To one of these Bancroft
+has given a separate name (<i>Helminthoma elastica</i>). This is a
+highly elastic form of growth to which I have already alluded
+under the title of “lymphatic abscess of the arm.” In the
+first valuable report on Hæmatozoa, by Dr Patrick Manson, of
+Amoy, China, this careful observer gives interesting particulars
+of no less than fifteen cases in which hæmatozoa were found.
+Two of these patients had <i>Elephantiasis scroti</i>, two had lymph-scrotum,
+two were lepers (one having scrotal disease), two had
+enlarged inguinal glands, one had anasarca; and of the remaining
+six, spoken of as having no concomitant disease, one had
+enlarged glands and abscesses, and another suffered from
+marked debility. It would thus appear that what is ordinarily
+termed “good health” is rarely associated with a hæmatozoal
+condition of the blood in the human subject. The
+cases given by Lewis and Manson, where absolutely no recognisable
+disease existed, must be regarded as exceptional. Disease,
+moreover, may exist without any palpable symptoms being
+exhibited by the “bearer,” and thus perhaps it was with the
+hæmatozoal dogs of Gruby and Delafond to which I shall again
+have occasion to allude. Even those animals that carried
+upwards of two hundred thousand microscopic Filariæ in their
+blood appeared to suffer no inconvenience whatever.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1877 Dr Da Silva Lima published an
+article in the ‘Gazeta Medica da Bahia,’ in which he dwelt
+upon the labors and merits of Wucherer, and, judging from an
+omission in one of my memoirs, he supposed that I had insufficiently
+acknowledged Wucherer’s claims. A translation of
+this article appeared in the ‘Archives de Médicine Navale,’
+with an important appendix by Dr le Roy de Méricourt. In
+this <i>addendum</i> the French <i>savant</i> showed that the omission on
+my part was unintentional, and had been corrected by me in a
+later memoir. Not only had I been amongst the earliest in
+England to enforce Wucherer’s claims in respect of the micro-Filariæ,
+but I had first announced his discoveries in connection
+with <i>Anchylostoma duodenale</i>. In my translation of Wucherer’s
+memoir (‘Ueber die Anchylostomum Krankheit’) I spoke of the
+melancholy satisfaction I had in knowing that the memoir in
+question was “among the last that appeared from the pen of
+that gifted and amiable physician.” Some notice of Dr Lima’s
+paper and its appendix by Dr A. le Roy de Méricourt appeared
+in the ‘Lancet’ for Jan. 5th, 1878, and I also published a full<span class="pagenum" title="192"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a></span>
+translation of it, with explanatory notes, in the ‘Veterinarian’
+for Feb., 1878. Later on, in the ‘Lancet’ (March 23rd, 1878),
+Dr Da Silva Lima published an interesting letter correcting a
+misconception that had incidentally arisen in the mind of a
+commentator (on the Helminthological work of 1877), and at
+the same time he pointed to the original facts connected with
+the discovery of Wucherer’s Filaria. As my views are in perfect
+accord with those of Dr Da Silva Lima, I can only regret that
+errors of interpretation should have crept into the discussion.
+Dr Lima honorably recognises the nomenclature (<i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>)
+which I proposed for the adult worm, and only claims
+for Wucherer that which is fairly due.</p>
+
+<p>On the 4th of January, 1878, I received from Dr Patrick
+Manson a manuscript in which he announced the discovery of
+the larvæ of <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i> in the stomach of
+mosquitoes. Already, in April, 1877, Dr Bancroft had informed
+me of his expectation of finding that these insects
+sucked up the larvæ of the Filaria whilst engaged in their
+attacks on man. Dr Bancroft’s supposition was a very natural
+one, but it remained for Manson to make the actual discovery
+of the existence of human hæmatozoa, or parasites that had
+been such, within the stomach of <i>Culex mosquito</i>. I lost no
+time in making the principal facts public (‘Lancet,’ Jan. 12th,
+1878). Dr Manson at the same time forwarded for publication
+a record of thirty-five additional cases of hæmatozoa occurring
+in Chinese subjects, together with additional particulars of one
+of the cases already published in the ‘Customs Gazette.’
+These were afterwards published as separate contributions in
+the ‘Medical Times and Gazette.’ Dr Manson likewise forwarded
+materials for a paper entitled “Further Observations
+on <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>.” In this communication he
+gave an analysis of the cases (sixty-two in all) in which he had
+observed the hæmatozoa, and he added valuable statistical
+evidence as to the prevalence of Filariæ in the Amoy district,
+dwelling especially on the influence of age, sex, and occupation
+in determining the presence of the parasite. He also described
+the morbid states with which these entozoa were commonly
+associated.</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th of March, 1878, I formally communicated to the
+Linnean Society a detailed account of Manson’s investigations
+relating to the metamorphoses undergone by the Filariæ within
+the body of the mosquito. In this paper Manson pointed out<span class="pagenum" title="193"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a></span>
+that the female mosquito, after gorging itself with human
+blood, repairs to stagnant water for the purpose of digesting
+the blood, and also for the purpose of depositing its eggs.
+During this period, which lasts four or five days, the Filariæ
+undergo remarkable changes. Subsequently, in a more perfect
+state, they escape into the water, and in this advanced stage
+they are conveyed to the human body along with the water as
+drink. Dr Manson persuaded a Chinese, whose blood was
+previously ascertained to abound with Filariæ, to sleep in a
+“mosquito house.” In the morning the gorged insects were
+captured and examined under the microscope. A drop of
+blood from the mosquito was found to contain 120 Filariæ, but
+a drop taken from the man’s hand yielded only some thirty
+specimens. Further stages of development are accomplished
+within the human host, ending in the sexual maturity of the
+parasite. After fecundation successive swarms of embryos
+are discharged by the female worm, a part of whose progeny
+eventually gains access to the blood.</p>
+
+<p>Before I proceed to summarise the whole body of facts I
+must in the next place state that Manson and myself contributed
+a joint communication to the Medical Society of
+London on the 25th of March, 1878. In this memoir I especially
+dealt with the question of priority in connection with the discovery
+of the adult worm. I then restated that the adult
+parasite was discovered by Dr Bancroft on December 21st,
+1876. The discovery was verified by Dr Lewis on August 7th,
+1877, by Dr Silva Araujo October 16th, 1877, and by Dr F.
+dos Santos November 12th, 1877. I gave these dates unhesitatingly,
+without, however, in any way prejudicing the question
+already raised in respect of the identity of the worms found in
+each case. My own mind was fully made up on that point,
+and affirmatively so. Dr dos Santos’ find was made in conjunction
+with Dr J. de Moura in a case of lymphatic abscess of the
+arm. Clinically viewed, the case published by Dr Araujo must
+be regarded as unique. Not only were adult and embryonic
+Filariæ found in the same patient, but, what was far more surprising
+and interesting, the patient displayed in his own person
+several of the disorders hitherto found apart; and he was more
+than once attacked by one or two of the diseases. He experienced
+a first attack of chyluria three years ago, then attacks
+of craw-craw commencing a year ago, the latter being attributed
+to bathing in a particular lagoon. He had a second<span class="pagenum" title="194"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a></span>
+attack of chyluria six months back, at which time lymph-scrotum
+appeared, and also scrotal elephantiasis. Dr Bourel-Roncière
+pronounced this case to be unique, and attributed
+nearly all the disorders to the presence of Wucherer’s embryonic
+Filariæ. In a very elaborate analysis of and commentary
+on Dr da Silva Lima’s second memoir, Dr Bourel-Roncière
+warmly claims for Wucherer the supreme honor in
+all these discoveries. A number of affections hitherto regarded
+as distinct, and all of which appear to be due to the action of
+Filariæ, are regarded by Dr Bourel-Roncière as mere phases of
+one and the same disorder. This affection he terms <i>Wucherer’s
+helminthiasis</i>. Dr Manson had indeed arrived independently
+at a similar conclusion, and I am confident that Wucherer,
+were he alive, would in this particular aspect of the question
+be the last to claim priority either to Lewis, to Bancroft, or to
+Manson.</p>
+
+<p>In this place I may observe that Dr Pedro S. de Magalhães,
+of Rio de Janeiro, detected free microscopic nematodes in the
+potable waters of Rio (agua da Carioca), which from their
+similarity he supposes may have some genetic relation with
+<i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>. In this opinion I cannot share.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the metamorphoses of the embryo, Manson states
+that for a little while after gaining access to the stomach of the
+mosquito the embryo undergoes no change (Fig. <a href="#Fig_40">40</a>, <i>a</i>). In a
+very few hours changes commence, resulting in wider separation
+of the outer skin and an appearance of transverse markings on the
+body within (<i>b</i>). In the next stage oral movements occur;
+the striation becomes more marked, and the outer envelope is
+cast off (<i>c</i>). Then the striated lines disappear and a dotted
+appearance is substituted (<i>d</i>). From this condition the embryo
+passes to what Manson calls the chrysalis stage, in which nearly
+all movement is suspended and the large spots gradually disappear
+(<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>). The tail continues to be flexed and
+extended at intervals and the oral motions cease. By the
+close of the third day the embryo becomes much shorter and
+broader; but the finely pointed tail retains its original dimensions,
+projecting abruptly from the sausage-shaped body (<i>m</i>, <i>n</i>).
+Large cells next appear in the interior of the body, and by a
+little pressure one may detect indications of a mouth (<i>o</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>q</i>, <i>r</i>).
+At this period the embryo begins to elongate, and at the same
+time to diminish in width; but the growth takes place chiefly<span class="pagenum" title="195"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a></span>
+at the oral end of the body. The mouth becomes four-lipped,
+open, and funnel-shaped, and from it a delicate line can be<span class="pagenum" title="196"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a></span>
+distinctly traced passing to an opening near the caudal extremity,
+the tail itself gradually disappearing (<i>s</i>, <i>t</i>). Speaking of
+the most advanced stage Manson <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“A vessel of some
+sort is seen in the centre running nearly the whole length of
+the body and opening close to one extremity. This end is
+slightly tapered down and is crowned with three or perhaps
+four papillæ, but whether this is the head or tail, and whether
+the vessel opening near it is the alimentary canal or the vagina,
+I cannot say.” Now it is quite evident, I think, from Manson’s
+figures that he has here faithfully represented the head and
+tail, the former (<i>u</i>) to the left, the latter (<i>v</i>) to the right. In
+his <i>manuscript</i> (from which I am now quoting) there is no
+special reference to these two figures; but it is easy to see that
+these terminal sections of the body of the advanced embryo
+closely correspond with the head and tail of the adult worm
+(<i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>). The curved line passing to the left (<i>u</i>)
+evidently indicates the commencement of the partially-formed
+vagina.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 455px;">
+<a id="Fig_40"></a>
+<img src="images/f40.jpg" width="455" height="673" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Larval Filariæ in various stage of growth from the mosquito; <i>a</i> to <i>d</i>, representing
+the first stage of metamorphosis during the first 36 hours, <i>e</i> to <i>o</i>, the changes
+occurring during the second stage, to the close of the third day; <i>p</i> to <i>t</i>, forms seen
+during the third stage of metamorphosis from the fourth day onwards. The figs. <i>u</i>, <i>v</i>,
+represent the head and tail only, whilst <i>t</i> shows the young Filaria in an advanced
+stage, and drawn to a much smaller scale, than the others which are here magnified
+about 125 diameters. Much reduced from Manson’s original figures.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>How completely Manson took the initiative in this part of the
+work is evident even from Lewis’s own later observations. In
+a paper published in March, 1878, Dr Lewis, writing from
+Calcutta and speaking of the rôle of the mosquitoes, <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“I
+had repeatedly examined, in a cursory fashion, these and other
+suctorial insects, but had not observed any parasites suggestive
+of these embryo-hæmatozoa, hence, when, on receipt of a communication
+from Dr Manson a couple of months ago, a renewed
+search was made, I was surprised to find that four out of eight
+mosquitoes, captured at random in one of the servants’ houses,
+harboured specimens of hæmatozoa to all appearances identical
+with those found in man in this country. After this, however,
+several days elapsed before any mosquitoes could be obtained
+which contained these embryo-nematoids, and the specimens
+obtained on the next occasion were devoid of the enveloping
+sheath, which appears to characterise the kind found in man
+out here, and apparently, according to Dr Manson, in China
+also.” Further on Lewis also remarks, “When the insect is
+caught shortly after feeding and the contents of its stomach
+examined microscopically, the hæmatozoa, if present, will be
+observed to manifest very active movements, which may possibly
+continue for several hours on the slide. If the insect be
+kept for twenty-four hours before examination it is probable<span class="pagenum" title="197"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a></span>
+that the movements of the parasites will be more sluggish, and
+their form probably altered owing to irregular contractions and
+dilatations of their substance&mdash;changes which may also occasionally
+be observed when embryo-hæmatozoa are preserved on a
+glass slide, and they may sometimes be kept alive thus, if in
+suitable media, for two or three days. When the insect is not
+examined till the third day, the contained parasites will probably
+manifest marked signs of disintegration&mdash;and possibly
+every indication of life will have disappeared from many of the
+specimens. After the third or fourth day I have not seen any
+active specimens of these entozoa in the stomach or in any part
+of the alimentary canal of the mosquito; those which remain
+have undergone more or less fatty degeneration, and are readily
+stained with eosin, which, as far as my experience goes, is not
+the case so long as they are alive and active. After the fourth
+or fifth day it is very rare that traces of any hæmatozoa-like
+objects can be detected at all, so that it must be inferred either
+that they have succumbed to the digestive action of the insect’s
+stomach or been disposed of along with the excreta.” An
+important <i>addendum</i> by Lewis records a fortunate incident
+as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“It was observed that nearly all the mosquitoes
+captured in one of the servants’ houses contained hæmatozoa,
+so that the supply of suitable insects in all the stages of their
+growth became amply sufficient for all requirements. The
+result of the examinations under these favorable conditions has
+shown that although the stomach digests a great number of the
+ingested hæmatozoa, as mentioned above, nevertheless others
+actually perforate the walls of the insect’s stomach, pass out,
+and then undergo developmental stages in its thoracic and
+abdominal tissues.”</p>
+
+<p>I may here observe that Sonsino has instituted a comparison
+between the embryos of this Filaria and those of Anchylostoma,
+by which it appears that the former measure 0·218 to 0·330&nbsp;mm.
+in length, and those of Anchylostoma 0·430&nbsp;mm. The hæmatozoa
+are about forty times longer than broad, and the larval
+anchylostomes only fourteen times longer. The tail of <i>Filaria</i>
+is conspicuously longer.</p>
+
+<p>In the ‘Lancet’ for June 22nd, 1878, an announcement
+appeared from the pen of Mr D. H. Gabb, of Hastings, stating
+that a patient under his care formed the habitat of <i>Filaria
+sanguinis hominis</i>; and in the autumn of the same year a
+paper which I read to the Linnean Society in the spring<span class="pagenum" title="198"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a></span>
+was published. In that paper the following summary was
+offered:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i> is the sexually-mature state of certain
+microscopic worms hitherto obtained either directly or indirectly
+from human blood.</p>
+
+<p>2. The minute hæmatozoa in question&mdash;hitherto described as
+Wucherer’s Filariæ, <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>, <i>Trichina cystica</i>,
+<i>Filariose dermathemaca</i>, and so forth&mdash;are frequently associated
+with the presence of certain more or less well-marked diseases
+of warm climates.</p>
+
+<p>3. The diseases referred to include chyluria, intertropical
+endemic hæmaturia, varix, elephantiasis, lymph scrotum, and
+lymphoid affections generally, a growth called <i>helminthoma
+elastica</i>, a cutaneous disorder called craw-craw, and also leprosy.</p>
+
+<p>4. It is extremely probable that a large proportion, or at
+least that certain varieties of these affections are due to morbid
+changes exclusively resulting from the presence of <i>Filaria
+Bancrofti</i> or its progeny within the human body.</p>
+
+<p>5. It is certain that the microscopic hæmatozoa may be
+readily transferred to the stomach of blood-sucking insects,
+and it has been further demonstrated that the digestive organs
+of the mosquito form a suitable territory for the further growth
+and metamorphosis of the larval Filariæ.</p>
+
+<p>6. The character of the changes undergone by the microscopic
+Filariæ, and the ultimate form assumed by the larvæ
+whilst still within the body of the intermediate host (<i>Culex
+mosquito</i>), are amply sufficient to establish the genetic relationship
+as between the embryonal <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>, the
+stomachal Filariæ of the mosquito, and the sexually-mature
+<i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of September, 1878, I received a letter from
+Dr da Silva Lima announcing the fact that Dr Araujo had
+verified the existence of the embryos of <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i> in
+mosquitoes, at Bahia. These mosquitoes had, I understood,
+attacked a French priest in whose blood Dr Araujo also
+detected Filariæ. Thus, it fell to the lot of Araujo, through
+his untiring zeal, to verify in Brazil all the separate discoveries
+of Bancroft, Manson, and Lewis.</p>
+
+<p>In the October issue of the ‘Pathological Society’s Transactions’
+for 1878 Dr Bancroft records numerous cases of filarious
+disease, and he gives a succinct account of the circumstances
+connected with his original discovery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="199"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>In a clinical lecture published October 12th, 1878, Dr
+Tilbury Fox seeks to diminish the value of these discoveries,
+characterising helminthological investigators as merely “recent
+writers.” Dr Fox denies that Filariæ are a cause of true
+elephantiasis, but admits the occurrence of “elephantoid inflammation
+and inflammations due to Filariæ.” Dr Fox’s statement
+that “Filariæ have not been found in uncomplicated
+elephantiasis, that is, in disease without chylous exudation,”
+seems to me to be directly at variance with Manson’s recorded
+experiences. I hold that Manson has confirmed the truth of
+Lewis’s views, and that he has thoroughly proved that (to use
+his own words) “varicose groin glands, lymph scrotum,
+elephantiasis, and chyluria are pathologically the same disease.”
+In the first instance I was myself led to conclude that some of
+the forms of elephantiasis might be due to other causes than
+obstruction of the lymphatics caused by the presence of Filariæ;
+but the explanations of Lewis, of Bancroft, and of Manson
+more especially, have almost entirely removed this doubt.
+Those who seek to explain away the connection between
+genuine elephantiasis and Filariæ will do well to study Manson’s
+last important memoir. He shows that “elephantiasis and
+allied diseases are much more frequently associated with the
+parasite than are other morbid conditions.” This fact is
+brought out very clearly in his table of 670 cases, from which
+it appears that 58 per cent. of cases of Filaria are associated
+with elephantoid disease.</p>
+
+<p>When this opposition to Manson’s views is likely to cease
+(on the part of those who do not happen to have been in any
+way instrumental to the discoveries in question) it is not easy
+to say. In a brief communication which appeared in the last
+number of the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ for 1878, Dr
+Manson successfully combats the doubts that have been entertained
+respecting the rôle of the mosquito. Because Lewis
+found that canine hæmatozoa were digested, and thus perished
+in the stomach of mosquitoes, it had been argued that <i>human</i>
+hæmatozoa must necessarily undergo similar processes, and
+consequently die. Those who oppose the views of helminthologists
+in respect of the intermediary host-function of insects on
+such grounds can have very little general, and still less special
+knowledge of the phenomena of parasitism. It is the old
+story. When any new discovery is made, it must always pass
+through the ordeals of denial and doubt before it can be gene<span class="pagenum" title="200"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a></span>rally
+accepted as true; and, as in the case of Jenner’s immortal
+discovery, there will always remain a certain number of peculiar
+people who show themselves hostile to every advance in science.
+Dr Manson may take comfort from this consideration, and rest
+assured that the value of his discovery is quite unaffected by
+the opposition referred to.</p>
+
+<p>Since I communicated the results obtained by Manson,
+Lewis, myself, and others to the Linnean Society, an even
+more exhaustive summary of the facts has been published
+by Dr Bourel-Roncière, in the ‘Archives de Médecine Navale.’
+The distinguished author does full justice to the writings
+of English helminthologists, and dwells, with emphasis, upon
+the finds and interpretations of Lewis, Manson, and Bancroft.
+Incidentally, also, he comments upon Sir Joseph Fayrer’s early
+recognition of the etiological identity of hæmato-chyluria and
+elephantiasis, on other than helminthic grounds. The frequent
+concurrence of the two affections had especially struck Sir J.
+Fayrer as pointing to a probable common origin. He had also
+surmised that the disorders might be due to parasites.</p>
+
+<p>Dr Bourel-Roncière, alike with the caution, precision, and
+logical reasoning of a cultured <i>savant</i>, concludes his elaborate
+review in the following <span class="nowrap">terms:&mdash;</span>“There are the facts.
+Certainly, many points remain obscure, many problems await a
+solution, and the last word has not been said on the actual part
+which the parasite plays in the pathogenesis of the affections
+above enumerated&mdash;its mode of action, the importance of its
+rôle, the extent of its pathological domain, the habitat of its
+progenitors, their identity, and so forth. All these questions
+will only be elucidated by necroscopic researches, which at
+present remain absolutely wanting.”</p>
+
+<p>“However, notwithstanding the doubts which hover over the
+future value of these curious discoveries, it is difficult not to
+recognise their importance in the study of certain tropical
+diseases&mdash;which up to the present time have been attributed to
+vague and undetermined causes&mdash;hæmato-chyluria and elephantoid
+affections principally. Apart from the interest which
+attaches to the natural history of the nematoids, they raise, in
+effect, etiological and prophylactic questions, the extreme importance
+of which we believe it would be needless to demonstrate.
+It is greatly to be desired that the researches should
+be taken up in other parts of the globe, where endemicity and
+perhaps greater facilities for necroscopic investigation would<span class="pagenum" title="201"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a></span>
+render them fruitful&mdash;Cochin-China, Tahiti, &amp;c. Fresh observations
+are necessary to confirm the first and to fill up
+notable gaps. The way has been brilliantly opened by the
+English and Brazilian physicians. Let our colleagues in the
+French colonies put their shoulders to the wheel; they have
+before them a vast field of study to explore.”</p>
+
+<p>Since the above remarks were written I have received several
+communications from Dr Bancroft, and also others from Drs
+da Silva Lima, Araujo, Assis Sousa, Paterson, Hall, of Bahia&mdash;the
+two last named being English physicians in practice there.
+I regret that I can do little more than refer to the writings of
+these authors in the Bibliography below; but I may observe that
+Drs Paterson and Hall have ascertained that the proportion of
+the population of Bahia affected by Filaria is <span class="nowrap">8<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> per cent. Out
+of 309 persons examined, 26 had hæmatozoa, which is, roughly,
+one in twelve, or more strictly, 8·666 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst recent memoirs that by Sir J. Fayrer, read to the
+Epidemiological Society on the 5th of February, 1879, deserves
+especial attention. In regard to its significance, I have only
+space to remark that, much as we may regret the little interest
+shown by our hospital physicians and surgeons in this subject,
+it is particularly gratifying to see experienced Indian officers
+like Sir J. Fayrer, Mr Macnamara, and Dr John Murray, coming
+forward both to aid and render homage to their junior
+colleagues in Eastern parts, who are successfully labouring to
+advance the cause of helminthology and scientific medicine.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding this subject I may observe, that one of the
+greatest hindrances to the due recognition of the remarkable part
+played by parasites in the production of human endemics and
+animal epizoötics arises from the circumstance that no inconsiderable
+number of minute worms may infest a host without
+obvious injury. This immunity proves nothing. If, for example,
+we take the case of <i>Trichina</i> we find that several millions of
+entozoa may exist in the human, or, at all events, in the animal
+bearer, without producing any symptom of discomfort. In such
+cases it is not possible to determine the strict limits of health
+and disease; nevertheless, were we to double the amount of
+infection, the imaginary line of demarcation is at once bridged
+over and the parasites become acknowledged as directly
+responsible for grave symptoms which may even prove fatal to
+the bearer. Again, the relative strength and size of the infected
+host constitute factors that materially limit the power of the<span class="pagenum" title="202"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a></span>
+parasite for injury. Where the entozoa are of minute size,
+and where their injurious action is primarily due to the
+mechanical obstructions they set up, it is clear that the
+virulence of the helminthiases, or resulting diseased conditions,
+will mainly depend upon the number of intruders.</p>
+
+<p>Another consideration of the highest value in relation to
+epidemiology generally, and more especially in regard to the
+practical question as to the best methods of stamping out parasitic
+plagues, is that which refers to the life-history of the
+entozoon itself. It must be obvious that in all cases where the
+intermediate host can be captured and destroyed, the life-cycle
+of the parasite can be broken and interrupted, and if thus
+broken, there is an end to the further propagation of the
+species. The knowledge that we have acquired by experimental
+research in this connection has already enabled us to
+set a limit upon the prevalence of certain well-known disorders,
+such as Trichinosis, Cestode-tuberculosis, and so forth. In
+the case of epizoötics, however, which are indirectly due to the
+action of intermediary hosts that cannot be readily captured or
+destroyed, then our power of arresting the disease is comparatively
+limited. In the present case it is probably not
+necessary either that a dead or living mosquito should be
+swallowed to insure infection; but it <i>is</i> necessary that the
+parasitic larvæ should have dwelt within the mosquito in
+order to arrive at the highest stage of larval growth prior to
+their re-entrance within the human territory. Undoubtedly,
+the larvæ are swallowed with potable waters. Perfect filtration
+before use would certainly check, if in course of time it
+did not totally extinguish several of the many virulent diseases
+that now afflict the inhabitants of warm climates.</p>
+
+<p>It is with reluctance that I terminate this article, but in
+the closing pages of this work (Book II, Section V) I hope
+to add a few more particulars in reference to Lewis’s latest
+researches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_23"></a>No. 23).&mdash;<i>Araujo, A. J. P. da Silva</i>, “Memoria
+sobre a Filariose,” &amp;c., Bahia, 1875; see also ‘Arch. de
+Méd. Nav.,’ 1875 and 1878.&mdash;<i>Bancroft, J.</i>, “Cases of Filarious
+Disease,” in ‘Pathological Soc. Trans.’ for 1878, vol. xxix,
+p. 407.&mdash;<i>Bourel-Roncière</i>, “<i>Résumé</i> of and Commentary upon
+the writings of Silva Lima, Silva Araujo, and others,” in
+‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.’ for March, 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Pathologie
+exotique. De l’hématozoaire nématoïde de l’homme et de son<span class="pagenum" title="203"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a></span>
+importance pathogénique, d’après les travaux Anglais et
+Bréziliens des dernières années;” <i>ibid.</i>, for August and Sept.,
+p. 113&ndash;134 and p. 192&ndash;214, 1878.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, “Discovery
+of the Adult Representative of Microscopic Filariæ,” ‘Lancet,’
+July, 1877, p. 70.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘On <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>,’ <i>ibid.</i> Oct., 1877,
+p. 495.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Verification of Hæmatozoal Discoveries in
+Australia and Egypt,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ June, 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Obs. on Hæmatozoa,” ‘Veterinarian,’ October, 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Remarks on the Ova of another Urinary Parasite (in the paper
+on ‘Bilharzia’) from Natal,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ July 27th,
+1872, p. 89; see also Bibl. No. 12.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Entozoa in Relation
+to the Public Health” (various papers), ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’
+Jan. and Feb., 1871.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Worms’ (l. c., p. 151), 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Hæmatozoa; Fresh Discoveries by Lewis,” ‘Lancet’
+for Feb. 6, 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (brief notice), the ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 209, March, 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Discovery of the Intermediary
+Host of <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>,” ‘Lancet,’ Jan. 12,
+1878, p. 69.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the question of Priority of Discovery,”
+Rep. of Med. Soc. of Lond., in ‘Lancet,’ March 30, 1878,
+p. 465.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Mosquitoes and Filariæ’ (explanatory note), in
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ March 16, 1878, p. 366.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the
+Life-history of <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>, as explained by the discoveries
+of Wucherer, Lewis, Bancroft, Manson, Sonsino, myself, and
+others,” “Report of the Proceed. of the Linnean Soc.” for
+March 7, 1878, in ‘Pop. Science Rev.,’ April, 1878; and
+afterwards published <i>in extenso</i> in ‘Journal Linn. Soc.,’ Oct. 31,
+1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>,” in Part iv of a series of
+papers on the Parasites of Man, in the ‘Midland Naturalist,’
+August, 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>,” in a
+letter to the ‘Lancet,’ July 13, 1878, p. 64.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Filariæ
+and Leprosy” (case from Bancroft); ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 1, 1879.&mdash;<i>Corré,
+A.</i>, “Note sur l’helminthe rencontré dans les urines
+hémato-chyleuses,” ‘Rev. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1872.&mdash;<i>Cossé</i>, “Sur
+l’helminthe rencontré par Wucherer et Crevaux,” &amp;c., ‘Rev.
+Montpellier,’ tom. i, p. 190.&mdash;<i>Couto, A.</i>, “These de concourso,”
+Bahia, 1872.&mdash;<i>Crevaux, J.</i>, “De l’hématurie chyleuse, &amp;c.,”
+1872; also in ‘L’Union Médicale,’ 1872 (abs. in ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ July, 1872, p. 100); also in ‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.,’
+1874; and in ‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol.,’ 1875 (see
+also Silva Lima).&mdash;<i>Davaine, C.</i>, ‘Traité,’ 2nd edit., p. 944;
+‘Hæmatozoaires,’ supp., 1877.&mdash;<i>Fayrer, Sir J.</i>, “Filaria sang.
+hom.,” ‘Lancet,’ March 16, 1878, p. 376.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="204"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a></span>“Elephantiasis
+Arabum,” ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Dec. 1, 1877, p. 588;
+“On the Relation of <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i> to the Endemic
+Diseases of India,” in the ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 8 and 15, and reprinted
+from the ‘Med. Times and Gazette’ (same date), 1879.&mdash;<i>Gabb,
+D. H.</i>, letter in ‘Lancet,’ June 22, 1878.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>,
+l. c., s. 638, 1876.&mdash;<i>Lewis, T. K.</i>, “On a Hæmatozoon in Human
+Blood,” ‘San. Comm. 8th Rep.,’ Calcutta, 1872; ‘Med. Press,’
+1873, p. 234; ‘Indian Ann. Med. Sci.,’ 1874; ‘Lond. Med.
+Rec.’ (abs. by myself in vol. i, p. 5), 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Pathological
+Significance of Nematode Hæmatozoa,” ‘Tenth Ann.
+Rep.,’ 1873, Calcutta (reprint), 1874; ‘Ind. Ann.,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Remarks regarding the Hæmatozoa found in the
+Stomach of <i>Culex mosquito</i>,” ‘Proc. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,’
+March, 1878, p. 89.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Flagellated Organisms in the
+Blood of Rats” (being portion of a paper on “The Microscopic
+Organisms found in the Blood of Man and Animals,” in ‘14th
+Annual Report of the San. Comm. with the Govt. of India’), in
+the ‘Quart. Journ. of Micr. Science,’ Jan., 1879.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (published
+since the present article was written), “The Nematoid
+Hæmatozoa of Man,” <i>ibid.</i>, April, 1879.&mdash;<i>Lima, J. F. da Silva</i>
+(with <i>Crevaux</i>), ‘Memoria sobre hematuria chylosa ou gordurosa
+des paizes quentes;’ extrahida da ‘Gazeta Medica da Bahia,’
+1876; repr. in ‘Arch. de Méd. Nav.,’ Dec., 1878 (see also
+Le Roy de Méricourt).&mdash;<i>Magalhães, Pedro S. de</i>, “Filarias em
+estado Embryonario, encontradas n’agua tida como potavel (agua
+da Carioca),” ‘O Progresso Medico,’ Dezembro, 1877, p. 57.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Nota sobre os nematoides encontrados no sedimento
+deposito pela agua (potavel) da Carioca,” ‘O Prog. Med.,’ 1 de
+Setemb., 1878, p. 577.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Caso de filariose de Wucherer;”
+<i>ibid.</i>, 15 de Setemb., 1878, p. 589.&mdash;<i>Makina, M.D.</i>, “Filaria in
+Chyluria,” letter in ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 22, 1879, p. 286.&mdash;<i>Manson, P.</i>,
+“Rep. on Hæmatozoa,” ‘Customs Gazette,’ No. 33, Jan.&ndash;March,
+1877; see also ‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ for Nov. 10, p. 513, Nov. 17,
+p. 538, and Nov. 24, p. 563; Dec. 1, p. 589, 1877; also Jan.,
+1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Additional Cases;” <i>ibid.</i>, March 2, 9, 23, 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>, and on the Mosquito
+considered as a Nurse,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ March 7, 1878;
+see also report in ‘Nature,’ March 28, 1878, p. 439.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>, clinically considered in reference
+to Elephantiasis, Chyluria, and allied Diseases,” ‘Rep. of
+Med. Soc. of Lond.,’ in ‘Lancet,’ March 30, 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Further Observations on <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>,” <span class="pagenum" title="205"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a></span>“Med.
+Rep.” for April&ndash;Sept., 1877, in ‘Customs Gazette,’ Shanghae,
+1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The Development of the <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>,”
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.’ for Dec. 28, 1878, p. 731.&mdash;<i>Méricourt,
+A. Le Roy de</i>, in Appendix to an art. entitled “Nouvelle
+phase de la question relative à la nature parasitaire de la
+chylurie. Découverte du représentant adulte de la ‘Filaire de
+Wucherer,’” par le Dr da Silva Lima, from the ‘Gaz. Med. da
+Bahia,’ Sept., 1877; see also the ‘Lancet,’ Jan., 1878, p. 22
+(editorial notice).&mdash;<i>Moura, J. de</i>, ‘These de Concourso,’ 1877.&mdash;<i>O’Neill</i>,
+“On Craw-craw,” ‘Lancet,’ Feb., 1875.&mdash;<i>Pareira, A. P.</i>,
+“On Bilharzia and Chyluria,” ‘Gazeta Med. da Bahia,’ No. 9,
+1877 (noticed in ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 2, 1878).&mdash;<i>Salisbury, J. H.</i>,
+“On the Parasitic forms developed in Parent Epithelial Cells
+of the Urinary and Genital Organs,” ‘Hay’s American Journ.,’
+vol. iv, 1868, p. 376.&mdash;<i>Santos, F. dos</i>, in ‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’
+March, 1877.&mdash;<i>Sonsino, P.</i>, ‘Richerche,’ &amp;c., 1874; ‘Della
+Bilharzia,’ &amp;c., 1876; ‘Sugla Ematozoi,’ &amp;c., 1876 (see Bibl.
+No. <a href="#No_12">12</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Diagnosis of Embryos of Filaria,” in
+his paper ‘Sull’ Anchylostoma duodenale;’ ‘Estr. dall Imparziale,’
+1878.&mdash;<i>Sousa, M. de A.</i>, ‘Memoria sobre a Elephantiasis
+do escroto,’ Bahia, 1878.&mdash;<i>Wucherer, O.</i>, “Noticia Preliminar,”
+&amp;c., ‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’ Dec., 1868.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Sobre Hematuria
+no Brazil,’ <i>ibid.</i>, Sept., 1869; see also “Méricourt’s trans.
+(De l’hématurie intertropicale observée au Brézil),” ‘Arch. de
+Méd. Nav.,’ p. 141, 1870, and the fuller references quoted in
+my memoir; ‘Linn. Soc. Journ., Zool.,’ vol. xiv, p. 368.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filaria Loa</i>, Guyot.&mdash;Although further examinations of this
+worm will probably result in placing it in some other genus
+than <i>Filaria</i>, yet it is by no means clear that Diesing was right
+in placing it with the genus <i>Dracunculus</i>. I therefore abandon
+the nomenclature adopted in my previous treatise. According
+to the surgeon, Guyot, who made seven separate voyages to the
+coast of Angola, these worms cannot be confounded with the
+Dracunculus. They are quite white, and relatively much
+thicker than guinea-worms. Under the title of <i>Filaria oculi</i>
+Moquin-Tandon has spoken of certain small nematodes as “not
+uncommon in the negroes of the Angola coast;” and he gives
+other localities where it occurs. The worms are identical with
+those described by Guyot as dwelling beneath the conjunctivæ of
+negroes at Congo and in the Gaboon region generally. The
+parasite is rather more than an inch and a quarter in length,
+being pointed at one end and blunt at the other. It is termed<span class="pagenum" title="206"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a></span>
+<i>Loa</i> by the natives, who state that after a period of several
+years the worm voluntarily quits the organ. The disease is
+thus naturally cured. This parasite enjoys a tolerably wide
+geographical distribution, as it has been observed by Clot Bey
+in a negress who had come from the town of Monpox, situated
+on the banks of the River Magdalena; by Sigaud, who saw one in
+the eye of a negress in Brazil; by Blot, at Martinique, who
+saw two in a negress originally from Guinea; by Bajon, who
+met with one in a little negro girl who had come from Guadeloupe;
+by Mongin, who found one in a negress who had been
+living in the Island of San Domingo; and by Lestrille, who
+removed one from beneath the conjunctiva of a negro who
+came from Gaboon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_24"></a>No. 24). <i>Davaine</i>, l. c., p. 839.&mdash;<i>Guyon</i>,
+‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’ p. 106, 1841, and in ‘Micr. Journ. and
+Struct. Record,’ p. 40, 1842, and in ‘Dublin Journ.,’ vol. xxv,
+p. 455, 1839.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Compt. Rendus,’ tom. lix, p. 743, 1865.&mdash;<i>Guyot</i>,
+in ‘Mém. par Arrachait,’ p. 228, 1805.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>,
+l. c., s. 322.&mdash;<i>Lestrille</i>, in Gervais and Van Beneden’s ‘Zool.
+Med.,’ 1859, also quoted by Davaine, l. c., 2nd edit., p. 840.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>,
+l. c., s. 619.&mdash;<i>Moquin-Tandon, A.</i>, ‘Zool. Med.,’ Hulme’s
+edit., p. 363, 1861.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filaria lentis</i>, Diesing.&mdash;This is a doubtful species. The
+worm was first discovered by Nordmann, in a case of lenticular
+cataract under the care of Von Gräfe, and it was afterwards
+found by Jüngken in a similar case, as recorded by Sichel.
+There is also the instance described by Gescheidt, in which Von
+Ammon operated, and from which brief descriptions of the
+worm have generally been taken. In this case there were three
+worms, two measuring about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the third <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">15</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. In
+Jüngken’s case (exhibited by Quadri, of Naples, at Brussels) the
+worm was more than <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> long. In another case, reported by M.
+Fano, the worm was somewhat less than <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> long. There is no
+certain evidence that any of these various worms had developed
+sexual organs in their interior. It is true that the reproductive
+organs were described in two of the worms observed by
+Gescheidt; but after a due consideration of all the facts I
+fear we must conclude that all the worms in question were
+sexually-immature and wandering nematodes, possibly referable
+to Gurlt’s <i>Filaria lacrymalis</i>, as Küchenmeister long ago
+suggested.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_25"></a>No. 25).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 332.&mdash;<i>Da<span class="pagenum" title="207"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a></span>vaine</i>,
+l. c., p. 821 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, ‘Syst. Helm.,’ p. 625.&mdash;<i>Fano</i>,
+‘Traité des Malad. des Yeux,’ tom. ii, p. 498; and in
+‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ p. 140, 1869; quoted by Davaine, p. 831.&mdash;<i>Gescheidt</i>,
+Ammon’s ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1833, s. 435.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c.,
+Bd. ii, s. 622.&mdash;<i>Nordmann</i>, l. c., Bibl. No. 2, s. 7, 1832.&mdash;<i>Sichel</i>,
+‘Iconogr. Ophth.,’ p. 707, 1859.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filaria labialis</i>, Pane.&mdash;This is a filiform cylindrical worm
+measuring an inch and a quarter in length. The mouth is
+armed with four papillæ arranged in the form of a cross. The
+tail of the female is blunt, the vaginal outlet being placed at a
+very short distance from its extremity, and a little above or in
+front of the anus. This parasite was found by a medical
+student at Naples. It occupied the cavity of a pustule in the
+upper lip, giving rise to considerable irritation. Only the male
+worm is at present known.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_26"></a>No. 26).&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, l. c., edit. ii, Synopsis,
+p. 107.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c. (with a fig.), Bd. ii, s. 616.&mdash;<i>Pane</i>,
+“Nota di un elminte nematoide,” in ‘Annali dell’ Acad. degli
+aspiranti Naturalisti,’ Napoli, ser. 3, vol. iv, 1864.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filaria hominis oris</i>, Leidy.&mdash;In the fifth volume of the
+‘Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences’
+(1850, p. 117) Dr Leidy furnishes the following description of
+this worm as gathered from the examination of a simple specimen
+preserved in alcohol, and labelled as having been
+“obtained from the mouth of a child.” Body white, opaque,
+thread-like; mouth round, simple; posterior extremity obtuse,
+furnished with a short, curved, epidermal hooklet, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length,
+by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter at base. Dr Leidy offers some speculations
+as to its origin, but from whatever source the worm was
+obtained by the bearer, it seems to be an immature form. Its
+length is five inches and seven lines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filaria</i> (<i>Nematoideum</i>) <i>trachealis</i>, Bristowe and Rainey.&mdash;This
+is another very doubtful worm. It was originally described
+in the ‘Pathological Society’s Transactions’ for 1855.
+It evidently represents only a juvenile stage of growth of some
+species of round worm. Rainey discovered a considerable
+number of these worms in the trachea and larynx of a person
+who died from a disease affecting the lower extremities. Individually
+the parasites measured about the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">50</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strongylus</i> (<i>Filaria</i>) <i>bronchialis</i>, Rudolphi.&mdash;This is a small
+nematode. The male measures rather more than half an inch,
+whilst the female is upwards of an inch in length. The caudal<span class="pagenum" title="208"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a></span>
+appendage of the male is furnished with a bilobed, membranous,
+half-bell-shaped bursa. This surrounds the cloacal
+outlet, the latter concealing a double spiculum. The tail of
+the female is sharply pointed, the anal orifice being placed a
+little in front or above. The body is filiform, of a pale yellow
+color. It is about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">50</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> broad in the male, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">35</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in the female.
+The mode of reproduction is viviparous.</p>
+
+<p>The original specimens were discovered by Treutler in
+Germany, during the winter of 1791, in the bronchial glands of
+an emaciated subject, whilst those sent to Diesing for description
+were discovered by Dr Fortsitz at Klausenberg, in Transylvania,
+in the lungs of a boy six years old. Diesing and
+Weinland suggested the identity of <i>Filaria bronchialis</i> and
+<i>Strongylus longevaginatus</i>, whilst Küchenmeister went further,
+and pronounced them to be one and the same species.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_27"></a>No. 27).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entoz.,’ p. 357.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>,
+‘Synops.,’ l. c., ‘Synopsis’ cix.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, l. c., Eng. edit.,
+p. 381.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., s. 618.&mdash;<i>Treutler, F. A.</i>, “De vermibus
+filiformibus (<i>Hamularia lymphatica</i>) in glandulis conglobatis
+bronchiorum repertis,” in ‘Obs. Pathol. Anat.,’ 1793.&mdash;<i>Wedl.</i>,
+‘Die im Menschen vorkommenden Helminthen’ (quoted by
+Leuckart), Wien, 1862, s. 22.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eustrongylus gigas</i>, Diesing.&mdash;This is by far the largest
+nematode known to science, the male sometimes measuring a
+foot in length and the female more than three feet, whilst the
+breadth of the body reaches half an inch at the thickest part.
+Though fortunately very rare in man, this worm is known to
+occur in a great variety of animals, especially in weasels.
+According to Weinland and Jackson, it is particularly abundant
+in the kidney of the North American mink (<i>Mustela
+vison</i>), destroying the substance of the organ, the walls of
+which become the seat of calcareous deposit. It has been
+found in the dog, wolf, puma, glutton, raccoon, coati, otter,
+seal, ox, and horse.</p>
+
+<p>The body of the adult worm is cylindrical, more or less red
+in color, and somewhat thicker behind than in front. The
+head is broadly obtuse, the mouth being supplied with six
+small, wart-like papillæ, two of which correspond with the
+commencement of the two lateral lines of the body. These
+lines are also distinguishable from other six longitudinal lines
+traversing the body from end to end by the presence of very
+minute papillæ which are less closely arranged towards the<span class="pagenum" title="209"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a></span>
+centre (Leuckart). The tail of the male shows a simple,
+thick, cup-shaped bursa, which is destitute of rays, and
+partly conceals the simple spiculum. The tail of the female
+is blunt and pierced by the centrally placed anal opening.
+The vulva is situated near the head in the ventral line. The
+eggs are stout and oval, measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">300</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length by about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">550</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in breadth.</p>
+
+<p>As regards development the recent researches of Schneider
+have shown that certain kinds of fish play the part of intermediary
+bearer. Balbiani preserved the ova in water for more
+than a year without their hatching, and all his attempts to rear
+the larvæ in the intestines of the dog by direct experiment
+failed. Similar feeding experiments upon fishes and reptiles
+also failed. The embryo, when removed from the egg, measures
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">104</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. It is vermiform, having a pointed head and
+simple mouth. Balbiani describes the buccal cavity as containing
+a protractile stylet. Notwithstanding the negative
+results obtained by Balbiani’s experiments on fishes, Schneider
+(from anatomical data, which Leuckart confirms) has placed it
+almost beyond question that the worm hitherto known as
+<i>Filaria cystica</i> is the sexually-immature <i>Eustrongylus gigas</i>.
+This worm is found encysted beneath the peritoneal membrane
+in <i>Galaxias scriba</i> and <i>Synbranchus laticaudatus</i>. It is worthy
+of remark that the genus Galaxias comes nearer to the Salmonidæ
+than to the pike family, whilst the Synbranchi are
+tropical oceanic fishes. Probably the sexually-immature worm
+occurs in other fishes, especially the Salmonidæ.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkably fine examples of the adult worm may be seen
+in the Hunterian Collection, Lincoln’s Inn, and in the Museum
+of the Royal Veterinary College. The human example is
+undoubtedly genuine. The dissections in the Hunterian Collection
+of specimens were made by me in 1865. Objection has
+been taken to my description of the œsophagus as “spiral.”
+In Sheldon’s specimen it is certainly twisted upon itself, precisely
+in the manner in which Davaine has also figured it (‘Traité,’ fig.
+68); but I cannot here give further anatomical particulars.
+Drelincourt found two worms sexually united in the kidney.
+When once the parasites have gained access to this organ,
+rapid destruction of the glandular substance follows. Ultimately
+the kidney is reduced to the condition of a mere cyst or
+bag, which, besides the worms, contains a quantity of sanguineo-purulent
+matter. Frequently only one worm is present, but<span class="pagenum" title="210"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a></span>
+oftener two or three. In the kidney of a puma D’Azara’s
+friend, Noseda, found no less than six worms, whilst Klein
+obtained eight from the kidney of a wolf.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_28"></a>No. 28).&mdash;<i>Azara, F. de</i>, ‘The Natural History
+of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay,’ trans. from the Spanish by
+W. P. Hunter; Valpy’s edit., p. 43, 1837; Black’s, 1838;
+French edit., p. 313, 1801.&mdash;<i>Albers</i>, ‘Beitr. z. Anat. &amp;c.,’ Bd. i,
+s. 115.&mdash;<i>Aubinais</i>, ‘Revue Méd.,’ 1846, p. 284.&mdash;<i>Balbiani</i>,
+“Recherches,” &amp;c., ‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1869, p. 1091; ‘Rec. de
+Méd Vét.,’ 1870, p. 5.&mdash;<i>Bickford</i>, “Spec. of <i>Str. gigas</i> found in
+the Kidney of a Dog,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1859, p. 312.&mdash;<i>Blainville</i>,
+‘Dict. des Sci. Nat.,’ tab. 29.&mdash;<i>Blanchard</i>, ‘Ann.
+des Sci. Nat.,’ 1849, p. 186.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Cuvier’s Règne Animal’
+(Masson’s edit.), ‘Les Intestinaux,’ p. 57, pl. 27.&mdash;<i>Blasius</i>, ‘Obs.,
+&amp;c.’ (with fig. of Lumbricus in renibus hominis), 1674, p. 125.&mdash;<i>Bobe-Moreau</i>,
+in ‘Journ. de Méd.,’ tom. xlvii.&mdash;<i>Boerhaave</i>,
+‘Aphorism.,’ 1728.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i> (l. c., Bibl. 2), s. 223.&mdash;<i>Chabert</i>,
+‘Traité des maladies verm. dans les Animaux,’ 1782.&mdash;<i>Chiaje</i>,
+‘Comp. d. Elmintogr. umana,’ p. 106.&mdash;<i>Clamorgan, J. de</i>, ‘La
+Chasse de Loup,’ 1583 (quoted by Davaine, the worms being
+described as “serpents et bêtes fort venemeuses”).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>,
+‘Entoz.,’ p. 358.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Catalogue of Entozoa in the Museum
+of the Roy. Coll. of Surg.,’ “Descr. of preps. Nos. 19&ndash;25,” p. 3,
+1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Parasites of Man,” ‘Midland Naturalist,’ Dec.,
+1878.&mdash;<i>Collet-Meygret</i>, “Mém. sur un ver trouvé dans le rein
+d’un Chien,” in ‘Journ. de Physique,’ &amp;c., 1802.&mdash;<i>Cuvier</i>, see
+<i>Blanchard</i> (supra).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Voyage en Sicile,’ and in ‘Ann.
+des Sci. Nat.,’ tom. xi.&mdash;<i>Davaine, C.</i>, ‘Traité,’ l. c., deuxième
+edit., p. 271 <i>et seq.</i> (with full lit. refs. at p. 290).&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, l. c.,
+vol. ii, p. 325.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>, l. c., p. 113.&mdash;<i>Frank, F.</i>, “Ein Spulwürm
+in der Urinblase eines Hundes,” ‘Hufeland’s Journ.,’
+Bd. xviii, s. 112.&mdash;<i>Jackson</i>, ‘Catalogue of the Boston Museum,’
+1847, p. 317.&mdash;<i>Klein, T. K.</i>, “Anatomical Description of Worms
+found in the Kidneys of Wolves,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1729&ndash;30,
+p. 269.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, l. c., Eng. edit., p. 376.&mdash;<i>Leblanc</i> (rep.
+by Rayer and Bouley), in ‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Méd.,’ 1850,
+p. 640; in ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ 1862, p. 800; and quoted by
+Davaine.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., Bd. ii, s. 353&ndash;401, 1876.&mdash;<i>Moublet</i>,
+“Mém. sur les vers sortis des reins et de l’urethre d’un enfant,”
+‘Journ. de Méd-Chir. et Pharm.,’ 1758, pp. 244 and 337.&mdash;<i>Otto</i>
+(Anat.), in ‘Mag. d. Gesellsch. naturf.,’ 1814.&mdash;<i>Owen</i>, art.
+“Entozoa,” in Todd’s ‘Cyclop.’&mdash;<i>Rayer</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="211"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a></span>‘Traité des maladies
+des reins,’ 1841.&mdash;<i>Rayger</i>, ‘Sur un serpent qui sortit du
+corps d’un homme après sa mort’ (quoted by Davaine, l. c.,
+p. 272), 1675.&mdash;<i>Schneider</i>, ‘Monographie der Nematoden,’
+1866, s. 50.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (mit Peters), quoted by Leuckart, l. c.,
+s. 382.&mdash;<i>Stratton</i>, in ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ p. 261,
+1843.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dochmius duodenalis</i>, Leuckart.&mdash;Much time might be occupied
+and wasted over the nomenclature of this parasite. In
+my previous treatise, and for reasons there stated, I placed it
+under the genus <i>Sclerostoma</i>. On rather slender grounds
+Dubini formed the genus <i>Anchylostoma</i> for its reception, but
+Von Siebold thought that, on account of the absence of symmetry
+in the arrangement of the so-called dental organs,
+Dubini’s genus might very well be allowed to remain. Bilharz,
+Diesing, Küchenmeister, Wucherer, and others have retained
+the genus as either <i>Anchylostoma</i> or <i>Anchylostomum</i>. Schneider
+keeps it amongst the <i>Strongyli</i>; but after all that has been said
+and written there can, I think, be no doubt that if Dujardin’s
+genus <i>Dochmius</i> is to be retained at all, Dubini’s worm
+must be placed in it. The comparisons instituted by Leuckart
+afford sufficient proof of the intimate alliance as between
+<i>Anchylostoma</i> and <i>Dochmius</i>. Professor Molin thought to
+meet the difficulty by calling the worm <i>Dochmius anchylostomum</i>,
+but the specific term, <i>duodenale</i>, should certainly be
+retained.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/f41.jpg" width="150" height="227" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Male <i>Dochmius duodenalis</i>,
+with bursa separately enlarged.
+After Küchenmeister.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This worm was discovered by Dubini at Milan, and though
+at first thought rare, it is now known to be tolerably common
+throughout Northern Italy. The worm has also been recently
+found by Dr Kundrata at Vienna, in an Austrian subject.
+According to Pruner, Bilharz, and Griesinger, it is abundant in
+Egypt. Griesinger believed that about one fourth of the
+people of that country suffered from anæmic chlorosis, solely in
+consequence of the presence of this worm in the small intestines.
+From Wucherer’s observations especially, we know that
+Dubini’s worm is not limited to the localities above mentioned,
+for it occurs in the western tropics, in Brazil, and even in the
+Comoro Islands.</p>
+
+<p>The worm may be described as a small nematode, the males
+measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> or rather more, whilst the females extend to very
+nearly <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> (12&nbsp;mm.). The head is pointed and tapering,
+and bent forward, having the mouth directed towards the
+ventral aspect. The oral opening is armed with four asym<span class="pagenum" title="212"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a></span>metrically
+disposed, unequally-sized, horny, conical, converging
+teeth. The neck is continuous with
+the cylindrical body, which is <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">80</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+thickness. The body terminates in a
+straight cone-shaped, or rather sharply-pointed
+tail in the female, the caudal
+extremity of the male ending in a
+partially inflexed, blunt point. In the
+male there is a cup-shaped, bilobed
+bursa, the membranes of which are
+supported by eleven chitinous rays, ten
+being simple, whilst the median, or odd
+one, is bifurcated at the summit. The
+mode of reproduction is viviparous.
+Adult males and females occur in the
+proportion of one of the former to
+three of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>As above mentioned, it was Griesinger who first pointed out
+the clinical importance of this entozoon. He first explained
+the manner in which the worm produces anæmia, the persons
+attacked losing blood as if they were being bitten by innumerable
+small leeches. Like the rest of their kindred, these
+worms are veritable blood-suckers. In the first instance the
+views of Griesinger met with opposition, but they have since
+received abundant confirmation. Whilst Küchenmeister’s
+‘Manual’ furnishes an excellent account of the disorder as
+known in Europe, we are chiefly indebted to Wucherer for
+what is known of the disorder in Brazil. The experiences
+recorded in the ‘Deutsches Archiv für Klinische Medicin’ for
+Sept. 27th, 1872 (s. 379&ndash;400), were amongst the last that
+appeared from the pen of that gifted and amiable physician.
+As little or no notice of his writings appears to have been
+taken by professional men in this country, I depart somewhat
+from the design of this work when I venture to abstract a few
+of the clinical particulars which he has supplied. Their importance
+in relation to sanitary science is obvious, inasmuch as
+these parasites are introduced into the human body by drinking
+impure water, or, at least, water which either contains the
+free larvæ of the worm, or the intermediary bearers that harbor
+the larvæ.</p>
+
+<p>It should be borne in mind that Dubini’s original discovery
+was made at Milan in 1838, whilst Griesinger’s recognition<span class="pagenum" title="213"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a></span>
+of the worm as a cause of the Egyptian chlorosis resulted
+from a post-mortem examination made on the 17th of April,
+1851.</p>
+
+<p>In the journal above mentioned, Wucherer records his own
+discoveries as follows (‘Ueber die Anchylostomunkrankheit,’
+&amp;c.):&mdash;“Although Griesinger with well-founded confidence
+gave an account of his ‘find’ and its significance, yet it remained
+for a long time unnoticed and unutilised, till at length a case
+led me to corroborate it. During my many years’ residence in
+Brazil, especially during the first year, I had very frequent
+opportunities for witnessing the tropical chlorosis, but seldom to
+treat it, as it is one of those diseases for which Brazilians seek
+no medical assistance. Its treatment falls to the lot of the
+<i>curiosos</i>, <i>curadeiros</i> (quacks), who employ the fresh pulp of a
+species of fig as a remedial agent with the best results. On
+the 13th of December, 1865, I was called to the Benedictine
+monastery in Bahia to see a slave of the <i>order</i> suffering from
+<i>hypoæmia</i>. The patient was about thirty years of age, married,
+a strongly built mulatto. He was a field laborer on the Ingua
+plantation of the order, who exhibited in a conspicuous degree
+all the symptoms that occur in hypoæmia except the diarrhœa.
+He was well nourished, but strikingly pale, his whole face, but
+especially the eyelids, being œdematously swollen, as also were
+the feet, legs, and hands. The hands and feet were very cold.
+His appearance betrayed the most horrible anguish or low despondency.
+With difficulty only could he raise himself, being
+obliged to lie down again immediately on account of his weakness.
+Auscultation revealed a diminished respiratory murmur,
+and bronchial expiration in both lungs. The pulse was very
+rapid and small, the patient complaining of pain in the region
+of the heart. He had frequent palpitation when he moved, and
+he complained of pain in other parts of the body. His abdomen
+was much distended by gases, but not sensitive to pressure from
+without, except in the region of the stomach. The urine was
+clear, its specific gravity 1007 to <ins title="Transcriber’s Note: degree symbol ° is present in original text even though specific gravity is a ratio and therefore dimensionless."><span class="nowrap">1023<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span>°.</span></ins> Under great difficulties
+he resided for several months after his marriage at
+Inhatâ. Earlier he had been on the estates of the order at
+Rio de S. Francisco. He there suffered for a long time from
+intermittent fever, but at Inhatâ he entirely recovered. At
+Inhatâ the slaves frequently suffered from hypoæmia, but in
+S. Francisco not at all. He appears not to have made any
+misuse of brandy. The slaves of the order were well cared for,<span class="pagenum" title="214"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a></span>
+and supplied with good and wholesome nourishing food. The
+patient had already, for a long period, treated himself with
+steel wine, yet was continually getting worse and worse. He
+had not taken the pulp of the fig. As I was unaware he had
+suddenly become so ill, they hastily despatched a message to
+the town. There was no good to be expected from the further
+employment of iron, and the patient was in such a condition that
+from the very first I despaired of his recovery. I immediately
+prescribed the pulp of the Gammeleira (<i>Ficus doliaria</i>), but
+it could not be easily obtained. Considering that the Gammeleira
+would have a drastic effect, I therefore prescribed two
+grammes of elaterium, to be divided into eight doses, of which
+he should take one every three hours.” Dissatisfied with this
+advice, however, Dr Wucherer goes on to say that on reaching
+home he carefully looked up the literature of the subject. “In
+a ‘Geologico-Medical Report’ by Professor Hirch, recorded in
+the ninety-sixth volume of ‘Schmidt’s Jahrbucher,’ I found
+how Griesinger had recognised the <i>Anchylostoma</i> as the cause
+of the Egyptian chlorosis, which was clearly identical with our
+<i>hypoæmia</i>. He had employed this commended anthelmintic. I
+resolved the more to prescribe the pulp of the Gammeleira
+when I found it described as a worm-expelling remedy in
+Martin’s ‘Systema Materiæ Vegetabilis Braziliensis.’ The next
+morning, however, when I arrived at the monastery I learnt
+that my patient died about two hours after a slight evacuation.
+Only after much resistance would they permit the <i>sectio cadaveris</i>.
+I merely opened the abdomen, and was surprised to find
+everything as Griesinger had described. During the next
+season, through the courtesy of my colleagues attached to the
+General Infirmary at Bahia, especially of Drs Silva Lima,
+Faria, and Caldos, I was enabled to open more than twenty
+bodies of anæmically deceased individuals. All were selected
+as miserably poor in condition, but only five were bodies of
+persons in whom hypoæmia was diagnosed, and in these there
+were a great number of Anchylostomes in the small intestine.
+The intestines of the other bodies contained either none, one, or a
+few.” Dr Wucherer next states that he compared the characters
+presented by his entozoa with those given by Dubini, Diesing,
+and Von Siebold, and found a perfect agreement throughout.
+He sent several examples to Griesinger, who also established
+their identity, and communicated the results of his investigations
+accordingly (‘Archiv für Heilkunde,’ 1866, s. 387.<span class="pagenum" title="215"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a></span>
+See also Leuckart, ‘Die Mensch. Par.,’ Bd ii, s. 411). Dr
+Wucherer also forwarded a number of specimens to Dr Weber,
+who published a brief account of them with excellent figures
+(‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xviii, 1867, p. 274). As mentioned
+in the text of his memoir (s. 394), Dr Wucherer also transmitted
+some strongyloids to myself. “The publication of my observations,”
+adds Dr Wucherer (‘Gazeta Medica da Bahia,’ 1866,
+p. 27 <i>et seq.</i>), “had a result in that Dr J. R. de Moura, of
+Thersepolis, in the province of Rio de Janeiro, sought for Anchylostomes
+in the bodies of tropical anæmics (<i>Hypöæmikern</i>). He
+at once found these parasites, as stated in the same journal (for
+1866, p. 132). As occurred to myself, he saw no enduring
+results from the application of the remedies which appeared
+to be called for, whilst he well knew that unprofessional persons
+(Nichtärzte) succeeded in obtaining marked results by the
+exhibition of the pulp of the Gammeleira (<i>Ficus doliaria</i>). The
+anthelmintic action of this remedy was also unknown to him.”
+Dr Wucherer then records how his discovery of these entozoa
+was announced by Dr Jobini to the Rio academy, and how Dr
+Moura’s observations were subsequently communicated, adding
+remarks upon the interesting discussion that followed. The
+general opinion was that the <i>Anchylostomata</i> were <i>not</i> the
+primary and necessary cause of this tropical anæmia, but rather
+a co-operating agent in its production. Against this view Dr
+Wucherer afterwards very properly protested (‘Gazeta,’ Jan. 15th,
+1868). In the mean time, says our author, “Dr le Roy de
+Méricourt, prompted by my first communication, had invited
+the physicians of the French colony to seek for Anchylostomes.
+Drs Monestier and Grenet, at Mayotta (one of the Comoro Isles,
+which lies about 12° S. lat. to the north-east of Madagascar),
+ascertained the presence of entozoa in hypoæmics. Dr Grenet
+sent the duodenum and a portion of the jejunum of an hypoæmic
+corpse to Le Roy de Méricourt, who compared the Anchylostomes
+with Davaine’s description, and recognised them as
+examples of <i>A. duodenale</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>“In the year 1868 Dr Rion Kérangel found Anchylostomes in
+the bodies of hypoæmics in Cayenne. Thus, the occurrence of
+Anchylostomes in hypoæmics has been authenticated by Pruner,
+Bilharz, and Griesinger, in Egypt; by myself, Dr Moura,
+Dr Tourinho, and other physicians, in Brazil; by Monestier and
+Grenet, in the Comoros; and by Rion Kérangel in Cayenne.
+It thus also appears, from the wide separation of these several<span class="pagenum" title="216"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a></span>
+localities, that the Anchylostomes, if duly sought for, will be
+found in many other countries.”</p>
+
+<p>These details given by Wucherer are so precise and instructive
+that I could not have further abridged them without injustice
+to his record. The bearing of the foregoing facts in relation
+to the question as to how we may hope to arrest the fatal action
+of many of these nematodes is sufficiently obvious. That
+strongyles and their allies prove highly destructive to man and
+beast is as well established as any other recognised conclusion
+in medical science; nevertheless, there are those who still doubt
+the power of these nematodes in relation to the production of
+fatal epidemics. I shall deal with the sanitary bearings of the
+subject hereafter. In conclusion, I may mention that Dr da
+Silva Lima has forwarded specimens of <i>Anchylostomum</i> to the
+Hunterian Museum, where they may be seen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_29"></a>No. 29).&mdash;<i>Bilharz</i>, ‘Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.,’
+Bd. iv, s. 55.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ p. 361.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> “Remarks on
+Recent Contributions to our Knowledge of the Parasitic Nematoids,
+especially in reference to the Wasting Diseases they produce in
+Man and Animals,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan., 1876, p. 1.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>,
+l. c., pp. 118 and 931.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i> “Revis. der Nematoden,”
+‘Sitzb. d. m.-naturw. cl. d. k. Akad.,’ 1860, s. 716.&mdash;<i>Dubini</i>,
+‘Entozoografia,’ &amp;c., 1849.&mdash;<i>Griesinger</i> (quoted above),
+see also ‘Arch. f. Phys. Heilk.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, l. c.,
+Eng. edit., p. 383.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., ss. 410&ndash;455.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>,
+‘Il sottordine degli Acroffali,’ p. 61 (quoted by Leuckart).&mdash;<i>Siebold</i>,
+‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,’ 1852, s. 55.&mdash;<i>Sonsino, P.</i>,
+<i>L’Anchilostoma duodenale</i> in ‘relazione coll’ Anemia progressiva
+perniciosa,’ Egitto, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Sull.’ <i>Anch. duod.</i>, 1878 (see
+also Bibliog. No. 27, both reprinted from ‘Imparziale.’)&mdash;<i>Weber,
+H.</i>, l. c., 1867.&mdash;<i>Wucherer</i> (quoted above), 1872.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/f42.jpg" width="110" height="748" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Outline of a female
+<i>Dracunculus medinensis</i>.
+Nat. size. Original.
+</div></div>
+
+<p><i>Dracunculus medinensis</i>, Cobbold.&mdash;This parasite is popularly
+known as the guinea-worm, or Medina-worm. Probably
+Lister was the first writer who distinctly spoke of it
+as the Dracunculus, 1690, the same title being applied to it by
+Kaempfer, 1694. Be that as it may, Gmelin, long afterwards,
+placed the parasite in the genus <i>Filaria</i>, at the same time
+adopting the specific title <i>medinensis</i>. This had been previously
+employed by Linneus, who, however, regarded the worm
+as belonging to the genus <i>Gordius</i>. It being clear from the
+distinctive characters of the entozoon that it was desirable to
+separate it from the Filariæ, and that no better generic name<span class="pagenum" title="217"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a></span>
+could be devised than <i>Dracunculus</i>, I thought it right to
+combine Lister’s and Gmelin’s nomenclature as above, 1864.
+Leuckart pursued a similar course, crediting Linneus with the
+titles.</p>
+
+<p>The guinea-worm having been known from the earliest times,
+it is not surprising that its true nature long remained a
+mystery. Any one who has read Küchenmeister’s elaborate
+narrative of the historical significance of the Dracunculus will
+hardly have failed to arrive at the conclusion that Moses was
+probably the earliest writer on the endemic disorder which is
+occasioned by this parasite. There can be no doubt that the
+“fiery serpents” which afflicted the children of Israel during
+their stay in the neighbourhood of the Red Sea were neither
+more nor less than examples of our Dracunculus. It is further
+evident that Plutarch spoke of Dracunculi, when in the eighth
+book of his ‘Symposiacon,’ he quotes Agatharchidas as stating
+that the people taken ill on the Red Sea suffered from many
+strange and unheard-of attacks, amongst other worms, from
+“little snakes, which came out upon them, gnawed away their
+legs and arms, and when touched retracted, coiled themselves
+up in the muscles, and there gave rise to the most insupportable
+pains.” In order to render the passage more readable, it will
+be seen that I have slightly altered the original version (‘Parasites,’
+s. 305).</p>
+
+<p>The guinea-worm may be described as a nematode measuring
+from one to six feet in length, having a thickness
+of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">10</span></span>th</span> of an inch. The body is uniformly cylindrical, terminating
+below in a more or less curved and mucronately pointed
+tail. The head is flatly convex or truncate, having a central,
+simple mouth, which is surrounded by four equi-distantly and
+cruciately disposed papillæ. The mode of reproduction is
+viviparous, the body enclosing a prodigious number of hatched
+embryos, which, by distension of the uterine ducts, almost
+entirely obliterate the somatic cavity. Notwithstanding the
+statements of Owen to the contrary, the male Dracunculus is at
+present altogether unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The guinea-worm possesses a comparatively limited geographical
+range, for not only is it proper to the tropical regions,
+but within intertropical limits it is almost exclusively confined
+to certain districts in Asia and Africa. Thus, according to
+Künsenmuller, as quoted by Busk, it occurs endemically in Arabia
+Petræa, on the borders of the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea, on the<span class="pagenum" title="218"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a></span>
+banks of the Ganges, in Upper Egypt, Abyssinia,
+and the coast of Guinea. “In America
+the guinea-worm is unknown, except in persons
+who have had communication with Africa
+or other parts where it is indigenous. The
+island of Curaçoa is the only locality in the
+New World which offers an apparent exception
+to this fact, and it would be highly
+desirable to ascertain the real state of the case
+in this instance.” The observations of Chisholm
+showed that the Dracunculus is really
+prevalent in several of the West Indian islands,
+especially in Grenada, and the still later investigations
+of Dr Da Silva Lima point to its
+former prevalence in Brazil. Now, the worm is
+rarely seen at Bahia. Mr Busk <span class="nowrap">said:&mdash;</span>“Though
+endemic only in the above-mentioned parts of
+the world, it would yet appear that all races
+of mankind are obnoxious to the attacks of
+the <i>Filaria</i> when exposed to what may be
+called the contagion; that is, when placed in
+circumstances under which it might be supposed
+a contagious <i>seminium</i> could be conveyed
+to them.” Mr Busk also <span class="nowrap">added:&mdash;</span>“I have
+known many instances tending to prove that,
+in order that a European should become infected
+with the guinea-worm on the coast of
+Africa, it is not necessary that he should have
+been on shore at all. It has been quite sufficient
+for him to have exposed the bare
+surface of some parts of his person to the
+water in the native canoes alongside, or, it
+may be, to the discharge from the sores of
+those laboring under the disease. This mode
+of its introduction accounts for the frequency
+with which the legs and feet are attacked
+by the parasite, in preference to other parts
+of the body, as it will always, I believe, be
+found that the men who have become so affected
+have been in the habit of going about with bare
+feet, as is common among sailors in warm
+latitudes. That the contagious material is<span class="pagenum" title="219"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a></span>
+conveyed in water is also further indicated by the well-known
+fact that in India, where it is the custom of the natives to carry
+water in skins on their backs, the worm makes its appearance
+on the back and shoulders and upper part of the body.”
+These views were published by Busk in 1846, and I am free to
+confess that&mdash;confirmed as they appeared to be by subsequent
+and independent testimony&mdash;they completely dominated my conceptions
+as to the mode of ingress of the young parasites within
+the human bearer. Thus, those of our Indian troops which
+were most exposed during the rainy season, subsequently
+exhibited evidence of having been invaded by the Dracunculus.
+As, moreover, the period of incubation of the entozoon commonly
+extends from twelve to fifteen months, it necessarily
+happened that the disease often showed itself in localities far
+distant from the spot where the troops originally contracted the
+disorder. The statement that the period of incubation of the
+worm is not less than a year, is probably incorrect, since Carter
+mentions that in a school of fifty boys bathing in a certain pond
+at Bombay&mdash;the sediment of which swarmed with microscopic
+tank-worms (<i>Urobales palustris</i>, Carter)&mdash;twenty-one were
+attacked with Dracunculus during the year, whilst the boys of
+other schools, bathing elsewhere, remained, with few exceptions,
+uninfected. This is a remarkable occurrence, and it points to
+the possibility of the young Dracunculi being confined to
+particular pools. That they should, whether occupying the
+bodies of intermediary bearers or not, be more abundant in some
+waters than others, is just what might be expected, since such
+a distribution is in harmony with a recognised law affecting the
+abundance or limitation of species in particular localities.
+Much, indeed, has been written respecting the nature of the soil
+and geological formations occurring in the Indian worm-districts,
+but the speculative views enunciated on this point are
+little worthy of credit. Those who desire information on this
+head should at all events consult the valuable writings of
+Smyttan, Greenhow, Bird, Forbes, Chisholm, and Aitken,
+who, apart from the question at issue, supply abundance of
+practical information.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 285px;">
+<img src="images/f43.jpg" width="285" height="436" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, Head and tail of the adult guinea-worm (magnified 10 and 18 diameters
+respectively); <i>c</i>, embryo (magnified 500 diameters). Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Into the anatomy of the adult Dracunculus I do not enter,
+but I may remark in passing, that the structure of the worm
+has been exhaustively treated of by Busk and Bastian. A
+<i>résumé</i> of their views is given in my introductory treatise. Carter
+and Leuckart have also added important details. As regards<span class="pagenum" title="220"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a></span>
+the structure and development of the young worms, I have to
+observe that the discovery of the viviparous mode of reproduction
+in Dracunculus is due to Jacobson. Nearly a quarter of a
+century ago I recognised the fact that the uterine organs of the
+adult worm almost completely filled up the perivisceral cavity,
+and that they were crowded with microscopic worms. Referring
+to this “find,” the late Sir George Ballingall, of Edinburgh,
+in his well-known work on ‘Military Surgery,’ recorded the
+circumstance in the following <span class="nowrap">terms:&mdash;</span>“The Assistant Conservator
+of the Anatomical Museum in our University has
+detected <i>in the oviduct</i> of an adult specimen from my collection
+myriads of minute and perfectly-developed (embryonic) Dracunculi.
+They can be very well seen with an half-inch object-glass,
+but their structure is best exhibited if the magnifying<span class="pagenum" title="221"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a></span>
+power be increased to two hundred and fifty diameters linear.”
+As already stated in my introductory treatise, these observations
+were made during the winter of 1853&ndash;54. In July, 1854,
+M. Robin made a similar statement after examining a fresh
+<i>Dracunculus</i> which had been extracted from the leg of a man
+by M. Malgaigne. Robin, not unsuitably, compared the worm
+to a double tube, one tubular sheath, as it were, enclosing the
+other. “The second tube,” he distinctly affirms, “<i>is the
+oviduct, or, rather, that part which represents the uterus</i>. The
+young still remaining in the uterus were nearly all coiled, sometimes
+with the tail sallying outwards, at others rolled like the
+rest of the body.” I have thought it only due to Robin and
+myself to show that from the first we were perfectly well
+acquainted with the fact of the “great development of the
+genital tube and of its close adherence to the parietes of the
+body.” To be sure, many discrepancies occurred in our
+writings, and in those of Busk and Carter. It was Bastian’s
+skill and good fortune to correct these errors. Thus, most of
+us agreed in recognising a slightly trilobed or tripapillated
+mouth; but Carter failed to demonstrate the existence of these
+tubercles, and spoke of the oral aperture as being simple and
+“punctiform.” The body throughout its three upper fourths
+appeared to me to be cylindrical, but Robin found that it was
+flattened. It is finely striated transversely, except at the part
+where it contracts to form the slender, pointed tail. According
+to Carter, Robin, and Davaine, the young attain a length of
+about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">33</span></span></span> of an inch, but Bastian gives it as about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">42</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. In
+thickness, Carter gives the approximative diameter as <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">633</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+Robin makes it <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">990</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1320</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, whilst Bastian gives their breadth
+at <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1428</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, and Davaine at <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. I estimated their greatest length
+and breadth to be <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">30</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. Robin and myself thought we
+recognised a distinct, rounded, anal orifice; and whilst Busk,
+on the one hand, saw nothing which in the slightest degree
+indicated the presence of an anal opening, Carter, on the other
+hand, described the structure which we called the anus as a
+gland, at the same time placing the alimentary outlet on one
+side and a little above it. According to Bastian, “the intestinal
+tube is about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">87</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, and appears to consist of a
+simple canal of varying calibre, pursuing a nearly straight
+course, and terminating exactly at about the middle, in length,
+of the worm.” Like Robin, Bastian recognised œsophageal and
+stomachal divisions, and in a few examples he observed the<span class="pagenum" title="222"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a></span>
+cæcal or terminal portion of the intestine to be partially reflected
+upon itself. In regard to the circular
+opening which Robin and myself described
+as the anus, Bastian says there
+is a rounded body, “about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2200</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter,
+with a dark or light spot in the
+centre, according to the varying focal
+distance, and which seems to represent
+a central aperture. Sometimes, above
+this, traces of two or three large cells
+may be recognised, whilst behind nothing
+definite can be made out, save that
+the cavity of the body is visible for
+about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">400</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. In other specimens of the
+young worm the central body and spot
+are wanting, but, in its stead, two lateral
+sacculi are met with, about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3300</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter,
+that communicate with the exterior
+by a minute channel through the
+integuments, which can sometimes be
+distinctly recognised. At other times
+the channel is obscured by protrusion,
+which appears to have taken place
+through it, of a minute bilobed papilla,
+projecting <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">10,000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from the side of the
+body. When the projections are seen,
+the sacculi are indistinct.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<img src="images/f44.jpg" width="155" height="506" style="padding-left: 10px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;Embryos of <i>Dracunculus</i>.
+Magnified 500 diameters. After
+Bastian.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As Bastian found the young in all
+stages of development from the germ
+condition <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">5000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter up to the perfect
+embryo, and as, moreover, he, like the
+rest of us, could detect no sexual orifice
+in the adult Dracunculus, he was led to
+express his belief that the young were produced agamogenetically.
+He went so far as to call the germs <i>pseudova</i>. It was with
+great reluctance that I dissented from the views of so gifted an
+observer as Bastian; nevertheless, later researches have shown
+that I was justified in not hastily concurring in the theory of a
+non-sexual mode of reproduction for Dracunculus.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many advances of modern helminthology, the
+discovery of the true source of the guinea-worm is not the least
+important. To the late M. Fedschenko (the lamented and<span class="pagenum" title="223"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a></span>
+accomplished Russian traveller, who lost his life in a snowstorm
+on the Alps), science stands indebted for this memorable
+advance. Fedschenko showed that the embryos of Dracunculi,
+after quitting the human host, succeed in effecting an entry
+into the bodies of entomostracous crustaceans belonging to the
+genus Cyclops. Within these intermediary bearers, after
+twelve hours’ sojourn, the embryos undergo a change of skin,
+attended with subsequent growth. Here they remain to complete
+their larval development, which takes place within a
+period of five weeks, or, as Fedschenko himself told me, one
+month and six days. At length, as perfected larvæ, they are,
+together with their crustacean hosts, transmitted to the stomach
+of the ultimate or human bearer. It is probable that sexual
+maturity is next acquired within the human stomach, copulation
+following. After this, the females migrate to the situations
+in which they are found beneath the skin of the human
+bearer, whilst the males perish and pass out with the fæces.
+Thus much I gathered from M. Fedschenko himself when he
+visited this country, and I possess a sketch of the larvæ made
+by him at the time (October 23rd, 1873). One of the figures
+represents a larva which has undergone ecdysis, the long and
+narrow embryonic tail being supplanted by one which is blunt
+and forked at the tip. The somatic contents of the embryo
+have at the same time differentiated into a complete intestinal
+tube, and a constriction marks the junction of the œsophagus
+with the stomach. There is also internally an oval-shaped
+mass of cells near the centre of the body. These represent
+the commencement of the reproductive organs.</p>
+
+<p>What I had gathered from Fedschenko in conversation thus
+epitomises that which has since been much more fully stated
+by Leuckart; and it is only fair to add that the Russian
+traveller was led up to his discovery by the previous investigations
+of Leuckart respecting the young of Cucullanus. The
+Leipsic helminthologist had, indeed, specially instructed Fedschenko
+as to the probable source of Dracunculus.</p>
+
+<p>It is often thus that science makes its clear advances, since
+a master-mind is needed to set others on the right track. The
+embryos of Cucullanus and Dracunculus bear a close resemblance
+to each other, and the similarity of the types is
+continued on, though not in the same degree, in the next stage
+of larval growth, after ecdysis. The higher larvæ of both have
+their tails trifurcate at the tip, the head of the Dracunculus-<span class="pagenum" title="224"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a></span>larva
+being distinguished by the presence of a pair of papillæ.
+In the case of Cucullanus the embryos are, according to
+Leuckart, passively transferred to the stomach of Cyclops by
+the mouth; but in the case of Dracunculus, Fedschenko saw the
+embryo in the act of perforating the bodies of the little crustacea
+at the ventral surface, where the segments are bound together
+by a thin and easily penetrated connecting membrane. The
+larvæ then proceed to coil themselves within the limbs, as many
+as six or even a dozen of the parasites being occasionally
+found within the body of a single crustacean host. When they
+have reached full larval growth they measure about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length.
+Of course, after attaining this stage, it is a matter of conjecture
+as to the precise way in which their final destiny is accomplished.
+Fedschenko fed dogs and cats with the infected crustacea, but
+failed to rear Dracunculi in these animals. Clearly, these
+carnivora were unsuitable hosts. Could Fedschenko have
+experimented on man the result would probably have been very
+different. Arguing from what happens in the case of Cucullanus
+amongst fishes, and Trichina in man, there can be little
+doubt that all the further and final changes undergone by the
+larvæ are accomplished within the human host. These changes
+are usually, if not invariably, consequent upon a direct transference
+of the infested entomostraca along with water used as
+drink. Thus, it must at once be evident that the simple
+sanitary precaution of filtering water before use is amply sufficient
+to ensure the prevention of attacks of dracontiasis or the
+guinea-worm disease. The theosophical remedy of Moses
+against this invasion by fiery serpents, as the worms were called
+in his time, and the modern prophylactic measures dictated
+alike by science and common sense, thus stand in striking
+contrast the one to the other. In the nature of things it must
+ever remain that unreason and reason will select diametrically
+opposite methods of action, equally, no doubt, with the good
+intention of bringing about beneficial results.</p>
+
+<p>From what has now been advanced, it will be seen that as
+regards the mode of infection the views categorically expressed
+in my previous work (‘Entozoa,’ p. 387) cannot be maintained.
+What, however, is there stated in respect of <i>treatment</i> still holds
+good in the main, even as regards prophylaxis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_30"></a>No. 30).&mdash;<i>Adam</i>, ‘Trans. Med. and Surg.
+Soc.,’ Calcutta, 1824.&mdash;<i>Aitken, W.</i>, ‘The Science and Practice
+of Medicine,’ 6th edit., vol. i, 1872.&mdash;(Anonymous), <span class="pagenum" title="225"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a></span>“Review of
+the writings and opinions of Duncan, Johnson, Bird, Mylne,
+Kennedy, Chisholm, H. Scott, A. J. Robertson, Smyttan,
+Macgregor, Thomas, Mosely, Morehead, Twining, and others,
+on the Dracunculus or Guinea-worm,” in ‘Corbyn’s India Journ.
+of Med. and Phys. Sci.,’ vol. ii, p. 118, 1836.&mdash;(Anon.), “The
+Guinea-worm very Prevalent at Bokhara,” ‘Boston Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ 1843, p. 387.&mdash;<i>Balfour, J.</i>, ‘Ind. Ann. Med.
+Sci.,’ 1859, p. 175.&mdash;<i>Ballingall, G.</i> (l. c., supra), 1854.&mdash;<i>Bastian,
+H. C.</i>, “On the Structure and Nature of the Dracunculus or
+Guinea-worm,” ‘Linn. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xxiv, p. 101, 1863.&mdash;<i>Berncastle,
+J.</i>, in the ‘Lancet,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Bird, J.</i>, ‘Calcutta Med.
+and Phys. Trans.,’ 1825, p. 151.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. 2),
+s. 194.&mdash;<i>Brett</i>, ‘Surgical Diseases of India,’ 1840; see also
+‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1841.&mdash;<i>Bruce, N.</i>, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1806, vol. ii, p. 145.&mdash;<i>Busk, G.</i>, ‘Micr. Soc. Trans.’
+(original series), 1846.&mdash;<i>Carter, H. J.</i>, “Note on Dracunculus in
+the Island of Bombay,” ‘Bombay Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.’
+(new series), No. 2, p. 45, 1853&ndash;54; see also postscript, p. 252.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Further Observ. on Dracunculus,” ‘Bomb. Med. and
+Phys. Soc. Trans.’ (new series), No. 4, p. 215, 1857&ndash;58.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Dracunculus and Microscopic Filaridæ,” ‘Ann. of Nat.
+Hist.,’ vol. iv (third series), 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Notes on Dracunculus,”
+&amp;c., ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. ix (third series), 1862.&mdash;<i>Chapotin</i>,
+‘Bull. des Sci. Med.,’ 1810.&mdash;<i>Charvet</i>, ‘Ann. des Sci.
+Nat.,’ 1834.&mdash;<i>Chiaje</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. 2), p. 99.&mdash;<i>Chisholm, C.</i>,
+“On the <i>Malis Dracunculus</i> or Guinea-worm (in Grenada),”
+‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xi, 1815; see also the
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ix, p. 508, 1836.&mdash;<i>Clark</i>, ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1840.&mdash;<i>Clarkson, N. F.</i>, “Alleged Case in the Horse,” the ‘Veterinary
+Record,’ 1845, p. 73.&mdash;<i>Clot-Bey</i>, ‘Aperçu sur le ver
+dragonneau observé en Egypte,’ 1830.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entozoa,’
+p. 373.&mdash;<i>Cuvier</i>, ‘Règne animal,’ Orr’s Eng. edit., 1849, p. 644.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>,
+‘Traité,’ l. c., edit. ii, p. 783 (full lit. refs.), 1878.&mdash;<i>Dickson</i>,
+‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Drummond</i>, ‘Med. Commentaries,’
+1793, p. 294.&mdash;<i>Dubois</i>, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ vol. ii, 1806.&mdash;<i>Duncan</i>, ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc.
+Trans.,’ 1835.&mdash;<i>Ewart, J.</i>, “Questions relating to Dracunculus,”
+in a review of his memoir on the “Vital Statistics of the Meywar
+Bheel Corps,” in the ‘Madras Quart. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ vol. i,
+1860, p. 462.&mdash;<i>Fedschenko</i>, ‘Protocol of the Promoters (Freunde)
+of the Natural and Physical Sciences at Moscow’ (in the
+Russian language), 1869 and 1874 (quoted by Leuckart).&mdash;<span class="pagenum" title="226"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a></span>
+<i>Forbes, D.</i>, “Observ. on Dracunculus” (extr. from the ‘Half-yearly
+Reports of the diseases prevailing at Dharwar in the 1st Grenadier
+Regiment, in the year 1836’), ‘Bombay Med. and Phys. Soc.
+Trans.,’ vol. i, 1838, p. 215.&mdash;<i>Gibson, A.</i>, “Note on the Prevalence
+of Dracunculus,” in his remarks on the “Diseases of the
+Deckan,” in ‘Bomb. Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. ii, 1839,
+p. 209.&mdash;<i>Gramberg</i>, ‘Geneeskundige tijdschrift voor nederl.
+Indie,’ 1861, p. 632 (quoted by Leuckart).&mdash;<i>Greenhow, H. M.</i>,
+‘Indian Ann. of Med. Sci.,’ vol. vii, 1861, p. 31.&mdash;<i>Grierson, D.</i>,
+“Observ. on the Dracunculus, as it prevailed in the 22nd
+Regiment, N.I., from April till September, 1841,” ‘Bomb.
+Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ No. 4, 1841, p. 90.&mdash;<i>Grundler</i>, in
+‘Commerc. Litt. Nov.,’ 1740, p. 239.&mdash;<i>Henderson, J.</i>, “Note
+respecting Four Cases of Dracunculus in the 48th Regiment,”
+‘Madras Quart. Journ.,’ vol. iii, 1841, p. 353.&mdash;<i>Horton, J. A. B.</i>,
+‘Army Med. Reports,’ 1868, p. 335.&mdash;<i>Kennedy, R. H.</i>, ‘Calcutta
+Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ 1825, p. 165.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i> (l. c.,
+Eng. edit.), p. 389.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. <a href="#No_1">1</a>), s. 644&ndash;725.&mdash;
+<i>Lewis, T. R.</i>, in ‘On a Hæmatozoon,’ &amp;c. (l. c., Bibl. No. <a href="#No_23">23</a>),
+p. 30 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Lima, Da S.</i>, “Remarks on the <i>Filaria medinensis</i>,
+or Guinea-Worm; on the occurrence of this Parasite endemically
+in the Province of Bahia; on its entrance into the human
+body by drinking water,” in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb., March,
+<i>et seq.</i>, 1879.&mdash;<i>Lister</i>, ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1690, p. 417.&mdash;<i>M’Clelland,
+J.</i>, ‘Calcutta Journ. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. i, 1841, p. 366.&mdash;<i>M’Grigor,
+J.</i>, “On the Guinea-worm” (in his “Account of the
+Diseases of the 88th Regiment in Bombay”), ‘Edin. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ vol. i, 1805, p. 284.&mdash;<i>Morehead, C.</i>, ‘Calcutta
+Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. vi, 1833, p. 418; also
+noticed in ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xliv, 1835.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+part ii, ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. viii,
+1836&ndash;42.&mdash;<i>Murray, J.</i>, “Guinea-worm a very Common Disease
+at Sattara” (in his Official Report on the Hospital, &amp;c.),
+‘Bombay Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ No. 9, art. vi, p. 198,
+1847.&mdash;<i>Oke, W. S.</i>, “Case of Guinea-worm,” ‘Prov. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ vol. vi, 1843.&mdash;<i>Oldfield</i>, “Case of Dracunculus”
+(from Laird and Oldfield’s “Narrative of an Expedition into
+the Interior of Africa”), ‘Dublin Journ.,’ vol. xii, 1838.&mdash;<i>Paton</i>,
+“Cases of Guinea-worm,” ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+vol. ii, 1806.&mdash;<i>Raddock</i>, “A Case of Guinea-worm,” ‘Indian
+Med. Gaz.,’ Oct., 1877, p. 265.&mdash;<i>Scott, W.</i>, “Remarks on the
+Dracunculus,” in a letter to the Medical Board, Madras, <span class="pagenum" title="227"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a></span>‘Edin.
+Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xvii, 1821.&mdash;<i>Leverance, C. E.</i>,
+“History of a Case of Guinea-worm,” from ‘Amer. Med. Times,’
+in the ‘Glasgow Med. Journ.,’ vol. ix, 1861&ndash;62, p. 377.&mdash;<i>Smyttan,
+G.</i>, “On Dracunculus,” ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys.
+Soc. Trans.,’ vol. i, 1825, p. 179.&mdash;<i>Stewart, L. W.</i>, ‘Indian Ann.
+of Med. Sci.,’ vol. vi, 1858, p. 88.&mdash;<i>Twining, W.</i>, “Cases of
+Dracunculus,” ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol.
+vii, 1835.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 285px;">
+<img src="images/f45.jpg" width="285" height="130" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i>.
+Highly magnified. After Busk.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i>, Bremser.&mdash;Of all the parasites infesting
+the human body this is the one concerning which the medical
+practitioner is most frequently consulted, partly on account of
+its remarkable frequency in children, and more particularly on
+account of the difficulty often experienced in getting permanently
+rid of it. The <i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i> is by no means confined
+to young persons, seeing that adults are infested even to
+old age. It is familiarly known as the threadworm or seatworm.
+The male measures about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, and the female from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. The female possesses a long capillary tail,
+which terminates in a three-pointed end. The extremity is
+said to act as a kind of holdfast. The tail of the male is obtusely
+pointed. In both sexes the body presents a more or less fusiform
+shape, the anterior end being narrowed to form a somewhat
+abruptly-truncated head, which is often rendered very
+conspicuous by a bulging of the transparent integument surrounding
+the mouth. This presents in profile the aspect of
+winged appendages (fig. 45). The oral opening is tripapillated,
+leading into a triangular œsophagus. The integument is transversely
+striated, and of a silvery-white appearance. The
+spicule is simple, single, and very minute. The eggs are
+oblong and unsymmetrical. They measure about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">900</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from pole
+to pole, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1400</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> transversely.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;">
+<img src="images/f46.jpg" width="360" height="565" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;Section of a female <i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i>, magnified 220 diameters (after Busk);
+and also several free eggs (original). <i>a</i>, With an imperfectly formed embryo; <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, with
+three tadpole-shaped embryos, magnified 450 diameters.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many years back (1863) I pointed out that the most advanced<span class="pagenum" title="228"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a></span>
+eggs whilst still within the body of the pregnant female
+contained tadpole-shaped embryos, and about the same time
+the fact was noticed by Claparède. In his beautiful and
+scholarly memoir, ‘De la formation et de la fécondation des
+œufs chez les vers Nématodes,’ he wrote concerning the ova as
+<span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“The egg, which exhibits the form of a very narrow
+disk in the ovary, acquires the shape of an elongated ellipsoid
+in the oviduct, and at the surface differentiates itself into a very<span class="pagenum" title="229"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a></span>
+thick vitelline membrane. Then it forms a strong and resisting
+chorion, which imparts to the egg an outline similar to that
+of a bridge’s span. It has an oval figure flattened at one of its
+sides. This chorion is very fragile; it frequently gives way
+under slight pressure from the thin plate of glass which covers
+the object. It extends itself considerably under the action of
+acetic acid, acquiring a size three or four times greater than
+that of the egg. The constitution of this chorion is perfectly
+identical in the eggs both before and after impregnation. It
+is, nevertheless, easy at first sight to know whether or not we
+have to deal with a fecundated egg. In the impregnated females
+the uteri are filled with thousands of ova, each one of which
+encloses an embryo already well formed. The ventral surface
+of the embryo and the tail are, without exception, applied to
+the flattened side of the egg. The embryo is very broad in the
+body, and occupies all the interior space. An embryo such as
+Küchenmeister has represented under the form of a small filiform
+worm folded on itself, and only occupying a very small
+part of the cavity of the egg, is never to be seen. In the non-fecundated
+females, on the other hand, the uteri are filled with
+eggs, which, instead of the embryo, enclose a non-segmented
+yolk furnished with a large germinal vesicle. This vesicle is
+not visible so long as the eggs have the form of thin disks; it
+only shows itself when the eggs begin to acquire an elliptical
+form in the oviduct. It is, however, probable that this vesicle
+is the same which was originally visible in the ovary.” The
+chorion itself is homogeneous, but in an allied species (<i>Oxyuris
+spirotheca</i>) Gyoery and Claparède found that this egg-covering
+consists of spirally-coiled bands resembling the tracheal spiral
+fibre of an insect. Under suitable conditions the tadpole-shaped
+embryos rapidly assume a vermiform character. The
+investigations of Leuckart have shown that “one only needs to
+expose the eggs to the action of the sun’s rays in a moistened
+paper envelope when, at the expiration of five or six hours, the
+tadpole-shaped embryos will have already become slender
+elongated worms.” According to Heller, the simplest way to
+rear the vermiform stage of Oxyuris is to put a number of the
+eggs in a glass tube filled up with saliva. The tube should
+then be placed in the arm-pit, in which situation it can be
+carried about with little inconvenience. In a few hours the
+transformations will commence and go on continuously until the
+vermiform condition is attained. If, as remarked in my<span class="pagenum" title="230"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a></span>
+‘Lectures,’ it be asked whether the embryos which have
+escaped into the bowel are capable of arriving at the vermiform
+stage, the answer is in the affirmative; for, as Leuckart says,
+“the elongated embryos are to be found not only in the fæces
+but also in the mucus of the rectum above and around the anus.”
+Vix has also asserted that free vermiform embryos are occasionally
+to be detected in the intestine of the human bearer
+along with the eggs; this hatching within the lower bowel,
+however, must, in my opinion, be regarded as exceptional.
+Heller is of the same opinion. According to Leuckart, the
+escape of the embryos from the eggs “ordinarily takes place
+under the action of the gastric juice, also primarily in that
+condition when they have by some means or other gained
+access to a new bearer.” Prof. Leuckart and three of his
+pupils courageously infected themselves by swallowing the eggs,
+and had the satisfaction of observing young Oxyurides in their
+stools fifteen days afterwards.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;">
+<img src="images/f47.jpg" width="190" height="401" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;Adult male <i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i>.
+Magnified. After Küchenmeister.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the united labors of Professors Zenker and Heller it is
+now rendered certain that all the further changes necessary to
+bring the larvæ to sexual maturity are accomplished within the
+small intestines of the human bearer; and it is not necessary
+that a change of hosts should occur at any time during the life of
+the parasite. Infection ordinarily takes place by the accidental
+and direct conveyance of the eggs that are lodged in the neighbourhood
+of the victim’s anus to the mouth. Since the victim
+may accomplish this during sleep, it is not in all cases fair to
+charge infected persons with uncleanliness. On the other hand,
+it too often happens that due care in this respect has not been
+exercised, and from such persons you may remove the eggs of
+Oxyurides from the margins of the finger nails. One aristocratic
+person, who was infested by myriads of these entozoa,
+confessed to me that in his extreme distress, and consequent
+rage, he had freely bitten the live worms in halves between his
+teeth. He had thus exposed himself to a terrible revenge,
+since multitudes of the ova entering his mouth subsequently
+found their way into the stomach and intestines. By whatever
+mode the eggs are conveyed to the mouth their subsequent
+passage to the stomach ensures their being hatched. In the
+duodenum and other divisions of the small intestines, as Zenker
+and Heller have shown, the embryos undergo transformation,
+casting their skins, and growing with great rapidity. Probably
+not more than three weeks or a month is necessary to complete<span class="pagenum" title="231"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a></span>
+their growth. Heller obtained mature worms from an infant
+only five weeks old. Finally the worms are transferred to the
+cæcum, which constitutes, so to speak, their headquarters. It
+is an error to suppose that the lower bowel or rectum forms
+their especial habitat, nevertheless the most approved manuals,
+vade mecums, and general treatises have for a long time supported
+this erroneous view. The error had been pointed out by
+Stricker in 1861.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms produced by Oxyurides are occasionally very
+serious. In the mildest cases they have a tendency to undermine
+the health. As remarked
+in my ‘Entozoa,’ the unpleasant
+sensations chiefly develop themselves
+in the evening and at night,
+consisting for the most part of
+feelings of heat and irritation within
+and around the margin of the anus.
+The symptoms may become extremely
+distressing and almost intolerable,
+especially when the itching
+extends to the genito-urinary
+passages, in consequence of the
+escape and migration of the parasites
+about these parts. By-and-by
+various sympathetic phenomena,
+such as restlessness, general nervousness,
+itchings at the nose, involuntary
+twitchings, grinding of
+the teeth during sleep, chorea, convulsions,
+and even epileptiform
+seizures, may supervene. At the
+age of puberty special local disorders
+arise, the nature of which will
+be readily understood when merely
+spoken of as the morbid phenomena
+of sexual irritation. In the female the occurrence of
+pruritus and leucorrhœa is not uncommon, accompanied or
+not, as the case may be, with hysteria in various forms. There
+is usually general asthenia, with more or less emaciation. The
+anæmia is sometimes remarkable, but in place of anorexia,
+which is, however, an occasional symptom, one frequently finds
+a most voracious appetite, especially in young people. Some<span class="pagenum" title="232"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a></span>times
+there are obscure symptoms simulating those of local
+organic disease.</p>
+
+<p>About the treatment of the disorder I have nothing to say
+here, further than to urge the benefits of the preventive
+measure of cleanliness. Like Zenker and Heller, I have obtained
+the eggs of oxyurides from beneath the finger-nails of
+young people. In one lad all the nails had been carefully
+bitten down to their roots, but from beneath a minute projecting
+portion that was left on the right fourth-finger I procured
+two eggs. Their demonstration under the microscope convinced
+both parent and child of the necessity of frequently
+employing local and general ablutions. Personal cleanliness is
+essential. In this connection an able biologist has ventured to
+hazard a statement to the effect that “probably any infected
+person who adopted the requisite precautions against reinfection
+from himself or others would get well in a few weeks without
+treatment by drugs.” Dr Ransom bases his belief on the
+known facts of the life-history of this entozoon, as recorded
+more especially by Leuckart. I regret that I cannot fully
+share Dr Ransom’s views, and still less should I think it right
+by my silence to seem to endorse his statement to the effect
+“that every person who is shown to be infested with those very
+common entozoa, <i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i> and <i>Trichocephalus dispar</i>,
+is thereby demonstrated to have swallowed minute portions of
+his own or another person’s fæces.” This is putting the case
+too strongly. No doubt the eggs of oxyurides swallowed by
+ourselves must have previously passed through some person’s
+rectum; as such, either separately or mayhap collectively, in
+the body of the maternal parasite. That does not, however,
+justify the statement, that we “have swallowed” part of our
+own or of some other person’s excrement. The eggs ought not
+to be regarded as constituent portions of the fæcal matter. Perhaps
+Dr Ransom will say that the surfaces of these eggs, being
+in contact with fæcal matter, must carry infinitesimal particles
+on their surfaces, and it is to such that he refers. As, however,
+a large proportion of the ova escape with their parents, whilst
+they are still lodged within the maternal worm, it cannot be held
+that these intra-uterine ova carry fæcal matter on their shells.
+Commonly the eggs are swallowed in the separate, free, and dry
+state. In water they perish quickly. The act of eating with
+unwashed hands is a fertile source of infection, more especially
+if the meal be taken either in bed or in the bedroom.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="233"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_31"></a>No. 31).&mdash;<i>Alexander, J.</i>, “On Vermination,”
+‘Lancet,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Anderson, W.</i>, “On Santonine, with especial
+reference to its use in Roundworm and Threadworm,” ‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ April, 1864, p. 443; also in Braithwaite’s ‘Retrospect
+of Medicine,’ vol. xlix (synopsis, p. 20), 1864.&mdash;<i>Barry,
+J. M.</i>, “On the Origin of Intestinal Worms, particularly the
+<i>Ascaris vermicularis</i>,” ‘Trans. Assoc. of Fell. and Licent. of
+King’s and Queen’s Coll. of Phys. in Ireland,’ vol. ii, 1878, p.
+383.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i>, l. c., s. 79.&mdash;<i>Buckingham</i>, “Ascarides causing
+Erotomania,” from ‘Bost. Journ., U.S.,’ in ‘Med. Gaz.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Claparède,
+E.</i>, “On the Formation of the Egg and Fertilisation
+in the Nematoidea,” from the ‘Zeitsch. f. w. Zool.,’ translated
+by Dallas in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. i (third series), 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>
+(memoir quoted in the text above), Genève, 1859.&mdash;<i>Cobbold,
+T. S.</i>, ‘Worms,’ Lect. xii-xv, 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Entozoa,’
+p. 362.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Aug., 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Tapeworms
+and Threadworms,’ 2nd edit., 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Development and Migrations of the
+Entozoa,” ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ 1864, p. 116.&mdash;<i>Date, W.</i>,
+‘Lancet’ for Feb., 1872, p. 185.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Traité,’ l. c., 2nd
+edit., p. 211, and ‘Synops.,’ p. 95.&mdash;<i>Dickinson</i>, “Case of Epilepsy
+in Children relieved by the expulsion of Worms,” ‘Med.
+Times and Gaz.,’ Jan., 1863.&mdash;<i>Dickson, R.</i>, art. “Anthelmintics,”
+rep. from the ‘Penny Cyclopædia,’ in Knight’s ‘Eng. Cyclop.
+Arts and Sci. Div.,’ vol. i (column 365), London, 1859.&mdash;<i>Dreyfus</i>,
+“Irritation of the Bladder from Ascarides,” from
+‘Journ. de Med.,’ in ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1847.&mdash;<i>Elliotson, J.</i>,
+“A Lecture on Worms,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On
+Worms in the Intestinal Canal,” ‘Lancet,’ 1831.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On
+a Case of Threadworms,” ‘Lancet,’ 1831.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Intestinal
+Worms,” ‘Lancet,’ 1830.&mdash;<i>Heller, A.</i>, “Darmschmarotzer,”
+in von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch,’ Bd. vii, s. 632 (see also Anglo-American
+edit.), 1876.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>, l. c., Eng. edit., p. 356.&mdash;<i>Ransom</i>,
+in Reynolds’ ‘Dictionary of Medicine.’&mdash;<i>Smith, A.</i>
+(and others), ‘Lancet,’ April 29th, 1865, p. 468.&mdash;<i>Stricker, W.</i>,
+in ‘Virchow’s Archiv,’ xxi, 1861, s. 360.&mdash;<i>Tatham</i>, ‘Lancet,’
+April, 1867, p. 457; see also p. 519.&mdash;<i>Vix, E.</i>, ‘Ueber Entozoen,’
+&amp;c., Berlin, 1860; see also “On the occurrence of Entozoa
+in the Insane, particularly with respect to the <i>Oxyuris
+vermicularis</i>;” brief notice (‘Allg. Zeitsch. f. Psychiatrie’)
+in Winslow’s ‘Journ. of Psycholog. Med.,’ vol. i, 2nd series,
+1861, p. 158.&mdash;<i>Zenker</i>, ‘Verhandl. d. phys. med. Soc.,’ H. ii,<span class="pagenum" title="234"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a></span>
+Erlangen, 1870, s. 20; and in ‘Tageblatt der deutschen
+Naturforscherversammlung zu Dresden,’ 1868, s. 140 (also
+quoted freely by Leuckart, Davaine, and Heller).</p>
+
+<p><i>Leptodera</i> (<i>Anguillula</i>) <i>stercoralis</i>, Bavay.&mdash;In the summer of
+1876 Dr Normand, of the French Marine, discovered this little
+entozoon in the fæcal discharges of soldiers who had been sent
+home invalided from Cochin-China. The patients in question
+were the victims of the so-called Cochin-China diarrhœa or
+dysentery. This disorder is endemic in character, and it had
+hitherto been regarded as consequent upon a variety of causes
+other than parasitic. Dr Normand’s discovery, as such, therefore
+takes equal rank with the analogous revelations made by
+Bilharz, Harley, Leuckart, Zenker, Weber, Lewis, and Bancroft,
+in respect of the particular helminthiases in man with which
+their names are severally associated (Bilharzia disease, Endemic
+hæmaturia, Cestode tuberculosis, Olulaniasis, Inter-tropical
+anæmia, Trichinosis, Lymphoid affections, Helminthoma, and so
+forth), and also, if I may be permitted to say so, with my own
+determinations in respect of a variety of endemics affecting
+animals (cestode and nematode epizoöty in the horse, the so-called
+grouse-disease, the pigeon-endemic due to lumbricoids,
+&amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Leptodera stercoralis</i> is a minute, smooth-bodied, simple,
+rhabditiform nematode, measuring when full grown <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+length, with an average breadth of <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">625</span></span> of an inch. The
+embryos at the time of their extrusion measure only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+length, but by the time at which a rudimentary vesicle representing
+the uterus begins to form, the females have already
+attained a length of about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">83</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. The males and females are of
+nearly equal size. The transition from the embryonal state to
+the higher larval conditions is accompanied by a change of
+skin, after which the digestive and reproductive organs are
+gradually but rapidly formed and completed. These changes
+have been minutely traced and recorded by Professor Bavay,
+who also compares the entozoon with the genera Rhabditis and
+Leptodera, in either of which genera the worm might be placed.
+I have accordingly adopted the nomenclature suggested by
+Bavay.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/f48.jpg" width="350" height="545" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;<i>Leptodera intestinalis.</i> <i>a</i>, Adult female, and separate figure showing a portion of
+the body with the ova <i>in sitû</i>. The two outlined figures represent profile and front views
+of the tail, respectively. <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, Eggs with imperfectly formed embryos. <i>d</i>, Larva. Highly
+magnified. After Bavay.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As happens in all the kindred helminthiases that are known
+to be dependent upon the presence of small worms, large
+numbers of Anguillules are necessary to produce injurious
+effects upon the bearer. Thus, the evacuations of the Cochin-<span class="pagenum" title="235"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a></span>China
+patients were found to contain such multitudes of the
+worms that their numbers could only be adequately estimated
+at so many hundreds of thousands passed in twenty-four hours.
+Of course they varied in quantity, not only in different patients,
+but in the same bearer, from day to day. They are to be found
+in every stage of growth and development, from that of the
+intra-ovular embryo and free embryonic state up to sexual
+maturity. They occupy all parts of the intestinal canal, from<span class="pagenum" title="236"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a></span>
+the stomach downwards, being also found in the pancreatic and
+biliary ducts, and likewise within the gall-bladder. According
+to Bavay, five days suffice under favorable circumstances for the
+complete maturation of the worm. This readily accounts for
+their occasional extreme abundance.</p>
+
+<p>I am indebted to the courtesy of Dr le Roy de Méricourt for
+the original memoirs from which these brief abstracts are taken.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leptodera intestinalis</i>, Bavay.&mdash;This is a larger species, now
+and then found associated with the above, and, according to
+Bavay, “in infinitely less abundance.” This species was also
+discovered by Dr Normand, and has been carefully described
+by Bavay. Possibly the worm may afford us another curious
+instance of dimorphism. Be that as it may, it must be provisionally
+regarded as a distinct form. As its occurrence is by
+no means invariable, its rôle in relation to the Cochin-China
+diarrhœa must, as Davaine has likewise remarked, be regarded
+as of secondary importance. It is readily distinguished from
+<i>A. stercoralis</i> both in the adult and larval conditions. The full
+grown worm, although comparatively narrow, is more than
+twice as long as its congener; moreover, the larvæ, in place of
+possessing finely-pointed tails, have blunt or truncated caudal
+extremities. Converting M. Bavay’s millimetric measurements
+into fractions of the English inch, the average length of the
+mature worms will be about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">11</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, whilst their breadth does not
+exceed <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">757</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_32"></a>No. 32).&mdash;<i>Bavay</i>, “Sur <i>l’Anguillule stercorale</i>,”
+‘Comptes Rendus,’ Oct., 1876, p. 694, also in ‘Ann.
+Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xviii, 4th series, p. 507, 1876, also noticed in
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan., 1877, p. 19.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Note sur
+<i>l’Anguille intestinale</i>,” ‘Archiv. de Méd. Nav.,’ July, 1877, p.
+64, and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1877, vol. xix, 4th series, p. 350.&mdash;<i>Cobbold,
+T. S.</i>, “Parasites of Man,” in the ‘Midland Naturalist’
+for January 1st, 1879.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Traité,’ l. c., 2nd
+edit., Supp., pp. 966&ndash;976, 1877.&mdash;<i>Laveran</i>, in ‘Gaz. Hebd. de
+Med.,’ Jan., 1877, p. 42.&mdash;<i>Layet</i> and <i>Le Roy de Méricourt</i>, in
+‘Dict. Encycl. des Sci. Med.,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Libermann</i>, in ‘Gaz. des
+Hôp.,’ March, 1877, p. 237, and in ‘La France Méd.,’ 1877, p.
+165 (quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Méricourt</i> (see Layet).&mdash;<i>Normand,
+A.</i>, in ‘Comptes Rendus’ for July, 1876, p. 316, and Aug.,
+1876, p. 386.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Arch. de Méd. Navale,’ 1877, p. 35,
+and separately as ‘Mémoire sur la diarrhée dite de Cochinchine,’
+Paris, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="237"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a></span>“Du rôle étiologique de l’Anguillule
+dans la diarrhée de Cochinchine,” in ‘Archives de Médecine
+Navale’ for September, 1878, pp. 214&ndash;224.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascaris mystax</i>, Rudolphi.&mdash;This well-known helminth possesses
+aliform appendages, one on either side of the head. It
+is of a medium size, the male measuring <span class="nowrap">2<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the female
+usually <span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap">4<span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. Both as regards the size of the
+alæ and the length of the body it varies in different hosts.
+Thus the variety infesting the dog has long been regarded as a
+distinct species (<i>A. marginata</i>), partly from the circumstance
+that the alæ are less conspicuous, and partly because the individuals
+are often longer and thicker. I possess one specimen
+from the dog measuring more than six inches in length. From
+like causes the <i>Ascaris leptoptera</i> and other varieties infesting
+the carnivora have been regarded as distinct species, but the
+worm also varies in one and the same host.</p>
+
+<p>As remarked in my elementary treatise, the late Dr
+Bellingham, of St Vincent’s Hospital, Dublin, published in the
+13th vol. of the ‘Annals of Natural History,’ an extended
+catalogue of Irish entozoa, and in this list he recorded the
+existence of a new round worm in man. He says of <span class="nowrap">it:&mdash;</span>“From
+the distinctness of the lateral membranes of the head I have
+given it the name of <i>Ascaris alata</i>.” The catalogue was constantly
+referred to by Dujardin, Diesing, and other systematists;
+but some of the continental helminthologists do not appear to
+have had access to Dr Bellingham’s more extended account of
+this parasite as given in the first volume of the ‘Dublin Medical
+Press,’ No. 7, Feb. 20th, 1839. I am led to this inference from
+the doubt which some have cast upon the very existence of the
+worm, although others, with more candour, supposed that Bellingham
+had only mistaken the species. Thus, Küchenmeister (‘Parasiten,’
+s. 464, and in Lancaster’s edit., vol. ii, p. 100) <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“The
+<i>Ascaris alata</i>, found in the small intestines of a man, is
+probably only a young individual of one of the long-known
+nematoda, <i>if, indeed, it be a worm at all</i>!” (The italics are
+mine.) This statement was reproduced by Hulme in his
+English edition of Moquin-Tandon’s ‘Elements of Medical
+Zoology,’ p. 341; and the French author himself evidently
+shared the doubt expressed by other people. Dujardin (‘Helminthes,’
+p. 156) admitted the species, as also did Diesing
+(‘Systema Helminthum,’ p. 175), but the latter unluckily added
+the following very significant <span class="nowrap">suggestion:&mdash;</span>“An <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i>
+capitis epidermide emphysematice inflata?”<span class="pagenum" title="238"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Dr Leidy, of Philadelphia, admitted <i>A. alata</i> among his <i>Entozoa
+hominis</i> without comment (‘Smithsonian Contrib.’ for April,
+1853), but Weinland, of Frankfort, in his list, prefixed a note
+of interrogation, observing also that it had been “once” found
+in Ireland (‘Essay on Tapeworms,’ p. 88). It is quite clear,
+therefore, that these authors did not believe that the <i>Ascaris
+mystax</i> was a human parasite. Those who doubtfully accepted
+Bellingham’s <i>A. alata</i> did so under the impression that whatever
+it was, it could not be regarded as the common Ascaris of
+the cat. In the new edition of Davaine’s ‘Traité,’ <i>A. alata</i> is,
+to my surprise, still retained as a separate species, and there is
+no mention of the occurrence of <i>A. mystax</i> in man. From what
+has recently been written by several continental helminthologists
+(Leuckart, Heller, and others), I rejoice to think that it is not
+necessary for me again to advance the really superabounding
+proofs that Bellingham’s <i>A. alata</i> was nothing more than <i>A.
+mystax</i>. It has at length been admitted by almost all who are
+competent to form an opinion, that the memoir originally communicated
+to the ‘Lancet,’ in 1863, and subsequently introduced
+into the text of my introductory work, finally settled the question
+of identity. It was through the donation of Dr Edwin
+Lankester and Mr Scattergood that I was enabled at the time
+to announce the <i>third instance</i> of the occurrence of this parasite
+in man, and since that date several other instances have been
+brought under public notice. Not less than seven cases have
+now been noticed in which this little lumbricoid of the cat
+and dog has been found in man. For one good human specimen
+I am indebted to Dr Morton. In the above list I include
+Heller’s specimen, and the one from Greenland sent by Steenstrup
+to Leuckart. According to Hering’s observations this
+worm grows with remarkable rapidity. Worms obtained from
+a puppy only six days old measured from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">12</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. In
+a twelve-day-old puppy they reached nearly an inch in length,
+and in a month the growth was up to four inches. Females
+only <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length already contained eggs, and males only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+long had acquired their spicules. Three weeks therefore,
+would be amply sufficient for the completion of sexual maturity
+within the feline or canine host. We do not know, however,
+whether or not a temporary host is necessary for the larvæ prior
+to their introduction into the cat or dog. Hering thinks that
+a direct infection by the ova is sufficient; but he gives no proof
+of the truth of this hypothesis. <span class="pagenum" title="239"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a></span>“Leuckart (as quoted by Heller,
+l. c., s. 615) found numerous embryonal round worms in the stomach
+of a cat, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">62</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, and in addition all the intermediate stages
+of growth up to the larger examples found in the small intestine.
+They remain in the stomach until they have attained a length
+of from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">18</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">12</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and then pass into the small intestine. When
+they have attained a length of nearly <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> they cast their skins
+and change the tooth-like boring apparatus for the three characteristic
+semicircular lips. These observations on <i>Ascaris
+mystax</i> (adds Heller) render it probable that <i>A. lumbricoides</i> is
+also introduced into the human alimentary canal while still in the
+embryonal state or somewhat further advanced (und wohl auch
+grösse).” The subject will be found more fully discussed in
+my account of the large species further on. The cat’s worm
+possesses an historical interest, not only in connection with
+Bellingham’s original discovery, but also in respect of Nelson’s
+subsequent determinations as to the precise mode of impregnation
+in nematodes. The subject is too extended and too special
+to be dealt with here at any great length.</p>
+
+<p>For several years after Nelson left the shores of England to
+spend a too short life in New Zealand, the points discussed in
+his ‘Edinburgh Thesis’ (and subsequently published in the ‘Philosophical
+Transactions’) formed the subject-matter of numerous
+memoirs contributed to the leading German scientific journals.
+Stated with brevity, it may be said that, according to Nelson,
+the essential act of impregnation occurs when the thimble-shaped
+spermatozoa of the male penetrate the unimpregnated or
+ovarian ovum. This, he maintained, could and did take place
+at any part of the surface of the unfertilised ovum, since the
+granular mass of which it was composed, though well defined,
+did not, at this period, possess a limiting&mdash;or true yolk&mdash;membrane.
+Professor Allen Thomson, in a series of papers (some
+contributed in the German language), supported Nelson’s views
+generally.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;">
+<img src="images/f49.jpg" width="420" height="703" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;Germs and ova of <i>Ascaris mystax</i>. Nos. 1 to 3 magnified 330 diameters and
+Nos. 4 to 24 magnified 220 diameters. After Nelson.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Amongst Nelson’s chief opponents was Meissner, who demonstrated
+that the unimpregnated ova really possessed a delicate
+limiting membrane, and that consequently the action of the
+spermatozoa was restricted to that portion of the ovarian ovum
+which became exposed by rupture or separation from the rachis.
+This opening he termed the micropyle. The union of the
+sexual elements is quickly followed by a condensation of the
+yolk-granules, and by the disappearance of the hitherto centrally
+placed germinal vesicle. The ovum next assumes a distinctly<span class="pagenum" title="240"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a><br /></span><span class="pagenum" title="241"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a></span>
+oval shape, the true yolk-membrane and the external
+chorional envelope now becoming more and more differentiated,
+until the latter acquires a regularly tuberculated surface. Co-ordinating
+with these changes the granular yolk is seen transforming
+itself into a single large embryonal cell; after a time
+this cell divides and subdivides by the ordinary process of
+yolk-segmentation, until it is finally resolved into the condition
+of a short, stout, vermiform embryo. The egg having assumed
+its definitive oval shape, the intrachorional embryo remains
+coiled within the shell, and does not make its escape until the
+egg has passed from the body of the parent worm.</p>
+
+<p>Into the question of the mode of formation of the ovarian
+ova, and also into that of the development of the spermatozoa,
+I do not enter. However unwillingly, I must, in this matter,
+be contented to refer to Professor Allen Thomson’s classical
+article ovum (quoted below), to Leuckart’s elaborate analysis
+(l. c., Bd. ii, s. 76&ndash;92), and also, especially, to the exhaustive
+memoir of Claparède, whose brilliant labors, like those of Henry
+Nelson, were too early terminated by death. Shortly after
+graduation Nelson suffered a virtually enforced banishment from
+his native land.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_33"></a>No. 33).&mdash;<i>Bellingham, O. B.</i>, “On the Genus
+to which the Worms known as Ascarides belong,” ‘Dublin
+Journ.,’ vol. xiv, 1839.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Catalogue of Irish Entozoa,”
+‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ vols. xiii and xiv, 1843&ndash;44; and in the
+first part of Charlesworth’s ‘Mag. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. iv, 1840.
+See also the address by Dr E. D. Mapother on the “Lives and
+Writings of O’Ferrall and Bellingham,” in the ‘Dubl. Journ.
+of Med. Sci.,’ Nov., 1877, p. 471 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Bischoff</i>, ‘Widerlegung
+(u. s. w.),’ Giessen, 1853; quoted by Claparède, l. c.
+<i>infra</i>, p. 9.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Bestätigung (u. s. w.),’ Giessen, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Ueber Ei-und Samenbildung und Befruchtung bei
+<i>Ascaris mystax</i>,” Sieb. and Köll. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1855, s. 377; also
+in S. and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1856.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i>, ‘Icones helminth.,’
+p. 23, tab. iv.&mdash;<i>Claparède, E.</i>, “Ueber Eibildung und Befruchtung
+bei den Nematoden,” S. and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1857, s. 106.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘De la formation et de la fécondation des œufs chez
+les vers Nématodes,’ Genève, 1859. See also ‘Ann. of Nat.
+Hist.,’ vol. i, 3rd series, 1858.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, in ‘Proceed. of the
+Zoological Soc. of London,’ Nov., 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Brit. Assoc.
+Rep.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the occurrence of <i>Ascaris mystax</i> in
+the Human Body,” with figures, ‘Lancet,’ Jan., 1863; and in<span class="pagenum" title="242"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a></span>
+the ‘Dublin Med. Press,’ Feb., 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Entozoa,’ chap.
+xi, p. 316, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Worms,’ pp. 72 and 112, 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+in “Obituary Notice of Dr Henry Nelson,” ‘Med. Times and
+Gaz.,’ 1865 (?).&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Traité,’ l. c., 1877.&mdash;<i>Diesing, C. M.</i>,
+‘Syst. Helm.,’ vol. ii, p. 180, 1850.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i> (l. c., Bibl.
+No. 2), p. 162.&mdash;<i>Frœlich</i>, in ‘Naturf.,’ xxiv, s. 141 (<i>Asc. felis</i>).&mdash;<i>Funke,
+O.</i>, ‘Lehrbuch (u. s. w.),’ 1857, s. 1299.&mdash;<i>Gmelin</i>,
+‘Syst. Nat.,’ p. 3031.&mdash;<i>Golze</i>, ‘Naturg.,’ l. c., s. 79.&mdash;<i>Gurlt</i>,
+‘Path. Anat.,’ s. 366.&mdash;<i>Heller, A.</i>, “Darmschmarotzer,” in
+Von Ziemssen’s ‘Handbuch,’ Bd. vii, s. 361.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Sitzungsb.
+d. Erlanger phys.-med. Soc.,’ 1872, s. 73.&mdash;<i>Hering</i>, “Ueber das
+Vorkommen und die Entwicklung der <i>Ascaris mystax</i> bei jungen
+Hunden,” quoted by Leuckart from ‘Würtemb. Naturw.
+Jahreshefte,’ 1873, s. 305&ndash;337.&mdash;<i>Kölliker</i>, in ‘Müller’s Archiv,’
+1843, s. 68 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>, ‘Proc. Acad. Phil.,’ viii, p. 50.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>,
+l. c., Bd. ii, s. 258.&mdash;<i>Meissner, G.</i>, “Beobachtungen
+über das Eindringen der Samenelemente in den Dotter,” S.
+and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1854, s. 208.&mdash;<i>Morton, T.</i>, “Another Example
+of the Occurrence of <i>A. mystax</i>, from a Child of fourteen
+months old,” in a letter to the ‘Lancet,’ March 11th, 1865,
+p. 278.&mdash;<i>Nelson, H.</i>, “On the Reproduction of <i>Ascaris mystax</i>,”
+‘Proc. of the Royal Soc.,’ in ‘Philosoph. Trans.,’ and in ‘Med.-Chir.
+Rev.,’ 1051&ndash;52; also in ‘Froriep’s Tagsbericht.,’ 1852,
+s. 205&ndash;207.&mdash;<i>Rudolphi</i>, ‘Synops.,’ p. 42, 1819.&mdash;<i>Schneider</i>,
+“Ueber Bewegung an dem Samenkörperchen der Nematoden,”
+in ‘Monatsb. d. Berliner Akad.,’ 1856, s. 192.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Monographie
+der Nematoden,’ Erste Abth., s. 38, und Dritte Abth.,
+s. 263 (“Entwicklungsgeschichte”), 1866.&mdash;<i>Siebold</i>, ‘Vergleichende
+Anatomie,’ 1848, s. 153, and in Burnett’s edit.,
+p. 125 <i>et seq.</i>, 1854.&mdash;<i>Thomson, A.</i>, art. “Ovum,” in ‘Todd’s
+Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.,’ supp., 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Ueber die
+Samenkörperchen, die Eier und die Befruchtung der <i>Ascaris
+mystax</i>,” S. and K. ‘Zeitsch.,’ 1856, s. 425.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Report
+of Glasgow Meeting” (‘Brit. Assoc. Rep.’), 1855, p. 158.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascaris maritima</i>, Leuckart.&mdash;This is a well-marked species.
+Judging from the characters presented by the solitary, sexually-immature
+female which supplied Leuckart with his only means
+of diagnosis, this worm may be briefly described as a filariform
+nematode about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length and about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth. Although
+there are no cephalic aliform membranes, the cuticle immediately
+below the lips forms small and distinct projections,<span class="pagenum" title="243"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a></span>
+one on either side of the head (‘Die Mensch. Par.,’ Bd. ii,
+s. 877).</p>
+
+<p>This entozoon was discovered by Dr Pfaff at Jacobshavn, near
+Godhavn, West Greenland, in April, 1865. Two years later
+he sent the specimen to Krabbe, who afterwards transmitted it
+to Leuckart. In the original communication addressed to the
+Copenhagen helminthologist, Dr Pfaff states that he procured
+the worm from amongst matters vomited by a child, and he
+incidentally observes that he had hitherto encountered only
+<i>Bothriocephalus cordatus</i> and <i>Oxyuris vermicularis</i> amongst
+Greenlanders. As to the source of infection, Prof. Leuckart
+not unnaturally refers to the similar conditions of existence
+shared by the human and carnivorous inhabitants of that
+country. It is well known that bears, polar-bears, seals, and
+walruses are largely infested by nematodes (<i>Asc. transfuga</i>,
+<i>A. osculata</i>, <i>Ophiostoma dispar</i>, &amp;c.), but these various species
+are quite distinct from Dr Pfaff’s little “spulwurm.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i>, Linneus.&mdash;This common parasite was
+for a long while regarded as identical with the great lumbricoid
+of the horse, but the question has been finally settled by
+Schneider, who has shown that the human worm, although
+identical with Dujardin’s <i>Ascaris suilla</i> of the hog, is nevertheless
+quite distinct from the <i>Ascaris megalocephala</i> of solipeds.
+The large lumbricoid occasionally found in the ox belongs to
+the human worm. Our large human helminth resembles the
+common earth-worm in general appearance only. The males
+usually measure from four to six inches in length, and the
+females from ten to fourteen inches. Some have been reported
+up to seventeen or eighteen inches in length. The body is
+smooth, fusiform, and elastic, and marked by numerous fine
+transverse rings. It is attenuated towards either extremity, the
+anterior end terminating in a prominently three-lobed mouth
+The tail is bluntly pointed. The female is much shorter than
+the male, having a diameter of nearly a quarter of an inch. The
+male is supplied with a double spiculum, its tail being always
+more or less curved towards the central surface. The female
+reproductive orifice is situated above the centre of the body.
+According to Schneider, the tail supports from 138 to 150
+caudal papillæ, that is, from 69 to 75 on either side of the
+median line. Below the anus the papillæ are regularly
+arranged in pairs, seven in number, the two uppermost pairs
+being double.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="244"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the advantage which the size of this entozoon
+affords us in the matter of observation and experiment, we are yet
+ignorant as to the precise mode in which the young gain access to
+the human body. From what has been said respecting the quick
+growth of <i>Ascaris mystax</i> in the dog, and from what has been
+observed respecting the rapid growth of the so-called <i>A. suilla</i>
+in the hog, we know that the worm requires but a short time to
+pass from the larval to the sexual state. The view of Hering,
+Mosler, Davaine, and others, who suppose that these worms are
+reared in a direct manner by swallowing the ova, is, as Leuckart
+observed, not yet proved. We are not in full possession of
+the facts of larval development. It is true that Professor
+Heller’s interesting “find” has shown that when these worms
+first gain access to the human body their size is quite insignificant.
+At the post mortem of an imbecile, Heller discovered
+eighteen young worms, varying in size from about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">9</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+length (2·75 to 13&nbsp;mm.). The sexes were indistinguishable.
+As a set-off against this, Leuckart’s repeated attempts to rear
+<i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> and <i>A. mystax</i> by means of direct feeding-experiments
+with the eggs all failed. Thus, we are yet left in
+doubt as to the destiny of the larvæ during the period which
+elapses between the time of their escape from the egg and the
+time of their entry into the human body. So important is the
+question as to the mode of origination, growth, and subsequent
+development of the larvæ, that it may be well to trace, however
+briefly, what steps have been taken to clear up the matter.
+Leuckart obtained his negative results by the administration of
+ripe ova to dogs, rabbits, swine, and mice. The eggs of
+<i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> have been kept alive by Dr Davaine for a
+period of more than five years. I have myself watched the
+development of their contents in fresh water through all the
+stages of yolk segmentation up to the stage of an imperfectly-organised,
+coiled, intra-chorional embryo, and have kept them
+in the latter condition for a period of three months. According
+to Davaine (‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1858, p. 1217), the fully-developed
+embryo is cylindrical, its length being, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">100</span></span>th</span> of an
+inch. The mouth is not furnished with the three characteristic
+papillæ of the genus, and the tail terminates suddenly in a
+point. Davaine administered some of his five-year-old embryos
+to rats, and had the satisfaction of finding a few of these eggs
+in the rodent’s fæces, with their embryos still living, but
+striving to emerge. He also gave eggs to a cow, and intro<span class="pagenum" title="245"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a></span>duced
+others into the stomachs of dogs in small linen-covered
+flasks. As a general result it may be said that the embryos
+escaped from their shells. Those eggs, however, in which the
+yolk-segmentation had not arrived at the early embryonal stage
+remained unaffected. According to Heller, the embryo of
+<i>A. lumbricoides</i> casts its first skin while still within the egg,
+and “a subsequent ecdysis probably completes its definitive
+form” (l. c., s. 615). So far back as 1853 Verloren reared
+coiled intra-chorional embryos in the eggs of <i>Ascaris marginata</i>
+within a period of fifteen days in distilled water. I also reared
+the embryos of this species in fresh water, and kept them alive
+for a period of nearly a year and a half, at the expiration of
+which time, and during the warm weather, some few of them
+succeeded in making their escape. According to Davaine, the
+eggs of many nematode species will readily retain their vitality
+though long exposed to dryness, but their yolk-contents will
+not go on developing during this period of exposure. As
+regards <i>A. mystax</i>, however, Heller remarks that whilst “the
+eggs have a great power of resisting external influences, their
+development is not arrested in spirits of wine, chromic acid, or
+oil of turpentine” (l. c., s. 631). In the case of <i>Ascaris
+tetraptera</i> of the mouse, embryonic formation goes on in spite
+of the absence of external moisture. Davaine has noticed the
+same thing in the oxyurides of rodents. Dryness does not
+even destroy the eggs of <i>A. lumbricoides</i> and <i>Trichocephalus
+dispar</i>. It would seem, in short, that the eggs of nematodes
+which normally take up their residence in cats, dogs, and in
+the carnivora which reside in arid regions, will develop
+embryos in the egg without external moisture. As before
+remarked, Davaine thinks it is not necessary that these nematode
+embryos should pass through any intermediary bearer, and
+he believes that they are often directly transferred to the
+stomach of their “hosts” whilst adhering in the form of an
+impalpable dust to the coats of their bearers, whence they are
+detached by the animal’s frequent habit of licking the fur.
+Davaine’s view has received some support from the observations
+and experiments of Unterberger with the eggs of <i>Ascaris
+maculosa</i>. This observer administered eggs of the worm to
+doves (whose fæces were free of eggs), and seventeen days
+after found ova in the fæces.</p>
+
+<p>With the eggs of the <i>Ascaris megalocephala</i> of the horse I
+performed numerous experiments. I reared the embryos in<span class="pagenum" title="246"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a></span>
+simple fresh water, and found them during warm weather
+escaping before the expiration of five months. I also succeeded
+in rearing these larvæ in pond mud, noticing, at the same
+time, that after their escape from the shell they grew more or
+less rapidly up to a certain point, after which they ceased
+growing. The addition of horses’ dung to soft wet mud in one
+case, and of cows’ dung in another, neither appeared to advance
+nor retard the process of embryonal formation, so long as the
+embryos were enclosed in their shells. On the other hand,
+when I reared embryos in simple horse-dung purposely kept
+moist, they attained a higher degree of organisation than did
+those in wet mud or water. Having watched hundreds of
+these larvæ under varying conditions, I came to the conclusion
+that, after escape from the egg, their activity, growth, and
+strength was most marked when they occupied media which
+happened to be impure. Davaine experimented on cows, and
+Leuckart also experimented on horses, with the eggs of this
+worm without success. Leuckart also failed to rear the larvæ
+in intermediary hosts. Some eggs passed through the water-palmer
+unaltered.</p>
+
+<p>These results, so far as they go, seem to be borne out by
+facts of a professional order. Thus, an instance has been
+brought under my notice where a considerable number of
+peasants and their children, dwelling in a parish in Yorkshire,
+were infested with this worm. There was, in short, a local
+endemic helminthiasis. Through the parish runs a stream
+which supplies the cottagers with all the water they employ for
+domestic purposes (washing, drinking, and so forth). Some of
+the peasants living by the side of the stream keep pigs, and
+the sewage from this source has been allowed to pass into the
+stream itself. Now, if Schneider’s determination as to the
+identity of the lumbricoid of man and the pig is correct (which
+I do not doubt), the explanation of the cause of the endemic
+becomes a very simple matter. But it does not explain all
+that we desire to know about the young worms. Either the
+freed embryos before they enter the human bearer accomplish
+further changes of form and growth in the sewage or impure
+water; or, what is far less probable, they pass into the bodies
+of intermediary hosts (such as insect-larvæ, Gammari, Entomostraca,
+&amp;c.) to undergo the necessary changes. Practically,
+no doubt, it comes to the same thing in the end. Even if we
+suppose that the <i>Ascaris suilla</i> and <i>A. lumbricoides</i> are not<span class="pagenum" title="247"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a></span>
+identical species, still it is evident that any person discharging
+the eggs of lumbricoids in the vicinity of open waters becomes,
+by that fact, a source and centre of infection. To ensure an
+endemic it is probably only further necessary that the human
+inhabitants should employ the contaminated water for domestic
+purposes. But time and an increase of temperature must be
+allowed for the bringing about of those known and unknown
+larval changes that alike form the necessary antecedents of
+infection. In this connection I will only add, that if the
+present position of the question be such as I have here represented
+it to be, we see that Mosler was not far wrong when he
+suggested that “contamination of the drinking water with the
+eggs out of privies is to be blamed” as a source of infection.
+According to Heller, from whom I quote, Mosler actually
+demonstrated the presence of the eggs in water thus exposed.
+In like manner it becomes obvious that Davaine’s practical
+remark (although it was based on the assumption of a direct
+infection by the eggs), that filtration will probably be sufficient
+to prevent infection, loses nothing of its hygienic value.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing observations naturally lead one to the question
+of frequency and distribution. Davaine holds that the comparative
+infrequency of this parasite in Paris is due to the free
+use of the filter. In London, though not uncommon, the worm
+rarely occurs in great numbers in one bearer. Those cases in
+our hospitals, where considerable numbers have been present,
+have usually come up from suburban or country places. Heller
+states that these worms were found in 9·1 per cent. of post
+mortems conducted at Dresden, in 12 per cent. at Erlangen,
+and in 17 per cent. at Kiel. He quotes Huss as stating that
+no one is free from this worm in Finland. The prevalence of
+large round worms in warm countries generally is well known.
+Throughout India and the East they are extremely abundant,
+and the same may be said of the West Indies, Brazil, and the
+adjacent territories. Professor Dyce and others have remarked
+on the extreme prevalence of lumbrici in the Mauritius, but
+they are comparatively rare along the sea border. In all
+situations where there is an abundant fresh-water supply these
+parasites are particularly common, as in the lowlands of
+Holland and the lake districts of Sweden. The abundance of
+water is certainly not alone sufficient to explain the frequency
+of the parasite, seeing that the most important factor is that
+which rests upon the uncivilised habits of the rural population.<span class="pagenum" title="248"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a></span>
+What, therefore, it may be asked, can be the cause of immunity
+enjoyed by Icelanders in this respect? The answer is not
+apparent; nevertheless Krabbe and Finsen have testified to the
+fact that Iceland is the only country that is entirely free from
+<i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As remarked in my previous work the number of worms
+present in any human bearer is usually small, varying commonly
+from one to six or eight. Cases in which scores or hundreds
+have existed are comparatively rare. Küchenmeister mentions
+the case of one child who passed 103 examples, and of another
+child that harbored from 300 to 400 worms. Dr Gilli, of
+Turin, gives a case where 510 were passed by a child, and
+Cruveilhier estimated that over 1000 existed in an idiot girl,
+whose intestines he found crammed with them. A remarkable
+case has also been communicated to me by Dr Mackeith, of Sandhurst,
+Kent, who, by means of santonine, expelled from a little
+girl, five and a half years of age, 300 lumbrici; and I am likewise
+indebted to Dr Cooper Rose for notes of a case in which
+about thirty lumbrici were expelled, chiefly in consequence of
+the employment of this drug. The most interesting fact, however,
+in this case was that the child was only fifteen months old.
+In this case the symptoms were severe.</p>
+
+<p>The proper habitat of the lumbricus is the upper and middle
+part of the small intestine. From this situation it often wanders
+into the stomach, and frequently gains access to the outer world,
+not only by the natural passages of the mouth, nostrils, and
+anus, but also, occasionally, in a more direct way, by perforating
+the intestinal and abdominal walls. Many cases are on record
+where lumbrici have passed into the abdominal cavity. In other
+instances they have lodged themselves within the abdominal
+viscera and pulmonary organs. When they find their way into
+the parietes of the abdomen and adjacent parts, they usually give
+rise to the formation of abscesses requiring surgical interference.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the symptoms produced by lumbrici, these vary
+according to the situation they happen to occupy. The symptoms
+are also modified by age and temperament. In the
+stomach and intestines they give rise to colic and shooting pains
+about the abdomen, followed generally by dyspepsia, nasal itching,
+nausea, vomiting, and even diarrhœa. Occasionally death
+supervenes suddenly. A singular case of this kind (the particulars
+of which I only gathered from a local newspaper) occurred
+in a boy, thirteen years of age, at the County Gaol at Hertford,<span class="pagenum" title="249"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a></span>
+in 1873. From Dr Evans’s statement, made at the coroner’s
+inquest, the sole cause of death appeared to be due to pressure
+on the windpipe by a worm lodged in the gullet. Sometimes
+there is cerebral disturbance, attended with general restlessness
+and convulsive twitchings during sleep. Thus, Dr Woodman
+has recorded a serious case of convulsions arising from lumbricoid
+worms, in which, however, a cure was effected by expulsion
+of the worms. An anonymous writer in the ‘Medical
+Gazette’ records a case of epilepsy from this cause, whilst
+another writer in the same journal (1839) mentions an instance
+where two lumbrici and one tapeworm were associated in the
+production of similar phenomena. But a much more striking
+case is also given (anonymously) in the ‘Gazette’ for 1874 (p.
+415), where a single lumbricus caused the bearer to be a lunatic
+for eight years. The victim suffered from cataleptic fits, which
+lasted for two or three weeks at a time. M. Petrequin, in his
+‘Traité Pratique,’ records two cases of amaurosis in young girls
+produced by lumbrici. A fatal case is recorded by Petrenz,
+where 200 worms produced enteritis, and another fatal case is
+given by Roger from perforation (1848). Cases of perforation
+are also given by Young, by Blair (1861), by Mondière (1839),
+by Buchner (1851), by Sheppard (1861), and by Luschka
+(1854), the worms in this last-mentioned case occupying the
+cavity of the pleura. Cases of severe irritation affecting the
+genito-urinary organs are given by Dreyfus, Buckingham, and
+others; and one or two instances are reported where these
+worms have been discharged from several parts of the body
+(Neilson, 1833). I may add that the third fasciculus of a work
+illustrating the collection of morbid anatomy in the Army
+Medical Museum at Chatham gives a case of lumbrici occupying
+the biliary ducts and gall-bladder. I find, moreover, two
+additional cases of perforation of the small intestine, one of
+which appeared in the ‘London Medical Gazette’ (1827) and
+the other in the ‘Lancet’ (1836).</p>
+
+<p>During the Franco-German war Dr Reginald Pierson, as he
+afterwards informed me, removed a lumbricus from an abscess
+formed in the abdominal parietes of a soldier. But amongst
+the most curious cases (illustrating the wandering habits of these
+parasites) are those severally described by Barwell (1857),
+Williams, Prichard, and the Messrs Stockbridge. In Barwell’s
+case an Ascaris was expelled from a child who had swallowed
+the brass “eye” of a lady’s dress. Through the circular loop of<span class="pagenum" title="250"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a></span>
+this eye, used as a toy, the Ascaris had partly thrust its body, and
+becoming thus strangulated, it probably perished before it was
+evacuated. In Prichard’s case (1859) one or two lumbrici had
+similarly trapped themselves in the eyes of buttons swallowed
+by the patient, and one worm, not contented with a single
+strangulation, had succeeded in passing its body through two
+buttons. In 1842 Mr T. G. Stockbridge gave a similar case,
+in which he, not inaptly, spoke of these “hooks and eyes” as
+constituting a new remedy or “worm-trap” for lumbricus,
+and singularly enough, a namesake (W. Stockbridge), in the
+succeeding year, also recorded a like instance of the “mechanical
+expulsion of worms” by metallic buttons. Again, a third
+correspondent in the ‘Boston Journal,’ under the initials A. M.,
+spoke of an open-topped thimble as constituting another new
+“worm-trap,” whilst he gave a case of lumbrici penetrating
+“metallic suspensor buttons.” There is also the case reported by
+Williams, who, at a meeting of the Boston Society for Medical
+Improvement, exhibited “a lumbricus with a dress-hook
+attached” (1857). Lastly, another lumbricus, trapped in the
+same way, may be seen in the Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons at Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the presence of a peculiar irritating vapour which
+is given out by these lumbricoids, particularly when fresh,
+several observers have experienced curious symptoms. Thus,
+Miram on two occasions, when examining <i>A. megalocephala</i>, was
+attacked with sneezing, excessive secretion of tears, with swelling
+of the puncta lacrymalia, and Huber also experienced a troublesome
+itching of the hands and neck after examining specimens
+of <i>A. lumbricoides</i>. In like manner I have myself had watery
+suffusion of the eyes (when collecting the perivisceral fluid for
+Marcet’s analyses: see Bibliog.), and Bastian has given a detailed
+account of the serious effects which the poison produced upon
+him. In Bastian’s case even spirit specimens produced irritation.
+The attacks of catarrh and asthma were so persistent
+and severe that they lasted for six weeks at a time. So sensitive
+was Bastian to the lumbricoid-miasm that he could not
+even put on a coat that he had worn during his investigations
+without experiencing fresh attacks of sneezing and other
+catarrhal symptoms. The attacks became periodical, occurring
+between five and six in the morning, being accompanied by
+dyspnœa and a distressing spasmodic cough. Bastian, in short,
+was quite a martyr in the cause of nematode anatomy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="251"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_34"></a>No. 34).&mdash;<i>Abousson, L.</i>, “On the Presence of
+Worms (lumbrici) in the Air-passages,” from ‘Arch. Gén. de
+Méd.,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1836.&mdash;(Anonymous), <i>A. M.</i>,
+“Another New Worm-trap&mdash;an open-topped Thimble in the
+Nostril (also notice of metallic suspender buttons penetrated by
+Lumbrici),” ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xxvii, p. 121,
+1842&ndash;43; see also T. G. and W. Stockbridge.&mdash;(Anon.), “Lumbrici
+expelled by Bismuth,” ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.’ (from
+‘Gaz. des Hôp.,’ ‘Journ. des Connaiss. Méd.,’ and ‘Boletin del
+Inst.-Med.-Valenc.’), 1859.&mdash;(Anon.), “Case of one Tapeworm
+and two Lumbrici causing Epilepsy,” from ‘Bull. du Midi’
+and ‘Gaz. Méd.,’ 1839.&mdash;(Anon.), “Case of Perforation of
+the Ileum by Ascarides,” from ‘Hufl. and Ossan’s Journ.,’ in the
+‘Lancet,’ 1836.&mdash;(Anon.), “Case of Lumbrici in the Biliary the
+Ducts and Gall-bladder,” note and fig. in third fasc., illust. the
+Coll. of Morb. Anat. in the Army Med. Mus. at Chatham, 1838.&mdash;(Anon.),
+“A Lumbricus causing Catalepsy, with Fits lasting
+two or three weeks; Cure by Vomiting,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1847, p. 415.&mdash;<i>Archer, E.</i>, “On a Case of <i>A. lumbricoides</i> producing
+alarming symptoms,” ‘Lancet,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Barwell</i>, “Case
+of Ascaris expelled by the swallowing of a foreign body,”
+‘Lancet,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Bastian, H. C.</i>, “On the Anatomy and Physiology
+of the Nematoids, Parasitic and Free,” ‘Phil. Trans.,’
+1866, p. 545; for the account of his poison-symptoms, see <i>footnote</i>,
+p. 583.&mdash;<i>Batterbury, R. L.</i>, “Jaundice due to the presence
+of Lumbrici,” ‘British Med. Journ.,’ Nov., 1878, p. 721.&mdash;<i>Bigelow,
+H.</i>, “Worm in an Abscess,” ‘Bost. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ vol. xxxiii, p. 486, 1836.&mdash;<i>Blatchley, C. C.</i>, “Two Cases
+of <i>A. lumbricoides</i>, attended with Abscesses, followed by large
+purulent discharges, and Worms therein,” ‘New York Med.
+and Phys. Journ.,’ vol. i, new series, p. 209, 1829.&mdash;<i>Bonfils, E.</i>,
+“Lesions and Path. Phenomena caused by Lumbrici in the
+Biliary Ducts,” from ‘Arch. Gén.,’ in ‘Brit. and For. Med.-Chir.
+Rev.,’ 1858, and in ‘Amer. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ vol.
+xxxvii, 1859.&mdash;<i>Bradford, J. T.</i>, “Singular Case of Worms
+(Lumbrici),” ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. xxviii, 1843.&mdash;<i>Brigham,
+A.</i>, “Worms in the Bladder simulating ‘Stone,’”
+‘Amer. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1837; ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1837;
+‘Quart. Journ. Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc.,’ vol. ii, p. 132,
+1838.&mdash;<i>Buchner</i>, “On the Perforation of the Intestinal Canal by
+Worms (with ref. to two cases),” from ‘Med. Zeitung,’ 1850,
+in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Calderwood</i>, “Treatment,” <span class="pagenum" title="252"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a></span>‘Brit.
+Med. Journ.,’ Jan. 30, 1875.&mdash;<i>Chapman, N.</i>, “Case of 68
+Ascarides causing Pulmonary Disease,” in his ‘Dis. of the
+Thoracic and Abd. Viscera,’ p. 263, and in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1845.&mdash;<i>Chiaje, Delle-</i>, in ‘Rend. dell’ Accad. di Napoli,’ 1846
+(“Anat.,” p. 403).&mdash;<i>Church, J.</i>, “On <i>A. lumbricoides</i>,” ‘Mem.
+Med. Soc. Lond.,’ vol. ii, 1789.&mdash;<i>Claparède</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. 33,
+for development).&mdash;<i>Clark, P.</i>, “Discharge of a Lumbricus
+through the Male Urethra,” ‘New York Journ. Med.,’ 1844,
+rep. in ‘Lancet,’ 1844, and in ‘Edin. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol.
+lxiv, 1845.&mdash;<i>Cloquet</i>, ‘Anat. des vers Intest.,’ 1824.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>,
+“On Sewage and Parasites, especially in relation to the
+Dispersion and Vitality of the Germs of Entozoa,” ‘Med. Times
+and Gaz.,’ Feb. 25, 1871, p. 215.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Entoz.,’ p. 302&ndash;315.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Worms,’ lect. xvi, p. 3.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, art. “Ascaridæ,” in
+‘Maunder’s Treasury,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Colvan, J.</i>, “Case in which Eleven
+Round Worms of the species <i>A. lumbricoides</i> were removed
+by Anthelmintics,” ‘Dubl. Med. Press,’ vol. xxvi, p. 211, 1851.&mdash;<i>Cutler,
+J. H.</i>, “Death by Worms (a large Lumbricus being
+found in the Wind-pipe),” ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+vol. lxvi, p. 392, 1862.&mdash;<i>Czermak</i>, in ‘Sitz. d. k. Akad. d.
+Wissensch.,’ 1852 (“Anat.,” s. 755).&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, in his ‘Traité,’
+l. c., 2nd edit., syn. xcvii, and p. 122&ndash;235 (with details of forty-five
+cases); see also his memoir “On the Development and
+Propagation of the <i>Trichoceph. dispar</i> and <i>A. lumbricoides</i>,”
+from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. ii, 3rd series,
+1858; also in the ‘Journ. of Pract. Med. and Surg.,’ Eng. edit.,
+vol. i, 1858, and in the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxii, p. 700, 1859,
+from ‘Proc. of Acad. des Sci.,’ in ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’
+vol. lix, p. 157, 1858&ndash;59.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, art. “Entozoaires,” in ‘Dict.
+de Méd. et Chir. prat.’&mdash;<i>David, J. B.</i>, “Cases of Perforation of
+the Intestines by Worms,” from ‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’ in ‘Dubl.
+Med. Press,’ 1840, p. 223.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, ‘Syst. Helm.,’ ii, p. 166;
+and in ‘Revis der Nemat.,’ l. c., s. 660.&mdash;<i>Douglas, J.</i>, “Worms
+(Lumbrici) evacuated at an Ulcer of the Groin,” ‘Med. Ess.
+and Obs.,’ vol. i, 2nd edit. (vol. i, 5th edit., p. 179), p. 222,
+1737.&mdash;<i>Dowler, B.</i>, “Case of Worms in the Urinary Bladder,”
+from ‘New Orl. M. and S. Journ.,’ in ‘New York Journ. Med.,’
+new series, vol. xiv, 1855.&mdash;<i>Dubini</i>, ‘Entozoografia umana’
+(“Anat.,” p. 148).&mdash;<i>Dupuytren</i>, “Lumbricus passed by the
+Urethra,” from “Clin. Lect.,” in ‘Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+1846, p. 14.&mdash;<i>Dyce, R.</i>, “On Lumbrici and the Causes of their
+Prevalence in the Mauritius,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1834.&mdash;<i>Evans,<span class="pagenum" title="253"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a></span>
+T.</i>, “Lumbricus causing Death,” rep. of coroner’s inquest in
+the ‘Herts Advertiser and St Alban’s Times’ for Feb. 8, 1873.&mdash;<i>Gervais</i>
+(and <i>Van Beneden</i>), ‘Zool. Med.,’ ii, p. 118.&mdash;<i>Gilli</i>,
+“Account of a Case in which 510 Worms (Lumbrici) were
+voided by a Child,” from ‘Giorn. d. Scienze Med. di Torino,’
+in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1843.&mdash;<i>Goopta, G. D. D.</i>, “On Suicide
+and Lumbrici,” ‘Ind. Med. Gaz.,’ July, 1874, and ‘Lond. Med.
+Rec.,’ Aug., 1874, p. 502.&mdash;<i>Heller, A.</i>, “Darmschmarotzer,” in
+Von Ziemssen’s ‘Handb.,’ s. 612&ndash;631.&mdash;<i>Holland, G. C.</i>, “A
+peculiar Case of Nervous Disease or Derangement of the Nervous
+System (associated with <i>A. lumbricoides</i>),” ‘Edin. M. and S.
+Journ.,’ vol. lxiii, 1845.&mdash;<i>Howall</i>, “Abscess of the Groin, with
+discharge of Lumbrici,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1845, and ‘Edin.
+M. and S. Journ.,’ 1846, p. 241.&mdash;<i>Johnson, W. G.</i>, “Case of
+forty Lumbrici in a Boy who died with Traumatic Tetanus,”
+“Rep. of South Mid. Br. of Brit. Med. Assoc.,” in ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Kell</i>, “Perforation of the Intestines by a
+Worm,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1828.&mdash;<i>Kilgour, T.</i>, “Case in
+which Worms in the Nose, productive of alarming Symptoms,
+were removed by the Use of Tobacco,” ‘Med. Comment.,’
+vol. viii, 1783.&mdash;<i>Kirkland</i>, “Case of Lumbricus in an Abscess
+of the Liver,” rep. in his book, entitled ‘An Enquiry,’ vol. ii,
+p. 186 (quoted by Richter and Davaine), London, 1786.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>,
+‘Manual,’ Eng. edit., p. 410&ndash;427.&mdash;<i>Leidy, J.</i>,
+‘Proc. Acad. Phil.,’ 1856, p. 50.&mdash;<i>Lente, F. D.</i>, “Lumbricus in
+the Stomach causing Dyspnœa,” in his “Rep. of Cases occurring
+in the New York Hosp.,” in ‘New York Journ. of Med.,’ vol. v,
+new series, p. 167, 1850.&mdash;<i>Lettsom</i>, “Case of Lumbricus evacuated
+from an Abdominal Abscess,” ‘Trans. Med. Soc. Lond.,’
+and ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1817.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., s. 152&ndash;258.&mdash;<i>Lieberkühn</i>,
+in ‘Miller’s Arch.’ (“Anat. of <i>A. suilla</i>”), 1855, s. 331.&mdash;<i>Luschka</i>,
+“Case of Lumbrici within the Pleura,” from ‘Virch.
+Arch.,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Lowne, B. T.</i>, “The
+Anatomy of the Round Worm,” ‘Trans. Roy. Micr. Soc.,’ 1871,
+p. 55.&mdash;<i>Maesson</i>, “On a Worm found in the Bubo of a Woman
+36 years of age;” see ‘Entozoa and Parasites, being a ref.
+to numerous papers;’ from “Valentin’s Repertorium,” in
+‘Month. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ vol. ii, p. 559, 1842; also in
+‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 85, 1842.&mdash;<i>Marcet, W.</i>,
+“Chemical Exam. of the Fluid from the Peritoneal Cavity of
+<i>A. megalocephala</i>,” ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ 1862, No. 72, p. 69.&mdash;<i>Martin,
+D. T.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="254"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a></span>“Large number of Worms (140 examples of
+<i>A. lumbricoides</i>) discharged from a Child five years old,” rep.
+from the “Stethoscope,” in ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+vol. xliv, p. 301, 1851.&mdash;<i>Mattei, R.</i>, “On a Case of two Lumbricoid
+Worms, which had penetrated during life into the liver,
+and were demonstrated by Prof. G. Pelizzari to his pupils in
+the Sch. of Path. Anat. of Florence,” from ‘Gaz. Med. Ital.
+Toscana,’ in ‘Dubl. Quart. Journ.,’ vol. xxiv, 1857.&mdash;<i>Michel</i>,
+“Case of Epilepsy in a Girl ten years of age, caused by Lumbrici,”
+from ‘Journ. des Connaiss. Méd.,’ in ‘Amer. Journ. of
+Med. Sci.,’ vol. vi, p. 451, 1843.&mdash;<i>M’Laggan, J.</i>, “Gangrenous
+Sore from a large Worm in the Parietes of the Abdomen,”
+‘Med. Comment.,’ vol. ii, 1774, p. 80.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>, in ‘Sitzungsb.
+d. k. Akad.,’ 1859, s. 23.&mdash;<i>Mondière</i>, “On Perforation by Worms
+(three cases),” from ‘L’Expérience,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1839.&mdash;<i>Moore,
+E. D.</i>, “Example of <i>A. lumbr.</i> ejected by the Mouth,”
+‘Prov. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Morgan, J.</i>, “Case of
+Perforation of the Stomach, probably by a (Lumbricus) Worm,”
+‘Lancet,’ 1836.&mdash;<i>Morland, W. W.</i>, “Ejection of numerous
+Lumbrici from the Mouth, impaction of the small intestine
+with Lumbrici, (of which 365 were removed post mortem),” ‘Bost.
+M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lvi, 1857.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>., an “<i>A. lumbr.</i> of unusual
+size (over 17 inches long),” ‘Rep. of Bost. Soc. for Improv.,’
+in ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lviii, p. 62, 1858.&mdash;<i>Neilson</i>,
+“Discharge of Worms from various parts of the Body,” ‘Med.-Chir.
+Rev.,’ and ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1833.&mdash;<i>Omond, R.</i>, “Case
+of Lumbricus attended with Hæmoptysis,” ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’
+1856.&mdash;<i>Owen, R.</i>, art. “Entozoa,” l. c.&mdash;<i>Padley, G.</i>, “Jaundice
+and Lumbrici,” ‘British Med. Journ.,’ Dec. 14, 1878, p. 877.&mdash;<i>Petrenz</i>,
+“Case of fatal Enteritis produced by (200) Lumbrici,”
+from ‘Clarus and Radius’ Beitr. zur Pract. Heilk.,’ in ‘Dubl.
+Journ.,’ vol. xi, 1837; also in ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1837.&mdash;<i>Playfair</i>,
+“Case of Lumbricus (69 specimens) cured by the Mudar,”
+‘Calc. Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. ii, p. 407, 1826.&mdash;<i>Pomeroy,
+C. G.</i>, “Escape of Worms (17 Lumbrici) from the
+Navel of a Child,” ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. xxi, 1840.&mdash;<i>Prichard,
+A.</i>, “Case of Lumbricus,” ‘Rep. of East York and
+North Lincoln Br. of Brit. Med. Assoc.,’ in ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+1859.&mdash;<i>Royer</i>, “Case of Intestinal Perforation by a Lumbricus,”
+report in ‘Lancet,’ 1856.&mdash;<i>Rumsey, N.</i>, “Cases of Lumbricus
+and Tænia associated with Hæmoptysis,” ‘Med.-Chir. Trans.,’
+1818.&mdash;<i>Sandwith, H.</i>, “Remarks on Worms in the Peritoneal
+Cavity, with a case,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Schleifer</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="255"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a></span>
+“Case of a Deaf and Dumb Child restored after the discharge
+of Worms (87 Lumbrici and innumerable Oxyurides),” from
+‘Œsterr. Med. Wochensch.,’ in ‘Amer. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’
+vol. viii, p. 473, 1844.&mdash;<i>Schneider, A.</i>, ‘Monog. der Nemat.,’
+s. 36.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Nervous System of Nematoda,” from
+the German by <i>Busk</i>, ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Schultze</i>,
+“Case of Stuttering occasioned by Worms,” from
+‘Med. Zeit.,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1837.&mdash;<i>Sheppard</i>, “Case of
+<i>A. lumbr.</i> extracted from an Abdominal Abscess,” ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Smith, J. N.</i>, “Thirty-nine Specimens of <i>Ascaris
+lumbricoides</i> in a Child,” ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’ 1856.&mdash;<i>Spalding,
+P.</i>, “Case of Worms (100 Lumbrici),” <i>ibid.</i>, 1839.&mdash;<i>Stockbridge,
+T. G.</i>, “Worm-trap (hooks and eyes), a New
+Remedy,” <i>ibid.</i>, vol. xxvii, p. 73, 1842&ndash;43; see also Anon.,
+A. M.&mdash;<i>Stockbridge, W.</i>, “Mechanical Expulsion of Worms (by
+metallic buttons),” <i>ibid.</i>, vol. xxviii, p. 419, 1843.&mdash;<i>Van Beneden</i>,
+‘Animal Parasites,’ l. c., p. 95; see also <i>Gervais</i>.&mdash;<i>Villemin</i>,
+“Case of Death from Worms (about 18 specimens of <i>A. lumbr.</i>),”
+from ‘L’Union Méd.,’ in the ‘Lancet,’ and rep. in ‘Dubl. Med.
+Press,’ vol. xxxv, p. 327, 1856.&mdash;<i>Weinland</i>, in his ‘Essay,’ l. c.,
+p. 88, and in ‘Troschel’s Arch.,’ 1859, s. 283.&mdash;<i>Welsh, T.</i>,
+“Curious Facts respecting (symptoms produced by) Worms
+(<i>A. lumbricoides</i>),” art. ix in the ‘Med. Papers communicated
+to the Massachus. Med. Soc.,’ vol. i, p. 87, 1790.&mdash;<i>Wendelboe</i>,
+“Case of discharge of Worms (Ascarides?) through the Skin,”
+from ‘Rep. of Roy. Soc. Copenhagen,’ in ‘Lancet,’ 1836; see
+also <i>Neilson</i>.&mdash;<i>Williams, H. W.</i>, “Exhibition of a Lumbricus
+with a dress-hook attached,” ‘Rep. of Bost. Soc. for Med.
+Improv.,’ in ‘Bost. M. and S. Journ.,’ vol. lvi, p. 163, 1857.&mdash;<i>Wilson,
+J.</i>, “On the prevalence of Lumbrici in China,” in his
+‘Med. Notes on China,’ London, 1846.&mdash;<i>Woodman, W. B.</i>,
+“Case of Convulsions, &amp;c., arising from Lumbricoid Worms,”
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Young, W.</i>, “Cases in which
+Lumbrici were evacuated by Ulceration through the Parietes of
+the Abdomen,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ from ‘Glasgow Med. Journ.,’
+1828; rep. in ‘Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. i, p. 564,
+1828.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="256"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>SECTION IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Part I.&mdash;Acanthocephala</span> (Thornheaded
+worms).</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Echinorhynchus gigas</i>, Goeze.&mdash;There is but one recorded
+instance of the occurrence of this entozoon in the human body.
+This is the oft-quoted case by Lambl, given in the ‘Prager
+Vierteljahrschrift’ for 1859. Lambl, indeed, described it as a
+separate species (<i>E. hominis</i>), but as the worm was a sexually-immature
+female, its identification with <i>E. gigas</i>, notwithstanding
+Schneider’s great authority, can hardly be regarded
+as absolutely certain. The worm was found in the small
+intestine of a boy of nine years, and measured only rather more
+than the fifth of an inch in length. As Leuckart hints, the
+worm may be <i>Echinorhynchus angustatus</i>, or possibly the <i>E.
+spirula</i>, a species found in various South American apes (<i>Cebus</i>
+and <i>Jacchus</i>), and also in the Barbary ape (<i>Inuus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In 1872, Welch, unaware of Lambl’s case, announced the
+discovery of “the presence of an encysted Echinorhynchus in
+man.” The minute parasite found by him occurred in a
+soldier, thirty-four years of age, who died at Netley, but who had
+contracted the worm in India. “It was situated in the
+jejunum, immediately beneath the mucous coat, and formed an
+oval prominence in the interior of the gut.” Speaking with
+great confidence, this able microscopist further <span class="nowrap">remarks:&mdash;</span>“The
+character and arrangement of the hooklets unequivocally
+shadowed forth a species of Echinorhynchus for the first time
+discovered as a representative of the Acanthocephala in the
+human body.” Along with his elaborate description Welch
+gives several figures; but these, so far from producing conviction
+as to the accuracy of his inferences, have unfortunately
+led me to believe that the parasite in question would be more
+properly referred to the <i>Pentastomidæ</i>. But for Heller’s
+acquiescence I might have more fittingly noticed this worm
+elsewhere. Davaine falls into the same view, and moreover
+accepts Lewis’s “Echinorhynque du Chien,” which I have
+shown to be a nematode (<i>Cheiracanthus robustus</i>). It is thus
+that serious errors creep into the literature of parasitism.</p>
+
+<p>In the adult state the female <i>Echinorhynchus gigas</i> is a
+huge species, occasionally reaching two feet in length, with a
+breadth of one third of an inch. The male rarely exceeds
+three inches. This worm is common in swine, both wild and<span class="pagenum" title="257"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a></span>
+domesticated. According to Schneider the embryos take up
+their residence in the grubs or larvæ of the cockchafer (<i>Melolontha
+vulgaris</i>), a discovery which very readily explains the
+manner in which hogs become infested. Whether <i>E. gigas</i> be
+a human parasite or not, it is certainly very injurious, not to
+say destructive, to swine. Although this parasite must be
+quite common in England I have experienced great difficulty
+in procuring specimens. In the second book of this work I
+shall give some interesting particulars furnished by the memoir
+of Prof. Verrill and privately by Mr George Wilkins. (See
+‘<a href="#Pachydermata">Parasites of the Pachydermata</a>’.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_35"></a>No. 35).&mdash;<i>Blanchard</i>, in ‘Cuvier’s Règne
+Animal,’ tab. 35 (good fig.), and in ‘Ann. d. Sci. Nat.,’ ser. xii.&mdash;<i>Bremser</i>,
+‘Icones,’ tab. vi.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Parasites of the Hog,”
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Manual,’ l. c., p. 123.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>,
+l. c., ‘Syn.,’ p. 83.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, l. c., ii, p. 2.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>,
+l. c., p. 503.&mdash;<i>Goeze</i>, l. c., s. 143 (good figs.).&mdash;<i>Gurlt</i>, l. c.,
+s. 367.&mdash;<i>Heller</i>, ‘Darmschmarotzer,’ l. c., s. 663.&mdash;<i>Lambl</i>, l. c.,
+<i>supra</i>, Feb., 1859.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., Bd. ii, s. 729; also in ‘Bibl.
+Univ.’ for March, 1863, and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xii, 1863.&mdash;<i>Owen</i>,
+l. c., in ‘Todd’s Cyclop.’ (figs. after Cloquet).&mdash;<i>Rudolphi</i>,
+‘Synops.,’ pp. 63 and 310.&mdash;<i>Schneider</i>, in ‘Arch. f.
+Anat. und Phys.,’ 1868.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Sitzungsb. der Oberhess.
+Gesellsch. f. Nat.,’ &amp;c., 1874 (quoted by Leuckart); see also
+‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 4th series, vol. vii, p. 441, 1871.&mdash;<i>Verrill</i>,
+‘The external and internal Parasites,’ &amp;c., l. c., p. 109.&mdash;<i>Welch</i>,
+“The presence of an Encysted Echinorhynchus in Man,”
+‘Lancet,’ Nov. 16, p. 703, 1872.&mdash;<i>Westrumb</i>, ‘De Helm. Acanth.’
+(good figs.), 1821.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SECTION IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Part II.&mdash;Suctoria</span> (Leeches)</h3>
+
+<p>As explained in the Introduction we must regard the Leeches
+and many allied forms of Suctorial Annelids as creatures possessed
+of semi-parasitic habits. They are, perhaps, something
+more than what Van Beneden styles “free parasites”&mdash;an expression
+which almost looks like a contradiction of terms. I cannot
+here, however, stop to discuss questions which lie, as it were, on
+the border-land of parasitology. Three species of leech are more
+or less commonly employed in medicine. These are the grey leech
+(<i>Sanguisuga medicinalis</i>, Savigny), the green-leech (<i>S. officinalis</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="258"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a></span>
+Sav.), and the dragon-leech (<i>S. interrupta</i>, Moq.-Tandon).
+The two former abound in Central and Southern Europe, being
+also present in North Africa, the last named inhabiting Barbary
+and Algeria. So abundant are leeches in the country bordering
+the Mediterranean that during the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon
+the French soldiers suffered seriously from their attacks.
+When the men lay down to drink, the leeches (<i>Hæmopis sanguisorba</i>,
+Sav.) affixed themselves to their mouths and nostrils,
+producing serious distress. They also attacked horses, camels,
+and cattle. In like manner the Ceylon and Philippine Island
+leeches (<i>S. ceylonica</i>, Moq.-Tand., or <i>S. tagalla</i>, Meyen), of which
+there are several varieties, prove exceedingly troublesome to
+Europeans. These leeches, not being aquatic forms, occupy
+woods and damp places. Unless the limbs of travellers are
+well protected, the presence of the blood-suckers is soon discovered
+by the trickling of blood from the limbs and lower part
+of the body. The leeches even sometimes creep up to the neck
+and other adjacent parts. These “free parasites” also attack
+horses, causing much loss of blood. Terrestrial leeches
+abound more or less in all warm countries. Sir J. Hooker
+encountered them in the Himalayas, and they are common in
+China, Japan, Java (<i>S. Javonica</i>, Wahlberg), and other eastern
+parts. They likewise abound in Brazil and Chili. The American
+leeches for the most part belong to the genus Hæmenteria
+(<i>H. Mexicana</i>, <i>H. officinalis</i>, and <i>H. Ghiliani</i>, Filippi). The
+last named is common in Brazil, the other two being Mexican
+forms. Another species, which is blind, has been found in
+Brazil by F. Müller (<i>Cyclobdella lumbricoides</i>). Not only the
+above-named species, but also many other kinds of leeches are
+in the habit of attacking man and the domestic animals, but
+the subject is too extended and special to be fully dealt with
+in this work. Almost a legion of species are known as externally
+parasitic upon Fishes, Chelonian and Batrachian reptiles,
+Crustaceans, and Echinoderms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_36"></a>No. 36).&mdash;<i>Blainville</i>, ‘Dict. des Sci. Nat.,’
+tom. xlvii, p. 257.&mdash;<i>Brandt</i> (und <i>Ratzeburg</i>), ‘Medicin. Zoologie,’
+Bd. ii.&mdash;<i>Brightwell</i>, ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ ix, 1842.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>,
+‘Syst.,’ vol. i, p. 465, and “Revis. der Myzelminth.
+(Abth. Bdellideen),” in ‘Sitzungsb. der math.-nat. Cl. d. k.
+Akad. der Wissensch.,’ Bd. xxxiii, s. 473.&mdash;<i>Ebrard</i>, ‘Compt.
+Rend.,’ 1856, p. 1012.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Monogr. des sangues Méd.,’
+1857.&mdash;<i>Filippi, De</i>, ‘Mem. Accad., &amp;c., Torino,’ and in <span class="pagenum" title="259"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a></span>‘S. und
+K. Zeitsch.,’ 1829.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Nuovo genere,” &amp;c., in ‘Gaz.
+Med. Lombard,’ 1849.&mdash;<i>Grube</i>, ‘Fam. d. Annelid.,’ s. 109.&mdash;<i>Hofmeister</i>,
+in ‘Burmeister’s Zeitung für Zool.,’ 1848.&mdash;<i>Johnson</i>,
+‘Treatise on the Medicinal Leech.’&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, l. c., Bd. ii,
+s. 634&ndash;739 (with many refs.)&mdash;<i>Leydig</i> (“Anat.”), ‘S. und K.
+Zeitsch.,’ Bd. i.&mdash;<i>Moquin-Tandon</i>, ‘Monogr. de la fam. des
+Hirudinées,’ 1846.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in his ‘Medical Zoology’ (Hulme’s
+edit.), 1861, p. 137.&mdash;<i>Müller, F.</i>, in ‘Archiv f. Naturg.,’ 1846.&mdash;<i>Pereira</i>,
+in his ‘Materia Med.,’ vol. ii, p. 2197, 1853.&mdash;<i>Savigny</i>,
+‘Descript. de l’Egypte,’ 2nd edit.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Syst. des
+Annélides,’ 1820.&mdash;<i>Schmarda</i>, ‘Neue wirbell. Thiere,’ Bd. i
+(quoted by Leuckart).&mdash;<i>Virey</i> (and <i>Serullas</i>), in ‘Journ. Pharm.,’
+1829, p. 614.&mdash;<i>Wagener</i>, in ‘Troschel’s Archiv,’ 1858, Bd. i,
+s. 244 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Wahlberg</i>, in ‘Œfvers. Kongl. Vetensk. Akad.
+Forhand.,’ Stockholm, 1855.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SECTION IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Part III.&mdash;Arachnida</span> (Pentastomes, Mites,
+Ticks).</h3>
+
+<p>The Trachearian division of the Arachnida comprises a few
+internal parasites that attack man, and many ectozoa which are
+parasitic upon man and animals. The species can only be
+noticed very briefly.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 235px;">
+<img src="images/f50.jpg" width="235" height="406" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>&mdash;<i>Pentastoma tænioides.</i> (1) Male and (2) female, of
+the natural size. The egg and embryo highly magnified.
+After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Pentastoma tænioides</i>, Rudolphi.&mdash;In the system of classification
+adopted by Diesing, this entozoon and its allies are placed
+in the division <i>Cephalocotyleen</i> and therefore, in association
+with the Cestodes, with which, however, it has no structural
+affinity. It was long ago pointed out by Van Beneden, T. D.
+Schubart, Leuckart, and others, that the pentastomes were
+Acarine and Lernæan Arthropods; the genus being osculant
+between the Acaridæ and Lernæidæ. The whole subject is
+discussed in Leuckart’s profound memoir quoted below.</p>
+
+<p>The adult <i>Pentastoma tænioides</i> is characterised by the
+possession of a vermiform, lancet-shaped body, flattened at the
+ventral surface, attenuated posteriorly, and marked transversely
+by about ninety rings (fig. 50, 1 and 2). The cephalo-thoracic
+segments are continuous with the body, each supporting a pair
+of strong retractile chitinous claws; four in all. The head is
+truncated, furnished with an oval mouth, armed with a horny
+lip. The integument of the body is perforated with numerous
+respiratory openings or stigmata. These are wanting in the<span class="pagenum" title="260"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a></span>
+cephalic segment. In the larval state (══ <i>Pent. denticulatum</i>)
+the body is armed with numerous rows of small, sharply pointed
+spines. The adult female
+measures from three to
+four inches in length, but
+the male is only about
+an inch long. The genital
+aperture of the female is
+situated at the extremity
+of the tail, that of the
+male being placed at the
+front part of the abdomen
+in the middle line. The
+mode of reproduction is
+oviparous, accompanied
+by a subsequent and complete
+metamorphosis.</p>
+
+<p>In the mature condition
+this parasite infests
+the nostrils, and frontal
+sinuses of the dog and
+wolf, and also, though
+more rarely, the nasal
+cavities of the horse and
+sheep. In the pupal and
+larval states it sometimes
+occurs in the abdominal
+and thoracic cavities of
+the human body, but it is
+more frequently found in herbivorous mammals, such as the
+sheep, deer, antelope, peccary, porcupine, guinea-pig, hare, and
+rat. According to Creplin, it infests the domestic cat. In
+these animals and in man the young worms occupy little cysts
+within or upon the peripheral parts of the liver and lungs.
+I have occasionally found them free in the cavities of the
+abdomen and pleura.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the development of this entozoon, Leuckart
+recognises four well-marked stages. The <i>first</i> is that of the
+embryo with a boring apparatus. In the <i>second</i> stage, the
+embryo has become transformed into a motionless pupa. The
+<i>third</i> is the ordinary larval condition characterised by numerous
+rows of small spines in addition to two pairs of double claws.<span class="pagenum" title="261"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a></span>
+The <i>fourth</i> is the sexually-developed stage, furnished with a
+simple hook-apparatus, and without integumentary denticles.
+“Our Pentastomes, therefore,”
+says Leuckart, “exhibit
+two kinds of larval
+forms, an earlier and later
+one, such as takes place
+in other animals; this also
+occurs even in insects
+(<i>Strepsiptera</i> and <i>Meloidæ</i>),
+only that, in our case (<i>i.e.</i>
+in <i>Pentastoma</i>), both do
+not immediately follow one
+another, but are separated
+by a resting condition,
+which I have designated
+as the pupa stage. In
+choosing this name I do
+not mean to express a complete identity of this intermediate
+state with the pupal sleep of insects.”</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 245px;">
+<img src="images/f51.jpg" width="245" height="239" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>&mdash;Upper third of the body of <i>Pentastoma
+denticulatum</i>. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>So far as my own observations extend, the pupa, in its later
+stages, closely resembles the free larva; but, as Leuckart points
+out, the earlier stages are very different. The embryo, after
+encystation, repeatedly casts its skin, and during the intervals
+of these several successive moultings, the young animal makes
+rapid growth, accompanied by a series of structural changes.
+Passing through these it at length acquires the perfected larval
+state (<i>P. denticulatum</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As regards the occurrence of this entozoon in the human
+body, the best account is that given by Frerichs. As quoted
+in my previous work from Murchison’s edition of Frerichs’ well-known
+clinical treatise, the German <i>savant</i> <span class="nowrap">remarks:&mdash;</span>“The
+Pentastoma is a parasite which has only recently been discovered
+in the human subject, but it is, nevertheless, far more
+common in the human liver than the echinococcus. It is
+devoid of clinical importance, because it does not give rise to
+any functional derangements. Pruner (‘Krankheit des Orients,’
+1847, s. 245) was the first who pointed out the existence of the
+Pentastoma in the human liver. On two occasions he found an
+encysted parasite in the liver of negroes at Cairo, the nature of
+which, however, he did not accurately determine. Bilharz and
+Von Siebold (‘Zeitschr. für Wissench. Zoologie,’ Bd. iv, s. 63)<span class="pagenum" title="262"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a></span>
+recognised in it a new variety of Pentastoma, to which he gave
+the name of <i>P. constrictum</i>. In Germany the Pentastoma was
+found in the human liver by Zenker (‘Zeitschr. f. ration. Med.,’
+1854, Bd. v, s. 224); it occurs, however, not only in this gland,
+but also in the kidneys, and in the submucous tissue of the
+small intestine (Wagner). The parasite is by no means rare
+with us. Zenker, at Dresden, succeeded in finding it nine
+times out of 168 autopsies; Heschl, at Vienna, met with it five
+times out of twenty autopsies; Wagner, at Leipsig, once in ten.
+According to Virchow, it is more common in Berlin than in
+Central Germany. During six months at Breslau I met with it
+in five out of forty-seven dead bodies. The Pentastoma-endemic
+in Germany is not identical with that which occurs in Egypt;
+the former is the <i>P. denticulatum</i> of Rudolphi.” This clear
+statement of Frerichs is valuable; but, as Murchison has also
+pointed out, there is some discrepancy between Frerichs and
+Küchenmeister’s record of Zenker’s experience. According
+to Küchenmeister, Zenker met with the Pentastoma thirty times
+in 200 autopsies.</p>
+
+<p>Although from a purely clinical point of view, and speaking
+generally, this worm, as Frerichs says, can claim little attention,
+yet, as we shall see (when treating of the parasites of the dog),
+it occasionally proves fatal to the canine bearer. Not only so,
+it may even occasion severe inconvenience to the human bearer.
+Quite recently a remarkable instance of this kind occurred in
+Germany, some notice of which appeared in the ‘Medical Times
+and Gazette,’ Jan. 4th, 1879, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“Dr Landon of Elbing (‘Berl. Klin. Wochenschrift,’ No. 49,
+1878) relates the case of a workman, aged forty-two, who soon
+after the Franco-German campaign of 1870 was laid up with pain
+in the hepatic region, jaundice, and gastric disturbance, which
+symptoms persisted more or less until 1874, when he came
+under Dr Landon’s care with an attack apparently of perihepatitis.
+It then appeared that since 1871 he had also suffered from severe
+attacks of epistaxis, which occurred often twice in the same day.
+The patient complained of a feeling of painful pressure in the
+left nasal cavity, but with the speculum nothing but a moderate
+degree of inflammatory swelling could be detected. Suddenly,
+at Easter, 1878, a parasite was dislodged from the left side of
+the nose by a violent sneeze, and from that moment the epistaxis
+has not occurred. Its cause proved to be the <i>Pentastoma
+tænioides</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="263"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>As the full-grown parasite occupies the nasal chambers of the
+dog, it is clear that the act of sneezing will be liable to transport
+the eggs and their contained embryos to the face and other exposed
+parts of persons who fondle dogs. In this way the germs
+will readily gain access to the human mouth. Ordinarily, the
+germs are introduced into the human stomach with uncooked
+vegetable food and fruits, to which they adhere after expulsion
+from the animal’s nostrils. The slimy nasal mucus secures
+this attachment, especially when it has become dry by exposure
+to the air. On reaching the stomach the embryos escape the
+egg-coverings and bore their way directly to the liver and
+other viscera, in which organs they become encysted and
+undergo the pupal transformation. Eventually they acquire a
+length of 2 to <span class="nowrap">2<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> lines (<i>P. denticulatum</i>). After a while the
+capsules enclosing the larvæ undergo calcareous degeneration,
+the parasite perishing.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of dogs it is easy to perceive that when the
+animals are engaged in devouring the flesh of herbivora, the
+liberated larvæ will often come in contact with their noses. In
+this way contraction of the body, aided by the integumentary
+denticles, will secure their entrance into the nasal cavities. For
+our own security, therefore, we should avoid contact with dogs
+which frequent butchers’ shops and knackeries, and be sure that
+our market-garden fruits and vegetables are carefully washed
+before they are brought to table.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 105px;">
+<a id="Fig_52"></a>
+<img src="images/f52.jpg" width="55" height="260" style="padding-left: 25px" alt="" /><br />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>&mdash;<i>Pentastoma</i>
+<i>constrictum.</i> Magnified four diameters.
+After Bilharz.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Pentastoma constrictum</i>, Von Siebold.&mdash;This parasite is at
+present only known to us in the immature condition; unless,
+indeed, as is by no means improbable, the adult worm has been
+described under some other name. It was first discovered by
+Pruner on two occasions in negroes, and he also subsequently
+found two specimens of the worm preserved in the Pathological
+Museum at Bologna, which had been removed from the human
+liver. Pruner also found it in the giraffe. Bilharz afterwards
+frequently detected it in the livers of negroes at Cairo. It
+differs from the larval form of <i>P. tænioides</i> in not possessing
+integumentary spines; moreover, it is a much larger parasite.
+The cephalothorax is furnished with four foot-claws, and the
+elongated abdomen displays twenty-three rings placed at tolerably
+regular intervals. The anterior part of the animal is
+obtusely rounded off, the caudal end being conical. The worm
+usually attains a length of rather more than half an inch, whilst
+the breadth scarcely exceeds a line.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="264"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>An extremely interesting account of this worm has been
+published by Prof. Aitken, accompanied with illustrations by
+Dr H. C. Gillespie, taken from specimens in the Pathological
+Museum at Netley. Two cases are recorded. In one of these the
+encysted worms were found in the liver and lungs,
+and in the other in the liver only. In Dr Crawford’s
+account of the post mortem in the last-mentioned case,
+Prof. Aitken quotes him as saying:
+“These worms varied in length from an inch to an
+inch and a half, and were found coiled up like a
+watch-spring, in small sacs scattered throughout
+the whole organ.” The patient was a private
+of the 1st West India Regiment, and died at
+Bathurst, Gambia, in 1854. In the other case,
+where the lungs and liver were infested, the patient
+was an African, about twenty-one years old, who
+had enlisted into the 5th West India Regiment
+at Up Park Camp, Jamaica. He had, a few months
+previously, come from the slave depôt at Rupert’s
+Valley, St Helena. According to the post-mortem
+report, furnished by Mr Kearney (staff surgeon),
+the lower lobe of the right lung contained one or
+two yellow specks. “When cut into, worms were seen regularly
+encysted in its substance.” The surface of the liver was
+dotted over “with about twenty or thirty yellow specks, similar
+to those seen in the lung.” The longest of these specimens
+was a trifle less than three quarters of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>Whether <i>Pent. denticulatum</i> be or be not devoid of clinical
+interest, it is quite clear from Aitken’s account that <i>P. constrictum</i>
+is a formidable parasite and one that occasionally proves
+fatal to the bearer. As his remarks suggest, a parasite that
+can produce both pneumonia and peritonitis is not a creature
+that either the physician or the sanitarian can afford to ignore.
+Lastly, I must again express my belief that the so-called
+<i>Echinorhynchus</i>, described by Welch, if it be not the <i>Pentastoma
+denticulatum</i>, must either be referred to <i>P. constrictum</i> (in an
+early larval condition), or to some other hitherto undescribed
+pentastomatoid larva.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_37"></a>No. 37).&mdash;<i>Aitken, W.</i>, “On the occurrence of
+<i>Pentastoma constrictum</i> in the Human Body as a cause of painful
+Disease and Death,” repr. from the ‘Science and Practice of
+Medicine,’ 4th edit., 1865.&mdash;<i>Bellingham</i>, in <span class="pagenum" title="265"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a></span>‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+vol. xiv, p. 162.&mdash;<i>Blanchard</i>, in ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ ser. 3,
+t. viii, and in ‘Règn. Anim.’ (with figs.).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Entoz.,’
+p. 393 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Quart. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ 1859, p. 205.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>
+(“<i>P. cephalophi</i>”), in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ xxii, p. 357, and
+xxiii, p. 350.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’ 1861, p. 124.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>,
+‘Syst.,’ i, p. 609.&mdash;Idem, ‘Revis. der Cephalocot.,’
+s. 327.&mdash;<i>Frerichs</i> (l. c., in text), vol. ii, p. 276.&mdash;<i>Klob</i> (und
+<i>Schroff</i>), in ‘Gesellsch. d. Aerzte,’ Wien, 1860.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>,
+l. c., i, s. 370, Eng. edit., tab. viii.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (with <i>Van Beneden</i>),
+in ‘Bullet. Acad. Belg.,’ xxii (with figs.), 1855.&mdash;<i>Landon</i>
+(quoted in text).&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, in ‘Zeitsch. f. rat. Med.,’ 1857;
+see also “Obs. on the development and early condition of the
+<i>Pent. tænioides</i>,” in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. iii, 3rd series, 1859;
+also my translation of his “Further Observations on the
+development of <i>P. tænioides</i>,” from ‘Henle and Pfeufer’s
+Zeitsch.,’ in the ‘Quart. Journ. of Micr. Sci.’ for 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Bau und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pentastomen, nach Untersuchungen
+besonders von <i>P. tænioides</i> und <i>P. denticulatum</i>,’
+Leipzig, 1860.&mdash;<i>Moquin-Tandon</i>, ‘Med. Zool.’ (Hulme’s edit.),
+“The Linguatula,” p. 329.&mdash;<i>Pruner</i> (“Nematoideum”) in
+‘Krankh. d. Orient.,’ 1847.&mdash;<i>Schubart</i>, ‘S. und K. Zeitschr.,’
+Bd. iv.&mdash;<i>Welch</i>, see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_36">36</a>.&mdash;<i>Zenker</i>, in ‘H. und Pf.
+Zeitschr. f. rat. Med.,’ 1854, s. 212 (with figs.).</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/f53.jpg" width="250" height="326" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;<i>Demodex folliculorum</i>, var. <i>caninus</i>. <i>a</i>, Female; <i>b</i>, male. Viewed from below
+and in profile. Magnified 300 diameters. After Mégnin.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ectoparasitic arachnidans comprise a great variety of
+mites and ticks (<i>Acaridæ</i> and <i>Ixodidæ</i>) more or less proper to
+man, and also a number of creatures which, though hardly to
+be reckoned as human parasites, are apt to transfer themselves
+from animals to man. Little more than an enumeration of the
+forms is possible here. The Common Scab or Itch insect
+(<i>Sarcoptes scabiei</i>) forms the type of a great variety of arachnids,
+generally spoken of as different species according to the
+host they dwell upon. Mégnin, however, in his beautiful
+memoir, quoted below, regards most of the forms of this genus
+(found on the horse, hog, sheep, dog, wolf, and other animals)
+as mere varieties. In man the female Acarus burrows beneath
+the skin, forming galleries or curved channels, in which she
+deposits her eggs. The irritation produced is not alone due to
+these excavations, but to the presence also of a poison which
+the mite discharges when feeding. The <i>Sarcoptes crustosæ</i> of
+Fürstenberg, producing the Norway itch, is a variety, if,
+indeed, it can be called as much. Under the frightful name of
+<i>Dermatophagoides Schérémétewsky</i> two parasites found on an<span class="pagenum" title="266"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266"></a></span>
+herpetic patient have been described as new to science by M.
+Bogdanoff, but Mégnin points out that these Acari are only
+female and young male representatives of his <i>Chorioptes setiferus</i>
+(var. <i>bovis</i>) respectively. In Newfoundland, Dr Le Roy de
+Méricourt discovered a singular species upon an officer who
+had come from Havannah (<i>Tyroglyphus Méricourti</i>, Laboulbène).
+It possesses enormous palpi, as in the genus <i>Chyletus</i> to which
+Robin refers it. Another ectozoon, placed by Mégnin and
+others amongst the lowest types of Arachnida, is the well-known
+<i>Demodex folliculorum</i>. It is a gregarious species, a
+dozen or more examples often being present in a single dilated
+hair follicle. Though disfiguring to the human face it produces
+little harm. M. Gruby made it out to be a very common
+parasite, infesting forty out of sixty persons; but Mégnin, in
+his brochure (l. c. infra, p. 119), shows this statement to be an
+exaggeration. It infests on the average not more than one in
+ten persons. According to Gruby, moreover, a single follicle
+in the dog may contain 200 of these mites, another statement
+which Mégnin deems unreliable. The <i>Demodex</i> of the dog is only
+a variety (fig. 53). Many other human Arachnids have been found,
+some of which appear to be genuine species, whilst others are<span class="pagenum" title="267"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a></span>
+accidental, so to speak. Of the former kind, perhaps we may
+reckon the two species discovered by Hessling (<i>Cœlognathus
+morsitans</i> and <i>Entarsus cancriformis</i>). Of the latter sort, those
+found by Busk, Simon, and Bory de St Vincent may be cited.
+The mite found in Simon’s case was the <i>Dermanyssus avium</i>,
+which infests cage-birds. Probably it was the same species
+which Bory found on a lady; but in Busk’s negro sailor the
+mite may have been <i>D. gallinæ</i> of the common fowl. Differing
+from the mites, proper, and also from the true ticks, are
+some bug-like forms called Argades. The two best known are
+the Miana bug of Persia (<i>Argas persicus</i>) and the Chinche of
+Columbia (<i>A. chinche</i>). Like their congener infesting pigeons
+(<i>A. reflexus</i>) these parasites are terrible blood-suckers. The
+bite of the Persian bug is so venomous as to have occasioned
+death. Various species of tick have been known to attack man,
+but the species have not been well determined. Although a
+human form has been described (<i>Ixodes hominis</i>, Koch), yet it
+is more probable that the species usually attacking man are the
+same as those known to infest the domesticated animals. In
+this list we may, therefore, reckon <i>Ixodes nigra</i>, <i>Ix. bovis</i>, <i>Ix.
+ricinus</i>, and <i>Ix. reduvius</i>. Cases in which one or other of
+these ticks occasioned much pain and distress are recorded by
+Hussem, Raspail, and Dr Cosson. Besides these there is a
+formidable tick well known at Angola (<i>Ix. monbata</i>). Its
+habits are like those of the common bed-bug. Severe pain
+comes on two hours after the person is bitten. It likewise
+attacks animals. The <i>Ix. carapato</i> is similarly troublesome in
+Brazil. Another very disgusting arachnid liable to attack man
+is the <i>Galeodes araneoides</i>. This large spider-like creature, two
+inches in length, commonly attacks camels and has an extremely
+venomous bite. One or more species of the dung-beetle mites
+(Gamasidæ) have also been known to fasten themselves on
+man. According to Latreille, they first get attached to the
+clothes of travellers, whence they pass to his body, and there
+shift about, producing great torment. Another disagreeable
+arachnid is the little harvest bug (<i>Leptus autumnalis</i>), which
+not only excites irritation during its crawling motion on the
+human skin, but even succeeds in burying itself near the hairs.
+The irritation thus produced is almost unbearable. This mite
+attacks various animals, especially dogs and cats. I myself
+once suffered severely from this species in consequence of fondling
+a young wild rabbit which, as I afterwards discovered, was<span class="pagenum" title="268"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a></span>
+much infested. When the parasites had reached my left arm-pit
+they occasioned extreme torture. I have known these autumnal
+spiders to produce small suppurating boils on the abdomen.
+I may add that Dr Tilbury Fox has brought under my notice
+an instance where the hexapod larva of another species (probably
+<i>Trombidium cinereum</i>) was found to have occasioned severe
+irritation in a child.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_38"></a>No. 38).&mdash;<i>Alibert</i>, ‘Maladies de la Peau,’ Paris,
+1833.&mdash;<i>Audouin, V.</i>, art. “Arachnida,” in ‘Todd’s Cyclop.,’
+vol. i, 1836.&mdash;<i>Beneden, Van</i> (<i>et Gervais</i>), ‘Zool. Med.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Bourguignon</i>
+(<i>et Delafond</i>), in ‘Rec. Vét.,’ 1856.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in
+‘Mém. de l’Institut.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Case of <i>Leptus</i> producing
+Boils,” in ‘Worms,’ p. 140, London, 1872.&mdash;<i>Gamgee</i>, ‘Our
+Domestic Animals in Health and Disease,’ Edin., 1861.&mdash;<i>Gerlach</i>,
+‘Kraetze und Räude,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Hebra</i>, in ‘Oester. Jahrb.,’
+1864.&mdash;<i>Hering</i>, ‘Die Kraetzmilben,’ Stuttgard, 1845.&mdash;<i>Krabbe</i>,
+“Husdyrenes paras. Mider.,” ‘Tidssk. f. Vet.,’ Rœk. 2, Bd. iii.&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i>,
+l. c., 1855, s. 412 (good figs.).&mdash;<i>Mégnin</i>,
+‘Monographie de la tribu des Sarcoptides psoriques.’ (This work
+contains a full bibliography and numerous beautiful plates; see
+also Review in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Aug., 1877, p. 563).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Mémoire sur un nouveau Symbiote (<i>Chorioptes</i>, Gerv.),”
+‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol.,’ 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Mém. sur
+un nouvel Acarien,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Mém. sur les Hypopes,”
+<i>ibid.</i>, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Mém. sur l’organisation et la
+distribution zoologique des Acariens de la famille des Gamasidés,”
+<i>ibid.</i>, 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Mém. sur les métamorphoses des Acariens
+en général, et en particulier sur celles des Trombidions,” ‘Ann.
+des Sci. Nat.,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Des conditions de la contagion
+de la gale des animaux à l’homme,” ‘Arch. générales de Méd.,’
+1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Mém. sur le <i>Demodex folliculorum</i> (Owen),”
+‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol.,’ 1877.&mdash;<i>Moquin-Tandon</i>,
+‘Elém. de Zool. méd.’ (Hulme’s edit., p. 302&ndash;328), 1861.&mdash;<i>Williams</i>,
+in his ‘Veterinary Surgery’ (good figs., reproduced
+from Gamgee’s translation of ‘Gerlach,’ &amp;c.), 1872.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SECTION IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Part IV.&mdash;Crustacea</span> (Gammaridæ).</h3>
+
+<p>Although multitudes of small Crustaceans are parasitic upon
+fishes, and some few of them adhere to oceanic mammals
+(Cetacea), I am sceptical as to the parasitism of Crustacea either<span class="pagenum" title="269"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a></span>
+in or upon man. Many of the Amphipodous Gammari lead a
+sort of free parasitic existence, and they are themselves very
+liable to harbor larval parasites. As regards human parasitism
+from this source the only records known to me are those quoted
+below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_39"></a>No. 39).&mdash;<i>Banon</i>, “Freshwater Shrimp, or
+<i>Gamarus pulex</i> (said to have been passed per anum),” ‘Rep. of
+Path. Soc. of Dublin,’ in ‘Dub. Med. Press,’ April 6, p. 351,
+1864.&mdash;<i>Bartels</i>, “<i>Gamarus pulex</i> in the Human Subject, with a
+postscript by Troschel,” trans. by Dr E. P. Wright, from ‘Verhandl.
+des Naturhist. verein. der Preuss. Rheinl. und Westph.,’
+in ‘Dubl. Med. Press,’ 2nd ser., vol. ix, p. 407, 1864.&mdash;<i>Wright,
+E. P.</i>, ‘Remarks on Dr Banon’s Case’ (see Bartels).</p>
+
+
+<h3>SECTION IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Part V.&mdash;Insecta</span> (Coleoptera, Diptera,
+Hemiptera, Aphaniptera).</h3>
+
+<p>Whilst very many flies, bugs, lice, and fleas persecute animals,
+not a few of them also attack man. Several of the species are
+genuine parasites, others are semi-parasitic, and others, again, are
+altogether outside the border-land of parasitism in the ordinary
+sense of the term. In fact, it becomes difficult to say where
+the line of parasitism should be drawn. I cannot, however,
+ignore all notice of the insect tormentors, whether strictly
+parasitic or not.</p>
+
+<p>At least fifty different species have been regarded as playing
+the rôle of parasitism in man. Amongst the Coleopterous
+parasites none is more authentic than <i>Blaps mortisaga</i>. At
+least half a dozen such cases have occurred. Mr Hope’s
+catalogue of insects producing parasitism in man gives three
+examples of <i>scolechiasis</i> from this source. Sir J. R. Cormack
+published a fourth case, and I have recorded a fifth. In this
+instance I received the living larva from Dr Horne, of Barnsley,
+who procured it from an infant eleven weeks old. In my ‘Introductory
+Treatise’ I have alluded to the case of the girl Riordan,
+who not only passed per anum upwards of 1200 larvæ, but also
+several perfect insects. The case was first reported by Pickells,
+Thomson, and Bellingham. One of the other authentic cases,
+in which only a few larvæ were present, was recorded by
+Patterson, of Belfast, and the third case by Bateman. Mr Hop<span class="pagenum" title="270"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a></span>e’s
+‘Catalogue’ originally appeared in the ‘Transactions of the
+Entomological Society,’ being afterwards published in the pages
+of the ‘London Medical Gazette,’ 1837. Patterson’s case was
+also, I believe, first communicated to the Entomological Society.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the mode in which the maggot gained access to
+the child in Horne’s case, it was not easy to decide; but in the
+case of the girl Riordan the mode of ingress was sufficiently
+explained. The <i>Blapsidæ</i>, as a family, are closely allied to the
+meal-worms, and, like most of the <i>Tenebrionidæ</i>, are black and
+foul-smelling beetles, frequenting dark and damp situations,
+from which they escape only at night. The family comprises
+numerous species, of which probably not more than three are
+found in this country. They are abundant in Africa, especially
+in Egypt, where (according to Fabricius, as quoted by Westwood,
+Figuer, and others) the women eat <i>Blaps sulcata</i> cooked
+with butter in order to make themselves grow fat. The insects
+are also employed as specifics against ear-ache and the bite of the
+scorpion. The superstitious notion of a “charm” is generally at
+the bottom of these domestic remedies. In the girl Riordan’s case,
+as Westwood observes (when epitomising Pickell’s account), the
+parasites, as such, “probably originated in an absurd and superstitious
+practice, which she had for some time followed, of drinking
+daily for a certain time a quantity of water mixed with clay,
+taken from the graves of two Catholic priests, and eating large
+pieces of chalk. One of these beetles was immersed repeatedly
+in spirits of wine, but revived after remaining therein all night,
+and afterwards lived three years.” The intolerance of light
+shown by the perfect insect seems to be equally shared by the
+larva. Of this fact I had repeated evidence by observing the
+behaviour of the living specimen sent to me by Dr Horne. Thus,
+when, on February 5th, 1877, I placed the maggot on the
+surface of some moist mould, scarcely half a minute elapsed
+before it commenced to bore its way downwards, and in less
+than a minute all but the tip of the tail had disappeared. In
+like manner, when, on the 7th, I raised the lid of the box, and
+found the maggot on the surface of the soil, it almost instantly
+proceeded to bury itself. Hope’s list records no less than nine
+instances of parasitism in man from the larvæ of <i>Tenebrio
+molitor</i>, and he gives a score of other Coleopterous insects
+which he regarded as human “intestinal worms.” Undoubtedly
+a large number of insect larvæ do get introduced into,
+and actually live within the human intestines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="271"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Numerous cases of this sort have come under my observation,
+but it often requires a profound knowledge of entomology to
+determine the species. Several examples of œstridean larvæ
+occur amongst them. For one example of <i>Œstrus hominis</i> I am
+indebted to Mr Higginson, of Liverpool, who obligingly supplied
+me with notes of the case. Dr Kirk presented me with a
+small bot which he removed from Livingstone’s leg. I afterwards
+deposited the African bot, in his name, in the Hunterian
+collection. Bates speaks of an Œstrus in Brazil producing boils
+in human flesh. Westwood quotes similar instances. Of these,
+one was extracted from the thigh by Dr Brick. Mr Doubleday,
+the entomologist, extracted one from his own leg, and M. Goudot,
+another entomologist, was also victimised in the same way.
+Both of these <i>savans</i> were travelling in America at the time.
+Two cases from South America were also recorded by Howship.
+In one the larva lodged in the back; in the other in the
+scrotum. Humboldt noticed that the Indians were much
+infested by Œstridæ. Three cases are severally recorded by
+Roulin, Guérin, and Audouin. Mr Stroop also mentions a case
+in which an Œstrus was removed from an ulcer on the shoulder
+of a boy in Texas. Another kind of bot known as the Macaco
+worm (<i>Cuterebra noxialis</i>) occasionally attacks man, but more
+frequently cattle and dogs. For one example, taken from the
+leg of a negro, at Belize, British Honduras, I am indebted to
+Dr Dobson (A. M. D., Netley). Hope’s list records five cases of
+bots of <i>Œstrus hominus</i>, one of <i>Œ. Guildingii</i>, one of <i>Œ. bovis</i>,
+and thirteen others (belonging to the same genus) as having
+been noticed in man. Since his time many additional cases
+have been recorded by J. M. Duncan and others. In like manner
+a legion of cases in which the maggots of various Muscidæ have
+been noticed, either in, upon, or from the human body. At
+a meeting of the American Academy in April, 1859, Dr Leidy
+showed some larvæ of the bluebottle fly vomited by a child;
+five larvæ of the flower-fly (Anthomyia) from a physician’s
+own person (which had produced choleraic symptoms); and
+nine examples of <i>Cuterebra noxialis</i>. I have myself encountered
+numerous insect larvæ in medical practice. Amongst others
+I have obtained the larvæ of <i>Anthomyia canalicularis</i> in six
+or eight separate instances. One set of specimens, identified by
+Wunderlich, was sent to me by Dr Brandt, of Oporto. Drs
+Duffin, W. Fox, and Leared have supplied me with others.
+The larvæ described in Farre’s case, not being setose, must be<span class="pagenum" title="272"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a></span>
+referred to one or other of the Muscidæ proper. Mr Hope gave
+nearly forty cases of this kind, referable to eight different
+species of fly, and, as already implied, I have myself collected
+a great variety of the maggots of Muscidæ passed by the bowel,
+besides others obtained either from beneath the skin or from
+open ulcerations.</p>
+
+<p>The flies hitherto noticed as supplying parasitic maggots in
+man are <i>Musca domestica</i>, <i>M. carnaria</i>, <i>M. larvarum</i>, <i>M. nigra</i>,
+and perhaps <i>M. Cibaria</i>, <i>M. stabulans</i>, and <i>M. Cæsar</i>. This last,
+a handsome fly, is the species which proves so troublesome to
+sheep. The habit which flies have of depositing their eggs in
+open wounds, when the victims are asleep, is a fertile source of
+this kind of parasitism. Some of the instances recorded by
+Kirby and Spence are revolting in the extreme. They quote
+the cases which came under Mr Sell’s notice in Jamaica. In
+one instance the flies were hatched in a neglected blister on the
+chest; in another from the gums and inside of the cheek; and
+in a third, from the nostrils of a negro, from whom 235 larvæ
+were expelled. The case of the Lincolnshire pauper, Page, who
+was literally eaten up by maggots, is almost incredible. An
+equally horrible instance, however, is recorded by Cloquet. It
+is said that the Jamaica cases were all due to the larvæ of the
+bluebottle fly (<i>M. vomitoria</i>). An instance of the same kind has
+been recorded by Mr Knox (A. M. D.). Sufficiently revolting as
+these cases are, the horrors attending them are eclipsed by the
+habits of the larvæ of <i>Lucilia hominivora</i>. The best accounts of
+its habits are those by M. Coquerel, M. Saint-Pair, and M.
+Vercammer. The insects lay their eggs in the mouth and nostrils,
+and when the larvæ escape they devour the tissues surrounding
+the buccal cavity, the pharynx, glottis, frontal and nasal sinuses,
+even reaching the sockets of the eye. Several Cayenne convicts
+have perished from the maggots of this fly, which is also prevalent
+in Mexico. These are not, however, the only instances of
+maggots gaining access to the nasal chambers. In a case
+recorded by Dr Astros, of Aix, 113 were discharged from the
+nose of a woman; and M. Legrand du Saulle records an instance
+where a number of larvæ occupied the frontal sinuses of a girl,
+nine years of age. The larvæ produced persistent headache and
+convulsions. In the case recorded by Wohlfart, 18 larvæ were
+discharged from the nose of an old man, and in the example
+given by Latham several larvæ were obtained from the frontal
+sinuses of a woman. Bracey Clark also gives an instance in<span class="pagenum" title="273"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a></span>
+which a bot was taken from a woman’s jaw. Not improbably
+the well-known Indian disease, termed peenash, or worm in the
+nose, is due to the presence of Œstridean larvæ. Cases by
+Rustomjee and Lahory are quoted below. Possibly Stockett’s is
+another of the same order. The case by Kilgour (Bibliog. No.
+34) may be another. I may add that Moquin-Tandon gives an
+instance of the discharge of seventy-two bots, resembling those
+of the sheep, from a woman’s nose (‘Journ. de Vandermonde’).
+The rat-tail maggots or larvæ of <i>Helophilus</i> are parasitic. Two
+or three instances have been recorded from the horse. I possess
+one from the human intestine. Kirby also quotes an instance
+in which <i>Heloph. pendulus</i> was obtained from the stomach of
+a woman (‘Philos. Mag.,’ vol. ix, p. 366).</p>
+
+<p>A vast number of non-parasitic insects are injurious to man
+and beast. Inasmuch as they subsist at the expense of their
+victims and also adhere to his person during their attacks for a
+shorter or longer time, they, like the leeches, may be spoken of
+as free parasites. The leg-sticker (<i>Stomoxys calcitrans</i>) penetrates
+through thick stockings, causing blood to flow freely.
+The clegg of the West Highlands (<i>Hæmatopota pluvialis</i>) also
+violently attacks man and beast, especially horses. The mosquito
+(<i>Culex anxifer</i>), the gnats (<i>C. pipiens</i>, <i>C. annulatus</i>, and <i>C.
+pulicaris</i>), and the midge (<i>Chironomus plumosus</i>) need only be
+mentioned. The creeping gnat (<i>Simulium reptans</i>) is also very
+annoying in Sweden. The rôle of the mosquito, as itself constituting
+a parasite-bearer, will be again referred to in the
+closing pages of this work (Book II, Section V). The bites of
+the tsetse (<i>Glossina morsitans</i>), though so destructive to the
+horse, ox, sheep, and dog, are not dangerous to man himself.
+According to Sir S. Baker, the seroot-fly, or zimb of Bruce,
+which is a species of <i>Pangonia</i>, is excessively annoying to
+travellers in Abyssinia. Amongst the hemipterous insects the
+common bug (<i>Acanthia lectularia</i>) is sufficiently blood-thirsty;
+but there is a far more sanguinary species of this kind in
+South America. This is the pampas benchucha (<i>Conorhinus
+nigrovarius</i>). Our distinguished countryman, Darwin, in his
+‘Voyage,’ speaking of these wingless insects, <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“Before
+sucking they are quite thin, but afterwards become round
+and bloated with blood. In less than ten minutes the insect
+is changed from being as flat as a wafer to a globular form.”
+This insect somewhat resembles our water-scorpion (<i>Nepa
+cinerea</i>), a non-parasitic species whose bite causes severe pain,<span class="pagenum" title="274"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a></span>
+as does also the wound inflicted by the water-boatman
+(<i>Notonecta glauca</i>). There are other species of bug, such as
+the <i>Acanthia rotundata</i> of Réunion Island and <i>A. ciliata</i> of
+Kasan, the bites of which are worse than that of the common
+species. The fly-bugs also, such as the <i>Reduvius personatus</i>, so
+common in France, and the <i>R. amænus</i> of Borneo and Java,
+attack man, although their especial habit is to attack and destroy
+other insects, including bugs themselves. Other species or
+varieties of Reduvius (<i>R. cruentus</i>, and <i>R. serratus</i>) attack man.
+The last named is an Indian form, capable, it is said, of producing
+an electric shock.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to the fleas, the most important and truly parasitic
+form is the chigoe or gigger (<i>Pulex penetrans</i>). This abounds
+in tropical America and the West Indies. The female insects
+only attack man, and this they do for the purpose of securing
+a lodgment for their offspring. They attack especially the
+soles of the feet, between the toes and near the nails. In bad
+cases the whole of the foot becomes affected. After the insect
+has penetrated the skin its body swells enormously and becomes
+a mere bag of eggs. This swelling causes active inflammation,
+which terminates in suppuration and the formation of open
+ulcers. The chigoe also attacks various animals. In addition
+to the common flea (<i>P. irritans</i>) other species infesting
+animals are said to attack man occasionally. As regards those
+degraded types of insects known as lice I can only afford space
+to remark that five species have been recognised as human.
+These are the head-louse (<i>Pediculus capitis</i>); the louse of the
+eyelids (<i>P. palpebrarum</i>); the clothes-louse (<i>P. vestimenti</i>);
+the distemper louse (<i>P. tabescentium</i>); and the pubic louse (<i>P.
+inguinalis</i>). The distress these creatures occasion is only fully
+known to physicians who deal with the obstinate cutaneous
+affections caused by their presence (<i>Phthiriasis</i>). Some of the
+lice found on negroes and Greenlanders are regarded as distinct
+varieties. Lice are abundant on animals, and some of the
+species are apt to transfer themselves from one host to another.
+Thus the <i>Ornithomyia avicularis</i> of cage birds has been found
+on man, whilst one or more of the numerous species infesting
+the common fowl are, by transfer, apt to produce a severe
+phthiriasis in the horse. The lice of the fowl belong to the
+genera <i>Leipurus</i>, <i>Liotheum</i>, <i>Menopon</i>, <i>Philopterus</i>, <i>Goniodes</i>, and
+<i>Goniocotes</i>. The unsuitableness of man’s person as a habitation
+for bird-lice should, however, check the fear which many persons<span class="pagenum" title="275"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a></span>
+have of handling fresh-killed poultry and game birds. Poultry
+lousiness in man is probably impossible from this source.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_40"></a>No. 40).&mdash;<i>Arture</i>, “Obs. sur le ver nommé
+Macaque,” in ‘Mém. Acad. des Sci.,’ Paris, 1753.&mdash;<i>Bates</i>,
+“Œstrus in Man,” ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons.’&mdash;<i>Beneden,
+Van</i>, ‘Animal Parasites and Messmates,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (with
+<i>Gervais</i>), ‘Traité de Zool. Méd.’&mdash;<i>Blood, M.</i>, “Case of Larvæ
+(<i>Musca sarcophaga</i>) expelled alive in the Fæces,” ‘Beale’s Arch.
+of Med.,’ vol. iii, p. 134, 1862.&mdash;<i>Brinton</i> (similar case), ‘Arch. of
+Med.,’ vol. iii, p. 133, 1862.&mdash;<i>Bouyer</i> (quoted by Figuer),
+‘Tour du Monde,’ p. 318, 1866.&mdash;<i>Clark, Bracey</i>, in ‘Linn.
+Trans.,’ vol. iii, 1797 (the jaw-case at p. 323), and vol. xv, 1827.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Essay on Bots,’ 1815.&mdash;<i>Cloquet, J.</i>, “Case of Blindness
+from Worms (larvæ of Musca) in the Eyes,” from ‘Arch.
+Gén. de Méd.,’ in ‘Lancet,’ 1828.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “On <i>Blaps mortisaga</i>
+as a Human Parasite,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1877, p. 420.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Entoz.” (‘Hope’s List.’), p. 416.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Worms’
+(“Leptus,” &amp;c.), p. 140, 1872.&mdash;<i>Coquerel</i> (quoted by Figuer).&mdash;<i>Cormack,
+J. R.</i>, “Exhibition of a Larva (<i>B. mortisaga</i>) passed
+by a Child,” ‘Month. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ vol. i, 1841.&mdash;<i>Crumpe,
+S.</i>, “History of a Case in which Worms (larvæ of a beetle)
+were discharged from the Stomach,” from ‘Trans. of the Roy.
+Irish Acad.,’ vol. vi, in ‘Med. Facts and Observ.,’ vol. viii,
+p. 229, 1800.&mdash;<i>Denny</i>, ‘Monog. Anoplurorum Brittaniæ,’ 1842.&mdash;<i>Duncan,
+J. M.</i>, “On the Occurrence of Bots in the Human
+Subject,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i, p. 275, 1858&ndash;59.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“The Larva of <i>Œstrus bovis</i> in the Human Subject,” ‘Rep. of
+Edin. Med.-Chir. Soc.,’ in ‘Month. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’ July,
+1854.&mdash;<i>Farre, A.</i>, “On the Larva of <i>Anthomyia canalicularis</i>,”
+‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ 1841, p. 129, and in ‘Trans.
+of Micr. Soc. of Lond.,’ orig. ser., p. 51, 1844.&mdash;<i>Figuer</i>, in
+‘The Insect World’ (good figs.), Janson’s edit., 1869.&mdash;<i>Furlonge</i>,
+“Anat. of Pulex,” in the ‘Journ. of the Queckett Club,’
+vol. iii.&mdash;<i>Geer, De</i>, ‘Mémoires pour servir à l’Histoire des
+Insectes,’ 1773.&mdash;<i>Gervais</i> (see Van Beneden).&mdash;<i>Hill</i>, “Account
+of the Larva of a supposed <i>Œstrus hominis</i>, or Gad-fly, which
+deposits its Eggs in the bodies of the human species, with
+particulars of a Case,” ‘Edin. New. Phil. Journ.,’ vol. xxii,
+p. 284, 1830.&mdash;<i>Hilaire</i> (see St Hilaire).&mdash;<i>Hope</i>, “Tables of
+Cases of (spurious) Intestinal Worms,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1837&ndash;38.&mdash;<i>Hoppe</i>, “Case of Larvæ of Insects (<i>Musca stabulans</i>)
+passed by Stool,” from ‘Bibl. für Läger,’ in <span class="pagenum" title="276"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a></span>‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1842.&mdash;<i>Hopper, R. S.</i>, “Insects (Stratiomis) voided with Urine,”
+edit. note in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rev.,’ p. 160, 1841.&mdash;<i>Joly</i>,
+‘Recherches sur les Œstrides en général,’ &amp;c., Lyons,
+1846.&mdash;<i>Keferstein</i>, ‘Sur l’Oistros,’ Isis, 1827.&mdash;<i>Kirby</i> (and
+<i>Spence</i>), ‘Introd. to Entomology,’ 7th edit., 1856.&mdash;<i>Knox, M.</i>,
+“Maggots, the larvæ of the Bluebottle Fly, in Syphilitic Ulceration
+of the Throat,” ‘Lancet,’ Oct. 6, 1877, p. 514.&mdash;<i>Lahory,
+B. T. C.</i>, “On <i>Peenash</i>, or Worms in the Nose,” ‘Ind. Ann. of
+Med. Sci.,’ 1855, and ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Leach</i>,
+“Œstridæ,” in ‘Wernerian Trans.,’ 1817.&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>, in ‘Proc.
+Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.,’ 1859, p. 7.&mdash;<i>Maclean</i>, “On the Oistros,”
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xiv, 1824, and in ‘Zool. Journ.,’ vol. i and
+iv.&mdash;<i>Metaxa</i>, “Vom Œstrus (u. s. w.),” in ‘Neuen Nord.
+Beitr.,’ Bd. i, and in ‘Mém. de Zool. Med.,’ Rome, 1835 (quoted
+by Westwood).&mdash;<i>Moquin-Tandon</i>, ‘Med. Zool.’ (l. c., Bibl.
+No. 38).&mdash;<i>Newport</i>, art. “Insecta,” ‘Todd’s Cyclop.,’ 1839.&mdash;<i>Rustomjee,
+B.</i>, “Case of Worms in the Nose, or ‘Peenash,’” in
+‘App. to Bomb. Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ No. vii, new ser.,
+p. 21, 1861; see also Lahory, on ‘Peenash.’&mdash;<i>Saint-Hilaire</i>,
+“Sur l’Œstre chez l’homme,” in ‘Ann. Soc. Ent. de France,’
+1833.&mdash;<i>Say</i>, “Brick’s Case,” in ‘Trans. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.,’
+vol. ii.&mdash;<i>Sells</i>, in ‘Trans. Entom. Soc. Lond.;’ see also Lemprière’s
+‘Diseases of the Army in Jamaica,’ vol. ii.&mdash;<i>Stockett,
+T. H.</i>, “An account of a Headache cured by the discharge of a
+Worm (?) from the Nose,” ‘Med. Com.,’ vol. xix, p. 157, 1794,
+and in ‘Trans. Coll. of Phys. Phil.,’ vol. i, part i, p. 181, 1793.&mdash;<i>Stroop,
+St J.</i>, “Œstrus,” in ‘Amer. Naturalist,’ vol. vii,
+p. 437.&mdash;<i>Tanner</i>, “On Lice,” in his ‘Pract. of Med.,’ vol. ii,
+p. 429, 6th edit., 1869.&mdash;<i>Westwood</i>, in his ‘Classification of
+Insects,’ vol. ii, 1840.&mdash;<i>Wohlfart</i> (quoted by Moquin-Tandon).&mdash;<i>Yule</i>,
+“Case of Larvæ of Insects in the Human Stomach,”
+‘Edin. Phil. Journ.,’ and ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1825.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SECTION IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap"><a id="Part_VI"></a>Part VI.&mdash;Protozoa</span> (Psorospermiæ, Gregarinidæ,
+&amp;c.).</h3>
+
+<p>The scope of this work does not demand that I should comprise
+within its limits any vegetable parasites; nevertheless, I
+must needs refer, however briefly, to certain confervoid and
+sarcodic organisms, which, for the most part, lie on the borderland
+of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Professor Cohn<span class="pagenum" title="277"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a></span>
+regards the bacteria as allied to the Oscillitoriaceæ. He puts
+them in his order <i>Schizosporeæ</i>. It is of little moment,
+practically, where these protista forms are placed. Unquestionably
+many of them are parasitic, as they live in the tissues,
+fluids, and secretions of animal bodies, including man. Their
+presence in cattle is associated with an anthracoid disease
+(charbon), whilst in the human body they have been detected in
+connection with zymotic affections. They have been found by
+Cohn, Sanderson, Klebs, Chauveau, and others, either in the
+lymph of vaccine pustules, or in the miliary eruptions of typhus
+fever. Professor Beale, who was one of the first to observe
+these special organic particles in vaccine lymph, denies that
+they are true Bacteria; and, indeed, he warmly disputes the
+inferences that have generally been drawn from the fact of the
+presence of such particles in lymph, blood, and other nutrient
+fluids. The best known and defined forms are <i>Bacterium
+termo</i> and <i>Bact. lineola</i>, which are concerned in the production
+of putrefaction, <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>, found in the blood of animals
+suffering from carbuncular disease, <i>Micrococcus septicus</i>, found
+in typhus and pyæmia, <i>M. vaccinæ</i> of cow pox lymph, and <i>M.
+diphthericus</i>, in diphtheria. As regards their prevalence in
+certain forms of relapsing fever, Sanderson states that Dr H. V.
+Carter, of Bombay, examined the blood of 250 fever patients
+and found <i>spirilla</i> in nearly every instance. From the independent
+observations of Pasteur, Sanderson, Lister, Tyndall,
+Bastian, Eberth, Roberts, Davaine, and many others, it seems
+clear that the Bacteria and their allies play an important part in
+association with certain morbid states. However, as regards
+the etiology of the maladies in which these organisms are found,
+it is perhaps too early to speak with absolute confidence. The
+subject cannot be dealt with here; moreover, it is outside the
+range of my personal investigations.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to those protozoa which, although retaining some
+vegetable affinities, are more or less distinctively animal, I
+notice the obscure organisms termed psorosperms. In dealing
+with these I shall treat of the forms that infest both man and
+animals, confining my remarks to such as happen to have come
+under my own observation.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1865 the public were thoroughly roused to a
+sense of danger arising from the consumption of meat. The
+panic originated with the outbreaks of trichiniasis in Germany.
+During the excitement which subsequently prevailed at the time<span class="pagenum" title="278"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a></span>
+of the rinderpest, all sorts of erroneous notions took possession
+of the popular mind, and the errors were stimulated by writers
+ignorant of helminthology. In January, 1866, I published a
+few observations, the purport of which was to show that certain
+microscopic organisms found in animals dying from cattle
+plague were harmless “parasitic Protozoa,” possessing more or
+less striking vegetable affinities. About a week previously
+some interesting researches on these so-called cattle-plague
+bodies had been published by Dr Beale. Those who first saw
+these bodies thought they had stumbled upon organisms new to
+science. I showed that similar or analogous organisms were
+to be met with in a great variety of animals, and likewise in
+the human body. They had been called worm-nodules, worm-nests,
+egg-sacs, eggs of the common fluke, young “measles,”
+corpuscles produced by muscular degeneration, psorospermiæ,
+stages of growth of gregarinæ, amœboid bodies, and so forth.
+In so far as the higher animals were concerned, Dujardin was
+the first to describe them. He found these organisms in a
+mole. This animal, however, having been fed upon earth-worms
+known to harbour such parasites, there was no difficulty
+in accounting for the source of the psorosperms.</p>
+
+<p>In 1853 Hessling discovered psorospermial sacs in the muscular
+substance of the heart, not only of the ox, but also of the
+sheep and roe. By him they were regarded as evidences of
+muscular degeneration. About ten years previously Miescher
+found similar bodies in the muscles of the mouse.</p>
+
+<p>In 1857 Rainey described similar structures taken from the
+flesh of swine; and, in his memoir, he went so far as to maintain
+that these bodies were early stages of development of the
+common pork-measle. In the year 1858 Gubler wrote an
+important paper on this subject, in which he related a case
+where twenty cysts existed in the human liver. The cysts
+were of great size, mostly as large as a hen’s egg, one of them
+being some six inches in diameter. Naturally, the largest had
+been diagnosed as an ordinary hydatid. However, on evacuating
+their contents (post mortem), they were found to harbor
+enormous quantities of minute corpuscles strictly analogous to
+those usually obtained from psorospermial sacs. Gubler believed
+he had stumbled upon masses of eggs of <i>Distoma hepaticum</i>, but
+in this he erred. Shortly after Gubler’s discovery similar
+bodies from the human liver were described by Virchow; and
+in 1862, the subject was followed up by Dr Dressler, of Prague.<span class="pagenum" title="279"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a></span>
+Dressler found in the human liver a number of pea-shaped
+bodies, the milky contents (<i>breisubstanz</i>) of which displayed a
+multitude of the characteristic corpuscular elements referred
+to. These particles, already considered as equivalent to, if not
+identical with, the so-called pseudo-navicellæ of gregarinæ, were
+soon encountered by a variety of independent observers. Thus,
+Leuckart noticed these bodies in various animals; but with
+caution <span class="nowrap">remarked:&mdash;</span>“Concerning the nature of these formations
+I will not decide. To be candid, however, it appears to
+me to be in no way made out whether the psorospermiæ are to
+be considered as the result of a special animal development,
+whether they, like pseudo-navicellæ, are the nuclei of gregariniform
+productions, or whether they are the final products of
+pathological metamorphosis.” Leuckart found these organisms
+in the intestines of a trichinised dog, also in a sheep and pig
+fed with Trichinæ. He also found them in the muscles of
+another pig fed with psorosperms, and likewise in the liver of
+various rabbits. He remarks that in swine these parasites are
+more abundant than measles. They were present in five of
+eighteen pigs, and also in two out of four sheep, whose flesh
+was especially examined. The observations of Lindemann at
+Nischney-Novgorod are particularly interesting. This medical
+officer discovered psorospermial sacs attached to the hair of a
+girl who was being treated in hospital for chlorosis. The sacs
+in question bore close resemblance to the bodies which we
+found in abundance in diseased and healthy cattle. It would
+further appear, from Lindemann’s observations, that the affection
+is not very uncommon amongst the Russian peasants.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with and attached to the same parasitically
+affected hairs Lindemann also noticed several movable gregarinæ;
+and partly from this circumstance he was led to believe
+in the existence of a genetic relation subsisting between the two
+kinds of bodies. He further expressed his conviction that the
+people contracted the disease by washing themselves with water
+in which gregarinæ abounded. Lindemann moreover refers to
+Lebert as having noticed similar parasites in a case of favus,
+and concludes that these organisms are of a vegetable nature.
+His opinion, though not shared by the majority of parasitologists,
+is nevertheless supported by the views of Robin, Leydig, and
+others. Of still higher interest are the observations of Lindemann
+respecting the occurrence of psorospermiæ in the capsule
+of the kidney of a hospital patient who died with Brigh<span class="pagenum" title="280"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a></span>t’s
+disease. The sacs in this case were remarkably small; nevertheless
+their corpuscular contents indicated their true nature.
+The pseudo-navicellæ measured only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">5000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter. Amongst
+other contributions of interest I may refer to those of Dufour,
+J. Müller, Creplin, Kölliker, Keferstein, Stein, Drummond,
+Lieberkühn, and E. Ray Lankester. I doubt if the vegetable
+organisms described by Prof. W. T. Gairdner can be referred
+to this group of parasites. At all events, by whatever name
+these spurious entozoa are called, they were first discovered by
+Dufour in insects, by Müller in fishes, by Miescher in the mouse,
+by Dujardin in the mole, by Hessling in the larger quadrupeds,
+and by Gubler in man. The results of my own examinations
+may be briefly re-stated. In the flesh of cattle I found
+psorospermial sacs varying from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">120</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">12</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, and in
+that of sheep from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">220</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">80</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. The bodies were enclosed in
+well-defined transparent envelopes, and their contents exhibited
+indications of segmentation. In some specimens the segments
+displayed themselves as a complete cell-formation, the contents
+of each cell being uniformly granular. Under the <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> objective
+the contained granules were clearly visible, and on rupturing
+the sac their peculiar characters were at once manifest, each
+granule or corpuscle represented a pseudo-navicel, all displaying
+a tolerably uniform size, averaging <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter. Some of
+the corpuscles were round, others oval, several bluntly pointed
+at one end, many curved and fusiform, not a few being almost
+reniform. Highly refracting points or nucleoli were visible in
+their anterior.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to the practical aspect of the subject, I remarked
+that these bodies had nothing to do with the cattle plague. No
+one who carefully examined the flesh of animals that had died
+of rinderpest had failed to discover them; yet, in one or two
+instances they appear to have escaped notice. When it is considered
+how long it takes us to examine a few grains weight of
+muscle carefully, it is obvious that the body of a large beast
+might contain many hundreds of these organisms without our
+being able to detect their presence, except by a prolonged
+investigation. In the few rinderpest beasts, portions of whose
+flesh I submitted to the microscope, I should say there were
+not more than 100 of these bodies in one ounce of meat; but in
+the heart of a healthy sheep (which I afterwards ate) I calculated
+there were about 1000 parasites to the ounce, and in the
+heart of a healthy bullock (which likewise served me for a<span class="pagenum" title="281"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a></span>
+meal) their numbers were rather in excess of those in the sheep.
+Altogether, at two meals, I could not have swallowed less than
+18,000 of these psorosperms. Consumers of beef, mutton, and
+pork eat these bodies every day, but they take no harm because
+the parasites in question are not true helminths. Fine healthy
+beef has been returned to the butcher when it was as good as
+any other meat in the market. I have examined various kinds
+of meat, such as veal, pork, and mutton, but in none have I
+found so great an abundance of psorosperms as in beef, which
+was, notwithstanding, perfectly healthy and sound. I calculated
+that in one instance a single ounce of the flesh contained upwards
+of 2000 parasites. There is practically no limit to the extent
+of this kind of parasitism, and there is no organ of the body in
+which psorosperms may not be found. Moreover, the forms
+they display are exceedingly various. Psorosperms have been
+found by Siedamagrotzky in the muscles of the horse, and not
+very long ago, through the help of Professors Simonds and Axe,
+I had the opportunity to examine some peculiar worm-like
+structures which occupied the mitral valve of a horse. To the
+naked eye they looked like coiled nematodes, but I was soon convinced
+that they formed a peculiar type of psorosperm. A
+complete view of these bodies was a matter of great difficulty
+owing to the delicate nature of their limiting membrane and to
+the confusion of markings produced by the interlacing of the
+fibres of the chordæ tendinea. At length, by spreading a portion
+of the membrane of the valve over a large glass slide, and
+by allowing it to dry slowly, I found that the vermiform body
+presented neither beginning nor end. The appearances were
+curious and puzzling. The organism formed a flattened tube
+or sac, almost uniform in width and variously twisted upon
+itself. From the main tube there projected several hernia-like
+secondary loops or branches, most of them presenting less
+than half of the thickness of the former. These peculiarities,
+however, can hardly be understood without reference to the
+original illustrations. That these secondary coils were not of
+the nature of hernial protrusions was evident, not alone from
+the nature of their contents, but also from the fact that they
+showed distinct anastomoses. In fact, the parasite was a simple
+sac or bag with branches.</p>
+
+<p>On puncturing the main tube with a fine needle a small
+quantity of tenacious creamy fluid made its escape. This,
+under Ross’s <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span>-inch lens, resolved itself into a few excessively<span class="pagenum" title="282"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a></span>
+delicate sarcode globules surrounded by fine granules. The
+granular matter displayed a tendency to collect itself in the
+form of oval masses without showing any trace of a limiting
+border. One of these masses, measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, I
+examined under a Wasserlein-objective, when I further ascertained
+that the elementary particles or granules were uniformly
+oval in shape, rather highly refractive, their size scarcely
+exceeding <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter. The sarcode corpuscles, on the
+other hand, were of different sizes, ranging between <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1600</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>From the facts thus elicited, negative as they were in
+respect of helminthic structure, I could see no escape from the
+conclusion that we had to deal with a new form of psorospermial
+bag, whose granular contents consisted of excessively
+minute pseudo-navicellæ. In the centre of the largest hernia-like
+loop there was a clear oval disk, which at first brought to
+my mind the nucleus of <i>Monocystis</i> infesting the earth-worm,
+but it was merely a vacuole.</p>
+
+<p>The case recorded by Gubler reminds me of another remarkable
+instance of psorospermial cysts, in this case associated
+with true hydatids. In 1873 Dr Whittell sent me particulars
+of a case in which the contents of an hydatid of the liver
+(drawn off, during life) consisted of shreds of a true hydatid,
+a few echinococcus-hooklets, together with multitudes of
+spindle-shaped amœboid particles of excessive minuteness and
+delicacy. The bodies, floating in a transparent fluid, formed a
+thick milky or creamy fluid, resembling pus in appearance; but
+there was no trace of pyæmia. Judging from Dr Whittell’s
+figures, he must also have found a solitary microscopic nematoid
+hæmatozoon, the nature of which was not clear to him. I
+believe it to have been a specimen of <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>.
+Be that as it may, the case is altogether unique and deserves
+further elucidation.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the higher forms of protozoa it must suffice to
+allude to the <i>Cercomonas hominis</i> of Davaine, found in the
+dejections of cholera patients, to the <i>Cerc. urinarius</i> of Hassal
+and <i>C. saltans</i> of Ehrenberg, to the <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i> of
+Donné, detected in the vaginal mucus, and to the <i>Balantidium
+coli</i> of Claparède and Lachmann, originally found by Malmsten
+in the human colon. The <i>Balantidium</i>, or <i>Paramæcium coli</i>,
+has frequently been observed in the evacuations of fever patients,
+and it has also been found by Dr Treille in patients suffering<span class="pagenum" title="283"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a></span>
+from the Cochin-China diarrhœa. Monads have also been
+found in the stomach and intestines of the hog and various
+other animals. Infusorial parasites are particularly abundant
+in batrachians, the <i>Bursariæ</i> of frogs and toads being familiar
+to every helminthologist.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_41"></a>No. 41).&mdash;<i>Arloing</i> (and <i>Tripier</i>), in ‘Gaz.-hebd.,’
+1873, p. 574 (quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Balbiani</i>, ‘Compt.
+Rend. Soc. Biol.,’ 1867, p. 103 (quoted by Davaine and Bastian).&mdash;<i>Bastian</i>,
+“On the Nature of the so-called <i>Sarcina ventriculi</i>,”
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Feb. 3, 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Heterogenesis
+in its relation to certain Parasitic Diseases,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’
+Feb. 24 and April 20, 1872 (see part iv, p. 417, with figs. from
+Balbiani).&mdash;<i>Beale, L.</i>, “Entozoon-like bodies in Muscles,” in the
+‘Microscope in Medicine,’ 4th edit., p. 485, 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Bacterium Hypothesis of Contagium,” <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 313&ndash;321.&mdash;<i>Burnett,
+W. T.</i>, “On Psorospermia, Mermithes, &amp;c.,” in a paper
+entitled ‘Reviews and Records in Anat. and Physiol.,’ in ‘Amer.
+Journ. of Sci. and Arts,’ vol. xviii, 2nd ser., p. 104, 1854.&mdash;<i>Carter,
+H. V.</i>, “On Spirilla,” quoted by Sanderson in ‘Brit. Med.
+Journ.,’ Nov. 17, 1877, p. 700.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Remarks on Spurious
+Entozoa found in Diseased and Healthy Cattle,” ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ vol. xvii, p. 452, 1866, and ‘Lancet,’ Jan. 27, 1866,
+p. 88; see also Prof. J. Gamgee’s work on the ‘Cattle Plague.’&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Worm-like Organisms in the Mitral Valve of a
+Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Sept., 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Psorospermiæ
+in the Eye of the Cod (Morrhua),” ‘Linnean Society’s Proc.,’
+May, 1862, and in ‘Intellectual Observer,’ 1862, p. 199.&mdash;<i>Cohn</i>,
+‘Nova Acta,’ xxiv, s. 103 (quoted by Leuckart), Bd. i, s. 139.&mdash;<i>Creplin</i>,
+‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1842, s. 61.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, l. c.,
+2nd edit., “Synops. xxi” (with bibliog. refs.), 1878.&mdash;<i>Donné</i>,
+‘Cours de Microscopie,’ Paris, 1847, p. 157.&mdash;<i>Dressler</i>,
+quoted by Leuckart, Bd. i, s. 141.&mdash;<i>Drummond</i>, ‘Edin. Phys.
+Rep.,’ 1852,&mdash;<i>Dufour</i>, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1837.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>,
+‘Traité’ (l. c., see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_1">1</a>).&mdash;<i>Eberth</i>, ‘Zur Kentniss Bacteritischer
+Mykosen,’ 1872.&mdash;<i>Eimer</i>, ‘Ueber Psorospermien,’
+1870.&mdash;<i>Gairdner</i>, ‘Edin. Phys. Soc. Rep.,’ 1853.&mdash;<i>Gluge</i>, “Cysts
+in Sticklebacks,” ‘Bullet. Acad. Roy. des Sci. de Bruxelles,’
+1838.&mdash;<i>Gubler</i>, ‘Mem. Soc. Biol.,’ 1859, p. 657, and in ‘Gaz.
+Méd.,’ 1858, p. 61.&mdash;<i>Harz, C. O.</i>, “Eine neue Mikrococcusform
+im lebenden Thierkörper,” ‘Deutsche Zeitschrift für Thier-Medicin
+und vergleichende Pathologie,’ f. Novemb., 1878.&mdash;<i>Hessling</i>,
+‘Sieb. u. Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1853, p. 196.&mdash;<i>Henle</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="284"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a></span>‘Müller’s
+Archiv,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Hollis, W. A.</i>, “What is a Bacterium?” repr.
+in the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 205, 1875.&mdash;<i>Keferstein</i>, ‘Götling. gelehrte
+Anzeigen,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Kloss</i>, ‘Ueber Parasiten (u. s. w.)’ (quoted
+by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Knoch</i>, ‘Journ. de Russ. Kriegs. dep.,’ Bd. xcv,
+1866 (quoted by Leuckart and by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Kölliker</i>, in
+‘Zeitsch.’ (by Sieb. and Köll.), 1848&ndash;49.&mdash;<i>Lambl</i>, ‘Prager
+Vierteljahrschrift,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Lankester, E. R.</i>, “Recent Researches
+on Bacteria (with copious references),” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr.
+Science,’ Oct., 1878.&mdash;<i>Lebert</i>, ‘Phys. Pathologique’ (quoted by
+Leuckart).&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>, “Gregarina,” ‘Amer. Phil. Trans.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Leisering</i>,
+“Bericht (u. s. w.),” in ‘Sachsen,’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>,
+l. c., Bd. i, s. 135 and 740, and Bd. ii, s. 842 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Leydig</i>,
+‘Müller’s Archiv,’ 1851, s. 221, in ‘Micr. Journ.,’ 1853, p. 206,
+and in ‘Arch. f. Anat. und Phys.,’ 1863, s. 191.&mdash;<i>Lieberkühn</i>,
+‘Müller’s Arch.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Lindemann</i>, ‘Bullet. Soc. imp. des
+Naturalistes de Moscow,’ 1863, and in ‘Gaz. Méd. de Paris,’
+1870, p. 86.&mdash;<i>Lister, J.</i>, “Natural History of Bacteria,” ‘Micr.
+Journ.,’ Oct, 1873.&mdash;<i>Malmsten</i>, “<i>Paramæcium coli</i>” (quoted
+by Davaine, l. c., 2nd edit., p. 67).&mdash;<i>Miescher</i> (quoted by
+Leuckart and Siebold).&mdash;<i>Müller</i>, ‘Archiv,’ 1841, s. 477.&mdash;<i>Rainey</i>,
+‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Rayer</i>, “Singulière éruption sur
+un véron (Cyprinus),” ‘Arch. de Méd. Comparée,’ Paris, 1842
+(quoted by Davaine).&mdash;<i>Rivolta</i>, “Psorospermi, &amp;c.,” trans. in
+‘Journ. des Vét. du Midi,’ 1869, pp. 445 and 521.&mdash;<i>Robin</i>, ‘Les
+Végét. Paras.,’ 2nd edit., p. 291.&mdash;<i>Sanderson</i>, in ‘Privy Council
+Reports,’ 1874.&mdash;<i>Siedamagrotzky</i>, in ‘Recueil de Méd. Vét.,’
+1872, p. 460.&mdash;<i>Stein</i>, in ‘Müller’s Arch.,’ 1848, and ‘Ann. Nat.
+Hist.,’ 1850.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Abhandl. d. k. Böhmischen Gesellsch.,”
+x, s. 69, oder Lotos, 1859, s. 57 (quoted by Leuckart, Bd. i, s.
+151).&mdash;<i>Steinberg</i>, ‘Walter’s Zeitschr. f. die moderne Medicin,’
+1862, and in Leuckart, Bd. ii, s. 844.&mdash;<i>Stieda</i>, ‘Arch. f. pathol.
+anat.,’ Bd. xxxv, and in Leuckart, Bd. ii, s. 846.&mdash;<i>Suriray</i>, “Sur
+quelques parasites du lombric,” ‘Ann. des. Sci. Nat.,’ 1836.&mdash;<i>Virchow</i>,
+“Zur Keutniss der Wurmknoten,” ‘Arch. f. Anat. u.
+Phys.,’ xviii, s. 523.&mdash;<i>Vogel</i>, ‘Path. Anat.,’ i, s. 404.&mdash;<i>Waldenburg</i>,
+“Psorospermien,” in ‘Arch. f. Path. Anat.,’ s. 435, 1867.&mdash;<i>Windbladh</i>,
+also <i>Wising</i>, ‘On <i>Balantidium coli</i>’ (quoted by
+Leuckart, Bd. ii, s. 846&ndash;847).&mdash;<i>Winkler</i> (see <i>Leisering</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Appendix.</span>&mdash;On various occasions I have dwelt upon the
+necessity of acquiring accurate information respecting the degree
+of mortality due to parasites, and in the present volume (p. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>)<span class="pagenum" title="285"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a></span>
+I have referred to the defective evidences supplied by the returns
+of the Registrar-General in respect of the echinococcus disease.
+My object is not to cast blame upon those whose duty it is to
+publish the returns, but rather to call attention to the advantages
+that would follow if the Registrar-General were supplied
+with full and accurate information on this head.</p>
+
+<p>Through the courtesy of Mr Noel A. Humphreys I have been
+furnished with the following official statement of the number of
+<i>Deaths from Worms</i> in England and Wales, as recorded in the
+Annual Reports of the Registrar-General throughout a decade
+of years:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Deaths from worms in England and Wales between 1868–1877">
+<tr><td class="blt"></td><td class="tac btop">1868</td><td class="tac btop">1869</td><td class="tac btop">1870</td><td class="tac btop">1871</td><td class="tac btop">1872</td><td class="tac btop">1873</td><td class="tac btop">1874</td><td class="tac btop">1875</td><td class="tac btop">1876</td><td class="tac btop">1877</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="pl03 brl">Total</td><td class="tac bb">172</td><td class="tac bb">148</td><td class="tac bb">151</td><td class="tac bb">160</td><td class="tac bb">154</td><td class="tac bb">183</td><td class="tac bb">188</td><td class="tac bb">227</td><td class="tac bb">204</td><td class="tac bb">225</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="pl10 brl">Including&mdash;&emsp;</td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td><td class="brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="pl03 brl">Porrigo</td><td class="tac brl">15</td><td class="tac brl">13</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>9</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>9</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>9</td><td class="tac brl">14</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>5</td><td class="tac brl">16</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>7</td><td class="tac brl">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="pl03 brl">Scabies</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>6</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>7</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>1</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>4</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl">&mdash;</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>5</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="pl03 brl">Tapeworm</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>8</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>6</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>5</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>5</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>5</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brlb pl03">Hydatids</td><td class="tac brlb">20</td><td class="tac brlb">20</td><td class="tac brlb">33</td><td class="tac brlb">37</td><td class="tac brlb">41</td><td class="tac brlb">34</td><td class="tac brlb">29</td><td class="tac brlb">43</td><td class="tac brlb">31</td><td class="tac brlb">51</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Considering the prodigious advances in helminthology during
+the last half century, it is certainly remarkable that under the
+category of “worms,” as a cause of death, only two kinds of
+true helminths should be mentioned in the Registrar’s record.
+It will also strike the experienced hospital and dispensary
+physician as somewhat remarkable that of the two death-producing
+parasites above named one of them should be the “tapeworm.”
+Now death from <i>Tænia</i> is certainly a very rare occurrence,
+although grave nervous symptoms are not unfrequently
+due to its presence in man. Thus, I am inclined to regard the
+46 reported instances of death from this cause as a redundant
+estimate. On the other hand, I am surprised to see no specified
+instances of death from lumbricoid Ascarides, from Oxyurides,
+or even from Cysticerci, which now and then take up their
+residence in the human brain.</p>
+
+<p>As regards hydatids I believe the returns to be excessively
+deficient. In place of an average of 34 deaths annually from
+this cause in the United Kingdom I am of opinion that at least
+400 deaths are due to hydatids. This opinion and the data on
+which it was founded were communicated by me twelve years
+ago to the Linnean Society, and I have since become acquainted
+with facts which lead me to conclude that my original estimate
+was very much below the mark. The post-mortem registrar<span class="pagenum" title="286"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a></span>
+of one of our large hospitals has told me that of late years as
+many as <i>ten</i> deaths might be reckoned as annually due to
+hydatids in their institution alone. At a smaller hospital I
+ascertained that the average was about <i>four</i>. Obviously, if these
+estimates are correct, the Registrar-General’s returns for the
+United Kingdom do not record a tithe of the annual mortality
+due to hydatids. Perhaps another half century will elapse
+before the truth of my deductions be confirmed by the <i>official</i>
+returns. For me, it must suffice to have pointed to the
+desirability of securing more accurate records.</p>
+
+<p>By a curious coincidence I had only just sent to press the
+sheet of this work recording the statistics of hydatid disease in
+Australia (p. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>), when a paper dealing with the same subject
+appeared in the ‘Lancet.’ I refer to the brief memoir of Dr
+David Thomas, of Adelaide, South Australia, which was published
+on the 1st of March, 1879. Dr Thomas writes as follows:</p>
+
+<p>“It is well known that Australia presents an extraordinary
+prevalence of hydatid disease, but, as far as I know, no definite
+statistics have been published to illustrate the fact. Consequently,
+some months ago, with the kind assistance of the Hon.
+W. Morgan, the present Chief Secretary of South Australia, I
+endeavoured to procure reports from the Governments of
+Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, New Zealand, Tasmania,
+and Western Australia, upon this question. Unfortunately, the
+mode of registration of the causes of death in most of these
+colonies was such as prevented the necessary replies being
+supplied. However, it appears that in Tasmania no deaths
+were returned from this disease in the ten years 1867&ndash;77.
+During the greater part of the same period no separate classification
+of hydatid disease had been adopted in New South
+Wales; but in 1875 four deaths were attributed to hydatids; in
+1876, eleven were so returned. In Victoria, however, the
+record of deaths from this cause is far more complete, and I
+append a table based upon the returns from that colony.</p>
+
+<p>“One case, in which hydatid of the kidney was present,
+accompanied by malignant disease of bladder, with stricture,
+was not returned as a case of hydatid causing death.</p>
+
+<p>“During the decade 1867&ndash;77, 2·5 per 1000 deaths were due
+to hydatid disease. In 183 out of the 307 cases the liver was
+either solely or conjointly with other organs the seat of disease.
+Holding the second place in frequency come the lungs in 71
+cases, <i>i.e.</i> 53 simple and 18 complicated.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="287"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Table of Deaths returned as being due to Hydatid Disease in the
+Province of Victoria during the ten years 1867&ndash;77.</i></p>
+
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+<col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="6%" /><col width="4%" /><col width="2%" /><col width="6%" />
+<tr><td class="tac box">Year.</td><td class="tac box">Liver.</td><td class="tac box">Lungs.<br />and<br />pleura.</td><td class="tac box">Brain and<br />spinal<br />cord.</td><td class="tac box">Heart and<br />peri-<br />cardium.</td><td class="tac box">Kidney.</td><td class="tac box">Spleen.</td><td class="tac box">Pan-<br />creas.</td><td class="tac box">Omen-<br />tum.</td><td class="tac box">Ovary.</td><td class="tac box">Womb<br />(?)</td><td class="tac box">Abdom-<br />inal<br />cavity.</td><td class="tac box">Situation<br />not<br />recorded.</td><td colspan="2" class="tac box">More<br />than one<br />organ<br />invaded.</td><td class="tac box">Total<br />annual<br />deaths.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl pt03">1868</td><td class="tac brl pt03"><span class="hide">1</span>17</td><td class="tac brl pt03"><span class="hide">1</span>5</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac pt03">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl pt03"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl pt03"><span class="hide">1</span>7</td><td class="tar bl pt03">1</td><td class="br pt03">(<i>a</i>)</td><td class="tac brl pt03">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1869</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">11</span>6</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>8</td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>1</td><td class="tar bl">3</td><td class="br">(<i>b</i>)</td><td class="tac brl">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1870</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>10</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>4</td><td class="tar bl"></td><td class="br"></td><td class="tac brl">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1871</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">11</span>4</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>6</td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>1</td><td class="tar bl">1</td><td class="br">(<i>c</i>)</td><td class="tac brl">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1872</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>19</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tar bl">1</td><td class="br">(<i>d</i>)</td><td class="tac brl">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1873</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>17</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="tac brl">2</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tar bl">5</td><td class="br">(<i>e</i>)</td><td class="tac brl">29</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1874</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>21</td><td class="tac brl">10</td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>6</td><td class="tar bl">2</td><td class="br">(<i>f</i>)</td><td class="tac brl">41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1875</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>29</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>7</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">2</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tar bl">2</td><td class="br">(<i>g</i>)</td><td class="tac brl">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">1876</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>23</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">2</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>1</td><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>4</td><td class="tar bl">5</td><td class="br">(<i>h</i>)</td><td class="tac brl">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl pb03">1877</td><td class="tac brl pb03"><span class="hide">1</span>20</td><td class="tac brl pb03"><span class="hide">1</span>8</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac pb03">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac pb03">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac pb03">1</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl pb03"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="tac brl pb03"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="tar bl pb03">2</td><td class="br pb03">(<i>i</i>)</td><td class="tac brl pb03">38</td></tr>
+<tr class="vat"><td class="tac box">Totals</td><td class="tac box">166</td><td class="tac box">53</td><td class="tac box">7</td><td class="tac box">5</td><td class="tac box">2</td><td class="tac box">3</td><td class="tac box">2</td><td class="tac box">1</td><td class="tac box">1</td><td class="tac box">1?</td><td class="tac box">13</td><td class="tac box">31</td><td class="tar bltb pt03">22</td><td class="brtb"></td><td class="tac box">307 in 10 yrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl pt03">(<i>a</i>)</td><td class="br pt03" colspan="15">Lungs and kidneys.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl">(<i>b</i>)</td><td class="br" colspan="15">In two instances liver and lungs; in the third case liver and brain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl">(<i>c</i>)</td><td class="br" colspan="15">Lungs and liver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl">(<i>d</i>)</td><td class="br" colspan="15">Lungs and abdominal cavity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl">(<i>e</i>)</td><td class="br" colspan="15">In three cases liver and lungs; in one kidney and abdomen; in another liver, lungs, omentum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl">(<i>f</i>)</td><td class="br" colspan="15">Liver and lungs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl">(<i>g</i>)</td><td class="br" colspan="15">One liver and lungs; the second case lungs and heart.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac bl">(<i>h</i>)</td><td class="br" colspan="15">Three cases liver and lungs; one liver and kidney.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac blb pb03">(<i>i</i>)</td><td class="brb pb03" colspan="15">Liver and lungs.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Such are the returns as recorded by Dr Thomas. If a comparison
+be instituted between the data supplied by his decade-report
+and those supplied by the decade-report which I have
+previously adduced (p. <a href="#Page_123">123</a>), it will be seen that as regards the
+returns for the years 1868&ndash;72, inclusive, both reports are in
+perfect agreement. Of still more interest also is the circumstance
+that whilst, on the one hand, out of the total of 307
+deaths given in Dr Thomas’s table, 116 occurred during the
+first semi-decade (<i>i.e.</i> from 1868 to 1872, inclusive), on the other
+hand, no less than 181 deaths occurred during the second semi-decade
+(<i>i.e.</i> from 1873 to 1877, inclusive). This increase of 45
+deaths during the later semi-decade is very significant. It
+points either to the fact of more careful returns having been
+made, or to an actual increase in the fatality of the disorder.
+Possibly both the causes alluded to operated to affect the
+returns. Be that as it may, Dr Thomas’s record is highly
+instructive, and should stimulate the profession in England to
+supply our Registrar-General with more precise data wherewith
+to construct his annual reports.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<h2>BOOK II.</h2>
+
+<h3>PARASITES OF ANIMALS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In dealing with this division of the subject it will be impossible
+to give more than the faintest outline. Let it be borne
+in mind that quite as much information might be offered by me
+respecting the parasitism of each of the commoner domestic
+animals as has been already advanced in regard to the helminthism
+of man. That would by no means exhaust the subject.
+Thus treated, a score of volumes, each equal in size to this, would
+barely suffice to cover the whole ground of Parasitology; and yet
+there are not wanting intelligent persons who regard Helminthology
+as unworthy of their attention. These persons form a
+far too prevalent type of educated ignorance, and unfortunately,
+it is just this class of people who enjoy the prerogative of educational
+responsibility. Even our metropolitan scientific institutions,
+expressly raised for the purpose of diffusing useful
+knowledge, shrink from the revelations of parasitism. Dominated
+by the miserable conception which judges that the
+life-history of a worm cannot prove either interesting or
+instructive to their audiences, they let slip the acquisition of
+scientific data, a knowledge of which might enable them to
+combat successfully some of the most terrible evils to which
+human flesh, in common with that of animals, is heir.</p>
+
+<p>In the following few pages many new points of departure for
+fresh scientific work will inevitably be suggested; and if I only
+succeed in conveying to the working student an adequate grasp
+of the whole subject, especially in its bearings on the welfare
+of the higher domesticated animals and man, I shall have
+accomplished all that I can reasonably hope to do within the
+restricted limits of space at my command.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="289"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>SECTION I (<span class="smcap">Mammalia</span>).</h3>
+
+
+<p>In dealing with this class of hosts, exclusive of man, I shall
+notice the entozoa of the various orders successively, taking
+the arrangement which I employed many years since when
+writing the Mammalian Division of a popular treatise called the
+‘Museum of Natural History.’ The internal parasites of those
+orders which happen to embrace important domesticated
+animals will necessarily receive more attention than the others;
+some notice of the ectozoa being likewise added.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part I.&mdash;Quadrumana</span> (Monkeys).</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;">
+<a id="Fig_54"></a>
+<img src="images/f54.jpg" width="360" height="522" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>&mdash;<i>Cœnurus lemuris.</i> 1, Colony; 2, portion of the ectocyst (enlarged); 3, scolex-head
+(magnified 40 diameters); 4, hooks (magnified 260 diameters). Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Monkeys are less afflicted with flukes than most animals.
+The species known to me are <i>Distoma laciniatum</i>, found by
+Brongniart in the pancreas of <i>Simia maimon</i>; <i>D. orbiculare</i> and
+<i>Amphistoma emarginatum</i>, from the intestines of <i>Cebus trivirgatus</i>;
+and <i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>, a single specimen of which I
+obtained from <i>Cercopithecus fuliginosus</i>. The monkeys of the
+Old World rarely harbor full-grown tapeworms, but Cysticerci
+are abundant (<i>Cyst. tenuicollis</i>, <i>C. cellulosa</i>, <i>C. pileatus</i>, <i>C.
+crispus</i>). The common hydatid (<i>Echinococcus polymorphus</i>) has
+been found in many of the Simiæ, and by myself in a
+Madagascar lemur (<i>L. macaco</i>). Dr Leidy also obtained three
+hydatid cysts from a large monkey. On the last day of the
+year 1857 I obtained some polycephalous hydatids (<i>Cœnurus
+lemuris</i>) from a ring-tailed lemur. They infested the liver,
+being more abundant in the lungs. They occupied both sides
+of the chest. Loose and detached specimens also existed in the
+cavity of the right pleura. Most of those occupying the chest
+were connected to the pleura, forming vesicular, semi-transparent
+masses, varying in size from a filbert to a large walnut, many
+being united in bundles of much larger size. One of these
+masses is here drawn (1, fig. 54). It consists of four large
+Cœnuri, their combined pedicles forming a single stalk. A fifth
+hour-glass-shaped rudimentary Cœnurus is also visible. Every
+Cœnurus supports a variable number of lobules, each lobe supporting
+one or more papillæ. Here and there the papillæ
+resemble chains of beads. No trace of tapeworm heads could
+be seen, but under a half-inch objective glass, I found some
+flat papillæ presenting oval depressions at the surface (2, fig. 54).<span class="pagenum" title="290"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a></span>
+On examining some of the larger papillæ they were found to
+consist of membranous layers folded one within the other.
+These were carefully dissected and examined with the aid of
+needles, when each one showed in the centre a well-formed
+tapeworm head with four characteristic suckers, and a prominent
+rostellum supporting a double coronet of hooks, thirty-two
+of the latter in all (3, fig. 54). The hooks displayed a marked
+disparity of size and form. Each hook showed conspicuous
+anterior and posterior root-processes, the larger set of hooks
+individually measuring about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">225</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the smaller <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">330</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length<span class="pagenum" title="291"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a></span>
+(4, fig. 54). There were numerous calcareous corpuscles. The
+interior of each vesicle was filled with a fluid, in which there were
+no free scolices. On referring to my notes I find that the lemur
+had arrived in England about four months previously.</p>
+
+<p>Larval cestodes do not appear to be common in the monkeys
+of the New World (Cebidæ), nevertheless I found several
+Cysticerci in the liver of <i>Macacus radiatus</i> (Feb. 19th 1857),
+and a single specimen in the sooty monkey (Dec. 4th 1857).
+They were wrongly described by me as Cercariæ. The
+Cebidæ are largely infested with tapeworms (<i>Tænia megastoma</i>
+and <i>T. rugosa</i>). A species of Ligula (<i>L. reptans</i>) has likewise
+been found beneath the skin of <i>Callithrix sciureus</i> and in
+one of the marmosets (<i>Hapale melanurus</i>). Perhaps the
+most common helminth infesting monkeys is the nematode
+called <i>Filaria gracilis</i>. I have examined specimens from
+the orang, the capuchin, and the spider monkey. This parasite
+commonly occupies the abdomen, coiled beneath the peritoneum,
+or within folds of the mesentery. It sometimes occurs
+beneath the skin, or within the connective tissue of superficial
+muscles. The female worm has been known to reach
+a length of five feet. In 1873 Mr Samuel Smith, of Clifton,
+sent me five specimens of this worm. From one of the males,
+which measured twenty inches in length, I procured some
+spermatozoa, and found their long diameter to average <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1400</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+These corpuscles and other structures, as well as the worm
+itself, are figured in my ‘Notes on Entozoa’ quoted below.
+Next in frequency, perhaps, is the whipworm (<i>Trichocephalus
+dispar</i>), which monkeys of all kinds harbor in common with
+man. Besides these nematodes, <i>Physaloptera dilatata</i> is found
+in the stomach of American monkeys, and <i>Ascaris distans</i> also
+(in the large intestine of marmosets more particularly). This
+Ascaris has also been found in <i>Cercopithecus fuliginosus</i> and in
+<i>Simia sabæa</i>. A small spiroptera is said to infest the walls of
+the stomach of <i>Simia maimon</i>. To Dr Murie I am indebted
+for a large roundworm (<i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i>) taken from the
+intestine of a chimpanzee (<i>Troglodytes niger</i>), and also for a
+smaller nematode taken from a green mona-monkey (<i>Cercopithecus</i>).
+This I have described and named <i>Ascaris cuspidata</i>.
+From the intestines of a chacma (<i>Cynocephalus porcarius</i>) M.
+Schafhert procured sixteen examples of a small strongyle (<i>Str.
+attenuatus</i>, Leidy).</p>
+
+<p>The singular monkey known as <i>Tarsius spectrum</i> is liable<span class="pagenum" title="292"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a></span>
+to be attacked by a filaria (<i>F. lævis</i>), which is found beneath the
+skin. At least two species of Echinorhynchus (<i>E. spirula</i> and
+<i>E. elegans</i>) are known to infest monkeys. I have carefully
+examined and figured <i>E. elegans</i> in the ‘Zoological Society’s
+Proceedings,’ from specimens supplied to me by Dr Murie.
+They had been obtained from a pinche monkey (<i>Hapale œdipus</i>)
+from New Granada. I am under the impression that Diesing’s
+original description of this parasite is the only one that exists.
+I have gone over his numerous memoirs contributed to the
+Vienna Academy, but can find nothing beyond the specific
+characters given in his ‘Systema.’ All the specimens in the
+Vienna Museum, whence his description is taken, were collected
+by Natterer. They were procured from the marakina (<i>Midas
+rosalia</i>), from two other true marmosets (<i>Hapale ursula</i> and
+<i>H. chrysoleuca</i>), and from a squirrel monkey or tee-tee (<i>Callithrix
+sciureus</i>). In the monkey which died at the Zoological
+Society’s Gardens the cause of death was not clearly due to
+the parasites; nevertheless, the mucous layer of the intestine,
+to which the entozoa were attached, showed deep conical pits or
+depressions at the spots where the worms had anchored themselves.
+During the perfect retraction of the proboscis of this
+Echinorhynchus the centre is represented by a wide opening
+which communicates with a cavity beneath. The end of the
+neck thus forms a sort of collar, or rosette, made up of rays
+arranged like the spokes of a wheel. When the proboscis is
+exserted this collar is more or less convex, but it becomes
+slightly concave when the proboscis is retracted. Diesing
+recognised twenty-four rays; they probably vary from that
+number up to twenty-eight, at least I counted twenty-seven in
+my specimens. During exsertion the proboscis forms a nipple-like
+projection. According to Diesing it supports three rows
+of hooks, but I certainly saw four rows. When separately
+magnified these hooks present very different appearances as to
+size and contour. These variations I believe to be due to
+growth. The largest hooks measured about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">200</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length.</p>
+
+<p>As regards insect parasites, it is well known that monkeys
+are largely infested by fleas, but the species have not been much
+studied. The same may be said of their mites (<i>Acaridæ</i>). A
+species of Pentastoma (<i>P. tornatum</i>, Creplin) has been found
+occupying little cysts of the peritoneum and omentum in <i>Simia
+maimon</i> and <i>S. cynomulgus</i>. Under a synonym (<i>Linguatula
+Diesingii</i>) it has been very fully described by Van Beneden.<span class="pagenum" title="293"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a></span>
+Another species (<i>P. subcylindricum</i>) has been found attached to
+the lungs and liver of a marmoset (<i>Hapale chrysopygus</i>). Dr
+Leidy found five specimens of <i>P. euryzonum</i> in cysts on the
+subperitoneal surface of the liver of <i>Cynocephalus porcarius</i>.
+Leuckart believes that Dr George Harley’s <i>P. polyzonum</i> is the
+adult state of <i>P. euryzonum</i>, and that <i>P. subcylindricum</i> is the
+larva of <i>P. proboscideum</i>, found in <i>Boa constrictor</i> and other
+serpents.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_42"></a>No. 42).&mdash;<i>Beneden</i> (see Van Beneden).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>,
+“On <i>Filaria gracilis</i> and <i>Ascaris cuspidata</i>,” in
+‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’ Feb. 3, 1874, p. 124.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “List of
+Entozoa, including Pentastomes, obtained from Animals dying
+at the Menagerie in 1857&ndash;60 inclusive,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Entozoa,’ p. 119.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Parasite-Larvæ (Cœnurus
+and Echinococcus of the Lemur),” ‘Intell. Observer,’ vol. iii,
+pp. 86&ndash;96.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Bilharzia from Cercopithecus,” in ‘Synops.
+of Distomidæ,’ ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ 1860, Zool. Div., pt. v, p. 31,
+and in “Parasites from Zool. Gardens.,” in ‘Intell. Obs.,’ June,
+1862, p. 352.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Echinorh. elegans</i>,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’
+1876, in ‘Notes on Entozoa,’ pt. iii, plate xvi, p. 202.&mdash;<i>Creplin</i>,
+“On <i>P. tornatum</i>,” ‘Troschel’s Arch.,’ 1849, s. 54.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“<i>F. gracilis</i>,” in ‘Wiegm. Arch.,’ 1851, s. 270.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>,
+‘Syst.,’ l. c., s. 611, and in ‘Sitzb. d. k. Akad.,’ 1854, s. 598.&mdash;<i>Harley,
+G.</i>, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1857, p. 12.&mdash;<i>Leidy, J.</i>, “On
+Pentastoma,” ‘Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci.,’ 1850, p. 97.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Hydatids,’ l. c., 1856, p. 46.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘<i>Strong. atten.</i>,’ l. c.,
+p. 54.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, ‘Bau und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pentastomen,’
+1860, “<i>P. polyzonum</i>,” ‘Synops.,’ s. 153.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>, “On
+<i>F. gracilis</i>,” in ‘Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch.,’ 1858,
+Bd. xxviii, s. 376.&mdash;<i>Schneider</i>, ‘Monag. der Nem.,’ 1866, “<i>F.
+gracilis</i>,” s. 87.&mdash;<i>Smith, S.</i>, “On <i>F. gracilis</i> found in connection
+with the Great Omentum of a Spider-monkey,” ‘Proc. of
+Bristol Naturalists’ Soc.,’ vol. i, 1873.&mdash;<i>Van Beneden</i>, “<i>Ling.
+Diesingii</i>,” in ‘Mém. Acad. Belgique,’ vol. xxiii, ‘Recherches
+sur l’organisation et le dévélopment des Linguatules, suivies de
+la description d’une espèce nouvelle provenant d’un Mandrill,’
+1849.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part II (Cheiroptera).</span></h3>
+
+<p>Until lately not very much attention had been paid to the
+parasites of bats, probably on account of the insignificance of<span class="pagenum" title="294"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a></span>
+the hosts. However, whilst Dr Dobson has recently been
+extending the subject of Cheiropterology, Prof. van Beneden
+has added largely to our knowledge of the parasites of bats.
+In his beautiful memoir, the Belgian helminthologist asks
+whether the parasites quit their hosts during the period of
+hybernation, and then proceeds to answer that question in the
+negative. Should the bats die, the parasites of necessity share
+the same fate. It would appear, however, that the spermatozoa
+of the worms are capable of surviving their parents for a
+fortnight or even longer. Flukes abound; the most common
+species (<i>Distoma lima</i>) infesting the pipistrelle, noctule, mouse-colored
+bat, Natterer’s bat, parti-colored bat, Daubenton’s bat,
+whiskered bat, and the greater and lesser horseshoe bats.
+Almost as abundant is the <i>Distoma chilostomum</i> found in most
+of these bats, and also in Leisler’s or the hairy-armed bat.
+Dujardin’s <i>D. heteroporum</i> is a synonym of the species. Schreber’s
+<i>Monostomum</i> is probably identical with Van Beneden’s
+<i>Distoma ascidia</i>. This fluke he found in <i>Vespertilio marinus</i>,
+<i>V. dasycnemus</i>, <i>V. Daubentonii</i>, <i>V. emarginatus</i>, <i>V. serotinus</i>,
+<i>V. mystacinus</i>, <i>V. pipistrellus</i>, <i>V. auritus</i>, and in <i>Rhinolophus
+hippocrepis</i>. Another species, distinguished from <i>D. ascidia</i> by
+its large ventral sucker, has been found in great numbers in
+the noctule (<i>D. ascidioïdes</i>, Van Beneden). The cestodes of
+bats are not numerous. The best known species (<i>Tænia obtusata</i>)
+has been found in the serotine, in the mouse-colored bat,
+and in <i>Vespertilio lasiurus</i>. Another species (<i>T. decipiens</i>) occurs
+in <i>Molossus perotis</i>, and <i>Chylonycteris rubiginosus</i>, and a scolex,
+forming the type of a new genus and species (<i>Milina grisea</i>,
+Van Ben.) has been obtained by hundreds in the intestines of
+<i>Vesp. murinus</i> and <i>V. serotinus</i>. Of nematodes we have <i>Ophiostomum
+mucronatum</i>, Rud., and <i>Oph. spinosum</i>, W.-Suhm (from
+<i>Vespertilio mystacinus</i>)., <i>Trichosomum speciosum</i>, Van Ben., <i>Strongylus
+tipula</i>, Van Ben., <i>Strongylacantha glycyrrhiza</i>, Van Ben.,
+<i>Litosoma filaria</i>, Van Ben., <i>Ascarops minuta</i>, Van Ben., and
+one or two sexually-immature forms, either found loose in the
+tissues or occupying cysts. The Acanthocephala are not known
+to infest bats. Respecting insects, one family (Nycteribiidæ)
+is exclusively parasitic upon bats. They resemble the forest-flies
+in their habits. The best known species is <i>Nycteribia
+Latreillei</i>, but several others (<i>N. biarticulata</i> and <i>N. Sykesii</i>,
+Westw.) have been described. One or more of the Brazilian
+bats are infested by <i>Lipoptena phyllostomatis</i>, Nitsch, and<span class="pagenum" title="295"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a></span>
+Westwood has obtained several allied forms of <i>Hipposcidæ</i>
+(of the genus <i>Strebla</i>), also from bats. As regards the true
+Arachnidans (mites and ticks), Van Beneden enumerates <i>Ixodes
+lividus</i>, Van Ben., <i>Pteroptus vespertilionis</i> and <i>P. arcuatus</i>,
+Koch, <i>Otonissus aurantiacus</i> and <i>Cerathophyllus octactenus</i>, both
+of Kolenati, and <i>Caris elliptica</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_43"></a>No. 43).&mdash;<i>Audouin</i>, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ xxv.&mdash;<i>Beneden,
+P. J. van</i>, “Les Parasites des Chauves-souris de
+Belgique,” fr. vol. xl of the ‘Mém. de l’Acad.,’ 1873.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>,
+‘Syst. Helm.,’ ii, p. 530.&mdash;<i>Dufour</i>, ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 1831.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>,
+l. c., p. 437.&mdash;<i>Kolenati</i>, ‘Die Parasiten der Chiropteren,’
+1857.&mdash;<i>Latreille</i>, art. “Nycteribie,” in ‘Nouv. Dict.
+d’Inst. nat.’&mdash;<i>Müller</i>, ‘Zool. Danica,’ ii, p. 43, “<i>Fasciola vesp.</i>
+(syn. <i>Dist. lima</i>).”&mdash;<i>Perty</i>, “Lipoptena,” ‘Del. an. art. Brasil’
+(quoted by Westwood).&mdash;<i>Rudolphi</i>, ‘Synops.,’ p. 117.&mdash;<i>Westwood</i>,
+“Mém.,” in ‘Zool. Soc. Trans.,’ 1835.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Modern
+Classif. of Insects,’ vol. ii, p. 585, 1840.&mdash;<i>Willemoes-Suhm,
+R. V.</i>, “Helminthologische Notizen,” iii, ‘Zeitsch. f. wiss.
+Zool.,’ 1873.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part III (Insectivora).</span></h3>
+
+<p>The entozoa of insectivorous mammals, though sufficiently
+numerous, are not important practically. The common hedgehog
+(<i>Erinaceus europæus</i>) is infested by four flukes (<i>Distoma
+pusillum</i>, <i>D. trigonocephalum</i>, <i>D. caudatum</i>, <i>D. linguæforme</i>),
+and also by three thorn-headed worms (<i>Echinorhynchus napæformis</i>,
+<i>E. amphipachus</i>, and <i>E. major</i>). Two tapeworms are
+also known (<i>Tænia compacta</i> and <i>T. tripunctata</i>). More attention
+has been paid to the round worms. A species of strongyle
+(<i>S. striatus</i>) infests the lungs, the male being readily distinguished
+by its nearly round hood. A second species of strongyle
+has been mentioned by Diesing, but it is more than
+doubtful. The lungs are also infested by a small trichosome
+(<i>Eucoleus tenuis</i> of Dujardin); another species of the genus
+(<i>Trich. exiguum</i>) infesting the stomach and small intestine. As
+the <i>Trichina spiralis</i> has been repeatedly reared by myself and
+others in the hedgehog, the little flesh-worm must also be
+noticed in this place. <i>Physaloptera clausa</i> occupies the
+stomach, and a minute Ascaris (<i>A. pusilla</i>) is found in cysts of
+the peritoneum. According to Wedl, the intestine of the
+Egyptian hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus auritus</i>) is infested by another<span class="pagenum" title="296"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a></span>
+worm, which he calls <i>Pterygodermatitis plagiostoma</i>. This is
+allied to Froelich’s genus <i>Rictularia</i>. As regards the mole
+(<i>Talpa europæa</i>), two flukes have been described (<i>Distomum
+flexuosum</i> and <i>Monostomum ocreatum</i>), also two round worms,
+namely, <i>Ascaris incisa</i>, occupying the peritoneum, and <i>Spiroptera
+strumosa</i> in the cavity of the stomach. Dr Schneider
+places the latter with the Filariæ. A little tapeworm (<i>Tænia
+bacillaris</i>) infests the small intestines, and a larval cestode
+occupies the liver and subcutaneous connective tissues. This is
+the well-known <i>Cysticercus talpæ</i>, which Leuckart and others
+have referred to as being the scolex or juvenile state of <i>Tænia
+tenuicollis</i> infesting weasles (<i>Mustelidæ</i>). The Cysticercus is
+also found in <i>Arvicola arvalis</i>. In regard to the shrews, many
+species of fluke have been described as occupying the intestines.
+In <i>Sorex araneus</i> and <i>S. leucodon</i>, the <i>Distoma migrans</i>;
+in <i>S. constrictus</i>, the <i>D. exasperatum</i>; in <i>S. tetragonurus</i>, the
+<i>D. corrugatum</i> and <i>D. rubens</i>; the last-named fluke, with two
+others (<i>D. instabile</i> and <i>D. truncatum</i>), being also found in
+Daubenton’s shrew. The tapeworms are numerous&mdash;<i>Tænia
+neglecta</i>, <i>T. furcata</i>, <i>T. uncinata</i>, <i>T. pistillum</i>, <i>T. tiara</i>, <i>T.
+scalaris</i>, <i>T. scutigera</i>. With the exception of the last named,
+all these forms occur in the common shrew. According to the
+investigations of M. Villot the cysticercal stage of <i>T. pistillum</i>
+is to be found <a id="glow-worm"></a><ins title="Transcriber’s note: should read &lsquo;in a myriapod (Glomeris) which is phosphorescent like the glow-worm.&rsquo; &ndash; see &lsquo;Erratum&rsquo;"><a href="#ERRATUM">in the glow-worm (<i>Glomeris</i>).</a></ins> This scolex
+(<i>Staphylocystis micracanthus</i>, Villot) multiplies by proliferation,
+and in this way the swallowing of a single intermediate host
+may result in the formation of a hundred or more tapeworms.
+Another species of Staphylocystis (<i>S. biliarius</i>) is considered by
+Villot to be the larval source of <i>T. scutigera</i> and <i>T. scalaris</i>,
+which are perhaps identical species. A small Echinorhynchus
+(<i>E. appendiculatus</i>), found in the intestines and also encysted in
+the mesentery of the shrew, in like manner becomes transferred
+to the stomach of the fox. The nematodes of shrews possess
+little interest. In the common shrew the only species known
+are <i>Trichosoma splenaceum</i> and an immature worm, whilst in
+<i>Sorex tetragonurus</i> we have <i>T. incrassatum</i>, occupying the
+tunica vaginalis of the testis, and <i>Strongylus depressus</i> in the
+intestines. Not many other insectivora appear to have been
+studied in relation to their internal parasites. A larval cestode
+has been noticed in the Russian musk rat (<i>Mygale</i>), and also
+a tapeworm (<i>Tænia sphærocephala</i>) in the golden mole (<i>Chrysochloris</i>).
+Several flukes and a tapeworm have been found in<span class="pagenum" title="297"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a></span>
+the water-shrews (<i>Sorex fodiens</i>), but, so far as I am aware,
+nothing has been done in connection with the parasites of the
+<i>Macroscelidinæ</i>, of the Banxrangs (<i>Tupainæ</i>), or of the Tanecs
+(<i>Centites</i>) and their allies. The entozoa of the star-nosed and
+shrew moles of North America (<i>Condylura</i> and <i>Scalops</i>) also
+deserve attention. From the last-named genus (<i>S. canadensis</i>)
+Prof. Leidy obtained a single male spiroptera. It occupied the
+stomach and was only half an inch in length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_44"></a>No. 44).&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>, “<i>S. scalopsis canadensis</i>,”
+‘Proc. Phil. Acad.,’ 1851, p. 156.&mdash;<i>Linstow</i>, “<i>D. cordatum</i>,
+Einige neue Distomen (u. s. w.),” ‘Arch. für Anat.,’ 1873, s. 95.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>,
+‘Una Monografia del genere Physaloptera,’ Wien,
+1860 (p. 7, “<i>P. clausa</i>,” and p. 31, “<i>P. limbata</i>”)..&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Nuovi myzelmintha,’ Wien, 1859, p. 10, Spec. No. 8.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Una Monogr. del genere Spiroptera,’ Wien, 1860, p. 25, Spec.
+No. 22.&mdash;<i>Schneider</i>, ‘Monogr. der Nematoden,’ Berlin, 1866,
+s. 103, Spec. No. 39.&mdash;<i>Stieda</i>, in ‘Troschel’s Archiv,’ 1862,
+“Description and figs. of <i>Tænia uncinata</i> and <i>T. furcata</i> of the
+Shrew.”&mdash;<i>Thomson</i>, art. “Ovum,” in ‘Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat.
+and Phys.,’ contains figs. and description of <i>T. pistillum</i> (from
+Dujardin), vol. v, p. 28.&mdash;<i>Villot, A.</i>, “On the Migrations and
+Metamorphoses of the Tapeworms of the Shrews,” in ‘Ann. of
+Nat. Hist.,’ March, 1878, from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ Nov. 19,
+1877, p. 971.&mdash;<i>Wedl, K.</i>, “Zur Helminthenfauna Ægyptens,”
+‘Sitzungsb. d. math.-naturw. Classe’ (u. s. w.), Bd. xliv,
+Abth. i, s. 464.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part IV (Carnivora).</span></h3>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the importance of the entozoa of this large
+section of mammals, I must deal with them very summarily,
+emphasising my remarks on the parasites of the dog and cat.
+Only a few of the ectozoa can be noticed.</p>
+
+<p>The bears are much infested by nematodes, the species being
+<i>Ascaris transfuga</i> and <i>Spiroptera</i> (<i>Gongylonema</i>) <i>contorta</i> of
+Molin. The latter is found in the œsophagus. Immature
+round worms have also been found in cysts. These were
+erroneously described as cestodes by Zeder and Gmelin. The
+bear, however, is very liable to be infested by genuine Cysticerci.
+Retzius found them in the muscles, and they are described as
+examples of the ordinary hog-measle. The museum attached<span class="pagenum" title="298"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a></span>
+to Guy’s Hospital contains the heart of a bear which is largely
+infested by Cysticerci. A species of tapeworm has been found
+in the polar bear. The coati (<i>Nasua narica</i>) is infested by
+<i>Ascaris brachyoptera</i> in the intestine, by Molin’s <i>Physaloptera
+semilanceolata</i> from the stomach, by <i>Echinorhynchus spirula</i>,
+<i>Tænia crassipora</i>, and <i>Ligula reptans</i>, the latter occupying the
+muscles. A second species of Ascaris (<i>A. alienata</i>) is described
+from <i>Nasua rufa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The racoons (<i>Procyon</i>) are infested by a species of pentastome
+(<i>P. subcylindricum</i>), and Prof. Leidy has described a threadworm
+(<i>Filaria insignis</i>) obtained from a
+cyst in the foot. The gluttons
+(<i>Gulo</i>) are liable to be infested by
+an Ascaris, a Ligula, and by
+<i>Eustrongylus gigas</i>. The giant
+strongyle also infests the coati
+(<i>Nasua</i>). The skunk harbors
+<i>Tænia crassipora</i>. The Hunterian
+Museum contains four specimens
+of <i>Strongylus cruciformis</i> taken
+from a badger (<i>Meles</i>). The otters
+are largely infested by flukes;
+<i>Distoma trigonocephalum</i>, <i>D. incrassatum</i>,
+and <i>D. rude</i> being found
+in <i>Lutra vulgaris</i>, <i>L. solitaria</i>, and
+<i>L. braziliensis</i>, respectively, the
+latter also harboring <i>Hemistoma
+clathratum</i>. Otters are likewise
+infested by <i>Ligulæ</i> and <i>Eustrongyli</i>. The weasels (<i>Mustelidæ</i>)
+are attacked by a legion of entozoa, comprising flukes, tapeworms,
+round worms, and thorn-headed worms; they are also
+liable to harbor many ectozoa, a large tick (<i>Ixodes</i>) being
+especially troublesome.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;">
+<img src="images/f55.jpg" width="195" height="278" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>&mdash;<i>Strongylus gigas</i>, coiled within the
+kidney of a coati. After Leuckart.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Amongst the nematodes is Van Beneden’s <i>Filaroides mustelarum</i>,
+for specimens of which I am indebted to Mr Wright
+Wilson. This is found in the lungs, trachea, and in the
+frontal and nasal sinuses of the common marten (<i>Mustela foina</i>),
+in which situations it causes absorption of the cranial bones.
+This worm occurs also in the polecat (<i>M. putorius</i>), in the
+common weasel (<i>M. vulgaris</i>), and in the pine-marten (<i>M.
+martes</i>). The larvæ reside in frogs. Weasels are also very
+liable to have their kidneys invaded by <i>Eustrongylus gigas</i>. A<span class="pagenum" title="299"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a></span>
+species of Ascaris and a Trichosoma (<i>T. entomelas</i>) are not
+uncommon in the intestines. In regard to the tapeworms,
+<i>Tænia tenuicollis</i> infests the polecat and the common weasel,
+and <i>T. intermedia</i> the pine-marten. The most common fluke of
+the weasel is <i>Distoma trigonocephalum</i>. This infests the
+intestine, while <i>D. megastomum</i> is found in the stomach. The
+stoat or ermine (<i>M. erminea</i>) harbors <i>Strongylus patens</i> and
+<i>Tænia brevicollis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The parasites of the civets, ichneumons and their allies,
+(<i>Viverridæ</i>) are of little importance. Many years ago I
+described a small fluke (<i>Distoma compactum</i>) obtained from the
+lungs of the common Indian ichneumon (<i>Viverra mungos</i>). It
+is figured in my ‘Entozoa,’ (p. 16). Two species of tapeworm
+(<i>Tænia platydera</i> and <i>T. genettæ</i>) have been found in the
+common genet (<i>V. genettæ</i>), and also a round worm (<i>Ascaris brachyoptera</i>).
+From another viverra (<i>V. senegalensis</i>) Dujardin
+obtained a strongyloid worm (<i>Dochmius crassus</i>). A species of
+mongoos (<i>Herpestes leucurus</i>) is likewise infested by tapeworms
+(<i>Bothriocephalus folium</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively speaking, very few entozoa infest the hyænas.
+In this family I include the earth-wolf (<i>Proteles lalandi</i>).
+Some years back Prof. Flower sent me a large number of
+delicate nematodes found loose in the peritoneal cavity of this
+singular South African carnivore. The worms themselves were
+so peculiar that I was compelled to form a new genus for
+their reception (<i>Acanthocheilonema dracunculoides</i>). From the
+intestines of the common <i>Hyæna striata</i> Dr Lautner obtained
+<i>Echinorhynchus gigas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The parasites of the wolf, jackal, and fox family (<i>Canidæ</i>)
+have especial interest, as including those of the dog. I can,
+however, do little more than mention the names of the various
+helminths of the dog, and the sources whence they come. At
+the same time, I shall incidentally refer to the wild canine
+animals that happen to harbor the same parasites.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;">
+<a id="Fig_56"></a>
+<img src="images/f56.jpg" width="120" height="120" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;<i>Distoma conjunctum.</i>
+Eight parasites
+of the natural
+size. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flukes of the dog are few in number.
+Perhaps the most important is <i>Distoma conjunctum</i>,
+originally discovered by myself in an
+American fox (<i>Canis fulvus</i>) that died at the
+Zoological Gardens. Lewis, eleven years afterwards,
+found it in the pariah dogs of India,
+where it is of frequent occurrence. It infests the
+bile ducts. As already stated, Prof. McConnell<span class="pagenum" title="300"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a></span>
+subsequently found this entozoon in man (1875), a second
+instance being recorded later on (1878).
+Another species of canine liver fluke has
+been described by Prof. Ercolani (<i>D.
+campanulatum</i>), besides which there is
+the winged species occupying the small
+intestines (<i>Holostoma alatum</i>). This
+latter is also found in <i>Canis azaræ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The tapeworms of the dog are not
+only numerous, but also particularly
+injurious, alike to their bearers and to
+mankind. By experimental research we
+have ascertained the sources of most of
+the <i>Tæniæ</i>. The serrated species (<i>T.
+serrata</i>) is derived from <i>Cysticercus
+pisiformis</i> infesting hares and rabbits.
+This is common in sporting animals,
+owing to the careless practice of allowing
+gamekeepers and kennel masters to
+throw the fresh viscera of the intermediate
+hosts to the dogs. I have
+witnessed this stupid habit in the field.
+The cucumerine tapeworm (<i>T. cucumerina</i>)
+is, by most observers, considered
+to be identical with the <i>T. elliptica</i> of
+the cat. I regard it as a variety. This
+delicate species is excessively common
+and is now, through Melnikow’s discovery,
+known to be derived from the
+louse of the dog (<i>Trichodectes latus</i>).
+This circumstance affords a curious illustration
+of the fact that an ultimate host
+may carry the intermediate host upon
+its back.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/f57.jpg" width="130" height="573" style="padding-left: 15px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;<i>Tænia cucumerina.</i> <i>a</i>, Strobile;
+<i>b</i>, head (enlarged); <i>c</i>, proglottoid,
+showing the sexual orifices;
+<i>d</i>, termination of the reproductive
+organs on one side. Magnified
+60 diameters. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As regards the relative prevalence
+of these tapeworms in England, it
+may be said that whilst <i>T. serrata</i>
+occurs almost entirely in our harriers,
+greyhounds, sheep-dogs, and lurchers
+(taught to “pick up” hares), the <i>T.
+cucumerina</i> is liable to infest any variety
+of dog, and probably infests nearly 70<span class="pagenum" title="301"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a></span>
+per cent. According to Krabbe the prevalence of the last-named
+species is 57 per cent. in Iceland and 48 per cent. in Copenhagen,
+whereas the <i>T. serrata</i> is almost absent from those countries.
+The gid tapeworm (<i>T. cœnurus</i>) is derived from the ordinary
+gid hydatid infesting the brains of sheep and lambs. The
+polycephalous bladder-worm (<i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i>), so familiar to
+agriculturists and veterinarians, is often confounded with the
+ordinary hydatid infesting ruminants. Cœnuri infest the soft
+parts of rabbits, but it remains to be shown whether they are the
+same species. Possibly the <i>Cœnurus cuniculi</i> is merely a variety.
+The gid tapeworm is not very abundant in England. In Denmark
+it appears to be rare, occurring in 1 per cent. only; but in
+Iceland Krabbe found it in 18 per cent. In common with other
+helminthologists, I have frequently reared this and the serrated
+species by worm feedings administered to dogs. The lettered
+tapeworm (<i>T. litterata</i>) is very commonly spoken of as the <i>Tænia
+canis lagopodis</i>. It was so named by Viborg, but I prefer the
+more distinctive nomenclature of Batsch. We know nothing,
+for certain, respecting the source of this entozoon. It is rare
+if not altogether wanting in Denmark, but abundant in Iceland
+(21 per cent.). I have obtained specimens from a cheetah
+(<i>Canis jubatus</i>) which died at the Zoological Gardens, and Mr
+W. H. Jackson, of Oxford, found it in a cat. The worm is
+certainly not confined to the Arctic fox (<i>C. lagopus.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>A well-known tapeworm infests the fox which has not yet
+been noticed in the dog. This is the <i>Tænia crassiceps</i>, whose
+scolices (<i>Cysticercus longicollis</i>) reside in the viscera and soft
+parts of field mice and voles (<i>Arvicola arvalis</i>, <i>A. terrestris</i>, <i>A.
+amphibius</i>). This relationship was pointed out by Leuckart.
+Another tapeworm (<i>T. opuntioides</i>) mentioned by Rudolphi as
+occurring in the wolf, seems to be of doubtful authenticity. A
+formidable and not uncommon tapeworm is <i>Tænia marginata</i>.
+This large species occurs in at least 25 per cent. of English dogs,
+whilst in Iceland its prevalence reaches 75 per cent. In Denmark
+about 14 per cent. only.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that the larval or scolex stage (<i>Cysticercus
+tenuicollis</i>) of the margined tapeworm resides in the sheep and
+dog. In a feeding experiment with five examples of this bladder
+worm I reared five strobiles of ten days’ growth. These immature
+tapeworms were each one inch long. By far the most
+important tapeworm of the dog, however, is the hydatid-forming
+species (<i>T. echinococcus</i>). This remarkable entozoon is the sole<span class="pagenum" title="302"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a></span>
+cause of the terrible echinococcus disease, so prevalent in Iceland
+and elsewhere. Experimental research, initiated by von Siebold,
+has explained its origin; Van Beneden, Zenker, and others have
+also experimented successfully. Rarely attaining a length of
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, the perfect strobile is made up of only three proglottides in
+addition to the head, the lowermost segment being sexually
+mature. As hydatids (<i>Echinococcus veterinorum</i> or <i>E. hominis</i>)
+are found in a great variety of animals as well as in man, and
+as these bearers form so many kinds of intermediate hosts, it is
+easy to understand how readily dogs and wolves may acquire
+the sexually-mature tapeworm. I am in possession of hydatids
+from the liver of a clouded tiger (<i>Felis macroscelis</i>). In
+England the <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> is excessively rare, and has not
+been seen in any dog which had not previously been subjected
+to a feeding experiment. Mr Nettleship succeeded in rearing
+large numbers. In Iceland, Krabbe found dogs to be infested
+to the extent of 28 per cent., a proportion fully explaining the
+prevalence of hydatid disease in that country. The remaining
+tapeworms of the dog belong to the genus <i>Bothriocephalus</i>; of
+these, the broad tapeworm (<i>B. latus</i>) is best known, because it
+infests man. Diesing has described a variety found in the
+Pomeranian dog as a separate species (<i>Dibothrium serratum</i>).
+The museum of the Royal Veterinary College contains a very
+perfect specimen of <i>B. latus</i> from an English dog, but the
+parasite is of rare occurrence in this country. It is generally
+supposed that this tapeworm is derived from the consumption
+of fish belonging to the salmon and trout family, but Dr Fock,
+of Utrecht, thinks that the bleak (<i>Leuciscus alburnus</i>) is the
+usual intermediate host. I have already discussed this question
+at some length. Experimental proof is still wanting. In
+addition to <i>B. latus</i> the dog is liable to harbor <i>B. cordatus</i>, <i>B.
+fuscus</i>, and also two varieties of the last-named species (<i>B.
+dubius</i> and <i>B. reticulatus</i>, Krabbe). Taking the pit-headed
+tapeworms as a whole, their prevalence in Iceland is not considerable,
+amounting to about 5 per cent. only. Lastly, it may
+be mentioned that instances are recorded of the occurrence of
+the hog-measle (<i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i>) in the dog. Though
+many have felt sceptical on this point, Gurlt’s authority is not
+to be lightly set aside, confirmed, as it has been, I believe, by
+MM. Mégnin and Leblanc.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to the round worms it may be said that <i>Ascaris marginata</i>
+is, at the best, a mere variety of <i>A. mystax</i> of the cat,<span class="pagenum" title="303"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a></span>
+with which must also be placed <i>A. leptoptera</i> of the lion and
+other felines. The lateral appendages not only vary in breadth
+in these three forms, but also in the specimens obtained from
+each host. I have encountered examples in a dog, which
+measured more than six inches in length. The worm is excessively
+common in England, occurring in probably not less than 75
+per cent., whilst in Denmark it occurs in about 24 per cent.
+According to Krabbe it is rare in Iceland. Its presence is at
+all times more or less injurious to the bearer, being a frequent
+cause of sickness, colic, convulsive fits, and paralysis. Occasionally
+the worms prove fatal to dogs by wandering into the
+trachea. At the Royal Veterinary College, in 1864, a litter of
+six puppies, of only three weeks growth, died rather suddenly
+in consequence of the presence of these worms in the stomach
+and small intestines. So far back as the year 1684 Redi described
+round worms from the walls of the œsophagus of a dog.
+These were afterwards noticed by various observers in tumours
+of the mucous membrane of the stomach. Owing to their red
+color, derived from the ingested blood of the host, the species
+was named <i>Spiroptera sanguinolenta</i>. In 1867 I suggested
+that the minute Filariæ found by Grube and Delafond in the
+blood of dogs would probably turn out to be referable to this
+species. The researches of Lewis have proved that this supposition
+was correct. To be sure, other nematoid hæmatozoa, of
+microscopic dimensions, occur in the dog, but those described
+by Grube and Delafond may be referred to <i>Spiroptera</i>.
+These authors estimated their number in the canine host
+to vary from 11,000 to upwards of 200,000. In one instance
+Messrs Grube and Delafond found six worms lodged in a clot
+occupying the right ventricle of the heart. Four were females
+and two males. Although they were described as representing
+an altogether new species, which they termed <i>Filaria papillosa
+hæmatica canis domestici</i>, I think there can be little doubt that
+they were examples of <i>Spiroptera sanguinolenta</i> not fully grown.
+The writings of Lewis abound with interesting details respecting
+the structure and development of this worm, and as much
+may be said of the writings of Manson and Welch concerning
+the cruel threadworm (<i>Filaria immitis</i>, Leidy) occupying the
+right cavities of the heart. I was first made acquainted with
+this entozoon in 1853, by examining specimens in the possession
+of Prof. Hughes Bennett of Edinburgh; at which time also I
+was put in possession of a valuable MS. (since lost) describing<span class="pagenum" title="304"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a></span>
+the ravages of this entozoon in the dogs of China. I have
+since received numerous verminiferous
+hearts both from China and
+Japan, and also some heart-worms
+from Charleston, U. S., sent by Mr
+M’Innes. In a recent communication,
+Dr Manson has spoken of this
+worm as if it were comparatively
+harmless, but all the evidence I
+long ago received through the late
+Mr Swinhoe, formerly H. B. M.
+Consul at Amoy, through Mr Dare’s
+letters enclosing Dr Orton’s valuable
+observations (addressed to the editor of the ‘Field’),
+through the lost MS. above alluded to, through Dr Lamprey’s
+statements, and through many other sources, lead to the
+very opposite conclusion. No doubt the canine hosts do for a
+time appear to be little inconvenienced by their nematode
+guests, but sooner or later the most distressing symptoms set
+in. As in Hoysted’s case (quoted below) the convulsive spasms
+may occasion death in a few minutes, but frequently they last
+for hours or days, with more or less prolonged intervals of relief
+before the final struggle.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 185px;">
+<img src="images/f58.jpg" width="185" height="170" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;<i>Filaria immitis.</i> Tail of male.
+Enlarged. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some other filariform nematodes have been imperfectly
+described. Of these, Gescheidt’s <i>Filaria oculi canini</i> (<i>F. trispinulosa</i>,
+Diesing) was probably a sexually-immature worm, and
+the same may be said of the encysted worms found by Mr
+Mather in the mucous coat of the intestines and in the liver
+ducts and acini (<i>Filaria hepatica</i>, Cobbold). Of more interest
+is Leisering’s hæmatozoon (<i>Strongylus subulatus</i>). These
+minute worms occupy the veins, the largest females not
+exceeding <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">12</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. They are viviparous, and thus
+form another source of embryonic hæmatozoa. A single drop
+of infected venous blood commonly carries from four to six
+mature worms. In this place may be mentioned Dr Osler’s
+<i>Strongylus canis bronchialis</i>. The largest males measure <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and
+the females fully <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. In the worms sent to me by Prof. Osler
+I saw no evidence of strongyloid structure, and in his description
+he avoids all mention of the presence of any caudal hood in
+the male. I regard the worms as Filariæ (<i>F. Osleri</i>, Cobbold).
+Very great interest attaches to them from the fact that they
+produce a destructive canine epizoöty, resembling the ordinary<span class="pagenum" title="305"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a></span>
+“husk” or parasitic bronchitis of calves, lambs, and other
+domesticated animals. The only other genuine strongyle known
+to infest the dog is <i>Eustrongylus gigas</i>. This is a very common
+parasite in wolves. I have already spoken of this parasite at
+some length (Book I, p. <a href="#Page_207">207</a>), and can only further refer to
+the recently published case by Mégnin (quoted below, and at
+full length in my paper in the ‘Veterinarian’ for April, 1879).
+The Museum of the Royal Veterinary College contains three
+fine examples of this worm coiled within the kidney of a dog, or
+rather within the renal capsule, for the substance of the organ
+is almost entirely wanting. These are from Bickford’s case.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the many good “finds” made by Lewis in India,
+not the least interesting is that appertaining to <i>Cheiracanthus
+robustus</i>. Lewis, indeed, supposed that he had detected <i>Echinorhynchi</i>
+in chestnut-sized tumours of the walls of the stomach,
+but, as I pointed out at the time, the parasites were entirely
+destitute of Acanthocephalous structure. As is well known,
+this curious nematode infests various felines, such as the wild
+cat, puma, and tiger. In addition to the above canine nematodes
+we have the wrinkled threadworm (<i>Trichosoma plica</i>) infesting
+the bladder. This is of much more frequent occurrence in the
+fox. In the list <i>Trichina spiralis</i> must also be included,
+although, so far as I am aware, it has only been seen in dogs
+that have been subjected to feeding experiments.</p>
+
+<p>Another nematode common to the fox and dogs, and infesting
+the cæcum, is the whipworm (<i>Trichocephalus depressiusculus</i>).
+It is very rare in the dog. Lastly, there is the important little
+strongyloid worm generally known as <i>Dochmius trigonocephalus</i>.
+At the hands of Leuckart the general structure and development
+of this entozoon have received complete elucidation. It infests
+the small intestines, and is found alike in the fox, wolf, and
+cheetah. It has also been obtained from <i>Canis lagopus</i> and <i>C.
+azaræ</i>. Dr Krabbe did not encounter this worm in Icelandic
+dogs; nevertheless, he obtained it in a blue fox which died in
+Kjoerbolling’s menagerie, and which had come from Iceland.
+In Danish dogs it occurred in less than 2 per cent. The
+embryos of this worm are rhabditiform and possess three
+long bristle-like teeth, the slender tail being furnished with a
+distinct appendage at the tip. They develop in moist situations,
+where they feed freely, grow rapidly, and change their skins,
+throwing off the caudal tip with the first month. It seems
+evident that they do not require a change of hosts, since Leuc<span class="pagenum" title="306"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a></span>kart
+succeeded in rearing the sexually-mature <i>Dochmii</i> by
+introducing the rhabditiform larvæ into the stomach of the dog;
+moreover, his experiments upon water-snails belonging to the
+genus <i>Physa</i> gave negative results.</p>
+
+<p>Of Arachnidan parasites (<i>Trachearia</i>) infesting the dog, by
+far the most interesting is the well-known <i>Pentastoma tænioides</i>,
+shown by Leuckart to be the adult condition of the still
+better known <i>Pentastoma denticulatum</i>. It resides in the nasal
+sinuses. As already mentioned in a former part of this work,
+these parasites present four marked stages of growth, namely
+(1), the embryo, (2) the pupa, (3) the active larva (<i>P. denticulatum</i>),
+and (4) the sexually-mature worm. As the eggs and their
+embryonic contents are lodged in the nasal mucus of the dog,
+and are commonly distributed by the act of sneezing on the part
+of the animal, the sources of infection are not far to seek.
+Clearly the larvæ usually get introduced to the bodies of mankind
+and herbivorous animals by the ingestion of unclean vegetable
+matter. The embryos set free in the stomach bore their
+way to the liver and other viscera, in which organs encystation
+and moulting subsequently take place. The fondling of dogs
+infested by pentastomes may prove dangerous by a more direct
+transference of the eggs to the hands and mouth. As regards
+the dog, the adult parasite has been known to prove fatal. A
+very striking instance of this kind was recorded by Prof. Dick,
+where the worms wandered into the trachea producing asphyxia.</p>
+
+<p>The ectozoa of the dog, though not numerous as species, are
+of importance in relation to mange. The follicle-mites form a
+family by themselves (<i>Demodicidæ</i>), and, as already observed,
+those infesting the dog and cat are, alike, mere varieties of the
+human species (<i>Demodex folliculorum</i>, var. <i>caninus</i> and var. <i>cati</i>).
+Whilst the human parasite restricts itself to the face, the canine
+variety (fig. <a href="#Fig_52">52</a>) will occupy any part of the dog’s body. The
+follicle-mite of the cat, however, usually confines itself to the
+ear. According to Mégnin, to whose beautiful monograph we
+owe so much, two or three dozen of these parasites may be
+found occupying a single follicle of the dog. Acne-like pustules
+are thus formed, and when they are very numerous death may
+result from the excessive irritation, which is usually accompanied
+with depilation. An interesting example of this kind
+recently occurred at the Royal Veterinary College. In regard
+to the ordinary mange-mite (<i>Sarcoptes canis</i>, Gerlach) M. Mégnin
+points out that it is in all respects identical with the human<span class="pagenum" title="307"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a></span>
+itch-insect. In the wolf and fox, however, the same species
+forms well-marked varieties (<i>S. scabiei</i>, var. <i>lupi</i> and var.
+<i>vulpis</i>). As regards true insect parasites and tormentors of the
+dog, I can only allude to a few of them. In tropical America
+dogs are said to be attacked by the larvæ of a species of gadfly
+(<i>Œstrus canis</i>), whilst in Africa they are often fatally bitten
+by the tsetse (<i>Glossina morsitans</i>). In addition to the flies
+(<i>Diptera</i>), several kinds of fleas (<i>Aphaniptera</i>) frequently prove
+troublesome (<i>Pulex canis</i>, <i>P. martis</i>, and <i>P. penetrans</i>), and the
+same may be said of certain lice (<i>Hemiptera</i>). The common
+louse of the dog (<i>Trichodectes latus</i>) proves especially noxious
+to young puppies. Of the two other species, namely, <i>Hæmatopinus
+piliferus</i> and <i>H. canis</i>, the former is tolerably common,
+whilst the latter is comparatively rare. This species is also
+found on the ferret. A new form of mite (<i>Chorioptes ecaudatus</i>),
+infesting the ears of the ferret, has recently been described by
+M. Mégnin.</p>
+
+<p>I have already referred to several of the parasites of the cat-tribe
+(<i>Felidæ</i>), but some others require notice. Only two
+flukes (<i>Amphistoma truncatum</i> and <i>Hemistoma cordatum</i>) have
+been described as infesting the cat. Of the tapeworms, <i>Tænia
+crassicollis</i> is the best known. This is derived from <i>Cysticercus
+fasciolaris</i> of the mouse and rat. It is not uncommon to find
+this scolex in the sexually-immature tænioid state in the liver,
+measuring six or seven inches in length. An exceedingly
+interesting communication by Dr Romano, of Gemona (Frioul),
+demonstrates the possibility of severe feline epizoöty as due to
+this entozoon. As I gather from an account given in the journal
+quoted below, “during the summer of 1876, Dr Romano was
+informed by his confrère Dr Leoncini, a physician practising at
+Osoppo, that for about a fortnight most of the cats in a certain
+hamlet of the town had died without appreciable cause after
+presenting the following <span class="nowrap">symptoms:&mdash;</span>Gradual wasting, with
+complete loss of appetite, retracted abdomen, slight diarrhœa
+at first, then constipation, abundant saliva, contraction of the
+elevating muscles of the upper lip in some subjects, great prostration
+of strength, loss of the visual faculty. Some of the
+feline patients no longer heard or appeared no longer to hear
+their master’s voice; some vomited and seemed to experience
+relief, for the appetite improved, but they soon died like the
+others. Nervous phenomena, epileptiform convulsions, and more
+frequently colic, also showed themselves. Having visited the<span class="pagenum" title="308"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a></span>
+locality (of the outbreak), Dr Romano could not at first procure
+any corpses for the post-mortem examination, for the
+children had thrown them into the Tagliamento, which flows at
+the foot of the fortress of Osoppo. It was only after the lapse
+of some days that he was able to open one of the animals
+which had just succumbed. The principal evils were remarked
+in the stomach, the walls of which were retracted and
+formed the seat of a catarrhal inflammation, from the products
+of which a long, white, flat worm was removed with care for
+examination. All the other organs were in good condition.
+The examination of the helminth in the stomach, made with the
+help of Dr Leoncini and Fachini, showed that the flat worm
+(white, and with the body divided into rings, 12 centimètres
+long, and 5 or 6 millimètres broad) had all the characters of
+the tænias, and this was confirmed by a microscopic examination
+of the head. A few days later Dr Romano made an
+autopsy of two other cats. In one of the corpses he noted the
+alterations described above, and found a tænia smaller than the
+first; in the other the same lesions without any helminth.
+This negative circumstance very naturally disconcerted Dr
+Romano, but several people of the place came to assure him
+that they had seen their cats, during the course of the malady,
+after violent and repeated efforts at vomiting, throw up a sort
+of white cord, which they recognised as corresponding with the
+tænia he showed them. Thus confirmed and reassured in his
+diagnosis, Dr Romano sought to identify the species.” In this
+connection it is specially interesting to note that “during the
+whole summer the inhabitants of Osoppo had been over-run by
+bands of rats proceeding from the fortress. They were combated
+by means of cats, and it was the best hunters among
+the felines that succumbed. Here was, therefore, a striking
+relation of cause and effect which could not be gainsayed.”
+Dr Romano communicated his observations to the National and
+Royal Veterinary Society, but by an error in the report
+the species appears to have been described as <i>Tænia tenuicollis</i>
+instead of <i>T. crassicollis</i>. In this connection I have only
+further to add that the wild cat is infested by a tapeworm
+scarcely an inch in length (<i>Tænia lineata</i>). A species of
+Bothriocephalus (<i>B. decipiens</i>) likewise infests the domestic cat,
+in common with most of the wild felines, such as the tiger,
+puma, ounce, and jaguar. Dr Bancroft brought me a specimen
+from an Australian cat. The nematodes of the cats are very<span class="pagenum" title="309"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a></span>
+abundant. Dr Bellingham found a trichosome (<i>T. felis cati</i>) in
+the urinary bladder of the wild cat. This is probably identical
+with <i>T. plica</i>. A tolerably common nematode is <i>Dochmius
+tubæformis</i>, which occurs not only in the cat but also in the
+leopard, puma, jaguar, ounce, panther, and also in <i>Felis tigrina</i>
+and <i>F. mellivora</i>. In the last-named and in other Brazilian
+felines an echinorhynchus (<i>E. campanulatus</i>) was found by
+Natterer. A strongyle (<i>Sclerostoma dispar</i>) infests the lungs
+of the puma. A species of spiroptera (<i>S. subæqualis</i>, Molin)
+infests the œsophagus and stomach of the lion and tiger. Redi
+also noticed a species of Filaria beneath the skin of the lion.
+<i>Physaloptera terdentata</i> (Molin) and <i>P. digitata</i> (Schneider)
+infest the stomach of the puma. I can only allude also to <i>Tænia
+laticollis</i> of the lynx, <i>Pentastoma recurvatum</i>, occupying the
+frontal sinuses and air-passages of the ounce, and <i>Ligula
+reptans</i> the subcutaneous tissues of the leopard. Lastly, there
+is the <i>Olulanus tricuspis</i> of the domestic cat. I have examined
+the lungs of three cats containing this parasite, which was first
+described as an entirely new species by Leuckart. The adult
+worms, only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, occupy the walls of the stomach.
+Thence they are apt to migrate or stray into the lungs and
+liver, where they encyst themselves. When myriads of them
+are thus encysted a kind of nematode tuberculosis is set up.
+This disease I have elsewhere called <i>olulaniasis</i>. Ordinarily,
+however, the encysted condition of <i>olulanus</i> is to be found in
+the muscles of mice, which are thus said to be olulanised.
+Clearly, as Leuckart’s experiments substantially prove, the
+domestic cat acquires the adult worm by catching and devouring
+olulanised rodents. Every now and then the disorder thus
+created produces a virulent and fatal feline epizoöty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_45"></a>No. 45).&mdash;(Anonymous), “Curious Note on
+two Tænia from the Dog (asserting that neither strong whisky
+nor boiling water would kill them),” ‘Med. Commentaries,’
+vol. xvi, p. 370, 1791.&mdash;<i>Araujo, A. J. P. S.</i>, “A <i>Filaria
+immitis</i> e <i>F. sanguinolenta</i> no Brazil,” ‘Gazeta Medica da
+Bahia,’ Julho de 1878.&mdash;<i>Baillet, C.</i>, “On Dochmius, and on a
+Worm found in the Heart and Vessels of a Dog,” from ‘Journ.
+Vet. du Midi,’ in the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 549, 1862.&mdash;<i>Baird, W.</i>,
+“Note on the <i>Spiroptera sanguinolenta</i> found in the Heart of
+Dogs in China,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. ix, Zool. Div., p. 296,
+1867.&mdash;<i>Balbiani</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. 28).&mdash;<i>Beneden</i> (see Van
+Beneden, below).&mdash;<i>Bickford</i> (l. c., Bibl. No. 28).&mdash;<i>Chapman</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="310"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a></span>
+“On <i>Ascaris mystax</i> (leptoptera) in the Tiger and American
+Wild Cat,” ‘Proc. Acad. Philad.,’ 1875, pp. 14 and 17.&mdash;<i>Cherry,
+E. F.</i>, “Worms in the Stomach of a Dog,” in the ‘Farrier and
+Naturalist,’ 1829, vol. ii, p. 303.&mdash;<i>Clamorgan, J. de</i>, “Serpents
+dans les reins,” in his ‘La Chasse du Loup,’ 1570; see also
+Bibl. No. 28.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “On the Prevalence of Entozoa in the
+Dog, in relation to Public Health,” ‘Journ. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. ix
+(Zool. Sect., No. 37, p. 281), 1867; also in ‘Lancet,’ April 27,
+1867, p. 521; and in supp. to ‘Entozoa,’ 1869.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Observ.
+on Entozoa, with experiments in regard to <i>Tænia serrata</i> and
+<i>T. cucumerina</i>,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On some new
+Forms of Entozoa,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Further
+Observ. on Entozoa, with Experiments,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On <i>Filaria immitis</i>,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. of Lond.,’
+Nov. 18, 1873, p. 736.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Observ. on Hæmatozoa,” in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Parasites of the Dog,” in
+‘Manual,’ 1874, l. c., chap. ix, p. 86.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Description of a
+new generic type of Entozoon (Acanthocheilonema) from the
+Aard Wolf (Proteles),” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. of Lond.,’ Jan. 13,
+1870.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Diatoma compactum</i>,” in ‘Linn. Trans.,’
+vol. xxii, p. 363, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ March, 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, various
+letters on “Canine Epidemics in relation to Lumbricoid
+Worms in Dogs,” in the ‘Field,’ Dec., 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks
+on the Life-epochs (biotomes) of <i>T. cœnurus</i> and <i>T. echinococcus</i>,”
+in a paper on ‘Animal Individuality,’ ‘Journ. Linn. Soc.,’ Zool.
+Div., vol. viii, p. 163.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Worms in the Heart (Mr.
+M’Innes’ specimen from Charleston),” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb.,
+1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Note of Lewis’ Discoveries,” in ‘Nature,’
+March 11, 1875, vol. ii, p. 363.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on <i>Eustrongylus
+gigas</i>” in the ‘Veterinarian,’ April, 1879.&mdash;<i>Coles, E. C.</i>,
+“Worms in the Heart and Œsophagus of a Dog,” ‘Path. Soc.
+Rep.,’ March, 1878.&mdash;<i>Dare, J. J.</i>, “Death of Dogs from Worms in
+the Heart,” the ‘Field,’ Feb. 24, 1872.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Traité,’ l. c.,
+2nd edit., p. 290 (for refs. to lit. of <i>Strongylus gigas</i>).&mdash;<i>Delafond</i>
+(with <i>Grube</i>), “Note on a Verminiferous kind of Blood of a Dog,
+caused by Hæmatozoa of the genus Filaria,” from ‘Ann. de
+Chimie et de Physique,’ in ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xi, 1843, and
+‘Comp. Rend.,’ in ‘Lond. Phys. Journ.,’ p. 28, 1843; also from
+‘Gaz. Med.,’ in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ vol. xxxv, p. 393, 1843&ndash;44;
+see also ‘Edin. New. Phil. Journ.,’ vol. lii, p. 233, 1852, and
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xviii, p. 216, 1845.&mdash;<i>Dick</i>, “Worms the
+cause of Sudden Death in a Dog,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xii,<span class="pagenum" title="311"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a></span>
+p. 42, 1840 (Pentastomes).&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, ‘Syst. Helm.,’ vol. ii,
+p. 327 (Eustrongylus).&mdash;<i>Ercolani, G. B.</i>, “Osservazione elmintologiche
+sulla dimorfobiosi nei Nematodi, sulla <i>F. immitis</i> e
+sopra una nuova specie di Distoma dei cani,” ‘Mem. Accad.
+Bologn.,’ v, 1874&ndash;5.&mdash;<i>Frank</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_28">28</a>).&mdash;<i>Gay, J.</i>, Specimen
+of Olulanus in Hunterian Museum, and marked in the
+‘Catalogue’ “No. 1814A, Lung of Cat, pneumonic, from the
+presence of parasites.”&mdash;<i>Gay</i>, “Nematodes of Panther,” in
+‘Hering’s Repert.,’ 1873, from ‘Il. Med. Vet.’&mdash;<i>Herbst</i>, “On
+Trichinæ in the Badger,” from ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ in ‘Assoc.
+Med. Journ.,’ 1853, vol. i, p. 491.&mdash;<i>Hoysted</i> (and <i>Sir J. Fayrer</i>),
+“On <i>Filaria sanguinis</i> (really <i>F. immitis</i>),” ‘Lancet,’ March 1,
+1879, p. 317.&mdash;<i>Jamieson</i> (see Manson).&mdash;<i>Jardine</i> (see Manson).&mdash;<i>Klein,
+J. T.</i>, “Worms found in the Kidneys of Wolves,”
+‘Phil. Trans.,’ vol. xxxvi, 1729.&mdash;<i>Krabbe</i>, “Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,”
+‘Tidsskrift for Veterinairer,’ 1872.&mdash;<i>Leblanc</i>,
+“Subcutaneous Tumour in the Dog, due to the presence
+of <i>Strongylus gigas</i>,” from ‘Recueil de Méd. Vét.,’ in ‘Edin.
+Vet. Rev.,’ Dec., 1863; see also Bibl. No. 28.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (see
+Mégnin).&mdash;<i>Legros</i>, “Hæmatozoa of Dogs,” in ‘Rec. de Méd.
+Vét.,’ i, p. 947.&mdash;<i>Leisering</i>, “On <i>Hæm. subulatum</i>,” in ‘Virch.
+Archiv,’ 1865.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i> (see Bibl. Nos. <a href="#No_28">28</a>, <a href="#No_29">29</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+(for development of <i>T. serrata</i>, &amp;c.), ‘Die Blasenbandwürmer
+und ihre Entwicklung,’ Giessen, 1856.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Bau und Entwicklungsgeschichte
+der Pentastomen (especially <i>P. tænioides</i>
+and <i>P. dent.</i>),’ Leipzig, 1860.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘In relation to the genus
+Dochmius,’ see his standard work, l. c., s. 433, and also ‘Arch.
+f. Heilkunde,’ Bd. ii, s. 212 (see also <i>Parona</i>).&mdash;<i>Lewis, T. R.</i>,
+“On Nematoid Hæmatozoa of the Dog,” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr.
+Soc.,’ 1875, vol. xv.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Filaria sanguinolenta</i>, Echinorhynchus,
+&amp;c., from the Dog,” in his oft-quoted ‘Memoir,’
+Calcutta, 1874.&mdash;<i>Linstow, O. von</i>, “Ueber die Muskulatur, Haut
+und Seitenfelder von <i>Filaroides mustelarum</i>, v. Ben.,” ‘Arch.
+f. Naturg.,’ xl, s. 135 (with figs.).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Einige neue Nematoden,”
+&amp;c., ‘Arch. f. Naturg.,’ p. 293, Bd. xxxix.&mdash;<i>Manson,
+P.</i>, “On <i>F. sanguinolenta</i> and <i>F. immitis</i>,” in his ‘Report on
+Hæmatozoa,’ in the ‘Customs Gaz.,’ No. xxxiii (with numerous
+figs.), Jan.&ndash;March, Shanghai, 1877. (N.B.&mdash;The same journal,
+Rep. No. 12, Gaz. No. xxx, contains remarks on worms in
+the heart of dogs by Dr A. Jamieson. The subject is also
+discussed by Dr Jardine.) See also ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’
+Oct. 20, 1877, p. 480.&mdash;<i>Mather, T.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="312"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a></span>“Filariæ found in the
+Intestines of a Dog,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xvi, p. 434, 1843.&mdash;<i>McConnell</i>,
+“On <i>D. conjunctum</i>,” ‘Lancet,’ March 30, 1878,
+p. 476.&mdash;<i>Mégnin, P.</i> “On Myobia,” ‘Abhandl. ueber eine neue
+Gruppe von Acariden (u. s. w.),’ in ‘Revue f. Thierheilkunde,’
+Oct., 1878, p. 149.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Sur un parasite des oreilles chez
+le furet,” ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ Oct., 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (avec <i>C.
+Leblanc</i>), “Note sur le <i>Cysticercus cellulosæ</i> developpé chez le
+chien,” ‘Bullet. de la Soc. cent. vét. de Paris,’ 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Sur le <i>Strongylus gigas</i>,” Bullet. de la Société Entom. de
+France, No. 3, 1879.&mdash;<i>Melnikow, N.</i>, “On <i>Tænia cucumerina</i>,”
+in ‘Arch. f. Naturg.,’ 1869, p. 62.&mdash;<i>Miller, E.</i>, ‘Six Cases of
+Strongyle in the Kidney of <i>Putorius vison</i>’ (quoted by Davaine
+from Museum of Boston, U.S.).&mdash;<i>M’Innes</i> (see Cobbold).&mdash;<i>Molin</i>,
+‘Nuovi myzelmintha,’ s. 34, 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Una monog.
+del gen. Physaloptera (<i>P. tordentata</i>),’ 1860, s. 17.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Una
+monog. del gen. Spiroptera (<i>S. subæqualis</i>),’ 1860, s. 13.&mdash;<i>Nettleship,
+E.</i>, “Notes on the Rearing of <i>Tænia echinococcus</i> in
+the Dog from Hydatids, with some observations on the anatomy
+of the adult worm,” ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ 1866, No. 86, p. 224,
+with figs.&mdash;<i>Noseda, B.</i>, “Six Strongyles in the Kidney of the
+Agouara-gouazura or Puma,” in Don F. de Azara’s ‘Quadrupèdes
+du Paraguay,’ Paris, 1801 (see also Azara, Bibl.
+No. 28).&mdash;<i>Osborne, T. C.</i>, “Worms found in the Heart and
+Blood-vessels of a Dog (with symptoms of hydrophobia),”
+‘Western Med. Journ.,’ rep. in ‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’
+vol. xxxvii, p. 448, 1847&ndash;48.&mdash;<i>Osler, W.</i>, “Verminous Bronchitis
+in Dogs (from Strongyles),” ‘Veterinarian,’ June, 1877,
+p. 387.&mdash;<i>Owen</i>, “On the Anatomy of <i>Linguatala tænioides</i>,”
+‘Trans. Zool. Soc.,’ vol. i, 1835, and in ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+1835.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Anatomical description of two species of Entozoa,
+from the Stomach of a Tiger, one of which forms a new genus,
+Gnathostoma,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ part iv, 1836.&mdash;<i>Parona</i> (and
+<i>Grassi</i>), “On a new Species of Dochmius (<i>D. balsami</i>),” ‘Reale
+Instituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere, Rendiconti,’ vol. x,
+fasc. vi, 1877.&mdash;<i>Raynold, T. M.</i>, “Tapeworm in the Pointer and
+Spaniel,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xiv, p. 694, 1841.&mdash;<i>Romano</i>,
+“Epizoöty amongst Cats from <i>Tænia crassicollis</i>,” ‘Giornale di
+med. vet. practica,’ Août, 1877, and in ‘Journ. de Méd. Vét.,’
+Avril, 1878.&mdash;<i>Schuppert, M.</i>, “Mechanical Obstruction of the
+Heart (of a Dog) by Entozoa, causing Death,” ‘New Orleans
+Med. News and Hosp. Gaz.,’ Jan., 1858, also ‘Bost. Med. and
+Surg. Journ.,’ vol. lvii, 1857&ndash;58, and in <span class="pagenum" title="313"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a></span>‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’
+1858.&mdash;<i>Stirling</i>, “On the Changes produced in the Lungs by
+the Embryos of <i>Olulanus tricuspis</i>,” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’
+1877, p. 145.&mdash;<i>Van Beneden</i>, “On the Transmigration of the
+Entozoa” (in answer to MM. Pouchet and Verrier), from the
+French, by Busk, in ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Researches on the Intestinal Worms,” from Van der Hoeven’s
+abstr. in the ‘Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde,’ in
+‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. iii, 3rd ser., 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “New Obs.
+on the Development of the Intestinal Worms,” from ‘Compt.
+Rend.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xiii, 2nd ser., 1854.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On <i>Filaroides mustelarum</i>,” ‘Mém. sur les vers intest.,’ 1858,
+p. 267.&mdash;<i>Welch</i>, “On <i>Filaria immitis</i>,” ‘Lancet,’ March 8, 1873;
+also in ‘Month. Micr. Journ.,’ Oct., 1873, p. 157 (with three
+plates).&mdash;<i>Wilson, W.</i>, “A Parasitic Worm infesting the Air
+Sinuses of the Weasel,” ‘Midland Naturalist,’ May, 1878.&mdash;<i>Wright</i>,
+“On Worms found in the Pulmonary Artery of a Dog,”
+‘Lancet,’ 1845, and in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xviii, p. 52, 1845.&mdash;<i>Youatt</i>,
+“On Tumours (containing Entozoa) in the Stomach of a
+young Tiger,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. x, p. 619, 1837; see also
+Owen on ‘Gnathostoma.’&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Worms (<i>Ascaris marginata</i>)
+in the Nose of a Dog,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. v, p. 337, 1832.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PART V (<span class="smcap">Pinnipedia</span>).</h3>
+
+<p>Following the order of classification adopted in my description
+of the Mammalia in the ‘Museum of Natural History,’ I
+proceed to speak of the internal parasites of the seals (<i>Phocidæ</i>)
+and walruses (<i>Trichecidæ</i>). From their piscivorous habits one
+would naturally expect the seals to be largely infested with
+entozoa, and yet, though sufficiently victimised, they are not
+liable to entertain so great a variety of helminths as the fishes
+themselves on which they feed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/f59.jpg" width="100" height="310" style="padding-left: 12px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;<i>Ascaris osculata.</i>
+<i>a</i>, Male; <i>b</i>, female.
+Natural size.
+Original.
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The flukes observed in <i>Phoca vitulina</i> are <i>Distoma acanthoides</i>
+and <i>Amphistoma truncatum</i>, the latter occurring also in <i>P.
+grœnlandica</i>. In another seal (<i>P. barbata</i>) we have <i>D. tenuicolle</i>.
+The nematodes are more numerous. The best-known is the
+maw-worm (<i>Ascaris osculata</i>), which seems to be always present
+in full-grown seals of every kind. In the years 1862&ndash;64 I
+conducted a series of experiments with the eggs of this worm.
+I reared embryos both in salt and fresh water, but the administration
+of the young worms to various animals led to no result.<span class="pagenum" title="314"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a></span>
+However, I succeeded in watching the growth of the embryos
+until they had acquired well-marked digestive organs and
+a length of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">25</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, their size when emerging from
+the egg-shell in the water having been about
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">150</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> only. The large strongyle (<i>Eustrongylus
+gigas</i>) has been found in various organs of the
+common seal. Of more interest are the <i>Filariæ</i>
+found in the heart of seals, which in many respects
+resemble those obtained from the same
+situation in dogs. Professors Joly, Leidy, and
+myself, have each described a species, but apparently
+our descriptions all refer to one and
+the same parasite. It has also been seen by
+Camill Heller. The close correspondency in
+size and other characters of Leidy’s <i>Filaria
+spirocauda</i> and my <i>Filaria hebetata</i> leaves little
+doubt as to their identity. As the worms were
+both originally noticed by Leidy and Joly in
+1858, I cannot pronounce upon the question
+of priority of discovery. By Joly the worm
+was called <i>F. cordis phocæ</i>. In Leidy’s and
+in my own specimens the males were four inches
+long, and the females six inches; they extended up to <span class="nowrap">8″</span> in
+some of the American examples. The worms found by Prof.
+Joly were all females. Professor Millen Coughtrey, who furnished
+me with the seal’s heart, stated that it was obtained from a male
+hoodcap (<i>Stemmatopus cristatus</i>), a rare visitant of our British
+coasts. This seal was captured on the Cheshire side of the
+Mersey river. Leidy and Joly obtained their specimens from
+<i>Phoca vitulina</i>. In the common seal have also been found
+<i>Ligula crispa</i>, <i>Schistocephalus dimorphus</i>, and <i>Echinorhynchus
+strumosus</i>. In other seals a not uncommon tapeworm of the
+Bothriocephalous type is that called <i>Dibothrium hians</i> by
+Diesing. To Prof. Krabbe I am indebted for a specimen of
+<i>Bothriocephalus fasciatus</i> taken from <i>Phoca hispida</i>. There is a
+nematode of frequent occurrence in <i>P. hispida</i> and <i>P. grœnlandica</i>.
+This is the <i>Ophiostoma dispar</i> of Rudolphi. In addition
+to the above I can only add that <i>P. barbata</i> is infested by
+<i>Liorhynchus gracilescens</i>, occupying the stomach, and by a tapeworm,
+<i>Tetrabothrium anthocephalum</i>, which is found in the lower
+part of the large intestine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_46"></a>No. 46).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="315"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a></span>“Description of <i>F. hebetata</i>,”
+in ‘Notes on Entozoa,’ part i, sp. 3, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ Nov.
+18th, 1873, p. 741.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Ascaris osculata</i>,” in ‘Report of
+Experiments respecting the development and migrations of the
+Entozoa;’ ‘Brit. Assoc. Trans.,’ 1864, p. 114.&mdash;<i>Heller, C.</i>, in
+‘Schrift der zool.-botan. Gesellsch.,’ Wien, 1858, s. 83.&mdash;<i>Joly</i>,
+“On a new Species of Hæmatozoon of the genus <i>Filaria</i>,
+observed in the heart of a seal;” from ‘Compt. Rend. Acad.
+Sci.,’ 1856, p. 403, in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. i, 3rd ser., 1858;
+also abstr. in the ‘Year Book,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Leidy, J.</i>, (<i>E. spirocauda</i>)
+in ‘Proc. Philad. Acad.,’ 1858, p. 112.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PART VI (<span class="smcap">Rodentia</span>).</h3>
+
+<p>Though very numerous, the parasites of this order are
+chiefly interesting as embracing those of the hares and
+rabbits, moles, mice, rats, squirrels, and beavers. Some slight
+notice, however, will be given of the entozoa of each of the
+eleven families into which the order may be divided.</p>
+
+<p>The squirrels (<i>Sciuridæ</i>) are liable to be infested by the
+common liver fluke (<i>F. hepatica</i>), and also, it is said, by a
+cysticercus (<i>C. tenuicollis</i>). I have never encountered this
+bladder worm, but in 1864 I described some polycephalous
+hydatids (<i>Cœnuri</i>) which I obtained from the viscera of an
+American squirrel. I think the host was of the same species
+(<i>Sciurus vulpinus</i>) as that from which Mr Chapman has since
+obtained an example of Echinorhynchus (<i>E. moniliformis</i>).
+This worm also infests the hamster. A very small female
+round worm, probably a strongyle, was described by Rudolphi
+as <i>Ascaris acutissima</i>. It infests the cæcum of the common
+squirrel, in which host a species of tapeworm is tolerably
+frequent (<i>Tænia dendritica</i>). The common European marmot
+is infested by <i>T. pectinata</i>, so abundant in hares and rabbits.
+I have also noticed it as occurring in the Canadian porcupine
+(<i>Hystrix dorsata</i>). The dormice (<i>Myoxidæ</i>) are not much
+troubled with parasites, at least I have not encountered any
+in our common <i>Myoxus avellanarius</i>. In <i>M. glis</i>, however, a
+tapeworm, and at least one species of strongyle (<i>S. gracilis</i>), have
+been observed. Dujardin described very fully another strongyle
+(<i>S. lævis</i>) from <i>M. nitela</i>, from the long-tailed field-mouse (<i>Mus
+sylvatica</i>), and from <i>Arvicola subterraneus</i>. The other species
+are <i>Trichosoma myoxi nitelæ</i>, and <i>Ophiostoma cristatum</i> from<span class="pagenum" title="316"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a></span>
+<i>Myoxus dryas</i>, and <i>M. muscardinus</i>. The jerboas (<i>Dipodidæ</i>),
+in common with the hamster and several species of true mice,
+are apt to be infested by <i>Ascaris tetraptera</i>; and a small
+nematoid, apparently immature, was noticed by Otto in the
+intestines and in the abdominal walls and cavity of <i>Dipus
+tetradactylus</i>. Mice, properly so called, are largely infested,
+as is also the hamster (<i>Cricetus vulgaris</i>), which I include in the
+<i>Muridæ</i>. In addition to the parasites already mentioned, the
+hamster is infested by <i>Tænia straminea</i>. Along with examples
+of this tapeworm I have received from Dr Murie some acephalocysts
+found in a hamster which died at the Zoological Gardens.</p>
+
+<p>Flukes exist in the long-tailed field-mouse (<i>Distoma vitta</i> and
+<i>D. recurvum</i>), but I have not seen any in our common mice and
+rats. However, Dujardin describes a distome (<i>D. spiculator</i>)
+in the brown rat (<i>Mus decumanus</i>). One of the tapeworms
+observed in the mouse (<i>M. musculus</i>) is <i>Tænia pusilla</i>, also found
+in the rat (<i>M. rattus</i>) and long-tailed field-mouse. The house-mouse
+likewise harbors <i>T. microstoma</i> and <i>T. leptocephala</i>; and
+an immature cestode has also been seen in the abdomen, probably
+a species of <i>Ligula</i>. Various species of rat also harbor <i>T.
+diminuta</i>. In regard to the round worms one of the most
+common species is <i>Ascaris oxyura</i>. This not only occurs in
+rats and mice, but also in voles, water-rats, and many other
+rodents. The rodents’ whipworm (<i>Trichocephalus nodosus</i>) is
+yet more common in the lemmings, rats, voles, and mice;
+another species (<i>T. unguiculatus</i>), taking its place in hares and
+rabbits, and yet another (<i>T. affinis</i>) in the porcupine. Another
+nematoid, very common in mice, is <i>Spiroptera obtusa</i>, occupying
+the stomach. I have seen a mouse with its abdomen so distended
+by their presence that the animal could scarcely run
+along the pathway where it was killed by being trod upon.
+According to Marchi, the young of this entozoon dwell in the
+fat surrounding the alimentary canal of the larva of an insect
+(<i>Tenebrio molitor</i>). When noticing the parasites of the cat I
+referred to Leuckart’s interesting discovery of the relations
+subsisting between the adult <i>Olulanus tricuspis</i>, found in the
+stomach walls of that feline, and the immature encysted worms,
+found not only as wanderers in the cat itself but also in the
+muscles of mice. The olulanised mouse is thus an intermediate
+host. Rats and mice also play the part of intermediary bearers
+in the case of two other species of entozoa, namely, <i>Trichina
+spiralis</i> and <i>Tænia crassicollis</i>, the tænioid scolex or larval<span class="pagenum" title="317"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a></span>
+condition of the cat’s tapeworm being familiarly known as
+<i>Cysticercus fasciolaris</i>. This sexually-immature tapeworm infests
+many other rodents, especially the voles (<i>Arvicolidæ</i>). In
+regard to <i>Trichinæ</i> it must not be forgotten that their presence
+in rats is not uncommon in some parts of Europe; and this
+circumstance may explain the recurrence of trichinosis (first in
+hogs and then in man) in certain outlying districts. Only in
+this way can the Cumberland outbreak in this country be
+accounted for. Here I cannot dwell upon the subject, but in
+this connection I may observe that Bakody has in a very convincing
+manner described a new variety or species of Trichina,
+found by him infesting the walls of the stomach and intestine
+of rats. In the first instance he detected the worm in association
+with the ordinary <i>T. spiralis</i>, but afterwards separately.
+He also obtained it in fowls. The species should be called
+<i>Trichina Bakodyii</i>. Possibly the nematodes observed by Colin
+in 1863 also refer to this worm. They occupied tubercles in
+the liver of a rat. In regard to the beavers (<i>Castoridæ</i>) it
+appears that they harbor many species of round worms, and
+also several flukes, but they do not appear to have been very
+much studied. In Morgan’s work on the American beaver
+there is a notice in which it is stated that Dr Ely found a very
+fine filamentous worm <ins title="Transcriber’s note: 40 lines i.e. 40/12 inches &ndash; see Transcribers's notes"><a href="#Transcribers_notes"><span class="nowrap">40<span class="prime">‴</span></span></a></ins> in length. This does not seem to
+correspond with <i>Ascaris castoris</i> (Rud.). He also speaks of
+large numbers of a slender white worm, <span class="nowrap">3″</span> to <span class="nowrap">5″</span> in length,
+found in the peritoneal cavity, and referable to the genus
+<i>Filaria</i>. This cannot be confounded with <i>Trichocephalus
+castori</i> (Rud.). Moreover, he describes a strongyle (<i>Sclerostoma</i>)
+as infesting the colon, and especially the cæcum. These
+all appear to be new to science. The <i>Fasciola hepatica</i> is
+occasionally found in the liver, but the most common helminth
+of beavers is <i>Amphistoma subtriquetrum</i>. Specimens of this
+worm may be seen in the British and Hunterian Museums.
+As regards the porcupines (<i>Hystricidæ</i>) I have already mentioned
+the occurrence of a tapeworm in the common species.
+The larval <i>Pentastoma denticulatum</i> has been found by Otto
+attached to the surface of the lungs, and Redi, about two centuries
+back, noticed small nematodes lodged in tubercles of the
+œsophagus. The late C. M. Diesing obtained <i>Trichocephalus
+affinis</i> from the intestines. So far as I am aware, little or
+nothing has been said respecting the helminths of the <i>Octodontidæ</i>,
+<i>Chinchillidæ</i>, and <i>Cavidæ</i>. Like other European<span class="pagenum" title="318"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a></span>
+investigators I have dissected guinea pigs (<i>Cavia aperœa</i>) without
+finding any parasites; but in Brazil a small species of
+ascaris (<i>A. uncinata</i>) was found by Natterer in this animal and
+also in the paca (<i>Cœlogenys paca</i>). The agoutis (<i>Dasyprocta</i>)
+harbor <i>Trichocephalus gracilis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The entozoa of the duplicidentate rodents (<i>Leporidæ</i>) acquire
+importance from the fact of their abundance and from the
+intimate relation which some of them bear to parasites infesting
+the dog and other animals. Thus, the two commonest
+kinds of fluke infesting cattle (<i>Fasc. hepatica</i> and <i>Dist. lanceolatum</i>)
+also attack hares and rabbits; the former parasite often
+producing the rot disease, which is almost as fatal to the rodents
+as it is to the ruminants. Mutual infection occasionally results
+from this circumstance by the distribution of germs. All
+experiment-conducting helminthologists have reared <i>Tænia
+serrata</i> from the <i>Cysticercus pisiformis</i>; nevertheless, several
+English Manuals of Zoology persist in propagating the old
+error of Von Siebold, who supposed he had reared this tapeworm
+by the administration of Cœnuri. So far as I am aware,
+no feeding experiments have been conducted with the Cœnuri
+of rabbits (<i>C. cuniculi</i>). These bladderworms infest the soft
+parts of the body, often producing tumours having a very
+unsightly appearance. For details I must refer to the papers
+quoted below. The Norfolk warreners call the infested hosts
+“bladdery rabbits.” Though apparently most abundant in the
+eastern counties of England, these diseased rabbits are by no
+means confined to that quarter. Through Mr Alston’s help I
+have received specimens of <i>Cœnurus cuniculi</i> from Ayrshire,
+Scotland. Probably this form of Cœnurus occurs wherever
+rabbits live. In Italy a case is recorded by Perroncito from
+the abdominal cavity of a rabbit (<i>coniglio</i>). Every experimenter
+is more or less familiar with the cestode larvæ (<i>C. pisiformis</i>)
+found wandering in the abdominal cavity. These were
+regarded as flukes by Kuhn (<i>Monostoma leporis</i>). I need
+hardly remark that the developmental and structural changes
+undergone by these Cysticerci during their residence within
+the rabbit have been exhaustively followed out and treated of
+by Leuckart. Without dwelling on this subject, I must in
+justice add that in this relation the special labors of Küchenmeister,
+Van Beneden, Haubner, Wagener, Röll, Eschricht,
+and Möller played no inconspicuous part. My own efforts in
+1857, and subsequently, were not unattended with success. It<span class="pagenum" title="319"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a></span>
+therefore seems to me, without prejudice to the recent experiences
+of De Sylvestre and others, that further experiments in
+this immediate connection are unnecessary. As regards the
+nematodes of leporine rodents, probably the most important is
+<i>Strongylus commutatus</i>. This parasite, like its husk-producing
+congeners, infesting calves and lambs, occasionally sweeps
+off great numbers of hares. Such an epizoöty occurred in
+Thuringia in 1864. The most frequent intestinal parasite of
+rodents is probably <i>Oxyuris ambigua</i>, but <i>Strong. retortæformis</i> is
+tolerably abundant in the hare, and <i>Trichocephalus unguiculatus</i>
+is liable to occur in all leporines. I know nothing of the so-called
+<i>Strong. strigosus</i> of rabbits, but Bellingham found it in Ireland.
+Olfers and Natterer obtained a small ascaris (<i>A. veligera</i>) from
+<i>Lepus braziliensis</i>; but I cannot help thinking that the large
+measle (<i>Cysticercus macrocystis</i>) described by Diesing as three
+inches in length, and obtained from the same rodent, must
+either have been <i>Cœnurus cuniculi</i> or else another form of polycephalous
+hydatid.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the ectozoa of rodents it may be said that
+they are very numerous. Acari infest rats and mice, and especially
+leporines. Thus, in the mouse are found <i>Sarcoptes
+notoedre</i>, Bourguignon, var. <i>muris</i>, Mégnin, <i>Sarc. musculinus</i>,
+Koch, and <i>Myobia musculi</i>, Claparède. It is not very generally
+known that wild rabbits are apt to be attacked by the
+common autumnal spider (<i>Leptus autumnalis</i>), whence, as once
+happened with myself, they may be transferred to the human
+body. The ears of tame rabbits are sometimes covered with
+acari, which are easily destroyed by the cautious application of a
+mixture of carbolic acid and olive oil (one of acid to six of the
+oil). Rodents also harbor fleas. At a meeting of the Entomological
+Society in 1875 Mr Vernall showed living specimens
+from the ears of a rabbit, and Messrs Cole and W. A. Lewis
+stated that they had obtained fleas from the hedgehog and
+European marmot respectively.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_47"></a>No. 47).&mdash;<i>Beneden</i> (see Van Beneden below).&mdash;<i>Capelle,
+J.</i>, Extr. from a letter, in which the author states that he
+had “found worms of the tænia kind in the liver of sixteen out
+of eighteen rats,” ‘Med. Commentaries,’ vol. xix, p. 139, 1794;
+see also ‘Trans. Coll. Phys. of Philad.,’ vol. i, part ii, p. 60,
+1793.&mdash;<i>Chapman, H. C.</i>, “Echinorhynchus in Squirrel,” ‘Proc.
+Acad. Philad.,’ 1874, p. 76.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Note on Cœnurus (from
+a squirrel),” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ May 5, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="320"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a></span>“On the
+occurrence of <i>Tænia pectinata</i> in the Porcupine (<i>Hystrix dorsata</i>),”
+in a letter to Dr Lawson in the ‘Canadian Naturalist and
+Geologist,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘On <i>T. serrata</i>,’ &amp;c. (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_45">45</a>).&mdash;<i>Colin</i>,
+“On the presence of a Nematode Worm in certain
+Tubercles of the Liver of a Rat,” from ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ in
+‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Oct., 1863.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, ‘Die Blasenbandwürmer
+(u. s. w.),’ 1858 (contains numerous details and figs.
+in ref. to <i>Cysticercus pisiformis</i> and <i>T. serrata</i>, &amp;c.).&mdash;<i>Marchi,
+P.</i>, ‘Mem. della R. Accad. d. Sci. di Torino,’ xxv.&mdash;<i>Peacock</i>,
+“Remarks on the Liver of a Mouse with Cysts containing
+Cysticerci,” ‘Lancet’ and ‘Trans. Path. Soc.,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Perroncito,
+E.</i>, “Sopra un caso di Cœnurus (in the abdominal cavity of a
+rabbit),” ‘Giornale Med. Veter.,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Siebold</i> (see Von
+Siebold, below).&mdash;<i>Sylvestri, De</i>, “Experiments with <i>C. pisiformis</i>,”
+‘Il. Med. Veterinario,’ 1871.&mdash;<i>Van Beneden</i> (see Bibl.
+No. <a href="#No_45">45</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Sciurus glacialis</i> and its Parasites,” from
+‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Belgique,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xiii,
+1854.&mdash;<i>Verrall</i>, in ‘Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond.,’ Feb. 15, 1875, p. 3.&mdash;<i>Von
+Siebold</i>, ‘Ueber die Band-und Blasenwürmer,’ Leipsig,
+1854, and Huxley’s edit. for Syd. Soc., 1857.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Experiments
+on the Transformation of the Cystoid Worms into
+Tænias,” from ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
+vol. x, 1852.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Helminthology,” trans. by Busk and
+pub. in ‘Ray Soc. Rep. on Zool.,’ 1843&ndash;44, p. 446, London,
+1847.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Transformation of <i>Cysticercus pisiformis</i>
+into <i>Tænia serrata</i>,” from ‘Zeitsch. f. w. Zool.,’ in ‘Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1854.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part VII (Edentata).</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;">
+<img src="images/f60.jpg" width="100" height="134" style="padding-left: 15px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;Tail of the
+male <i>Ascaris retusa</i>.
+Enlarged. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The entozoa of the edentulate mammals are not very
+numerous. So far as I am aware only one species has been
+described from the scaly ant-eaters (<i>Manidæ</i>). This is the
+small and probably immature ascaris noticed by Whitefield in
+the walls of the stomach of the badgareit or short-tailed pangolin
+(<i>Manis pentadactyla</i>). Amongst the true ant-eaters
+(<i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>) a single round worm has also been observed,
+but not adequately described. I allude to Marcgrav’s “find” in
+the little ant-eater (<i>Myrmecophaga didactyla</i>). I observe that
+Rudolphi distinctly refers to this edentate as the tamandua.
+Diesing does the same. The ant-eaters are much infested by a<span class="pagenum" title="321"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a></span>
+thorn-headed worm (<i>Echinorhynchus echinodiscus</i>). On the 1st
+November, 1875, I received from Prof. Flower a jar labelled as
+follows: “Entozoon found attached to intestine of tamandua
+ant-eater.” The parasite was procured from the society’s
+gardens on August 12th, 1871. Natterer originally obtained
+this worm from <i>Myrmecophaga jubata</i> and <i>M. bivittata</i>. Croplin
+described it from a <i>M. didactyla</i> from Surinam (‘Wiegmann’s
+Archiv,’ 1849). I presume that <i>M. tamandua</i> answers to the
+<i>M. bivittata</i> of Geoffroy, as well as to the tridactyle and tetradactyle
+species of Linnæus. The parasite in question was a
+female, measuring exactly 10 inches long, and
+had its proboscis firmly anchored within the
+gut. The armadillos (<i>Dasypidæ</i>) entertain a
+variety of nematodes. In 1858 I obtained
+several examples of <i>Ascaris retusa</i> from the
+rectum of a poyou or weasel-headed armadillo
+(<i>Dasypus sexcinctus</i>). The worm was first procured
+by Natterer from the black armadillo
+(<i>D. peba</i>), which host also harbors <i>Pentastoma
+subcylindricum</i>. According to the “finds”
+of Natterer and the subsequent descriptions
+by Diesing, the two most common helminths of the Brazilian
+armadillos are <i>Aspidocephalus scoleciformis</i> and <i>Trichocephalus
+subspiralis</i>. As regards the sloths (<i>Bradypidæ</i>) it would
+seem that they are particularly liable to entertain round
+worms. The Ai (<i>Bradypus tridactylus</i>) is infested by <i>Strongylus
+leptocephalus</i>, <i>Spiroptera gracilis</i>, <i>Sp. anterohelicina</i>, and
+<i>Sp. brachystoma</i>; whilst the unau (<i>Cholœpus didactylus</i>) harbors
+the last-named species and also <i>Sp. spiralis</i>. All these worms
+have been described by Molin, and, with the exception of the
+two first named, were new to science when he wrote his well-known
+monograph on the genus. They were collected by
+Natterer. All the species infest either the stomach or intestines,
+with the exception of <i>Sp. spiralis</i>. This singular worm,
+like the closely allied <i>Sp. helicina</i>, infesting the feet of birds,
+has the habit of coiling itself amongst the tendons of the digits
+of the hind limbs more especially.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_48"></a>No. 48).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “On some new Forms of
+Entozoa,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. xxii, p. 365, 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “List
+of Entozoa,” &amp;c., ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ March 26, 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Notes on Entozoa,” part iii, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ Feb. 1, 1876,
+p. 202.&mdash;<i>Marcgrav</i>, in his ‘Historia rerum nat. Brasil.,’ 1648,<span class="pagenum" title="322"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a></span>
+p. 226, and in ‘Rudolphi’s Synopsis,’ p. 186.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>, “Una
+Monografia del gen. Spiroptera,” ‘Aus dem Sitzungsb. d.
+m.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch.,’ Bd. xxxviii, 1859, s. 911,
+Wien, 1860.&mdash;<i>Whitefield</i>, in ‘Edin. New. Phil. Journ.,’ edited by
+Jamieson, 1829, p. 58.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part VIII (Ruminantia).</span></h3>
+
+<p>In the matter of parasites this order of mammalian animals
+stands second in importance. An entire volume of the dimensions
+of the present would barely do justice to the subject.
+Although in the article “Ruminantia” in ‘Todd’s Cyclopædia,’
+and in my popular treatise on the mammalia, I have
+described the oxen (<i>Bovidæ</i>) and sheep (<i>Ægosceridæ</i>) as separate
+families, I shall here speak of their entozoa together; and, at
+the same time, I shall introduce occasional reference to the
+helminths of the antelopes and gnoos (<i>Antilopidæ</i>), also of the
+giraffes (<i>Camelopardidæ</i>), the deer tribe (<i>Cervidæ</i>), the camels,
+and the llamas (<i>Camelidæ</i>). The parasites of the last family,
+however, will necessarily stand somewhat apart.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;">
+<a id="Fig_61"></a>
+<img src="images/f61.jpg" width="225" height="557" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>&mdash;<i>Fasciola hepatica.</i> Enlarged. After
+Blanchard.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Almost all ruminants harbor the liver fluke (<i>Fasciola hepatica</i>).
+This worm has been found in every variety of the
+common ox and zebu (<i>Bos taurus</i>, var. <i>Indicus</i>), in the sheep,
+goat, and argali (<i>Ovis aries</i>, <i>Capra hircus</i>, and <i>G. argali</i>), in
+the antelopes and gazelle (<i>A. dorcas</i>), in red-deer, roe, and
+fallow (<i>Cercus elaphus</i>, <i>C. capreolus</i>, and <i>C. dama</i>), and in the
+two-humped camel (<i>Camelus bactrianus</i>). A closely-allied but
+much larger species of fluke (<i>F. gigantea</i>) infests the giraffe
+(<i>Camelopardalis</i>). All these animals are more or less liable to
+suffer from the “rot” which is produced by these flukes. Into
+the history of the affection the space at my command does
+not permit me to enter, but as regards the development of the
+common fluke I believe the following conclusions to be tolerably
+well founded. I had long entertained the opinion that our
+common <i>Planorbis</i> plays the rôle of intermediate bearer, and
+this view has at length received confirmation.</p>
+
+<p>1. The liver fluke, in its sexually-mature state (<i>Fasc. hepatica</i>),
+gives rise to the disease commonly called <i>rot</i>; this affection
+being also locally termed <i>coathe</i> (Dorsetshire, Devon), <i>iles</i> (Cornwall),
+and <i>bane</i> (Somersetshire). In France it is known as
+the <i>Cachexie aqueuse</i>, and more popularly as <i>pourriture</i>. In<span class="pagenum" title="323"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a></span>
+Germany the epidemic disease is called <i>egelseuche</i>, and in a
+more limited sense either <i>die Fäule</i> or <i>die Leberkrankheit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>rot</i> is especially prevalent during the spring of the
+year, at which time the fluke itself and innumerable multitudes
+of the free eggs are constantly escaping from the alimentary
+canal of the bearer. The
+germs are thus ordinarily
+transferred to open pasture-grounds
+along with the fæces
+of the bearer.</p>
+
+<p>3. As it has been shown by
+dissections that the liver of
+a single sheep may harbor
+several hundred flukes, and
+as, also, a single adult fluke
+is capable of throwing off
+several thousand eggs, it is
+certain that any rot-affected
+flock is capable of distributing
+millions of fluke germs.</p>
+
+<p>4. Such flukes as have
+escaped the host per anum
+do not exhibit active powers
+of locomotion. Their slight
+contractile movements, however,
+serve the purpose of
+concealing them in the grass,
+and probably aid in the
+further expulsion of eggs,
+which pass from the oviduct
+in single file.</p>
+
+<p>5. After the death of the
+escaped flukes the further
+dispersion of the eggs is facilitated
+by the subsequent
+decomposition of the parent
+worm, and also by its disintegration,
+partly occasioned
+by the attacks of insects. It has been calculated that the
+uterus of a full-grown fluke may contain upwards of forty
+thousand eggs.</p>
+
+<p>6. By the agency of winds, rains, insects, the feet of cattle,<span class="pagenum" title="324"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a></span>
+dogs, rabbits, and other animals, as well as by man himself, the
+freed ova are dispersed and carried to considerable distances;
+and thus it is that a considerable proportion of them ultimately
+find their way into ponds, ditches, canals, pools of all kinds,
+lakes, and running streams.</p>
+
+<p>7. At the time of their expulsion the eggs exhibit a finely
+segmented condition of the yolk. The egg-contents continue
+to develop whilst outside the parent’s body, the granular matrix
+finally becoming transformed into a ciliated embryo, which
+when set free follows the habit of infusorial animalcules in
+general by swimming rapidly in the water. The escape of the
+embryo is effected at the anterior pole of the egg-shell, which
+is furnished with a lid that opens in consequence of the action
+of prolonged immersion, aided by the vigorous movements of
+the contained embryo.</p>
+
+<p>8. The ciliated, free-swimming embryo, at the time of its
+birth, exhibits the figure of an inverted cone, its anterior extremity,
+which is broad and somewhat flattened, supporting a
+central proboscis-like papilla. A small pigment spot placed
+dorsally, and having the form of a cross, is supposed to be a
+rudimentary organ of vision. After the lapse of a few days the
+cilia fall off, the embryo then assuming the character of creeping
+larvæ (planulæ).</p>
+
+<p>9. Notwithstanding its abridged locomotive powers the non-ciliated
+larvæ sooner or later gain access to the body of an
+intermediary bearer, within or upon whose tissues it becomes
+transformed into a kind of sac or <i>sporocyst</i>. In this condition
+the larva is capable of developing, agamogenetically, other
+larvæ in its interior. The sporocysts are highly organised,
+forming <i>rediæ</i>. According to Willemoes-Suhm, the redia of
+<i>Fasciola hepatica</i> lives on the body of <i>Planorbis marginata</i>.
+This organised nurse, which is about a line in length, is the
+<i>Cercaria cystophora</i> of Wagener. The progeny of this redia
+consists of armed Cercariæ, which after a time quit the nurse
+to pass an independent existence in the water.</p>
+
+<p>10. In the cases of some species of fluke there is reason to
+believe that before the <i>Cercariæ</i> gain access to their final or
+definitive host they re-enter the bodies of the mollusks. This
+they accomplish by means of a boring apparatus, and having
+previously cast off their tails they encyst themselves beneath
+the surface of the skin. In this new situation they develop
+into the so-called <i>pupa</i>, which is at length passively transferred<span class="pagenum" title="325"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a></span>
+with the fodder, or drink, to the digestive organs of the host.
+In the case of <i>Fasc. hepatica</i>, as probably obtains also with
+many other flukes, I think there can be no doubt that the Cercariæ
+pass directly into the bodies of ruminating animals. The circumstance
+that flukes of this species have been found beneath
+the human skin shows how considerable are the boring powers
+of the armed Cercariæ.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the possibilities of fluke development, that will
+be best understood by glancing at the constitution of the zoological
+individual. The sum total of the products of a single
+germ may be tabulated as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span></p>
+
+<table class="fs100" width="75%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Developmental stages of Fasciola hepatica">
+<col width="5%" /><col width="62%" /><col width="3%" /><col width="30%" />
+<tr><td colspan="4" class="tac pb03">Zoological individual (<i>Fasciola hepatica</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>a.</i></td><td>Ovum in all stages,</td><td rowspan="2"><div style="width: 8px; padding-top: 5px"><img src="images/25x8br.png" width="8" height="25" alt="" /></div></td><td rowspan="2">&nbsp;First “biotome.”</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>b.</i></td><td>Ciliated free-swimming embryo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>c.</i></td><td>Nurse, germ-sac, sporocyst (<i>redia</i>),</td><td><div style="width: 8px; padding-top: 5px"><img src="images/16x8br.png" width="8" height="16" alt="" /></div></td><td>&nbsp;Second “biotome.”</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>d.</i></td><td>Active, migrating, tailed larva (<i>cercaria</i>),</td><td rowspan="3"><div style="width: 8px; padding-top: 5px"><img src="images/45x8br.png" width="8" height="45" alt="" /></div></td><td rowspan="3">&nbsp;Third “biotome.”</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>e.</i></td><td>Encysted, resting larva (<i>pupa</i>),</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>f.</i></td><td>Sexually-mature fluke (<i>fasciola</i>).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This is a fair representation of the life-phases of the fluke.
+The life-phases are rarely less numerous or complicated than
+here indicated, but Pagenstecher’s researches tend to prove that
+under certain climatal conditions the number of larval forms
+may vary considerably. In other words, the fluke individual
+does not comprise any definite number of “zoöids,” although
+the kinds of zoöids are limited. I recognise three “biotomes.”
+The first includes only one temporary, independent life-phase,
+this is the ciliated animalcule, which I call a “protozoöid.”
+The second “biotome” may comprise only a solitary simple
+sporocyst or germ-sac (deuterozoöid), but an almost indefinite
+multiplication of new and independent germ-sacs, as well as
+other more highly organised “nurse formations,” may also be
+developed from the primary sporocyst (secondary and tertiary
+“deuterozoöid”). The third “biotome” embraces a large but
+variable number of “tritozoöids” (<i>cercariæ</i>), an equal number,
+whatever that may be, of “tetartozoöids” (pupæ), and, therefore,
+also, a similar number of “pemptozoöids” (flukes).</p>
+
+<p>Practically, other curious results arise out of the foregoing considerations.
+For example, a single sheep may harbor 1000 flukes.
+Each fluke will develop 10,000 to 40,000 eggs. Each egg
+may give rise to 370 zoöids. It thus appears that, if all the
+conditions were favorable, a single fluke might originate between<span class="pagenum" title="326"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a></span>
+three and four millions of individualised life-forms, whilst the
+solitary sheep itself would, under the same circumstances, be the
+means of causing the production of at least 3,000,000,000 fluke
+zoöids! Happily, no such results as this can possibly occur in
+nature, since interfering agencies reduce the favorable conditions.
+However, the balance of parasitic forms from all sources is
+usually sufficient to destroy thousands of sheep annually. The
+virulence of rot-epizoöty is entirely due to the presence of conditions
+favoring the development of fluke larvæ.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the injurious action of this parasite on animals,
+it is well known that in particular years, in England alone,
+hundreds, and even thousands, of sheep have been destroyed in a
+single season. A writer in the ‘Edinburgh Veterinary Review’
+for 1861 states that in the season of 1830&ndash;31 the estimated
+deaths of sheep from <i>rot</i> was between one and two millions.
+This would, of course, represent a money loss of something like
+four million pounds sterling. As affording additional striking
+instances of the disastrous effects of rot, I may cite the statements
+of Davaine. <span class="nowrap">Thus:&mdash;</span>“In the neighbourhood of Arles alone,
+during the year 1812, no less than 300,000 sheep perished, and
+at Nimes and Montpellier 90,000. In the inner departments,
+during the epidemic of the years 1853&ndash;54, many cattle-breeders
+lost a fourth, a third, and even three fourths of their flocks.”
+In like manner our English authority, Prof. Simonds, furnished
+a variety of painful cases. Thus, on the estate of Mr
+Cramp, of the Isle of Thanet, the <i>rot epidemic</i> of 1824 “swept
+away £3000 worth of his sheep in less than three months, compelling
+him to give up his farm.” Scores of cases are on
+record where our English farmers have individually lost three,
+four, five, six, seven, and even eight hundred sheep in a single
+season; and many agriculturists have thus become completely
+ruined.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable periodic outbreaks of this disease are recorded by
+Simonds as occurring in England in the successive years of 1809,
+’16, ’24, ’30, ’53, and ’60; whilst, for France, Davaine mentions
+1809, ’12, ’16, ’17, ’20, ’29, ’30, ’53, and ’54, as the most remarkable
+years. It would be interesting to know how far these outbreaks
+tally with the similar outbreaks which have occurred in
+Holland, Germany, and other European districts. The disease
+was prevalent during four separate years in France and England
+at one and the same time. This, indeed, is no more than we
+would naturally expect, considering that the extent of the<span class="pagenum" title="327"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a></span>
+development of the larval forms must, in a great measure, be
+dependent upon atmospheric conditions. A warm and moist
+season would alike prove beneficial to the development of the
+larvæ and their intermediate molluscan hosts. Their numbers
+would also multiply enormously; for, as already remarked, the
+degree of non-sexual production of trematode larvæ within their
+sporocysts is materially affected by climatic changes. On the
+other hand, a fine, dry, open season will tend to check the
+growth and wanderings of the larvæ, and thus render the flocks
+comparatively secure.</p>
+
+<p>Considerations like these sufficiently explain many of the
+crude theories which were early propagated concerning the
+causes of this disease, and in particular, the very generally prevalent
+notion that water, and water alone, was the true source
+of the disease. Intelligent cattle-breeders and agriculturists
+have all along observed that the <i>rot</i> was particularly virulent
+after long-continued wet weather, and more especially so when
+there had been a succession of wet seasons. They have likewise
+noticed that flocks grazing in low pastures and marshy districts
+were much more liable to invasion than sheep which pastured
+on higher and drier grounds, but noteworthy exceptions
+occurred in the case of flocks feeding in the salt-water marshes
+of our eastern shores. The latter circumstance appears to have
+suggested the common practice of mixing salt with the food of
+sheep and cattle, both as a preventive and curative agent; and
+there can be little doubt that this remedy has always been attended
+with more or less satisfactory results. The intelligible explanation
+of the good effected by this mode of treatment we shall
+find to be intimately associated with a correct understanding of
+the genetic relations of the entozoon, for it is certain that the
+larvæ of <i>Fasciola hepatica</i> exist in the bodies of fresh-water
+snails. As already hinted from Willemoes-Suhm’s observations,
+it is not improbable that the larvæ are confined to gasteropod
+mollusks belonging to the genus Planorbis.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms produced by <i>rot</i> are very striking. When the
+disease has far advanced it is easy to know a rotten sheep, not
+only by its very look, but still more convincingly, as I have myself
+tested, by slightly pressing the hand over the region of the
+loins. In this region the diseased animal is particularly weak,
+and the pressure thus applied instantly causes it to wince. At
+the same time the hand feels a peculiar sensation very unlike
+that communicated by the spine of a sound animal. In bad<span class="pagenum" title="328"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a></span>
+cases the back becomes hollow, and there is a corresponding
+pendulous condition of the abdomen. The spinal columns ultimately
+stick out prominently, forming the so-called “razor-back.”
+As Professor Simonds has well observed, in an earlier
+stage of the disease, “an examination of the eye will readily
+assist in determining the nature of the malady. If the lids are
+everted it will be found that the vessels of the conjunctiva are
+turgid with pale or yellowish colored blood, the whole part
+presenting a peculiar moist or watery appearance. Later on,
+the same vessels become blanched and scarcely recognisable.”
+The skin also becomes harsh and dry, losing its natural tint,
+and the wool is at length rendered brittle, either becoming very
+easily detached or falling off spontaneously.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing noticeable in dissecting a rotten sheep is the
+wasted and watery condition of all the tissues. There is a
+total absence of that firm, fresh, carneous look which so distinctively
+characterises the flesh in a state of health. Not only
+is the rigidity and firm consistency of the muscles altogether
+wanting, but these structures have lost that deep reddish color
+which normally exists. When the abdominal cavity is opened
+a more or less abundant, clear, limpid, or yellowish fluid will
+make its escape, and the entire visceral contents will, at the
+same time, display a remarkably blanched aspect. These
+pathological changes are also shared by the important organ
+especially affected, namely, the liver. This gland has lost its
+general plumpness, smoothness, and rich, reddish-brown color,
+and has become irregularly knotted and uneven both at the
+surface and the margins, its coloring being either a dirty
+chocolate brown, more or less strongly pronounced at different
+parts, or it has a peculiar yellowish tint, which in places is very
+pale and conspicuous. To the feel it is hard and brawny, and
+when incised by the scalpel, yields a tough and, in places, a
+very gritty sensation. On opening the gall-ducts a dark, thick,
+grumous, biliary secretion oozes slowly out, together with
+several distomes, which, if not dead, slowly curve upon themselves,
+and roll up like a slip of heated parchment. On further
+slitting open the biliary passages, they are found distended
+irregularly at various points, and in certain situations many
+flukes are massed together, having caused the ducts to form
+large sacs, in which the parasites are snugly ensconced. The
+walls of the ducts are also much thickened in places, and hardened
+by a deposit of coarse calcareous grains on their inner<span class="pagenum" title="329"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a></span>
+surface. Mr Simonds says, that the “coats of the <i>ductus
+hepaticus</i>, as also of the <i>ductus communis choledicus</i>, are not
+unfrequently so thick as to be upwards of ten times their
+normal substance, and, likewise, so hard as to approach the
+nature of cartilage.” Respecting their numbers, the greatest
+variation exists. The presence of a few flukes in the liver is
+totally insufficient to cause death; consequently, when a sheep
+dies from rot, or is killed at a time when the disease has
+seriously impoverished the animal, then we are sure to find the
+organ occupied by many dozen, many score, or even several
+hundred flukes. Thus from a single liver Bidloo obtained 800,
+Leuwenhoeck about 900, and Dupuy upwards of 1000 specimens.
+Even the occurrence of large numbers only destroys the
+animal by slow degrees, and, possibly, without producing much
+physical suffering, excepting, perhaps, in the later stages.
+Associated with the above-described appearances, one also not
+unfrequently finds a few flukes in the intestinal canal, whilst a
+still more interesting pathological feature is seen in the fact
+that the bile contained in the liver ducts is loaded with flukes’
+eggs. In some cases there cannot be less than tens or even
+hundreds of thousands. Not a few may also be found in the intestinal
+canal and in the excrement about to be voided. Occasionally
+dead specimens become surrounded by inspissated bile, and
+gritty particles deposited in the liver ducts, thus forming the
+nuclei of gall-stones. Mr Simonds mentions a remarkable
+instance, “where the concretion was as large as an ordinary
+hen’s egg, and when broken up was found to contain about a
+dozen dead flukes. It was lying in a pouch-like cavity of one
+of the biliary ducts.”</p>
+
+<p>In respect of treatment we all know that “prevention is
+better than cure.” Moisture being essential to the growth and
+development of the fluke-larvæ, it is clear that sheep cannot be
+infected so long as they remain on high and dry grounds, and
+even in low pastures they can scarcely take the disease so long
+as they are folded, and fed on hay, turnips, and fodder procured
+from drier situations. When once the malady has
+become fairly developed, internal remedies are of little avail, at
+least, in view of producing a thorough cure. Palliative treatment
+may undoubtedly do good, especially in cases where the
+disease is not very strongly pronounced. The most important
+thing is the transference of the rot-affected animals to dry
+ground and good shelter, supplying them, at the same time,<span class="pagenum" title="330"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a></span>
+with a liberal quantity of manger food, such as beans, peas, and
+other leguminous seeds. The fodder, of whatever kind, should
+be frequently changed, and many other hygienic measures
+adopted, all tending to promote the appetite and general health
+of the animal. An admixture of salines is a matter of essential
+importance, especially in cases where the disease is not far
+advanced. The beneficial effect of salt is one of those few
+points on which nearly all parties are agreed, and its preservative
+influence in the case of sheep fed upon salt-water marsh-land
+has been previously explained. In regard, however, to
+the legion of remedies which have from time to time been proposed,
+all I need here say is, that most of them when fairly
+tested have been found to fail ignominiously. Every year we
+hear of the adoption, often with enthusiasm, of new so-called
+specifics, or of ancient medicines whose employment had long
+fallen into disuse. Thus, for example, in the April number of
+the ‘Journal des Vétérinaires du Midi’ for 1860, we find M.
+Raynaud strongly recommending soot, in doses of from one to
+three spoonfuls, to be followed up by the administration of a
+grain of lupin for tonic purposes. In like manner, we received
+from France wonderful accounts of the medicinal virtues of a
+certain fœtid oleaginous compound, the value of which was put
+to a fair test by our distinguished veterinarian, Professor
+Simonds. Having with infinite care and trouble undertaken a
+series of experiments with the remedy in question, Mr Simonds
+writes in the ‘Scottish Farmer and Horticulturist’ to the effect
+that, as a result of his inquiries, he fears “we must conclude that
+this supposed cure of <i>rot</i> in sheep has proved quite ineffective
+for good.” The last new “cure” announced is by Mr Robert
+Fletcher (‘Journ. Nat. Agric. Soc. of Victoria,’ Dec., 1878).</p>
+
+<p>The examination of rotten sheep is not altogether free
+from danger. Professor Simonds tells us that in August,
+1854, “a person of intemperate habits, following the occupation
+of a country butcher, was employed in skinning and
+dressing a number of rotten sheep on the premises of a farmer
+in the county of Norfolk. The sheep were necessarily opened
+when <i>warm</i>, and while he was so engaged he complained
+greatly of the sickening smell. The same evening he was
+attacked with choleraic disease, and two days afterwards was a
+corpse.” This case is highly instructive and, when taken in
+connection with the well-known fact that animals affected with
+the disease putrefy very rapidly, clearly points to the neces<span class="pagenum" title="331"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a></span>sity
+of removing slaughter-houses far away from densely populated
+localities.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the above statement, there is little or no
+danger to be apprehended from the consumption of the flesh of
+rot-affected animals. On this vexed question we have the
+strong testimony of the late Dr Rowe, of Australia, who, after
+leaving the medical profession, became a large and successful
+stockowner, and devoted himself especially to this question.
+Dr Rowe, writing from the Goulburn district, <span class="nowrap">said:&mdash;</span>“The mere
+presence of flukes in the viscera of an animal is no proof that it
+is unfit for human food. For inspectors of slaughter-houses to
+adopt such a test of wholesome food would be the greatest
+mistake. It would afford no protection to the public against
+unhealthy food, would increase the price of animals, and be
+ruinous to our farmers and graziers. If the consumption of
+flukey beef and mutton were prejudicial to the health of man,
+there would be very few people alive in this part of the colony;
+for, to my certain knowledge, they have had no other animal
+food to live upon for the last twenty-five years, yet for physical
+ability I believe they may be favorably compared with the
+inhabitants of any other part of Australia.” Speaking of his
+own experiences, Dr Rowe avers that he found the common
+liver fluke in sheep, cattle, goats, opossums, kangaroos, geese,
+ducks, and other creatures, but he had never encountered it in
+men, dogs, or pigs. On the whole I think we may agree with
+Dr Rowe, in regarding the consumption of the flesh of rot-affected
+animals as free from danger provided only the meat, be
+well or even moderately well cooked. It must be borne in
+mind, however, that an essential objection to its consumption
+lies in the fact that the watery and otherwise chemically
+deteriorated flesh is comparatively innutritious. It must also
+be noted that the meat-supply from fluke-affected animals, as
+usually sold in the markets, is chiefly derived from animals
+which have only entered the early stage of the disorder, that is,
+long before the watery and wasted condition of the muscles
+has fairly set in.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the other trematodes I have to observe that
+<i>Distoma lanceolatum</i> not only infests the liver ducts of cattle
+and sheep, but also the deer tribe. Its larvæ are likewise
+supposed to reside in <i>Planorbis marginatus</i>. Still more common
+and widespread amongst ruminants is the <i>Amphistoma conicum</i>,
+occupying the paunch. It has been found in the ox, sheep,<span class="pagenum" title="332"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a></span>
+musk-ox, elk, roe, fallow, red-deer, goat, and dorcas-antelope;
+also in <i>Cerrus campestris</i>, <i>C. nambi</i>, <i>C. rufus</i>, and <i>C. simplicicornis</i>.
+Prof. Garrod has also recently shown me examples from the
+sambu deer of India (<i>C. Aristotelis</i>). Diesing’s <i>A. lunatum</i>,
+infesting <i>Cerrus dichotomus</i>, is inadmissible. Two other species
+of Amphistome (<i>A. explanatum</i>, <i>A. crumeniferum</i>) are said to
+infest the zebu; and I have described another (<i>A. tuberculatum</i>)
+from the intestines of Indian cattle. An aberrant amphistomatoid
+entozoon (<i>Gyrocotyle rugosa</i>) has been found in a Cape
+antelope (<i>A. pygarga</i>). Of more interest, however, is the circumstance
+that Dr Sonsino has discovered a species of Bilharzia
+(<i>B. bovis</i>) in Egyptian cattle and in sheep. The eggs of this
+species are distinctive, being fusiform and narrowed towards
+either pole.</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively few tapeworms are found in ruminants. Cattle
+are infested by <i>Tænia expansa</i> and <i>T. denticulata</i>, the former of
+these two species being also more or less prevalent in sheep,
+antelopes, and deer. Other alleged species (<i>Tænia fimbriata</i>
+and <i>T. capræ</i>) appear to me more than doubtful. Unquestionably
+the common <i>Tænia expansa</i> is capable of giving rise to
+severe epizoöty among lambs. The privately communicated
+evidence of Professors Brown and Axe, and published evidence
+supplied by Messrs Cox and Robertson on this head, are conclusive.
+Mr George Rugg has also (in a letter to Prof. Simonds,
+dated Dec. 4th, 1878) communicated the particulars of an outbreak
+in which “large numbers of lambs perished rapidly” from
+tapeworms in the intestines, the parasites varying from one to
+five or six feet in length. This tapeworm (<i>T. expansa</i>) is also
+very prevalent in Germany. Ruminants, however, both at home
+and abroad, suffer much more severely from bladder-worms.
+Of these, <i>Echinococcus veterinorum</i>, <i>Cysticercus tenuicollis</i>, and
+<i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i>, are not only shared alike by all varieties of
+cattle, sheep, and goats, but they also infest the deer tribe,
+antelopes, the giraffe, and even camels. In 1859 I obtained
+the slender-necked hydatid from a spring-bok (Gazella). Besides
+these larval cestodes, cattle are very liable to harbor measles
+(<i>Cysticercus bovis</i>), whilst sheep also entertain an armed Cysticercus
+(<i>C. ovis</i>). I cannot again dwell at any length upon the
+source of these immature helminths, but I may remark upon
+the extreme frequency of measles in Indian cattle. This is
+explained by the careless habits of the people. They not only
+consume veal and beef in an imperfectly cooked state, but when<span class="pagenum" title="333"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a></span>
+suffering from tapeworm no precautions are taken to prevent cattle
+from having access to the expelled proglottides of <i>Tænia mediocanellata</i>.
+The subject has already been dealt with in the first part
+of this work, and also in my ‘Manual,’ quoted in the bibliography.
+The mutton measle is described under the heading of <i>Tænia
+tenella</i>. In like manner I must refer to the ‘Manual’ for a detailed
+account of the gid hydatid (<i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i>). How many kinds
+of Cœnuri exist it is impossible to say, but I am of opinion that
+the various polycephalous bladder-worms found by Rose, Baillet,
+and Alston in rabbits, by myself in a lemur and in a squirrel,
+and by Engelmeyer in the liver of a cat, are referable to tapeworms
+specifically distinct from the <i>Tænia cœnurus</i> of the dog.</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1833 that Mr C. B. Rose, formerly of Swaffham,
+Norfolk, discovered an undoubted example of polycephalous
+hydatid in the rabbit, the parasite in question bearing a very
+close resemblance to <i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i>. As the accuracy of
+Rose’s determination respecting the characters of the hydatid
+has been called in question, I again invite attention to the
+original description as recorded in the ‘London Medical Gazette’
+for November 9th, 1833. At page 206, vol. xiii, of that periodical,
+after describing the common <i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i> of the
+sheep, Rose <span class="nowrap">writes:&mdash;</span>“This (<i>i.e.</i> <i>C. cerebralis</i>) is the only
+species of Cœnurus noticed by authors, but I have met with
+another. It infests the rabbit, and I have found it situated
+between the muscles of the loins. It is also met with in the
+neck and back. This hydatid grows rapidly, and multiplies
+prodigiously, and being seated near the surface it soon projects,
+and sometimes forms a tumour of considerable magnitude.
+When the warrener meets with a rabbit thus affected, he punctures
+the tumour, squeezes out the fluid, and sends the animal
+to market with its brethren. I possess a specimen of this
+species in a pregnant state. The earliest visible state of gestation
+is a minute spot, more transparent than the surrounding
+coats of the parent; this enlarges till it projects from the
+parietes of the maternal vesicle. It continues to enlarge until
+it becomes a perfect hydatid, attached by a slender peduncle
+only; even whilst small, other young are seen sprouting from
+it, and so on in a series of three or four. My specimen
+exhibits them in every stage of growth, from a minute point to
+a vesicle the size of a hen’s egg. As I can see no difference
+in structure between this hydatid and the last-mentioned (<i>i.e.</i>
+<i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i>), I am unwilling to consider it a different<span class="pagenum" title="334"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a></span>
+species, for surely a varying locality ought not to constitute a
+specific character.”</p>
+
+<p>The observations of Rose did not escape the well-known
+Dutch author, Numan. In a foot-note to his memoir, entitled
+“Over den veelkop-blaasworm der Hersenen,” he makes the
+following <span class="nowrap">observations:&mdash;</span>“Rose observes that he has found
+Cœnurus in bladdery rabbits (blaaszieke konijnen) in the skin,
+and in the cellular tissues of the trunk and extremities. The
+veterinary surgeon, Engelmeyer, of Burgau, says he has also
+found the <i>Cœnurus</i> (Veelkop) in the liver of a cat (‘Thierärztliche
+Wochenschrift van 1850,’ s. 192). These observations
+differ thus far from those of other writers, according to whom
+the Cœnurus is only found in the brain and spinal marrow.
+However, it is not impossible in particular cases that some
+parasites may have strayed from their ordinary dwelling-places.”
+Numan seems to have been not a little puzzled to account for
+these discrepancies, and he was altogether undecided regarding
+the mode of propagation of Cœnuri and Cysticerci. This will
+be gathered from the following passage, which I quote in the
+original:</p>
+
+<p>“Ik moet het onbeslist laten, of de grondbeginsels, waaruit
+de wormen uit de blaas ontspruiten, als wezenlijke of als zoogenaamde
+kiemen (<i>gemmæ</i>) zijn te houden, waaromtrent de gevoelens
+der voornamste Natuuronderzoekers, die zich met de
+nasporing der blaaswormen hebben onledig gehouden, nog
+uiteenloopen. Gulliver, door Rose (a. p. pag. 231) aangehaald,
+houdt ze voor eijeren, in den <i>Cysticercus tenuicollis</i>, en Goodsir,
+mede aldaar genoemd, spreckt ook van <i>ova</i> bij den <i>Cœnurus
+cerebralis</i>; doch de laatstgenoemde en Busk houden ze voor
+<i>gemmæ</i>. Hier wordt voots gewezen op Owen en de meeste
+onderzoekers van den tegenwoordigen tijd, die het daarvoor
+houden, dat alle hydatiden zich alleen door <i>gemmæ</i> reproduceren.
+Rose merkt voorts aan, dat, hetzij men de geboorte dezer ingewandswormen
+toekenne aan eijeren of kiemen (<i>gemmæ</i>), dit om
+het even is, wat hunne verspreiding (<i>dissemination</i>) betreft,
+daar zij ingesloten zijn, waardoor de wijze, hoe zij naar buiten
+komen en verspried worden, tot dusver een gesloten boek is.”</p>
+
+<p>The idea of Numan that these are strayed forms of <i>Cœnurus
+cerebralis</i> is not convincing. It must not be forgotten, however,
+as Leuckart and Numan have both reminded us, that Eichler
+discovered an hydatid about the size of a goose egg in the subcutaneous
+tissue of a sheep. This bladder-worm supported<span class="pagenum" title="335"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335"></a></span>
+nearly two thousand heads. In regard to true hydatids or
+acephalocysts in ruminants, on which subject I have already
+dwelt at much length, I may again observe that the Hunterian
+Museum contains some remarkable examples. In 1854 I
+obtained Cysticerci from a giraffe, and I have reason to believe
+that similar bladder-worms infest antelopes and deer.</p>
+
+<p>The nematodes of the ruminants are both numerous in, and
+destructive to, their bearers, those infesting the lungs being
+productive of a parasitic bronchitis termed husk or hoose. In
+cattle the lung-worm (<i>Strongylus micrurus</i>) is particularly fatal
+to calves, whilst <i>S. filaria</i> attacks sheep, and especially lambs.
+A larger but less common lung strongyle (<i>S. rufescens</i>) is sometimes
+found associated with the latter. In 1875 I conducted
+experiments with the view of finding the intermediate hosts of
+<i>S. micrurus</i>, and I arrived at the conclusion that the larvæ of
+this parasite are passively transferred to the digestive organs of
+earth-worms. The growth and metamorphoses which I witnessed
+in strongyloid larvæ taken from earth-worms (into which I had
+previously introduced embryos) were remarkably rapid, and
+accompanied by ecdysis. The facts were as follows. About the
+middle of October, 1875, I received from Messrs Farrow, of
+Durham, a fresh and characteristic specimen of diseased lungs,
+in which the bronchi were swarming with Filariæ.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the case itself, Mr George Farrow afterwards
+informed me by letter that the calf was one of a herd of seven,
+whose ages respectively varied from four to six months. At
+the time of his writing (October 20th) the remaining six animals
+were progressing favorably towards recovery&mdash;a result which
+Mr Farrow attributes to the employment of inhalations of turpentine
+and savin, combined with the internal administration of
+tonics. In regard to this plan of treatment, and in reference
+to the source of infection, he <span class="nowrap">adds:&mdash;</span>“I should have preferred
+trying the inhalations of chlorine gas, but as the patients were
+so very young and in poor condition, I deemed it advisable to
+try a milder course of treatment.</p>
+
+<p>“The history of the case is brief. The cattle are on a very
+dry and well-drained farm, but during the summer there was
+a great scarcity of water, and they were supplied from a stagnant
+pool which eventually became dry. This, in my opinion, is
+where the disease originated.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr George Farrow’s opinion is probably correct, being in
+harmony with the most recent results of scientific research as<span class="pagenum" title="336"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a></span>
+made known more particularly by Leuckart. But the facts
+thus conveyed do not explain the whole truth; or, rather, they
+convey it only in a very incomplete manner. Professor Leuckart’s
+experiments were made with several species such as <i>Strongylus
+armatus</i> of the horse, <i>S. rufescens</i>, <i>S. hypostomus</i>, and <i>S. filaria</i>
+of the sheep, and <i>S. commutatus</i> of the hare. Still, as regards
+the strongyles, partial as the results have thus far appeared,
+there cannot be a doubt that his successes with several allied
+nematode species form a key by which we may yet unlock and
+expose to view the entire life-history of that specially obnoxious
+form under consideration, namely, <i>Strongylus micrurus</i>. To
+summarise the whole matter in a few words, Leuckart supposes
+that all these strongyloids require a change of hosts before they
+can take up their final abode in the sexually-mature state. This
+he infers especially because their respective embryos display
+characters very similar to those exhibited by <i>Olulanus</i>. He
+believes that either small mollusks or insects and their larvæ
+play the <i>rôle</i> of intermediary bearer. His experiments with the
+embryos of <i>Strongylus filaria</i> prove that these larvæ can be kept
+alive for several weeks in moist earth, and that whilst so
+conditioned they undergo a first change of skin within a period
+varying from eight to fourteen days. Experiments on sheep,
+made with these moulting larvæ, led only to negative results.
+Unless the following facts be accepted, the scientific position
+remains pretty much where Leuckart left it.</p>
+
+<p>On the 22nd of October, 1875, at 1&nbsp;p.m., I placed the entire
+egg-contents of the uterus of a <i>Strongylus micrurus</i> on a glass
+slide hollowed out in the centre. Probably something like ten
+thousand ova were thus brought under observation, yet only
+three were noticed as freed from their shells, probably as the
+result of accidental rupture. Two of these displayed lively
+movements. In round numbers the ova gave a measurement
+of <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">300</span></span> of an inch in length by <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">750</span></span> of an inch in breadth, whilst
+the free embryos measured about <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">90</span></span> of an inch long, and less
+than <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span> of an inch in thickness. The integument of the embryo
+displayed neither markings of any kind nor any double contour.
+The contents of the worm were granular throughout, these
+granules being crowded in the centre of the body, but scarcely
+visible towards the head and tail, where for a considerable
+space (fully <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">300</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>) the worm was perfectly transparent. No trace
+of any sexual organs or their outlets was visible. An examination
+of numerous eggs and free embryos obtained from near the<span class="pagenum" title="337"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a></span>
+primary bronchial bifurcations (of Mr Farrow’s specimen)
+yielded the same microscopic results, the only thing worthy
+of remark being that the embryos from the mucus seemed much
+more lively than those which, as I supposed, had accidentally
+escaped their shells.</p>
+
+<p>At 1.30&nbsp;p.m. I placed some free embryos in two watch-glasses,
+one containing water and the other saliva, and placed them before
+the fire. Being called away professionally I found on my
+return at 3&nbsp;p.m. that evaporation to dryness had occurred in
+the interval. All my attempts to resuscitate the embryos by
+moisture proved unavailing, a result which, though negative,
+proves how little capable these embryonic creatures are of
+enduring desiccation. If these facts be confirmed, their practical
+significance is not without value in relation to the choice
+of dry pasturage grounds for the rearing of young cattle. I
+may add that whilst half an hour’s immersion of the dried
+embryos failed to restore any sign of life, the previous
+warmth and moisture had caused many more embryos to
+escape their shells during the time they were placed before the
+fire.</p>
+
+<p>At 4&nbsp;p.m. I passed some very rich mould through muslin.
+Some of this finely sifted earth I placed in a watch-glass, adding
+a little water to moisten it, and also numerous eggs and free
+embryos. In a wine-glass and also in a small jar I placed some
+coarse earth with water added to make thin mud, and to both
+of these I added, not only eggs and embryos, but also portions
+of the reproductive organs of the adult female worms.</p>
+
+<p>On the 23rd of October, at 2&nbsp;p.m., I examined the contents
+of these vessels. All the embryos in the vessels containing the
+coarse earth were dead, but several were found alive in the
+watch-glass containing the fine moist mould. Structurally these
+latter had undergone no perceptible change beyond a somewhat
+closer aggregation of the somatic granules.</p>
+
+<p>Although the embryos in the coarse wet mud had perished,
+the eggs with unhatched embryos appeared to have retained
+their vitality. Of this fact, indeed, I subsequently obtained
+abundant proof; and I also satisfied myself that the death of
+the embryos had not resulted either from the coarseness of the
+earth or from excessive moisture, but from the presence of
+numerous shreds of the uterine tubes which I had somewhat
+carelessly added to the vessels. Previous experiments, conducted
+many years back, had indeed taught me that few if any<span class="pagenum" title="338"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338"></a></span>
+nematoid larvæ can resist the fatal action of putrid matter,
+however slight the putrescence.</p>
+
+<p>Having removed the offending shreds, I next placed a quantity
+of living ova together in the earthenware jar, and allowed
+the earth-contents to become much drier by evaporation before
+the fire. I also left others in a watch-glass, which was placed
+under a bell-jar enclosing several ferns.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of October I removed particles of the moist earth,
+altogether weighing about two grains, and, on submitting them
+to microscopic examination, had the satisfaction to observe about
+a dozen living embryos, some of which exhibited very lively
+movements. There was not the slightest indication of putridity;
+nevertheless, I noticed several shreds of the adult worms whose
+presence had been accidentally overlooked, and, curiously enough,
+all the embryos subsequently removed from the immediate
+neighbourhood of these decomposing shreds of tissue were
+almost motionless and apparently in a moribund condition.
+On examining the contents of the watch-glass placed under the
+fern shade, I noticed several points of interest. First of all
+the earth contained strongyle embryos, such as I had seen
+before. Secondly, the surface of the mould was being traversed
+by three or four briskly-moving <i>Thysanuridæ</i>, hunting about
+with all that restless activity which Sir John Lubbock has so
+well described. Thirdly, in marked contrast to the behaviour
+of these I noticed several slow-moving <i>Acaridæ</i>, apparently also
+employed in searching for food. And lastly, while thus engaged,
+the surface of the mould in the centre of the deep watch-glass
+was suddenly upheaved, by which I was at once made aware of
+the presence of another most welcome and unexpected intruder.
+In short, an earth-worm had crept from the dry mould in which
+the ferns were growing, and had taken up its temporary abode in
+the soft moist experimental-earth contained in the watch-glass.
+When contracted, this <i>Lumbricus terrestris</i> was barely an inch
+in length. On placing it under the half-inch objective glass, I
+noticed a single embryonic strongyle adhering to the skin, but
+not firmly, and evidently only in an accidental way, so to speak.
+It was clear to me that it possessed neither the intention nor the
+power to penetrate the chitinous integument of the earth-worm.</p>
+
+<p>Having in the next place removed the <i>Lumbricus</i> with a pair
+of forceps, and having washed it under a current of water, I
+snipped off the lower end of the body, and allowed some of the
+intestinal contents to escape on a clean glass slide for separate<span class="pagenum" title="339"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a></span>
+microscopic examination. Immediately, to my satisfaction, I
+found that the fæcal contents displayed a large quantity
+of my strongyle ova, enclosing still living embryos, and in
+addition several free embryos presenting characters which
+declared that they were from the same source. Clearly they
+had been ingested by the earth-worm along with its ordinary
+food. One or two of the embryos were conspicuously larger
+than their fellows, but the structural changes they had undergone
+were not so marked as to lead me for a single moment to
+associate them with any of the various sexually-mature worms
+which have been described as normally infesting the earth-worm.
+I had no doubt whatever that such slight structural changes as
+were now discernible had resulted from growth and development
+consequent upon this accidental admission into the body
+of the intermediate bearer which might or might not prove to
+be its legitimate territory. It will be seen that subsequent
+observations tended to affirm the truth of this view. I made a
+careful examination of one of these larvæ, whose active movements
+were such as to render the process exceedingly tedious.
+The earth-worm itself (or rather its unequal halves) was placed
+in a fresh watch-glass containing ordinary mould. The larvæ
+or embryos obtained from the earth-worm now measured about
+<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">80</span></span> of an inch in length, their heads exhibiting a short and
+simple chitinous buccal tube, whilst their tails were somewhat
+more pointed and bent upward. The somatic granules were
+more crowded, rendering the position of the intestinal tract
+more marked, though, as yet, the differentiation gave no indication
+of the formation of a distinct intestinal wall. There
+was no perceptible increase of thickness of the body of
+the embryos. The results thus far naturally encouraged
+me to procure some fresh earth-worms for experimental
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th of October I found that the halves of the earth-worm
+were alive, and I left them undisturbed in rather dry
+mould, freshly added. To a watch-glass containing newly
+sifted earth and embryos I added a fresh garden-worm, which
+was rather sluggish from the cold; and in the original jar I
+placed another smaller and very active earth-worm obtained the
+same morning. Finding the soil in the jar congenial, this
+<i>lumbricus</i> soon buried itself. Another and larger earth-worm
+subsequently added refused to follow this example. It was
+therefore removed from the jar. Believing the fine and arti<span class="pagenum" title="340"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a></span>ficially
+prepared soil to be still much too moist, I caused further
+evaporation; and I afterwards found that the thicker the mud
+the more suitable it proved as a residence for embryonic nematodes
+and earth-worms alike.</p>
+
+<p>On the 27th I found the small earth-worms in the jar burrowing
+freely and throwing up fæcal casts. From one of my
+watch-glasses the worm had escaped, its place being occupied
+in the meantime by an actively crawling <i>Julus</i>. I put a second
+<i>Julus</i>, obtained from the mould in the fern jar, to form a companion
+(in view of other experiments), and I also added a fresh
+earth-worm, covering all by another inverted watch-glass, which
+I thought would prevent their escape.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place I examined the halves of my original
+experimental earth-worm. They were scarcely capable of
+motion, but retained a certain amount of vitality. The tail
+was the more active half, and unfortunately it was soon afterwards
+lost. Carefully washing the superior half, and transferring
+its contents to a glass slide, I immediately detected under
+the microscope a large number of embryos. They were in a
+state of marked activity, the largest having increased to about
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">50</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> of an inch in length, whilst their structure had become correspondingly
+advanced. Here, again, there was no room for
+doubt as to their source, especially as they individually displayed
+different degrees of organisation, all answering to one
+and the same embryonal type. I now observed a distinct
+œsophagus, the rest of the intestinal tract being still more conspicuous
+than heretofore, though, as yet, no true cells marked
+the limitation of the stomach and chylous intestine.</p>
+
+<p>After an hour’s immersion in cold water some of the larvæ
+became much less active, whilst others were motionless, so that
+I feared all were about to perish. In the hope of keeping a
+few of them alive I now added to the slide some finely sifted
+grains of mould, placing the slide under a small bell jar which
+protected some of my ferns. The remains of the moribund
+earth-worm were also covered with mould.</p>
+
+<p>Other larvæ, derived from the earth-worm, were placed on
+the moist pinnæ of a living fern-frond which supported small
+drops of water, for by this process I hoped in some measure
+to imitate the dew which naturally condenses on the grass
+and fodder of our low-lying fields. At 3.15&nbsp;p.m. of the same
+day (27th) I also examined a fresh worm pellet from the
+jar, and found it to contain living strongyle embryos, which as<span class="pagenum" title="341"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a></span>
+heretofore had not exhibited the slightest advance either in
+respect of size or structure.</p>
+
+<p>At noon on the 28th I again sought for the larger larvæ,
+first of all on the slide covered with fine earth, and afterwards
+within the remains of the upper half of the original earth-worm.
+On the slide I could detect none, but within the intestine of
+the worm there were still two living larvæ left, whose characters
+corresponded precisely with the largest that I had previously
+obtained from the same source only the day before. They had
+undergone, however, no further change in structure, and their
+measurements remained precisely the same.</p>
+
+<p>At 12.30&nbsp;p.m. I snipped off two or three of the terminal fern-fronds
+on which I had placed a few advanced larvæ. On
+examination under the half-inch objective I immediately detected
+one of the larvæ cruising about most actively. On
+adding a drop of water it soon rushed across the field of the
+microscope, its movements being thoroughly eel-like. The size
+of this larvæ had so much increased that it was now visible to
+the naked eye, measuring, indeed, as much as <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">30</span></span> of an inch
+from head to tail. Moreover, its organisation had advanced in
+a marked degree. Thus, the digestive organs were better
+defined, and on one side of them there appeared a regularly
+arranged congeries of cellules, forming the commencement of
+the reproductive organs. As yet, however, I could not pronounce
+as to the sex.</p>
+
+<p>At 1.45&nbsp;p.m. I again examined a few grains of earth from
+the jar, when I at once noticed five or six active embryos whose
+structure failed to show the slightest advance upon that originally
+described. It was evident that the jar contained thousands
+of them; and since no ova were found, it became probable
+that all their embryonic contents had escaped to swell the
+number of free larvæ, leaving their very delicate envelopes to
+perish. I think I had hit upon the most suitable degree of
+moisture favorable to this result.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place I sought for the earth-worm that had been
+placed in the infested soil between two watch-glasses. It had
+escaped. This obliged me to transfer the mould to a rather
+wide-mouthed and open phial, in which four more fresh lumbrici
+were placed. I feared the closing of the bottle would be
+detrimental.</p>
+
+<p>Later in the day I selected an earth-worm which had not
+been exposed to strongyle infection, but which was in a mori<span class="pagenum" title="342"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a></span>bund
+condition. In the intestine there were several free
+nematoids and also several psorosperms of the genus <i>Monocystis</i>,
+so well illustrated by E. Ray Lankester. As to the nematoids,
+which were filariform, they neither corresponded in size nor
+structure with my strongyle embryos.</p>
+
+<p>At 1&nbsp;p.m. on the 29th I renewed my examination of the
+larva removed from the fern-pinnule. It showed a further
+stage of growth, the male character of the reproductive organs
+having become apparent. The now tolerably well-formed vas
+deferens had pushed the chylous intestine on one side, whilst a
+series of caudal rays, five on either side, supported two narrow
+membranous wings, which represented the lateral lobes of the
+hood of the adult strongyle.</p>
+
+<p>At 1.30&nbsp;p.m. I submitted the intestinal contents of four fresh
+earth-worms removed from my garden to microscopic examination,
+but no nematoids were found in any one of them.</p>
+
+<p>About 2&nbsp;p.m. I removed another large and active strongyle
+larva that had been reared on another fern-pinnule. It was
+of the same size as that previously described, but was in the
+act of changing its skin. It was then put aside along with the
+other worm under the glass shade.</p>
+
+<p>At 3&nbsp;p.m. I intended to have examined one or more of the
+earth-worms placed in the open-mouthed phial, but all had
+escaped and buried themselves in the fern-mould out of reach.</p>
+
+<p>At noon on the 30th I renewed my examination of the two
+large larvæ whose developmental changes I had been instrumental
+in producing from the time of their escape from the
+egg-coverings. I saw no reason to doubt that the sequence of
+changes thus far noticed referred to the species of parasite
+under consideration. Both larvæ were active, but the moulting
+one had now completed its ecdysis. Its sexual distinctiveness
+had become yet more pronounced by the formation of
+two rather short and stout spicules, the point of the tail displaying
+a very minute awl-shaped projection. The lateral
+membranes had not visibly increased in size. One of these
+larvæ, the first under observation, now perished from the injuries
+sustained during inspection.</p>
+
+<p>Again, and later in the day, I sought to clear up any doubts
+that might still suggest themselves respecting the source of
+these larvæ, by once more submitting the intestinal contents of
+two fresh and uninfected earth-worms to careful scrutiny. In
+the first worm no parasite could be found, and in the second<span class="pagenum" title="343"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a></span>
+only one minute nematoid; its organisation, which was sexually
+incomplete, neither corresponded with my strongyle embryos,
+nor, so far as I could judge, with Goeze’s <i>Ascaris minutissima
+microscopica</i> (the <i>Anguillula lumbrici</i> of Diesing and others),
+nor with Dujardin’s <i>Dicelis filaria</i>. It was a very long and
+narrow creature, but I lost it whilst attempting to secure an
+accurate measurement. I should say it was about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">50</span></span>th</span> of an
+inch in length, and not more than <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1500</span></span>th</span> in breadth. I made a
+rough outline sketch of it.</p>
+
+<p>In view of further observations I now placed five more
+earth-worms in the jar containing strongyle embryos, and I
+also placed six others in the phial which contained coarser
+mould, and only a comparatively small number of the original
+strongyle embryos. The phial was closed with a cork and
+half buried in the fern-mould of one of my larger Wardian
+fern-pans. Before this transfer was made I again took an
+opportunity of ascertaining by microscopic evidence that the
+embryos lodged in the coarse and fine mould had none of them
+made the slightest advance in organisation. The worms placed
+in the jar immediately proceeded to bury themselves.</p>
+
+<p>At noon on the 1st of November I sought to get further
+results from the only large free larva which now remained to me
+(for the fern-pinnules on which the larvæ were originally placed
+had dried up and no third specimen could be discovered).
+Structurally the larva presented no advance. It therefore
+appeared to me necessary to place it under new conditions
+in view of exciting further progress towards sexual
+maturity and adult growth. To transfer it to the bronchus
+of a living calf would, of course, have been the
+crucial experiment, but the hopelessness of getting any satisfactory
+result from this solitary transfer deterred me from the
+attempt. On a larger scale, with many larvæ, a positive issue
+would of course prove decisive. Accordingly, the only thing I
+could do, in partial imitation of nature, was to try and induce
+some further changes by placing the larva in human saliva,
+kept warm artificially. As a first step I immersed the creature
+in a little of the secretion added to the glass slide, when it
+immediately displayed very lively movements, such as could
+only be fitly described as frantic. This encouraged me to
+replace the slide under one of the fern shades without applying
+any additional heat. I then left it.</p>
+
+<p>At 12.30&nbsp;p.m. I selected three of the eleven worms lodged in<span class="pagenum" title="344"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a></span>
+the infested earth, namely, two from the jar and one from the
+closed phial, and made a microscopic examination of their
+respective intestinal contents. In one of the worms from the
+jar I found several embryos clearly referable to my strongyles,
+their structure showing scarcely any advance upon that exhibited
+by the embryos in the mould itself. The weather was
+now excessively cold and the larvæ were motionless; nevertheless,
+the application of warmth showed that they were by no
+means dead. The fæcal matter obtained from the worm that
+had lived in the phial displayed an immense number of
+infusoriæ (<i>Bacteria</i>) which rushed about rapidly over the field of
+the microscope. No other signs of life were detected.</p>
+
+<p>On the 2nd of November I found my solitary strongyle larva
+alive, but its movements, though active, were by no means so
+active as on the previous day. No fresh structural changes
+had occurred.</p>
+
+<p>At noon on the 3rd the larva at first lay almost motionless
+in the now thick and ropy saliva; nevertheless, on applying a
+thin glass cover its movements became tolerably vigorous.
+During its quiescent state I succeeded in getting a good view
+of the caudal rays and other imperfectly developed organs, of
+which I retain figures.</p>
+
+<p>Having now satisfied myself that other new conditions were
+necessary to enable the larva to arrive at sexual maturity, I
+sought to transfer it to a glass tube filled with fresh saliva. This
+transfer was a matter of difficulty. After passing the thick
+ropy saliva into the tube, I examined the slide and found that
+the larva was gone. I concluded it was in the tube, which,
+in order to keep the contents warm, I subsequently carried
+about concealed in my under-clothing during the day and placed
+in my bed during the night. This increase of temperature,
+however, caused decomposition of the saliva; so when next day
+I diligently sought for my experimental nematode it was nowhere
+to be found. Thus terminated my observations on the
+first set of embryos, which had enjoyed their temporary sojourn
+in the intestinal tract of the earth-worm, and which had certainly
+afterwards undergone a series of marked structural and morphological
+changes, accompanied with ecdysis.</p>
+
+<p>The weather had now been for several days exceedingly cold,
+but on the 4th a favorable change set in, which led me to hope
+that I might be able to verify the facts above recorded.
+Accordingly, as a new point of departure, I re-examined the<span class="pagenum" title="345"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a></span>
+fine mould, and at once found my embryos in a high state of
+activity. The mould, however, appearing too moist for the
+earth-worms, I permitted further evaporation before closing the
+jar with a glass cover. Four days subsequently I examined
+the intestinal contents of two of the earth-worms. In one of
+these, an inch in length, no parasite of any kind could be detected;
+but in the other, which was beyond three inches in
+length, there were numerous <i>Opalinæ</i> besides several strongyle
+embryos, the latter presenting characters not visibly in advance
+of those still living in the mould. All of them were motionless,
+as if they had not got over the shock produced by previous
+cold. Moreover, the weather had again become cold, and thus,
+when I again inspected my experimental embryos living in the
+jar, I also found them motionless, so different from their
+behaviour on the 4th. However, since a further result with
+the earth-worm embryos appeared possible, I placed some of the
+fæcal matter, already ascertained to contain a few of them, on
+the fronds of a thoroughly moist and dew-covered <i>Asplenium
+bulbiferum</i>. This plant was in a fern-pan which had the advantage
+of considerable fire-warmth during the day. When, however,
+on the 15th of November, I examined the fæcal earth
+removed from several of the pinnules, I failed to find any of
+the embryos. Possibly they had wandered, for the entire
+frond was covered with dew-drops, which was not the case with
+the fern that I had previously experimented on with such satisfactory
+results. At all events, whether they had wandered or
+had perished, their apparent absence in no way affects my previous
+record; and the more so since only a few had been observed
+in the fæcal matter. The smallness of the number found in the
+earth-worm was also readily accounted for. Thus, when at 1.30&nbsp;p.m. on the 15th I made a diligent search for embryos in several
+grains of the fine mould, not a single young strongyle could be
+detected. Possibly the frost of the previous night had killed
+them. The earth-worms were still alive and in good condition.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I may observe that every experimenter with
+helminths is well aware how unfavorable the winter season is
+for this kind of research. If a repetition of this inquiry in the
+spring or summer should confirm these results, it will prove a
+clear and substantial addition to our knowledge of the development
+of the strongyles. Meanwhile, I think that the data
+above given render it highly probable that the larvæ of the
+hoose-producing strongyle (<i>S. micrurus</i>) are passively trans<span class="pagenum" title="346"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a></span>ferred
+to the bodies of setigerous annelids, which are thus called
+upon to act as intermediate hosts. If this be so, it is further
+certain that important structural changes with ecdysis follow
+after their escape from the earth-worms or other annelids,
+moisture, dew, or water being essential to the penultimate
+stage of growth. Final passive transference, either with
+fresh fodder from swampy grounds, or, it may be, from pond
+water, ultimately enables them to acquire their definite sexual
+form, size, and other adult characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>According to Mégnin it is not the <i>Strongylus filaria</i>, but a
+hitherto unknown and totally distinct species (<i>Strongylus minutissimus</i>)
+which occasions pneumonia in Algerian sheep. In
+England the parasitic bronchitis affecting sheep is generally
+called the “lamb disease.” This is unfortunate, because many
+other parasites prove destructive to lambs. One of the most
+injurious species is <i>Strongylus contortus</i>, infesting the true
+stomach, whilst <i>S. hypostomus</i>, occupying the small intestines,
+is almost equally obnoxious to the ovine bearer. By Leuckart
+and others this last-named worm is retained in Dujardin’s genus
+<i>Dochmius</i>, in which genus another species occurs (<i>D. cernuus</i>).
+This worm is quite distinct, but not readily distinguishable by
+the naked eye alone. It occasionally occupies the upper part
+of the colon, as well as the lower end of the small intestine.
+A rarer intestinal worm in lambs is the <i>Strongylus filicollis</i>.
+Several other strongyles infest the ox (<i>S. radiatus</i>, <i>S. inflatus</i>,
+<i>S. gigas</i>), goat (<i>S. venulosus</i>), and stag (<i>S. ventricosus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As showing the extraordinary prevalence and destructiveness
+of entozoa in certain countries, I will adduce an instance in
+which my opinion was requested and given some five years
+since. My informant stated the case somewhat in the following
+<span class="nowrap">manner:&mdash;</span>On a farm in New South Wales, and lying about 200
+miles to the north-west of Sydney, on the Trafalgar tributary
+of the Macquarie river, out of a flock of about 8000 sheep no less
+than 1200 have perished. In many instances post-mortem
+examinations were made, <i>worms</i> appearing in all cases to be the
+cause of death. There were four kinds of parasites present.
+The most numerous were red and white, “marked like a
+barber’s pole.” These occurred chiefly in the fourth stomach
+and commencement of the duodenum, but some were found
+throughout the entire length of the small intestine. A second set
+comprised small black worms, resembling needles, scattered only
+in the lumen of the intestines. The third set were tapeworms,<span class="pagenum" title="347"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a></span>
+each being several fathoms in length. The fourth set was made
+up of white threadworms, individually measuring two inches in
+length. These occupied the bronchial tubes, and were characterised
+by my informant as “the most deadly of all.” Without
+the aid of specimens I at once recognised these brief diagnostic
+characters as severally referring to <i>Strongylus contortus</i>, <i>Dochmius
+hypostomus</i>, <i>Tænia expansa</i>, and <i>Strongylus filaria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>What the inquirer desired at my hands was “full information
+respecting the general principles to be carried out in view
+of the prevention of this parasitic disease, regard being had to
+the difficulty of finding any food but pasture, to the number of
+animals to be treated, and to the not unfavorable circumstance
+that the run is divided by fencing to a great extent.” I was
+also requested to explain the best modes of treatment, being at
+the same time informed that turpentine drenchings had already
+been employed with only “partially effective” results. I was
+also expected to give numerous and varied formulæ, to be tried
+in succession, supposing the first should fail. Of course, it should
+have been known that I neither prescribe medicines nor accept
+fees in respect of animal patients; but, as in this instance
+my opinion was permitted to assume the form of a “written
+scientific report,” I was pleased to have an opportunity of commenting
+freely and fully on the significance of the facts submitted.
+My advice took the form of a long report, which might
+here be usefully given <i>in extenso</i> were it not somewhat of the
+nature of a private and privileged communication. I have no
+doubt that the stockowner would be pleased that I should
+utilise his remarkable “case” for the benefit of agriculturists
+and others; but it is for him to publish the “opinion” as it
+stands, should he think fit to do so.</p>
+
+<p>Practical men, on reading the few foregoing particulars, will
+perceive that one of the principal obstacles to success in cases
+of this kind lies in the circumstance that artificial food can only
+be procured with difficulty. Where the source of the disease
+is associated with the pasture-supply, any treatment, however
+effectual for a time, can only be followed by partially satisfactory
+results.</p>
+
+<p>The destructive powers of any one of the above-mentioned
+parasites being sufficient to produce a fatal lamb-disease, it is
+clear that when two or more of these particular species attack
+their victim in considerable numbers, the ovine-bearer has
+little chance of recovery. The intestinal strongyles, by means<span class="pagenum" title="348"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a></span>
+of their oral armature, behaving as veritable leeches, will, if not
+expelled in good time, produce a rapidly fatal anæmia, precisely
+in the same way as the human <i>Anchylostomum</i> of the tropics.</p>
+
+<p>The worst of dealing with this sheep-parasite is that it will
+not succumb to ordinary doses of salines like the stomach strongyle;
+moreover, the little leech-like wounds will probably
+bleed after the parasites have been compelled to abandon their
+hold. Prevention is better than cure. Accordingly, I sought
+to explain the origin of these creatures, and in what possible
+ways the germs of the various species could be destroyed, or at
+least limited in numbers.</p>
+
+<p>As to the drugs and inhalations to be employed, it would
+be difficult to advise any more effective than those commonly
+in vogue, the great thing being to effect changes of pasture
+and ground, to look to the purity of the water-supply, and to
+supply the best kinds of nourishment after active treatment.
+The diseased animals should, from the very first, be separated
+from their companions, because the amount of germ distribution
+is thereby greatly lessened. They should be at once drenched
+or treated by inhalation (as the parasitic nature of the attack
+requires), and the enclosure in which the animals have been
+temporarily housed should be thoroughly scoured with boiling-hot
+water impregnated with salt.</p>
+
+<p>The nomenclature of the parasitic diseases of animals is
+excessively vague. Thus, <i>apropos</i> to the case above recorded, I
+may mention that an American veterinary practitioner appeared
+to be much shocked that I should have had the temerity to speak
+of four distinct kinds of lamb-disease. It is in this way that
+practical men often commit serious mistakes by rolling together
+disorders that are totally distinct. If it were true that epizoöty
+in lambs is exclusively due to <i>Strongylus filaria</i>, then professionals
+might aptly speak of the parasitic bronchitis of young
+sheep as lamb-disease; but we now know that several other
+helminths prove terribly fatal to lambs, occasioning death in
+totally different ways. In one set of cases the animals are
+asphyxiated; in another set they become fatally anæmic; and
+in a third set they perish from the severity of nervous reflex
+irritations. Lastly, it may be remarked that, in view of the
+successful management of the parasitic disorders of animals,
+the veterinary practitioner must necessarily be guided by the
+same general principles as the physician. For myself, I may
+say that I have hitherto designedly withheld many practical hints<span class="pagenum" title="349"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349"></a></span>
+which a long experience with human patients suggested, not
+wishing to appear to dictate to those who are constantly seeing
+animals. However, since (contrary to my own wishes) it has
+happened that both professional men and agriculturists have
+not only invited me to give opinions, but have, at various times,
+asked me to prescribe, it seems there can have been no impropriety
+in publishing my views on this subject. Certainly I
+have had no professional motives to serve.</p>
+
+<p>Of the few non-strongyloid nematodes, one of the commonest
+is <i>Trichocephalus affinis</i>. I have obtained this worm from the
+giraffe, and the parasite may be said to infest all ruminating
+animals, not excluding even the camels and llamas. As before
+remarked, the whipworm has been known to produce severe
+symptoms in man, and it occasions “scour” in the sheep. The
+eyes of cattle are occasionally infested by <i>Filaria lacrymalis</i>
+and <i>F. papillosa</i>. The last named is the common eye-worm
+of the horse. On Feb. 27th, 1875, Dr Edward L. Moss, of
+H.M.S. “Alert,” brought me three examples of a nematode
+which I referred to <i>Filaria terebra</i>. Dr Moss obtained these
+parasites in 1874, during the time that he had charge of the
+Naval Hospital at Esquimalt, Vancouver’s Island. They occupied
+the abdominal cavity of the black-tailed deer (<i>Cervus
+columbianus</i>). The worms were mostly found lying amongst
+the coils of the small intestine. They were not attached to the
+peritoneal membrane. Dr Moss had shot seventeen deer in all,
+the males and females being in about equal proportion; nevertheless,
+not one of the bucks showed any trace of the presence
+of these entozoa. This absence of parasites in the male deer
+is noteworthy. Hitherto the worm appears to have been
+observed in the red deer (<i>C. elaphus</i>), and by Natterer in three
+species of American roe (<i>C. rufus</i>, <i>C. simplicicornis</i>, and <i>C.
+nambi</i>). Two of the worms measured each about <span class="nowrap">2<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length,
+the third exceeding <span class="nowrap">3″</span>. They displayed in profile two prominent
+oral papillæ. Probably there were four of these processes,
+such as Dujardin described in his <i>Filaria cervina</i>, which,
+according to Diesing, is a synonym. They all possessed
+spirally twisted tails.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the arachnidan parasites of ruminants having
+entozoal habits are <i>Pentastoma denticulatum</i> and <i>P. constrictum</i>.
+The former larval worm is excessively common in cattle, sheep,
+deer, and antelopes. According to Rhind, the adult worm
+(<i>P. tænioides</i>) also infests the sheep. The <i>P. constrictum</i> has<span class="pagenum" title="350"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350"></a></span>
+hitherto only been found in the giraffe. On the 10th February,
+1859, I obtained numerous examples (<i>P. denticulatum</i>) from a
+bubale (<i>Antilope bubalis</i>) which died at the Zoological Society’s
+Gardens. The greater number occupied the surface of the
+lungs and intestines; some few, however, were enclosed in
+cysts beneath the pleura. In the spring of 1860 I also procured
+several specimens from the abdomen of a cape guevi
+(<i>Cephalopus pygmæus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The ectozoa of ruminants have received much attention, but
+I can merely indicate the known forms. Following Mégnin’s
+classification we have three well-marked varieties of the acarine
+genus <i>Sarcoptes</i> (<i>S. scabiei</i>, var. <i>ovis</i>, var. <i>capræ</i>, and var.
+<i>cameli</i>), two varieties of <i>Psoroptes</i> (<i>P. longirostris</i>, var. <i>bovis</i>
+and <i>ovis</i>), and <i>Chorioptes spathiferus</i>. This last is the true
+mange mite of the ox (or <i>Symbiotes bovis</i> of Gerlach). A
+variety of the follicle mite infests the sheep (<i>Demodex folliculorum</i>,
+var. <i>ovis</i>). Numerous species of tick (<i>Ixodidæ</i>) have
+been more or less fully described. Of these we have the Carapartos
+of the Portuguese (<i>Ixodes bovis</i>), attacking cattle; the <i>I.
+reduvius</i>, attacking sheep; the <i>I. plumbeus</i>, said to attack
+lambs; the <i>I. albipictus</i> and <i>I. unipictus</i>, found on the moose-deer.
+Probably this species also attacks cattle. A most
+horrible arachnidan is found on camels. I allude to <i>Galeodes
+araneoides</i> belonging to the <i>Solpugidæ</i>. This parasite will bite
+severely any person who attempts to dislodge it from the bearer.
+Turning to the insects, we find ruminants liable to be annoyed
+alike by flies (<i>Diptera</i>), fleas (<i>Aphaniptera</i>), and lice (<i>Hemiptera</i>).
+Various species of four different families of flies are apt to prove
+troublesome. Of the <i>Œstridæ</i>, attacking the ox, we have <i>Hypoderma
+bovis</i>, whose larvæ form tumours or warbles on the back;
+also <i>H. lineata</i>, <i>Dermatobia noxialis</i>, and <i>Cephenomyia bovis</i>
+(mihi). The larvæ of the latter reside at the root of the tongue
+and adjacent parts. In the sheep we have <i>Œstrus ovis</i>, <i>Œ. purpureus</i>,
+and <i>Hypoderma lineata</i>. Various species also attack
+goats and antelopes. Dr Kirk presented me with specimens of
+Œstrus from the frontal sinuses of a harte-beest or caama, and
+they have also been obtained from the sassabe, the saiga or colus,
+from the gnoo, and from the brindled gnoo, kokoon or gorgon.
+Mr Charles Danford presented me with several bots from an
+ibex. One or more species of <i>Hypoderma</i> have likewise been
+removed from the gazelle and other antelopes. The deer tribe
+are much attacked by bots. In the red deer we have <i>Hyp. actæon</i><span class="pagenum" title="351"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351"></a></span>
+and <i>H. diana</i>, a species also infesting the elk. The throat-grubs
+are <i>Ceph. rufibarbis</i> and <i>Pharyngomyia picta</i>; another species,
+also occurring in the fallow deer, <i>Ceph. ulrichii</i>, infests the elk,
+and <i>C. stimulator</i> the roe, the last-named deer being also infested
+by <i>Hyp. diana</i>. A throat-fly infests the reindeer, which is also
+frequently attacked by <i>Hyp. tarandi</i>. Specimens of the latter
+worm have been obtained by Dr Murie at the Zoological Gardens.
+The Hunterian Museum also contains these and other species of
+bots, presented by myself in Mr Andrew Murray’s name. A
+subcutaneous bot has been found in the musk-deer. A throat-bot
+(<i>C. maculata</i>) infests the dromedary.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the so-called free dipterous parasites and other
+noxious insects that attack ruminants, their name is legion.
+One of the worst is the tsetse (<i>Glossina morsitans</i>), immortalised
+by Livingstone. Of the <i>Muscidæ</i> we have the ox-fly (<i>Musca
+bovina</i>), the sheep-fly (<i>M. cæsar</i>), and the executioner (<i>M. carnifex</i>).
+Of the <i>Tabanidæ</i> we have <i>T. bovinus</i> and <i>T. autumnalis</i>,
+<i>Chrysops cæcutiens</i>, and the allied <i>Asilus crabroniformis</i> (<i>Asilidæ</i>).
+Amongst the specially noxious insects must also be
+placed <i>Stomoxys calcitrans</i> and <i>Rhagio columbaschensis</i>. This
+fly proves fearfully destructive to cattle in Hungary and Servia.
+Lastly, I can only further mention the common <i>Melophagus
+ovinus</i>. This is nothing more than a gigantic louse, which
+from long use agriculturists and veterinarians persist in calling
+the sheep-tick. It belongs to the <i>Hippoboscidæ</i>, the members
+of which family only attack quadrupeds and birds. As regards
+the lice (<i>Anoplura</i>), I have to mention <i>Hæmatopinus vituli</i> of the
+calf, <i>H. eurysternus</i> of cattle, and <i>H. stenopsis</i> of the goat; also
+<i>Trichodectes scalaris</i>, <i>T. sphærocephalus</i>, and <i>T. capræ</i>. These
+infest the ox, sheep, and goat, respectively.</p>
+
+<p>For some account of the protozoal parasites (<i>Psorospermiæ</i>,
+&amp;c.) infesting the flesh of ruminants I must refer the reader to
+Book I, Section IV, <a href="#Part_VI">Part VI</a> of this treatise.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_49"></a>No. 49).&mdash;(Anonymous), “On the Hydatid in
+the Brain of Sheep,” from ‘Journ. de Méd. Vét.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxviii, p. 461, 1855.&mdash;(<i>Idem</i>), “Note on the ‘Rot
+in Sheep,’” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxvi, p. 100, 1863.&mdash;(<i>Idem</i>),
+“On the Hydatid, or Tumour of the Brain (of Sheep),” under
+sig. of “Ben Ledi,” in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xii, p. 467, 1839.&mdash;(<i>Idem</i>),
+“Note on Rot in Sheep, Cattle, and Hares,” from the
+‘Bristol Mirror and Scotsman,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxvi,
+pp. 156&ndash;7, 1863.&mdash;(<i>Idem</i>), <span class="pagenum" title="352"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352"></a></span>“Tapeworm Epizoöty in Nottinghamshire,”
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ 1858.&mdash;(<i>Idem</i>), “Prevalence of
+Rot in Sheep,” from ‘Carlisle Journ.,’ in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’
+1863.&mdash;<i>Baillet</i>, “Filariæ in the Eye of an Ox,” from ‘Journ.
+des Vét. du Midi,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxi, p. 703, 1858.&mdash;<i>Barnett,
+J.</i>, “Hydatids in the Liver of a Cow,” &amp;c., ‘Veterinarian,’
+1865, p. 236.&mdash;<i>Beale, L. S.</i>, “On Entozoa (?) in the
+Muscles of Animals destroyed by the Cattle Plague,” ‘Med.
+Times and Gaz.,’ Jan. 20, 1866, p. 57; see also “Annotation,”
+‘Lancet,’ Jan. 13, 1866, p. 45, and ‘The Microscope in Medicine,’
+4th edit., 1878.&mdash;<i>Beneden</i> (see Van Beneden).&mdash;<i>Böllinger,
+O.</i>, “<i>Echinococcus multilocularis</i> in der Leber des Rindes,”
+‘Deutsch. Zeitschr. f. Thier med.,’ ii, 1876, s. 109.&mdash;<i>Brauer</i> (see
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_50">50</a>).&mdash;<i>Bugnion, E.</i>, “Sur la pneumonie vermineuse des
+animaux domestiques,” ‘Compt. Rend. de la réunion de la Soc.
+Helvet.,’ Andermatt, 1875.&mdash;<i>Chaignaud</i>, “Worms in the Eyes
+of Oxen (with remarks by Desmarets),” from the French, in
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. i, p. 77, 1828.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Descr. of a new
+Trematode from the Giraffe,” ‘Rep. of Glasgow Meeting of
+Brit. Assoc.,’ 1854, and in ‘Edin. New. Philosoph. Journ.,’
+1855.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Flukes,” ‘Intellectual Observer,’ Feb., 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“The common Liver Entozoon of Cattle,” <i>ibid.</i>, March,
+1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The Whipworm of Ruminants,” <i>ibid.</i>, Dec.,
+1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Parasite-larvæ,” <i>ibid.</i>, March, 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On
+the Measles of Cattle and Sheep” (see various papers quoted in
+Book I, Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Cattle-Plague Bodies
+(spurious Entozoa),” see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_41">41</a>.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Fluke
+Parasites of our Food-producing Ruminants,” Lect. iv of the
+Cantor series, pub. in ‘Journ. Soc. Arts,’ 1871.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks
+(&amp;c.) in ref. to the Management of Sheep suffering from
+Nematoid Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Record
+of preliminary Experiments with the Eggs and Embryos of the
+Husk-producing Strongyle of the Calf,” <i>ibid.</i>, Dec., 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+in ‘Entozoa,’ pp. 145&ndash;183; also in ‘Manual,’ and in the chap.
+on “Parasitic Diseases” contributed to ‘Williams’ Principles
+of Vet. Med.’&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on Prof. Perroncito’s Researches,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Amphistomes of
+the Ox,’ see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_51">51</a>.&mdash;<i>Cooper, J.</i>, “Three Cases of
+Cœnurus in Calves,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1865, p. 357.&mdash;<i>Copeman, A.</i>,
+“Hydatids in the Brain of Lambs,” ‘Vet. Record,’ vol. iii,
+p. 337, 1847.&mdash;<i>Cox, W.</i>, “Tænia in Lambs,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. xxviii, p. 446, 1855.&mdash;<i>Creplin</i>, fig. of <i>Amphist. crumeniferum</i>,
+in ‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1847, tab. ii, s. 30.&mdash;<i>Crisp, E.</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="353"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353"></a></span>
+“On the ‘Lamb-disease,’ of which Parasites in the Lungs are
+generally the Cause or Consequence,” repr. from ‘Journ. of
+Bath and West of England Soc.,’ in July to October Nos. of
+‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Note on <i>Str. filaria</i>,” ‘Proc.
+Zool. Soc.,’ 1856.&mdash;<i>Danford</i> (see Cobbold, Bibl. No. <a href="#No_52">52</a>).&mdash;<i>De
+Reck</i>, “On the Draconcule (<i>Strong. filaria aut veinulosus?</i>) of
+Lambs,” from ‘Ann. de Logelin,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. v,
+p. 521, 1832.&mdash;<i>Dupleune</i>, “Hydatids in the Brain of an Heifer,”
+from ‘Mém. de la Soc. Vét. du Calvados,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. ix, p. 115, 1836.&mdash;<i>Dupuy</i>, “An Hydatid in the Lumbar
+portion of the Spinal Marrow of a Lamb, aged eighteen
+months,” from ‘Journ. Théorique et Prat.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. iv, p. 285, 1831.&mdash;<i>Engelmeyer</i>, ‘Thierärztliche Wochenschrift,’
+1850, p. 191.&mdash;<i>Findeisen</i>, “Ech. in der Lunge,” ‘Repert.
+f. Thierheilkund,’ 1875, s. 48.&mdash;<i>Fry, J.</i>, “Worms in the Trachea
+(of cattle),” ‘The Hippiatrist,’ vol. iii, p. 5, 1830.&mdash;<i>Furstenberg</i>,
+“On <i>Pent. tænioides</i> of the Sheep,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Gamgee,
+J.</i>, “On Parasitic Diseases,” extr. from his ‘Rep.
+to the Privy Council,’ ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Dec., 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Cattle Diseases (including those produced by Entozoa),”
+from letters in the ‘Times’ of Oct. 22, Nov. 10 and 13, &amp;c.;
+in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ Dec., 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Diseased Meat
+(especially in relation to Trichina),” ‘Pop. Sci. Rev.,’ Jan.,
+1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Sturdy in Sheep (with figs. from Van
+Beneden, Leuckart, and Cobbold),” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i,
+p. 440, 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Gleanings from the Researches of
+Eschricht, Haubner, A. Thomson, &amp;c., respecting the Origin
+and Development of the Entozoa,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Giacomini</i>
+(see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Gulliver</i>, “On the Structure of
+the Entozoa belonging to the genus Cysticercus,” ‘Med.-Chir.
+Trans.,’ ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ and ‘Lancet,’ 1840&ndash;41.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Notes on the Ova of <i>Dist. hepaticum</i>, and on certain Corpuscles
+obtained from the genus Cysticercus,” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ March, 1840, and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. vi, 1841;
+also ‘Month. Journ. Med. Sci.,’ vol. ii, 1842, and ‘Micros.
+Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 95, 1842.&mdash;<i>Hewlett</i> (see Bibl. No.
+<a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Holmes, J.</i>, “Filaria in the Bronchi of a Calf,” ‘Vet.
+Rec.,’ vol. i, p. 125, 1845.&mdash;<i>Hunter, J.</i>, “Ileum of a Ruminant
+containing Acephalocyst Hydatids;” see description of preparation
+No. 863 in the ‘Catalogue of Mus. Roy. Coll. Surg. Lond.’
+(“Pathology,” vol. ii, p. 201), 1847.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Hydatid in the
+Humerus of an Ox” (<i>ibid.</i>, prep. No. 864).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="354"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354"></a></span>“On
+Hydatids of the Sheep,” in supp. to his paper on ‘Human
+Hydatids,’ in ‘Trans. of Soc. for the Improvement, &amp;c.,’ vol. i,
+1793, p. 34.&mdash;<i>Huxley</i>, “On the Anatomy and Development of
+Echinococcus (from a Zebra),” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ and ‘Ann.
+Nat. Hist.,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Karkeek, W. F.</i>, “Notes on the <i>Rot</i> (or <i>iles</i>
+of the Cornish graziers),” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. iv, p. 573, 1831.&mdash;<i>King,
+E.</i>, “On the Propagation of Rot (by means of the eggs
+of <i>Fasc. hepatica</i>) in Sheep,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ix, p. 95, 1836.&mdash;<i>Krabbe</i>,
+“Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,” ‘Tidsskrift for Vet.’
+(See also my notice of the memoir in ‘Lond. Med. Rec.’ for
+1872; repr. in ‘Veterinarian,’ May, 1873.)&mdash;<i>Küchenmeister</i> (see
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Leaver, T.</i>, “Cases of the Husk (from worms)
+in Cattle,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ii, p. 355, 1829.&mdash;<i>Lepper</i>,
+“Hydatids in the Kidney of a Lamb (with remarks by Prof.
+Varnell),” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxvi, p. 524, 1863.&mdash;<i>Lewis</i> (see
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Lord, J.</i>, “On some of the Parasites principally
+affecting Ruminants,” ‘Trans. Vet. Med. Assoc.,’ 1842&ndash;43.&mdash;<i>Masse</i>
+(see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Mayer, T.</i>, “On Hoose in Cattle
+(from Filaria),” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xiii, p. 227, 1840.&mdash;<i>M’Call,
+J.</i>, “On Sturdy in Sheep,” <i>ibid.</i>, vol. xxx, p. 267, 1857.&mdash;<i>Mégnin,
+P.</i>, “Le <i>Str. minutissimus</i>,” ‘Bullet. de la Soc. Centrale
+Vét.,’ in ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ July, 1878, and in ‘Ann.
+de Méd. Vét.,’ Oct., 1878, p. 563.&mdash;<i>Moorcroft</i>, “Brain Hydatids,”
+‘Med. Facts and Observ.,’ 1792.&mdash;<i>Morton, W. J. T.</i>, “On the
+Entozoa affecting Domesticated Animals, and particularly on
+<i>Fasc. hepatica</i> or Liver Fluke in Sheep,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xii,
+p. 735, 1839.&mdash;<i>Mosler</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Murie, J.</i>, “On the
+occurrence of <i>Œstrus tarandi</i> in a Reindeer in the Zoological
+Society’s Gardens,” ‘P. Z. S.,’ 1866, with woodcuts.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On
+a Leech (Trocheta) found in the Viscera of a Molluscan Deer
+(<i>Cervus moluccensis</i>, <i>Müller</i>),” <i>ibid.</i>, 1865.&mdash;<i>Numan</i>, “Over den
+Veelkop-blaasworm der Hersenen” (this beautifully illustrated
+memoir, in the ‘Trans. of the Dutch Soc. of Sciences,’ supplies
+an elaborate bibliography of continental writings on <i>Cœnurus
+cerebralis</i>&mdash;T. S. C.), ‘Œrste Kl. Verh.,’ 3e Reeks, 2e Deel,
+p. 225 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Oliver</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Padley, G.</i>, ‘On
+Entozoa from a Sheep;’ see Sandie.&mdash;<i>Parsons</i>, “On Diarrhœa
+in Lambs (with bronchial worms),” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1855, p. 685.&mdash;<i>Patellani</i>,
+“Sturdy in Cattle,” from ‘München Jahresbericht,’
+in ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxx, p. 81, 1857.&mdash;<i>Pellizzari</i> (see
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Perroncito</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Pourquier</i> (see
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Ralph, T. S.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="355"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355"></a></span>“On the Parasitic Nature of
+Pleuro-pneumonia,” &amp;c., two papers in ‘Austr. Med. Journ.,’
+1865.&mdash;<i>Ranke</i>, “Pulmonary Entozoic Disease of Sheep,” ‘Path.
+Soc. Trans.,’ 1858; see also ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxx, p. 708,
+1857.&mdash;<i>Raynaud</i>, “A Word on the Cachexia, or Rot in Ruminants,”
+trans. from the ‘Journ. des Vét.,’ by W. Ernes, in
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxiii, p. 488, 1859.&mdash;<i>Read, R.</i>, “Destruction
+of Strongylus and Filaria in the Bronchial Passages of
+Calves, through nasal inhalation of ether, chloroform, oil of
+turpentine, or rectified oil of amber,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxi,
+p. 604, 1848.&mdash;<i>Reck</i> (see De Reck).&mdash;<i>Reed, R.</i>, “Congenital
+Hydatids in a Lamb,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. viii, p. 551, 1835.&mdash;<i>Rhind</i>,
+“Description of a species of Worm (Pentastoma) found
+in the Frontal Sinus of a Sheep,” ‘Farrier and Naturalist,’
+vol. iii, p. 277, 1830, and ‘Lancet,’ 1829.&mdash;<i>Robertson</i>, “Remarks
+on Tænia in Lambs,” ‘Rep. of Scottish Med. Vet. Soc.,’ in
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1875, p. 80.&mdash;<i>Rochard</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Rose,
+C. B.</i>, “On Cœnurus and Acephalocysts,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’
+vol. xxiv, p. 525, 1844.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Anat. and Physiol. of
+the <i>Cysticercus tenuicollis</i>,” ‘Roy. Med.-Chir. Soc. Trans.,’ and
+‘Lancet,’ 1848.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Vesicular Entozoa, and particularly
+Hydatids,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ vol. xiii, p. 204, 1833&ndash;34.&mdash;<i>Sandie</i>
+(with <i>Padley</i>), “On Entozoa in the Lungs of a
+Sheep,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1849.&mdash;<i>Schwarzmeier</i>, “Die Trepanation
+des Rindes bei Cœnurus,” ‘Wochenschr. f. Thierheilk.,’
+1875, s. 295.&mdash;<i>Shenton</i>, “Worms from the Stomach of a Cow,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1844, p. 487.&mdash;<i>Siedamagrotzky</i>, “Hydatids in
+the Liver of a Cow,” ‘Bericht üb. das Veterinawesen im Kön.
+Sachsen,’ 1875, s. 29.&mdash;<i>Simonds, J. B.</i>, “Death of Sheep from
+Worms in the Stomach (abomasum), being remarks on Mr.
+Haywood’s case,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxxiv, p. 525, 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘The Rot in Sheep, its nature, cause, treatment, and
+prevention,’ London, 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Filariæ in the Bronchi
+of Calves,” ‘Trans. Vet. Med. Assoc.,’ 1843, p. 517.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Strongylus in the Bladder and Intestines,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1843.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On Hydatids of the Liver of a Sheep (Mr Scruby’s
+case),” <i>ibid.</i>, p. 331.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Disease of the Mesenteric
+Artery from Strongyli within the Vessel,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1854.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Lecture on the Nature and Causes of the Disease
+known as Rot in Sheep,” vol. xxxiv, p. 274, 1861.&mdash;<i>Spence, G.
+W.</i>, “On Œstrus of the Ox,” ‘Edin. Med. Journ.,’ 1858, and
+‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i, p. 400.&mdash;<i>St Cyr</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Stoddart,
+J.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="356"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356"></a></span>“Case of Hydatids in the Liver (of a Cow),”
+‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xi, p. 637, 1838.&mdash;<i>Sutton</i> (Lecture),
+‘Gardiner’s Chronicle,’ June 29, 1872.&mdash;<i>Sylvester, F. R.</i>, “Cases
+of Parasites infesting the Brains and Intestines of Lambs,”
+‘Vet. Rec.,’ vol. ii, p. 40, 1846.&mdash;<i>Thudichum</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Echinococci from the Sheep’s Lungs,” ‘Rep. Med.
+Soc. Lond.,’ in ‘Assoc. Med. Journ.,’ 1856, p. 195.&mdash;<i>Tommasi</i>
+(see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Van Beneden</i>, “On the Development of
+Cœnurus,” from ‘Comp. Rend.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xiv,
+1854.&mdash;<i>Watson, K. W.</i>, “Experiment for the Cure of the <i>gidd</i>
+(Cœnurus) in a Sheep,” ‘Lond. Med. Repos.,’ 1815.&mdash;<i>Willemoes-Suhm</i>,
+in ‘Sieb. and Köll. Zeitschr.,’ Bd. xxv, s. 176.&mdash;<i>Wilson,
+E.</i>, “On the Anatomy of <i>Trichocephalus affinis</i>,” ‘Vet. Rec.,’
+1846.&mdash;<i>Wymann</i>, “Note on Filaria in the Bronchi of a Sheep,”
+see Anon. on “Entozoa and Parasites,” in ‘Amer. Journ.
+Sci.,’ vol. xxxix, p. 183, 1840.&mdash;<i>Youatt</i>, “On Hydatids in the
+Sheep (symptoms, prevention, treatment, &amp;c.),” ‘Veterinarian,’
+vol. ii, p. 519, 1834.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the peculiar Bronchitis in
+young Cattle, accompanied by Worms in the Bronchial Passages,”
+part of lecture, in ‘Lancet,’ 1832.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Hydatids in the
+Brain of a St Domingo Goat,” ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. ix, p. 443,
+1836.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Bronchitis from Worms (in Cattle),” <i>ibid.</i>,
+vol. vi, p. 177, 1833.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Hydatids in the Brain (in Cattle),”
+<i>ibid.</i>, vol. vii.&mdash;<i>Yvart</i>, “Brain Hydatids,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1828, p. 19.&mdash;<i>Zahn</i>,
+“Lungenwürmer beim Reh,” ‘Œsterr. Vierteljahrschr. f.
+w. Vet.,’ 1875, s. 125.&mdash;<i>Zurn</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;For further
+references to the literature of Hydatids in Animals, see Bibliography
+No. <a href="#No_20_o">20, <i>o</i></a>, in the first half of this work.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part IX (Solidungula).</span></h3>
+
+<p>It will naturally be expected that I should give a full
+account of the parasites of the solipedal, solidungulate, or
+equine mammals. As regards the horse I regret that I cannot
+meet this expectation in so complete a manner as the subject
+deserves; nevertheless, with the aid of an extended bibliography
+the summary here offered will be found to be tolerably
+exhaustive. At all events I think I may say that no similar
+record has hitherto been attempted.</p>
+
+<p>The liver fluke (<i>Fasciola hepatica</i>), though not very frequent
+in the horse, is not uncommon in the ass. In dissecting-room
+subjects at the Royal Veterinary College it is often encountered.<span class="pagenum" title="357"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357"></a></span>
+In France it was originally found in the horse by Daubenton.
+As I learn from Sonsino, Dr Abbate Bey recently recorded a
+similar find at Cairo. In solipeds generally the liver fluke
+appears to be almost harmless, for, notwithstanding the frightful
+ravages produced by rot amongst a variety of animals
+besides sheep, we have no evidence of the destruction of horses
+from this cause. In the German outbreak of 1663&ndash;65 multitudes
+of cattle and deer perished, and in the French outbreak
+of 1829&ndash;30 five thousand horned beasts succumbed in the
+arrondissement of Montmédy alone. In neither of these
+epizoötics were the solipeds affected. More importance attaches
+itself to the study of the amphistomatoid flukes. These
+parasites, though in a scientific sense only recently discovered
+in equine bearers, have been long known to the natives of
+India. They appear to be capable of producing serious intestinal
+irritation. I have described two forms (<i>Amphistoma
+Collinsii</i> and <i>A. Coll.</i>, var. <i>Stanleyi</i>), which infest the colon.
+The specimens sent to Prof. Simonds from India by Mr Stanley,
+V.S., were much larger than those sent to me from Simla by
+Mr Collins, V.S., some ten years later (1875). As in all other
+amphistomes obtained from the intestines of elephants and
+cattle, the worms, when fresh, were of a bright brick-red color.
+By the natives of India these parasites are called <i>Masuri</i>;
+but no description of the worms had been published prior to
+the account which I gave of the contributions forwarded by
+Major-General Hawkes, Mr Collins, and Mr Stanley.</p>
+
+<p>I shall have occasion to speak of the elephant’s <i>Masuri</i>
+further on; but in the meantime I must remark that the
+generally received notion as to the parasitic cause of the earth-eating
+propensities of various animals seems to have some
+foundation in fact. Not alone from Major-General Hawkes in
+Madras, from Mr Folkard in Ceylon, and from various other
+trustworthy sources, have I been informed of this habit on the
+part of Indian horses, but Dr Rowe told me that Australian
+horses, and even sheep, infested with stomach-worms, are in the
+constant habit of consuming large quantities of sand. From
+all the facts that have come before me, I am inclined to think
+that gastric or intestinal irritation, however brought about,
+may induce the habit in question, parasites being only one of
+the many sources of irritation giving rise to symptoms of colic
+in solipeds and pachyderms alike. At all events the African
+elephants at the London Zoological Society’s Menagerie, as<span class="pagenum" title="358"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358"></a></span>
+repeatedly witnessed by myself, are in the habit of swallowing
+large quantities of soft mud during the summer months, but
+no traces of <i>masuri</i> have as yet been detected in their
+fæces.</p>
+
+<p>When by letter I informed Major-General Hawkes of an interesting
+find by Mr Collins of <i>about a thousand</i> Amphistomes in
+the colon of a horse that had died at Simla, the announcement
+called forth a reply which is sufficiently instructive to be quoted.
+Writing from Secunderabad in July, 1875, he says, respecting
+this “find:”&mdash;“Your statement has incidentally thrown light
+upon a subject which has puzzled many of us in this country.
+It occasionally happens that a horse, on being opened after
+death, is found to have accumulated in his intestines large
+quantities of sand and gravel. In a recent case this accumulation
+amounted to <span class="nowrap">14<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span>&nbsp;lbs.</span> Until recently it was always held
+that this gravel or sand could only be introduced with the
+animal’s food. All grain in this country is trodden out by
+bullocks on an earthen floor, and the grain undoubtedly contains
+a proportion of sand and gravel derived from this source.
+Although this <i>ought to be</i> carefully washed out before it is given
+to the horse, still, owing to the carelessness of the native horse-keepers,
+this cleaning is, I expect, often omitted. In the daily
+‘feed’ of eight or ten pounds of grain given to each horse the
+utmost quantity of sand or gravel that could be found admixed
+therewith would not probably exceed two or three ounces;
+consequently it would take from 77 to 116 days to accumulate
+so large a quantity as <span class="nowrap">14<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span>&nbsp;lbs.</span> Now, the advocates of the theory
+of the gradual accumulation of sand in this way have never been
+able to explain why the grain, grass, hay, and other ingesta
+should pass in the ordinary way through the intestines, whilst
+this sand or gravel remains behind. One can understand the
+possibility of such substances as wool, hair, or similar matters
+concreting in the alimentary canal, though I believe they are
+usually found in the stomach, and not in the intestines; but
+how a most incohesive substance like sand can possibly accumulate
+in the gradual way required by their theory I have never
+heard even plausibly explained. On the other hand, the fact
+that horses are often excessively addicted to eating earth is
+well known; and if my memory serves me correctly, it was
+found necessary, about twenty years ago, to remove the mud-walls
+of the pickets surrounding some of the horses of a
+mounted corps in this presidency in consequence of this habit.<span class="pagenum" title="359"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359"></a></span>
+Now, given the fact that the amphistoma has been found in the
+horse (as your specimens prove), may we not fairly suppose it
+possible that the animal resorts to the same mode of ridding
+himself of this parasite as does the elephant? and also, would
+it not in a much more natural manner account for the large
+quantity of gravel or sand found in the intestines than does the
+theory of gradual accumulation? Reasoning from analogy, as
+in the case of the elephant, this eating of earth in the horse
+would be an instinctive effort on the part of the “host” to rid
+himself of the parasite. This self-taken remedy is doubtless in
+many cases quite effectual, <i>though unnoticed</i>. The fatal cases
+are probably those in which the horse has either overdone the
+remedy or where the
+system was too debilitated
+to carry off a
+quantity of sand or
+gravel that would
+otherwise have safely
+passed through the
+intestines of a horse
+in more robust health.
+The actual fact must,
+of course, be verified
+by careful investigation.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 295px;">
+<a id="Fig_62"></a>
+<img src="images/f62.jpg" width="295" height="457" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>&mdash;<i>Gastrodiscus Sonsinonis.</i> <i>a</i>, Mouth; <i>b</i>, caudal sucker
+and posterior mesial cleft; <i>c</i>, left lip of the gastric disk; <i>d</i>,
+anterior mesial cleft; <i>e</i>, e. gastric suckerlets; <i>f</i>, reproductive
+papilla. Enlarged. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Closely allied to
+the Masuri is an
+amphistome which I
+originally named <i>Gastrodiscus
+Sonsinoii</i>,
+but which should be
+altered as opposite
+(Fig. 62). It exceeds
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+breadth (16&nbsp;mm. long
+by 10 broad). Its discovery
+by Dr Sonsino
+was one of the results
+of his examination of
+sixteen carcases of solipeds
+that died during
+the Egyptian plague of 1876. Specimens having been forwarded<span class="pagenum" title="360"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360"></a></span>
+to Panceri, Von Siebold, Leuckart, and myself, most of us at
+once agreed that the worm was new to science. Pointing to
+the genera, <i>Notocotylus</i> and <i>Aspidocotylus</i>, I explained its close
+affinity to the latter more particularly. Whilst <i>Notocotylus</i> has
+fifty supplementary suckers on its back, <i>Aspidocotylus</i> has nearly
+two hundred small ventral suckers seated on a convex disk.
+In <i>Gastrodiscus</i> a still larger number of suckerlets are placed
+in the deep concavity of a large gastric disk formed by the
+outstretched and inrolled margins of the body of the parasite.
+Zoologically speaking, the odd thing about this singular worm
+lies in the circumstance that its nearest fluke-relation, so to speak
+(<i>Aspidocotylus mutablis</i>), dwells in a spiny-finned fish (Cataphractus);
+and this fish itself forms an aberrant genus of the
+family to which it belongs (Triglidæ). From what has been
+said it will be seen that our <i>Gastrodiscus</i> must not be confounded
+with <i>Cotylegaster cochleariform</i> (or with its synonym <i>Aspidogaster
+cochleariformis</i>), to which parasite Von Siebold was, I believe,
+induced to refer it. Like most of the true amphistomes, the
+worm in question infests the intestines. Although discovered by
+Sonsino at Zagazig in plague-affected corpses, there is no reason
+to suppose that this helminth was in any way etiologically
+connected with the Egyptian epizoöty.</p>
+
+<p>The tapeworms of the horse are of great interest practically.
+Excluding Sander’s <i>Tænia zebræ</i>, which was doubtless <i>T. plicata</i>,
+at least five species have been described, but they may probably
+be all reduced to two distinct forms and their varieties. Whilst
+<i>Tænia plicata</i> acquires a length of three feet, the strobile of
+<i>T. perfoliata</i> never exceeds five inches. The lobes at the base of
+the head in the latter are distinctive. The former is usually
+confined to the small intestine, but the perfoliate worm often
+occupies the cæcum and colon in great numbers. As regards
+<i>T. mamillana</i>, I may say that neither Gurlt’s descriptions nor his
+figures are convincing. The worm is, I believe, identical with
+<i>T. perfoliata</i>. In like manner, after going into the matter
+with some care, I am accustomed to speak of Mégnin’s <i>T. inerme</i>
+as <i>T. perfoliata</i>, var. <i>Mégnini</i>, and of Baillet’s <i>T. innomé</i> as <i>T.
+perfoliata</i>, var. <i>Bailletii</i>. I have examined great numbers of
+equine tapeworms, but whether my determinations on this point
+are correct or not, the case recorded by Mégnin is of remarkable
+interest. Clinically, indeed, it is not entirely unique, since
+a somewhat similar case has been recorded by Mr Poulton.
+In Mégnin’s equine patient the autopsy revealed the presence<span class="pagenum" title="361"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361"></a></span>
+of 200 bots, 153 lumbricoids, upwards of 400 oxyurides,
+and several thousand palisade worms, besides numerous tapeworms.
+In Mr Poulton’s patient large quantities of tapeworms
+were found in the duodenum (and in large sacs of the
+walls of other sections of the small intestine), and also myriads
+of the little four-spined strongyle, in addition to about a score
+of palisade worms. Both Mégnin’s and Poulton’s patients died
+suddenly; but the great interest attaching to Mégnin’s case
+arises from the boldness of manner in which the French <i>savant</i>
+interprets the phenomena of the intestinal sacculation in relation
+to the development of the tapeworms. M. Mégnin assumes
+that the sacs are due to the formation of polycephalous or
+cœnuroid scolices. Without contradicting Mégnin’s ingenious
+interpretation of the phenomena in question, I may say that the
+difficulty I have in accepting his view arises from the circumstance
+of the rarity of the occurrence of these sacs. In Poulton’s
+case of <i>Tænia perfoliata</i>, the sacs were present, and they
+were productive of similar results; but in the scores of other
+recorded cases of sudden death from the same species of tapeworm
+(as published by Mr Rees Lloyd, and myself), the presence
+of such sac-formations is not once mentioned. To be
+sure, their presence may have been overlooked, but this is
+scarcely likely, seeing the great care taken by Mr Lloyd in
+conducting the autopsies. I cannot dwell upon the subject at
+greater length. The presence of so many sexually-immature
+strobiles, combined with the existence of the intestinal wall
+sacs, certainly does seem to point to the existence of cœnuroid
+bladder-worms, but until the existence of the polycephalous
+scolex be actually demonstrated one must be cautious in concluding
+“that the horse nourishes at the same time the strobila
+and scolex of the unarmed tapeworm.” Practically, we now
+know for certain that not only are tapeworms capable of producing
+a fatal issue in isolated cases, such as those recorded
+by Mégnin and Poulton, but that they may also be productive
+of disastrous epizoöty, as proved by Mr Lloyd in the case of
+Welsh mountain ponies.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection I may perhaps be pardoned for saying
+that this discovery in 1875 was one of the practical results
+directly issuing from the publication of my ‘Manual’ in
+1874. The attention of the veterinary profession having
+been called to the subject of parasitic epizoöty, Mr Lloyd
+was the first to make search for helminths amongst some<span class="pagenum" title="362"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362"></a></span>
+few of the carcases of the hundred and more equine animals that
+perished in South Wales. Two totally distinct epizoötics prevailed.
+In the Beacons district tapeworms alone were the
+cause of death, whilst in the Deangunid district scores of animals
+perished from strongyles. In another district a hundred
+animals perished from tapeworms. These parasites I identified
+as examples of <i>Strongylus tetracanthus</i> and <i>Tænia perfoliata</i>.
+Taking all the helminthological facts together we have made a
+great advance both in hippopathology and equine epidemiology;
+and, as I observed at the time, the scepticism which not
+unnaturally still exists (in reference to entozoa as a frequent
+cause of death amongst animals, both wild and domesticated)
+will sooner or later be dispersed by that wider attention to the
+subject which our labors have invoked.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to equine disease the facts brought forward
+are too important to be dismissed in a single paragraph.
+As two distinct kinds of parasitic epizoöty were discovered,
+the circumstances connected with their separate detection must
+be noticed at greater length. Further on, I shall again deal
+with the helminthiasis due to strongyles. It was on the 17th
+of April, 1874, that I received from Mr Lloyd, of Dowlais,
+Glamorganshire, a communication calling my attention to a
+fatal epizoötic affecting ponies. He supposed the outbreak to
+be due to parasites. On the following day I also received a
+parcel containing portions of the lower intestines, which had
+been removed from one of the diseased animals. The victim in
+question, a pony mare, had died on or about the 12th of April,
+at Llangunider, Breconshire. Mr Lloyd states in his letter
+that he “presumes” that the pony’s death was caused “by the
+presence of small worms,” examples of which he now forwarded
+for the purposes of identification and investigation. He
+also sent some equine tapeworms. Mr Lloyd had already
+inferred that his small worms were “strongyles;” and in regard
+to the tapeworms he <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“This species of parasite has caused,
+or is supposed to have caused, the death of at least one hundred
+mountain ponies.” The investigation being immediately proceeded
+with, I may so far anticipate my record of the results
+obtained as to state at once that the facts observed by me confirmed
+Mr Lloyd’s suspicions&mdash;proving, beyond a doubt, that
+the pony above mentioned had succumbed to injuries inflicted
+by myriads of minute strongyles. Not only did I find the
+fæcal matter of the colon loaded with mature strongyles, but<span class="pagenum" title="363"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363"></a></span>
+the walls of the intestine were also occupied with encysted and
+immature forms of the same nematode species. To such an
+extent had infection taken place, that I was enabled to count
+no less than thirty-nine strongyles within the space of the one
+fourth of a square inch. All parts of the sections of the colon
+under examination were almost equally invaded; so that, taking
+the average, I am clearly within the mark in saying that every
+square inch of the gut yielded at least one hundred parasites.
+The walls of the entire colon must therefore have been occupied
+by tens of thousands of these creatures, to say nothing of the
+scarcely less numerous examples lying free or lodged within the
+fæcal contents of the bowel.</p>
+
+<p>In a second and more extended communication, sent in reply
+to inquiries as to the cestodes, Mr Lloyd (whose letter I have
+abridged) <span class="nowrap">writes:&mdash;</span>“I regret that I cannot give you very full
+particulars respecting the tapeworms. During the last twelve
+months mountain ponies grazing on the lower districts of
+Breconshire, which comprise some of the highest mountains in
+South Wales, have been dying in great numbers, from what the
+farmers indefinitely term inflammation. From what I have seen
+and heard, it appears that there are three causes of death, the
+tapeworm, the small worms (which I presumed were a kind of
+strongyle), and catarrhal disorders, such as have been common
+among horses of late. By far the greater number of deaths
+(from what I can glean) have been caused by the parasites. In
+the Ystradfellte or Penderin districts there has been no investigation,
+although the disease has reigned there for a longer
+period, about eighteen months, with (from what I have heard)
+a larger number of deaths than elsewhere; so I shall let these
+remain for the present, as I have not had an opportunity to see
+or hear anything authentic about them. In the Talybont
+district the cause appears to be the small worms (like those I
+sent). The owner of the animals said that a month ago, when
+he went to look after his ponies, they were appearing quite well,
+and looked as well as he could expect them at this season,
+but he was astonished to find some of them a fortnight ago
+looking very lean and wasting, and he thought that the weather
+was the cause of it, yet resolved to see them oftener; the next
+time he saw them one was dead, and knowing of the loss in the
+neighbourhood, and fearing he would be a sufferer, he sought
+aid, applying to me. When I arrived two days following two
+more were dead, and they presented an emaciated appearance.<span class="pagenum" title="364"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364"></a></span>
+The post-mortem examination revealed a healthy condition of
+the whole of the intestines, save slight thickening of some parts
+of the colon and rectum, which contained, enclosed in the
+mucous membrane, in cysts or minute sacs, worms coiled upon
+themselves. Each cyst, containing one worm, was best seen
+by transmitted light. The colon was nearly full of fæcal
+matter, which contained thousands of parasites scarcely visible.
+The largest were very few in number, not exceeding an
+inch in length and barely one sixteenth in diameter at the
+middle portion. They somewhat tapered at both ends. The
+cæcum was half full of fluid fæces, containing no visible worms;
+the rectum, with fæces of natural consistence, the examination
+of which revealed only two or three evident worms; so that
+the examination of fæces of living animals giving results like
+this would not assist the diagnosis, unless suspected. Small
+intestines&mdash;these latter contained about a dozen bots, which
+were nearly free, but had pierced to the muscular coat. I
+should think they had participated in the disease. The right
+lung had been slightly congested; nothing else abnormal to be
+seen. Possibly congestion of lungs would arise from the
+distress when pained with worms, for the pony was found on its
+back with its head in a thicket&mdash;it had not appeared to have
+struggled&mdash;with its teeth firmly closed.</p>
+
+<p>“Respecting the animals affected with Tænia, it is remarkable
+that, as a rule, they are in fair condition. The average
+time they appear to be troubled with the worms is two months,
+and the symptoms observed have been many. They are at
+first seen to be unable to keep up with the other ponies, extending
+the head and turning the upper lip up, rubbing the
+quarters, staring coat, suddenly appearing distracted, seizing
+turf in mouthfuls when being griped or pained, others running
+away as fast as they can go, or rolling and kicking on the
+ground for five or ten minutes, then walking away as if nothing
+had happened, if coming down a slope quickly almost sure to
+fall headlong, easier caught, not unfrequently coughing, groaning
+noise, appetite good, and, what is peculiar in some of them, lameness
+of one of the hind limbs, mostly the near hind leg, with
+slight knuckling over at fetlock.</p>
+
+<p>“<i>Post-mortem appearance.</i>&mdash;Abdominal viscera normal, save
+rectum, which is in some places slightly congested; colon
+nearly full of fæces, no worms; cæcum, in which worms are
+alone found, is nearly full of fæcal matter of thicker consistence<span class="pagenum" title="365"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365"></a></span>
+than usual, and nearly half made up of worms; stomach half
+full of partly digested food; heart and lungs healthy; Schneiderian
+membrane injected; mucous membrane of trachea and
+part of larger bronchiæ of a more or less livid colour (which
+may be owing to asphyxia); corner of tongue bitten off; mouth
+very close.</p>
+
+<p>“Several animals were found at times lying dead together.</p>
+
+<p>“Of the <i>Tænia</i> as many as three or four ponies, which some
+hours previous had been seen grazing unaffected, were found
+dead on the same spot; and this to my own knowledge, one
+farmer having lost ten.</p>
+
+<p>“Of the small worms I have been told by a farmer that in
+his district one of his neighbours had lost twelve ponies.”</p>
+
+<p>As I had partly misunderstood my informant’s original
+statement, Mr Lloyd, in a third communication, repeated the
+evidence, emphatically reminding me that “the ponies affected
+with tapeworms are in a district six or seven miles distant from
+those affected with strongyles. Those troubled with tapeworms
+are in good condition, as a rule, up to death; they are noticed
+to be troubled generally for two months previous to death,
+and may be seen at one hour grazing and apparently well, and
+dead or dying the next hour. As many as four have been
+found dead at the same spot. In this (the Beacons) district
+the tapeworms alone have been found and not a single strongyle.
+In the Deangunid district strongyles only have been found, such
+as I sent you. The ponies have been noticed ailing for three
+or four weeks, becoming rapidly emaciated and dying from
+exhaustion. In tapeworm-affected animals the cæcum is nearly
+half full of these parasites. The animals thus affected are
+on the red sandstone formation, whilst those affected with
+strongyles occur on the limestone formation&mdash;the latter affording
+the drier situation.”</p>
+
+<p>Being on the teaching staff of the Royal Veterinary College
+I was particularly glad to have the authority of an experienced
+veterinary practitioner to testify to the injuriousness of <i>Tænia
+perfoliata</i> in the horse. Over and over again I had pointed
+out to the members of my class the desirability of examining
+the fæces of solipeds where obscure symptoms of intestinal irritation
+existed. Not only so; at the request of friends I wrote out
+prescriptions suitable for equine patients suffering from tapeworm.
+I felt the more indebted to Mr Lloyd, inasmuch as his practical
+views served to strengthen the propositions I had advanced in<span class="pagenum" title="366"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366"></a></span>
+connection with internal parasites as a frequent cause of epizoötics.
+My views were criticised at the time with a vigour and
+warmth well worthy of those who are afraid of advancing
+epidemiological science too rapidly; but it seems that so far
+from my having overstepped the bounds of moderation in this
+matter I had, in reality, been too cautious. Certainly it can
+now no longer be said that “the symptoms created by tapeworms
+in the horse are of little or no consequence.” Here,
+therefore, I repeat, we have made a clear and rapid advance in
+our knowledge of helminthic disease; and from the impulse
+thus given to hippopathology it is only reasonable to look for
+still further advances in veterinary medicine. By-and-by, the
+scepticism which not unnaturally exists in reference to entozoa
+as a frequent cause of death amongst animals, will be dispersed
+by even yet clearer enunciations regarding the important part
+these parasites play in the destruction of our most valuable
+creatures.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the question incidentally raised by Mégnin as to
+their origin and mode of development, the presence of larval
+cestodes in horses cannot be passed over. The common hydatid
+(<i>Echinococcus veterinorum</i>), though not of frequent occurrence,
+is occasionally productive of fatal consequences. Very interesting
+cases are recorded by Messrs Henderson and Kirkman,
+aided by the valuable comments of Professor Varnell. Mr
+Hutchinson observed an hydatid in a horse’s eye, and Mr Vincent
+noticed lameness, as resulting from hydatids. But one of
+the most interesting cases of hydatids in solipeds is that
+described by Professor Huxley, from a zebra that died at the
+Zoological Gardens in 1852. As stated in Huxley’s elaborate
+memoir (freely quoted in the first part of this work), the liver
+was found to be “one mass of cysts, varying in size from a
+child’s head downwards.” The zebra’s death was purely accidental,
+as it broke its neck while at play in the paddock. The
+long bladder-worm of the horse (<i>Cysticercus fistularia</i>) is entirely
+unknown to me, and, as before suggested, may be a mere
+variety of the <i>C. tenuicollis</i> of ruminants. An authentic instance
+of the occurrence of the gid hydatid (<i>Cœnurus cerebralis</i>)
+in the horse is recorded by Gurlt. Lastly, in relation to the
+question of food, it is worthy of remark that whilst beef, veal,
+pork, and even mutton, are apt to be measled, the muscle-flesh
+of horses is not liable to be infested by Cysticerci. This is a
+fact in favor of hippophagy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="367"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The nematodes of solipeds are very numerous, and first in
+importance must be placed the palisade worm (<i>Strongylus
+armatus</i>). This worm was known to Ruysch (1721). The old
+naturalists recognised two varieties (<i>major</i> and <i>minor</i>). These
+we now know to be merely the final stages of growth of one
+and the same entozoon; and in both stages the worm inflicts
+severe injury upon the bearer, chiefly, however, whilst wandering
+through the tissues. The palisade worm has acquired notoriety
+principally on account of its causing verminous aneurism,
+nevertheless, this pathological change is not, in itself, the most
+disastrous evil produced by the worm. In the adult state the
+female reaches a length of two inches, whilst the male rarely
+exceeds an inch and a half. The posterior ray of the caudal
+membrane or hood of the male is three-cleft. In both sexes
+the head is armed with numerous, closely-set, upright denticles,
+presenting the appearance of the teeth of a circular saw or
+trephine. The eggs are elliptical and somewhat constricted at
+the centre, their contents forming embryos after expulsion from
+both parent-worm and host. The larvæ are rhabditiform,
+changing their skin, in moist earth, in about three weeks, at
+which time they part with their long tails. According to
+Leuckart, they pass into the body of an intermediate bearer
+before entering the stomach of the definitive or equine host.
+From the alimentary canal they pass to the blood-vessels,
+causing aneurism, and thence they seek to regain the intestinal
+canal, where they arrive at sexual maturity. It is during
+their migratory efforts that they give rise to dangerous symptoms
+in the bearer, not unfrequently causing the death of
+young animals, especially yearlings. In the adult state the
+worm is also dangerous to the bearer, as it produces severe
+wounds by anchoring to the mucous membrane of the gut.</p>
+
+<p>The proofs we possess as to the frequency of abdominal, especially
+mesenteric, aneurism from this source are overwhelming.
+Prof. Brüchmüller estimated the percentage of aneurismal
+horses, six years old and upwards, at 91 per cent., and it is a
+matter of common observation in veterinary dissecting rooms
+that verminous aneurism is rarely or never absent in the ass.
+Professors Dick, Simonds, Pritchard, Williams, and many other
+English and Scotch veterinarians of eminence, have all borne
+testimony of this kind, and, for myself, I may say that one of
+the earliest pathological appearances with which I became
+familiar, some thirty years back, was that presented by mesen<span class="pagenum" title="368"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368"></a></span>teric
+arterial disease of the ass. In relation to fatal colics in
+the horse the study of verminous aneurism is of the highest
+moment. On this subject Prof. Friedberger has published some
+valuable lectures, in which, amongst other points, he incidentally
+remarks upon the comparative freedom of military horses from
+aneurism as compared with ordinary laboring horses. This
+arises partly from the fact that the latter are not cared for to
+the same extent, dietetically and otherwise; and, moreover,
+cavalry horses are, as a rule, younger than ordinary working
+animals. Whilst Friedberger, in his suggestive brochure, does
+ample justice to the writings of his colleague, Dr Bollinger, it
+may be said, in like manner, that he does not fail to recognise
+his great indebtedness to the researches of Leuckart. So
+practically important, however, do I deem Bollinger’s summary
+of the whole subject in relation to the hippopathological aspects
+of parasitism, that I feel it desirable to record his conclusions
+at full length. No professional man having any pretensions to
+a knowledge of the veterinary art&mdash;or, for that matter, to
+parasitism in relation to sanitation&mdash;should remain uninformed
+on this subject. Dr Bollinger’s results are thus stated:</p>
+
+<p>1. The worm aneurism of the visceral arteries of the horse,
+existing in 90 to 94 per cent. of adult horses, has a general
+correspondence with the <i>aneurisma verum mixtum</i> of man. It
+is, however, distinguishable from the same by its seat, cause,
+character of its walls, contents, and mode of termination. The
+worm-aneurism arises from a parasitism of the palisade worm
+(<i>Strongylus armatus</i>), owing to an inflammatory affection of the
+arterial walls which it causes, and which one may describe as
+a recurrent traumatic endo-arteritis. This holds good for all
+the visceral arteries, with the exception of the abdominal aorta,
+in which an aneurism may arise from local increase of pressure.</p>
+
+<p>2. The formation and further development of the aneurism is
+also favored by the narrowing of the arterial calibre, which
+is caused by the inflammatory swelling of its walls, and also by
+the contemporaneous formation of a thrombus (clot), this latter
+still further supporting and exciting the inflammation of the
+inner coat.</p>
+
+<p>3. Whilst the causes above mentioned (and of these more
+particularly the continued presence of the palisade worms and
+the plugging of the smaller arteries by thrombi) favor the
+growth of the worm-aneurism, the small size of the same, notwithstanding
+the years it has existed, is explained by the con<span class="pagenum" title="369"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369"></a></span>siderable
+hypertrophy of the muscular layer, by the tough fibrous
+capsule formed in many cases by the connective tissue of the
+mesentery, and by the adhesion of the intestines to the perpendicular
+and free-lying anterior mesenteric artery; in particular
+this last-named circumstance does not allow of any very considerable
+shortening of the mesenteric artery, which would necessarily
+be accompanied by considerable dilatation of the arterial tube.</p>
+
+<p>4. The favorite seat of the worm-aneurism is the trunk of the
+anterior mesenteric artery, directly at its origin from the abdominal
+aorta. Most frequently that part of the arterial trunk is
+dilated from which the arteria ilea, cæcales, and colica inferior
+(<i>arteria ileo-cæco-colica</i>) arise, less frequently the arteria colica
+superior at its origin, and the arteries of the cæcum and colon
+in their course in the meso-cæcum and meso-colon. The
+verminous aneurism also occurs in the cœliac artery (Bauchschlagader),
+in the posterior mesenteric artery (Gekrös-arterie),
+in the renal artery, and in the abdominal aorta. A horse is not
+unfrequently afflicted with several aneurisms of this kind at one
+and the same time. Thus in one case (described by Bollinger)
+there were six of these aneurisms affecting the abdominal aorta
+and its branches in the same horse. The verminous aneurism
+may occur from the sixth month of life onwards, and with
+increasing age; the number of horses free from such aneurisms
+becomes continually smaller.</p>
+
+<p>5. The size of the aneurism varies between that of a pea and
+that of a man’s head. The dilatation is, as a rule, equal on all
+sides, the form being usually thumb-shaped or bottle-shaped,
+passing into that of a cone or long oval figure. This general
+configuration is principally due to the free and moveable situation
+of the anterior mesenteric artery.</p>
+
+<p>6. In contrast to aneurisms in man, the walls of the worm-aneurism
+of the horse are almost without exception indurated.
+In addition to the mesenteric connective tissue, all the arterial
+coats, and especially the <i>tunica media</i>, generally take part in this
+induration. The hypertrophy of the media, which stands
+unique in respect of what is known of arterial disease, forms a
+compensatory action of the arterial wall, analogous to the
+muscular hypertrophy of the heart in valvular disease. This
+change in the media points to the fact that in the development
+of aneurism in man the early disturbance of the nutritive process
+in the <i>tunica media</i> is not a less essential factor than the
+degeneration of the <i>tunica intima</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="370"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>The changes in the <i>intima</i> are the least constant. They
+present all stages of progressive and retrogressive metamorphosis,
+from simple induration to ulceration and calcification.
+In the walls of the verminous aneurism one not unfrequently
+finds all the pathological changes exhibited by <i>atheroma</i> in man.
+Calcification is a common form of the retrograde process, and,
+in very rare cases, may pass on to the formation of true bone.</p>
+
+<p>7. In addition to the palisade worms, one almost constantly
+finds a parietal thrombus contained in the aneurism. It covers
+the inner wall either partially or completely, being in the latter
+case perforated for arterial offshoots. This clot may occlude
+the artery, and it is not unfrequently continued into the arterial
+branches (peripherally) or into the aorta (centrally). Amongst
+the various changes that the clot undergoes, organisation of its
+outermost layer and softening are the most frequent. The
+constant occurrence of this clot is due to the presence of the
+worms, to the inflammation, ulcerative and regressive affection
+of the intima, and to the dilatation of the arterial tube.</p>
+
+<p>8. The palisade worms are seldom absent from aneurisms of
+the horse. Their not being present is merely an accidental
+circumstance. On the average, nine palisade worms go to a
+verminous aneurism, and eleven in the horse. The highest
+number of worms found in one horse reached 121. Not unfrequently,
+also, palisade worms, or their coverings in the form of
+larval skins, are found in the aneurismal walls. The immigration
+and emigration of the palisade worms out of the intestine
+into the aneurism, and the reverse, take place probably, as a
+rule, within the arterial circulation. The path of the worm
+does not appear to be always the same, inasmuch as they
+can also wander through the peritoneal cavity. The worms
+found in the aneurismal walls are probably mostly only strayed
+specimens.</p>
+
+<p>9. From a comparative pathologico-anatomical point of view,
+the developmental history of the aneurysma verminosum proves
+that a circumscribed endo-arteritis can determine the formation
+of an aneurism.</p>
+
+<p>10. Like the worm-aneurism itself, atheroma of the abdominal
+arteries arises from a circumscribed acute and subacute
+endo-arteritis. The histological changes in the secondary
+atheroma of horses are perfectly analogous to those of the
+spontaneous atheroma of man. Idiopathic atheroma, as seen
+in man, does not occur any more in the horse than in the other<span class="pagenum" title="371"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371"></a></span>
+domestic animals. Atheroma in the horse is always secondary.
+To be sure, one observes an idiopathic chronic endo-arteritis in
+many abdominal arteries of the horse, which, however, never
+exhibits indications of atheromatous degeneration.</p>
+
+<p>11. In consequence of its position the worm-aneurism of
+horses is not open to physical examination, and on that account
+cannot be diagnosed by physical signs; moreover, it offers no
+characteristic symptoms. Its termination by rupture is
+extremely rare, the aneurisms of the abdominal aorta being
+more disposed to rupture than those of the anterior mesenteric
+artery. Of eighteen cases of known perforation, fifteen opened
+into the peritoneal cavity, and three into the bowel. The
+dangerous symptoms of the worm-aneurism are exclusively due
+to embolism and thrombosis of the affected artery, arising from
+the parietal clot. The latter becomes especially dangerous
+through its increasing size and the softening which often
+accompanies it. The absorption and shrinking of this parietal
+clot, be it organised or not, is materially assisted by the high
+pressure to which it is exposed.</p>
+
+<p>12. The very marked symptoms of vascular obstruction&mdash;the
+sero-hæmorrhagic intestinal infarct&mdash;in embolism and thrombosis
+of the mesenteric arteries are easily explained by paralysis of
+the muscular coat of the intestine, by the absence or paucity of
+valves in the portal vein, by the readiness with which meteorismus
+(or flatus) arises, especially in herbivora, and by the loose
+consistence of the intestinal walls or villi.</p>
+
+<p>13. The occlusion of the intestinal arteries, especially that
+arising suddenly, always has for its result a partial or complete
+paralysis of the portion of bowel which they supply. The
+palsy of the intestine causes the forward movement of the
+intestinal contents to cease, a stoppage of the fæces, a hindrance
+to the discharge of fæces and gas, and also that exceedingly
+dangerous formation of gas (within the intestinal tract)
+which in the herbivora is so abnormal, both quantitatively and
+qualitatively.</p>
+
+<p>14. In embolism and thrombosis of the mesenteric arteries
+the symptoms during life are entirely identical with those
+observed in the so-called colic of horses, as has been determined
+by numerous observations. The partial paralysis of the bowel,
+which is brought on by the embolism and thrombosis of the
+mesenteric arteries, forms in great part the chief and leading
+feature of the series of symptoms known as the “colic” of<span class="pagenum" title="372"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372"></a></span>
+horses. The palsy of the bowel which arises in this way may
+explain also the frequent ruptures of the digestive canal and
+the greater number of its changes in position. The latter are
+specially favored by the structure of the abdominal viscera in
+the horse.</p>
+
+<p>15. The old changes which one finds in the peripheral
+branches of the anterior mesenteric artery, in the form of
+expired and partly absorbed embolic and thrombolic processes
+(pigmentation, arterial and venous thrombi), particularly in
+connection with those arteries which are seats of the aneurism,
+decisively prove that the large majority of colics resulting in
+recovery, so far as they do not depend upon known injuries,
+are caused by paralysis of the bowel from embolism and
+thrombosis. The sudden occurrence, course, and result of these
+kinds of colics also testify to their embolic origin.</p>
+
+<p>16. The œdematous, inflammatory, and hæmorrhagic processes
+that one often finds described as the cause of death in colic,
+almost exclusively depend on thrombosis and embolism of the
+mesenteric arteries, the cases forming about 40 to 50 per cent.
+of all fatal colics.</p>
+
+<p>17. The rapid course in fatal colics, as well as the preponderating
+symptoms of dyspnœa in cases of recovery, is finally
+due to the abnormal development of gas in the alimentary
+canal. In addition to the diminution of the respiratory surface
+by the lofty position of the diaphragm, a direct gas-poisoning
+(carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen) probably contributes
+to the intensity of the symptoms and the rapid course by
+diffusion of the abnormally developed gas out of the intestinal
+canal into the blood.</p>
+
+<p>18. The variety of the anatomical derangements caused by
+embolism and thrombosis of the intestinal arteries is faithfully
+mirrored by the variety of the clinical symptoms and the
+different degrees in the intensity and course of the colic.</p>
+
+<p>19. Amongst every 100 horses afflicted with internal disease,
+40 are ill with colic. Among any hundred deceased horses 40
+have perished from colic, and among 100 colic patients 87
+recover and 13 die. The figures prove that neither amongst
+the epizoötic nor sporadic diseases of horses is there any other
+affection which occurs so frequently, or claims anything like so
+many victims. Like the frequency of the worm-aneurism, the
+amount of disease and mortality increases with advancing age.
+The etiology of the colic of horses finds in the thrombosis and<span class="pagenum" title="373"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373"></a></span>
+embolism of the mesenteric arteries, with the consequent
+paralysis of the bowel, an all-sufficient explanation, whilst
+the causes of colic hitherto accepted were for the most part
+insufficient.</p>
+
+<p>20. In a great number of cases the thrombus of the worm-aneurism
+is continued past the mouth of the anterior mesenteric
+artery, into the lumen of the aorta, and, as such, is the exclusive
+cause of the embolisms of the pelvic and crural arteries which bring
+about the intermittent hobblings (the author says “intermitterenden
+Hinken,” not “Hahnentritten,” the usual equivalent
+term for stringhalt). Considering the excessive frequency of
+the thrombus being continued into the aorta, it becomes highly
+probable that a great part of the diseases and lameness of the
+posterior extremities (“Hüft und Kreuzlähme, unsichtbarer
+Spath, &amp;c.,” which may be rendered “sciatic and hip or spinal
+lameness, obscure spavin, &amp;c.”) are due to occlusion of the arteries.</p>
+
+<p>21. Owing to the fibrous thickening of the connective tissue
+of the root of the anterior mesenteric round the aneurism, and
+to the considerable size of the latter, disturbances of the innervation
+of the intestine, (as well as) hindrances to the passage of
+the chyle, and irregularities in the portal circulation may be
+created, which may well lie at the root of many chronic disturbances
+of digestion in horses.</p>
+
+<p>22. Considering the great losses and heavy social disadvantages
+that are occasioned by the colic of horses to the
+horse-breeder, to agriculture, and to the general welfare, it is
+of the highest importance to discover means which should
+prevent the introduction of the embryos with the food, and, as
+a consequence, the migration of the palisade worms into the
+mesenteric arteries of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>I wish it to be distinctly understood that the above summary
+is translated from Bollinger (<i>Die Kolik</i>; s. 257). Instructive
+cases have been recorded both at home and abroad. Prof.
+Varnell has remarked that “foals and yearlings suffer more
+from parasites in the paddocks than they do on adjoining farms
+where only a few animals are bred.” This is explained by
+the relatively greater amount of egg-dispersion proceeding from
+the infected brood-mares. It is quite evident that the lives of
+many valuable animals are annually sacrificed by the neglect of
+hygienic arrangements. The palisade worm is chiefly destructive
+to young animals, and as Mr. Percivall has well remarked,
+these parasites are <span class="pagenum" title="374"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374"></a></span>“commonly the cause of lingering and hidden
+disease, terminating in death,” without any suspicion on the part
+of the practitioner as to the nature of the malady. Instructive
+cases of this form of helminthiasis are given by Messrs Littler,
+Wyer, Harris, Meyrick, Litt, Percivall, Tindal, Walters,
+Brett, Aitken, Mead, Clancy, Baird, Mercer, Wright, Seaman,
+Hepburn, and others.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 225px;">
+<img src="images/f63.jpg" width="225" height="162" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>&mdash;Larvæ of <i>Strongylus tetracanthus</i>. <i>a</i>,
+from the walls of the intestine (natural size);
+<i>b</i>, the same (enlarged); <i>x</i>, an injury; <i>c</i>, younger
+specimen (<i>in sitû</i>); <i>d</i>, the same (enlarged). Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Second only in clinical importance is the little four-spined
+strongyle (<i>S. tetracanthus</i>). The sexes, often seen united, are
+nearly of equal size, the largest females reaching nearly <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.
+They infest the cæcum and colon, and have been found in all
+varieties of the horse, ass, and mule. The worm occurs in
+immense numbers and is a true blood-sucker. Its presence
+occasions severe colic and other violent symptoms, often proving
+fatal to the bearer. As already announced, in connection with
+my account of the tapeworms of the horse, this little worm
+may produce a virulent epidemic (epizoöty). In the sexually-immature
+state the worm occupies
+the walls of the large intestine,
+where it gives rise to congestion,
+ecchymosis, inflammation,
+and the formation of pus
+deposits. The species is readily
+recognised by its bright red
+color, by the four conical spines
+surrounding the mouth, by the
+two neck-bristles, and by the
+long three-lobed hood of the
+male, the posterior three-cleft
+ray having a rudimentary or fourth branch attached to its
+outer edge. In some specimens sent to me by Mr Whitney, I
+found this supplementary process fully twice as long as
+Schneider has represented it.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest times this entozoon has been confounded
+with the palisade worm. Rudolphi and several of his successors,
+and also in recent times Ercolani and Colin, regarded this worm
+as the progeny of <i>Strongylus armatus</i>. During my earlier
+examinations I likewise fell into the error of describing the
+immature worm as representing a new species. The parasites
+described by me as Trichonemes (<i>T. arcuata</i>) were identical
+with those which Prof. Dick had previously described as
+“worms at different stages of growth,” in his MS. sent to Dr
+Knox, 1836. Parasites of this kind were described by Dr<span class="pagenum" title="375"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375"></a></span>
+Knox as “Animals similar to <i>Trichina</i>;” by Diesing as the
+“Nematoideum equi caballi;” by Mr. Littler as “Extremely
+small ascarides,” in a letter to Mr Varnell; by Mr Varnell
+himself as “Entozoa in various stages of growth;” and by
+Prof. Williams as “Entozoa from the intestinal walls,” in a
+letter to myself, dated March 13th, 1873. In reference,
+however, to Mr Varnell’s account of Mr Littler’s specimens I
+may observe that the appearances which he at first merely
+described as “blood spots,” he afterwards characterised as
+dark points “containing young worms in various stages of
+growth.”</p>
+
+<p>As regards the course of development of this worm we have
+yet much to learn. Although the worm is a frequent cause of
+epizoöty in this country it appears to be but little known on
+the Continent. Krabbe makes no mention of the helminthiasis
+set up by the four-spined strongyle, but he points out that the
+young occupy the mucous membrane, in which situation they
+lie coiled so as to present to the naked eye the appearance of
+little dark spots (<i>Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme</i>, 1872, p. 17, ‘Aftryk.
+of Tidsskr. for Vet.’). However, Leuckart’s account of the
+appearances presented in a case brought under his notice is
+instructive. He <span class="nowrap">writes:&mdash;</span>“I have hitherto had only a single
+opportunity of examining the strongyle capsules in the intestinal
+membrane of the horse. Their presence is limited to the cæcum
+and colon, but they are so abundant in this situation that their
+numbers may be estimated by many hundreds. It was thus
+likewise in the case in question, the investigation of which by
+myself was rendered possible through the friendliness of Prof.
+Haubner of Dresden. The capsules were of oval form, and
+glimmered through the mucous membrane as opaque spots,
+mostly from one to three millimètres in size. In several of
+these capsules nothing was found beyond a greasy mass of a
+brownish color, which might readily be taken for a tuberculous
+substance; but the greater number of them contained a coiled
+worm, from three to six millimètres long, their breadth being
+0·15 to 0·26&nbsp;mm. (which is <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">166</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">99</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>). They exhibited a highly
+colored stout intestine, and a thick-walled oral capsule of
+0·022&nbsp;mm. in depth and 0·025&nbsp;mm. in breadth. On the dorsal side
+two three-cornered chitinous lamellæ arise from the shallow
+floor of the small oral capsule. The cuticle, notwithstanding
+its firm structure, was still destitute of annulations. The tail
+(0·15 to 0·18&nbsp;mm. in length) was strongly marked off from the<span class="pagenum" title="376"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376"></a></span>
+rest of the body, being of a slender cylindrical form with a
+rounded-off extremity. The development of the sexual apparatus
+had not yet commenced. Notwithstanding the great differences
+of size presented by the body, the structure of all examples was
+exactly the same to the minutest particular, without exception.
+Also the smallest specimens, which scarcely measured one millimètre,
+found in capsules of 0·3&nbsp;mm. in diameter, were distinguishable
+only by the absence of the oral cup, whose position was
+represented by a slender and thickened chitinous cylinder, as
+obtains in the earliest parasitic juvenile condition of <i>Dochmius
+trigonocephalus</i>. The transformation to the form presenting an
+oral cup occurs through a moulting, which is accomplished
+already in examples of 1·5&nbsp;mm. in diameter. Later, also, the
+worms cast their skins in their capsules, without, however,
+changing the oral cup. In regard to the final purpose of this
+metamorphosis, my investigations have left me entirely in the
+lurch; nevertheless, I do not entertain the smallest doubt that
+the worms which I have here described are the larval forms of
+<i>Strongylus tetracanthus</i>.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 145px;">
+<img src="images/f64.jpg" width="145" height="137" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>&mdash;Fæcal cysts or pellets containing
+the larvæ of <i>Strongylus
+tetracanthus</i>. Specimen (<i>a</i>) being
+enlarged (<i>b</i>) to show the protruding
+head and tail (<i>c</i>) of the worm.
+Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From numerous examinations I have satisfied myself that
+the worms after escaping the walls of the intestine&mdash;and
+they may often be observed in the very act of passing&mdash;re-enter
+the lumen of the bowel to undergo another change
+of skin prior to acquiring the adult state. This they accomplish
+by rolling themselves within the fæcal matter of the
+horse’s intestine. The best examples I have seen of this
+phenomenon occurred in a case for the clinical particulars of
+which I am indebted to Mr Cawthron.
+Most interesting was it to notice these
+immature worms, each coiled within a
+sort of cocoon, which Mr Cawthron
+termed a cyst. All the forty little
+cocoons more or less resembled pills,
+the bright red color of their contained
+worms strongly contrasting with the
+dark color of the cocoons. They consisted
+of compressed <i>débris</i>, which under
+the microscope showed many common
+forms of vegetable hairs and parenchyma,
+besides raphides and chlorophyll-granules. Internally,
+there was a cavity corresponding with the shape of the worm.
+In one instance I noticed that the worm had nearly completed<span class="pagenum" title="377"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377"></a></span>
+its ecdysis, a portion of the old skin still remaining attached to
+the tail.</p>
+
+<p>As already remarked, the evidence respecting the frequency
+and destructiveness of this little worm in England is now quite
+overwhelming. In a series of papers contributed to the ‘Veterinarian’
+(too long for full quotation here), I have endeavoured
+to do justice to the “finds” and observations of those
+members of the veterinary profession who were good enough to
+supply me with valuable notes and communications. In particular
+must my indebtedness to Mr Rees Lloyd be acknowledged,
+for, as previously observed, he it was who first recognised the
+parasitic character of the Welsh epizoötic outbreaks. In the
+Deangunid and Talybont districts these strongyles proved
+terribly fatal to mountain ponies. It appears that the owners
+of the animals, as soon as they perceived anything amiss,
+at once disposed of them by sale, evidently anticipating fatal
+results sooner or later. The facts connected with some of the
+isolated cases brought under Mr Lloyd’s care are especially
+interesting, as showing the virulence of the symptoms set up.
+Thus on the 9th of Feb., 1875, some time after I had identified
+the species from specimens he had sent me, Mr Lloyd writes
+as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“The last case I had was one which had been
+sold in this way, and which had suffered now and then from
+colicky pains for the space of about two months. The animal
+had been drenched with febrifuges and rubbed with stimulating
+liniments about the throat. However, I was sent for one
+evening, about an hour before the patient’s death. I soon
+diagnosed the case as parasitic, and at the same time considered
+it to be a hopeless one. I remained with it the whole of the
+time, of which about forty-five minutes of the most acute
+pain was borne by the trembling beast, which was leaping,
+rolling, and tossing itself about with astonishing rapidity.
+The bulging eyes, gnashing teeth, foaming mouth, and sharp
+peculiar hoarseness, were pitiable to behold; when suddenly all
+was silent, he quietly rose to his feet, and nipped the grass as
+if nought had troubled him. I then trotted him quietly up
+a few yards of rising ground in the corner of the field, when
+he immediately got down to rise no more. The next day I
+examined him, and found myriads of the four-spined strongyles,
+a large number being encysted.” Mr Rees Lloyd’s account of
+this case is so graphic that I have reproduced it without
+abridgment. Speaking of another patient, a mare, he says,<span class="pagenum" title="378"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378"></a></span>
+“she had voided thousands of these parasites, and was in a
+frightfully emaciated condition, but beyond a craving appetite
+there was little else to be noticed.” Notwithstanding the few
+diagnostic indications afforded, Mr Lloyd, being led by the
+history of the case to suspect worms, at once examined the
+fæces, when he discovered thousands of these minute nematodes.
+Clinically, these facts ought not to be lost sight of. In addition
+to Mr Lloyd’s cases I have received valuable particulars of
+others at the hands of Prof. Williams, Messrs Cawthron,
+A. Clarke, T. Gerrard, D. M. Storrar, and J. W. Whitney.</p>
+
+<p>Practically, it is important to inform the persons most interested
+that an active “drench” may be serviceable in dislodging
+the free intestinal worms, but the administration of purgatives
+must not be persevered in. As in the somewhat parallel
+case of Trichinosis in the human subject, the fatality of the
+disorder depends not upon the free and mature worms, but upon
+the migrating and sexually-immature forms. All attempts by
+means of active drugs to poison the entozoa, when once they
+have gained access to the tissues (whether actually capsuled or
+not), are worse than useless. By all means let the animals have
+a dose of aloes in the first instance, followed by warm bran
+mashes; but thereafter let every care be taken to support the
+patient’s strength. Especially should the exhibition of turpentine
+be avoided. Without doubt the cause of this, as of other
+similar epidemics, is primarily referable to atmospheric conditions
+which favor the multiplication of parasites. As the practical
+man cannot alter these climatal changes, he must do his best to
+check the disorder by removing the victims to new localities;
+or, if the animals must remain in infected districts, by supplying
+them with various kinds of artificially prepared fodder, supplemented
+by carefully filtered water. In this way, I believe,
+epidemics may be arrested, but they cannot be stamped out
+altogether, except by the adoption of measures which would be
+alike impracticable and unwarrantable.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to the consideration of other intestinal nematodes, the
+next in importance is the large lumbricoid (<i>Ascaris megalocephala</i>)
+found in all solipeds, including the zebra. Whilst the
+male worms rarely exceed seven inches in length, the females
+sometimes reach seventeen inches. Science is indebted to
+Schneider for setting at rest all doubt as to the specific distinctness
+of this worm. The far larger number of caudal papillæ
+at once distinguishes it from the lumbricoid of man and the<span class="pagenum" title="379"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379"></a></span>
+hog. The equine Ascaris may occur in any part of the alimentary
+canal, but the small gut forms its proper head-quarters.
+The entire course of development of this worm has not been
+traced; nevertheless, Heller found human lumbricoids measuring
+less than the eighth of an inch. It is not likely that any
+intermediate host is necessary for the growth of the larvæ, prior
+to their access to the definitive host. I have reared the larvæ
+in impure water and in moist horse-dung, up to the size of <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">30</span></span> of
+an inch. They were then furnished with a completely-formed
+digestive apparatus. Davaine kept the intra-chorional embryos
+alive in water for five or six years. His experiments on rats,
+dogs, and on a cow, led to no decisive results; but it is important
+to know that the eggs of lumbricoids effectually resist
+dryness. According to Davaine, however, embryonal development
+is thus arrested (except in <i>Ascaris tetraptera</i> of the
+mouse).</p>
+
+<p>Seeing how readily the most ordinary attention to cleanliness
+must suffice to prevent lumbricoid helminthism, it is scandalous
+that so many severe cases of disease from this source should
+ever and anon turn up and be reported. In no properly conducted
+stable are these large entozoa ever to be seen in any
+considerable numbers; for so long as the water-supply is good
+and the fodder clean there is no possibility of infection. A
+fertile source of infection, however, results from allowing horses
+to drink at foul road-side ponds and from open waters in the
+vicinity of stables and paddocks where foals are reared. Into
+the clinical bearings of the subject I do not enter, but a host
+of interesting records of lumbricoid disease may be found in
+veterinary journals, both home and foreign. These have their
+counterpart in the very similar cases recorded in the medical
+journals, and quoted by me in the 34th bibliography of this
+work. From Sonsino’s report these worms do not appear very
+common in Egypt, but the veterinary inspector, Dr Zunhinett,
+had occasionally met with them. From Messrs W. Awde,
+J. B. Wolstenholme, and other English veterinary surgeons, I
+have received notes of interesting cases, but in this connection
+I can only further refer to the published cases of Messrs
+Anderson, Boddington, Cartwright, Harrison, Moir, and Wallis.
+The French cases, by M. Cambron and by M. Véret, are particularly
+instructive. Many of the cases give fatal results.
+In one fatal instance a pupil of mine counted over 1200 of
+these worms, and in a similar fatal case Mr Lewis reports that<span class="pagenum" title="380"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380"></a></span>
+he found the small intestine literally crammed, some thousands
+of worms being huddled together in large masses.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/f65.jpg" width="400" height="189" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Oxyuris curvula</i>.
+Highly magnified. After Busk.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next nematode of general interest is the pinworm
+(<i>Oxyuris curvula</i>). Professional men often confound it with
+the palisade worm, and it has even been mistaken for the rat-tail
+maggot (<i>Helophilus</i>). The longest males measure <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+and the females often beyond 4 inches. This worm infests the
+colon in great numbers, the species being easily recognised by
+its long subulate tail. Like its much smaller congener infesting
+man, this worm occasions severe local irritation, clusters of
+the eggs often accumulating to form yellow incrustations at the
+verge of the anus. Equine pinworms are vegetable feeders,
+and, like human Oxyurides, are conveyed to the bearer in a
+direct manner. No horse properly looked after can be infested
+by these worms. Local washings and stable cleanliness being
+secured by an attentive groom, the animals are safe. Prophylactic
+measures of this kind are all-powerful against infection.
+Notwithstanding the ease, however, with which the oxyuris
+disorder may both be prevented and cured, we find it prevails
+extensively everywhere, alike in mankind and in solipeds. Dr
+Sonsino found these parasites abundant in Egypt, some of
+the worms reaching a length of nearly five inches (120&nbsp;mm.).
+Mr Emmerson has given an interesting account of the prejudicial
+effects of these entozoa in the horses of Singapore.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable equine parasites is that which I
+am in the habit of calling the large-mouthed maw-worm (<i>Spiroptera
+megastoma</i>), in contra-distinction to the small-mouthed
+species (<i>S. microstoma</i>). In this country the worm has
+attracted little notice, but through the kindness of Mr Spooner<span class="pagenum" title="381"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381"></a></span>
+Hart, of Calcutta, and of Mr Percivall, of the 11th Hussars,
+stationed at Umballa, I have had abundant opportunities of
+examining this entozoon and the singular pathological appearances
+which it occasions. This parasite was first described by
+Rudolphi, who <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“Spiroptera capitis discreti ore magno
+nudo, cauda feminæ rectiuscula acuta, mavis simpliciter spirali,
+corpusculis rotundis ad basim penis styliformis.” The worm
+was afterwards observed by Schultze, Chabert, and frequently
+also by Andral, but the best accounts of it are those given by
+Gurlt, Valenciennes, and Dujardin. Schneider has likewise
+done much to set at rest disputed points. Respecting the
+<i>Spiroptère du Cheval</i>, Dujardin, writing in 1844, observes that
+“Rudolphi at first studied this helminth from examples found in
+great number by Reckleben, at Berlin, in tubercles of the
+stomach of two horses. Quite recently, M. Valenciennes, at
+Paris, has found it frequently in tumours, from twenty to forty
+millimètres in size, in the stomach of eleven horses out of
+twenty-five that he had subjected to this kind of research.
+These tumours, lodged between the mucous and muscular layers
+of the digestive canal, are perforated by several holes traversing
+the mucous membrane. They are divided internally by a
+number of folds into numerous intercommunicating cavities,
+and sometimes filled with solid mucus and very many spiropteras.
+It is from examples collected by M. Valenciennes that
+I have been able to study the parasite.”</p>
+
+<p>As regards the description of the worm, it is almost needless
+to say that Dujardin’s account is minute and admirable in all
+respects. In fact, no naturalist ever exceeded the Rennes <i>savant</i>
+in carefulness and accuracy of detail. An interesting point connected
+with these stomach-worms lies in the circumstance that
+Gurlt recognised two varieties, one of which he termed <i>Sp. meg.</i>,
+var. <i>major</i>. It remained for Schneider to show that the larger
+worms formed an altogether distinct species, which he termed
+<i>Filaria microstoma</i> (‘Monogr.,’ l. c., 1866, s. 98). It was not
+unnatural that Rudolphi and his successors should confound
+these two forms together, and it is also not a little curious
+that the smaller of the two species has the larger mouth.
+Practically, veterinarians will probably rest content to know
+that whilst the <i>Spiroptera megastoma</i> occupies tumours in the
+walls of the stomach, the <i>S. microstoma</i> is always to be found
+free in the cavity of that organ. Any helminthologist who
+may chance to have read the Ceylon Company’s report on the<span class="pagenum" title="382"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382"></a></span>
+fatal epidemic affecting the mules of the Mauritius in 1876 can
+scarcely fail to have observed that the worm called <i>Ascaris
+vermicularis</i> by Mr Bradshaw is none other than our <i>Sp.
+megastoma</i>. The description of the tumours as “reticulated”
+sufficiently explains their honeycomb-like appearance, but I
+think that the expression “alveolar” would better convey their
+true pathological character. Mr Spooner Hart compared these
+structures, which he terms “abodes,” to mole-hills, but there
+is no good ground for supposing that the wanderings of the
+parasites are in any sense comparable to the burrowings of the
+mole. In like manner the expression “nidus,” employed by
+Mr Bradshaw, though suggestive of their nest-like appearance,
+is to some extent misleading, as it implies that the worms form
+a nide or brood. Possibly, it may turn out that all the nematodes
+in each tumour have been bred in the spot where they are
+found, but hitherto they have only been seen in the adult state.
+Earlier stages of growth should be diligently sought for.
+Widely dissimilar as the two maw-worms are, it would not
+greatly surprise me to learn that <i>Sp. megastoma</i> and <i>S. microstoma</i>
+are dimorphic conditions of one and the same entozoon.
+At all events, Ercolani’s determination of the relations subsisting
+between <i>Ascaris inflexa</i> and <i>A. vesicularis</i> suggests a possible
+analogy of this kind. I may mention that the male <i>Spiroptera
+megastoma</i> reaches nearly one third and the female one half
+of an inch in length. A constriction separates the head
+from the body. The mouth is surrounded by four thick
+horny lips, the dorso-ventral pair being the larger. The tail
+of the male is spirally twisted, and furnished with lateral
+bands supported by three or four ribs. It carries two curved
+spicules of unequal size. There are five pairs of caudal
+papillæ, the tail being bluntly pointed in both sexes. The
+vulva of the female is placed about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">7</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> below the head. The
+eggs are linear or very narrow, and furnished with thick shells.
+According to Sonsino, who found <i>Sp. megastoma</i> in five out of
+sixteen Egyptian horses, the verminiferous growths are usually
+seated near the pyloric end of the stomach, as many as four
+tumours occurring at one time. Neither Sonsino nor any other
+observers already quoted appear to think that these morbid
+changes in any way interfere with the healthy performance of the
+gastric functions. However, I am of opinion that at least one
+recorded fatal case of parasitism, producing rupture of the
+stomach, affords an instance, however rare, of the injurious<span class="pagenum" title="383"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383"></a></span>
+action of this entozoon. It is reported under the signature
+of “Argus,” quoted below.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection I may mention that in 1864 Prof. Axe
+observed some small worms, scarcely visible to the naked eye,
+in the mucous membrane of the stomach of a donkey, the same
+worms being subsequently observed in three other donkeys
+brought to the dissecting room of the Royal Veterinary College.
+From the examination of a drawing of one of the male worms,
+executed by Prof. Simonds, I am led to believe that the
+parasites are entirely new to science. The hood being well
+marked there can be no doubt as to the strongyloid affinities
+of the worm. I therefore propose to call the worm after its
+discoverer (<i>Strongylus Axei</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In regard to <i>Sp. microstoma</i>, the males measure up to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">2</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+whilst the females have a long diameter of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> or rather more
+(<span class="nowrap">10<span class="prime">‴</span></span>). The small-mouthed maw-worm lives free in the stomach,
+and, as Krabbe observes, not unfrequently in very considerable
+numbers. It does not appear to be capable of injuring the host.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting equine nematodes is the eye-worm.
+Most veterinary writers speak of it as the <i>Filaria oculi</i>,
+but to helminthologists it is better known by the more correct
+designation, <i>F. papillosa</i>. Though commonly obtained from
+the eyeball and its tunics, the worm infests various tissues and
+organs of the body, being found in the thorax, abdomen, membranes
+of the brain, muscles, and cellular tissues. It infests
+the ass and mule, and also horned ruminants. The males
+attain a length of three inches and the females seven inches.
+The head is broad, with a gaping mouth armed with a
+ring of chitine and two prominent denticles. There are
+also two papillæ on the neck near the middle line, besides
+sixteen caudal papillæ, eight on either side. The tail of the
+male is spirally twisted, that of the female only slightly curved.
+Notwithstanding the many opportunities afforded of examining
+this parasite in the fresh state, very little is known respecting
+its origin and course of development. Dr Manson, who found
+that the mouth was armed with a five- or six-toothed oral saw,
+considers that the eye is not a proper resting place for the
+parasite, and that when one wandering worm comes across the
+track of another it follows it up from sexual instinct, and thus
+several may be found together in one place. The tracks are
+readily seen by the naked eye. Dr Sonsino speaks of it as a
+“yellow line.” This Italian observer found the worm in twelve<span class="pagenum" title="384"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384"></a></span>
+out of the sixteen solipeds he examined during the plague.
+Each horse showed from two to a dozen worms “in the peritoneal
+cavity, wandering free on the serous lining, without
+causing any apparent mischief to the membrane.” On one
+occasion Sonsino found the worm in the liver. From the
+similarity of habit there can be little doubt that the cases
+of guinea-worm (<i>F. medinensis</i>) recorded by Clarkson and
+others, as occurring in the horse, were merely examples of
+<i>F. papillosa</i>. I think so all the more because the lamented Fedschenko
+verbally expressed to me his astonishment that I had
+in my introductory treatise (p. 387) spoken of the Dracunculus
+as an equine parasite. I did so on the authority of others.
+To the Rev. Horace Waller I am indebted for specimens of the
+eye-worm brought from Assam, and to Mr Spooner Hart for
+others sent from India. For examples occurring in England I
+am indebted to Mr Haydon Leggett, who, in 1875, sent me
+three specimens extracted from the eye of a five-year-old mare.
+Mr Steel has also given me an example of <i>F. papillosa</i> taken
+from the peritoneum of a donkey. Similar cases are constantly
+occurring in the practice of veterinarians in Hindostan. Highly
+interesting Indian cases are recorded by Kennedy, Molyneux,
+Twining, and Breton, and in addition to these I may also particularise
+those of Macnamara, C. Percivall, Hickman, Clarkson,
+Skeavington, and Jeaffreson. The cases by Lee and Grellier also
+deserve attention.</p>
+
+<p>Another species of thread-worm (<i>Filaria lacrymalis</i>) is occasionally
+found in the horse between the lids and eyeball. It is
+a comparatively small and harmless parasite, the males measuring
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length and the females <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">2</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. It also infests the ox.
+Both the large and small eye-worms are viviparous, and, not
+improbably, both of them are the means of conveying embryonic
+Filariæ into the circulation. Be this as it may, we owe to Dr
+Sonsino the discovery of hæmatozoa in an Egyptian horse.
+The larval worm was provisionally named by him <i>Filaria sanguinis
+equi</i>. The microscopic nematodes closely resemble the
+larvæ of <i>F. sanguinis hominis</i>, but they are smaller. The horse
+from whose blood Dr Sonsino obtained the minute worms was
+also found, by post-mortem examination, to have been infested
+by <i>Filaria papillosa</i>, a circumstance which naturally suggested
+a genetic relation between the larval and adult parasites.
+Similar, if not the same, microscopic worms had been previously
+discovered by Wedl, who primarily and independently regarded<span class="pagenum" title="385"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385"></a></span>
+them as embryos of <i>F. papillosa</i>. Another curious filaria-like
+entozoon is the reticulated threadworm (<i>Onchocerca reticulata</i>).
+In England we have no acquaintance with this singular parasite,
+but it appears to be tolerably common in Italy. Excellent
+figures of it have been given by Diesing. Both males and
+females are in the habit of coiling themselves within the muscles,
+where they are found invested by a capsule of connective tissue.
+When unrolled the sexes are found of equal size, acquiring a
+length of <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. The worm has a simple unarmed mouth, its
+body being marked by a series of annulations formed of incompletely
+anastomosing rings. It does not appear to possess any
+clinical importance.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the equine nematodes I need only mention
+the lung-worm (<i>Strongylus micrurus</i>). Its importance in relation
+to the production of husk or parasitic bronchitis in calves has
+already been considered. The worm is rarely productive of
+mischief amongst solipeds, nevertheless, in the dissecting-room
+subjects at the Royal Veterinary College, the presence of these
+parasites in the lungs is frequently noticed. Lastly, it only
+remains for me to observe that the renal strongyle (<i>S. gigas</i>) is
+occasionally seen in the horse. In 1792 M. Chabert found one
+in the left kidney, and similar cases have since either been
+witnessed or reported by Rudolphi and Leblanc.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous insect parasites and tormentors of solipeds
+the gadflies (<i>Œstridæ</i>) demand chief attention. For special
+description of the forms, Brauer’s monograph is the most, and,
+in fact, the only reliable authority. Here it is not possible to
+give the characters of the various equine species, of which at
+least half a dozen are known to science. As remarked by me
+in the special chapter contributed to Prof. Williams’ well-known
+veterinary treatise, the common gad-fly (<i>Gastrophilus equi</i>)
+attacks the animal whilst grazing late in the summer, its object
+being, not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its eggs. This
+it accomplishes by means of a glutinous excretion, causing the
+ova to adhere to the hairs. The parts selected are chiefly those
+of the shoulder, base of the neck, and inner part of the fore legs,
+especially about the knees, for in these situations the horse will
+have no difficulty in reaching the ova with its tongue. When
+the animal licks those parts of the coat where the eggs have
+been placed, the moisture of the tongue, aided by warmth,
+hatches the ova, and in something less than three weeks from
+the time of the deposition of the eggs, the larvæ make their<span class="pagenum" title="386"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386"></a></span>
+escape. As maggots they are next transferred to the mouth,
+and ultimately to the stomach along with food and drink. A
+great many larvæ perish during this passive mode of immigration,
+some being dropped from the mouth, and others being
+crushed in the fodder during mastication. It has been calculated
+that out of the many hundreds of eggs deposited on a
+single horse, scarcely one out of fifty of the larvæ arrive within
+the stomach. Notwithstanding this waste the interior of the
+stomach may become completely covered with “bots.” Whether
+there be few or many, they are anchored in this situation chiefly
+by means of two large cephalic hooks. After the bots have
+attained perfect growth they voluntarily loosen their hold, and
+allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until
+they escape with the fæces. Many persons suppose that during
+their passage through the intestinal canal they re-attach
+themselves to the mucous membrane, thereby occasioning severe
+intestinal irritation. This is an error. In all cases they sooner
+or later fall to the ground, and when transferred to the soil
+they bury themselves beneath the surface, in order to undergo
+transformation into the pupa condition. Having remained in
+the earth for a period of six or seven weeks they finally emerge
+from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterous insects. It
+thus appears that bots ordinarily pass about eight months of
+their lifetime in the digestive organs of the horse.</p>
+
+<p>That they are capable of giving rise to severe disease there
+can be no doubt, but it is not often that the disorder is
+correctly diagnosed, since it is only by the passage of the
+larvæ that the practitioner can be made aware of their presence.
+Mr J. S. Wood has published a case of tetanus in a mare,
+associated with the larvæ of <i>Œstrus equi</i>, and Mr J. T. Brewer
+has also given a case where the duodenum was perforated by
+bots. Mr Goodworth records an instance of pyloric obstruction
+from the same cause, and Mr W. Coupe informed me in 1876
+that he had a drove of foreign ponies under his care, all of
+which suffered irritation from hæmorrhoidal bots. He removed
+them with a pair of forceps. Although frequently said to do so,
+the common bot does not attach itself to the rectum before finally
+escaping the host. The larvæ of <i>G. hæmorrhoidalis</i> normally
+reside there. In this situation they seriously inconvenience the
+bearer. The bots of <i>G. nasalis</i> are often confounded with those
+which ordinarily occupy the stomach of the bearer. The larvæ of
+<i>G. nasalis</i> commonly reside in the duodenum near the pylorus.<span class="pagenum" title="387"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387"></a></span>
+According to Schwab and Brauer, they rarely occupy the
+stomach. As occurs in the common species, this bot passes
+away with the fæces, and does not attach itself to the lower
+bowel. The bots of Brauer’s <i>G. inermis</i> much resemble
+those of <i>G. equi</i>, but they are much smaller and attach
+themselves to the wall of the small intestine. The bots of
+<i>G. pecorum</i>, which dwell in the rectum, are readily recognised
+by their peculiar form and scanty spination. They are pointed
+in front and truncated posteriorly. An assinine variety of
+<i>G. equi</i> has been described by Bilharz, whilst another distinct
+species (<i>G. flavipes</i>) attacks the ass and mule. The bot-larvæ
+of the latter host require recognition and description. A great
+variety of other equine bot-flies have been described, but all,
+or nearly all, of them are mere synonyms of the above-mentioned
+forms. For the limitation of the species I accept
+Brauer’s authority, and likewise his nomenclature. A great
+deal of nonsense has been written respecting bots. It is a
+relief to believe that <i>G.</i> (Œstrus) <i>veterinus</i>, <i>G. ferruginatus</i>,
+<i>G. jubarum</i>, <i>G.</i> (Œ.) <i>Clarkii</i>, <i>G. salutiferus</i>, <i>G. subjacens</i>, and
+many others, are not good species, at least that they are mere
+synonyms. In regard to the occurrence of subcutaneous bot-like
+maggots in the horse and ass, no doubt need exist on this
+point. I am indebted to Mr Percy Gregory for characteristic
+specimens taken from the back, neck, and withers of a four-year-old
+gelding. They appear to correspond with the <i>Hypoderma
+Loiseti</i> of Joly. Similar maggots have been found in the ass by
+Herr Erber, but Brauer refers these to <i>H. silenus</i>. Prof. Brückmüller
+published a case where the brain was infested by larvæ;
+and Mr Shipley has sent me an example of <i>H. equi</i>, which he
+states he removed from the choroid plexus of the brain. In addition
+to the cases by Woods, Goodworth, and Brewer, already
+quoted, others have been published by Tyndal and Cartwright.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the numerous other parasitic dipterous larvæ one
+must notice the rat-tailed maggots (<i>Helophilus</i>). A genuine
+instance of this kind has been brought under my observation,
+but the example recorded by Professor Axe was spurious.
+Professor Simonds and myself saw this supposed maggot,
+which was merely a very stout and pregnant <i>Oxyuris curvula</i>.
+Another genuine case was published by Mr. Stanley. This is
+quoted by A. Numan in his essay on <i>Cœnurus</i>. I have previously
+mentioned my having received an Helophilus-larva that had
+passed from the human body. One of the most troublesome<span class="pagenum" title="388"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388"></a></span>
+external parasites is the so-called horse-tick or forest-fly
+(<i>Hippobosca equina</i>). They attack the abdomen, flanks, and
+inner part of the thighs in great numbers, occasioning great
+distress to the bearer. Being of leathery toughness their
+bodies are not easily crushed, and they are removed only with
+great difficulty. There is an equine disease in Sweden called
+<i>Stackra</i>, which is erroneously attributed to injuries produced by
+a species of fly-maggot (<i>Lixus</i>) which lives on the fine-leaved
+water-drop wort (<i>Phellandrium</i>). As regards the so-called
+free parasites, or rather non-parasitic obnoxious insects, which
+torment solipeds, it is impossible even to enumerate them.
+The tsetse of South Africa (<i>Glossina morsitans</i>) is terribly
+fatal to the horse, but it is said that the mule, ass, and zebra
+do not suffer from its bites&mdash;an immunity shared by swine,
+goats, antelopes, and man himself. Major Vardon’s rash
+experiment (based on the supposition that horses deprived of
+fresh green food would not suffer from the attacks of the fly)
+proved fatal to an animal which he purposely exposed on a
+much infested hill-top. The horse died ten days after it was
+bitten. According to Chapman, the bites of four tsetse flies
+are sufficient to kill an ox, but in man the irritation produced
+is very slight. Amongst other insects proving troublesome to
+solipeds may be mentioned the leg-sticker (<i>Stomoxys calcitrans</i>),
+the clegg (<i>Hæmatopota pluvialis</i>) which is very abundant in the
+West Highlands, various species of <i>Tabanidæ</i> and <i>Asilidæ</i>
+(<i>Tabanus autumnalis</i>, <i>T. bovinus</i>, <i>Chrysops cæcutiens</i>, <i>Asilus
+crabroniformis</i>), and also a host of ordinary flies and gnats
+(<i>Muscidæ</i> and <i>Tipulidæ</i>), as, for example, <i>Anthomyia meteorica</i>
+and <i>Culex equinus</i>. In India the bite of a species of <i>Simulia</i>
+gives rise to the formation of open sores of the most intractable
+character. As regards hemipterous insects it may be said that
+many species of lice (<i>Anoplura</i>) produce what is called phthiriasis
+or lousiness in the horse, some of them being derived from
+poultry. The best known species are <i>Trichodectes equi</i>, <i>T.
+scalaris</i>, <i>Hæmatopinus equi</i>, <i>H. vituli</i>, <i>H. eurysternus</i>, and the
+ass-louse (<i>H. asini</i>). Of the half dozen or more species infesting
+the hen (belonging to the genera <i>Goniocotes</i>, <i>Liotheum</i>, &amp;c.)
+it is not probable that more than one or, at most, two of them
+are concerned in the production of poultry-lousiness in the
+horse. As an equine disorder this kind of phthiriasis was first
+described by Bouley. Cases in England have been observed
+by Messrs. Henderson, Moore, and Woodger. For some<span class="pagenum" title="389"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389"></a></span>
+account of cases of lousiness due to <i>Hæmatopinus</i> I am indebted
+to Mr S. Butters. As regards the scab, itch, and mange
+insects or mites (<i>Acaridæ</i>), three perfectly distinct forms are
+known. Adopting M. Mégnin’s classification they are <i>Sarcoptes
+scabiei</i>, var. <i>equi</i>, <i>Psoroptes longirostris</i>, var. <i>equi</i> (being
+the <i>Dermatodectes equi</i> of Gerlach), and <i>Chorioptes spathiferus</i>,
+var. <i>equi</i>, which is the <i>Symbiotes equi</i> of Gerlach. All the
+species have been beautifully illustrated by M. Mégnin, whose
+memoir has dispersed many of the clouds of error and misrepresentation
+which have hitherto surrounded the subject.
+Whilst <i>Psoroptes</i> forms the true horse-mite, and attacks various
+parts of the body, <i>Chorioptes</i> confines its attacks to the posterior
+regions. Messrs South and Day and myself have verified
+some of the facts recorded by Mégnin in respect of the structure
+and habits of this last species. Another kind of mite
+(<i>Glyciphagus hippopodos</i>) is stated to infest the ulcerated feet
+of horses. It would appear that no true ticks properly belong
+to solipeds; nevertheless, the common cattle-tick (<i>Ixodes bovis</i>)
+occasionally attacks horses. Probably several other species of
+Ixodidæ, known to infest other animals, behave in the same
+way. The Arachnidan called <i>Pentastoma tænioides</i>, though
+properly belonging to the dog, has on several occasions been
+detected in the nasal or frontal sinuses of the horse. Such
+instances are recorded by Chabert and Greve. The largest
+example of this singular entozoon seen by myself was obtained
+from the same situation, and presented to me by the late
+Mr C. B. Rose, whose writings I have frequently quoted in
+connection with the <i>Cœnuri</i> of rabbits.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_50"></a>No. 50).&mdash;<i>Aitken, J.</i>, “Worms in the Spermatic
+Artery of a Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 683, 1855.&mdash;<i>Anderson,
+J.</i>, “A Case of Strangulation of the Ileum (with Lumbrici),”
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 261, 1859.&mdash;(Anonymous), “Rupture of the
+Stomach, associated with the existence of Cysts between its
+Coats containing Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’ March, 1864, p. 151.&mdash;(Anon.),
+“Extraction of <i>Filaria oculi</i> from the Horse,” by
+“Miles,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1864, p. 218.&mdash;(Anon.), “Case of
+<i>F. oculi</i> in the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1864, p. 218.&mdash;(Anon.),
+“Worms in the Coats of the Stomach of a Horse,” by “Argus,”
+in the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1865, p. 151.&mdash;<i>Baird, W.</i>, “Notice of
+<i>Sclerostoma</i> in the Testicle of the Horse,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’
+1861.&mdash;<i>Blanchard</i>, “<i>Anoplocephala perfoliata</i>,” ‘Ann. des Sci.
+Nat.,’ 3rd ser., tom. x, p. 345.&mdash;<i>Bollinger, O.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="390"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390"></a></span>‘Die Kolik der
+Pferde und das Wurmaneurisma der Eingeweidearterien,’ Munchen,
+1870. (Reviewed by myself in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan.&ndash;April,
+1874.)&mdash;<i>Bovett</i>, “Existence of Filariæ in a Sinuous
+Ulcer of the Withers of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 515, 1861.&mdash;<i>Bradshaw,
+C.</i>, “Death of Mules from Parasitic Disease in
+the Mauritius (with remarks by Dr Cobbold),” ‘Veterinarian,’
+Dec., 1876, p. 837.&mdash;<i>Brauer, F.</i>, ‘Monographie der Œstriden,’
+Wien, 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “<i>Œstr. (Hypoderma) Clarkii</i>,” in ‘Verhandl.
+der zool.-bot. Gessellsch. in Wien,’ xxv, p. 75.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On <i>Cephenomyia trompe</i> from the Reindeer,” <i>ibid.</i>, p. 77.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“<i>Hypoderma bonassi</i> from the American Buffalo,” <i>ibid.</i>
+(all with figs.), 1875.&mdash;<i>Breton</i>, “On the Worm found in the
+Eye of the Horse,” ‘Calcutta Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’
+vol. i, 1825, p. 337.&mdash;<i>Brown, D. S.</i>, “The <i>Œstrus equi</i>, or
+Horse-bot,” the ‘Veterinary Journal,’ July, 1877, p. 14.&mdash;<i>Brückmüller</i>,
+“Larvæ in the Brain of a Foal,” from ‘Viert. für
+wissensch. Vet.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 82, 1857.&mdash;<i>Cartwright,
+W. A.</i>, “On Strangulation of the Bowels, associated with about
+150 Bots, and also some 150 Ascarides, in the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 413, 1833.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Case of about 200 ‘Bots in
+the Œsophagus’ of a Horse,” <i>ibid.</i>, p. 400, 1828.&mdash;<i>Chambron</i>,
+“On a Parasitic Malady in the Horse,” from ‘Ann. de Méd.
+Vét.,’ in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1861; see also (<i>Cambron</i>) ‘Veterinarian,’
+1860, p. 612.&mdash;<i>Clark, B.</i>, “Obs. on the genus Œstrus,”
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. iii, p. 289, 1797.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘An Essay on the
+Bots of Horses and other Animals,’ London, 1815.&mdash;<i>Clarkson,
+N. F.</i>, “Case of <i>Filaria oculi</i> in the Horse,” ‘Vet. Rec.,’ vol. i,
+p. 73, 1845.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Case of <i>Filaria medinensis</i> in the Horse,”
+<i>ibid.</i>, 1845.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “On the Diptera (bots),” in a chap. on the
+Parasitic Diseases of Animals, in Williams’ work (l. c., Bibl.
+No. <a href="#No_48">48</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Obs. on rare Parasites from the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+Feb., 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Further remarks on rare Parasites
+from the Horse,” <i>ibid.</i>, April, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Fatal Epid. affecting
+Ponies,” <i>ibid.</i>, June, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on Mégnin’s
+Tapeworm,” <i>ibid.</i>, Sept., 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Report on Parasites
+(sent from India by F. F. Collins and Spooner Hart),” <i>ibid.</i>,
+Nov., 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Epizoöty in the Horse, more especially in
+relation to the Ravages produced by the Four-spined Strongyle
+(<i>S. tetracanthus</i>),” <i>ibid.</i>, April, 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The Egyptian
+Horse Plague in relation to the question of Parasitism,” <i>ibid.</i>,
+Nov., 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Description of the new Equine Fluke
+(<i>Gastrodiscus Sonsinoii</i>),” <i>ibid.</i>, April, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="391"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391"></a></span>“On
+Worm-like Organisms within the Mitral Valve of a Horse,”
+<i>ibid.</i>, 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Entozoa of the Horse and Elephant” (see
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_51">51</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Observations respecting the Large-mouthed
+Maw-worm of the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan., 1877.&mdash;<i>Couchman,
+T.</i>, “Worms in the Kidney of a Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 145, 1857.&mdash;<i>Coupe, W.</i>, “Fatal Parasitism in a
+Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1876, p. 844.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, “Les
+Cestoides,” in ‘Dict. Encycl. des Sci. Méd.,’ p. 591.&mdash;<i>Dick</i> (see
+Knox).&mdash;<i>Dickens, C.</i>, “Joint-lameness in Colts, associated with
+and symptomatic of Lumbricoid Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 601,
+1863.&mdash;<i>Dun, R.</i>, “Remarks on Entozoa of the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+1854, p. 445.&mdash;<i>Dupuy</i> (with M. Prince), “Filariæ in
+the Great Mesenteric of a Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1835, p. 570.&mdash;<i>Emmerson,
+C.</i>, “Prevalence of Entozoa among Horses in the
+Island of Singapore,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1861, p. 514.&mdash;<i>Friedberger,
+F.</i>, ‘Die Kolik der Pferde,’ Berlin, 1874. (Reviewed by me in
+the ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan.&ndash;April, 1874.)&mdash;<i>Fry</i>, “Case of Worms
+in the Horse,” ‘The Hippiatrist,’ &amp;c., vol. iii, p. 10, 1830.&mdash;<i>Gamgee,
+J.</i> (senior), “On Bots,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ July, 1858.&mdash;<i>Goodworth,
+S.</i>, “Obstruction of the Pyloric Orifice of the
+Stomach by Bots,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 410, 1837.&mdash;<i>Grellier, J.</i>,
+“On the Worm in the Eye (of the Horse),” ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 18, 1844.&mdash;<i>Harlan, R.</i>, “Case of a Colt killed by Worms,”
+in his ‘Med. and Phys. Researches,’ p. 554; see also ‘Med.-Chir.
+Rev.,’ 1836.&mdash;<i>Harris</i>, “A Case of Worms in the Arteries
+of a Colt,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 307, 1834.&mdash;<i>Harrison, J. D.</i>, “The
+singular effect of Worms in the Stomach of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 331, 1842.&mdash;<i>Hickman, T.</i>, “Worm in the Eye of
+the Horse,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ 1864, p. 653.&mdash;<i>Hopkinson, F.</i>,
+“Account of a Worm in the Horse’s Eye,” from ‘Trans. of
+Amer. Phil. Soc.,’ in ‘Med. Comment.,’ vol. xi, p. 166, 1784.&mdash;<i>Hutchinson,
+J.</i>, “Hydatid in the Eye of a Horse,” ‘Path. Soc.
+Trans.,’ and rep. in ‘Lancet,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Huxley</i>, “On Echinococcus
+(from the Zebra),” see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_20_o">20, <i>o</i></a>.&mdash;<i>Jeaffreson, W.</i>, “Case
+of Removal of a Worm from the Eye of an Arab Horse,”
+‘Lancet,’ p. 690, 1836&ndash;37, and ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 471, 1837.&mdash;<i>Kennedy,
+M.</i>, “Account of a Nondescript Worm (<i>Ascaris pellucidus</i>)
+found in the Eyes of Horses in India,” ‘Trans. Roy.
+Soc. Edin.,’ vol. xi, p. 107, 1816.&mdash;<i>Kirkman</i>, ‘Hydatids’ (see
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_20_o">20, <i>o</i></a>).&mdash;<i>Knox</i>, ‘Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1836.&mdash;<i>Krabbe</i>
+(l. c., in text).&mdash;<i>Lee, C. A.</i>, “On <i>Filaria papillosa</i> in
+the Anterior Chamber of the Eye of a Horse (and on Filariæ in<span class="pagenum" title="392"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392"></a></span>
+general, &amp;c.),” ‘Amer. Journ. Sci. and Art.,’ vol. xxxix, p. 278,
+1840.&mdash;<i>Lessona, G.</i>, “On the Bot (or Œstrus) of the Horse,”
+from ‘Recueil de Méd. Vét.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 156, 1854.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>
+(l. c., in text).&mdash;<i>Litt, W.</i>, “A Singular Case (of an
+immense number of Worms in a Colt),” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 529,
+1852.&mdash;<i>Macnamara</i>, “On <i>F. papillosa</i> in the Eye of Man and
+the Horse,” ‘Indian Ann. Med. Sci.,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Marcet</i> (see Bibl.
+No. <a href="#No_34">34</a>).&mdash;<i>Mead, J.</i>, “A Worm in the Scrotum of a Colt,”
+‘Veterinarian,’ 1843, p. 648.&mdash;<i>Mégnin</i>, “Petit <i>Tænia inorme</i> du
+Cheval,” in ‘Bull. de la Soc. Cent. de Méd. Vét.,’ t. vi, 3e série,
+p. 112.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Monog. de la tribu des Sarcoptides,’ &amp;c.; see
+also review by myself in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Aug., 1877.&mdash;<i>Mercer,
+J.</i>, “On Entozoal or Worm-aneurism,” ‘Lond. Med. Gaz.,’ 1847,
+and in part x of “Contrib. to Zool. Path.,” in the ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 33, 1846.&mdash;<i>Meyrick, J.</i>, “Death of a Colt from Entozoa within
+the Abdomen,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1859, p. 695.&mdash;<i>Moir, J.</i>, “Rupture
+of the Ileum resulting from Worms,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1857,
+p. 265.&mdash;<i>Molyneux, R.</i>, “On Worm in the Eye of Horses in
+India,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1828, p. 309.&mdash;<i>Morgan, A.</i>, “Case of
+Hydatid in the Brain of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 396, 1855.&mdash;<i>Numan,
+A.</i>, ‘Ueber die Bremsen Larven, im Magen der
+Pferde,’ 1837.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Entozoon (<i>Monostoma settenii</i>) from the
+Eye of a Horse,” from ‘Tidschr. voor naturl. Geschied. en
+Physiol.,’ 1842, in ‘Med.-Chir. Rev.,’ 1842.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (for remarks
+on <i>Cysticercus fistularis</i>), ‘Over den veelkop blaasworm’ (l. c.,
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_49">49</a>), p. 263.&mdash;<i>Peall, T.</i>, “A Discourse on ‘Worms,’”
+at p. 37, in his ‘Observations, chiefly practical, on some of the
+more common Diseases of the Horse,’ pub. at Cork, 1814.&mdash;<i>Percivall,
+C.</i>, “Worm in the Eye of the Horse (two cases),”
+‘Veterinarian,’ p. 75, 1828.&mdash;<i>Percivall, J.</i>, “A Case of Ascarides
+in the large Intestines of the Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 358,
+1829.&mdash;<i>Poulton, T. J.</i>, “Large numbers of Parasites in the
+Intestines of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1866, p. 385.&mdash;<i>Seaman,
+J.</i>, “Worms in the Blood-vessels of Horses and Colts,” ‘Edin.
+Vet. Rev.,’ 1864, p. 520.&mdash;<i>Simonds</i>, “On Disease of the
+Mesenteric Artery, produced by Strongyli,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’
+1854.&mdash;<i>Skeavington, G.</i>, “On Worm in the Eye of the Horse
+(three cases),” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1834, p. 196.&mdash;<i>Sonsino, P.</i>, “On
+the Entozoa of the Horse in relation to the late Egyptian
+Equine Plague,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Feb. and March, 1877.&mdash;<i>Tyndal,
+J.</i>, “Worms in the Intestines of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1843,
+p. 629.&mdash;<i>Twining, W.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="393"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393"></a></span>“Obs. on the Filaria or Threadworm
+found in the Eyes of Horses in India,” ‘Calcutta Med. and
+Phys. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. i, p. 345, 1825; rep. in ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 114, 1828.&mdash;<i>Valenciennes</i>, “On the <i>Spiroptera megastoma</i> of
+Gurlt,” abstract of a paper from Acad. Sci. of Paris, reported
+in ‘Lancet,’ 1843.&mdash;<i>Varnell</i>, “Remarks on Cases of Parasitic
+Disease in Horses,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 201, 1864.&mdash;<i>Veret</i>, “Perforation
+of the small Intestines by <i>Ascarides lumbricoides</i> (in
+the Horse),” from ‘Rec. de Méd. Vét.,’ in ‘Veterinarian,’
+p. 569, 1837.&mdash;<i>Vincent</i>, “Curious case of Incurable Lameness
+from Hydatids,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1848, p. 674; see also p. 3,
+<i>ibid.</i>&mdash;<i>Wallis</i>, “Note on the occurrence of (250) Lumbrici in a
+Horse,” ‘Veterinary Record,’ 1849, p. 300.&mdash;<i>Walters, R. G.</i>,
+“Parasites in the Kidneys of a Mare,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1866,
+p. 265.&mdash;<i>Woodger</i>, “Hydatid in the Brain of a Horse,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+1863, p. 75.&mdash;<i>Woods, J. S.</i>, “Tetanus in a Mare,
+associated with the Larvæ of <i>Œstrus equi</i> within the Stomach and
+Duodenum,” ‘Veterinarian,’ 1859, p. 693.&mdash;<i>Wright</i>, “Strongyli
+in the Scrotum of a Colt,” ‘Veterinary Record,’ 1849, p. 385.&mdash;<i>Youatt</i>,
+“Worms between the Tunics of the Stomach,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+1835, p. 571.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Tetanus, Worms in the Trachea,
+and Dilatation of the Heart, in a Zebra,” <i>ibid.</i>, p. 504, 1836.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Worms in the Nasal Cavity of the Horse,” <i>ibid.</i>,
+p. 329, 1832.&mdash;<i>Zangger</i>, “Remarks on Entozoa,” from the
+French, ‘Veterinarian,’ 1855, p. 463.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part X (<a id="Pachydermata"></a>Pachydermata)</span></h3>
+
+<p>Concerning the parasites and parasitic diseases of this miscellaneous
+assemblage of large mammals, I shall first speak of
+those of the proboscideans (Elephantidæ). Except by myself,
+they have been but little studied, and I am yet waiting for an
+opportunity to give further time to their consideration. When
+Diesing published his ‘Systema’ only two helminths were
+referred to the Indian elephant, namely, <i>Ascaris lonchoptera</i> and
+an undescribed fluke supposed to be a distome. The whole
+subject requires revision, but I think the following species must,
+for the present at least, be allowed <span class="nowrap">recognition:&mdash;</span><i>Fasciola
+Jacksoni</i> (mihi), <i>Amphistoma Hawkesii</i> (mihi), <i>Ascaris lonchoptera</i>
+(Diesing), <i>Sclerostoma Spinuliferum</i> (Baird), and
+<i>Dochmius Sangeri</i> (mihi). Either the <i>Ascaris</i> or the <i>Sclerostoma</i>
+is probably identical with Rudolphi’s <i>Strongylus elephantis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the Norwich Meeting of the British Association, in 1868,<span class="pagenum" title="394"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394"></a></span>
+I exhibited two flukes received from J. S. Thacker, V.S., of the
+Madras Army. They were handed to me by the late Dr Baird,
+and were labelled “Distoma taken from liver of elephant and
+forwarded for classification.” I stated at the time that these
+entozoa were identical with certain flukes previously obtained
+from the duodenum and biliary ducts of an Indian elephant,
+and which, though carefully preserved in the Boston Museum,
+U.S., had never been properly described. They were only
+briefly noticed by Dr Jackson in his ‘Descriptive Catalogue’ of
+the Museum. In the summer of 1868 fifteen specimens of fluke,
+removed from Burmese elephants, had been forwarded to and
+received by Professor Huxley from Rangoon, accompanied by a
+statement to the effect that they were the cause of an extensive
+and fatal disease in Burmah. Through the kindness of Prof.
+Huxley I was allowed to make use of his specimens for the
+purpose of comparison and identification, and thus it became
+evident that our specimens were of the same species. It was
+also evident that the species could be none other than that
+represented by the Boston specimens. Further examination
+having made it clear that the organisation of these flukes departed
+from the ordinary distome type, I named the parasite <i>Fasciola
+Jacksoni</i>, at the same time offering the following description
+(‘Entozoa,’ Supp., 1869, p. 80):&mdash;“Body armed throughout with
+minute spines, orbicular, usually folded at either end towards
+the ventral aspect, thus presenting a concavo-convex form; oral
+sucker terminal, with reproductive papillæ about midway between
+it and the ventral acetabulum; intromittent organ <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length;
+digestive apparatus with two main zigzag-shaped canals, giving
+off alternating branches at the angles thus formed, the ultimate
+cæcal ramifications occupying the whole extent of the body;
+length, when unrolled, from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">5</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, breadth <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.”
+Now, if reference be made to the appendix of the late C. M.
+Diesing’s ‘Systema Helminthum,’ it will be found that Jackson’s
+statement had not escaped that helminthologist’s notice, though,
+not having seen any specimens, he was not unnaturally led to
+place the species amongst the distomes proper. In Diesing’s
+subsequently published ‘Revision der Myzelminthen,’ the species
+is formally characterised as the <i>Distomum elephantis</i> of Jackson
+(‘Sitzungsberichte d. Math.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad. d. Wissenchaften,’
+Bd. xxxii, 1858). In my “Synopsis of the Distomidæ,” which
+appeared in the ‘Journal of the Linnean Society’ for 1861, I
+had also placed it amongst the distomes, not considering it<span class="pagenum" title="395"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395"></a></span>
+to be a doubtful form (‘Proceed. Linn. Soc.,’ “Zoology,”
+vol. v, p. 9). These references exhausted the literature of the
+subject up to the time of the issue of my ‘Manual’ in 1873,
+where this fluke is again briefly noticed (p. 13). Several of
+Prof. Huxley’s specimens have been added to the entozoological
+department of the Hunterian Museum. It is clear that all
+these notices and descriptions point to the same parasite. The
+worm has since been more carefully described by Dr R. H. Fitz,
+from a series of dissections and preparations made by Dr H. P.
+Quincy, and deposited in the Warren Museum, Boston, U.S.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of June, 1875, I received a letter from
+General Hawkes, of the Madras Staff Corps, dated Secunderabad,
+May 12th, 1875, and in reference to the subject before us he
+writes as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“My attention has been recently directed
+to a very unusual mortality of elephants at this station. Out
+of twenty-eight elephants under my charge, no less than twelve
+have died within the last sixteen months, whereas the average
+annual mortality has been hitherto only two per annum out of
+thirty-eight in our establishment. In every case of death there
+appeared to exist serious organic disease quite sufficient to
+account for such death, but as the mortality increased I had a
+post-mortem examination made in each case; and although
+here also organic disease sufficient to account for death was
+present in each case, yet in every one of these elephants we
+found the liver-fluke in greater or less abundance.” General
+Hawkes <span class="nowrap">adds:&mdash;</span>“Meanwhile I have sent you a small box containing
+three bottles, one containing the liver-fluke (<i>Fasciola
+Jacksoni</i>) referred to in your work on the parasites of domesticated
+animals. It seems possible that the other two species of
+parasites may not have been brought to your notice. Both of
+these, namely, the “masuri” and the “soorti,” are very common
+in elephants. They are both found in the intestines only. The
+“masuri,” when present in any quantity, cause considerable
+disturbance, and the animal instinctively resorts to the <i>eating
+of earth</i>, which it consumes in large quantities until the bowels
+are acted on and the worm expelled. The soorti is more
+common than masuri, and does not seem to inconvenience the
+animal very much. When expelled from the animal the soorti
+is a round white worm, like most of the threadworms; the
+masuri, on the other hand, is of a delicate flesh color.”
+Shortly after the receipt of this letter I obtained the entozoa in
+a good state of preservation. Accordingly I wrote to General<span class="pagenum" title="396"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396"></a></span>
+Hawkes, stating that the flukes were clearly referable to <i>Fasciola
+Jacksoni</i>; that the parasites to which the natives of Hindostan
+apply the term “soorti” were evidently examples of <i>Ascaris
+lonchoptera</i> (Diesing), previously called strongyles by Rudolphi;
+and that the worms which he called “masuri” were trematodes
+new to science. I named the species <i>Amphistoma Hawkesii</i>, in
+honor of the donor. The bottle contained as many as forty-nine
+specimens. I may here remark that I have made inquiries of
+the keepers of the elephants at the Zoological Gardens as to
+whether they have ever seen entozoa that were passed by the
+animals under their care. They replied in the negative, the
+keeper of the African elephants (Scott) having made frequent
+inspection of the fæces. I was the more anxious to secure
+information on this point since, during my frequent visits to the
+menagerie, I had observed that the African elephants were in
+the habit of swallowing large quantities of mud and dirt from
+small hollows in the ground near the great water-tanks in which
+they bathe. Prof. Garrod (who had dissected three elephants)
+also assures me that there has been no trace of an entozoon in
+any of the Indian elephants examined by him. In one dissected
+at Edinburgh the same negative result was obtained. From
+the facts at present in my possession, I conclude that the habit
+of earth-eating, displayed alike by Indian and African elephants
+(and, as stated in my account of the equine parasites, shared by
+horses), is not necessarily due to the presence of parasites. I
+apprehend rather, that it is resorted to by these animals under
+any circumstances of intestinal irritation, whether created by
+entozoa or other foreign agents. The notion of the elephant’s
+intelligent self-cure by eating earth is a very old fable. Captain
+Forsyth, as quoted by Mr Fleming, alludes to it in his ‘Highlands
+of Central India,’ and I find the same ideas recorded
+by Williamson and Howitt. Forsyth <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“Elephants are
+very liable to intestinal worms. They generally cure themselves
+by swallowing from ten to twenty pounds of earth.” Captain
+Williamson <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“They are much troubled with worms, for
+the cure of which the elephant eats earth. If the dung be
+inspected there will be seen an amazing number of moving
+objects, which much resemble pieces of chewed sugar-cane.”
+Some excellent practical remarks are added, testifying to the
+value of the native remedy called <i>Kallah-nimok</i>, or <i>bit-noben</i>,
+which is a saline purgative. In Lieut. Ouchterlony’s essay
+(quoted below) no allusion is made to the subject of worms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="397"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>General Hawkes afterwards supplied me with further information.
+In a letter from Secunderabad, dated July 30th, 1875,
+he <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“As regards the liver-fluke (<i>F. Jacksoni</i>), it appears
+from your treatise to have been first observed in 1847. The
+only other published notice that I have been able to find of it
+is contained in a letter to a newspaper, dated ‘Rangoon, 16th
+July, 1867,’ and is signed ‘R. B.’ In this letter the unusual
+mortality of seven elephants in about fifteen days is attributed
+to the presence of this liver-fluke, the two other parasites
+(<i>Amphistoma</i> and <i>Ascaris lonchoptera</i>) being also present in the
+intestines.” “Now (continues General Hawkes), in every case
+at which I was present <i>flukes were found in greater or less
+numbers</i> in the gall-ducts of the liver, and the <i>Amphistoma</i> was
+also as constantly present in the intestines, the soorti (<i>Ascaris
+lonchoptera</i>), contrary to the general experience of the elephant
+attendants, being less frequently met with, though from its
+color and slender shape it is not so easily detected among the
+huge mass of fæces as the larger <i>Amphistoma</i>.” Speaking of
+the amphistoma General Hawkes <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span><span class="pagenum" title="398"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398"></a></span>“This internal parasite
+is well known to all who possess elephants. It is alluded to by
+Dr Gilchrist in his treatise on the ‘Diseases of Elephants,’ first
+published in 1841, but he merely mentioned it under its local
+name, <i>masuri</i>, and made no attempt either to describe it scientifically
+or to ascertain its place in the natural system. As far
+as my experience goes it is only found in the intestines. These
+parasites appear to be very generally present in the elephant.
+When their numbers are few the ‘host’ is probably not much
+inconvenienced, but when present in any great quantity they
+undoubtedly cause much irritation. When this is felt, the
+animal, as before remarked, instinctively resorts to a simple and
+effectual remedy. He eats a quantity of earth, which purges
+him thoroughly and expels the amphistoma. The mahawats
+are of opinion that whilst the elephant is eating earth to relieve
+himself of the pests the daily allowance of rice should be
+scrupulously withheld; and they say that if the rice, which is
+given uncooked, is eaten by the animal under these circumstances,
+excessive purgation is induced, which frequently results
+in death. How far this opinion is founded on fact I am unable
+to say, but the mahawat’s name for this disease means ‘fasting,’
+and bears testimony to the generally received notion of
+the necessity of withholding the rice when the animal is eating
+earth.”</p>
+
+<p>When describing the parasites of the horse (p. <a href="#Page_358">358</a>), I spoke
+of Collins’ amphistome from that animal, but in the letter
+addressed to me from Simla, 22nd March, 1875, Mr. Collins made
+no allusion to the earth-eating habit. He <span class="nowrap">wrote:&mdash;</span>“I forward
+you by this mail parasites found in the colon of a horse that
+died, a subject of fever peculiar to this country. There were <i>about
+a thousand</i> of the parasites, and nearly the whole of them were
+situated close to the cæcum, and were loose in the gut. Not
+having seen parasites at all similar to these, I have forwarded
+them for identification. They were of a brick-red color when
+first obtained.” These explicit statements by Mr Collins are
+interesting from many points of view. One has only to place
+his specimens side by side with those from the elephant in
+order to satisfy one’s self that the two forms are distinct. For
+the reasons already stated I provisionally called the worm
+<i>Amphistoma Collinsii</i>. It is probable that other veterinary
+surgeons have encountered this entozoon in India; but, unless
+they can point to some published account of the fact, Mr Collins
+is entitled to be considered as its discoverer. Doubtless
+many other European residents in India, Ceylon, and Burmah,
+must, like Dr Gilchrist, be well acquainted with the <i>masuri</i> as
+such, though unaware of their zoological position.</p>
+
+<p>In a record of the post-mortem examination of one of the
+victims of the Secunderabad epizoöty, the veterinary surgeon
+<span class="nowrap">said:&mdash;</span>“No doubt disease of the lungs and subacute inflammation
+of the bowels were the immediate cause of death, but the
+large number of flukes in the liver and the intestinal parasites
+(<i>i.e.</i> the amphistomes) account in a great measure for some of
+the symptoms shown, and these symptoms accord in many
+respects with those shown in elephants that died in Burmah
+during the epizoöty (rot) in 1867, as recorded by R. B., notably,
+refusal of food, standing with mouth open, restlessness,
+and puffiness about the head and shoulders. The liver parasite
+is no doubt the same referred to by R. B., and is that
+termed by Dr Cobbold <i>Fasciola Jacksoni</i>.” In reference to a
+later case the same officer <span class="nowrap">remarks:&mdash;</span>“I carried out the post-mortem
+examination with special reference to inquiry as to the
+probability of the mortality amongst elephants at this station
+being of parasitic origin. This was suggested to me by the
+former case. The post-mortem appearances differed in every
+respect. There were flukes in the liver, but in no great
+quantity, and the structure of the liver was sound. Although<span class="pagenum" title="399"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399"></a></span>
+not assisted by this case in attributing the mortality to parasitic
+origin, I am strengthened in my opinion that the death of
+the previous elephant was due to disease caused by the presence
+of the liver fluke.” This report, by Mr W. S. Adams, is
+to some extent in harmony with later information. An epizoötic
+outbreak amongst elephants has occurred in England, at
+Sanger’s Circus, and I had opportunity to examine one of the
+dead animals. In my own opinion, and in that of Mr F. Smith,
+the veterinary surgeon who attended the animals professionally,
+the disease was due to parasites. I obtained large quantities
+of <i>Amphistoma Hawkesii</i> from the intestinal canal, and also
+other worms. The death of one of the elephants was made the
+subject of litigation, when, as might be expected, great diversity
+of opinion as to the cause of the fatal issue prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Smith, an old pupil of mine, regarding the amphistomes
+and strongyles as the cause of death, wrote to the effect that
+“some of the worms were found between the coats of the
+intestine, and others on the free surface of the gut, whilst the
+excretory ducts of some of the glands were found blocked with
+them.” The animal examined by myself on the 24th of August,
+1876, yielded numerous examples of <i>Amphistoma Hawkesii</i>,
+<i>Ascaris lonchoptera</i>, and <i>Dochmius Sangeri</i>, the last species
+being so named by me after the owner of the circus who lost
+the herd of elephants by the epizoöty. The male <i>Dochmii</i>
+measured <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">5</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span> and the females <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span> of an inch in length. Here I
+must reluctantly quit the helminths of elephants, adding only an
+expression of surprise that Dr Max Schmidt should have had so
+little to say concerning them in his otherwise instructive memoir
+on ‘The Diseases of Pachyderms’ (quoted below).</p>
+
+<p>I have but a few words to offer respecting the ectozoa. A
+species of mite has been described whose generic position
+appears doubtful. I allude to <i>Homopus elephantis</i> of Fürstenberg,
+or <i>Symbiotes elephantis</i> of Gerlach. According to Mégnin
+it is a <i>nymphe adventive</i> or <i>hypope</i> of a variety of <i>Tyroglyphus
+siro</i>. This acarus is abundant in old forage. Another ectozoon
+is <i>Hæmatomyzus elephantis</i>. It differs from the lice proper in
+many respects, but, according to Piaget, the reproductive organs
+resemble those of <i>Hæmatopinus</i>. In ‘Science Gossip’ for June,
+1871, Mr H. C. Richter describes “a new form of parasite,”
+which is called <i>Idolocoris elephantis</i>. The insect, which was
+one line in length, was found upon an elephant in Ceylon.
+According to Walker it not only constituted the type of a new<span class="pagenum" title="400"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400"></a></span>
+genus, but of an altogether new family of the Hemiptera Heteroptera,
+coming very near to the bed-bugs (<i>Acanthidæ</i>). It is a
+huge sucking louse. From the discussion which followed, it
+seems that the parasite had several times been seen before, and
+was none other than E. Piaget’s <i>Hæmatomyzus elephantis</i>.
+Excellent figures accompany Richter’s and Piaget’s descriptions.
+Notwithstanding Piaget’s explanation, I think the
+specific name, <i>longirostris</i>, would have been a more appropriate
+appellation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_51"></a>No. 51).&mdash;(Anonymous), “Diseased Elephants,”
+see ‘Lancet,’ Sept. 2, 1876; also “Report of the Case at Law
+(Jamrach <i>v.</i> Sanger),” given in the ‘Veterinarian,’ Dec., 1877,
+p. 886.&mdash;<i>Cobbold, T. S.</i>, “Description of a species of Trematode
+from the Indian Elephant, with remarks on its Affinities,”
+‘Quart. Micros. Journ.,’ Jan., 1869; see also ‘Entozoa,’ supp.,
+1869, p. 80.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Destruction of Elephants by
+Parasites, with remarks on two new species of Entozoa and on
+the so-called Earth-eating habits of Elephants and Horses in
+India,” ‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Further Remarks
+on Parasites from the Horse and Elephant, with a notice of new
+Amphistomes from the Ox,” <i>ibid.</i>, Nov., 1875.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i> (l. c.,
+in text).&mdash;<i>Fitz, R. H.</i>, “Anatomy of <i>Fasciola Jacksoni</i>,” ‘Rep.
+of Boston Soc. Med. Sci.,’ in the ‘New York Med. Journ.,’
+Nov., 1876.&mdash;<i>Fleming, G.</i>, “The Diseases of Elephants” (chiefly
+from Captain Forsyth’s work on the ‘Highlands of Central
+India’), ‘Veterinarian,’ March, 1873, p. 181.&mdash;<i>Mégnin</i>, “Mém.
+sur les Hypopes,” in Robin’s ‘Journ. de l’Anat. et de la
+Physiol.,’ 1874 (<i>H. elephantis</i>), p. 248.&mdash;<i>Ouchterlony, J. W.</i>,
+“An Essay on the Management of the Elephant, and its Treatment
+in ordinary Diseases,” ‘Rep. of Vet. Med. Assoc.,’ Nov.,
+1872, and pub. in ‘Veterinarian,’ Jan., 1873, p. 65.&mdash;<i>Piaget, E.</i>,
+“Description d’un parasite de l’éléphant,” ‘Tijschrift voor
+Entomologie,’ 1869, p. 249.&mdash;<i>Richter, H. C.</i>, “A new form of
+Parasite (<i>Idolocoris elephantis</i>),” ‘Science Gossip,’ 1871, pp. 131,
+185, 211, 278.&mdash;<i>Schmidt, Max</i>, “Die Krankheiten der Dickhäuter,”
+‘Deutsche Zeitschrift f. Thiermed. und vergleichende
+Pathologie,’ f. Nov., 1878, s. 360.&mdash;<i>Williamson, T.</i>, ‘Oriental
+Field Sports,’ London, 1807, vol. i, p. 138.</p>
+
+<p>The parasites of the <i>Rhinoceridæ</i> have been even less studied
+than those of elephants. In 1856 Prof. Peters described a
+tapeworm from Bruce’s rhinoceros (<i>R. Africanus</i>), which he
+named <i>Tænia gigantea</i>. In 1870 Dr Murie, under the provi<span class="pagenum" title="401"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401"></a></span>sional
+name of <i>T. magna</i>, published a description of the strobile
+of the same cestode from an Indian rhinoceros (<i>R. unicornis</i>).
+From a total misconception of the character of the proglottides,
+Murie was led to suppose that the segments of the strobile were
+very deep as well as broad; whereas the proglottids are
+remarkably narrow, thus partaking of the characters of the
+Tæniæ of the larger herbivora in general. In a subsequent
+paper Peters pointed out these errors. Murie had, in fact,
+rolled several segments into one. In 1877 Professor Garrod
+encountered the same cestode in <i>Rhinoceros sondaicus</i>, and,
+following Peters’ example, separated it from the Tæniæ proper
+(<i>Plagiotænia gigantea</i>). The idea of generically separating
+tapeworms possessing a more or less striking breadth of strobile
+is not one which commends itself to my view, seeing that many
+of the tapeworms of herbivora closely resemble the rhinoscerine
+cestodes in this respect. As Diesing hints, this tapeworm
+comes near to <i>T. perfoliata</i>, but Garrod’s and Peters’ figures
+both show that <i>Plagiotænia</i> wants the neck-lobes. The presence
+of cephalic appendages may be regarded as generically
+distinctive, but it does not appear that Blanchard separated the
+perfoliate tapeworm of the horse from the Tæniæ proper on this
+ground. Therefore, in my account of the equine tapeworms, I
+have not adopted his genus <i>Anoplocephala</i>. I may remark, in
+passing, that if the distinctions, as between armed and unarmed,
+or between proboscis-bearing (<i>Rhynchotæniada</i>) and
+non-proboscis-bearing tapeworms (<i>Arhynchotæniada</i>), are to be
+maintained, they should be expressive of divisional or subordinate
+value. Dr Weinland’s arrangement, having reference
+to the thick- and thin-shelled ova (Sclero- and Malaco-leptidota),
+is, perhaps, preferable. The whole subject of classification
+requires revision, but it should be undertaken by some helminthologists
+practically acquainted with a large number of cestode
+types. As Garrod has well observed, <i>Plagiotænia</i> enjoys a
+wide geographical distribution, infesting alike Indian and
+African hosts. Prof. Garrod, I observe, speaks of the <i>head</i> of
+the mature tapeworm as the <i>scolex</i>&mdash;an extension of the meaning
+of a term not usually recognised. In this, however, he
+only follows Peters’ unfortunate example.</p>
+
+<p>The wide distribution enjoyed by Peters’ Plagiotænia is
+probably equalled by that of the rhinocerine stomach-bot
+(<i>Gastrophilus rhinocerontis</i>, Owen). This parasite was originally
+described in 1840, and since that time it has been fre<span class="pagenum" title="402"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402"></a></span>quently
+encountered both in India and Africa. To Mr Spooner
+Hart, of Calcutta, I am indebted for a large number of specimens;
+their size exceeding that of any other bots that have
+come under my notice. Probably this parasite infests the
+stomach of rhinoceroses generally; at all events, it occurs in
+<i>R. unicornis</i>, <i>R. bicornis</i>, and <i>R. simus</i>. At present the imago
+is unknown. The longest larvæ in my possession measure <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+but Brauer records specimens up to 35&nbsp;mm. in length by 10&nbsp;mm. in thickness. In African hosts M. Delegorgue found
+these parasites in prodigious numbers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_52"></a>No. 52).&mdash;<i>Brauer</i>, “Bot of the Rhinoceros,”
+‘Monogr. der Œstr.,’ 1863, s. 92.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Note on Parasites
+presented by Messrs Danford, Hart, and others,” ‘Veterinarian,’
+1875, p. 513.&mdash;<i>Coquerel</i> and <i>Sallé</i>, in ‘Ann. Soc.
+Entom. de France,’ 1862 (quoted by Brauer).&mdash;<i>Delegorgue</i>,
+‘Voyage dans l’Afrique’ (quoted by Brauer).&mdash;<i>Garrod</i>, “On
+the Tænia of the Rhinoceros of the Sunderbunds (<i>Plag. gig.</i>,
+Peters),” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ Nov. 20, 1877, p. 788.&mdash;<i>Hope</i>, in
+‘Trans. Entom. Soc.,’ 1840, p. 259.&mdash;<i>Joly, M. N.</i>, “Recherches
+Zool. (&amp;c.) sur les Œstrides (&amp;c.),” in ‘Ann. des Sciences (&amp;c.)
+de Lyon,’ 1846 (quoted by Brauer).&mdash;<i>Murie, J.</i>, “On a probably
+new species of Tænia (<i>T. magna?</i>) from the Rhinoceros,” ‘Proc.
+Zool. Soc.,’ 1870, p. 608.&mdash;<i>Peters, W.</i>, “Note on the Tænia
+from the Rhinoceros, lately described by Dr J. Murie,” ‘Proc.
+Zool. Soc.,’ 1871, p. 146.</p>
+
+<p>Very little has been written respecting the parasites of the
+<i>Hippopotamidæ</i> and <i>Tapiridæ</i>. I think it was Livingstone who
+first drew attention to the fact that the river-horse or sea-cow
+is much infested by tapeworms, but I have not seen any
+published description of the worm. Dr Murie, during his
+sojourn in Egypt, found a solitary bot embedded in the soft parts
+surrounding the eye, and judging from his figure the species is
+new to science. Provisionally I speak of it as the <i>Hypoderma
+Muriei</i>. In the paper (quoted below) Murie appends a list of
+all the animals in which bots have been found. Though chiefly
+taken from Brauer, it is useful and tolerably complete. So far
+as I am aware no cestodes have been described as infesting
+tapirs; nevertheless, at least five other kinds of helminth have
+been found in <i>Tapirus Americanus</i>. Of these, two are flukes
+(<i>Amphistoma asperum</i> and <i>A. pyriforme</i>), and three are nematodes
+(<i>Sclerostoma monostechum</i>, <i>Spiroptera mediospiralis</i>, and
+<i>Sp. chrysoptera</i>). The three species first named occupy the cæcum,<span class="pagenum" title="403"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403"></a></span>
+whilst the others are found in the stomach. According to
+Molin’s description, both species occupy tuberous excrescences
+of the mucous membrane, thus reminding us of the similar
+habit enjoyed by <i>Sp. megastoma</i> in the horse. The <i>Sp. chrysoptera</i>
+is a comparatively large species, the males measuring
+an inch, and the females as much as an inch and a half in
+length. Both of the spiropteras were obtained from tapirs by
+the indefatigable Natterer, <i>Sp. mediospiralis</i> being also procured
+by him from the aguti. If I have read Molin correctly,
+as many as thirty-four examples of <i>S. mediospiralis</i> were taken
+from a single excrescence in the stomach of the tapir. Upwards
+of a hundred specimens were procured, collectively, from
+three similar stomach-excrescences in <i>Dasyprocta aguti</i>. These,
+and the other tapirine parasites above mentioned, were originally
+discovered in Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_53"></a>No. 53).&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, “Neue Gattungen von Binnenwürmen
+nebst einem Nachtrage zur Monographie der Amphistomen,”
+in ‘Annalen d. Wien. Museums,’ Feb., 1839, s. 236.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Systema,’ Bd. ii, s. 306.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>, “Una monografia del
+genere Spiroptera,” in ‘Sitzungsb. der math.-naturw. Cl. d. k.
+Akad. d. Wissensch.,’ Bd. xxxviii, s. 1001, 1859.&mdash;<i>Murie</i>, “On
+a larval Œstrus found in the Hippopotamus,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’
+1870, p. 78.</p>
+
+<p>The osculant position of the anisodactyle pachyderms (<i>Hyracidæ</i>),
+formerly classed as rodents, renders it desirable that
+their parasites should be briefly noticed in this place. Probably
+these animals, zoologically speaking, come nearest to
+the rhinoceroses, but Prof. Owen showed that, anatomically,
+they possessed marked affinities with the sloths. The klipdas
+or dasse (<i>Hyrax capensis</i>) is infested by a tapeworm, of which
+hitherto the proglottides only appear to have been seen (<i>Tænia
+hyracis</i>, Pallas). Under the name of <i>Cœnurus serialis</i> a larval
+cestode has been described by Gervais, the same parasite being
+called <i>Arhynchotænia critica</i> by Pagenstecher (“Zur Naturgeschichte
+der Cestoden,” in ‘Sieb. u. Köll. Zeitschrift’). A variety
+of nematodes have also been observed in the Cape hyrax. Of
+these, the so-called <i>Physaloptera spirula</i> is classed as doubtful
+by Molin and Diesing. Hemprich and Ehrenberg furnished
+brief descriptions of four other nematodes. Two of these
+worms were placed in the genus Oxyuris (<i>O. pugio</i> and <i>O.
+flavellum</i>), and the other two in the new genus Crossophorus,
+which they formed for their reception (<i>C. collaris</i> and <i>C.<span class="pagenum" title="404"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404"></a></span>
+tentaculatus</i>). The whole of these nematoids were obtained
+either from the cæcum or large intestine.</p>
+
+<p>An able article in the ‘Natural History Review’ for July
+1865, attributed to Professor Huxley, expressed very clearly the
+popular notion as to the great danger of the flesh of swine
+considered as a source of human parasites. No doubt the
+filthy pachyderms in question (<i>Suidæ</i>) are much infested by
+helminths, some of which gain access to man, but swine are
+neither attacked by a greater variety of entozoa than other
+domesticated animals, nor are they so frequently a source of
+human tapeworms as cattle. In the article above quoted the
+following passage <span class="nowrap">occurs:&mdash;</span>“Of all animals, feral or domestic,
+the common pig is beyond all doubt the most fertile source of
+human entozoa; at least, of important parasites, <i>Trichina spiralis</i>
+and the tapeworm would, there is good reason to believe,
+cease to infest us, did not this favorite quadruped act the part
+of a communicating medium.” This paragraph was evidently
+written under the impression that “the tapeworm” most
+commonly found in man was derived from the hog. So far
+back as 1864 I showed that this was an entire mistake.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;">
+<img src="images/f66.jpg" width="210" height="254" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>&mdash;Head and neck of <i>Cysticercus</i> from the
+Red River hog. Magnified 60 diameters. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Flukes are rare in swine; nevertheless, <i>Fasciola hepatica</i>
+and <i>Distoma lanceolatum</i> are occasionally present in the
+domestic hog, and the peccaries (<i>Dicotyles</i>) are infested by an
+Amphistome (<i>A. giganteum</i>). This large species, <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length,
+formed the basis of an admirable account of the anatomy of
+this genus of worms which the learned Vienna helminthologist,
+Diesing, wrote before he was deprived of his eyesight. The
+merits of that respected systematist’s investigations have, I
+think, been much underrated, in consequence, no doubt, of the
+artificial character of his system of classification. For all that,
+his writings remain invaluable. Turning to the cestodes of
+swine, there is not, so far as I am aware, any evidence of the
+occurrence of sexually-mature tapeworms either in the hog or
+its allies; but the frequency of larval cestodes, known as
+measles (<i>Cysticercus telæ cellulosæ</i>), was well known to the early
+Jewish writers. In the first part of this work I devoted as
+much space as I could spare to the consideration of Cysticerci
+in general, and the pork-measle in particular; but an exhaustive
+knowledge of the subject in relation to hygiene can only
+be acquired by consulting the principal original memoirs (quoted
+in the Bibliographies Nos. <a href="#No_13">13</a> and <a href="#No_14">14</a>). In a Westphalian ham,
+part of which was sent to me for examination, I calculated that<span class="pagenum" title="405"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405"></a></span>
+each pound of the flesh must have contained upwards of 600
+Cysticerci. I was informed by the donor, Dr Prior, that in
+spite of the disgusting state of the meat much of it had been
+eaten by the well-to-do family who purchased the ham. Cysticerci
+occasionally occupy the brain of the pig in considerable
+numbers. Florman recorded a case of this kind where their
+presence gave rise to vertigo in all respects resembling the gid
+ordinarily produced by <i>Cœnurus</i> in the sheep. As regards the
+larger cestode larvæ, <i>Cysticercus tenuicollis</i> and <i>Echinococcus
+veterinorum</i> are of frequent occurrence. One not unfrequently
+encounters the former in the mesentery, whilst the liver of the
+hog is sometimes so crowded with hydatids that scarcely any of
+the glandular substance of the organ remains visible. It is
+surprising how little the infested bearers appear to be inconvenienced
+in such cases. In the winter of 1859, and in the
+autumn of 1860, I found large cystic entozoa in an African Wart-hog
+and in a Red River hog.
+These animals had died at the
+London Zoological Society’s
+Menagerie; and as the worms
+appeared to me at the time to
+be quite distinct from the ordinary
+slender-necked hydatid,
+they were named, respectively,
+<i>Cysticercus phacochæri æthiopici</i>
+and <i>C. potamochæri penicillati</i>.
+The solitary example from the
+wart-hog was found in a cyst
+near the colon; whilst of the five
+large bladder-worms obtained
+from the Red River hog, one infested
+the liver and the other
+four were lodged in the folds
+of the mesentery. The caudal
+vesicle of the worm from the wart-hog measured <span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+diameter, the vesicle of the other bladder-worm being much
+longer. A reference to the original figures will show that
+these forms are distinct. Swine are largely infested by nematodes.
+The best-known form is <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i>, which
+Dujardin regarded as distinct (<i>A. suilla</i>). The hitherto disputed
+identity of this worm with the human lumbricoid being
+no longer questionable, the importance of the entozoon in rela<span class="pagenum" title="406"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406"></a></span>tion
+to lumbricoid endemics must at once be obvious; I have
+already, however, dwelt upon this subject when treating of the
+human parasites. In like manner, the subject of the flesh-worm
+disease, which is due to <i>Trichina spiralis</i>, cannot be
+discussed in this place, as I have fully entered upon it in
+connection with trichinosis in the human subject. What may
+be the nature of the small threadworms found by Leidy in the
+extensor muscles of the hog I cannot say, but Diesing inferred
+that they might represent a distinct species (<i>Trichina affinis</i>).
+As regards the allied genus <i>Trichocephalus</i>, the common species
+infesting swine (<i>T. crenatus</i>), appears to be rarely absent. It
+not only infests the common domestic and wild hog, but the
+peccaries and wart-hogs. These entozoa are probably harmless
+to their bearers. In reference to them Krabbe says:&mdash;“When
+the eggs are expelled with the excrement and pass into water,
+then the embryos, after several months’ furlough, and there
+undergoing further development, are transferred to the swine’s
+intestinal canal.” If I rightly understand the paragraph
+(‘Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme,’ p. 28), Krabbe states that the
+embryos are still within their egg-coverings when infection
+takes place. The maw-worm of the hog is known as <i>Spiroptera
+strongylina</i>. It was described and figured by Gurlt. The
+males measure <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the females <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. Specimens
+of this worm were supposed to have been found by Natterer in
+<i>Dicotyles albirostris</i>; but it seems that the worms in question
+represent a distinct species, if not an altogether new genus.
+In the year 1864 Professor Simonds placed in my hands a
+very singular nematode, to which I gave the binomial term
+<i>Simondsia paradoxa</i>. Numerous examples of this worm were
+found by Prof. Simonds occupying cysts within the walls of
+the stomach of a hog which had died at the London Zoological
+Society’s Menagerie. In my introductory treatise I wrote of
+it as follows:&mdash;<span class="pagenum" title="407"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407"></a></span>“The worm in question has been regarded by
+Mr Simonds as a species of <i>Strongylus</i>, but I am inclined to
+think that its affinities will place it nearer to the genus <i>Spiroptera</i>.
+At present I have only examined the female, which is
+characterised by the possession of a multitude of large tentacle-like
+appendages surrounding the neck. These processes, by
+their aspect, remind one of the so-called branchial projections
+on the back of <i>Eolis</i>, but in this worm I believe them to be
+special folds formed for the lodgment of unusually developed
+uterine organs. The female worm is about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length.”</p>
+
+<p>In the interval that has elapsed I have been unable to supply
+further particulars, and unfortunately the original drawings of
+the worm have been lost. The habits of the parasite remind
+us of <i>Spiroptera megastoma</i> infesting the walls of the stomach
+of the horse. Not improbably this singular entozoon may turn
+out to be identical with Molin’s <i>Spiroptera sexalata</i>, and if so,
+it may correspond with <i>Spiroptera strongylina</i>. However,
+Diesing afterwards recognising, as I had done, the desirability
+of separating this last-named worm from the Spiropteræ proper,
+formed for it his new genus <i>Physocephalus</i>. He then called the
+worm <i>Physocephalus sexalatus</i>. If, as is probable, my <i>Simondsia</i>
+and Diesing’s <i>Physocephalus</i> are identical, the species found by
+Simonds ought to be recognised by the generic title which
+Diesing proposed. His genus was established about four years
+before I described my <i>Simondsia</i>. Diesing was evidently led
+up to the recognition of the generic distinction of the worm by
+Molin’s examination and description of the worm. As, in my
+original account of the worm found by Simonds, I spoke of
+numerous appendages to the neck, it is evident that further
+investigation is necessary to clear up the question of identity.
+According to Molin and Diesing the male <i>Spiroptera sexalata</i>
+measures rather beyond <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the female beyond <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length.
+Neither Diesing nor Molin speak of Natterer’s worms as being
+found encysted. In fact they were free. Molin simply <span class="nowrap">remarks:&mdash;</span>“Io
+ne esaminai in oltre 6 esemplari maschi e 77
+femine raccolti in parte dal muco che revestiva le pareti dello
+stomaco, ed in parte dal pasto contenuto nello stesso organo di
+un <i>Dicotyles albirostris</i> femina ai 24 Aprile, 1826.” After all
+that has been said it may be that my <i>Simondsia paradoxa</i>
+and Diesing’s <i>Physocephalus sexalata</i> are quite distinct, and that
+like the large- and small-mouthed maw-worms of the horse
+(<i>Spiroptera megastoma</i> and <i>S. microstoma</i>) they play a corresponding
+rôle. Before very long I hope to set this question
+definitively at rest.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to the strongyloid nematodes one of the most remarkable
+and important species is <i>Stephanurus dentatus</i>. In the
+‘Annalen des Wiener Museums’ for 1839 (s. 232) this worm was
+first described by Diesing, who employed the generic title as
+expressive of the crown-like figure of the tail of the male worm.
+Diesing wrote as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“At Barra do Rio Negro, on the
+24th of March, 1834, Natterer discovered this peculiar genus of
+worms occurring singly or several together in capsules situated<span class="pagenum" title="408"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408"></a></span>
+amongst the layers of fat in a Chinese race of <i>Sus scrofa
+domestica</i>. The males measure from ten to thirteen lines long,
+the females from fifteen to eighteen lines, the former being
+scarcely a line in breadth at the middle of the body, whilst the
+latter are almost a line and a half in thickness. The curved
+body thickens towards the tail, is transversely annulated, and
+viewed with a penetrating lens is seen to be furnished with
+integumentary pores. The oral aperture opens widely. It is
+almost circular, and is supplied with six teeth at the margin.
+Two of these standing opposed to one another are larger and
+stronger than the rest. The tail of the male, when spread out
+evenly, is surrounded by a coronet of five lancet-shaped flaps;
+the combined flaps being connected together from base to apex
+by means of a delicate transparent membrane. The single
+spiculum situated at the extreme end of the tail projects slightly
+forward and is surrounded by three skittle-shaped bodies.
+The tail of the female is curved upon itself, rounded off, and
+drawn out at the extreme end into a straight beak-shaped
+point; whilst to both sides of the stumpy caudal extremity of
+the body short vesicular prominences are attached. The female
+reproductive outlet occurs at the commencement of the second
+half of the body. Thus, judging by its external characters this
+genus is most closely allied to <i>Strongylus</i>.” In reproducing
+Diesing’s description I have here rendered the translation
+somewhat more freely than in my previous record of the discovery
+given in ‘Nature’ (1871). The original description is
+supplemented by a brief account of the internal anatomy of
+the worm.</p>
+
+<p>So far as I am aware no subsequent notice of this entozoon
+appeared until the year 1858, when Dr J. C. White gave some
+account of a “find” made in the United States. This re-discovery
+was reported in the sixth volume of the ‘Proceedings of
+the Boston Natural History Society.’ Dr White <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“The
+worms were found in the leaf-yard of an apparently healthy hog,
+in the adipose tissue near the kidney. They occupied a space of
+the same about the size of a man’s fist and had burrowed through
+the mass in every direction, forming canals three or four millimètres
+in diameter, which terminated in cysts. On cutting open
+these cavities, which did not communicate with each other, they
+were found filled with pus, and in each were two worms, male
+and female.” Dr White expresses his opinion that the worms
+gained access to the tissues <span class="pagenum" title="409"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409"></a></span>“by boring through the circulatory
+system while in the embryonic condition.” I think that Dr
+White deserves great credit for his correct diagnosis of the
+species, and all the more so because he was evidently not
+acquainted with Diesing’s original memoir. He expressly
+speaks of the “scanty descriptions” hitherto given of the worm.
+As Dr White had accurately determined the species in the
+presence of an American Scientific Society, it is remarkable
+that neither Verrill nor Fletcher should have identified the
+worm.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th of January, 1871, I received a letter from
+Prof. W. B. Fletcher, of Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.A., and in
+it he announced that he had “found a worm” infesting the
+hog. The parasite was so abundant in swine that he obtained
+it in “nine out of ten hogs” which he had examined. Dr
+Fletcher sent me specimens of the worm for description and
+identification, when I at once recognised them as examples of
+Diesing’s <i>Stephanurus dentatus</i>. As Dr Fletcher’s first communication
+to myself was undated I do not know precisely when
+he first encountered the worm, but it was in 1870. In that
+same year Prof. Verrill received specimens of the worm. He
+says that they were received from Dr J. C. White. Failing to
+identify the parasites as <i>Stephanuri</i>, Verrill (making no allusion
+to the ‘Proceedings of the Boston Society’) not unnaturally
+supposed he had to deal with an entozoon that was new to
+science. Accordingly he immediately described and figured
+the worm under the combined title of <i>Sclerostoma pinguicola</i>.
+If these data are correctly given, the re-discovery of the worm
+in America was due to Dr J. C. White; its identity with
+<i>Stephanurus</i> being subsequently acknowledged by Diesing, and
+afterwards, quite independently, by myself. I gather this
+partly from Diesing’s ‘Kleine helminthologische Mittheilungen’
+(s. 281), published as a supplement to his ‘Revision der
+Nematoden’ (1860&ndash;61). Until quite recently Diesing’s
+recognition of the identity of White’s parasites with Stephanuri
+was unknown in America. My conclusions arose from an
+examination of the actual specimens, whereas Diesing was
+entirely guided by White’s description. In this connection,
+moreover, a still more interesting re-discovery remained to be
+recorded. The original announcement which I made in the
+‘British Medical Journal’ for January 14th, 1871, was followed
+by another in the same periodical for September, 1871. As
+stated in my second letter and repeated in my notice of Krabb<span class="pagenum" title="410"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410"></a></span>e’s
+memoir on “Parasites” (‘London Medical Record,’ April 2,
+1873), the President of the London Microscopical Society
+(through Mr Slack, who was at that time the secretary)
+forwarded to me a box of microscopic slides received by the
+Society from Australia. The slides displayed parasites of
+various kinds. Having been requested to identify the parasites
+I had the good fortune to recognise amongst them characteristic
+examples of <i>Stephanurus dentatus</i>. Thus was first made known
+the fact that this singular genus was not confined in its
+geographical distribution to the two American continents, but
+that it extended to Australia. The order of the principal
+“finds” and descriptions may therefore be thus restated.
+Natterer discovered the worm in Brazil in 1834. Diesing
+described it in 1839. Dr J. C. White re-discovered and
+identified the worm in 1858. It was subsequently found by
+Dr N. Cressy and by Dr Fletcher. These three observers all
+encountered the parasite in the United States (1858&ndash;70).
+Prof. Verrill re-described the worm as new to science in September,
+1870. Diesing confirmed White’s diagnosis in 1860.
+I identified the worm from Fletcher’s “find” in 1871. Dr
+Morris supposed he had discovered a new entozoon in Australia
+in July, 1871. The Australian worms were identified by me
+as examples of <i>Stephanurus dentatus</i> in October, 1871.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of <i>Stephanurus</i> in relation to porcine epizoöty
+and the supply of animal food cannot be ignored. As remarked
+in my communication to ‘Nature,’ it must be quite obvious that
+so large a parasite, when present in the hog in any considerable
+numbers, would give rise to serious disease, even if it were not
+productive of fatal results to the bearer. In one of his numerous
+communications to myself, Prof. W. B. Fletcher writes
+as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“It is my opinion that this parasite is the cause,
+in some way, of the hog cholera, which has created such sad
+havoc within the past ten years over the pork-producing parts
+of America. One farmer told me, a few days ago, that within a
+month his loss alone from this cause was over one hundred
+head; and sometimes, in one neighbourhood, in a few days’
+time, thousands have perished, although this season is not a
+cholera year, as our farmers say. I advised one farmer to
+burn or bury the dead animals, but he informed me that he
+believed that fewer hogs die of the disease after eating the
+dead animals than those kept from them. Unfortunately, in
+this State there is no law guarding the spread of disease,<span class="pagenum" title="411"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411"></a></span>
+neither is there any reward of reputation or gain for pursuing
+any investigation that would bring pork and beef packers into
+disrepute. I myself could not get a pig’s kidney or beef’s
+liver in our city market, because I made investigations in some
+Texas cattle (being cut up in our market), which damaged
+their sale a few years ago.” In a third letter Dr Fletcher
+tells me that greater facilities for examining the carcases of
+hogs had since been accorded him through the liberality of
+a Liverpool firm of pork-packers, who had already killed 75,000
+hogs during the summer season, <i>i.e.</i> up to the date of the first
+week in July. In hot weather the slaughtering is conducted
+in ice-houses. Prof. Fletcher’s views receive confirmation from
+the statements made by Dr Morris, who speaks of the pigs as
+dying from some mysterious disease, and thinks that the worms
+may be the cause of the porcine mortality. Writing to the
+President of the London Microscopical Society from Sydney
+(July 12th, 1871), Dr Morris <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“It is just possible that
+some pigs may survive the irritation such a swarm of young
+worms must set up; others, again, may die from peritonitis,
+hence the sudden deaths amongst the pigs.” I think Dr
+Morris’ view is perfectly correct, but whether it be so or not, it
+is (as observed by me in ‘Nature’) interesting to notice the
+remarkable correspondency of the conclusions arrived at by Drs
+Fletcher and Morris independently. It will probably not be
+difficult to ascertain hereafter whether or not the maladies
+respectively termed “hog cholera” and “mysterious disease”
+are one and the same disorder, but whatever happens in this
+respect, it is now quite clear that this parasite, hitherto little
+regarded, and for many years past persistently overlooked, is
+extraordinarily prevalent in the United States, and, perhaps,
+equally so in Australia; it being further evident that its presence
+in the flesh of swine is capable of producing both disease
+and death. The statement of the worthy American farmer that
+the swallowing of infested flesh by pigs does not necessarily
+involve the pig-eating hog in a bad attack of the so-called
+“cholera disease” requires to be further tested, and it also
+remains to be proven whether or not the <i>Stephanurus</i> be capable
+of passing through all its developmental changes from the egg
+to the adult form within the body of the bearer without having
+at some time or other gained access to the outer world. The
+comparatively large size of the ova, which I find to be about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">105</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>,
+or more than four times the size of Trichina-eggs, is not with<span class="pagenum" title="412"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412"></a></span>out
+significance, but as yet we are entirely unacquainted with the
+larvæ of <i>Stephanurus</i>. If no intermediary bearers are necessary
+to its development, we ought not to have to wait long for a
+complete record of the life-history of <i>Stephanurus dentatus</i>. In
+conclusion, I will only further remark that since thousands of
+hogs are infested by this entozoon the subject is worth further
+investigation. I believe that Prof. Fletcher brought the matter
+under the notice of the United States National Swine Breeder’s
+Association, which met at Indianapolis in November, 1872, but
+with what success I have been unable to learn. The wealthy
+agricultural societies of Great Britain pay little or no regard to
+the subject of parasites, although thousands of valuable animals
+annually perish from the injurious action of entozoa.</p>
+
+<p>Of the remaining nematodes infesting swine I must particularly
+mention <i>Sclerostoma</i> (<i>Strongylus</i>) <i>dentatum</i> and <i>Strongylus
+paradoxus</i>, the last named being generally regarded as identical
+with Dujardin’s <i>S. elongatus</i>. The first of these two parasites
+infests the small intestines, the male and female worms alike
+measuring about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. The females are sometimes a
+trifle longer. The <i>Sclerostoma dentatum</i> is an abundant parasite,
+infesting all varieties of swine and also peccaries; but it
+is apparently incapable of serious injury to the bearer.
+Schneider selected the male <i>S. dentatum</i> for classificatory
+purposes. In this worm the arrangement of the rays of the
+hood is simple, forming a good central type. Dr D. V. Dean,
+in his excellent report of St Louis Board of Health (1874),
+speaks of <i>Strongylus dentatus</i> as if it were the same entozoon
+as <i>Stephanurus</i>. The confusion of nomenclature would have
+been avoided if Diesing had called the renal worm <i>Stephanurus
+Nattereri</i>. I hope this title will yet be adopted to prevent
+future mistakes. The lung-worm (<i>S. paradoxus</i>) is by no
+means harmless, being a frequent cause of fatal husk in young
+pigs. It is a viviparous worm, the females acquiring a length
+of <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, whilst the males rarely exceed <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. Under the title
+<i>Gongylonema pulchrum</i>, Molin has noticed yet another filariform
+nematode infesting the wild hog; and, lastly, the lamented
+Russian traveller, Fedschenko, has published a full description
+of a new species of Gnathostoma (<i>G. hispidum</i>), which infests
+the coats of the stomach alike of the wild and domestic hog.
+One of the most interesting parasites of swine is the large
+acanthocephalous entozoon (<i>Echinorhynchus gigas</i>). It infests
+the small intestines both of the wild and domesticated hog, and<span class="pagenum" title="413"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413"></a></span>
+it was also obtained by Natterer from the collared peccary of
+Tayazou. Common as the great Echinorhynchus is in the
+United States (and it is scarcely less so on the Continent) I
+believe that few, if any, of the museums in the United
+Kingdom of Great Britain contain this large entozoon. It is a
+curious fact that it does not exist in the Hunterian Collection,
+where, however, there is displayed a very fine set of acanthocephalous
+parasites from whales. When in the year 1865 I
+mounted, with my own hands, 200 preparations of entozoa for
+the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, I had not so
+much as seen a specimen of this worm. Much scientific interest
+attaches to this parasite from the fact that Schneider discovered
+that the embryos of <i>E. gigas</i> take up their residence in the
+larvæ of the cockchafer (<i>Melolontha vulgaris</i>). He thinks it
+identical with the <i>Echinorhynchus hominis</i> of Lambl. Leuckart
+disputes this identity, and compares Lambl’s worm with the
+<i>Echinorhynchus angustatus</i> of our fresh-water fishes. The
+<i>E. spirula</i> of certain Brazilian monkeys and of the Barbary
+ape bears a strong resemblance to the species from the hog.
+On the strength of Lambl’s case&mdash;and it is the only genuine
+instance of the kind on record&mdash;Prof. Leuckart devotes no less
+than 125 pages of his great work to the consideration of the structure
+and development of the thorn-headed intestinal worms.
+This worm demands especial attention. Speaking of the
+hog’s Echinorhynchus, Prof. Verrill, in his ‘Connecticut Report,’
+says that “sometimes the intestine of a hog is found perforated
+by so many holes that it cannot be used in the manufacture of
+sausages.” From Mr George Wilkins I learn that the pig-slaughterers
+of our English metropolis are well acquainted with
+these perforations, which are sometimes so numerous that the
+gut looks as if it had been “riddled” with swan-shot. No
+wonder that diseased hogs, afflicted with these formidable
+parasites, go about, as Verrill expresses it, “continually
+squealing and grunting, especially in the morning.” That
+they are also “cross and morose, and given to biting and
+snarling at their companions,” is by no means astonishing.
+“In severe cases,” remarks Verrill, “hogs afflicted with this
+parasite are weak in the loins, and have the membranes in the
+corners of the eyes swollen, watery, and lighter colored than
+usual.” It is some comfort to know that Lambl’s human case
+is unique, and that so long as people abstain from eating cockchafer
+larvæ they are not likely to be infested by <i>Echino<span class="pagenum" title="414"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414"></a></span>rhynchus
+gigas</i>. In the first book of this work I have given
+my reasons for not regarding Welch’s “encysted <i>Echinorhynchus</i>
+in man” as a genuine example of this curious genus of
+entozoa.</p>
+
+<p>The external parasites of swine are not so numerous as might
+be expected from the habits of their hosts. The most common
+ectozoon is the hog louse (<i>Hæmatopinus suis</i>). This disgusting
+little insect is about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. Almost equally common is
+the hog mite. Though hitherto considered as a distinct species
+(<i>Sarcoptes suis</i>, Gurlt), it is regarded by Mégnin as a mere
+variety of <i>Sarcoptes scabiei</i>. As Gerlach and others have
+remarked, it is readily transmissible to man. The <i>Sarcoptes
+squammiferus</i>, of Fürstenburg, is only another name for this
+variety of <i>S. scabiei</i>. Speaking of this scab-insect Mégnin
+<span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“This parasite was first encountered by Spinola and
+Gurlt, and afterwards by Müller.” He then <span class="nowrap">adds:&mdash;</span>“A
+Ceylon wild boar died at the menagerie of the Museum of
+Paris of a chronic affection of the skin which had transformed
+its integument into a vast <i>lichen</i>.” Lastly, as regards the
+protozoal parasites I can only remark that the psorosperms
+(spoken of as Rainey’s corpuscles or as Miescher’s utricles) are
+often very abundant in the flesh of otherwise perfectly healthy
+swine. Having dwelt upon the character of such organisms
+in the first moiety of this work, I will only remark that the
+full significance of these singular bodies yet remains to be
+determined. Rainey’s notion that they represented early stages
+of cysticercal growth is altogether untenable. According to
+Behrens, as quoted by Davaine, psorosperms are especially
+abundant in the flesh of swine which have recovered from the
+disease called <i>mal rouge</i>. On the subject generally, the writings
+of Rivolta, Waldenburg, Eimer, and Siedamagrotsky are especially
+trustworthy. Full references to these and other authorities
+are given in the synopsis of the 2nd edition of Davaine’s well-known
+treatise.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_54"></a>No. 54).&mdash;(Anonymous), “On Parasitic Maladies,
+especially Measles, of the Pig,” from ‘Scottish Farmer and
+Horticulturist,’ in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ p. 688, 1861.&mdash;<i>Ballard, E.</i>,
+“On Diseased Meat, and what to observe in cases of suspected
+Poisoning by Meat or Sausages (infected with Entozoa, &amp;c.),”
+‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Jan., 1864.&mdash;<i>Bowditch, H. J.</i>, “Raw
+Pork as an Aliment (without reference to the question of
+Entozoa.&mdash;T. S. C.),” ‘Boston Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ vol. lv,<span class="pagenum" title="415"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415"></a></span>
+1857; see also ‘Comments,’ vol. lvi, pp. 23 and 69, 1857.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>,
+“On the Discovery of Stephanurus in the United
+States and in Australia,” in ‘Nature,’ Oct. 21, 1871, p. 508,
+and in ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ Jan. and Sept., 1871; also in the
+‘Monthly Micros. Journ.,’ Nov., 1871.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Internal Parasites
+of the Hog,” in ‘Manual,’ chap. xii.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Cystic
+Entozoa from the Wart-Hog and Red River Hog,” ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Simondsia,” ‘Entoz.,’ p. 79.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Note on Worms in the Lungs of a Pig,” in the ‘Field’ for
+Jan. 9, 1864.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (in relation to Cysticerci or Measles,
+see Bibl. Nos. <a href="#No_13">13</a> and <a href="#No_14">14</a>, and, for remarks on psorosperms,
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_41">41</a>).&mdash;<i>Cressy, N.</i>, ‘On the Diseases of Domestic
+Animals in Connecticut (2nd and 3rd Ann. Reports),’ Hartford,
+U.S., 1873&ndash;74.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The demands of Agriculture on Veterinary
+Science,” in ‘Rep. of the Mass. Board of Agric.,’ 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Find of Sclerostoma’ (quoted by Verrill).&mdash;<i>Crisp</i>,
+“Note on Hydatid Cysts in the Abdominal Cavity of various
+Hogs,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Dardel</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_14">14</a>).&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>,
+“Ladrarie chez le porc,” in his ‘Traité,’ 2ème edit.,
+p. 668 (see also the writings of Delpech, Guardia, and especially
+Reynal, quoted at p. 674).&mdash;<i>Dean, D. V.</i>, “On Meats and
+Parasites,” in ‘Seventh Ann. Rep. of Board of Health of the
+City of St Louis,’ 1874, p. 58 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, ‘On Stephanurus’
+(quoted in text above).&mdash;<i>Dupuy</i>, “Hydatid in a Pig,”
+from ‘Journ. Théorique et Prat.,’ in the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. iv,
+1831, p. 285.&mdash;<i>Fedschenko</i>, ‘Description of new Species of
+Tetrastemma, Prorhynchus, and Gnathostoma’ (in the Russian
+language), Moscow, 1872.&mdash;<i>Fleming, A.</i>, “Measly Pork as Food
+for Man,” ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i, p. 485, 1858&ndash;59.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On the Measle of the Pig, and on the Wholesomeness, as
+Food for Man, of Measly Pork,” ‘Dubl. Quart. Journ.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Fletcher</i>
+(quoted in text above).&mdash;<i>Florman</i> (quoted by Rudolphi,
+‘Synops.,’ p. 620, 1819; and by Davaine, l. c., p. 723,
+1878), in ‘Vetensk. Acad. Nya Handlingar,’ 1810, pp. 179&ndash;182.&mdash;<i>Gairdner,
+W. T.</i>, “Case of Tapeworm occurring in connection
+with the Eating of Raw Pork,” ‘Edin. Month. Journ.,’ 1856,
+and in the ‘Veterinarian,’ vol. xxix, p. 228, 1856.&mdash;<i>Gamgee, J.</i>,
+“On Diseased Meat,” ‘Pop. Science Rev.,’ Jan., 1861.&mdash;<i>Gordon</i>,
+“On Tapeworm from Unwholesome Food,” ‘Med. Gaz.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Gross,
+S. D.</i>, “Note on the frequency of Acephalocysts in
+Swine at Cincinnati,” in his ‘Elements of Path. Anat.,’ p. 118,
+1845.&mdash;<i>Gurlt, E. F.</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="416"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416"></a></span>‘Lehrbuch der path. Anat. der Haus-Saügethiere,’
+1831, s. 46, 51, 142, 385.&mdash;<i>Heller</i> (see Bibl.
+No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Krabbe</i>, ‘Husdyrenes Indvoldsorme’ (l. c., in text;
+see also review in ‘Lond. Med. Rec.,’ April 2, 1872, p. 206).&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>,
+“Note on <i>Trichina spiralis</i> from the Pig,” from ‘Rep.
+Acad. Philad.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xix, 1847.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>
+(see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Lewis</i> (Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Martin, J.</i>, “Case of
+Hydatids in the Liver of a Sow,” ‘Trans. Vet. Assoc.,’ pp. 330
+and 364, 1842&ndash;43.&mdash;<i>Mégnin</i> (Bibl. No. <a href="#No_14">14</a>).&mdash;<i>Molin</i>, ‘Una
+Monog. del Gen. Spiroptera,’ Wien, 1860.&mdash;<i>Morris</i>, “Report
+on Australian Parasites,” ‘Month. Microsc. Journ.,’ Nov., 1871.&mdash;<i>Percy,
+S. R.</i>, “On Diseased Meat in relation to Public
+Health (Prize Essay),” ‘New York Med. Journ.,’ 1866.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On the Food of Cities (an Address),” ‘New York,’ 1864.&mdash;<i>Perroncito</i>
+(Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Putz</i> (Bibl. No. <a href="#No_14">14</a>).&mdash;<i>Rainey</i> (Bibl.
+No. <a href="#No_14">14</a>).&mdash;<i>Rigetti</i> (Bibl. No. <a href="#No_14">14</a>).&mdash;<i>Sawer, A.</i>, “Trichina,” in
+‘Bost. Med. and Surg. Journ.,’ 1865, p. 16.&mdash;<i>Schmidt, Max</i>
+(see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_51">51</a>).&mdash;<i>Tartivel</i> (Bibl. No. <a href="#No_14">14</a>).&mdash;<i>Thudichum</i>
+(Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Tommasi</i> (Bibl. No. <a href="#No_13">13</a>).&mdash;<i>Verrill</i>, “On
+Sclerostoma,” ‘Amer. Journ. Sci. and Arts,’ Sept., 1870.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“The External and Internal Parasites of Man and
+Domestic Animals,” from ‘Rep. of the Conn. Board of Agriculture,’
+1870, p. 109.&mdash;<i>Walker</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_20_o">20, <i>o</i></a>).&mdash;<i>Wheeler,
+E. G.</i>, “Worms in the Lungs of Swine,” ‘Bost. Med. and Surg.
+Journ.,’ 1841.&mdash;<i>White, J. C.</i>, “On Stephanurus,” ‘Proc. Bost.
+Nat. Hist. Soc.,’ vol. vi, p. 428, 1858.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part XI (Cetacea).</span></h3>
+
+<p>The parasites of whales are excessively numerous. Unfortunately
+only a few of the species have been carefully studied,
+and much confusion necessarily exists as to the number of
+distinct forms. This statement is especially applicable to the
+entozoal group, which comprises upwards of a score of species.
+Probably Van Beneden has examined more of these parasites
+than any one else, and what little is known respecting them is
+for the most part due to his investigations. I have myself
+encountered and described several new species&mdash;a circumstance
+which Prof. Van Beneden appears to have altogether overlooked.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 135px;">
+<img src="images/f67.jpg" width="95" height="324" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>&mdash;<i>Distoma
+lancea.</i> Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Commencing with the flukes, the first species I notice is
+<i>Distoma lancea</i>. The late C. M. Diesing’s description of this<span class="pagenum" title="417"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417"></a></span>
+worm was based upon specimens obtained by Natterer in
+Brazil. The worms were discovered in the biliary ducts of a
+male dolphin dissected at Barra do Rio Negro
+on 29th December, 1833. Natterer calls this
+cetacean the tacuschi, and in a letter to Diesing
+names the species <i>Delphinus tacuschi</i>, in order
+to distinguish it from the <i>D. amazonicus</i> of Spix
+and Martius. Prof. Flower has shown that
+Spix and Martius’s <i>D. amazonicus</i> is referable to
+the inia or Bolivian dolphin (<i>Inia Geoffroyi</i>).
+The views of Flower, Natterer, and Diesing are
+thus far in agreement; and the geographical
+position of Barra shows that Natterer’s dolphin
+could not be the inia, since, as Blyth long ago
+remarked, this last named cetacean “inhabits
+only the remote tributaries of the Amazon and
+the elevated lakes of Peru.” Several other
+dolphins from Brazil have been described, one
+of which Mr Gray named <i>Steno tacuxi</i>. I think
+that Gray’s cetacean answers to the <i>Delphinus
+tacuschi</i> of Natterer; but Prof. Flower is of
+opinion that Gray’s species is an ordinary
+Delphinus. In this case it may, he thinks, probably be
+referred either to the <i>D. fluviatilis</i> or to <i>D. pallidus</i>. Whichever
+view is correct, it is clear that Natterer’s parasite was
+obtained from a fluviatile cetacean, and not from an oceanic or
+even an estuary form. In Diesing’s original description it is
+stated that Natterer found the <i>Distoma lancea</i> “once only,”
+when numerous examples were secured. To Dr Anderson I
+stand indebted for a solitary specimen, which he procured from
+the short-snouted dolphin (<i>Orcella brevirostris</i>, Owen). The
+obliging superintendent of the Calcutta Museum obtained this
+Distoma on the 3rd of January, 1873. He removed it from the
+duodenum, but it had probably escaped from the liver. Be
+that as it may, I easily recognised the species by the sinuosities
+of the margin of the body. Dr Anderson’s parasite does not
+exhibit these marginal irregularities so distinctly and sharply
+as they are shown in Diesing’s figures. Diesing remarks that
+the internal organs may be seen through the transparent body.
+The uterine organs, crowded with ova and of a purple color,
+are represented by him as branched after the fashion of a
+raceme. The artist has been misled. The uterine channel is<span class="pagenum" title="418"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418"></a></span>
+not branched. Dr Anderson’s specimen showed two large oval
+testes placed one above the other in the middle line, and rather
+higher up than is usual with those distomes that have the
+organs presenting this simple form. The ducts were not visible.
+The yelk-forming glands were particularly well marked, consisting
+of two laterally-disposed masses, the left gland extending
+higher up than its fellow. The so-called yelk-cells or
+capsules were well seen. The oval-shaped eggs were tolerably
+distinct, yielding a length of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">750</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from pole to pole, by about
+<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">900</span></span> in transverse diameter. The worm, when unrolled, did not
+exceed <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">6</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> at most, whereas some of Natterer’s specimens
+measured <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. The neck had lost that rounded
+character which Diesing called skittle-shaped (<i>kegelförmige</i>).
+The ventral acetabulum is very nearly twice as large as the
+oral sucker. Diesing represents the ventral sucker as circular;
+but in Anderson’s specimen this organ was broadly oval.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/f68.jpg" width="160" height="447" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;<i>Distoma Campula.</i> Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next fluke I have to notice (<i>Distoma Campula</i>) is better
+known to me. In the twenty-second volume of the ‘Linnean
+Society’s Transactions’ I first described this new fluke, having
+secured numerous examples from the peripheral branches of the
+biliary ducts of a porpoise (<i>Phocæna communis</i>). The apparently
+healthy cetacean was shot by Mr Jardine Murray in the Firth
+of Forth, in April, 1855. I mention its condition because
+the bile-ducts were found to be diseased in a way similar to
+that ordinarily observed in cases of fluke-rot affecting sheep,
+cattle, and other animals. In my MS. note-book I remarked:
+“The liver-ducts were in several places thickened and knotted
+near the surface of the organ. On opening these they were
+found to be loaded with small distomata.” It was added that,
+so long as the flukes were alive, they displayed under the
+microscope a “double and peculiar intestinal tube,” the skin
+being clothed with spines arranged throughout with perfect
+regularity. When the superficial ducts were dissected out they
+presented a distinctly beaded appearance, the enlargements of
+the lumen being occupied by flukes closely packed together.
+At least twenty were found in one spot. One of these enlarged
+ducts is figured in my recent paper to the Linnean Society
+(quoted below). The most striking feature connected with the
+structure of <i>Distoma Campula</i> is the twisted condition of the
+digestive canals. They present a zigzag appearance, the lateral
+folds being so sharp that they seem to constitute, as it were, a
+transition between the ordinary simple intestinal tubes of a true<span class="pagenum" title="419"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419"></a></span>
+<i>Distoma</i> and the branched tubes seen in <i>Fasciola</i>. This led
+me originally to place the worms in a distinct genus (<i>Campula</i>).
+Perhaps there were no sufficient grounds
+for this generic separation; but in all
+Dr Anderson’s specimens obtained from
+the liver-ducts of the Gangetic dolphin
+more or less decomposition of the contents
+of the intestinal tubes had occurred,
+consequently the angular appearance
+of the folds is entirely lost. From the
+other characters presented by the worms
+I believe that these flukes from the
+Ganges are specifically identical with
+those originally obtained from the porpoise
+of the Firth of Forth. For
+reasons elsewhere stated at full length
+I have merged my genus Campula into
+that of Distoma. Thus, <i>Campula oblonga</i>
+is a synonym only. I cannot
+here treat of the morphology of trematode
+organisation as it deserves; but
+in relation to the question of transition-forms
+I may remark in passing that an
+extreme degree of intestinal folding
+seems as if it must result in branching.
+This, I think, would happen should any
+departure from the central distome type
+be rendered necessary by the exigences
+of the creature. At all events, the
+spirally-twisted and branched digestive organs constitute different
+ways in which nature attains one and the same end.
+I may add that this coiled condition of the tubes in <i>D.
+Campula</i> is by no means unique, since I have seen it in
+other trematode forms, as, for example, in my <i>D. compactum</i>
+from the Indian ichneumon. Dr Anderson’s specimens of
+<i>D. Campula</i> furnish a good general view of the reproductive
+organs. They show that the single, relatively narrow, and
+unbranched uterine canal is of great length, and coiled upon
+itself in a very tortuous manner. In this way the duct passes
+from side to side, crossing the central line of the body at least
+a dozen times, whilst every fold is likewise bent upon itself to
+such an extent as to increase its length to at least four times<span class="pagenum" title="420"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420"></a></span>
+that of the animal. In short, the uterine folds may be described
+as passing from side to side, each separate coil being twisted
+upon itself so as to form secondary coils. In the fluke here
+drawn I have accurately represented every winding of the duct,
+from its vaginal outlet above to its termination, where it is
+joined by the ovarian and vitelligene ducts in the ordinary way.
+Only the merest traces of these smaller channels were visible;
+but the two oval testes were well defined, occupying a position
+somewhat lower down than usual. There was a third organ,
+apparently the ovary. This was less well defined, and situated
+higher up in the middle line. The vitelligene glands occupied
+the usual position. The terminal cells or capsules with their
+efferent ducts were well seen in several specimens. The water-vascular
+system was constantly visible, or at least that part of
+the main channel which expands into a large vesicle immediately
+above the central point of the tail. At this part several
+of the specimens ruptured. In all of the worms the lower end
+exhibited a sort of tail, resulting from <i>post-mortem</i> changes.
+None of the Edinburgh specimens of Campula displayed either
+the slightest trace of this projection or of the water-vessel connected
+with it. The uterine duct was filled with eggs. Approximately,
+the ova gave a measurement of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from pole to
+pole by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2100</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth. Although in Anderson’s specimens the
+integumentary spines had fallen off, they are still attached in
+my original specimens from Edinburgh. The spines average
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. With their shafts directed downwards they
+separately presented the form of a long cone, the base of which
+was only <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> broad. After describing the above-mentioned
+trematodes I received a letter from Dr Anderson, in which he
+enclosed a sketch of a parasite taken from the small intestine of
+another <i>Platanista</i>. The illustration evidently represented a
+new species of cetacean fluke which I called <i>Distoma Andersoni</i>,
+with the following <span class="nowrap">diagnosis:&mdash;</span>“Body oblong, smooth externally,
+uniform in thickness, six times as long as broad; head
+with lateral projections; ventral sucker large and prominent;
+neck much constricted; tail evenly rounded off, blunt. Length
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, breadth about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">50</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.” This worm, which was discovered by
+Anderson, in March, 1873, is figured in my memoir communicated
+to the Linnean Society. Only one parasite was found.
+The figure in question shows that in this species the testes are
+globular and placed high up in the middle line of the body. A
+small lobed gland immediately above the testes is probably the<span class="pagenum" title="421"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421"></a></span>
+ovary. The vitelligene glands are largely developed. In the
+year 1858 Van Beneden described a large fluke from the pike-whale
+(<i>Balænoptera rostrata</i>). The specimens were from Eschricht’s
+collection and had been removed from the liver. As
+some of the examples measured no less than 80 millimètres,
+Van Beneden described them as “the largest known distomes.”
+This is probably correct, but the great human fluke (<i>D. crassum</i>)
+reaches <span class="nowrap">2<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, and the giraffe’s fluke (<i>Fasciola gigantea</i>) 3 inches
+in length. The curator of the Australian Museum, at Sydney,
+Mr Gerard Krefft, mentions a <i>Distoma</i> which himself and Mr
+George Masters obtained from <i>Delphinus Forsteri</i>. Not improbably
+it represents a new species. Of the single-suckered
+flukes, Creplin in 1825 obtained <i>Monostoma plicatum</i> from the
+intestines and œsophagus of a northern whale. This cetacean
+was obtained on the coast of the island of Rugen, in the Baltic.
+It has been variously spoken of as <i>Balæna borealis</i> or <i>B. rostrata</i>,
+but by Van Beneden this cetacean is called <i>Balænoptera
+musculus</i>. The flukes exceeded <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. Another
+species of monostome (<i>M. delphini</i>) was vaguely indicated by
+Blainville as occupying the cutaneous follicles of <i>Delphinus
+Dalei</i>, which cetacean is a synonym of <i>Micropteron sowerbiensis</i>.
+The same worm is supposed by Van Beneden to infest the
+bottle-head (<i>Hyperoodon butzkopf</i>), and perhaps it was the same
+or a similar worm which Poelman found in the flesh of <i>Lagenorhynchus
+Eschrichti</i>. By naturalists imperfectly acquainted
+with helminths, the monostomes are apt to be confounded with
+Cysticerci; nevertheless, these widely different types may
+coexist in the same host. The presence of larval cestodes has
+been indicated in various whales. Thus, F. Cuvier and Van
+Beneden state that Surgeon-Major Carnot, in 1822, found an
+enormous quantity of small hydatids in the nasal sinuses of a
+porpoise (<i>Phocæna compressicaudata</i>). These are supposed to
+be Cysticerci. In like manner Mr F. D. Bennett, in 1837,
+obtained numerous capsuled Cysticerci from the skin and
+blubber of <i>Catodon</i> (<i>Physeter</i>) <i>macrocephalus</i>. It is unfortunate
+that so few of the cetacean helminths find their way into the
+hands of persons competent to decide upon their true character.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 205px;">
+<img src="images/f69.jpg" width="205" height="294" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;<i>Diphyllobothrium stemmacephalum</i>. <i>a</i>,
+Head, neck and upper part of the strobile;
+<i>b</i>, front, and, <i>c</i>, profile views of the head. Enlarged.
+Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr Bennett’s “find” was originally stated to have been
+made in <i>Balæna mysticetus</i>, but Van Beneden refers it to the
+northern sperm-whale or blunt-headed cachalot. The naturalist
+Bosc noticed a larval cestode found in the fatty tissues surrounding
+the reproductive organs of <i>Delphinus delphis</i>. He called it<span class="pagenum" title="422"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422"></a></span>
+an hydatid (<i>Hydatis</i>), and Rudolphi placed it with the Cysticerci
+(<i>C. delphini</i>). According to Van Beneden the parasite in
+question is probably a sexually-immature example of the <i>Phyllobothrium
+delphini</i> described by his son. Edouard Van Beneden
+found this scolex in great abundance in a dolphin (<i>Delphinus
+delphis</i>), which he dissected at Concarneau in 1868. The
+sexually-mature state of this worm is, as the Belgian <i>savans</i>
+remark, to be looked for in some one or other of the larger
+sharks. The <i>Phyllobothrium</i> has also been found in the black
+fish, tursio, or high-finned cachalot (<i>Physeter tursio</i>). M.
+Gerrard Krefft has described a cestode from the stomach of a
+dolphin (<i>Delphinus Forsteri</i>), which he terms <i>Tænia Forsteri</i>.
+The strobile only measured <span class="nowrap">2<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. It is just possible
+that the worm may be identical with the species found by
+Schott. Unfortunately M. Krefft did not find any ova, and his
+figures do not indicate the position of the reproductive pores,
+if, indeed, they were present. In this place, therefore, it is
+fitting to remark that, under the name of <i>Tetrabothrium triangulare</i>,
+Diesing has furnished the diagnosis of a small cestode
+found by Schott in <i>Delphinus
+rostratus</i> off the coast of Portugal.
+The strobile measured only
+two or three inches in length,
+and showed a uniserial disposition
+of the reproductive pores.
+Remarking on this species Van
+Beneden has stated that this is
+the only sexually-mature tapeworm
+hitherto encountered in the
+intestines of the cetacea. This
+observation, made in 1870, is
+somewhat unfortunate, because
+I had already, in the year 1855,
+described a very large and mature
+form of cestode (<i>Diphyllobothrium
+stemmacephalum</i>) from the
+common porpoise (<i>Delphinus phocæna</i>).
+As stated by me to the
+Linnean Society in December,
+1857, the small intestine of this porpoise was completely choked
+for the space of eight or nine feet by fine tapeworms so closely
+packed together that the gut presented the appearance of a<span class="pagenum" title="423"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423"></a></span>
+solid cylinder. The same porpoise yielded the flukes already
+described (<i>D. Campula</i>). As afterwards remarked in my treatise
+on the ‘Entozoa’ (1864), four of the tapeworms measured, respectively,
+from <span class="nowrap">7<span class="prime">′</span></span> to <span class="nowrap">10<span class="prime">′</span></span> in length, the fifth example being relatively
+small (<span class="nowrap">18″</span> only). For a full description of the worm I must
+refer either to the Linnean ‘Transactions’ or to my introductory
+volume whence the figures here given are taken. Five of the
+finest examples of this remarkable cestode have been added to
+the small collection of entozoa which I prepared for the Museum
+of the Middlesex Hospital Medical College. The head of this
+large cestode is excessively minute. The same cetacean host
+not only yielded these new cestodes and flukes, but also great
+numbers of the well-known strongyloid lung-worms, called
+<i>Prosthecosacter inflexus</i> and <i>P. convolutus</i>. Another species
+(<i>P. minor</i> or <i>Pharurus minor</i>) also infests the porpoise, and a
+fourth (<i>P. alatus</i>) the narwhal. As I have elsewhere observed
+(‘Entozoa,’ p. 91), the three first mentioned forms are readily
+distinguishable from each other by their relative size and length,
+and also more especially by the form of the tail. The females
+of <i>P. inflexus</i> attain a length of nine inches, and those of
+<i>P. convolutus</i> may be upwards of <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length, whilst those of
+<i>P. minor</i> do not exceed an inch. The species described by
+Leuckart, from <i>Monodon monoceros</i>, is only half an inch long.
+All the forms infesting the porpoise were met with by Professor
+Quekett, and one of them has been carefully anatomised by
+Professor Busk. Probably several other species will be discovered
+when the lungs and cranial sinuses of the larger cetacea
+are carefully examined for this purpose. The form (<i>P. convolutus</i>)
+here represented is the least known of the three infesting
+the porpoise. This species has been dissected by Kuhn and
+Eschricht, whilst the other species have not only been examined
+by these authors, but also by Raspail, Dujardin, Von Siebold,
+Van Beneden, Leidy, and several other helminthologists.
+Some of Professor Busk’s examples of the male worm (<i>P.
+convolutus</i>) were fully fifteen lines long, yet, from the condition
+of the internal reproductive organs, he was led to believe
+that they were not quite fully grown. I cannot here repeat
+the anatomical details given in my former work, but I may add
+that all the species of this genus reproduce viviparously. If
+the worms are examined in the fresh state the young may
+occasionally be seen escaping by the vagina. Professor Van
+Beneden noticed this phenomenon in <i>Prosthecosacter inflexus</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="424"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424"></a></span>
+and the same thing was observed by Busk in <i>P. convolutus</i>.
+In the instance here drawn (Fig. <a href="#Fig_71">71</a>) one of the embryos is in
+the act of emerging, its caudal extremity being still lodged
+within the vulva of the parent. In the fresh worm one may also
+see, under the magnifying glass, numerous young worms coiled
+together within the oviduct; the last-named organ widening out
+into a capacious sac at a little distance above the end of the
+tail. The embryos measure about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">300</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">5000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in breadth.
+Higher up, within the uterine and ovarian ducts, the ova may be
+seen in all stages of development, according to the particular
+region of the tube under examination. In their full-grown
+condition the eggs have a longitudinal diameter of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1100</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> by a
+transverse measurement of about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1700</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.</p>
+
+<table class="figrt" border="0" summary="figures 70-71">
+<tr class="vat"><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
+<img src="images/f70.jpg" width="310" height="431" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;Tail of the male <i>Prosthecosacter
+convolutus</i>. Highly magnified. After Busk.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a id="Fig_71"></a>
+<img src="images/f71.jpg" width="400" height="404" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;Tail of the female <i>Prosthecosacter convolutus</i> (magnified 60 diameters), with a
+section of the oviduct (magnified 220 diameters), and a separate embryo (magnified
+350 diameters). After Busk.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>As regards the development and migrations of the young
+worms, it is highly probable that the embryos enter the bodies
+of various fishes before they have acquired sexual maturity.<span class="pagenum" title="425"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425"></a></span>
+Thence they will be passively transferred to the stomachs of
+cetacea, whence they bore their way through the tissues to the
+bronchi and pulmonary vessels. Though usually found in these
+situations they also infest the cranial sinuses. <i>Prosthecosacter
+minor</i> is frequently lodged within the cavity of the tympanum.
+Professor Quekett and myself, working independently, found
+examples of <i>P. inflexus</i> occupying the chambers of the heart.
+Under the name of <i>Filaria inflexicaudata</i>, Prof. Von Siebold
+has described yet another pulmonary nematode from the porpoise.
+It occupied cysts in the lung. Like the strongyloids above mentioned,
+the females are viviparous, but the males are destitute
+of any caudal hood. In the whale (<i>Balænoptera</i>) killed off the
+isle of Rugen, and already alluded to, M. Rosenthal obtained a
+large number of Filariæ (<i>F. crassicauda</i>, Creplin). To employ
+Dujardin’s words the worms were situated “dans les corps
+caverneux du pénis d’une <i>Balæna rostrata</i>.” The males and
+females measured respectively <span class="nowrap">6<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> and 13 inches in length.<span class="pagenum" title="426"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426"></a></span>
+Several forms of ascarides are known to infest cetaceans. The
+species called <i>Ascaris simplex</i> by Rudolphi was originally procured
+from the œsophagus and stomach of the dolphin of the
+Ganges and afterwards by Albers from the common porpoise.
+According to Diesing the worms obtained by Dussumier from
+a dolphin, taken off the Maldive Islands, must be referred to
+the same species, but Van Beneden maintains that Dussumier’s
+“find” refers to a distinct species, which he calls <i>Ascaris
+Dussumierii</i>. To this view I cannot see any objection, but I
+think that Van Beneden’s retention of Lebeck’s <i>Ascaris
+delphini</i> as distinct from <i>A. simplex</i> is untenable. Speaking of
+examples of this entozoon received from Calcutta, I have remarked
+in the ‘Zoological Society’s Proceedings’ that Dr John
+Anderson’s collection of parasites showed four specimens
+of this species. The worms had been obtained from the
+intestines of <i>Platanista gangetica</i>. Singular to say, all the
+examples were of the female sex, the two largest measuring
+about <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> from head to tail. The smaller worms did not
+exceed one inch in length. In connection with these specimens
+(all of which were carefully examined by me on the 28th of
+September, 1875) I have only to add that they presented the
+peculiarly flexed state of the chylous intestine described by
+Dujardin. As that helminthologist had accurately surmised,
+the <i>Ascaris delphini</i> of Rudolphi must be regarded as identical
+with this species. It is impossible to say how many distinct
+species of cetacean lumbricoid worms exist. Messrs Krefft and
+Masters found a species of <i>Ascaris</i> infesting a <i>Delphinus Forsteri</i>
+taken off Sidney, New South Wales. Creplin also, in 1851,
+described a species (<i>A. angulivalvis</i>) from the intestines of
+<i>Balæna rostrata</i>. The males are less than three inches long,
+the females measuring <span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. The late C. M. Diesing received
+from Prof. Steenstrup a notice of some nematodes taken from
+a narwhal (<i>Monodon monoceros</i>), which appeared to the
+Vienna authority to be scarcely different from Creplin’s worm.
+Under the title <i>Conocephalus typicus</i> Diesing has both figured
+and described a remarkable nematode, two inches in length,
+which possesses the power of retracting its conical, or, rather,
+mushroom-shaped head within the body, somewhat after the
+manner of certain Echinorhynchi. His description is based
+upon museum specimens that were obtained from the stomach
+of a dolphin (probably <i>Delphinus delphis</i>) captured in the
+Atlantic Ocean. In addition to the above nematodes some few<span class="pagenum" title="427"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427"></a></span>
+others remain to be mentioned. Thus, the <i>Peritrachelius insignis</i>
+of Diesing was obtained by Natterer from the stomach of
+<i>Delphinus amazonicus</i> (Spix and Martius). The largest males
+measured <span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the females <span class="nowrap">5<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Another singular parasite, named by its discoverer, Roussel
+de Vauzème, <i>Odontobius ceti</i>, was found by him in the mucus
+covering the bristles (<i>fanons</i>) of <i>Balæna australis</i>. The
+separate worms measured about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">5</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length only, but they
+occurred in very great numbers. Lastly, Van Beneden points
+to certain filiform worms found by Pallas in the cavity of the
+ear of <i>Beluga leucas</i> as probably representing another distinct
+species of nematode, which he designates <i>Strongylus Pallasii</i>.
+I suspect, however, they will only have been fine specimens of
+<i>Prosthecosacter minor</i>. Be that as it may, it is as well to be
+reminded that Albers and Mehlis, and also Klein, Camper, and
+Rosenthal, found <i>P. minor</i> within the tympanic cavity of the
+common porpoise. When looking into the Museum stores of
+the Royal College of Surgeons, I found many choice examples
+of the genus <i>Prosthecosacter</i>. Some few were evidently Hunterian,
+but others had been separately contributed by Professors
+Owen and Quekett.</p>
+
+<p>The acanthocephalous entozoa are well represented in whales.
+One of the commonest species is <i>Echinorhynchus porrigens</i>, of
+which I possess specimens given me by Prof. Goodsir, who
+procured them from a <i>Balænoptera rostrata</i>, captured in the
+Firth of Forth. The Hunterian Collection contains examples
+of this worm, recorded as having been obtained from <i>Balæna
+mysticetus</i>; and also several Echinorhynchi from the pike-whale.
+Professor Owen regards these last-named entozoa as distinct
+(<i>E. balanocephalus</i>, Owen). Probably Hunter’s whale-worms,
+which resembled <i>E. filicollis</i> of the eider duck, and which Van
+Beneden has characterised as representing a distinct species
+(<i>E. mysticeti</i>), were examples of <i>E. porrigens</i>. The specimens
+set up by me for the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
+were all of Hunterian origin. The whole subject of cetacean
+Echinorhynchi requires revision, and would well repay special
+investigation. The small, oval-shaped entozoa found by Murie
+in a whale which Van Beneden refers to <i>Balænoptera musculus</i>
+were probably examples of a distinct species of this genus (<i>E.
+Muriei</i>). The Vienna helminthologist has described a small
+species (<i>E. turbinella</i>) obtained by Hyrtl from <i>Hyperoodon
+butzkopf</i>. The male worms measured <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. Another<span class="pagenum" title="428"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428"></a></span>
+small species (<i>F. pellucidus</i>) was discovered by Leuckart in the
+intestines of <i>Delphinus delphis</i>, the males measuring less than
+<span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, and the females about <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span> an inch. Lastly, under the name of
+<i>Echinorhynchus brevicollis</i>, Van Beneden has indicated another
+species found by Malm in the intestines of a curious whale
+(<i>Balænoptera Sibbaldii</i>) captured alive off the coast of Sweden.
+The Louvain <i>savant</i> refers to the “take” of another example
+of this rare whale in the Firth of Forth about the same period.
+A good many whales have been captured of late years off our
+English and Scottish coasts, but, unfortunately, very little effort
+has been made to collect the numerous entozoa which they
+undoubtedly will have contained.</p>
+
+<p>The external parasites and fellow-boarders or messmates of
+Cetacea are almost as numerous as helminths. In this work,
+however, little account can be taken of them. Every naturalist
+is familiar with the common <i>Cyamus balænarum</i>, and voyagers
+tell us that the whales are sometimes so densely covered by
+these lice that they impart to the skin a white color, and so
+enable the fishermen to see their victims at a great distance.
+The <i>Cyami</i> and <i>Caprellæ</i> are closely allied forms of læmodipodous
+crustaceans. Professor Lütken, of Copenhagen, has
+enumerated about a dozen distinct species of <i>Cyami</i> which are
+parasitic upon whales. Some of the <i>Pycnogonidæ</i> are said to
+attach themselves to whales. In their young state they are
+known to be parasitic upon polyps. I obtained specimens of
+these in 1856. The barnacles found on whales are genuine
+messmates; when once they have attached themselves to the
+skin, they remain permanently fixed. Like the <i>Cyami</i> or true
+whale-lice, these parasitic cirrhipeds are so numerous that almost
+every cetacean host may be said to carry its own species of louse
+and its own species of barnacle. The classification of these
+creatures is an admitted difficulty, even amongst skilled crustaceologists.
+The genera of cirrhipeds that are parasitic upon
+whales chiefly belong to the genera <i>Coronula</i>, <i>Diadema</i>, <i>Tubicinella</i>,
+and <i>Conchoderma</i>, but in addition to these, many lernæans
+of the genera <i>Penella</i> and <i>Lerneonema</i> are found on whales, and
+also, according to Van Beneden, at least one species of <i>Acarus</i>.
+This mite (<i>Acaridina balænarum</i>, Van Beneden) is found on
+<i>Balæna australis</i>. Here I must stop. The limits of this work
+preclude my attempting a more extended notice or enumeration
+of the crustacean and arachnidan parasites.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the known differences existing between the<span class="pagenum" title="429"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429"></a></span>
+phytophagous manatee-dugong group and the true whales, the
+parasites of this remarkable order of mammals (<i>Sirenia</i>) will be
+most conveniently noticed in this place. Not much is known
+respecting them. A single species of Amphistome (<i>A. fabaceum</i>)
+of the usual size has been described and figured by Diesing
+from the cæcum and large intestine of Natterer’s manatee
+(<i>Manatus exunguis</i>), the same mammal yielding a rather peculiar
+nematode, <i>Heterocheilus tunicatus</i>. This worm possesses a
+complicated set of cephalic lobes and oral papillæ, which at first
+induced Diesing to call the genus <i>Lobocephalus</i>. These structures
+have been fully described and figured in Diesing’s account
+of the anatomy of the worm in the ‘Annals of the Vienna
+Museum.’ The males measure <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the females up to <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length. From the stomach of an Indian dugong (<i>Halicore</i>)
+Rüppell and several other naturalists obtained lumbricoid worms
+(<i>Ascaris halicoris</i>, Owen), the males of which measured <span class="nowrap">2<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and
+the females from four to five inches in length. Rüppell’s
+specimens were from the Red Sea and Owen’s from Penang.
+From the now extinct <i>Rhytina Stelleri</i> similar worms were
+obtained by Steller, who called them <i>Lumbrici caudidi</i>. Following
+Brandt’s nomenclature the species has since been
+recognised as <i>Ascaris rhytinæ</i>. The worms measured half a
+foot in length, and occupied the stomach and duodenum. They
+were obtained by Steller in July, 1742, the last of the Rhytinas
+having been seen in 1768.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_55"></a>No. 55).&mdash;<i>Baird</i>, “Entozoa of Cete,” ‘Brit.
+Mus. Catalogue,’ Index, p. 120, 1853:&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “<i>Ascaris halicoris</i>,”
+in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1860, p. 329; see also “Description
+of a rare Entozoon from the Stomach of the Dugong,” ‘Proc.
+Zool. Soc.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Beneden, P. J. van</i>, “Les Cétacés, leurs
+commensaux et leurs parasites,” ‘Bullet. de l’Acad. Royale de
+Belgique,’ p. 348, 1870.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Animal Parasites,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Beneden,
+E. van</i>, in ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1868.&mdash;<i>Bennett, D.</i>, in
+‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1837, p. 30.&mdash;<i>Brandt</i>, “<i>Asc. dugonis</i> and
+<i>A. rhytinæ</i>,” in ‘Bull. P.-Math. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sci. de St
+Peters,’ tom. v, p. 192.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Trematode Parasites from
+the Dolphins of the Ganges, <i>Platanista gangetica</i> and <i>Orcella
+brevirostris</i>,” ‘Linn. Soc. Journ.,’ Zool. Div., vol. xiii, p. 35,
+1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Entozoa of <i>Delphinus phocæna</i>,” ‘Linn. Soc.
+Trans.,’ vol. xvii, p. 167, 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Descript. of <i>Asc.
+Andersoni</i>,” in ‘Notes on Entozoa,’ part iv, in ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ March, 1876, p. 296.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="430"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430"></a></span>‘Catalogue of the Specimens
+of Entozoa in the Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons (Preps. Nos. 39&ndash;43 and 98&ndash;101),’ 1866; see also Owen,
+for an account of the Hunterian specimens of Echinorhynchi.&mdash;<i>Creplin,
+F. C. H.</i>, “Note on a Filaria and a Monostoma from a
+Whale (<i>Balæna rostrata</i>),” from ‘Nova Acta Acad. N. C.,’ xiv,
+in ‘Zool. Journ.,’ 1832&ndash;34, vol. v, p. 381; and in ‘Ersch. and
+Grube’s Encyclop.,’ 1846, s. 172.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Asc. angulivalvis</i>,”
+in ‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1851, s. 158.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, “On <i>Heterocheilus</i>
+and <i>Amphist. fabaceum</i>,” in ‘Neue Gattungen von
+Binnenwürmen (u. s. w.),’ ‘Annalen des Wiener Museums,’
+1839.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Descr. of Conocephalus,” in ‘Revision der
+Nematoden’ (1860), from ‘Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d. w. math.-naturw.,’
+1861, s. 669.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>, ‘On Odontobius,’ l. c., p. 292.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘<i>Ech. porrigens</i>,’ p. 504.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘<i>Fil. crassicauda</i>,’
+p. 50.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Stenurus,’ p. 266.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘<i>Asc. simplex</i>,’ p. 220.&mdash;<i>Krefft</i>,
+“Parasites of Forster’s Dolphin,” in his ‘Australian
+Entozoa,’ from ‘Trans. Etom. Soc. of New South Wales,’
+Sydney, 1871.&mdash;<i>Lebeck</i>, “<i>Asc. delphini</i>” (quoted by Rudolphi),
+Synops., p. 296, from ‘Neue Schriften der Berl. Gesellsch.
+Naturf. Freunde,’ Bd. iii, s. 282.&mdash;<i>Leuckart, R.</i>, “On Pharurus,”
+in ‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ 1848, s. 26.&mdash;<i>Murie</i>, in ‘Proc. Zool.
+Soc.,’ 1865, p. 213.&mdash;<i>Owen</i>, “<i>Asc. halicoris</i>,” ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’
+1838, and in art. “Entoz.,” ‘Todd’s Cyclop.’&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On
+Echinorhynchi,” in his ‘Catal. of the Contents of the Roy. Coll.
+Surg. Museum,’ part iv, fasc. i, p. 44; and for the “External
+Parasites of Whales,” <i>ibid.</i>, p. 74, 1830.&mdash;<i>Quekett, J.</i>, “On the
+Anatomy of four species of Entozoa,” abstract from ‘Proc. of
+Micros. Soc.,’ in ‘Ann. of Nat. Hist.,’ vol. viii, 1842; also in
+‘Micros. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 125, and in the original
+series of ‘Trans. of the Micros. Soc. of Lond.,’ vol. i, p. 44,
+1844.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Baird’s Brit. Mus. Catal. of Entoz.,’ p. 3,
+1853.&mdash;<i>Roussel de Vauzème</i>, “On Odontobius,” ‘Ann. des Sci.
+Nat.,’ 1834, p. 326, and in ‘Isis,’ 1836.&mdash;<i>Rüppell</i>, “Entozoa
+Dugonis,” in ‘Abhandl. der Senkenbergschen Museums,’ i,
+s. 106.&mdash;<i>Siebold, Von</i>, “On <i>Filaria inflexicaudata</i>,” in ‘Wiegmann’s
+Archiv,’ 1842, s. 347.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part XII (Marsupialia).</span></h3>
+
+<p>The well-known fact that, in respect of their habits, the
+pouched mammals epitomise, as it were, the non-marsupial
+quadrupeds, would naturally lead us to look for a repetition of<span class="pagenum" title="431"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431"></a></span>
+corresponding type-forms of entozoa as guests within their
+bodies. Speaking generally, the inference is correct; but very
+few of the entozoa hitherto found in marsupials correspond, as
+species, with those infesting man and non-pouched mammalia.
+A noteworthy exception occurs in the case of the common liver-fluke,
+which is abundant in the great kangaroo (<i>Macropus
+major</i>). This fact was well known to Bremser and all the older
+helminthologists, and it has since been confirmed by numerous
+observers resident in Australia. The late Dr Rowe, an acute
+observer and successful stock-breeder, who wrote chiefly in
+connection with the sanitary bearings of parasitism, remarked
+that “the native animals of Australia are much infested with
+internal parasites. Some of those now found in the kangaroo
+and the smaller marsupials may have been derived from
+our domestic animals; but tapeworms and other internal
+parasites have been met with in animals occupying regions
+wholly unsettled.” Precisely so. That is just what we should
+expect. The Australian indigenous mammals have their own
+entozoa as a matter of course, and, in addition, they have contracted
+a few species from the domestic animals introduced into
+the country. On the whole, however, it cannot be said that
+the parasites of marsupials are of much practical consequence
+to agriculturists, since, with the exception of flukes, and probably
+hydatids, the Australian marsupials do not appear to
+harbor any entozoa that are likely to prove injurious to man
+and his domestic companions. The amount of fluke-germ distribution
+by kangaroos must be infinitesimal as compared with
+that proceeding from sheep and other kinds of “stock;” therefore
+on the score of parasitism alone it is not desirable to
+hasten the slaughter of kangaroos. From the scientific standpoint,
+it is to be regretted that the naturalists of New South
+Wales and other colonies have done so little towards defining
+the various species of marsupial entozoa. Mr Krefft, in his
+interesting brochure on Australian entozoa, describes a few
+tapeworms, and also points to several round worms which may
+be new to science, but with the exception of the common fluke
+no trematode appears to have been encountered by himself or
+Mr Masters in the various marsupials which they examined in
+the neighbourhood of Sydney and Queensland. Dr Bancroft,
+of Brisbane, has placed in my hands a small collection of
+entozoa, several of which have been obtained from marsupials,
+but their identification remains partly in abeyance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="432"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Besides the liver-fluke, the only marsupial trematodes at
+present fairly described appear to be <i>Hemistoma alatum</i>, and
+two species of <i>Rhopalophorus</i> (<i>R. coronatus</i> and <i>R. horridus</i>).
+All of these were obtained by Natterer from the opossums of
+tropical America. One of these flukes was described at some
+length by Rudolphi, who called the species <i>Distoma coronatum</i>,
+and gave its length as varying from two to four lines. Diesing,
+in one of his best illustrated monographs, has shown that
+the opossums in question are infested by two distinct species of
+fluke, which must be generically separated from the distomes.
+These singular <i>Rhopalophori</i> are furnished with a pair of armed
+retractile proboscides (Bohrüsseln), which must form powerful
+organs of anchorage. The worms are found attached to the
+walls of the stomach and small intestines.</p>
+
+<p>The tapeworms of marsupials are more numerous than flukes.
+Thus, we have Rudolphi’s <i>Tænia festiva</i>, eight to ten inches in
+length, occupying the gall-bladder and hepatic duct of <i>Macropus
+giganteus</i>. Dr Bancroft’s collection contains two almost perfect
+examples of a tapeworm which he procured from a small
+streaked kangaroo (<i>Halmaturus Derbyanus</i>). These I have
+identified as <i>T. festiva</i>. In this worm the reproductive papillæ,
+not hitherto observed, are biserially arranged. Fragments of a
+tapeworm (<i>T. didelphidis</i>) are preserved in the Vienna Museum,
+taken from the intestines of the American <i>Didelphis murina</i>.
+From different species of wallaby (<i>Halmaturus</i>) Mr Gerard
+Krefft has given more or less complete descriptions of two
+tapeworms (<i>Tænia fimbriata</i>, and <i>T. Mastersii</i>), and a probable
+Bothriocephalus (<i>B. marginatus</i>). I am not in a position to
+pronounce upon the distinctness of these Australian <i>Tæniæ</i>;
+but I may observe that Krefft’s <i>T. fimbriata</i> comes very near
+to another species which Dr Bancroft has given me. The
+Brisbane <i>savant</i> obtained the worm from a koala (<i>Phascolarctos
+cinereus</i>). Provisionally I call this species <i>Tænia geophiloides</i>,
+in allusion to its general resemblance to a long millipede. The
+single, perfect strobile, with the head attached, measures
+thirteen inches in length. Prof. Leidy has furnished a description
+of another tapeworm (<i>T. bipapillosa</i>) from a wombat
+(<i>Phascolomys</i>), and Mr Krefft has described yet another species
+obtained from the common vulpine opossum (<i>Phalangista vulpina</i>).
+The single example in Krefft’s possession measures
+four inches in length. He has named it <i>Tænia phalangistæ</i>.
+Some of the American opossums (<i>Didelphys brachyura</i>, and <i>D.<span class="pagenum" title="433"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433"></a></span>
+quica</i>) have been found to harbor a species of ligula (<i>L. reptans</i>,
+Diesing) in the sexually-immature state. Lastly, I find in
+Bancroft’s collection several tapeworms obtained from that
+small and interesting monotreme marsupial commonly known
+as the Australian hedgehog, echidna, or porcupine ant-eater of
+the colonists (<i>Tachyglossus setosus</i>). The strobiles, which are
+nearly perfect, average three inches in length, and are made of
+very narrow and closely-set proglottides. This species is evidently
+new to science, and as such I propose to call it <i>Tænia
+phoptica</i>, in allusion to its thick-set appearance and its consequent
+burdensome character to the bearer. The largest proglottides
+measure fully <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in width. There can be little doubt
+that the presence of any considerable number of such comparatively
+large tapeworms must seriously incommode, if they do
+not actually prove fatal to their unfortunate hosts.</p>
+
+<p>So far as regards mere variety of species, the nematode
+fauna of marsupials is probably far in excess of that of the
+trematodes and cestodes. I cannot therefore do much more
+than enumerate the species. The Hunterian Museum of the
+Royal College of Surgeons contains the original “worms found
+alive within the capsular ligaments of the knee-joint of a
+kangaroo,” which have been indicated as <i>Filariæ macropodis
+gigantei</i>. It would, in my opinion, be far better to call the
+worm, after its discoverer, Webster’s filaria (<i>F. Websteri</i>). Dr
+Bancroft has likewise encountered this same parasite in the great
+kangaroo. From the abdominal cavity of a wallaby Leidy has
+also obtained a filaria (<i>F. spelæa</i>). The American opossums
+(<i>Didelphys</i>) are much infested by <i>Ascaris tentaculata</i>, which is
+found in the cæcum, and many of them also harbor a small
+whipworm (<i>Trichocephalus minutus</i>). Another tolerably abundant
+nematode (<i>Physaloptera turgida</i>) was obtained by Natterer
+from the stomach of <i>Didelphys azaræ</i>, <i>D. myosurus</i>, and <i>D.
+cancrivora</i>. The only other nematode mentioned in Diesing’s
+‘Systema’ is <i>Aspidocephalus scoleciformis</i>. This is found in
+<i>D. murina</i>, and <i>D. domestica</i>. From the opossum of the
+United States (<i>D. virginiana</i>) Prof. Leidy has also obtained
+<i>Asc. tentaculata</i>, <i>Trichocephalus minutus</i>, and <i>Physaloptera</i> (Spiroptera)
+<i>turgida</i>. According to Molin there are grounds for
+separating some of these stomach-worms into distinct species.
+Thus, he has recognised the examples found by Natterer
+in <i>Didelphys myosurus</i> as belonging to the genus <i>Histiocephalus</i>,
+as emended by himself. If the separation be allowed, then we<span class="pagenum" title="434"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434"></a></span>
+must add to the list Molin’s <i>Histiocephalus subulatus</i>. From
+Bancroft’s collection I am certainly in possession of two distinct
+kinds of nematode taken from the stomach of <i>Halmaturus
+Derbyensis</i>. I have also two species of nematode from <i>Macropus
+giganteus</i>. Their identification, however, is a matter for
+future consideration. Lastly, as regards the acanthocephalous
+parasites, only one species appears to have been described.
+This worm (<i>Echinorhynchus microcephalus</i>) was obtained by
+Olfers in Brazil, from the intestines of <i>Didelphus philander</i>.
+It also occurs in <i>D. virginiana</i>. Being a tolerably large species,
+that is to say <span class="nowrap">3″</span> in length, it seems surprising that it has not
+been found in the American opossums generally.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_56"></a>No. 56).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i> (see Rowe). <i>Diesing</i>,
+‘Syst.,’ l. c., p. 519; also monogr. ‘Binnenwürmen’ (l. c.,
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_55">55</a>).&mdash;<i>Krefft, G.</i>, ‘Australian Entozoa’ (l. c., Bibl.
+No. <a href="#No_55">55</a>).&mdash;<i>Leidy</i>, ‘Proc. Philad. Acad.,’ 1856.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Tapeworm
+from the Wombat,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1875, p. 6.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>, “Una
+monogr. del genere Physaloptera,” p. 10, “Una monogr. del gen.
+Dispharagus,” and “Una monogr. del gen. Histiocephalus,”
+p. 37, aus dem xxxix Bd., d. ‘Sitz. d. m.-nat. Cl. d. k. Akad.
+der Wissensch.,’ s. 479&ndash;507 und s. 637&ndash;672, 1860.&mdash;<i>Rowe, J.</i>,
+“Parasitism in Australia” (in which the author sought to
+benefit stock-owners by utilising, prophylactically, my published
+opinions), repr. from the ‘Melbourne Leader’ in the
+‘Veterinarian,’ May, 1874.&mdash;<i>Rudolphi</i> (in ref. to <i>Dist. coronatum</i>),
+‘Synops.,’ p. 116 and 686.&mdash;<i>Webster</i> (respecting his
+“Filaria,” see), ‘Catalogue of the Hunterian Collection of
+Entozoa,’ p. 7, prep. 49, 1866; also the old ‘Catal. of the
+Museum Roy. Coll. Surg.’ (by Owen), part iv, fasc. i, p. 37,
+No. 170; also Diesing’s ‘System,’ p. 280, and Froriep’s
+‘Notizen,’ Bd. xlii, s. 328.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>SECTION II.</h3>
+
+
+<p>To give an air of completeness to this treatise, I shall devote
+the few pages remaining at my disposal to a brief summary of
+the general facts of parasitism as witnessed in birds, reptiles,
+fishes, and evertebrated animals. For details I must refer to
+the separate original works and memoirs quoted in the appended
+bibliographies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="435"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part I (Aves).</span></h3>
+
+<p>A prodigious number of entozoa are known to infest birds.
+So far from birds being less victimised than mammals, the
+contrary is the case. Every now and then avian epizoötics,
+due to parasites, sweep off hundreds of these attractive hosts,
+and in some cases even nestlings are not secure from entozoal
+invasion. It might be supposed that predacious birds would
+be more liable to invasion than the graminivorous species.
+Such is not the case. The eagles, hawks, vultures, and owls
+certainly harbor a great variety of helminths, but as much may
+be said of the grain-feeding game birds, and still more of the
+water birds. Pheasants and land-fowl, grouse and partridges,
+are largely infested; whilst, of water-fowl, herons and plovers,
+rails and snipe, ducks and geese, cormorants and divers, gulls
+and awks, play the rôle of host to a practically infinite variety
+of parasitic guests. The presence of the worm-guests does not
+imply any previously diseased condition of the host. Shoot any
+water bird, say an oyster catcher (<i>Hæmatopus</i>), or, still better,
+a grebe (<i>Podiceps</i>), and then carefully examine its intestinal
+contents. You will probably find in its interior flukes and
+round worms, tapeworms and Echinorhynchi. Capture and
+examine a frog or a salamander. The result is the same, except
+that the cestodes would probably be absent. As for fishes, if
+entozoa be a proof of cachexia, then it follows that the normal
+condition of all piscine hosts is a diseased state. Examine any
+tolerably well-grown salmon, trout, pike, perch, roach, chub,
+carp, or barbel, and probably any one of them will contain at
+least three different kinds of parasites, each of which will be
+present in more or less considerable numbers. From what is
+stated above it would be obviously futile to attempt even an
+enumeration of the species of avian entozoa&mdash;a remark which
+applies almost equally to the other groups of hosts that remain
+for consideration. Confining our attention to a few of the more
+noteworthy facts, I may observe that we have no very trustworthy
+data respecting the power for mischief possessed by flukes.
+From what we know of their destructiveness in man and certain
+other mammals, it would be hazardous to pronounce them
+harmless. Scientifically, they furnish particulars of great
+interest. One of the most striking facts of recent study relates
+to Zeller’s discovery that the little cercariæ (<i>C. exfoliata</i>)
+which are contained in a peculiar sporocyst (<i>Leucochloridium<span class="pagenum" title="436"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436"></a></span>
+paradoxum</i>), infesting the tentacles of a snail (<i>Succinea
+amphibia</i>), are in reality larval forms of a fluke (<i>Distoma
+macrostomum</i>) which resides in the intestinal canal of warblers
+(<i>Sylviadæ</i>). By experiment Dr Zeller reared the <i>Distoma</i> in
+question in the intestines of whitethroats (<i>Curruca garrula</i>),
+in blackcaps (<i>C. atricapilla</i>), and in wagtails (<i>Motacilla</i>).
+Six days after transference the Cercariæ acquired sexual
+maturity. The odd thing is, that as the sporocystic <i>Leucochloridia</i>
+resemble insect larvæ, they are attacked and swallowed
+by the birds under delusion. It is a curious example of
+mimetism in favor of the fluke’s welfare. To this and
+other equally brilliant scientific results helminthologists were
+gradually led up by the earlier researches of Steenstrup and
+Van Beneden. As remarked in my ‘Entozoa,’ ever since
+Steenstrup’s discovery of the fact that Cercariæ found in the
+bodies of water-snails were larval flukes, a peculiar interest has
+attached itself to this subject. Not only were the conclusions
+which he elicited novel in themselves, but they formed a basis
+for the enunciation of that interesting “law of alternate generation”
+with which the famous Danish naturalist’s name will ever
+remain associated. In all essential particulars Steenstrup’s
+statements have been verified.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<a id="Fig_72"></a>
+<img src="images/f72.jpg" width="145" height="459" style="padding-left: 15px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Tænia paradoxa</i>.
+<i>a</i>, Proboscis retracted; <i>b</i>, end of
+the rostellum expanded. Highly
+magnified. From an oyster-catcher
+(<i>Hæmatopus ostralegus</i>).
+Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>By way of illustrating the phases of development through
+which the distomes pass I cannot do better than recapitulate in
+an abridged form the account I have previously given of
+<i>Distoma</i> (<i>Echinostoma</i>) <i>militare</i> of the snipe and curlew. This
+account is based on the investigations of Van Beneden, Von
+Siebold, and Pagenstecher. I regret that it is out of my power
+to reproduce the illustrations that have already appeared on
+this head in my introductory treatise (see ‘Entozoa,’ figs. 5 to
+9 inclusive). Our <i>Echinostoma militare</i> produces oval-shaped
+eggs, which give birth to a free ciliated embryo, and this embryo
+produces a sporocyst or scolex by internal budding. When
+the sporocyst separates itself from the embryo it presents a
+very simple appearance, but showing already a cæcal digestive
+tube. The tail end is fissured, indicating an early stage of
+formation of caudal appendages. In the next stage we have a
+well-developed head and body, the tail becoming strongly pronounced.
+Limb-like caudal lobes project on either side, and
+an oral sucker makes its appearance in front. This sucker
+communicates with the œsophageal bulb and passes directly
+into the digestive cæcum, which contains a variable number of<span class="pagenum" title="437"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437"></a></span>
+rounded particles. At this stage, also, incompletely developed
+Cercariæ may be seen in the perivisceral cavity. These Cercariæ
+are at first shapeless organisms, but after passing through
+a series of gradations they ultimately assume a definite form,
+which, in many cases, is sufficiently distinctive to enable us to
+refer the Cercariæ to particular species of <i>Distoma</i>. The older
+writers regarded many of the cercarians as adult flukes. In
+the early state these larvæ are furnished with tails. They may
+be seen lodged within the cavity of the body of the sporocysts,
+being twisted and folded in various attitudes. The Cercariæ
+not only exhibit a cephalic and ventral sucker, but also a dark
+forked line representing the digestive system. At a still further
+stage other structures come into view, until the perfect
+Cercaria displays an oral sucker, a pharyngeal bulb, an
+œsophagus, two alimentary cæca, a ventral sucker, a water-vascular
+system consisting of two main excretory ducts, and a
+contractile vesicle, by means of which the ducts communicate with
+the external surface. The tail is conspicuous and furnished with
+a fringe. The alimentary organs conform to the general trematode
+type, but before passing into the sexually-mature condition
+other changes are undergone. The Cercariæ part with
+their tails, and subsequently they encyst themselves on or
+within the surface of the body of some mollusk. Their pupa
+condition is thus arrived at. The pupa itself differs from the
+cercaria in presenting a double crown of hooks surrounding the
+head, but the other organs correspond with those already
+described. According to Van Beneden the hooks make their
+appearance immediately after encystation. In this condition it
+is next transferred to the intestine of some higher animal, and
+in this final situation it gradually acquires all those organs the
+possession of which will entitle it to be called a sexually-mature
+or adult distome. In the immature fluke we may now discern
+the mouth, the buccal or cephalic sucker, the pharyngeal bulb,
+the œsophagus, the digestive cæca, the coronal spines, the
+contractile vesicle, the aquiferous system of vessels, the matrices
+of the yelk-forming glands, and also a central mass of cellules,
+from which all the other reproductive organs will in due time
+be developed. In the adult <i>Echinostoma militare</i> the upper
+third of the body is clothed with little spines. Taking this
+example as illustrative of the ordinary mode of fluke development
+we find that a change of hosts is necessary, and that in
+the intermediate state they occupy the bodies of mollusks.<span class="pagenum" title="438"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438"></a></span>
+Thus, for the continuation of the species, there must needs be
+a contemporaneity of vertebrate and evertebrate hosts. Surely
+no reasonable person can ascribe this concurrence to merely
+fortuitous circumstances. In this connection I may remark that
+Villot, in his account of the migrations of the trematodes, states
+that the cercarian forms of <i>Distoma leptosomum</i> and <i>D. brachysomum</i>
+of <i>Tringa alpina</i> occur in <i>Scrobicularia</i> and <i>Anthura</i>. These
+parasites are also found encysted in the gizzard of <i>Tringa</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 375px;">
+<a id="Fig_73"></a>
+<img src="images/f73.jpg" width="375" height="283" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;<i>Strongylus pergracilis.</i> <i>a</i>, Head and neck; <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, tail of the male in various
+positions; <i>f</i>, tail of the female; <i>g</i>, section showing termination of the oviducts; <i>h</i>, three
+eggs. Highly magnified. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tapeworms of birds are undoubtedly injurious to their
+bearers. All the worms appear to be
+armed with cephalic hooks; at least, such
+is the case with the species described
+by Krabbe, who has supplied figures of
+the hooks drawn to a scale. Dr Krabbe’s
+beautiful monograph is a perfect model
+of its kind. In the accompanying figure
+the hooks have fallen (Fig. <a href="#Fig_72">72</a>). On account
+of the frequency of their occurrence,
+some persons have supposed that
+tapeworms are not injurious to their hosts,
+forgetting that it is not the mere fact of
+the existence of tapeworms, but their
+excessive numbers during particular seasons
+that give rise to avian epizoötics.
+The same rule holds good with other
+parasites. Of course, in fledgelings, as
+also obtains in yearlings amongst our
+domesticated animals, a very few parasites
+are sufficient to prove destructive
+to the bearer. Thus, as regards the
+so-called “grouse-disease,” during one
+season it may be due to tapeworms, during
+another to strongyles, during a third
+to excessive abundance of both these
+parasites. Unfortunately, other avian
+epizoötics, not necessarily due to parasites
+of any kind, may be mistaken for
+helminthic epizoöty. The same thing
+happens amongst quadrupeds. We have,
+for example, parasitic equine epizoötic outbreaks, and likewise
+non-helminthic equine epidemics (as in the case of the Egyptian
+horse plague of 1876). The true nature of any epizoöty can<span class="pagenum" title="439"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439"></a></span>
+only be determined by competent investigation. That was
+well shown in the grouse epidemic of 1872. In that epizoöty
+the greater number of the birds succumbed to the injuries
+produced by a nematode worm (<i>Strongylus pergracilis</i>, Fig. 73),
+but, without doubt, the occasional presence of numerous tapeworms
+(<i>Tænia calva</i>) hastened the consequent fatality. The
+following table, giving the results of examination of twelve
+diseased grouse from the Earl of Cawdor’s estate, will show
+how inconspicuous a part tapeworms played in the epidemic
+of 1872. For further details I must refer to my brochure on
+the ‘Grouse Disease,’ and to some other memoirs quoted in the
+bibliography below.</p>
+
+<table width="80%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Tapeworms present in diseased grouse">
+<tr><th>No. of<br />specimen.</th><th>Condition<br />of bird.</th><th>State of viscera.</th><th>Tapeworms<br />present.</th><th>Strongyles<br />present.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl pt03"><span class="hide">1</span>1</td><td class="brl pl03 pt03">Good</td><td class="brl pl03 pt03">Full</td><td class="brl pl03 pt03">None</td><td class="brl pl03 pt03">Abundant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>2</td><td class="brl pl03">Emaciated</td><td class="brl pl03">Putrid</td><td class="brl pl03">Two</td><td class="brl pl03">Very numerous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>3</td><td class="brl pl03">Good</td><td class="brl pl03">Full</td><td class="brl pl03">None</td><td class="brl pl03">Abundant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>4</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;&emsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>5</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl pl03">One</td><td class="brl">&emsp;&emsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>6</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl pl03">Shrunken</td><td class="brl pl03">Two</td><td class="brl pl03">Very numerous.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>7</td><td class="brl pl03">Emaciated</td><td class="brl pl03">Much shrunken</td><td class="brl pl03">None</td><td class="brl">&emsp;&emsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>8</td><td class="brl pl03">Thin</td><td class="brl pl03">Shrunken</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;&emsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><span class="hide">1</span>9</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;"</td><td class="brl">&emsp;&emsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">10</td><td class="brl pl03">Emaciated</td><td class="brl pl03">Distended</td><td class="brl pl03">Man</td><td class="brl">&emsp;&emsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl">11</td><td class="brl pl03">Thin</td><td class="brl pl03">Rather full</td><td class="brl pl03">Several</td><td class="brl pl03">Abundant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brlb">12</td><td class="brlb">&emsp;"</td><td class="brlb">&emsp;&emsp;"</td><td class="brlb pl03">None</td><td class="brlb pl03">Very numerous.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="440"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>I have said that tapeworms prove fatal to young birds,
+even to nestlings. A notable instance of this is recorded by
+Mr Eames. The parasites were examples of <i>Tænia angulata</i>.
+Apart from the epidemiological aspects of the subject, it is not
+uninstructive to notice the variety of helminths that infest the
+common fowl and game birds. Accordingly, I append a similar
+but more extended list than that previously given in the
+supplement to my introductory treatise:</p>
+
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Variety of helminths infesting common fowl and game birds">
+<col width="28%" /><col width="9%" /><col width="9%" /><col width="9%" /><col width="9%" /><col width="9%" /><col width="9%" /><col width="9%" /><col width="9%" />
+<tr><th class="plr03">Entozoa of game birds and<br />the common fowl.</th><th>Common<br />fowl.</th><th>Pheasant.</th><th>Caper-<br />caillie.</th><th>Black<br />Grouse.</th><th>Red<br />Grouse.</th><th>Grey<br />Partridge.</th><th>Red<br />Partridge.</th><th>Quail.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03 pt03"><i>Monostoma&nbsp;verrucosum</i>,&nbsp;Zeder</td><td class="tac pt03">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Distoma&nbsp;oxycephalum</i>,&nbsp;Rudolphi</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>ovatum</i>,&nbsp;Rudolphi</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>lineare</i>,&nbsp;Zeder</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>dilatatum</i>,&nbsp;Miram</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>fuscatum</i>,&nbsp;Rudolphi</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Filaria&nbsp;Mansoni</i>,&nbsp;Cobbold</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Ascaris&nbsp;vesicularis</i>,&nbsp;Froelich</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>gibbosa</i>,&nbsp;Rudolphi</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>inflexa</i>,&nbsp;Rudolphi</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>compar</i>,&nbsp;Schrank</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Spiroptera&nbsp;hamulosa</i>,&nbsp;Diesing</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;<i>helicina</i>,&nbsp;Molin</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Dispharagus&nbsp;nasutus</i>,&nbsp;Dujardin</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;<i>spiralis</i>,&nbsp;Molin</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Strongylus&nbsp;pergracilis</i>,&nbsp;Cobbold</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Sclerostoma&nbsp;syngamus</i>,&nbsp;Diesing</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Trichosoma&nbsp;longicolle</i>,&nbsp;Rudolphi</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03"><i>Tænia&nbsp;malleus</i>,&nbsp;Goeze</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;<i>microps</i>,&nbsp;Diesing</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;<i>exilis</i>,&nbsp;Dujardin</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;<i>calva</i>,&nbsp;Baird</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;<i>linea</i>,&nbsp;Goeze</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl">*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brl plr03">&emsp;&ensp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>infundibuliformis</i>,&nbsp;Goeze</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl">*</td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td><td class="tac brl"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="brlb plr03"><i>Ligula&nbsp;reptans</i>,&nbsp;Diesing</td><td class="tac brlb"></td><td class="tac brlb"></td><td class="tac brlb">*</td><td class="tac brlb"></td><td class="tac brlb"></td><td class="tac brlb"></td><td class="tac brlb"></td><td class="tac brlb"></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In regard to this list I can only afford space to remark that
+several of the species are possibly mere varieties. Some of the
+worms are of great interest. It occasionally happens that
+<i>Distoma ovatum</i> is found in the albumen of the fowl’s egg, and
+it is even more common to obtain <i>Ascaris inflexa</i> from the same
+situation. For a recent example I am indebted to Dr Walker,
+of Peterborough. <i>Spiroptera helicina</i> resides in the feet, occasioning
+enlargement of the joints and consequent distress to
+the bearer. Probably the most important in the list is my
+<i>Strongylus pergracilis</i>. Here I may mention that on the 10th
+of April, 1878, I received a letter from Dr Manson, of Amoy,<span class="pagenum" title="441"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441"></a></span>
+announcing his acquaintance with a filaria infesting the eye of
+the fowl. On the 9th of May I also received from Dr Manson
+the head of a bird showing examples of the worm. As the
+species is new to science I have proposed to call it <i>Filaria
+Mansoni</i>, after the discoverer. The male is <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">5</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> and the female <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">3</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">4</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>
+in length. Of the injurious nematodes, giving rise to avian
+epizoöty, probably one of the most destructive is <i>Ascaris
+maculosa</i> infesting pigeons. On the 9th of October, 1873, I
+received a letter from Dr J. Alexander Macdonald, of Woburn,
+Bedfordshire, stating that he had forwarded to me a pigeon
+which had been found dead on the previous morning. It
+seems that the owner of the bird had erected a large pigeon-house,
+and had imported a number of Antwerp smerles, these
+birds all continuing in a perfect state of health until about a
+week before the above-mentioned date, when, to use Dr Macdonald’s
+words “first one and then another was attacked, and
+so on, until four or five of the pigeons had died after a few
+hours’ illness.” The suddenness of these attacks not unnaturally
+suggested poisoning; and, accordingly, says my informant,
+the owner “had the curiosity to open one of the birds, when,
+to his astonishment, he found the intestines stuffed with
+worms.” Two days later I received a letter from Dr Macdonald,
+stating that several others of the flock had died, and it
+further appeared to him probable that the daily list of sick and
+dying would continue to increase. On the 14th of the month
+three more of the birds were dead. On the 4th of the following
+November, the same correspondent obligingly informed me
+that the epidemic had been “at last mastered.” It seems that
+altogether twelve birds had perished. On the 9th of October
+one of the birds was carefully examined by me, and the results
+were so interesting that I am constrained to give a few of the
+particulars originally communicated to the Zoological Society. As
+stated in my paper, the whole intestinal tract of the dead bird was
+crowded with these ascarides. The small intestine was inflamed
+throughout, and showed several large ulcerated patches; nevertheless,
+there were no traces of emaciation. From this it was
+evident that the parasites had grown quickly, the malady
+having a correspondingly rapid formation. The distribution of
+the parasites was curious. One specimen, two inches long,
+reached from the crop to the proventriculus. The cavities of
+this organ and of the gizzard were crammed with worms completely
+blocking the passage. Three of the worms had also<span class="pagenum" title="442"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442"></a></span>
+placed themselves within the pyloric opening, their bodies
+partly lodging within the duodenum. The duodenum itself
+was crowded with worms, their numbers somewhat decreasing
+downwards. I removed thirty-six worms from the œsophagus,
+proventriculus, and stomach, besides 166 others from the intestinal
+canal, thus obtaining a total of no less than 202 nematodes
+from this small host. Considering the large size of these
+entozoa, the extent of infection must be pronounced remarkable.
+The largest females measured <span class="nowrap">2<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. One of the most
+interesting facts&mdash;serving to exemplify a well-known habit of
+lumbricoid worms generally&mdash;consisted in the circumstance
+that two of the parasites had succeeded in perforating the
+horny lining membrane of the gizzard. The injuries had been
+accomplished during the life of the host, for the walls of the
+gizzard were inflamed opposite the perforations. There was a
+little half digested food within the stomach, the <i>débris</i> of which,
+when placed under the microscope, showed several ova. There
+were no free embryos, neither had the development of the
+freed eggs proceeded beyond yelk-segmentation. Free eggs
+were also found both in the small and large intestine. The
+eggs measured about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">360</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> by <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">700</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter. Referring to
+my paper for further anatomical details, I can only add that,
+despite these facts, the ascarides in question do not appear to be
+a very frequent source of epizoöty. It was remarked by Dujardin
+that Heister, at Rostok, and Gebauer, at Breslau, found this
+parasite abundant at the beginning of the eighteenth century;
+but, according to examinations conducted at Vienna, the worm
+was found in the common pigeon in only eleven instances out
+of 245, and thrice only in thirty-eight examples of the ring-dove;
+moreover, the examination of eighty-seven other pigeons
+and doves of different species yielded entirely negative results.
+The Dublin helminthologist,
+Bellingham, noticed the occurrence
+of this parasite in Ireland.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;">
+<img src="images/f74.jpg" width="195" height="130" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;Tail of the male <i>Ascaris vesicularis</i>.
+From a ring-necked pheasant. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Any attempt so much as to
+enumerate the species of nematoids
+infesting birds would carry
+me far beyond the aim and scope
+of this treatise. One of the commonest
+species is <i>Ascaris (Heterakis)
+vesicularis</i>. Many hundreds of forms have been described
+by Dujardin, Diesing, Molin, Krabbe, and other systematists,<span class="pagenum" title="443"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443"></a></span>
+and it remains for some future laborer to condense the facts
+which are dispersed throughout a very wide-spread literature.
+As regards the particular species of nematoids that are either
+actually known or conjectured to be injurious to birds I can only
+find space to repeat some of the particulars which I have elsewhere
+recorded in respect of <i>Sclerostoma syngamus</i>. In 1799
+a letter from Dr Wiesenthal, of Baltimore, U.S., was published
+in the ‘Medical and Physical Journal,’ containing an account of
+a parasite infesting the trachea of fowls and turkeys in America.
+The communication is dated May 21st, 1797, and is the first
+public record concerning the entozoon. Dr Wiesenthal says:
+“There is a disease prevalent among the gallinaceous poultry in
+this country, called the <i>gapes</i>, which destroys eight-tenths of
+our fowls in many parts, and takes place in the greatest degree
+among the young turkeys and chickens bred upon old-established
+farms. Chicks and poults, in a few days after they are hatched,
+are found frequently to open their mouths wide and gasp for
+breath, at the same time frequently sneezing and attempting to
+swallow. At first the affection is slight, but gradually becomes
+more and more oppressive, and it ultimately destroys. Very few
+recover; they languish, grow dispirited, droop, and die. It is
+generally known that these symptoms are occasioned by worms
+in the trachea. I have seen the whole [windpipe] completely
+filled with these worms, and have been astonished at the animals
+being capable of respiration under such circumstances.”</p>
+
+<p>Any one who has witnessed the <i>gapes</i> will at once recognise
+the accuracy of Wiesenthal’s description; and so far as the
+phenomena of the disease are concerned, very little more
+has been added in the numerous accounts which have since
+appeared. On the 1st of August, 1808, the English naturalist,
+George Montagu, communicated to the Wernerian Society
+a paper entitled “Account of a species of <i>Fasciola</i> which
+infests the trachea of poultry, with a mode of cure.” Montagu
+does not appear to have been aware of the existence
+of any previous record. He gave a scientific description of
+the parasite, which led to its being noticed in the systematic
+works of Rudolphi, Dujardin, and Diesing, but the best accounts
+of the worm are due to Von Siebold. <i>Sclerostoma syngamus</i>
+has been found in the trachea of the turkey, domestic cock,
+pheasant, partridge, black stork, magpie, hooded crow, green
+woodpecker, starling, and swift. In July, 1860, I obtained a
+fowl suffering from the gapes, and operated upon it in the<span class="pagenum" title="444"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444"></a></span>
+following <span class="nowrap">manner:&mdash;</span>A small portion of wool having been
+dipped in chloroform and placed in front of the nostrils the bird
+soon became insensible. The skin of the neck was then divided
+and the trachea slit up to the extent of a quarter of an inch.
+With a pair of common dissecting forceps, I removed seven
+Sclerostomata. Six of these parasites were sexually united,
+the odd worm being a female. After I had closed the external
+wound with a single thread the bird woke out of its artificial
+sleep, when it soon recovered its legs, and ran about the table
+vigorously. Moreover, in a very few minutes it devoured the
+contents of a saucer partly filled with bread and milk. An
+occasional gape was caused by an accumulation of frothy mucus
+within the injured trachea, but this obstruction the bird soon
+got rid of by shakes of the head and sneezing. The only subsequent
+inconvenience to the bird arose from emphysematous distension
+of the cellular tissue of the head and neck. This was
+relieved by puncture, the emphysema ceasing to form after the
+external wound had healed. Some months afterwards I destroyed
+the bird, and on dissecting the neck, a distinct cicatrix was
+found indicating the site of the operation on the trachea. The
+divided cartilaginous rings, six in number, were united only by
+a thin layer of connective tissue. The female worms gave an
+average length of <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">5</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">8</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>, the males scarcely exceeding <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">3</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span>. The
+mouth is furnished with six prominent chitinous lips. In both
+sexes the surface of the body is quite smooth, but the tail of
+the female exhibits a tendency to fold upon itself. The
+lower part of the body suddenly contracts to form a short,
+narrow, mucronate, pointed tail. The male is usually found
+rigidly affixed by means of a strong, membranous, sucker-like
+bursa, which proceeds from the lower end of its body. In
+regard to the peculiar mode of union of the sexes, it becomes
+an interesting point to ascertain whether there be an actual
+incorporation of the substance of the copulatory organs during
+or after the act of impregnation. In my specimens none of
+the three pairs were organically united, and I succeeded in
+separating one pair very readily. Dujardin speaks of them as
+being soldered together, whilst the statements of Von Siebold
+are still more explicit. In connection with this subject the
+latter observer makes the following comment (‘Wiegmann’s
+Archiv,’ 1836, s. 106):&mdash;“The two sexes of almost all round
+worms are united only at the time of copulation. The male of
+<i>Heteroura androphora</i> has also the habit of remaining connected<span class="pagenum" title="445"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445"></a></span>
+with its mate beyond the period of copulation; here, thus,
+there is a continuous union of the sexes without a growing
+together; and in <i>Syngamus trachealis</i> there is ultimately a lasting
+continuity of the sexes by means of an actual growing together.”
+Having confidence in Von Siebold’s statement, I concluded that
+the sexual union in my specimens had only recently been
+effected. Admitting this to have been the case, one naturally
+asks how the mature eggs can make their escape. Clearly, the
+eggs can only escape by an eventual breaking up of the body
+of the parent. The eggs of <i>Sclerostoma syngamus</i> are comparatively
+large, measuring <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">250</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. Many of the ova
+contained fully formed embryos, and in the centre of the lower
+third of the body of one of them I perceived an undulating,
+imperfectly formed intestinal tube. By whatever mode the
+young escape the shell, it is clear that they are already sufficiently
+developed to undertake an active migration. A change
+of hosts is probably necessary, but in the first instance they
+either enter the substance of fungi or other vegetable matters,
+or they bury themselves in the soil at a short distance from the
+surface. In view of checking the destructive influences of this
+parasite, the following methods have been recommended.</p>
+
+<p><i>First.</i> The simplest plan consists, as Dr Wiesenthal long ago
+pointed out, in stripping a feather from the tube to near the
+narrow end of the shaft, leaving only a few uninjured webs at
+the tip. The bird being secured, the webbed extremity of the
+feather is introduced into the windpipe. It is then twisted
+round a few times and withdrawn, when the worms are found
+attached. In some instances this plan succeeds entirely.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondly.</i> The above method is rendered more effectual when
+the feather is previously steeped in some medicated solution
+which will destroy the worms. Mr Bartlett employs salt for
+this purpose, or a weak infusion of tobacco; and he informs
+me that the simple application of turpentine to the throat
+externally is sufficient to kill the worms. It should be borne
+in mind that the bird itself may be injuriously affected by these
+drugs if they are carelessly employed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thirdly.</i> The treatment recommended by Mr Montagu
+proved successful in his hands, although the infested birds were
+old partridges. One of his birds had died of suffocation; but
+he tells us that “change of food and change of place, together
+with the infusion of rue and garlic, instead of plain water, to
+drink, and chiefly hemp-seed, independent of the green vegetables<span class="pagenum" title="446"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446"></a></span>
+which the grass plot of the menagerie afforded, recovered
+the others in a very short time.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourthly.</i> The plan I employed in my experiment. This is
+only desirable in advanced cases, where suffocation is impending.
+It will afford instant relief, as the trachea may be cleared
+of all parasitic obstructions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lastly.</i> The essential point to be observed is the total destruction
+of the worms. This will help to put a stop to future
+epizoöties. If the parasites are merely killed and thrown
+away carelessly, the eggs will sustain no injury. Decomposition
+having set in, the young embryos will sooner or later
+escape their shells, migrate in the soil or elsewhere, and ultimately
+find their way into the air-passages of birds in the same
+manner as their parents did before them.</p>
+
+<p>In this place I must not omit to mention the remarkable circumstance,
+quoted in my pamphlet on the grouse disease, that
+Prof. Wyman, of Boston, found <i>Eustrongyli</i> surrounding the
+cerebellum in seventeen out of nineteen snake-birds or water-turkeys
+that had been shot in Florida. These viviparous
+nematodes apparently occasion their avian bearers no inconvenience.
+No doubt, as Wyman observes, their presence must be
+regarded as a normal state of things: but should they occur in
+excessive numbers, then we can hardly doubt the result.</p>
+
+<p>As regards acanthocephalous parasites, although not so numerous
+as the nematodes, it is extremely probable that they
+play a similar rôle. Parasites which prove fatal to swine are
+scarcely likely to be harmless in birds. On the 18th of
+February, 1875, I received from Sir Joseph Hooker eleven
+worms for identification. Mr Charles P. Hooker, his son,
+subsequently informed me by letter that he had found them in
+a Redwing (<i>Turdus iliacus</i>) which he dissected in January, 1875.
+The worms (<i>Echinorhynchus transversus</i>) occupied the large
+intestine, probably to the number of one hundred in all.
+Hitherto this parasite has been found abundantly in the blackbird,
+thrush, and in most of the <i>Turdidæ</i>; but not in the redwing.
+It has also been obtained from the starling and red-breast.
+The presence of so many of these armed parasites in
+one small host could hardly fail to inflict severe injury on the
+bearer.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;">
+<img src="images/f75.jpg" width="70" height="145" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;Head of <i>Eustrongylus papillosus</i>.
+Magnified. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In concluding this section of my work I can only find space
+to make a few acknowledgments. Most of the rare, new, or
+interesting avian entozoa which I have examined and described<span class="pagenum" title="447"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447"></a></span>
+have been received either from the Zoological Gardens, or from
+personal friends. In particular I may mention the collections
+sent to me by Mr Charles Darwin, Mr Robert Swinhoe, Mr
+Charles W. Devis, Dr Murie, Dr John Anderson, and Mr
+Spooner Hart, of Calcutta. A great many correspondents have
+contributed single specimens, many of which I have already
+incidentally acknowledged in these pages. In this place I
+must particularise the new species (<i>Ascaris Cornelyi</i>) which I
+described from specimens sent to Mr Sclater. This worm infests
+the vulturine pintado (<i>Numida vulturina</i>). Mr Darwin’s
+collection contained fine examples of <i>Filaria horrida</i> from the
+American ostrich (<i>Rhea</i>). When dissecting birds at the Zoological
+Society’s Menagerie, I obtained (in addition to the parasites
+already mentioned) <i>Distoma æquale</i> from the American owl
+(<i>Strix perlata</i>); <i>Tænia multiformis</i> from the night heron (<i>Ardea
+nyctocorax</i>); <i>T. infundibuliformis</i> from a horned pheasant
+(<i>Phasianus</i>); <i>T. lævis</i> and <i>T. lanceolata</i> and also <i>Ascaris
+tribothrioides</i> from a dusky duck (<i>Anas obscura</i>);
+<i>Eustrongylus papillosus</i> (fig. 75) from the larus
+crane (<i>Grus antigone</i>); <i>Trichosoma longicolle</i> from
+the horned pheasant, and <i>T. brevicolle</i> from the
+Sandwich Island goose (<i>Bernicla Sandwichensis</i>).
+This bird was also infested by <i>Spiroptera crassicauda</i>
+and <i>Ascaris dispar</i>. From the ring-necked
+pheasant (<i>Ph. torquatus</i>) and from the black-backed
+Kaleege (<i>Euplocomus melanotus</i>), and also from a
+cheer pheasant (<i>Ph. Wallichii</i>), I obtained abundance
+of <i>Ascaris vesicularis</i>. From the ashy-headed
+goose (<i>Chloephaga poliocephala</i>) examples of <i>Str.
+tubifex</i> and <i>Str. nodularis</i>. This bird also yielded a new species
+(<i>Str. acuticaudatus</i>). From a tinamou (<i>Tinamus</i>) I obtained the
+<i>Ascaris strongylina</i> of Rudolphi (<i>Str. spiculatus</i>, mihi). From
+amongst our British birds I have obtained <i>Asc. depressa</i>, <i>Trichosoma
+falconum</i> and <i>Hemistoma spathulum</i>, from the kite
+(<i>Falco milvus</i>). Of these three worms, the last named was
+also found in the long-eared owl (<i>Strix otus</i>), whilst the first
+likewise occurred in a kestrel (<i>Falco tinnunculus</i>) and in a honey
+buzzard (<i>Pernis apivorus</i>). I may add <i>Filaria attenuata</i> from
+a peregrine (<i>F. peregrinus</i>); and <i>F. leptoptera</i> from a sparrow
+hawk (<i>Accipiter nisus</i>). From the redshank (<i>Totanus calidris</i>)
+I obtained <i>Tænia variabilis</i>, and from the curlew (<i>Numenius
+arcuata</i>) <i>T. sphærophora</i>; and from various gulls (<i>Larus glaucus</i><span class="pagenum" title="448"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448"></a></span>
+and <i>L. tridactylus</i>) the <i>Tetrabothrium cylindraceum</i>. Also
+from the grey gull <i>Echinostoma spinulosum</i>. From the red-throated
+diver I procured <i>Tetr. macrocephalum</i>. I found this
+tapeworm also in the guillemot (<i>Uria troile</i>), together with a
+nematode (<i>Ascaris spiculigera</i>) two examples of which were
+lodged in the right auricle of the heart. From a capercaillie
+(<i>Tetrao urogallus</i>) I have obtained a species of <i>Ligula</i>, and
+likewise numerous examples of <i>Trichosoma longicolle</i>. Of
+necessity, this brief notice only comprises a small part of the
+avian entozoa contained in my collection, many of which I have
+not had time to describe, whilst, as regards others, I can only
+say that they remain in abeyance for examination and identification.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Brotherston has recently recorded an interesting find
+(made Nov. 25th, 1874) of nematodes in the legs of the lesser
+grebe (<i>Podiceps minor</i>), and also (Feb. 27th, 1878) in the waterhen
+(<i>Gallinula chloropus</i>). Both limbs of both birds were infested.
+The worms of the grebe were spirally coiled amongst
+the muscles and tendons near the lower end of the tibia, and
+when unrolled measured about an inch in length. The parasites
+of the waterhen were similar in appearance. Not improbably
+these were all sexually-imperfect female examples of
+<i>Filaria acuta</i> hitherto found in the abdomen of grebes.</p>
+
+<p>The British Museum contains many interesting specimens
+purchased from the collection of Von Siebold, but they are
+practically inaccessible to investigators. The entozoa in the
+Hunterian Collection, though few in number, are in an excellent
+state of preservation, and at all times accessible to visitors.</p>
+
+<p>The ectozoa of birds are too numerous to be dealt with in
+these pages. References to recent papers by Haller, Mégnin,
+and Westwood will be found below. The insects infesting the
+domestic fowl have been alluded to in connection with the
+occurrence of poultry-lousiness in the horse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_57"></a>No. 57).&mdash;(Anonymous), “On the (gape)
+Diseases of Fowls,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 267, 1841.&mdash;(Anon.,
+initialed “Q.”), Letter on the “Grouse Disease,” in the ‘Times,’
+Sept. 5, 1874.&mdash;(Anon.), “On Grouse and Partridge Disease,”
+being annotations in the ‘Lancet,’ Sept. 4, 1875, pp. 360 and
+361.&mdash;(Anon.), “Grouse Disease,” letter signed “R.” (probably
+from Lord Ravensworth), in ‘Land and Water,’ Aug. 16, 1873.&mdash;(Anon.),
+“Grouse Disease,” article (from “W. C.”) in the
+‘Field,’ Aug. 2, 1873 (criticising my brochure.&mdash;T. S. C.).&mdash;<span class="pagenum" title="449"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449"></a></span>
+<i>Arlong</i>, “Note on Tænia from the Fowl,” ‘Rec. Méd. Vét.,’
+1875.&mdash;<i>Baird, W.</i>, “Descr. of <i>Tænia calva</i> from the Grouse,”
+in ‘Brit. Mus. Catalogue,’ p. 83.&mdash;<i>Blavette</i>, “Descr. of a
+Verminous Disease among Fowls,” ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 649, 1840.&mdash;<i>Brotherston,
+A.</i>, “Parasitic Worms in Legs of Grebe (<i>Podiceps
+minor</i>) and Water-hen (<i>Gallinula chloropus</i>),” ‘Science Gossip’
+for April, 1878, p. 88, and in ‘Proceedings of the Berwickshire
+Naturalists’ Club,’ vol. viii, p. 288.&mdash;Carter, B. (see Cobbold).&mdash;<i>Chapman,
+H. C.</i>, “Description of a new Tapeworm from
+Rhea,” ‘Proceed. Phil. Acad.,’ 1876, p. 14.&mdash;<i>Chatin, J.</i>, “Étude
+sur des helminthes nouveaux ou peu connus (treating of a
+Cyathostoma, from <i>Anas tadorna</i> and <i>Sclerostoma pelecani</i>),”
+‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘The Grouse
+Disease, a statement of facts tending to prove the Parasitic
+Origin of the Epidemic,’ London, 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, Letter in the
+‘Field,’ Sept. 9, 1872.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Contributions to our Knowledge
+of the Grouse Disease, with description of a new Species of
+Entozoon,” ‘Veterinarian,’ March, 1873; see also an article
+(by Brudenell Carter) in the ‘Times’ for Sept. 5, 1874; repr.
+in the ‘Veter.,’ Oct., 1874.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on the Entozoa
+of the Common Fowl and of Game-birds, especially in relation
+to the Grouse Disease,” the ‘Field,’ Sept. 14, 1867, and ‘Brit.
+Assoc. Rep.,’ 1867.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Sclerostoma and the Disease
+it occasions in Birds,” ‘Linn. Soc. Proc.,’ 1861; repr. in the
+‘Field,’ June 22, 1861, and in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. iii,
+p. 439, 1861, also in Tegetmeier’s work on ‘Poultry;’ see also
+a comment on “Gapes,” by “Umbra,” in the ‘Field,’ June 29,
+1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Parasites from the Zoological Gardens,” ‘Intellectual
+Observer,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>., “Notes on Entozoa (species
+Nos. 1, 7, 9, 12),” in ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’ 1873&ndash;76.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Linn. Soc. Trans.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Entozoa of Birds and
+Fishes, collected by Mr Charles W. Devis,” ‘Zool. Soc. Proc.,’
+1865.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Note on Entozoa in the Crested Grebe,” the
+‘Field,’ March 29, 1873.&mdash;<i>Colquhoun, W.</i>, ‘Remarks on the
+decrease of Grouse, and on the Grouse Disease (Gapes),’
+Edinburgh, 1858; see also a notice in ‘Edin. Vet. Rev.,’ vol. i,
+April, 1859.&mdash;<i>Crisp, E.</i>, “Note on Hydatids in an old Honduras
+Turkey,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On Sclerostoma,”
+‘Rep. of Path. Soc.,’ in ‘Med. Times and Gaz.,’ Oct. 26, 1876,
+p. 474.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Note on Filaria in the Heart of a Peregrine
+Falcon,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Davaine</i>, ‘Syngame de la
+trachée,’ p. 37, and ‘Synops.’ cxiv, in his ‘Traité.’&mdash;<i>Devis, C. W.</i><span class="pagenum" title="450"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450"></a></span>
+(see Cobbold).&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, ‘Revis. der Myzelminthen,’ Abtheil.
+“Trémat.,” 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Tapeworm from Podiceps,” in his
+‘Zwanzig Arten von Cephalocotyleen,’ Wien, 1856.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, see
+various species in his ‘Revisionen,’ given in Bibl. No. 58.&mdash;<i>Eames,
+C. J. L.</i>, “On Tapeworm in Blackbirds,” letter to the
+‘Lancet,’ June 9, 1877, p. 863.&mdash;<i>Farquharson, R.</i>, “The
+Grouse Disease (due to a contagious fever),” letter to the
+‘Lancet,’ Sept., 1874.&mdash;<i>Fergusson, J.</i>, “On Grouse Disease,”
+letter in the ‘Times,’ July 16, 1878.&mdash;<i>Gentles, T. W.</i>, “Tapeworm
+in Birds,” letter to the ‘Lancet,’ Jan. 18, 1868, p. 106.&mdash;<i>Haller,
+G.</i>, “Freyana und Picobia, zwei neue Milbengattungen,”
+in ‘Sieb. u. Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1877, s. 181.&mdash;<i>Johnston,
+D.</i>, “On the Grouse Disease,” letter in the ‘Lancet,’ Sept. 20,
+1873, p. 441.&mdash;<i>Krabbe</i>, ‘Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes
+Bændelorme,’ Copenhagen, 1869 (contains a summary in French,
+‘Recherches sur les Ténias des Oiseaux’).&mdash;<i>Linstow, O. von</i>,
+“Euthelminthologica” (containing descriptions and notes on
+worms from birds, fishes, reptiles, and mollusks), ‘Archiv für
+Naturgeschichte,’ 1877.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “New Flukes (<i>Dist. vitellatum</i>
+and <i>D. macrophallus</i>) from <i>Totanus hypoleucus</i>, and <i>D. cælebs</i>
+from Fringilla,” Beobacht. in ‘Arch. f. Naturg.,’ 1875, s. 189&ndash;193.&mdash;<i>Maclagan</i>,
+“Note on the Grouse Disease,” ‘Proc. Roy.
+Soc. of Edin.,’ April 20, 1874, p. 378.&mdash;<i>Marion</i>, “Révis. des
+Némat. du Golfe de Marseilles,” ‘Compt. Rendus,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Mégnin,
+P.</i>, “On Harpirhynchus and other Mites,” in ‘Rev. f.
+Thierheilk.,’ Oct., 1878, s. 146.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Mémoire sur les Cheylétides
+Parasites (Picobia, &amp;c.),” ‘Journ. d’Anat. et de Physiol.,’
+1878; see also ‘Rev. f. Thierheilk.,’ Sept., 1878 <i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Molin</i>,
+in his various monographs (quoted in Bibl. Nos. 54, 56, and
+elsewhere).&mdash;<i>Montagu, G.</i>, “Account of a species of Fasciola
+which infests the Trachea of Poultry, with a mode of Cure,”
+‘Memoirs of the Wernerian Nat. Hist. Soc.,’ vol. i, p. 194,
+1811.&mdash;<i>Perrier</i>, ‘On Syngamus’ (brochure, Paris, 1875).&mdash;<i>Pulteney,
+R.</i>, “On Ascarides discovered in <i>Pelicanus carbo</i> and
+<i>P. cristatus</i>,” ‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol. v, 1800, p. 24.&mdash;<i>Röll</i>, “Beitrag.
+zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Tænien,” ‘Verh. d. Würzb.
+p. m. Ges.,’ Bd. iii, 1852, s. 51.&mdash;<i>Sanderson, J. B.</i>, “On Grouse
+Disease,” ‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ May 15, 1875.&mdash;<i>Small, M.</i>,
+“Worms in the Eyes of Geese,” from the ‘Irish Farmer’s Gaz.,’
+in the ‘Veterinarian,’ 1862, p. 19.&mdash;<i>Tait, L.</i>, “Tapeworm in
+Birds,” letters to the ‘Lancet’ for Jan. 25, 1868, p. 145, and
+Feb. 8, 1868, p. 214; see also “Pediculus,” <i>ibid.</i>, p. 180.&mdash;<i>Tegetmeier</i>,<span class="pagenum" title="451"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451"></a></span>
+“On the Grouse Disease,” in the ‘Field,’ Sept. 12,
+1874.&mdash;<i>Thick</i>, “Letter on the Cure of Gapes,” in ‘Land and
+Water,’ Aug., 1867, p. 77.&mdash;<i>Vaughan</i>, “The Grouse Disease,”
+in the ‘Field,’ Aug. 23, 1873.&mdash;<i>Villow, A.</i>, “Sur les migrations,
+et les Métamorphoses des Trematodes,” ‘Comptes Rendus,’
+1875, and ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1875 (chiefly on flukes of the
+sea-lark, <i>Tringa alpina</i>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Sur le syst. nerveau,” &amp;c.,
+<i>ibid.</i>, 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Helm. Fauna of the Coast of
+Brittany (chiefly from birds),” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ from ‘Comp.
+Rend.,’ 1875, p. 1098, and from ‘Arch. de Zool. Expérim. et
+gén.,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Sur l’appareil des Trematodes (<i>Dist.
+insigne</i>),” ‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Wedl, K.</i>, ‘Anatomische Beobachtungen
+ueber Trematoden,’ Wien, 1858 (contains excellent
+descriptions of numerous flukes, chiefly from birds).&mdash;<i>Westwood,
+J. O.</i>, “New Flea on a Fowl (Sarcopsillus),” ‘Entom. Month.
+Mag.,’ xi, p. 246, 1875.&mdash;<i>Wiesenthal, A.</i>, “Account of a Parasite
+infesting the Trachea of Fowls and Turkeys in America,” ‘Med.
+and Phys. Journ.,’ vol. ii, p. 204, 1799.&mdash;<i>Wyman</i>, “On Eustrongyli
+within the Cranium of Water-Turkeys,” ‘Proc. Boston
+Nat. Hist. Soc.,’ 1868.&mdash;<i>Youatt</i>, “On a Verminous Disease in
+Poultry” (being a letter to him), ‘Veterinarian,’ p. 648, 1840.&mdash;<i>Zeller</i>,
+“On Leucochloridium,” from ‘Zeitsch. f. wissensch.
+Zool.,’ 1874, s. 564, and from ‘Bibl. Univ. Bullet. Sci.,’ 1874,
+p. 366, in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Feb., 1875.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part II (Reptilia).</span></h3>
+
+<p>Much that I have advanced in respect of the parasitism of
+birds holds good in the case of reptiles. I cannot recapitulate.
+The saurians, ophidians, and chelonians are extensively infested,
+but in this respect the amphibian frogs, toads, and salamanders
+are probably the most victimised. If, on the one hand, comparatively
+few tapeworms have been found in reptiles, it may,
+on the other hand, be said that the Echinorhynchi come into
+prominence, causing serious injury to reptilian hosts. Serpents
+and chameleons are particularly liable to have their lungs
+infested by acanthocephalous entozoa, these organs being also
+attacked by pentastomes. I have received evidence of fatal
+epizoöty amongst chameleons from this source; and I have been
+requested to suggest a remedy. To prevent outbreaks of
+entozoal disease is one thing; to offer a radical cure when the<span class="pagenum" title="452"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452"></a></span>
+parasites are firmly anchored within the pulmonary organs is
+quite another matter.</p>
+
+<p>As remarked in my ‘Entozoa,’ the trematodes display a great
+partiality for batrachians, more than half a dozen different
+species of fluke being known to infest the common frog. Flukes
+are likewise tolerably abundant in the saurian and chelonian
+reptiles. I regret that I cannot find space so much as to enumerate
+the species. As one would naturally expect, the frog
+has been exhaustively anatomised and examined for entozoa,
+and it was this creature that supplied Leuckart and Mecznikow
+with the materials which led to their well-known discovery
+and controversy respecting the development, dimorphism, and
+parthenogenetic phenomena exhibited by <i>Ascaris nigrovenosa</i>.
+I cannot give the facts in detail. Female examples of the worm
+live in the lungs of the frog. Their young, as embryos, pass
+into the damp earth and mud, where they grow up into
+sexually-mature forms different from the parent worms found in
+the frog. These free adult worms, male and female, produce
+rhabditiform embryos which present characters of their own
+and attain a certain stage of growth. At this stage they
+are conveyed into the lungs of the frog where they arrive at
+sexual maturity. As there are no male worms in the frog, it is
+probable that the embryos of these parasitic females are agamogenetically
+produced by internal budding, the sexual influence
+of the free males being, as it were, continued onward without
+actual contact with the parasitic females. Amongst the
+interesting parasites of the frog one must also mention <i>Amphistoma
+subclavatum</i> and <i>Polystoma intergerrimum</i>. The former
+worm resides in the large intestine and the latter in the urinary
+bladder. The larvæ (<i>Cercaria diplocotylea</i>) of this amphistome
+reside in or upon the body of water-snails, and, like the
+cercarian larvæ of polystoma, they are furnished with eyes. I
+state this fact on the authority of Pagenstecher; and, since I
+cannot devote a special section to the entozoa of mollusks,
+I repeat, in part, the valuable results which Pagenstecher
+published many years back and which have a permanent value
+in relation to the origin of parasitic diseases resulting from
+flukes. In the memoir quoted below, Pagenstecher gives the
+following conclusions (<i>Schlussbemerkungen</i>):</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>a</i>).&mdash;The eggs of the trematoda vary in respect of size,
+form, and color, being either furnished or not with a lid, and
+accordingly distinguishable. In the mature condition they<span class="pagenum" title="453"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453"></a></span>
+contain a ciliated or a non-ciliated embryo of unequal growth,
+this embryo partly increasing in size even after its birth. In
+various conceivable ways the eggs themselves, or the embryos
+which have quitted their shells, arrive in and upon the bodies of
+mollusks, where they are consequently found. In this situation
+the egg opens, or the ciliated covering decays, and the contained
+motionless germ&mdash;which in itself offers no distinctive characters&mdash;having
+become free, grows into a nurse, or forms several
+nurses within itself.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>b</i>).&mdash;Whilst some of the trematodes display a highly
+organised nurse condition, others exhibit only a simple kind of
+germ-sac. Both forms, nevertheless, appear to occur in one
+and the same species, probably depending upon external causes.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>c</i>).&mdash;The organised nurses (or <i>rediæ</i>, as they are termed)
+have a mouth and a strongly marked muscular œsophagus,
+which is continued into a short or prolonged, single, blind
+intestine, or the latter may be double. The expulsion of
+animals developed within them I have only seen to take place
+through an opening at the hinder extremity. Old rediæ lose
+their structure. I did not observe any vascular system. Tailed
+trematode larvæ (<i>Cercariæ</i>), as well as rediæ themselves, are
+developed within the rediæ, this variation of nurse-contents
+probably depending on the season.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>d</i>).&mdash;No independent new germ-sacs are developed within
+the simple unorganised germ-sacs (sporocysts), and only such
+trematode larvæ as are capable of arriving at sexual maturity
+are furnished with special appendages.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>e</i>).&mdash;When the immature contents of both nurse forms
+(<i>i.e.</i> of sporocysts and rediæ) are accidentally set free, and are
+situated within the organs of nutrition of the living host, then
+they appear prepared to develop themselves anew into nurse
+forms; and, moreover, cercariæ whose development has not yet
+attained a definite stage&mdash;and even their tails also&mdash;appear to
+enjoy a similar capacity. Some nurses are likewise capable of
+multiplication by division and budding.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>f</i>).&mdash;Some germ-sacs have the property of developing
+within themselves cercaria-like larvæ&mdash;which are different from
+the true cercariæ&mdash;from whose body the development of a
+<i>distoma</i> may take place, while their single or double tail-like
+appendages in all cases develop anew into germ-sacs. To this
+class belong <i>Bucephalus</i> and <i>Distoma duplicatum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>g</i>).&mdash;All the cercaria at present known are destitute of<span class="pagenum" title="454"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454"></a></span>
+eyes, but other forms of trematode larvæ are furnished with
+visual organs. Accordingly, I never found eyes in young
+distomata whilst they were in their last dwelling-place, but eyes
+are certainly present in the young forms of <i>Polystoma</i> and
+<i>Amphistoma</i>. The supposition that a spontaneous wandering
+is associated with eyes is not yet confirmed in my experience.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>h</i>).&mdash;As a means of distinguishing the different forms of
+Cercariæ, amongst other indications, their places of dwelling
+may be useful, because each mollusk only harbors a limited
+number of species. Notwithstanding, Professor Filippi is in
+error if he believes that every species of mollusk carries only a
+single armed form of cercaria. A migration of the cercaria is
+indispensable to its perfection.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>i</i>).&mdash;Many larval trematodes form cysts round themselves,
+probably by means of a special organ of secretion, and also by
+the epidermis. Their future destiny necessitates this. The
+sporocysts apparently fulfil towards the larvæ, which are developed
+within them, a similar purpose, namely, a protection
+against the stomachal digestion of the new host. In the pupa
+condition the development of the larva, which has now thrown
+off the tail, makes greater or less progress, according as to
+whether it is surrounded by nourishment or not. In particular,
+while in this stage, the different kinds of hooks for migratory
+purposes make their appearance, always, without doubt, after
+the shedding of the skin. Other trematodes pass through this
+tail-less sexually-immature stage without any cyst. I have not
+yet seen any larval trematode forms which had been produced
+in sporocysts or rediæ without appendages; they appear to
+occur, nevertheless.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>k</i>).&mdash;As the larvæ exist only in a few hosts&mdash;and most of
+them dwell only in one species of animal&mdash;so, also, the continued
+progress towards sexual maturity only succeeds in the
+case of certain well-defined larval organisms, but the digestion
+of the cysts and liberation of the larvæ may be accomplished in
+various animals.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>l</i>).&mdash;The armed Cercariæ appear to be larvæ of the spine-covered
+distomes of amphibia; for, as examples, the <i>Cercaria
+ornata</i> becomes transformed into <i>Distoma clavigerum</i>, and <i>C.
+armata</i> into <i>Distoma endolobum</i>; the <i>Dist. duplicatum</i> and
+<i>Cerc. diplocotylea</i> are, apparently, the juvenile forms of <i>Dist.
+cygnoides</i> and <i>Amphistoma subclavatum</i>. The <i>Dist. echiniferum</i>
+of Paludina could neither be advanced in development in the<span class="pagenum" title="455"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455"></a></span>
+frog or duck, nor could all the other larvæ which I subjected to
+experiment be developed either in the green or brown frogs.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>m</i>).&mdash;When young trematodes arrive at the right place for
+their maturation, then the male generative structures develop
+before the female organs, and in the subsequent excess of egg
+production the form and structure of the animal becomes
+obliterated.</p>
+
+<p>“(<i>n</i>).&mdash;The yelk-molecules surrounding the germinal vesicle
+are not directly transformed into an embryo.”</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 370px;">
+<img src="images/f76.jpg" width="370" height="273" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>&mdash;<i>Echinorhynchus anthuris.</i> 1, Attached to the intestine; 2, specimen enlarged;
+3, ovarian vesicle, including germs; 4, germs in various stages; 5, vesicle with germs
+more advanced; 6, 7, eggs in their capsules; 8, free egg. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As regards the acanthocephalous parasites of reptiles, I may
+observe that <i>Echinorhynchus anthuris</i> is very common in the
+lesser water newt (<i>Lissotriton punctatus</i>). In the accompanying
+illustration (Fig. 76) I have represented the free ovarian
+egg-bearing bodies, the development of the ovum, and the
+adult worms. For anatomical details, however, I must refer to
+my earlier treatise (‘Entozoa,’ p. 100 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the species of entozoa that were found by me at the
+Zoological Society’s Menagerie I may mention <i>Distoma coronarium</i>
+and <i>Ascaris lineata</i>, from the intestines of <i>Alligator
+mississippiensis</i>; <i>Dist. Boscii</i>, from an American snake (<i>Coluber</i>);
+an immature nematode, from the heart of <i>Coluber Blumenbachii</i>;
+and <i>Echinorhynchus inflexus</i>, attached to the intestines of
+a snapping turtle (<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>). I may add that the<span class="pagenum" title="456"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456"></a></span>
+lungs of the alligator also contained examples of Diesing’s
+<i>Pentastoma oxycephalum</i>. An Egyptian hooded snake (<i>Naia
+haje</i>), which died at the Zoological Gardens in 1859, furnished a
+new species of pentastome (<i>P. multicinctum</i>). Dr George Harley
+described and anatomised this worm with remarkable care.
+To Harley’s memoir Prof. Leuckart did ample justice in his
+work on the ‘Pentastoma.’ Several new species of reptilian
+entozoa have recently been described by Dr von Linstow; and
+Dr Solger has found a new trichosome (<i>T. recurvum</i>) beneath the
+skin of a young crocodile (probably <i>Croc. acutus</i>). For further
+particulars I refer to the revised descriptions and additions
+by Diesing, Molin, Schneider, and other systematists.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_58"></a>No. 58).&mdash;<i>Baird, W.</i>, “Description of a new
+Entozoon from the Diamond Snake,” in ‘Proceed. Zool. Soc.’
+for 1865, p. 58, and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.’ for July, 1865, p. 52.&mdash;<i>Blanchard</i>,
+“On Polystoma,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 3e ser.,
+viii, p. 331.&mdash;<i>Canton, E.</i>, “An account of some Parasites
+attached to the Conjunctivæ of the Turtle’s Eyes,” ‘Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ and ‘Dublin Med. Press,’ 1861 (with remarks
+by myself).&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, ‘Notes,’ &amp;c. (l. c., Bibl. No. <a href="#No_57">57</a>), and
+in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Crisp, E.</i>, “Note on Cysticerci and
+Trichocephali from an Alligator,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ 1854.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>,
+‘Revision der Cercarieen,’ 1858; ‘Revis. der Myzelminthen,’
+1858; ‘Nachträge (u. s. w.),’ 1859; ‘Revis. der
+Nematoden,’ 1860; ‘Revis. d. Turbellarien,’ 1861; ‘Revis. d.
+Cephalocotyleen,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Monographie d. Gatt. Amphistoma
+und Diplodiscus,’ and ‘Nachträge zur Monog. der Amph.,’
+1839.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>, ‘Hist. d. Helm.’ (l. c., pp. 320, 526, &amp;c.).&mdash;<i>Eberth</i>,
+“On <i>Myoryktes Weismanni</i> from the Muscles of the
+Frog,” trans. by Busk, from ‘Siebold und Kölliker’s Zeitschrift,’
+in ‘Lond. Micr. Journ.,’ Jan., 1864.&mdash;<i>Gastaldi</i>, ‘Cenni
+sopra alcuni nuovi Elmint.,’ Torino, 1854 (new flukes from
+frogs and salamanders).&mdash;<i>Glüge</i>, “On Entozoa in the Vessels of
+Frogs,” from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct.
+Rec.,’ p. 207, 1842; see Grübe and Valentin.&mdash;<i>Grübe</i>, “On the
+Entozoa of the Frog, and on the Pathology of that Batrachian,”
+from ‘Comptes Rendus,’ in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’
+p. 246, for 1842; see also Mandl.&mdash;<i>Harley, G.</i>, “On the Anatomy
+of a new Species of Pentastoma found in the Lung and Air-sac
+of an Egyptian Cobra,” ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ June, part xxv,
+p. 115, 1857.&mdash;<i>Leuckart</i>, ‘Bau und Entwickelungsgeschichte
+der Pentastomen,’ Leipsig, 1860.&mdash;<i>Linstow</i>, ‘Enthelminth.’ (l. c.,<span class="pagenum" title="457"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457"></a></span>
+Bibl. No. <a href="#No_57">57</a>).&mdash;<i>Macalister, A.</i>, “On the presence of certain
+Secreting Organs in Nematoidea,” ‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat.
+Hist.’ for 1865.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Anatomy of <i>Ascaris dactyluris</i>,”
+‘Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Dublin,’ vol. iv, 1865.&mdash;<i>Mandl</i>, “Development
+of Entozoa (<i>Ascaris nigrovenosa</i> of the frog),” from
+‘Rep. of French Acad. of Sci.,’ in ‘Month. Journ. of Med. Sci.,’
+vol. ii, p. 1081, 1842.&mdash;<i>Molin</i>, ‘Monog. del gen. Myzelminth;
+Mon. del gen. Physaloptera; Mon. del gen. Histiocephalus;
+Mon. del gen. Spiroptera;’ Wien, 1859&ndash;60.&mdash;<i>Pagenstecher</i>, ‘Trematodenlarven
+und Trematoden,’ Heidelberg, 1857.&mdash;<i>Sibbald,
+J.</i>, “On the <i>Nematoideum natricis</i>,” ‘Path. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. viii,
+1857.&mdash;<i>Solger</i>, “Ueber eine neue species von Trichosoma,”
+‘Arch. f. Naturg.,’ 1877.&mdash;<i>Valentin</i>, “On Parasites in the
+Bladder of the Frog” (from ‘Repertorium’), in ‘Micr. Journ.
+and Struct. Record,’ 1842, p. 183.&mdash;<i>Vogt, C.</i>, “On Filaria in
+the Vessels of the Frog,” from ‘Müller’s Archiv,’ in ‘Micr.
+Journ. and Struct. Rec.,’ p. 241, 1842.&mdash;<i>Wedl, F.</i>, “Beiträge
+zur Lehre von den Hæmatozoen,” ‘Sitzungsb. Akad.,’ Wien,
+1850 (from the blood of frogs, &amp;c.).&mdash;<i>Zeller, E.</i>, “Weiterer
+Beitrag zur Kentniss der Polystomen,” ‘Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschrift,’
+1875.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part III (Pisces).</span></h3>
+
+<p>Swarms of entozoa infest fishes, and it is hard to say
+whether they are less numerous in the inhabitants of fresh
+water than in those of salt water. More attention has been
+paid to the helminths of the fishes than to the internal parasites
+of birds and reptiles, consequently, the number of known
+species must be estimated by many hundreds. In like manner
+a great deal has been written respecting the ectozoa of fishes.
+These parasites, often called fish-lice, belong chiefly to the
+haustellated crustaceans, and are better known by the title of
+<i>Epizoa</i>. No account of them can be afforded in this treatise,
+but some trifling notice of the literature of the subject will be
+given below.</p>
+
+<p>About a hundred distinct species of fluke have been described
+as infesting fishes. Not many of these worms possess more
+than a zoological interest; nevertheless, from that point of view
+certain types are very curious. Most of the species dwell in
+the stomach and intestines, but, as more or less remarkable
+exceptions, I may mention <i>Distoma seriale</i> infesting the kidney<span class="pagenum" title="458"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458"></a></span>
+of <i>Salmo umbla</i>, <i>D. longum</i> (Leidy) from the pharynx of <i>Esox
+estor</i>, <i>D. polymorphum</i> from the urinary bladder of the common
+pike (<i>Esox lucius</i>), <i>D. obesum</i> from the gall bladder of <i>Salminius</i>
+and other Brazilian fishes (<i>Xiphostoma</i>, <i>Leporinus</i>), <i>D. tornatum</i>
+attached to the gills of <i>Coryphæna hippuris</i>, <i>D. rosaceum</i> attached
+to the palate of <i>Lota communis</i>, and <i>D. contortum</i> attached to
+the gills of <i>Orthagoriscus mola</i>. Most of the forms found
+encysted are sexually-immature worms. To these belong
+<i>D. annuligerum</i>, found by Nordmann in cysts in the vitreous
+humour of the eye of the perch (<i>Perca fluviatilis</i>), and <i>D. embryo</i>
+from the liver and peritoneum of <i>Acerina vulgaris</i>. One of the
+largest and most remarkable of the flukes inhabiting marine
+fishes is the <i>Distoma clavatum</i>, found by Tilesius in the stomach
+of <i>Pelamys</i>, by Pohl in <i>Thynnus</i>, and by Bosc in <i>Coryphæna</i>.
+In the last-named fish it has been found adhering to the gills,
+in the liver, and in the intestines. In August, 1865, I obtained
+this parasite from a sword-fish (<i>Xiphias gladius</i>), and in the
+same piscine host I also found examples of four other species
+of helminths (<i>Tetrarhynchus attenuatus</i>, scolex of another tetrarhynch,
+<i>Bothriocephalus plicatus</i>, <i>Ascaris incurva</i>). Believing
+<i>Distoma clavatum</i> to represent several forms hitherto regarded as
+distinct, I append a few particulars respecting it. Five examples
+of this worm were obtained by me from the stomach of a sword-fish.
+Generally they varied in length from four lines to two
+inches. They differed somewhat in shape, but all had the so-called
+head and neck directed backwards. Below the ventral
+sucker the two largest specimens were distended with eggs
+and black pigment. All of them likewise exhibited more or
+less well-marked transverse rugæ, the last ring surrounding
+an orifice which represented the outlet of a large contractile
+vesicle. The eggs averaged <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">800</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length.</p>
+
+<p>When revising the entozoa of the Museum of the Royal
+College of Surgeons I encountered many parasites without
+labels attached. Amongst these were several flukes, which,
+though differing from each other in size and shape, appeared to
+be identical. One of these specimens turned out to be the
+particular <i>Distoma clavatum</i> described and figured by Professor
+Owen in the ‘Zoological Society’s Transactions.’ Several of
+the others I made out to be part of a series contributed by Mr
+George Bennett, who also gave specimens to the British
+Museum, but the College Museum stores contained yet a third
+group of specimens of uncertain history. The large fluke<span class="pagenum" title="459"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459"></a></span>
+described by Prof. Owen was formerly in the collection of the
+Rev. Lansdown Guilding. In Dr Baird’s catalogue the specimens
+presented by Mr Bennett are stated to have come from the
+stomach of a bonito, and probably Mr Guilding’s specimens
+may be referred to the same “host.” Be that as it may, the
+specimens differ from each other in a very striking manner.
+In the year 1730 M. Garsin first described this worm under the
+generic title of <i>Hirudinella</i>. He <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“Cet insecte tiré de
+l’estomac de la Bonita ne vécut qu’environ deux heures.
+Exposé à l’air il étoit languissant, et reprenoit de la vivacité
+dans de l’eau de mer. Il diminua sensiblement de volume
+pendant qu’il vivoit encore.” M. Garsin’s description is accompanied
+by three figures. His specimens do not appear to have
+exceeded <span class="nowrap">1<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in length. In 1774 Pallas described a trematode
+(<i>Fasciola ventricosa</i>). It measured two inches in length. All
+that he says regarding its source is as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“Ex Amboyna
+missum fuit singulare hoc molluscum, quod ad aliud quam Fasciolarum
+genus referre non potui, in quo quasi gigas erit.” He
+remarks upon its pale white color, and notices particularly the
+soft elastic body proper, which when wounded gave out a dark
+matter resembling soot. This material, when examined with
+the microscope, appeared fresh; it was not the result of decomposition.
+Pallas also gives many other details, accompanied by
+a figure. In 1790 Menzies likewise described and figured a
+fluke about two inches long. He calls it <i>Fasciola clavata</i>:&mdash;“It
+is of whitish color, somewhat pellucid, discharging at its
+mouth a black-colored fluid, which can easily be perceived
+through its body. I have often found it,” he adds, “in the
+maws of the bonito, between the tropics in the Pacific Ocean.”
+Notwithstanding the similarity of description, Menzies does not
+appear to have recognised the identity of his worm with that
+described by Pallas. Prof. Owen, however, subsequently established
+this identity, and referred to this species as the <i>Fasciola
+clavata</i> seu <i>ventricosa</i>. On the other hand, the British Museum
+Catalogue represents Pallas’s worm as specifically distinct from
+that of Menzies, but as identical with the specimen described
+by Prof. Owen from Mr Guilding’s collection.</p>
+
+<p>In 1802 Bosc described and figured a trematode under the
+title of <i>Fasciola fusca</i>. This he obtained from the intestines
+of a dorado. In form it differs considerably from the foregoing
+species. Bosc’s description runs as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“Brune,
+la partie postérieure très-renflée, presque ovale, la partie<span class="pagenum" title="460"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460"></a></span>
+antérieure mince, cylindrique, inégale, avec deux petits tentacules
+en dessous. Le suçoir de l’anus très grand.” Bosc
+recognised the identity of this worm with the <i>Distoma coryphænæ</i>
+of Rudolphi, and systematists generally have adopted his
+synonymy. In the British Museum Catalogue the <i>Fasciola
+fusca</i> and <i>F. ventricosa</i> of Pallas are regarded as one and the
+same species. The existence of two small tentacles is certainly
+peculiar.</p>
+
+<p>In 1827 Nardo obtained two very large flukes from the
+stomach of a fish captured in the Gulf of Venice during the
+month of September. He calls the fish <i>Prostostegus prototypus</i>,
+which appears to be the same as the <i>Luvarus imperialis</i> of
+Rafinesque. One of the parasites, being five inches in length,
+he named <i>Distoma gigas</i>. His description is as <span class="nowrap">follows:&mdash;</span>“Distoma
+teres, rubrum, retractile; poro ventrali minimo cujus
+apertura magna, rotunda, ciliata; poro antico terminali, parvo;
+collo brevi, retrorsum divergente, extensili, apice angusto, basi
+lato; cauda longa, postice incrassata et in apice obtusa oscula
+donata.” The alleged ciliated character of the ventral sucker,
+was perhaps due to a wrinkled state of the lip. Apart from
+this character, I see no reason for supposing this parasite to be
+distinct from the <i>Distoma clavatum</i> procured by Mr Guilding,
+or the <i>Fasciola ventricosa</i> described by Pallas. The intestines
+of the fish harbored another parasite (<i>D. Raynerianum</i>).
+Unfortunately, Nardo gives no figure of <i>Distoma gigas</i>. It is
+the longest fluke known to science.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1835 Professor Owen communicated the memoirs
+already alluded to. In his paper he discussed questions relating
+to the structure of <i>Distoma clavatum</i>, and threw much light
+upon its anatomy, but I believe that the large “lateral cavities”
+described by Owen are neither more or less than the somewhat
+unusually distended alimentary cæca.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845 Dujardin placed the worm with the true distomes,
+yet, at the same time, expressed grave doubts as to whether it
+were, in any sense, a fluke. “Ce ver,” he remarks, “n’est
+certainement pas un distome ni même un trématode. Si sa
+forme extérieure et ses deux oscules lui donnent quelque ressemblance
+avec les distomes, sa structure musculeuse la rapproche
+davantage des Gordius, et son tégument ressemble à celui des
+siponcles.” M. Dujardin examined the specimens preserved
+in the Paris Museum, and with regard to one particular
+example, described as <span class="pagenum" title="461"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461"></a></span>“Fasciola, trouvé dans la mer de Nice,”
+he says, it presents “une certaine analogie avec le prétendu
+<i>Distoma clavatum</i>.” Dujardin himself was somewhat puzzled
+by the resemblance in question. He does not appear to have
+examined fresh specimens, yet he mentions the species as
+tolerably common in the bonito, and occasionally present in the
+tunny. At all events, it appears that the rightly so-called
+<i>Distoma clavatum</i> is not unfrequently
+taken from the ocean in the free
+state. In concluding my notice of
+this remarkable worm I can only add
+that after examining numerous specimens
+both in the fresh and preserved
+states, I have formed the opinion that
+the following specific names all refer
+to one and the same <span class="nowrap">parasite:&mdash;</span><i>Distoma
+clavatum</i>, Rudolphi; <i>D. coryphænæ</i>,
+Rud.; <i>D. gigas</i>, Nardo; <i>Fasciola
+clavata</i>, Menzies; <i>F. coryphænæ</i>,
+Bosc; <i>F. coryph. hippuridis</i> and <i>F.
+Scombri pelamidis</i>, Tilesius; <i>F. fusca</i>,
+Bosc; <i>Hirudinella marina</i>, Garsin;
+<i>H. clavata</i>, Baird. In this list of synonyms
+we may probably also include
+Rudolphi’s <i>Distoma tornatum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these distomes there
+are numerous piscine flukes which
+may fairly be relegated to other
+genera. Thus, provisionally, I elevated
+Dujardin’s sub-genus <i>Echinostoma</i>
+into a separate genus; and on
+what I considered sufficient grounds
+I established several other new genera
+from amongst the more curious flukes
+that had been described as infesting
+fishes (<i>Wedlia</i>, <i>Köllikeria</i>). In the
+genus <i>Echinostoma</i> the oral sucker is
+either surrounded by a circle of little
+spines, or it occupies the centre of a
+disk, which is cleft at the ventral or
+anterior aspect. In the latter case
+the disk is either bordered both laterally and above by spines,
+or there are two large lobed appendages, whose margins are<span class="pagenum" title="462"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462"></a></span>
+furnished with spines. In other respects this genus nearly
+corresponds with the distomes, the simple digestive tubes
+bifurcating immediately below the œsophageal bulb. The specimen
+of <i>Ech. hispidum</i> here drawn (Fig. <a href="#Fig_77">77</a>) was taken by me from
+the spiral intestine of a sturgeon (1855), in which fish it occurs
+very abundantly. The figure represents a back view of the
+head and a lateral view of the body,
+the neck having been slightly twisted.
+The ventral sucker is concealed, but
+the transparency of the skin permits
+a view of the internal organs.</p>
+
+<table class="figct" summary="figures 77-78">
+<tr class="vat">
+<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 170px;">
+<a id="Fig_77"></a>
+<img src="images/f77.jpg" width="170" height="588" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>&mdash;<i>Echinostoma hispidum.</i>
+Magnified. Original.</div></div></td>
+<td>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 185px; padding-top: 6px;">
+<img src="images/f78.jpg" width="185" height="582" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>&mdash;<i>Gasterostoma gracilescens.</i>
+Magnified. Original.</div></div></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Another remarkable genus, established
+by Von Siebold, is <i>Gasterostoma</i>.
+In this genus the ventral
+sucker has taken the position usually
+assigned to the oral opening; the
+latter being near the centre of the
+body. The digestive cæca also disappear,
+leaving only a short stomachal
+cavity, which reminds one of
+the same viscus in imperfectly organised
+sporocysts or rediæ. When
+<i>G. gracilescens</i> first came under my
+observation I followed Rudolphi in
+describing it as a distome (<i>D. gracilescens</i>).
+The anatomy of the genus
+has been illustrated by Von Siebold;
+from whose observations also it may
+be inferred that the larvæ are various
+forms of <i>Bucephali</i>. Prof. Molin describes
+the water-vascular or respiratory
+apparatus as consisting (in <i>G.
+fimbriatum</i>) of a broad central tube,
+occupying the entire length of the
+body and opening externally at the tail.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the more remarkable
+fluke-types may be mentioned Van
+Beneden’s Nematobothrium (<i>N. filarina</i>),
+occupying the branchial cavity
+of <i>Sciæna aquila</i>, also <i>Holostoma
+clavus</i>, found by Molin in the intestines
+of <i>Gadus merlucius</i>, also <i>Köllikeria filicollis</i>, occupying<span class="pagenum" title="463"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463"></a></span>
+open follicles in the branchial cavity of <i>Brama Raii</i>. The sexes
+in the last-named genus are distinct; male and female worms
+together occupying each cyst. The genus <i>Monostoma</i> is also
+largely represented amongst fishes. Prof. Wedl found a species
+(<i>M. Wedlii</i>) occupying follicles in the intestinal mucous membrane,
+and also adhering to the fin rays of <i>Rhombus lævis</i>. I
+also found a species (<i>M. dubium</i>) in a cyst attached to the
+ovary of <i>Gasterosteus spinachii</i>. Several species of amphistomatoid
+worms were found by Natterer in Brazilian fishes
+(<i>Cataphractus</i>, &amp;c.), some of these representing distinct genera
+(<i>Aspidocotylus</i>, <i>Notocotylus</i>), to which I found Sonsino’s remarkable
+fluke (<i>Gastrodiscus Sonsinonis</i>, mihi) from the horse to be
+very closely allied. In this connection must also be mentioned
+Grübe and Wagener’s curious <i>Amphiptyches urna</i>, found
+attached to the branchiæ, and also in the intestines of <i>Chimæra
+monstrosa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above families and genera of digenetic flukes
+infesting fishes we have the monogenetic tristomes and polystomes.
+As remarked in my introductory treatise, the Tristomidæ
+display a leech-like aspect, in consequence of which they
+have been placed either along with the <i>Malacobdellidæ</i>, or in
+some other allied family of the suctorial annelids. The tristomes
+are not strictly entozoa, yet their internal organisation
+conforms more to the <i>Trematoda</i> than to the <i>Hirudinidæ</i>. Thus,
+they support two small suckers anteriorly and one large sucker
+posteriorly, the body being externally smooth and devoid of
+annulations. The tristomes have therefore no anus. In some
+species the large caudal sucker is sessile, in others it is stalked
+or pedunculated, being in either case bordered by a membranous
+fold (Dujardin). All the species are hermaphroditic. They
+attach themselves to the gills of fishes or to the general surface,
+selecting especially the neighbourhood of the fins. Some species
+are parasitic on crustacean parasites that are themselves attached
+to marine fishes. In the genus <i>Udonella</i> the mode of development
+is known to be simple and direct. According to Van
+Beneden, the embryos are large and acquire the form and
+characters of their parents whilst they are still within the egg-shell.
+They are ready to assume an independent existence the
+moment they quit the shell. The eggs are oval, the chorion
+being prolonged into a single filamentary process or “holdfast.”
+Van Beneden compares a group of them to a “bouquet of vorticells.”
+On quitting the shell the embryonic <i>Udonella</i> at once<span class="pagenum" title="464"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464"></a></span>
+attaches itself to the <i>Caligus</i>, and there acquires the adult condition.
+The <i>Polystomidæ</i> comprise a variety of remarkable
+genera. I accept this family as the equivalent of Dujardin’s
+first group of trematodes which he termed “<i>Onchobothriens</i>,”
+rejecting only his genus <i>Diporpa</i>, which is a juvenile condition
+of <i>Diplozoon</i>. In this family Van Beneden includes the genera
+<i>Calceostoma</i> and <i>Gyrodactylus</i>. In all the polystomes we have
+a more or less ramified intestine, but the reproductive organs
+conform to the general trematode type. All are hermaphroditic,
+the eggs being supplied with filamentary appendages, in some
+only at one pole of the shell, in others at both ends. The
+water-vascular system is conspicuously developed. All the
+species are supplied with prehensile hooks.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 215px;">
+<img src="images/f79.jpg" width="175" height="453" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>&mdash;<i>Gyrodactylus elegans</i>, containing
+an embryo. <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, Œsophagus; <i>g</i>, testis;
+<i>h</i>, <i>h</i>, sucker; <i>i</i>, <i>i</i>, large hooks; <i>k</i>, spines.
+Magnified. After Van Beneden.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Diporpa condition of <i>Diplozoon</i> there are two supernumerary
+hooks, associated with a dorsal sucker at the centre of
+the body, and it is by means of these organs that a conjugation
+between two such juvenile forms is effected. These two individuals
+become organically united for life, after the fashion of
+the Siamese twins. After conjugation the sexual organs appear.
+In <i>Onchotyle appendiculata</i> the lower end of the body merges
+into a curious appendage, which is placed almost at a right
+angle with the body itself, and in this way, as Van Beneden
+justly remarks, the entire animal resembles a little hammer,
+the resemblance being very much heightened by the circumstance
+that one end of the appendage is cleft so as to correspond, as it
+were, with the notch which we employ in the action of nail-drawing.
+The <i>Onchotyle appendiculata</i> was first discovered by Kuhn
+attached to the gills of a dog-fish (<i>Scillium catulus</i>), but it has
+since been found ectoparasitically lodged upon other marine
+fishes. With the <i>Gyrodactylidæ</i> I include Van Beneden’s genus
+<i>Calceostoma</i>. The gyrodactyles have been classed with the
+Polystomidæ. Amongst the characters standing out most
+prominently are those having reference to peculiar hooks which
+project from the great sucking disk. In <i>Calceostoma</i> this
+mechanism is reduced to a single horny structure placed at the
+margin of the caudal sucker in the central line. In some
+Gyrodactyli the hooks are very numerous. In <i>Gyrodactylus
+elegans</i> the caudal sucker supports a pair of large laterally-curved
+hooks, which are placed back to back in the centre of
+the disk, being connected at their upper ends by a supplementary
+semi-lunar bar. A series of tentacles serve to increase
+the prehensile action of the sucker. In many species the males<span class="pagenum" title="465"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465"></a></span>
+are supplied with accessory horny developments. The genus
+<i>Gyrodactylus</i> has been studied by Nordmann, Von Siebold, G.
+Wagener, Van Beneden, and especially by Wedl, who records
+the following <span class="nowrap">results:&mdash;</span>(<i>a.</i>) “<i>Gyrodactylus</i> is found on the gills
+of fresh-water fishes under numerous specific forms, <i>G. elegans</i>
+being also found by Creplin and
+Siebold on the fins. Moreover, as
+I have found nearly every species
+of fish supporting a particular gyrodactyle
+representative, it would seem
+that each finny creature supplies its
+own <i>Gyrodactylus</i>. Sometimes two
+of them are parasitic upon the same
+gill, being frequently associated with
+<i>Trichodinæ</i>, as well as with the still
+unintelligible <i>Psorospermiæ</i>. (<i>b.</i>)
+The clasping apparatus at the posterior
+end of the body must&mdash;in an
+animal so soft and constantly exposed
+to the passage of regular
+currents&mdash;be comparatively strongly
+developed and accommodated to the
+peculiar dwelling-places, and probably
+the varying character of the
+latter supplies a reason why there
+should be so great a difference in
+the mechanism of the hooks belonging
+to the disk. (<i>c.</i>) The hooked
+apparatus affords a very valuable
+and mathematically precise means
+of diagnosis in the determination
+of species. This differentiation
+may be accomplished by observing
+whether there are two or four large
+hooks; whether there be one or two connecting portions, and
+by noticing their several forms and relations to one another;
+and whether, again, there are hooklets or not, remarking in the
+first instance their position, form, distribution, and so forth.
+(<i>d.</i>) The integument is sometimes wrinkled transversely, at
+other times appearing to be smooth. (<i>e.</i>) The muscular
+apparatus is, in certain cases, very strongly developed. In the
+majority of instances special muscles are inserted into the<span class="pagenum" title="466"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466"></a></span>
+handles of the hooks, and they are also very frequently directed
+into the transverse muscles of the skin. In <i>Gyrodactylus crassiusculus</i>
+we find a <i>protrusor penis</i> and <i>retractor palparum
+medius</i>. (<i>f.</i>) Except in the case of <i>G. elegans</i>, four so-called
+eye-spots are observed at the anterior extremity of all Gyrodactyli.
+As Siebold says, they answer the purpose of light-refracting
+organs. The palpi, which in <i>G. crassiusculus</i> are
+seen to contain muscular bundles, appear to be retractile touch-organs,
+extending more or less prominently forward. (<i>g.</i>)
+Observations in regard to the alimentary canal are at present
+incomplete, for only in the case of <i>G. cochlea</i> did I find a
+single gullet demonstrable. (<i>h.</i>) <i>Gyrodactylus</i> becomes sexually
+developed, and cannot be regarded merely as a kind of
+‘nurse.’”</p>
+
+<p>So much for Wedl, whose views I have elsewhere recorded
+at great length. The genetic relations subsisting amongst the
+Gyrodactyles have given rise to much controversy. Observing
+the singular mode of reproduction in <i>G. elegans</i>, Von Siebold
+arrived at the conclusion that Gyrodactyles in general were
+only nurse-forms of some higher organism, and he pointed
+out, with undeniable accuracy, all the birth-stages of the young
+one as it apparently pullulated within the parent and subsequently
+emerged an almost perfect Gyrodactyle. Von Siebold
+also remarked that the so-called “daughter,” at the time of
+birth, nearly equalled the “parent” in respect of size, whilst,
+moreover, it contained within its interior another very young
+Gyrodactyle, or, in other words, a “grand-daughter.” Van
+Beneden interpreted these facts very differently. I have myself
+noticed the second generation, or daughter, to contain in its
+interior evidences of a third generation. This I observed in
+specimens obtained from the tails of Gasterostei caught in the
+Serpentine, Regent’s Park. Indications of the third progeny
+were seen whilst the daughter still resided within the body of
+the nurse-parent, and the so-called grand-daughter became
+much larger immediately after birth. In one instance the
+“daughter” commenced showing herself by a slight bulging
+at the centre of the parent’s body, whilst the integument of
+the latter yielded on all sides of the bud-like projection, and in
+such a manner as to convey the idea of a vaginal opening.
+There was an evident struggle on the part of the young one to
+free itself from the so-called parent envelope, but the tissues
+showed no signs of injury. On partial protrusion it was seen<span class="pagenum" title="467"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467"></a></span>
+that the budding portion corresponded with the centre of the
+daughter’s body, and this, in a little while, assumed the aspect
+of a semicircular band. Subsequently the upper end became
+detached, the freed extremity being now recognised as the
+head. An interval elapsed before the broad posterior end of
+the animal could be disengaged, but immediately after this was
+effected the sides of the parent envelope closed in upon the
+opening, and all that remained was a small cavity or sac,
+indicating the position recently occupied by the daughter.
+Altogether the process occupied about five minutes. I carefully
+compared the so-called “parent” with the “daughter,”
+but in regard to size I can scarcely say which was the larger of
+the two. As before hinted, Van Beneden demurs altogether to
+Von Siebold’s views. He does not admit the parent to be a
+kind of “nurse,” he does not consider the primary young one
+to be a “daughter,” and, consequently, he does not regard the
+embryo seen within the latter as a “grand-daughter.” Van
+Beneden <span class="nowrap">says:&mdash;</span>“According to our researches there is here a
+false interpretation; the little daughter is lodged within the side
+of its pretended mother, and not in its interior; instead of
+being its mother, it is its sister; there is a difference of shape
+because there is a difference of age; the Gyrodactyles are viviparous,
+and as among the Trematodes the eggs are formed one
+by one, one embryo is scarcely formed when another commences
+its evolution, and the egg-deposition is effected even whilst the
+embryo is being produced. The Gyrodactyles are therefore
+viviparous worms, which beget a single embryo at a time, as
+those of the trematode group, to which they are allied, beget a
+single egg at a time, and before the first embryo is expelled
+another is already partly developed. There, we believe, lies the
+correct interpretation of that phenomenon; instead of a bud it
+is an embryo, which has escaped from an egg. Here, therefore,
+we have no phenomenon of alternate generation or of digenesis,
+as Von Siebold supposes, but a simple viviparous reproduction.”</p>
+
+<p>Passing on to notice the cestodes of fishes, I may remark
+that they often display characters very distinctive from those
+inhabiting birds and mammals, being commonly furnished with
+special tentacular hook-appendages employed as supplementary
+organs of boring and anchorage. In the cartilaginous sharks
+and rays these cestodes are remarkably abundant, and in certain
+osseous species they are scarcely less frequent. The only
+noteworthy kinds of fish which are commonly free from the<span class="pagenum" title="468"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468"></a></span>
+invasion of tapeworms are the sturgeons, blennies, gobios,
+mullets, sparoids, and Sciænæ. Some few of them are infested
+by <i>Ligulæ</i>, <i>Caryophyllæi</i>, &amp;c. Cuttle fishes harbor a great
+variety of tapeworm-larvæ, forming one of the chief sources
+whence sharks and rays obtain the same parasites destined to
+arrive at sexual maturity within their own bodies.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/f80.jpg" width="300" height="426" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>&mdash;Section of the strobile of
+<i>Bothriocephalus proboscideus</i>. Magnified. After Busk.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the most interesting cestodes of fishes we may reckon
+the pit-headed tapeworms and their allies (Bothriocephalidæ).
+One of the most common species is <i>Both. proboscideus</i> which
+is found, often in considerable numbers, lodged within
+the pyloric appendages of the salmon (<i>Salmo salar</i> and <i>S.
+hucho</i>). It acquires a length of two feet. When in large
+numbers it cannot fail to prove injurious to the bearer. In this
+connection also must be mentioned <i>B. nodosus</i>. In the adult
+state this worm infests a great variety of water-birds (herons,<span class="pagenum" title="469"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469"></a></span>
+gulls, and divers), but in the young or sexually-immature
+tænioid condition it is a frequent inhabitant of sticklebacks
+(<i>Gastereosteus aculeatus</i> and <i>G. pungitus</i>), being also found in
+the salmon and in the bull-head, or father-lasher (<i>Cottus
+scorpio</i>). The immature tapeworm was formerly considered a
+separate species (<i>B. solidus</i>). Some years back Creplin discovered
+the connection subsisting between the two forms, and
+re-described the species in its two conditions under the name
+of <i>Schistocephalus dimorphus</i>, but it was reserved for Von
+Siebold to explain the full nature of this relationship. In his
+essay on “Tape and Cystic Worms” he shows that it is not
+until the worm reaches the intestine of the ultimate host that
+its segments acquire sexual completeness. As Von Siebold
+observes, “the extent of development in each individual will
+be found to be in proportion to the time the parasite has passed
+in the bird’s alimentary canal after its passive immigration.”
+A similar instance, it is added, “occurs in the case of the <i>Ligula
+simplicissima</i>, infesting the abdominal cavity of various species
+of carp, whose sexual organs are, and remain, undeveloped as
+long as the worm resides within the fish; whilst, when the
+latter is eaten by ducks, divers, waders, and other water-fowl,
+the entozoon being thus conveyed into their intestine, it
+attains perfect sexual development. In the older helminthological
+works the sexually-mature <i>Ligula simplicissima</i> is
+described under various specific names (<i>L. sparsa</i>, <i>L. uniserialis</i>,
+<i>L. alternans</i>, <i>L. interrupta</i>).” These results have been confirmed
+by later observers, but it is now usual to recognise the
+sexually-mature worm as the <i>Ligula monogramma</i> of Creplin.
+In 1876 Dr Duchamp published his beautiful memoir on this
+subject, treating the entire question exhaustively and adding
+important experimental details. M. Duchamp gives a list of
+about twenty species of fish that are infested by the immature
+worm, and amongst these the <i>Cyprinidæ</i> play by far the most
+conspicuous part. M. Duchamp has recorded a fatal piscine
+epizoöty amongst tenches (<i>Tinca vulgaris</i>), occurring in the
+ponds of La Bresse. This is produced by <i>Ligula simplicissima</i>,
+which escapes by an aperture formed near the vent of the
+infested fish. M. Duchamp also gives important anatomical
+and embryological details, but the especially interesting part
+of his memoir refers to his feeding experiments, seven in
+number. He succeeded in rearing <i>L. monogramma</i> in the
+domestic duck, by feeding this bird with examples of <i>L. simpli<span class="pagenum" title="470"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470"></a></span>cissima</i>
+obtained from the abdomen of the tench (<i>Tinca vulgaris</i>).
+The interest of these experiments does not cease here, since they
+afford a probable clue to the source of human <i>Bothriocephali</i>,
+which in nearly all essential points of structure correspond with
+the Ligules. As remarked in the first part of this work,
+Leuckart long ago pointed to the Salmonidæ as probably
+furnishing the intermediate host of this worm; and he disproved
+the views of Knoch, of Petersburg, who thought he had
+reared <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i> in the dog in a direct manner. I
+have already called attention to the opinion of Dr Fock, of
+Utrecht, who thinks the human bearer may become infested by
+the consumption of the little fresh-water bleak (<i>Leuciscus
+alburnus</i>). From the observations of Dr Bertolus, it is
+extremely probable that our <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i> is the
+sexually-mature condition of <i>Ligula nodosa</i> infesting the abdominal
+cavity and pyloric appendages of the common trout
+(<i>Salmo trutta</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/f81.jpg" width="110" height="303" style="padding-left: 20px" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>&mdash;Portion of the
+proboscis of a scolex
+of <i>Tetrarhynchus</i> infesting
+<i>Merlangus vulgaris</i>.
+Magnified. After Busk.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another cestode of general interest is the <i>Tricuspidaria</i>
+(<i>Triænophorus</i>) <i>nodulosus</i>, infesting many of our fresh-water
+fishes. It varies in length from one to two feet. The segmentation
+of the strobila is very indistinct, but the reproductive
+organs occur at regular intervals. All parts of the body are
+extremely contractile, especially the head. The tricuspid hooks
+support thin chitinous laminæ, which connect the two lateral
+horns of each hook to the central apophysis. The object of
+this arrangement is to afford additional security to the prong-like
+processes. Van Beneden appears to think it an error that
+the cusps of the hooks should have been figured in ‘Règne
+Animal’ as directed forwards, and he has drawn the hooks
+with the points downwards. In regard to the calcareous corpuscles,
+narrow vessels may be easily recognised passing off
+continuously from the capsules in closing the particles. These
+vascular prolongations are single, having their course directed
+towards the epidermis; doubtless they open at the surface, but
+I did not detect any aperture. I have figured the tubes in
+my ‘Entozoa’ (p. 132). Dr Guido Wagener figures similar
+structures as occurring in <i>Cercaria macrocerca</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Various species of <i>Tetrarhynchus</i> dwell in the bodies of
+sharks and rays, whilst their larvæ inhabit fishes on which the
+plagiostomi feed. Immature tetrarhynchs occur in cuttle-fishes,
+but they are most abundant in such fish as the cod, haddock,
+turbot, whiting (Fig. 81), flounder, sole, gurnard, mackerel,<span class="pagenum" title="471"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471"></a></span>
+mullet, and conger-eel. A tænioid scolex constantly infests
+the muscles and viscera of the great sunfish. The tetrarhynchs
+differ from one another as regards the form of
+their proboscides and the relative number and
+disposition of the hooks. I must refer to my
+‘Entozoa’ for a full description, with figures,
+of a larval tetrarhynch from the wall of the
+intestine of a haddock. Some Tetrarhynchi
+exhibit a very complex armature, as may be
+seen in <i>Tetrarhynchus longicollis</i> infesting the
+tope or penny dog-fish (<i>Galeus vulgaris</i>). In
+this species the hooks are uniform in size,
+and arranged in spirally disposed circles carrying
+from twenty to thirty hooks each. In
+the tetrarhynch from the whiting the hooks
+show much irregularity both as regards size
+and arrangement. A remarkable scolex infests
+the sun-fish (<i>Orthagoriscus mola</i>); it is
+a true tetrarhynch, but has been variously
+classed. According to view all the following
+titles refer to this <span class="nowrap">parasite:&mdash;</span><i>Gymnorhynchus
+reptans</i>, Rudolphi; <i>G. horridus</i>, John
+Goodsir; <i>Acanthorhynchus reptans</i>, Diesing; <i>Bothriorhynchus
+continuus</i>, Van Lidth de Jeude; <i>Bothriocephalus patulus</i>,
+Leuckart; <i>Acanthocephalus elongatus</i>, Rudolphi; <i>A. macrourus</i>,
+Bremser; <i>Floriceps saccatus</i>, Cuvier; <i>F. elongatus</i>, Blainville;
+<i>Scolex gigas</i>, Cuvier; <i>Tetrarhynchus reptans</i>, Cobbold.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 450px;">
+<a id="Fig_82"></a>
+<img src="images/f82.jpg" width="450" height="736" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>&mdash;<i>Tetrarhynchus reptans</i>. 1, Reduced figure of a sunfish, showing the worms <i>in
+sitû</i>; 2, head of a worm in its capsule; 3, tænioid scolex; 4, section of the immature
+strobile, 5, proboscis; 6, row of hooks; 7, 8, large and small hooks (magnified 260
+diameters); 9, head of the scolex viewed from above. Original.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Five or six examples of the sunfish have been examined by
+me in the fresh state, all of them being infested by tetrarhynchs.
+In the fish here drawn (fig. <a href="#Fig_82">82</a>) the liver and lateral
+muscles were extensively tunnelled by the parasite. In all
+instances the anterior part of the worm was found surrounded
+by a thick, clear, transparent cyst, which gradually diminished
+in thickness towards the tail. When liberated from its investing
+capsule the head of the worm presents a quadrilateral figure,
+each lateral half being furnished with a bipartite facet. The
+retractile boring organs are club-shaped, each supporting about
+1600 hooks. Nearly all the hooks display a uniform length and
+thickness, but at the lower part of each proboscis there are
+two conspicuous circles, the hooks of which are at least twice
+as large as the others. The joints of the immature strobile are
+well formed, but exhibit no trace of sexual organs. If it be<span class="pagenum" title="472"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472"></a></span>
+asked “what is the object of this perpetual tunnelling,” and
+“does the boring cause suffering to the host,” I <span class="nowrap">reply:&mdash;</span>“The
+object of tunnelling is apparently twofold; first, that
+the parasite may constantly obtain fresh nourishment; and
+secondly, that it may acquire another residence.” It furnishes
+an example of a parasite perpetually striving to perform an act
+which it cannot accomplish; for, in order to arrive at sexual
+maturity, it must wait until the sunfish is devoured by a shark.
+In regard to the question as to the boring action giving rise
+to pain, one cannot, of course, speak with absolute certainty.
+When there are many parasites occupying the liver, or other
+important viscera, then, doubtless, they create pain, and cause
+decay of the organs infested; thus they enfeeble the vital
+powers of the host. At such a time the sunfish would be
+easily overcome by its natural enemies, and be the first to
+succumb in the struggle for existence. These wandering
+tetrarhynchoid scolices never escape the body of the intermediate
+host until they are passively transferred into the
+alimentary canal of the ultimate entertainer. In the sharks
+and rays they acquire sexual maturity. From these animals
+the proglottides pass into the water in the ordinary way. The
+ova are subsequently swallowed by sunfishes and other intermediate
+hosts, within whose stomachs the six-hooked embryos
+are liberated, and the scolices become developed in the ordinary
+manner. As obtains in <i>Cysticercus fasciolaris</i> of the
+mouse the scolex of <i>Tetr. reptans</i> becomes tænioid. I have
+seen the liver of an adult sunfish so infested by these parasites
+that the whole organ might be fitly described as a
+mere bag of worms, the immature strobiles being inextricably
+coiled together and defying separation. One of the parasites
+which I removed from this particular fish is preserved in the
+Hunterian Collection.</p>
+
+<p>In reference to the nematoids of fishes I can say but
+little. They are excessively abundant; sexually-immature filariæ
+being found in almost every marine fish that one examines.
+Even at our dinner and breakfast tables nothing is more
+common than to observe the little <i>Filaria piscium</i> spirally
+coiled within the tissues of herrings, haddocks, cod-fish, and
+whiting. All the sexually-immature nematoids are, as it were,
+waiting to be passively transferred to their ultimate hosts.
+These final bearers are usually either fishes, birds, cetacea, or
+seals. Amongst fresh-water fishes the <i>Cucullanidæ</i> play an<span class="pagenum" title="474"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474"></a></span>
+important rôle. These parasites closely resemble the strongyloid
+<i>Sclerostomata</i>, but the absence of a true bursa seems to
+justify their separation into a distinct family. In most of them
+the body is truncated in front and much narrowed or drawn
+out posteriorly. The head is, broad and globular, and furnished
+with a powerful muscular pharynx. The mouth is seldom
+round; it is often subterminal, opening by a transverse slit.
+The tail of the male is recurved, and usually supplied with
+membranous winged appendages; sometimes there is a pre-anal
+sucking disk. In the female the tail is simple, and more
+or less sharply pointed.</p>
+
+<table class="figrt" summary="figures 83-84">
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
+<img src="images/f83.jpg" width="385" height="264" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>&mdash;<i>Cucullanus foveolatus.</i>
+Female. From the plaice (<i>Platessa vulgaris</i>). Magnified. After Busk.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"><a id="Fig_84"></a>
+<img src="images/f84.jpg" width="385" height="411" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>&mdash;1, <i>Echinorhynchus angustatus</i> (natural size and enlarged); 2, <i>Echinorhynchus
+nodulosus</i> (natural size and enlarged), with (3) two eggs (magnified 1000 diameters).
+Both species from a trout. After Busk.</div>
+</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The facts relating to the development of these parasites are
+especially interesting as having afforded Leuckart and Fedschenko
+a clue to what obtains in the guinea-worm (<i>Dracunculus</i>).
+The Cucullanus of the perch (<i>C. elegans</i>) is a viviparous
+species. The embryos are supplied with little boring
+teeth, or styles, which enable them to perforate the bodies of
+entomostracous crustaceans. Having in a direct manner gained
+access to the perivisceral cavity of <i>Cyclops</i>, they remain coiled
+within the intermediate bearer until it has been pursued,
+captured, and transferred to the stomach of the ultimate or
+piscine host. Once liberated within the stomach of the fish the
+young <i>Cucullani</i> soon acquire sexual maturity.</p>
+
+<p>The acanthocephalous <i>Echinorhynchi</i> are very abundant in
+fishes. They also, like the <i>Cucullani</i>, require a change of<span class="pagenum" title="475"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475"></a></span>
+hosts in order to ensure the continuance of the species. No
+less than six species of Echinorhynchi are known to infest the
+trout (<i>Salmo fario</i>). As many as four species likewise infest
+the eel (<i>Anguilla</i>); the same number of distinct forms being
+also found in the turbot (<i>Rhombus</i>) and ling (<i>Lota</i>), whilst
+three species may be met with in the common sole (<i>Solea</i>).
+What we at present know respecting the mode of development
+of Echinorhynchi infesting fishes is principally due to the
+researches of Leuckart. Some years back Dr Guido Wagener
+supplied admirable illustrations of the eggs and embryos of
+Echinorhynchi, but he was erroneously led to conclude that the
+larvæ were developed in a direct manner. The notion of a
+simple metamorphosis was entirely disproved by the experiments
+of Leuckart, who found the growth and development of
+the young to be accompanied by a true alternate generation.
+He showed this to obtain in <i>Echinorhynchus proteus</i>, a species
+abundant in the trout and in many other fresh-water fishes. The<span class="pagenum" title="476"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476"></a></span>
+embryo of this parasite is broad and obliquely truncated at the
+ventral surface anteriorly, being gradually narrowed to a blunt
+point posteriorly, and at the front part, on each side of the
+middle line, there are five or six spines biserially disposed.
+Similar characters are seen in <i>E. filicollis</i>. Prof. Leuckart
+introduced a number of eggs into a vessel of water containing
+several small crustaceans (<i>Gammarus Pulex</i>). These
+little animals readily swallowed the ova, and in a few days the
+embryos were found emerging from their shells, boring their
+way through the intestinal walls, then passing into the general
+cavity of the body, and even into the appendages themselves.
+During the next fourteen days the embryos within the Gammari
+exhibited an increase of size; and in course of the third week
+a further metamorphosis caused the embryos to assume the
+readily recognisable characters of a young <i>Echinorhynchus</i>.
+Thus, in Leuckart’s own words, “the ultimate animal arises in
+the interior of the primordial body, by a process which presents
+so close an analogy with the production of an embryo, and,
+consequently, with the act of generation, that one feels inclined
+at once to identify it with such an act, and therefore, also, to
+regard the <i>Echinorhynchus</i> as exhibiting an alternation of
+generation in its mode of development rather than a metamorphosis.”</p>
+
+<p>The young <i>Echinorhynchus</i> afterwards grows rapidly, its
+several internal organs, proboscideal sac, and muscular apparatus,
+gradually coming into view. At last the young entozoon completely
+fills the interior of the embryo, the latter having scarcely
+undergone any change, and still remaining, of course, within its
+crustacean host. What may be regarded as even more extraordinary
+is the circumstance that the embryonic body next
+becomes firmly adherent to the young <i>Echinorhynchus</i>, thus
+ultimately forming the true integument of the adult <i>Echinorhynchus</i>.
+The original skin of the embryo, however, is cast off
+“as soon as the <i>Echinorhynchus</i> occupies the whole interior of
+the embryo.” After this the sexual differences become clearly
+established. Leuckart remarks that the passage of the young
+Echinorhynchi into their ultimate host is probably unattended
+by any striking changes, whilst the metamorphosis of the embryo,
+as thus far detailed, occupies a period of about six weeks. In
+general the crustacean hosts appear to suffer little from the
+borings of the embryo parasites, but when the latter have
+assumed the Echinorhynchus-condition and happen to be<span class="pagenum" title="477"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477"></a></span>
+particularly numerous they not unfrequently prove fatal to the
+unsuspecting Gammari. After their transference to the intestine
+of the ultimate host a period of about one week more is required
+for the completion of their development.</p>
+
+<p>From the large number of species of <i>Echinorhynchi</i> infesting
+our fresh-water fishes, they present quite a feature of piscine
+parasitism. Almost every perch, chub, carp, pike, barbel, bream,
+or roach that one opens is found to have its intestines occupied
+by parasites which exhibit a light yellow color. These are
+Echinorhynchi, the common forms being <i>E. proteus</i>, <i>E. angustatus</i>
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig_84">84</a>, No. 1), <i>E. clavæceps</i>, <i>E. globulosus</i>, and <i>E.
+tuberosus</i>. In the Salmonidæ, besides several of the above, we
+may also find <i>E. clavula</i>, <i>E. fusiformis</i>, and <i>E. pachysomus</i>. As
+a group these parasites are more attractive looking than most
+other helminths, and they will well repay the zoological collector.
+The species infesting marine fishes are almost as numerous as
+those found in fresh-water hosts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (<a id="No_59"></a>No. 59).&mdash;(Anonymous), “Note by ‘An Inquirer’
+respecting Worms in Fish,” in the ‘Lancet,’ March 7,
+1868, p. 336.&mdash;<i>Baer, K. E. von</i>, “On the Tapeworms found in the
+Waters of the Pregel by Linneus,” from the German, in ‘Edin.
+New. Phil. Journ.,’ 1829, p. 374, and in the ‘Edin. Nat. and Geo.
+Sci. Journ.,’ 1829&ndash;30, p. 311; also from the ‘Trans. of Nat. Soc.
+of Dantzig,’ in the ‘Lancet,’ 1829.&mdash;<i>Badcock</i>; see <i>Slack</i>.&mdash;<i>Baird</i>,
+‘British Entomostraca,’ London, 1850.&mdash;<i>Beneden, J. P. van</i>, “Les
+vers cestoides,” ‘Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Belg.,’ tom. xxv, 1850.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+‘Mém. sur les vers intest.,’ Paris, 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On
+Echinobothrium,” in ‘Bull. de l’Acad. de Brux.,’ 1849.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+(with Hesse), ‘Rech. sur les Bdellodes ou Hirudinées et les
+Trématodes marins,’ 1863&ndash;65.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Rech. sur les Turbellaries,’
+1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On a new Lerneonema,” ‘Bull.,’ l. c.,
+1851, and in ‘L’Institut,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Bertolus</i>, ‘Mém. sur le développement
+du <i>Dibothrium latum</i> (Bothriocéphale de l’homme),’
+App. to Dr Duchamp’s work quoted below.&mdash;<i>Bosc</i>, ‘Hist. Nat.
+des Vers,’ 1802, p. 271.&mdash;<i>Bradley, C. L.</i>, “On the occurrence
+of Gyrodactylus on Sticklebacks,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Brullé</i>,
+“Note on the Reproduction of Ligula,” from ‘Comptes
+Rendus,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1855.&mdash;<i>Chatin</i>, ‘On <i>Amphibdella
+torpedinis</i> from the Gills’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 57).&mdash;<i>Chavannes</i>,
+“On Fluke-larvæ from Coregonus,” in ‘Bull. de la Soc. Vaud.
+des Sci. nat.,’ tom. iii.&mdash;<i>Claparède, E.</i>, “Ueber die Gattung
+Tetracotyle,” &amp;c., in ‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool.,’ 1857, s. 99 <i>et<span class="pagenum" title="478"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478"></a></span>
+seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “The Sunfish (Orthagoriscus) as a Host,”
+‘Intell. Observer,’ Sept., 1862.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Notes on the Calcareous
+Corpuscles of Tricuspidaria,” ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Notes on Tricuspidaria and Pentastoma,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1859.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Note on <i>Gyrodactylus elegans</i>,” <i>ibid.</i>, 1862; see also
+Wedl.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Distoma clavatum</i> from the Sword-fish,”
+‘Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ 1867 (Zool. Sect., p. 200).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Tapeworms
+in Trout,” letter to the ‘Field,’ July 26, 1873; see also
+F. Francis (below).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Remarks on the Entozoa and
+Ectozoa of Fish,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ Oct., 1867, p. 671.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“On <i>Agamonema crenilabri</i>,” in ‘Science Gossip,’ 1876; see
+W. W. Wilson.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Note
+on Parasites from the Wolf-fish (Annarhicas) and Lump-sucker
+(Cyclopterus), collected by Mr Devis’ (l. c., Bibl. No. 57).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Descr. of the Scolex of a Tetrarhynchus,” in a paper
+on ‘Parasite Larvæ,’ ‘Intell. Observer,’ 1863.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Synopsis
+of the Distomidæ,” ‘Proc. Linn. Soc.’ (Zool. Div.), 1860.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Remarks on <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i>, in relation to Dr
+Fock’s supposition that the Bleak (<i>Leuciscus alburnus</i>) is concerned
+in its Production,” the ‘Veterinarian,’ July, 1878.&mdash;<i>Cornalia,
+E.</i>, ‘Sopra una nuova specie di Crostacei Siphonostomi
+(<i>Gyropeltis doradis</i>),’ Milano, 1859.&mdash;<i>Coughtrey, M.</i>, “On
+the absence of Tapeworm in the Salmon-trout of New Zealand,”
+letter to the ‘Otago Daily Times,’ dated from the Otago University,
+Dec. 6, 1875.&mdash;<i>Diesing</i>, ‘Vierzehn Arten von Bdellideen,’
+Wien, 1858; see also ‘Revisions,’ quoted in Bibl. No. 58.&mdash;<i>Donnadieu,
+A.</i>, “Étude sur les Ligules,” in ‘Archives Zool.
+Expériment.,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Duchamp, G.</i>, ‘Recherches anat. et
+physiol. sur les Ligules,’ Paris, 1876; see also Bertolus.&mdash;<i>Fock</i>,
+‘The Bleak as a source of the Broad Tapeworm.’ See
+Cobbold.&mdash;<i>Francis, F.</i>, “Tapeworm in Fish” (with report
+by myself), in the ‘Field,’ June 28, 1873.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in the
+‘Field’ for July 12, 1873.&mdash;<i>Garsin</i>, ‘Histoire de l’Acad. des
+Sci.,’ Paris, 1730, p. 44.&mdash;<i>Goodsir, J.</i>, “On <i>Gymnorhynchus
+horridus</i>, a new Cestoid Entozoon,” ‘Edin. New Phil. Journ.,’
+p. 9, 1841.&mdash;<i>Houghton, W.</i>, “On the occurrence of <i>Gyrodactylus
+elegans</i> in Shropshire,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Huxley</i>, “Note
+on Gyrodactylus,” ‘Proc. Roy. Inst.,’ April 20, 1852, and
+‘Edin. New Phil. Journ.,’ 1852, p. 172.&mdash;<i>Knoch, J.</i>, ‘Entwickelungsgeschichte
+d. <i>Both. proboscideus</i>,’ 1862.&mdash;<i>Knox, J. F.</i>,
+“Note respecting the occurrence of a peculiar Microscopic
+Entozoon in the Textures of the Herring,” ‘Lancet,’ 1838.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" title="479"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479"></a></span>
+<i>Kölliker</i>, “Zwei neue Distomen,” ‘Ber. v. d. K. Zoot. Anstalt
+zu Würzburg,’ 1849.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Ueber Tristoma,’ <i>ibid.</i>, 1849.&mdash;<i>Leidy,
+J.</i>, “Notice of a Tetrarhynchus (<i>T. tenuicaudatus</i>) in
+the Remova;” ‘Proc. Acad. N. S. Philad.,’ Oct. 15, 1878;
+and in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Feb., 1879.&mdash;<i>Leydig</i>, “Ueber
+Argulus,” ‘Sieb. und Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1850.&mdash;<i>Maddox, R. L.</i>,
+“Some Remarks on the Parasites found in the Nerves (and
+other parts) of the Common Haddock (<i>Morrhua æglefinus</i>),”
+‘Trans. of the Roy. Micr. Soc.,’ 1867, p. 87.&mdash;<i>Menzies</i>,
+‘Linn. Trans.,’ 1790, p. 187.&mdash;<i>Miescher</i>, “On <i>Filaria piscium</i>,”
+&amp;c., in ‘Excerpta Zoologica,’ communicated by Dr Frances,
+in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1842.&mdash;<i>M’Intosh, W. C.</i>, “Notes on the
+Food and Parasites of the <i>Salmo salar</i> of the Tay,” ‘Proc.
+Linn. Soc.,’ 1863; repr. in the ‘Zoologist,’ Feb., 1864.&mdash;<i>Müller,
+J.</i>, “Note on a Parasitic Formation (Gregarina) in
+the Pike, with a statement from his ‘Neurologie der Myxinoiden,’
+that <i>Diplostomum rachineum</i> is to be found alive under
+the cerebral membranes of <i>Petromyzon fluviatilis</i>,” from ‘Müller’s
+Archiv,’ in ‘Micr. Journ. and Struct. Record,’ p. 20, 1842.&mdash;<i>Nardo</i>,
+in ‘Heisinger’s Zeitsch.,’ 1827, s. 68, and in ‘Isis,’
+1833, s. 523.&mdash;<i>Olsson, P.</i>, “Researches on the Flukes and
+Tapeworms chiefly of Marine Fishes,” ‘Entozoa, iakttagna hos
+Skandanaviska Hafsfiskar,’ Lund (aftr. ur ‘Lunds Univ.
+Årsskrift,’ tom. iii, iv), 1867&ndash;68.&mdash;<i>Owen</i>, ‘Zool. Soc. Trans.,’
+1835, p. 382.&mdash;<i>Pallas</i>, ‘Spicilegia Zoologica,’ fasc. x, p. 18,
+1774.&mdash;<i>Siebold, C. von</i>, ‘Band und Blasenwürmer,’ s. 41, Huxley’s
+edit., p. 32.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On <i>Diplozoon paradoxum</i>,” from ‘Zeitsch.
+f. wiss. Zool.’ (by Huxley), in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Ueber den Generationswechsel der Cestoden nebst einer
+Revision der Gattung Tetrarhynchus,” ‘Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.,’
+1850, s. 198.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Gyrodactylus, ein ammenartiges Wesen,”
+<i>ibid.</i>, 1849.&mdash;<i>Slack, H. J.</i>, “On <i>Bucephalus polymorphus</i>,”
+in ‘Monthly Microsc. Journ.,’ April, 1875, p. 141.&mdash;<i>Van
+Beneden</i> (see Beneden).&mdash;<i>Verrill, A. E.</i>, “On the Parasitic
+Habits of the Crustacea,” from ‘American Naturalist,’ in
+‘Scientific Opinion,’ Aug. 4, 1869, p. 185.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “New
+Flukes (<i>Tristoma læve</i> and <i>T. cornutum</i>) from the Mouth and
+Gills of <i>Tetrapturus albidus</i>,” ‘American Journ. of Science,’
+p. 40, 1875.&mdash;<i>Von Baer</i> (see Baer).&mdash;<i>Von Siebold</i> (see Siebold).&mdash;<i>Wagener,
+R. G.</i>, “Helminth. Bemerkungen,” in ‘Sieb. und
+Köll. Zeitsch.,’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Enthelminthica,” ‘Müller’s
+Arch.,’ 1851.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, <span class="pagenum" title="480"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480"></a></span>“Ueber Eingeweidewurm (Amphiptyches)
+in <i>Chimæra monstrosa</i>,” ‘Müll. Arch.,’ 1852.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Beiträge
+zur Entw.-Gesch. der Eingeweidewürmer (Preisschrift),’ 1857.&mdash;<i>Wedl</i>,
+“On Gyrodactylus” (see reference to my paper on ‘<i>G.
+elegans</i>’), ‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ 1862; trans. from his
+‘Anhang,’ “Ueber die Gattung Gyrod.,” to ‘Anat. Beobachtungen
+ueber Trematoden,’ Wien, 1858.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Hæmatozoa in
+Fishes,’ &amp;c. (l. c., Bibl. No. 58).&mdash;<i>Wigham, R.</i>, “Note on
+<i>Holostomum cuticola</i> from Roach and Bream,” ‘Ann. Nat.
+Hist.,’ p. 235, 1851.&mdash;<i>Wilson, W. W.</i>, “On a Parasitic Worm
+infesting a Marine Fish (<i>Crenilabrus rupestris</i>),” in ‘Science
+Gossip,’ Jan., 1876.&mdash;<i>Yarrell, W.</i>, “Note on <i>Tristoma coccineum</i>,”
+in his work on ‘Brit. Fishes,’ vol. ii, p. 353, 1836.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part IV (Evertebrata).</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 385px;">
+<img src="images/f85.jpg" width="385" height="282" alt="" />
+<div><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>&mdash;<i>Sphærularia bombi</i>.
+Showing the supposed male <i>in sitû</i>. After Lubbock.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Since a large proportion of all those helminths that require
+a change of hosts must needs pass into the bodies of insects,
+crustaceans, mollusks, or other evertebrated animals, it is
+evident that these lower creatures are almost as liable to be
+infested by parasites as the vertebrates themselves. As a rule,
+no doubt, the parasitic forms infesting individual evertebrated
+hosts are not numerous; nevertheless the water-snails form a
+noteworthy exception. Thus, some ten different species of
+parasite are found either in or upon the common <i>Planorbis
+corneus</i>; whilst <i>Lymnæus stagnalis</i>, <i>Paludina vivipara</i>, and
+<i>P. impura</i>, each support at least a dozen species. Of course,
+the parasites are not sexually mature, since nearly all of them
+are <i>Cercariæ</i> or larval trematodes. Snails, oysters, mussels,
+whelks, and other mollusks afford harbour and anchorage to a
+variety of parasites and messmates; but, fortunately, few or it
+may be none of the strictly human parasites require to pass
+through these intermediate bearers. <i>Distoma crassum</i> is possibly
+an exception. Save the cuttle-fishes, not many evertebrated
+animals are infested by sexually-mature worms. One of the
+most notable exceptions is that of a nematoid infesting bees.
+This worm was known to John Hunter, who spoke of it as
+“the animal that breeds in the humble bee.” In the year
+1836, M. Léon Dufour first applied the term <i>Sphærularia</i> to
+this remarkable worm, which he discovered in the abdominal
+cavities of two species of bee (<i>Bombus terrestris</i> and <i>B. hortorum</i>).
+The worm was subsequently found by Von Siebold in<span class="pagenum" title="481"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481"></a></span>
+two other species of bee (<i>B. muscorum</i> and <i>B. sylvarum</i>), but it
+remained for Sir John Lubbock to demonstrate that this
+parasite not only infests these insects, but also <i>Bombus lucorum</i>,
+<i>B. lapidarius</i>, <i>B. pratorum</i>, <i>B. subterraneus</i>, and <i>Apathus
+vestalis</i>. I possess specimens from <i>Vespa vulgaris</i> and <i>V. rufa</i>.
+Sir J. Lubbock and Mr. Cole have separately given full
+anatomical descriptions of the worm. According to Lubbock
+the so-called female is about an inch in length, of a whitish
+color, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">15</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in thickness, being bluntly pointed at either
+extremity. <i>Sphærularia</i> is everywhere covered by small warts
+or button-like projections, in all numbering about 800. The
+warts are transparent, each, according to Lubbock, projecting
+from <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">4</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> to <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">6</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">1000</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> above the general surface of the integument.
+There is neither mouth, œsophagus, intestine, nor
+anus; but in their place a large fatty mass or <i>corpus adiposum</i>.
+Sir J. Lubbock remarks that this peculiar organ “is homologous,
+not with the whole intestinal canal of nematodes, but
+only with the intestine; and we find, in fact, that in Gordius
+the œsophagus is very short, and opens at once into the
+anterior end of the <i>corpus adiposum</i>; so that to pass from this
+genus to <i>Sphærularia</i> it would be necessary to shorten the
+œsophagus a little more, and then the wall of the <i>corpus
+adiposum</i> would be immediately attached to that of the body.
+So far, therefore, as concerns the <i>corpus adiposum</i> and the<span class="pagenum" title="482"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482"></a></span>
+œsophagus, <i>Sphærularia</i> agrees neither with Gordius nor
+Mermis, nor, indeed, with one more than the other; since, if
+it agrees with <i>Mermis albicans</i> in the double series of large fat
+cells, it has no œsophagus, and in this respect more nearly
+resembles Gordius.” The reproductive organs consist of a
+single ovary, uterus, and terminally situated vulva. These
+organs in the full-grown females contain ova in all stages of
+development up to the condition of advanced yolk segmentation;
+but it does not appear that embryonic formation takes
+place whilst the eggs are still <i>in utero</i>. “The young animals
+are born soon after the eggs are laid. They are about <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">60</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in
+length, and <span class="nowrap"><span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2500</span></span><span class="prime">″</span></span> in diameter at the broadest part. Before Sir
+J. Lubbock conducted his inquiries the so-called male appears
+to have been overlooked. The male, if male it be, is extremely
+minute; that is to say, about 28,000 times smaller than the
+female.” Notwithstanding this very circumstantial account
+based on Lubbock’s determinations, Schneider has sought to
+show that the facts have been entirely misinterpreted. What
+Lubbock regards as the male worm is, in Schneider’s opinion,
+a female, whilst the so-called female is nothing more than a
+gigantic prolapsed uterus which has become many thousand
+times larger than the body of the worm whence it proceeded.
+It must be allowed that Schneider’s description and accompanying
+figures are very convincing. When revising the entozoa
+of the Hunterian Collection in 1866 I explained the specimens
+and dissections in accordance with Lubbock’s views. In the
+following year Prof. Huxley in his College Lectures supported
+the view of Schneider, but in his recently published manual
+the opinions of the Berlin helminthologist are not so much as
+alluded to.</p>
+
+<p>Another point of special interest in connection with the
+parasites of insects concerns the development of <i>Mermis albicans</i>.
+At or near the time of the maturation of the ova, the parent worm,
+hitherto lodged within the body of some insect, buries itself in
+the soil. It commences its migration by boring its way out of
+the body of the host. Some difference of opinion exists as
+to the condition of the parent at the time of its wandering, for
+Von Siebold asserted that it quitted its parasitical mode of life
+“in order to become sexually mature away from the animal”
+infested; whereas Van Beneden states that the embryos are
+always formed at the time of the wandering.</p>
+
+<p>From Von Siebold’s experiments it would appear that in<span class="pagenum" title="483"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483"></a></span>completely
+developed Mermes can become mature whilst still in
+the soil; but the normal condition requires the wandering to
+commence, as we have said, at or near the full time of embryonal
+development. The embryos are reproduced viviparously, and
+being set free, they pass a certain period of their existence in
+the soil. Here they grow rapidly, acquire sexual organs, and
+subsequently seek to “gratify their immigrative propensities,”
+as Von Siebold says, by selecting and penetrating the soft-bodied
+larvæ of lepidopterous and other insects. This entrance they
+accomplish by means of a sharply-pointed dentule or boring
+stylet, which at the time of disuse is concealed within the
+head. Having once gained access to the host they remain
+within its body until the caterpillar has become transformed
+into the perfect butterfly, or until their own sexual maturity is
+completed. Van Beneden thinks it probable that the males
+quit the host some time before the females, a view which, if
+correct, might alone account for the comparative scarcity of the
+males. According to Von Siebold, sexual congress occurs before
+the entrance of the worm into the caterpillar. This observation
+agrees with the generally admitted fact that hitherto no male
+Mermes have actually been detected in the bodies of insects.
+The Gordii, like Mermes, become free in damp earth and
+penetrate the bodies of certain insects or their larvæ. Some
+of them gain access to fishes. Like the free nematodes
+(<i>Anguillulidæ</i>), many of the Gordii will survive complete desiccation.
+The eggs of the mature worms are deposited in long
+agglutinated chains in water or damp situations.</p>
+
+<p>I must conclude. In the body of this work will be found
+many notices of insect parasites that are awaiting transference
+to some vertebrate. I need only allude to the rôle of the
+mosquito, to that of the louse of the dog, and especially to that
+of the little myriapod (<i>Glomeris</i>) which, like the common
+glow-worm (<i>Lampyris</i>), possesses phosphorescent properties. I
+mention this again partly in correction of an entomological
+error (at p. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>) which escaped me at the time of going to
+press. Leidy has described a mature nematode (<i>Ascaris infecta</i>)
+from <i>Passalus cornutus</i>, and numerous Filariæ are known to
+infest insects (<i>Blatta</i>, <i>Forficula</i>, <i>Phosphuga</i>, &amp;c., &amp;c.). From
+an earwig I obtained a filaria nearly five inches in length.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the larvæ of <i>Dracunculus</i>, <i>Cucullanus</i>, as
+well as those of other important nematodes, dwell in bodies of
+entomostracous crustacea, whilst those of <i>Echinorhynchus</i> attack<span class="pagenum" title="484"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484"></a></span>
+the Gammari and their allies. The well-known <i>Udonella caligorum</i>
+attaches itself to crustacea that are themselves parasitic.</p>
+
+<p>As many of the so-called free nematodes live in the slime
+of animals, Villot is of opinion that no very distinct line of
+demarcation can fairly be drawn between the parasitic and
+free species. This work, however, having dealt only with
+genuine parasites, I have purposely omitted any detailed account
+of the so-called free nematoids. I mention this lest it should
+be supposed that I had shown a studied neglect of the more or
+less remarkable labours of Bütschli, Bastian, Eberth, Linstow,
+Marion, Villot, Claus, De Man, Carter, and many others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span> (N<a id="o_60"></a>o. 60).&mdash;<i>Bastian, H. C.</i>, “Monograph on
+the Anguillulidæ, or free Nematoids, marine, land, and freshwater,
+with description of 100 new species,” ‘Linnean Trans.’
+for 1865, vol. xxv, p. 73.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (see Bibliog. No. <a href="#No_2">2</a>).&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Free Nematoids,” being an article in the ‘Popular Science
+Review’ for 1868, vol. vii, p. 163.&mdash;<i>Brady, G. S.</i>, ‘Monograph
+of the free and semiparasitic Copepoda,’ London, 1878.&mdash;<i>Bütschli,
+O.</i>, “Untersuchungen ueber freilebende Nematoden
+und die Gattung Chætonotus,” ‘Sieb. und Köll. Zeitschrift,’
+1876.&mdash;<i>Carter, H. J.</i>, “On a Bisexual Nematoid Worm which
+infests the common House-fly (<i>Musca domestica</i>),” ‘Ann. Nat.
+Hist.,’ 1861, and in the ‘Bombay Med. and Phys. Soc. Trans.,’
+new series, 1860.&mdash;<i>Claparède</i> (see Panceri).&mdash;<i>Claus, C.</i>, ‘Beobachtungen
+ueber d. Organis. und Fortpflanz. v. <i>Leptodera
+appendiculata</i>,’ 1869.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Note on Insect Parasites,” in
+‘Rep. of Entomological Club,’ in the ‘Midland Naturalist,’
+March, 1878, p. 80.&mdash;<i>Cole, W.</i>, “Remarks on a Parasite of
+Humble Bees,” in ‘Journal of the Quekett Microscopical
+Club,’ 1875.&mdash;<i>Dufour, L.</i>, “Sphærularia,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’
+1836.&mdash;<i>Dujardin</i>, “On Mermis,” ‘Ann. des Sci. Nat.,’ 2e sér.,
+tom. 18, p. 129.&mdash;<i>Eberth</i> (see Bibliog. No. <a href="#No_2">2</a>).&mdash;<i>Garner, R.</i>,
+“Note on a Distoma,” in his paper ‘On the Lamellibranchiate
+Conchifera,’ ‘Trans. Zool. Soc.,’ 1841.&mdash;<i>Ghaleb, O.</i>, “Observations
+and Experiments on the Migrations of <i>Filaria rhytipleurites</i>,
+a Parasite of Cockroaches and Rats,” ‘Comptes
+Rendus,’ July 8, 1878, and ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Aug., 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Note sur l’anat. et les migrations de deux Nématoides
+parasites, le <i>Pæcilogaster blatticola et Fil. rhytipl.</i>,” Paris, 1876
+(quoted by O. von Linstow).&mdash;<i>Giard, M. A.</i>, “On the parasitic
+Isopoda of the genus Entoniscus (infesting Crustacea),” from
+‘Comptes Rendus,’ Aug., 1878, in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Otc.,<span class="pagenum" title="485"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485"></a></span>
+1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “On the Orthonectida, parasitic on Echinodermata
+and Turbellaria (Rhopalura),” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ Feb.,
+1878.&mdash;<i>Grube, A.</i>, “On Cyclops as a new Cestoid-bearing
+Host,” from ‘Zoologisch. Anzeiger,’ Bd. i, s. 74, in ‘Journ.
+Royal Microsc. Soc.,’ Nov., 1878, p. 254.&mdash;<i>Hunter, J.</i>, “Filaria
+of the Bee,” in ‘Catal. (by Owen) of the contents of the Mus.
+Royal Coll. Surg.,’ part iv, fasc. i, p. 37, 1830.&mdash;<i>Kynston</i>,
+“Worms attached to a Grasshopper,” ‘Proc. Ashm. Soc.,’ in
+‘Corbyn’s India Review,’ and in ‘Journ. of Foreign Sci.,’ 1837,
+p. 172.&mdash;<i>Lima, J. F. da S.</i>, “Remarks on the <i>Filaria medinensis</i>
+or Guinea-worm; on the occurrence of this parasite in
+the Province of Bahia; and on its entrance into the human
+body by drinking water;” trans. from the Portuguese by Dr
+J. L. Paterson, and pub. in the ‘Veterinarian’ for Feb., 1879
+<i>et seq.</i>&mdash;<i>Linstow</i>, “Helminthologische Beobachtungen,” in
+‘Archiv für Naturgeschichte,’ 1876.&mdash;<i>Lubbock, Sir J.</i>, “On
+<i>Sphærularia bombi</i>,” ‘Nat. Hist. Rev.,’ 1861.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Notes,”
+&amp;c., <i>ibid.</i>, 1864, p. 265.&mdash;<i>Mason, J. W.</i>, “Note on the Geographical
+Distribution of the <i>Temnocephala chilensis</i> (parasitic
+upon a freshwater crayfish, <i>Paranephrops setosus</i>, in New
+Zealand),” ‘Annals Nat. Hist.,’ 1875, p. 336.&mdash;<i>Marion, A. F.</i>,
+‘Revision des Nématodes (&amp;c.),’ Marseilles.&mdash;<i>Maund, B.</i>, “A
+description of <i>Filaria forficulæ</i>,” ‘Rep. Proc. Linn. Soc.,’ in
+‘Zool. Journ.,’ 1832&ndash;34, p. 263.&mdash;<i>Meissner</i> (see Thomson).&mdash;<i>Owen,
+R.</i> (see Hunter).&mdash;<i>Pagenstecher</i> (see Bibl. No. <a href="#No_58">58</a>).&mdash;<i>Panceri,
+P.</i> (e di E. D. Claparède), “Nota sopra une alciopide
+parassito dell <i>Cydippe densa</i>,” ‘Mem. della Soc. Ital. di Sci.
+Nat.,’ 1867.&mdash;<i>Sars</i>, “Intestinal Worm in an Acaleph.,” from
+‘Wiegmann’s Archiv,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1845.&mdash;<i>Siebold, C.
+J. von</i>, in ‘Wiegmann’s Arch.,’ 1835.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, in ‘Ray Soc.
+Rep.’ (by Busk), 1847.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Worms,” &amp;c., <i>ibid.</i>, p. 503,
+1847.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Report on Helminthology, and on the Nemertinæ”
+(trans. by W. B. Macdonald, in ‘Ray Soc. Rep. on Zool.,’
+1842, p. 280), Edinburgh, 1845.&mdash;<i>Idem</i> (see Thomson).&mdash;<i>Thomson,
+A.</i> (for review of the writings of Meissner, Von Siebold,
+and others, respecting the development of Mermis, Gordius, &amp;c.,
+see the classical and elaborate art. “Ovum”), in ‘Supp. to
+Todd’s Cyclop.,’ 1859.&mdash;<i>Vogt, C.</i>, “On some Inhabitants
+(Cercariæ) of the Fresh-water Mussels,” from ‘Ann. des Sci.
+Nat.,’ in ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1850.&mdash;<i>Whitman, C. O.</i>, “The
+Embryology of Clepsine (with valuable Bibliography),” ‘Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ July, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="486"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Appendix.</span>&mdash;The memoirs announced by Dr T. R. Lewis in
+the January issue of the ‘Microscopical Journal,’ and referred
+to at the close of my account of <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>, having
+appeared, I fulfil the promise previously made (p. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>). In
+the few lines at my disposal I may observe that the beautiful
+brochure (quoted below) supplies fuller details of the results
+already announced by Lewis in the ‘Proceedings of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal.’ In respect of the nematoid hæmatozoa, the
+memoir is chiefly important as confirming Manson’s observations
+regarding the changes undergone by the Filariæ that have
+been transferred to the stomach of the mosquito, and especially
+also, as advancing some novel facts in reference to the occurrence
+of bird’s blood-corpuscles, associated with embryonic nematoids,
+in the same viscus of the insect. The worms are regarded by
+Lewis as transferred avian hæmatozoa, a view which gains
+strength by their comparison with the similar larvæ which he
+had detected in the blood of Indian crows (<i>Corvus splendens</i>).
+In Egypt, as Sonsino had himself informed me by letter, similar
+hæmatozoa are to be found in crows, and avian filariæ of this
+kind were long previously described, as Lewis and Sonsino point
+out, by Borell, Herbert, Schmidt, and Virchow. Facts of this
+order undoubtedly complicate matters, and suggest that extreme
+measure of caution in drawing conclusions, which Lewis himself
+everywhere displays.</p>
+
+<p>Respecting the final changes undergone by the mosquito-filariæ
+before their re-entrance into the human body, Lewis does
+not appear to have gone further than Dr Manson. By rupturing
+the body of the most advanced larvæ, Lewis readily recognised
+the œsophagus and intestine, but he remarks, significantly, “I
+have not been able to distinguish any other differentiated viscus
+in any of the specimens, and certainly, nothing suggestive of
+differentiation of sex” (p. 83). In an earlier part of the memoir
+Dr Lewis takes objection to my view that the urinary
+nematoids found by me in a case of Bilharzia are genetically
+related to <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i>. His distinguished coadjutor,
+Dr D. Cunningham, also denies the possibility of such
+relationship. No doubt, if the urinary maternal worm was really
+oviparous my view is untenable; but the proved presence of
+imperfectly formed ovarian ova, in which no trace of embryonic
+formation was discernible, has forced upon me the conviction that
+prolapsus and rupture of the uterine tubes of the parent worm
+had occurred, and that their rupture had occasioned the escape<span class="pagenum" title="487"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487"></a></span>
+of ova in various stages of growth. As free embryos were
+also detected, the adult worm was probably viviparous. There
+is an error in the representation of the oval-shaped ovum given
+in the figure (p. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>). I retain drawings of eighteen perfect
+nematoid ova from the Bilharzia case, and not one of these
+shows any double contour of the chorional envelope. In
+the case of the imperfect ova, the double contour is obviously
+due to the close apposition of the yelk-membrane to the shell-membrane,
+there being no true shell. As regards “a correction”
+which Lewis makes in respect of the question of priority
+of description of the mature <i>Filaria sanguinis hominis</i> I can only
+find space to state frankly, that Lewis is perfectly correct.
+The error was quite unintentional on my part. The adult worm
+was first discovered by Bancroft, and upon the strength of his
+admittedly scanty record I named the worm <i>Filaria Bancrofti</i>.
+In the matter of supplying a proper diagnosis and an anatomical
+description I was completely anticipated by Lewis. No doubt,
+Dr Bancroft could have furnished a fuller description of the
+parasite, had he desired to do so, but here is what he says in
+the letter addressed to me from Melbourne on the 20th of
+April, 1877:&mdash;“I thought it better to send you this account of
+filariæ than to publish it <i>direct</i>, as you so kindly set me on the
+track of the investigation.” Here I feel constrained to remark
+that few, if any, of my many correspondents in helminthology,
+have displayed more engaging candour. Whilst actually writing
+this Appendix (April 15th, 1879) I have received a new record
+of filarious cases from Dr Bancroft, who also sends me some
+mosquitoes captured by a victimised patient whose blood
+swarmed with filariæ. In one of the captured insects Bancroft
+himself detected forty-five filariæ. The cases have been forwarded
+to the ‘Lancet’ for publication. Lastly, in reference
+to the closing paragraph of Bancroft’s previous letter to me
+(pub. in the ‘Lancet,’ Feb. 1st), I have received the following
+interesting commentary at the hands of Dr Silva Araujo,
+whose letter is dated from Bahia, March 3rd, 1879:&mdash;“Je dois
+vous communiquer que ce fait vient confirmer l’idée qui existe
+chez nous, où le peuple croit et affirme que&mdash;quand une personne
+qui souffrait auparavant d’erysipèle a un abcès cela la
+préserve de nouveaux accès. La raison ne sera-t-elle pas que
+dans ce cas, avec l’ouverture de l’abcès, le ver sort? Je le
+crois. Ces faits viennent démontrer que la cause de la maladie
+est le ver. Cependant nous avons ici à Bahia plusieurs confrères<span class="pagenum" title="488"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488"></a></span>
+qui ne le croient point! Et à Rio-de-Janeiro aussi il y
+en a, peut-être davantage(!).” I will only add that Dr Araujo
+deceives himself if he imagines that the full etiological significance
+of parasites in relation to disease will receive general
+professional recognition for many years to come.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Supplement to Bibliography</span> No. <a href="#No_23">23</a>, p. 202 (with emendations).&mdash;<i>Araujo</i>,
+‘Memoria sobre a Filariose ou a molestia produsida
+por uma nova especie de parasita cutaneo,’ Bahia, 1875.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“Da filariose,” ‘Globo,’ Jornal do Rio de Janeiro,
+1876, e ‘Revista Medica do Rio de Janeiro,’ 1876, anno 3o,
+No. 2, 15 de Julho, p. 107.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “Caso de chyluria, elephancia
+do escrôto, escrôto lymphatico, craw-craw e erysipela
+em um mesmo individuo; descobrimento da Wuchereria filaria
+na lympha do escrôto. Tratamento pela electricidade com
+excellentes resultados,” ‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’ 2a serie, vol. 2o,
+No. 11, Nov. de 1876.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “A <i>Filaria Wuchereri</i> no sangue,”
+‘Gaz. Med. da Bahia,’ Mar. de 1878, p. 106, e seguintes.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>,
+“A muriçoca e as filarias Wuchereri,” ‘Gaz. Med. da
+Bahia,’ Setembro de 1878.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “La <i>Fil. immitis</i>,” &amp;c.,
+Transl. of Mem. (<i>l. c.</i>, Bibl., No. <a href="#No_45">45</a>) in ‘Lyon Médical,’ Nov.,
+1878, p. 319 et 363.&mdash;<i>Bancroft</i>, “Instance of a European having
+taken leprosy in Queensland,” in a letter to myself; see “Case
+from Bancroft,” quoted at p. 203.&mdash;<i>Chassaniol, A.</i> (et <i>F. Guyot</i>),
+“Hématurie graisseuse ou chyleuse,” in their “Notes de Géographie
+Méd. recueillies à Taïti,” in ‘Archives de Méd. Navale,’
+Jan., 1878, p. 65.&mdash;<i>Cobbold</i>, “Worms in the Heart of Dogs,”
+letter in the ‘Lancet,’ April 5, 1879, p. 498.&mdash;<i>Coles</i>, “On Lymph-scrotum,”
+‘Brit. Med. Journ.,’ March 9, 1878.&mdash;<i>Fayrer, Sir J.</i>,
+“Lecture on Elephantiasis Arabum,” in the ‘Lancet,’ March
+29, 1879, p. 433.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Report of Pathol. Soc.,’ ‘Lancet,’
+Feb. 22, 1879, p. 267.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Rep. of Epidemiological Soc.,’
+<i>ibid.</i>, p. 269.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, ‘Letter on Filaria;’ see <i>Hoysted</i>.&mdash;<i>Ghaleb,
+O.</i> (with P. Pouquier), “On <i>Filaria hæmatica</i>,” from ‘Comptes
+Rendus,’ Feb. 5, 1877, in ‘Annals Nat. Hist.,’ April, 1877.&mdash;<i>Hoysted,
+J.</i>, “Notes of a Case of <i>Filaria sanguinis</i> in a Dog;”
+see Bibliog. No. <a href="#No_49">49</a>, p. 311.&mdash;<i>Lewis, T. R.</i>, ‘The Microscopic
+Organisms found in the Blood of Man and Animals, and their
+relation to Disease,’ Calcutta, 1879.&mdash;<i>Idem</i>, “The Hæmatozoa
+of Man (excerpt of the above),” ‘Quart. Journ. of Microsc. Sci.,’
+April, p. 245 (both from ‘14th Ann. Rep. of the San. Commissioner
+with the Govt. of India’).&mdash;<i>Makuna</i>, ‘Letter respecting
+<i>Fil. sang. hom.</i> in Chyluria’ (l. c., Bibliog. No. 23).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum hide" title="489"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489"></a></span></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<div id="index">
+<p><i>Acanthia lectularia</i>, or the common bed bug, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Acanthocephala</i> in birds, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;include but one family, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;in the Hunterian Museum, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Acanthotæniadæ</i>, a family of tapeworms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Acaridæ</i>, a family of Arachnida, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Acephalocysts in cattle, Hunterian specimens of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Agricultural societies, their indifference to helminthology, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></p>
+
+<p>Aguti, <i>Spiroptera mediospiralis</i> from the, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></p>
+
+<p>Alligator, entozoa from an, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Amphistoma</i> and <i>Polystoma</i> in the frog, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>hominis</i>, notice of Lewis’s and McConnell’s, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>subclavatum</i>, ciliated embryo of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Amphistomes infesting deer, <a href="#Page_332">332</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;elephants, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;the horse, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Amphistomidæ</i>, a family of flukes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Anæmia, tropical, due to Anchylostomata, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></p>
+
+<p>Anchylostomum-helminthiasis, Wucherer’s account of the, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Anchylostomum</i> (<i>Dochmius</i>) <i>duodenale</i>, description of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></p>
+
+<p>Aneurism of the horse, Bollinger’s account of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Anguillula</i> (<i>Leptodera</i>) <i>stercoralis</i>, description of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Anguillulidæ</i>, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Annelid parasites, ectoparasitic character of the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Anoplocephala perfoliata</i> as a synonym, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></p>
+
+<p>Ant-eaters, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></p>
+
+<p>Antelopes and deer, Pentastomes found in, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Anthomyia canalicularis</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></p>
+
+<p>Arachnid parasites, various families of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Argulidæ</i>, a family of parasitic crustaceans, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Arhynchotænia critica</i> of the hyrax, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Arhynchotæniadæ</i>, considered as a group, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Armadillo, parasites found in the, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Ascaridæ</i>, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Ascarides infesting cetaceans, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;(Oxyurides) in relation to cleanliness, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Ascaris alata</i>, Bellingham’s so-called, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>Cornelyi</i> from the vulturine pintado, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>halicoris</i> from the Indian dugong, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="490"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Ascaris infecta</i> from <i>Passalus cornutus</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>lumbricoides</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Davaine’s experiments with, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;development of the, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Heller’s “find” respecting the young of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;remarkable cases caused by the, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>maculosa</i> causing avian epizoöty, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;Unterberger’s experiments with, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>megalocephala</i> and <i>A. lumbricoides</i> not identical, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;experiments with the eggs of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;of solipeds, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>mystax</i> considered as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp; "&emsp;&ensp;Leuckart’s experiments with, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp; "&emsp;&ensp;researches of Nelson respecting, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>nigrovenosa</i>, parthogenesis of, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>suilla</i> considered as a synonym, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp; "&emsp;of the hog, a synonym, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>tentaculata</i> of opossums, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>tetraptera</i>, development of the embryos of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>vesicularis</i> from the ring-necked pheasant, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Aspidocephalus scoleciformis</i> of opossums, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Aspidocotylus mutabilis</i>, a parasite of fish, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></p>
+
+<p>Ass, frequency of aneurism in the, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.7em;">"&emsp;liver-fluke frequent in the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.7em;">"&emsp;strongyles from the stomach of the, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Australian entozoa, Mr Krefft’s <i>brochure</i> on, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;hedgehog, tapeworm from the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Avian hæmatozoa, observations by Lewis on, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp; parasites in the British Museum, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; in the Hunterian Museum, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Bacteria</i>, the best known forms of, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Bacteridæ</i>, as a family of protozoa, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Balantidium</i> (<i>Paramecium</i>) <i>coli</i> of man, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;semiparasitic character of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Balæna</i>, flukes occurring in the genus, <a href="#Page_421">421</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>rostrata</i> infested by <i>Ascaris angulivalvis</i>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Balænoptera rostrata</i>, filariæ from, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp; fluke from, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bats, entozoa and ectozoa infesting, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></p>
+
+<p>Bear, Cysticerci in the heart of a, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></p>
+
+<p>Beef, cyst-infected, quantity destroyed in India, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;in India, prevalence of “measled”, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;tapeworm, description of the so-called, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bee, parasite of the, known to John Hunter, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></p>
+
+<p>Beetles (<i>Passalus</i>) infested by nematodes, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Beluga leucas</i>, worm from the ear of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>, history and development of the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></p>
+
+<p>Birds, frequency of entozoa in, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum" title="491"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491"></a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp; <i>Spiroptera helicina</i> in the feet of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp; the gape disease in, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Blackbirds, tapeworms destructive to young, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></p>
+
+<p>Blackcap, flukes reared by Zeller in the, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></p>
+
+<p>Blackfish or tursio, cestode from the, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p>
+
+<p>Bladderworms and measles in cattle, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Blaptidæ</i> as parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Blaps mortisaga</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></p>
+
+<p>Bleak, the (<i>Leuciscus</i>), a possible source of tapeworm, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp; the, in relation to <i>Bothriocephalus latus</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bonito, parasites from the, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Bopyridæ</i>, a family of parasitic crustaceans, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Bothriocephali</i> of water-birds obtained from fish, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;researches of Bertolus and Duchamp on, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Bothriocephalus cordatus</i>, brief description of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>cristatus</i>, brief description of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;in Holland, Dr Fock’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>latus</i>, distribution and characters of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&nbsp; &nbsp; source and proscolices of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>proboscideus</i> of the salmon, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>tropicus</i>, note on the so-called, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bot infesting the stomach of the rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></p>
+
+<p>Bottle-head (<i>Hyperoödon</i>), flukes from the, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></p>
+
+<p>Brain, Cysticerci occurring in the human, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></p>
+
+<p>Bronchi of whales, worms in the, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Bucephalus</i> probably a larval state of Gasterostoma, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;regarded as a germ-sac, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bug, the common, as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Cachalot, cestode from the high-finned, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Calceostoma</i>, hooks of the suckers of, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Caligidæ</i>, a family of crustaceans, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Campula oblonga</i> regarded as a synonym, <a href="#Page_419">419</a></p>
+
+<p>Capercaillie, entozoa of the, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp; <i>Trichosoma</i> and <i>Ligula</i> from a, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Carnivora</i>, internal parasites of the, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cataphractus</i> infested by <i>Aspidocotylus</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></p>
+
+<p>Cat, Australian, <i>Bothriocephalus</i> from, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&ensp;flukes and tapeworms infesting the, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br /></p>
+
+<p>Cattle diseased by parasites, natural cure of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;measles and bladderworms in, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;of the Upper Punjab infested by cysts, percentage of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;plague bodies, nature of the so-called, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;species of lice infesting, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;tapeworms found in, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cercaria diplocotylea</i> of water-snails, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;of the common fluke, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cercariæ</i> and <i>Rediæ</i>, Pagenstecher’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cercomonas hominis</i> in cholera dejections, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cestoda</i>, families of the order, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Cestode (larval) in <i>Delphinus delphis</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="492"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cetacea</i>, external parasites of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;parasites of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;in Hunterian collection, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;worms in the lungs of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp; in the cranial sinuses of, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chacma, strongyles found in the, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p>
+
+<p>Charbon, an anthracoid disease associated with bacterids, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></p>
+
+<p>Cheetah, tapeworm found in the, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cheiracanthidæ</i>, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cheiracanthus robustus</i> in Indian dogs, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;mistaken for <i>Echinorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cheiroptera</i> or bats, parasites of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></p>
+
+<p>Chigoe or jigger as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p>
+
+<p>Chinese missionary, flukes in the family of a, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></p>
+
+<p>Cirrhipeds, parasitic, upon whales, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></p>
+
+<p>Civets, parasites found in, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></p>
+
+<p>Classification of Schneider referred to, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Clepsinidæ</i>, a family of suctorial annelids, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Coati, intestinal worms of the, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></p>
+
+<p>Cochin-China diarrhœa due to <i>Leptodera</i>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></p>
+
+<p>Cockchafers harbor young Echinorhynchi, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></p>
+
+<p>Cockroaches (<i>Blatta</i>) infested by nematodes, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></p>
+
+<p>Codfish, frequency of filariæ in the, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cœnuri</i> from rabbits in Guy’s Museum and at Oxford, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;researches of Rose and Numan respecting, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cœnurus cuniculi</i>, specimen of, from Ayrshire, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>serialis</i> of the hyrax, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Conocephalus typicus</i> from a dolphin, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Conopidæ</i>, the larvæ of, as parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Conorhinus nigrovarious</i> or pampas benchucha, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cotylogaster cochleariforme</i> not an equine parasite, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></p>
+
+<p>Crane, entozoa from a, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Crossophorus collaris</i> of the hyrax, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></p>
+
+<p>Crocodile, worm from beneath the skin of a, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></p>
+
+<p>Crows, hæmatozoa in Indian, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Crustacea</i>, parasitic, upon whales, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp; the, as alleged human parasites, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Crustacean parasites, families of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Crustaceans, entozoa infesting, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cucullanidæ</i>, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp; development of the, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Culex</i>, various species of, attacking man, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Curlew, entozoa from the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cuterebra noxialis</i>, or Macaco worm, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></p>
+
+<p>Cuttle-fishes, tapeworm larvæ found in, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cyamidæ</i> included with Pycnogonidæ, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cyamus balænarum</i> or whale-louse, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cyclobdella lumbricoides</i>, the, of Brazil, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cyclops</i> considered as an intermediate host, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cymothoidæ</i>, a family of parasitic crustaceans, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="493"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>“Cyst”-affected meat in the Punjab, quantity of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></p>
+
+<p>Cystic disease in cattle, Dr J. Fleming on, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;entozoa are larval tapeworms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Cysticerci, common situation of, in ration meat, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; destruction of, by calcareous degeneration, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; detected in the living animal, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; from sheep, Dr Maddox on, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; from the nasal sinuses of a porpoise, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; from the skin of <i>Physeter</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; in the heart of a bear, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; in the human body, seat of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; in the psoas muscles, Dr Joseph Fleming on, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; in meat, Pellizzari’s and Tommasi’s researches on, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; investigations of Lewis respecting, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; monstrous varieties of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; of the sheep alleged to contain eggs, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; prophylactic measures respecting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; researches by Perroncito on, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; said to be capable of swimming, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; temperature necessary to destroy, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; voluntarily swallowed by Italian gentlemen, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cysticercus bovis</i> found in the liver and lungs, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;human feeding experiments by Oliver with, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; <i>delphini</i>, nature of the so-called, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; found in the dog, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; from the Red River hog, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; in the brain, cases of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; of the sheep, discovery of the, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; report by Dr Neill respecting, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; (<i>telæ</i>) <i>cellulosæ</i>, or pork measle, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; <i>tenuicollis</i> found in man, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;, the self-feeding experiment by Möller with, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Cysts at the root of the tongue, diagnostic value of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp; of the liver containing psorospermiæ, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Dactylogyrus</i>, allusion to the eggs of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></p>
+
+<p>Dasse (<i>Hyrax</i>), parasites of the, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dasyprocta aguti</i>, stomach excrescences in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></p>
+
+<p>Deaths from worms, Registrar General’s returns of, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p>
+
+<p>Deer, abundance of amphistomes in, <a href="#Page_332">332</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;filariæ found in various kinds of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Delphinus Forsteri</i>, tapeworm found in, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>phocæna</i>, cestode (<i>Diphyllobothrium</i>) from, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>rostratus</i>, tapeworm from, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>tacuschi</i>, flukes found by Natterer in, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Demodex folliculorum</i> of man and dog, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dermatophagoides Schérémétewsky</i>, the so-called, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dibothridæ</i> and <i>Bothriocephalidæ</i> as synonyms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dibothrium hians</i>, supposed monstrous state of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dichelestidæ</i>, a family of crustacean parasites, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="494"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Dicotyles</i> (Peccary), parasites of the genus, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dicrocœlium Buskii</i> as a synonym, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Didelphys philander</i>, acanthocephalous worm of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Diphyllobothridæ</i>, a family of tapeworms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Diphyllobothrium stemmacephalum</i> from a porpoise, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Diplodiscus subclavatus</i>, water-vessels of the larvæ of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Diplozoon</i> in the <i>Diporpa</i> condition, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></p>
+
+<p>Diseased meat from “rot”, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Distoma Andersoni</i> from <i>Platanista</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>campula</i> of the porpoise, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>clavatum</i>, particulars respecting, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>conjunctum</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>crassum</i> or Busk’s fluke, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>cygnoides</i>, ciliated embryo of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>gigas</i> of Nardo, description of the, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>hepaticum</i> a synonym of Fasciola, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>heterophyes</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>lancea</i> infesting dolphins, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>lanceolatum</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ciliated embryo of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;description of the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>leptosomum</i> and <i>D. brachysomum</i>, source of, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>macrostomum</i>, development of, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>megastoma</i>, ciliated embryo of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>militare</i>, development of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>neuronaii Munroii</i>, the so-called, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>ophthalmobium</i>, notice of the so-called, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; <i>sinense</i>, or the Chinese fluke, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp; species of, in <i>Delphinus Forsteri</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Distomata</i> confounded with proglottides, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Distomidæ</i>, a family of flukes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Distomum spatulatum</i> as a synonym, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dochmius duodenalis</i>, discovery of, by Dubini, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp; <i>Sangeri</i> from the elephant, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Dogs, destruction of dogs by heart-worms, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></p>
+
+<p>Dog, ectozoa and follicle mites of the, <a href="#Page_307">307</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.7em;">"&emsp; internal parasites of the, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Dolphin, remarkable worm from the stomach of a, <a href="#Page_426">426</a></p>
+
+<p>Dolphins, fluke parasites of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></p>
+
+<p>Dorado, <i>Fasciola fusca</i> from the, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Dracunculus</i>, description of the embryos of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Fedschenko’s discovery respecting, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;<i>medinensis</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Duck, worms from a dusky, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Dugong, parasites of the, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Ear of the porpoise, worms found in the, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p>
+
+<p>Earth-wolf, remarkable parasite from the, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></p>
+
+<p>Earth-worms as intermediate bearers, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></p>
+
+<p>Earwig, <i>Filariæ</i> found in the, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="495"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Echidna, tapeworm from the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p>
+
+<p>Echinococci described by Leuckart and Naunyn, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Echinococcus brood-capsules known to Wilson and Busk, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Echinococcus hominis</i>, synonyms of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;<i>multilocularis</i> found in a calf, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Echinorhynchidæ</i> abound in fishes and reptiles, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Echinorhynchi found by John Hunter, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp; infesting monkeys, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp; in trout, frequency of, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp; of water newts, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Echinorhynchus angustatus</i> and <i>E. hominis</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>gigas</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;of the hog, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>hominis</i>, Lambl’s so-called, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;in man, Welch’s supposed case of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Leuckart on the development of, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>microcephalus</i> from an opossum, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>Muriei</i> from a whale, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>pellucidus</i> and <i>E. brevicollis</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>porrigens</i> from whales, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>spirula</i> of monkeys, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>transversus</i> in birds, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Echinostoma hispidum</i> from a sturgeon, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></p>
+
+<p>Ectozoa of swine, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.6em;">"&emsp;&ensp;of the elephant, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.6em;">"&emsp;&ensp;of whales, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Edentata, parasites of the, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></p>
+
+<p>Eel, <i>Echinorhynchi</i> in the, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p>
+
+<p>Eggs, entozoa found in the interior of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></p>
+
+<p>Elephants destroyed by “rot” in Burmah, <a href="#Page_394">394</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp; earth-eating habits of worm-infected, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp; ectozoa of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp; in England destroyed by worms, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp; parasites infesting, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp; parasitic diseases of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Entozoa</i> do not result from diseased states, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;of game birds, list of, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;their relation to the helminths, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Epidemics of rot disease, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Epizoa</i>, haustellated crustacean parasites, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Epizoöty amongst elephants from flukes, <a href="#Page_394">394</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;amongst pigeons, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in birds, very destructive to life, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in cats, Dr Romano’s account of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in swine from <i>Echinorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in tenches from <i>Ligulæ</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in the hog from <i>Stephanurus</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in the Mauritius from worms, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in the pig from <i>Strongyli</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum" title="496"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496"></a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in young blackbirds from tapeworms, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Eustrongyli</i> within the skull of water-turkeys, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Eustrongylus gigas</i>, description of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;in dogs and wolves, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;source of the, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&ensp;wild animals infested by, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;<i>papillosus</i> from a crane, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Eye-worms in cattle, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></p>
+
+<p>Eye of the fowl infested by filariæ, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Fasciola clavata</i>, description of the so-called, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>hepatica</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&nbsp; as a “zoological” individual, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&nbsp; ciliated embryo of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>Jacksoni</i> infesting elephants, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>, parasites form a peculiar, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></p>
+
+<p>Ferret, ectozoon infesting the ears of the, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Filaria acuta</i> in the limbs of birds, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>Bancrofti</i>, history of the discovery of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>gracilis</i> infesting monkeys, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>hominis oris</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>horrida</i> from the American ostrich, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>immitis</i> in the heart of dogs, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>inflexicaudata</i> from <i>Balænoptera</i>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;of the porpoise, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>labialis</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>lacrymalis</i> as a synonym, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>lentis</i>, notice of the so-called, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>loa</i>, notice of the so-called, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>macropodis gigantei</i> in the Hunterian Museum, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>Mansoni</i> in the eye of a fowl, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>medinensis</i> considered as a synonym, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>microstoma</i> and <i>F. megastoma</i>, temperature necessary to kill, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>oculi</i> considered as a synonym, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>papillosa hæmatica canis domestici</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;in the horse, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>Salisburyii</i> considered as a synonym, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>sanguinis</i>, Bancroft’s account of the, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp; <i>equi</i>, the so-called, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp; <i>hominis</i>, correction respecting, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;discovery by Lewis of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>spelæa</i> from a wallaby, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; (<i>Strongylus</i>) <i>bronchialis</i>, description of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>terebra</i> in the black-tailed deer, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>trachealis</i>, remarks on the, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>Websteri</i> proposed as a synonym, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Filariæ</i> as a cause of abscess and erysipelas, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;discovery of microscopic, by Wucherer, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;hæmatozoal, of Grube and Delafond, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;in human blood, Sonsino’s verification of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span class="pagenum" title="497"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497"></a></span><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;of the mosquito, Manson’s description of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Filaridæ</i>, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Fishes largely infested by <i>Echinorhynchi</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;of Brazil, amphistomes in the, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;parasites of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Flea, the common, of man, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p>
+
+<p>Fluke, description of the common liver, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;description of the large human, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;origin and meaning of the term, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Flukes abundant in the great kangaroo, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;causing “rot” in elephants, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;found in fishes, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;found in ruminating animals, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;Pagenstecher’s researches on, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;their destiny favored by mimetism, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Fox, fluke of the American red, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.7em;">"&emsp;source of tapeworms infesting the, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Fowl, entozoa infesting the common, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></p>
+
+<p>Free nematoids, Villot’s opinion respecting the, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></p>
+
+<p>Frog, <i>Ascaris nigrovenosa</i> of the, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Galeodes araneoides</i> or canal tick, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gallinula chloropus</i>, worms in the limbs of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gamasidæ</i>, a family of Arachnida, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Game birds, list of entozoa infesting, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gammarus pulex</i> as an intermediate host, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></p>
+
+<p>Gape disease, methods of preventing and treating the, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p>
+
+<p>“Gapes” in birds due to <i>Sclerostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gasterostoma gracilescens</i>, probable larval condition of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.8em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;peculiarities of the genus, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Gastrodiscus Sonsinonis</i> of the horse, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gastrophilus rhinocerontis</i>, a bot-fly, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></p>
+
+<p>Gid hydatid found in various animals, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.6em;">"&ensp; in the hog noticed by Florman, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Giraffe, large fluke found in the, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Glossina morsitans</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Glow-worm (<i>Lampyris</i>), correction respecting the, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></p>
+
+<p>Gluttons, internal parasites of the, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gnathostoma hispidum</i> of the hog, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></p>
+
+<p>Goat, the beef-measle discovered by Zenker in a, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gongylonema pulchrum</i> of the hog, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></p>
+
+<p>Goose, worms from the ashy-headed, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&ensp;from the Sandwich Islands, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Gordiidæ</i>, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gordius</i> survives desiccation, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></p>
+
+<p>Grebe, worms found in the legs of the lesser, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gregarinidæ</i>, as a family of protozoa, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p>Grouse-disease, parasites producing the, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;entozoa of the red, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Gubleria</i> proposed as a generic title, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p>Guillemot, entozoa from the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="498"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Gulls, entozoa found in, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Guinea-worm, development of the, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.8em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&ensp;geographical distribution of the, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnorhynchus horridus</i> as a synonym, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gynæcophorus hæmatobius</i> considered as a synonym, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gyrodactylidæ</i>, a family of flukes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Gyrodactylus</i>, conclusions of Wedl respecting, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;<i>elegans</i>, development of, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Haddock, frequency of filariæ in the, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Halmaturus Derbyensis</i>, nematodes of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></p>
+
+<p>Hams, Cysticerci in Westphalian, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></p>
+
+<p>Hares and rabbits, entozoa of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></p>
+
+<p>Hawk, entozoa from the sparrow, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hæmatomyzus</i> (Idocoloris) <i>elephantis</i>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hæmatopinus</i> of the hog, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hæmatopota pluvialis</i> or the clegg, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Hæmatozoa in dogs, discovery by Grube and Delafond of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;in Egyptian and Indian crows, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;of the dog, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hæmaturia caused by <i>Bilharzia hæmatobia</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hæmenteria</i>, American leeches of the genus, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hæmopis sanguisorba</i> attacking French soldiers, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Heart of whales, worms in the, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></p>
+
+<p>Hedgehog, parasites of the common, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;tapeworm from the so-called Australian, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Helmintha</i>, the term in relation to “worms”, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>Helminthology, practical results from the study of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Helophilus</i>, larva of, found in man, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;larvæ found in the horse, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Herring, frequency of filaria in the, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hesslingia</i> proposed as a generic title, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Heterocheilus tunicatus</i> from Natterer’s manatee, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Heteroura androphora</i>, sexual peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hexathyridium pinguicola</i> and <i>H. venarum</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hippoboscidæ</i> contain parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Hippopotamus, parasites of the, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Histiocephalus</i>, a genus of nematodes, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p>
+
+<p>Hog, absence of tapeworms in the, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.8em;">"&emsp;cholera, supposed connection with <i>Stephanurus</i>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.8em;">"&emsp;skin affection from parasites in the wild, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hog’s flesh, supposed injuriousness of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;intestines perforated by parasites, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hogs, <i>Stephanurus</i> discovered in a Chinese race of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></p>
+
+<p>Horse, aneurism in the, from parasites, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;a thousand amphistomes found in the, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;bladderworms found in the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;bots or larval gadflies of the, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;earth-eating habits of, in relation to worms, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;ectozoa liable to attack the, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="499"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499"></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;epizoöty from strongyles in the, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;eye-worms from the, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;giant strongyle found in the, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;hæmatozoa discovered by Sonsino in the, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;hydatids from the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;internal parasites of the, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;plague, parasites not the cause of the, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;poultry lousiness of the, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;psorospermial sac in the mitral valve of a, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;scab or mange mites of the, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;Sonsino’s amphistomatoid fluke from the, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;stomach-worms of the, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;tapeworm epizoöty in the, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;tick, the so-called, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&ensp;worm-aneurism of the, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Husk in young pigs caused by strongyles, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;or parasitic bronchitis in cattle, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;or verminous bronchitis in dogs, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hydatid disease, deaths in Victoria from, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.6em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;possibility of stamping out, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Hydatids as the source of <i>Tænia echinococcus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;exogenous, endogenous, and multilocular, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;frequently infest the head of the tibia, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;hygienic considerations respecting, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in animals, Dr Cleghorn’s statistics of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in Guy’s Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in King’s College Anatomical Museum, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in Royal Veterinary College Museum, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in St Bartholomew’s Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in St George’s Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in St Mary’s Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in St Thomas’s Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Brighton and Sussex Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Calcutta Medical College Museum, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Cambridge Anatomical Museum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Charing Cross Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the London Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Melbourne Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Middlesex Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Norfolk and Norwich Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Oxford Anatomical and Pathological Museum, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Royal College of Surgeons Museum, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in the Westminster Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in University College Museum, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;in Victoria, number of deaths from, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;mortality in England from, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;occupying the bones of cattle, specimens of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;occupying the heart of a sow, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;occupying the nasal sinuses of a porpoise, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;of animals in metropolitan museums, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="500"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500"></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Hydatids of the tibia in the Nottingham Hospital Museum, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;preserved in museums, their value, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;prevalence of, in Australia, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;probable percentage of fatal cases of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;successful treatment of, by MacGillivray, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;their distribution in the organs of the body, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;the so-called daughter vesicles of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Hydrachnidæ</i>, a family of Arachnida, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hymenolepis</i>, as a new genus of cestodes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hyperoödon</i>, Echinorhynchus found by Hyrtl in, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hyperæmia</i> and <i>Anæmia</i> due to parasites, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Hyrax</i>, parasites of the Cape, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Ichneumon, the Indian, fluke from the, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Insectivora</i>, entozoa found in the, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></p>
+
+<p>Insect parasites, various families of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Insects, entozoa of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></p>
+
+<p>Intestinal worms, popular ideas respecting, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>Itch or scab insect, description of the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Ixodes</i>, species of, attacking man, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Ixodidæ</i>, a family of Arachnida, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Jigger or chigoe as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Kaleege, worms from the black-backed, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Kangaroo, tapeworm in the gall-bladder of a, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;worms from the knee-joint of a, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Kestrel, entozoa from the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Kite, entozoa from the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Klipdas (<i>Hyrax</i>), parasites of the, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></p>
+
+<p>Koala (<i>Phascolarctos</i>), tapeworm from a, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Köllikeria filicollis</i>, habitat of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Lagenorhynchus Eschrichti</i>, worm found in, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></p>
+
+<p>Lambs, tapeworm epizoöty in, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Lampyris</i>, correction of an error respecting, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></p>
+
+<p>Larvæ of flukes, Pagenstecher’s researches on, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></p>
+
+<p>Leeches considered as human parasites, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&ensp;of India, Ceylon, Japan, and Java, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&ensp;semiparasitic character of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lemurs, cœnuri or polycephalous hydatids in, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></p>
+
+<p>Leporines, acarine parasites of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Leptodera</i> (<i>Anguillula</i>) <i>stercoralis</i>, description of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>intestinalis</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Leptus autumnalis</i> a human parasite, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></p>
+
+<p>Lernæan parasites found on whales, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Lernæidæ</i>, a family of crustacean parasites, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Leuciscus</i>, the bleak, a possible source of tapeworm, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Leucochloridium</i>, experiments by Zeller with, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></p>
+
+<p>Lice, various species found on man, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Ligula nodosa</i>, as an immature <i>Bothriocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;the young state of <i>Bothriocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="501"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501"></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>simplicissima</i>, researches by Duchamp on, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Lindermannia</i> proposed as a generic title, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p>Ling, Echinorhynchi in the, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p>
+
+<p>Lion, hydatids from the, in the Hunterian Museum, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Liotheidæ</i>, a family of parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Liver fluke, the common, in man, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></p>
+
+<p>Louse of the elephant, <a href="#Page_400">400</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Lucilia hominivora</i>, habits of the, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></p>
+
+<p>Lumbrici, geographical distribution of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&emsp;in the Mauritius, remarks by Dyco on, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&emsp;remarkable cases of, in children, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&emsp;violent symptoms caused by, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lumbricoid worms, poisonous effects produced by, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p>
+
+<p>Lungs of the porpoise, worms in the, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Maggots, rat-tailed, found in the horse, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp;various species of, found in man, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Malacobdellidæ</i>, a family of suctorial annelids, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Manatees, parasites of the, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></p>
+
+<p>Marmoset monkeys, parasites of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></p>
+
+<p>Marsupial animals, parasites of, <a href="#Page_430">430</a></p>
+
+<p>Martens, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></p>
+
+<p>Masuri and soorti, parasites of elephants, <a href="#Page_395">395</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;or amphistomes occur in man, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Measle-cysts in the Punjab, report respecting, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></p>
+
+<p>Measled cattle cured by removal from sources of infection, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp; meat, Giacomini’s observations on, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Measles and bladderworms in cattle, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;and <i>Tæniæ</i>, observations of Marchi on, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;found in mutton brought to table, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;of pork reared by experiment, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Meat question, the, in relation to “rot”, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;served as rations, Cysticerci in the, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Melolontha</i> considered as an intermediate host, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>vulgaris</i> as an intermediate “host”, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Melophagus</i>, a genus of parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Mermis albicans</i>, development of, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></p>
+
+<p>Messmates and parasites of mollusks, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></p>
+
+<p>Miana bug of Persia, or <i>Argas</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></p>
+
+<p>Mice, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Micrococci</i> considered as human parasites, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Micropteron</i> (<i>Delphinus</i>), flukes in, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></p>
+
+<p>Mimetism favoring fluke development, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></p>
+
+<p>Mite found upon <i>Balæna australis</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></p>
+
+<p>Mole, parasites of the common, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></p>
+
+<p>Mollusks, entozoa of, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></p>
+
+<p>Monads, parasitic forms of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p>
+
+<p>Monkeys, hydatids obtained from, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp; parasites of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="502"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Monodon monoceros</i>, nematode worms of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Monostoma plicatum</i> from a northern whale, <a href="#Page_421">421</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>verrucosum</i>, allusion to the eggs of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Monostomidæ</i>, a family of flukes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Mosquito, avian hæmatozoa in the, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></p>
+
+<p>Mosquitoes of Queensland, filariæ in the, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></p>
+
+<p>Mules, fatal epidemic affecting, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Musca</i>, larvæ of, as human parasites, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></p>
+
+<p>Musk-rat, cestode parasite found in the, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></p>
+
+<p>Mutton measles, their existence denied, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Narwhal, <i>Prosthecosacter</i> infesting the, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Nematobothrium filarina</i>, habitat of, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Nematoda</i>, families of the order of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Nematodes abundant in marsupials, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p>
+
+<p>Nematoids, opinion of Villot respecting the “free”, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></p>
+
+<p>Nestlings destroyed by tapeworms, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></p>
+
+<p>Newts, <i>Echinorhynchus anthuris</i> of water, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Nycteribiidæ</i> as parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Octobothrium lanceolatum</i>, allusion to the eggs of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Odontobius ceti</i> from <i>Balæna australis</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Œstridæ</i>, the, a family of parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp;infesting the ox and sheep, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Œstrus</i> (Gastrophilus) <i>equi</i> of the horse, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.3em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>hominis</i>, Mr Higginson’s case of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Olulaniasis of the cat, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Onchocerca reticulata</i> of the horse, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Onchotyle appendiculata</i> from a dog-fish, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></p>
+
+<p>Opossum, <i>Echinorhynchus</i> in a Brazilian, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></p>
+
+<p>Opossums, flukes infesting American, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;much infested by nematodes, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Orcella brevirostris</i>, fluke found by Dr Anderson in, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Orthagoriscus mola</i> as a “host”, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p>
+
+<p>Ostrich, entozoa from the American, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Otters, flukes and other entozoa of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></p>
+
+<p>Ox, insect parasites and tormentors of the, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.6em;">"&ensp;&nbsp;species of <i>Strongylus</i> infesting the, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Oxyuridæ</i>, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Oxyurides, sanitary precautions in respect of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;source and mode of development of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.9em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;voluntary swallowing of human, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Oxyuris curvula</i> of the horse, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>vermicularis</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Oysters as bearers of fluke larvæ, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Pachydermata, parasites of the, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></p>
+
+<p>Palisade worms in relation to aneurism, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Paramecium</i> (Balantidium) <i>coli</i> of man, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Paramecium</i>, semiparasitic character of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></p>
+
+<p>Parasites from birds at the Zoological Gardens, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><span class="pagenum" title="503"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503"></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;in the Hunterian Museum, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;in grouse from the Earl of Cawdor’s estate, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;of savages, little known respecting, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;popular delusions concerning, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;their etiological significance not fully recognised, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Partridge, entozoa of the, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></p>
+
+<p>Peccaries (<i>Dicotyles</i>), parasites of the, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Pediculidæ</i>, a family of parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Pediculus</i>, various forms of, infesting man, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Pentastoma constrictum</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;<i>tænioides</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;found in the horse, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;in the dog, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Pentastomes infesting monkeys, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Pentastomidæ</i>, a family of Arachnida, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Perch, flukes from the eye of the, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Peritrachelius insignis</i> from a dolphin, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p>
+
+<p>Pheasant, entozoa of the, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&emsp;parasites from various species of, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Philopteridæ</i>, a family of parasitic insects, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Phocæna communis</i>, flukes found in, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Phyllobothrium delphini</i>, source of, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p>
+
+<p>Pigeon, two hundred ascarides in a, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></p>
+
+<p>Pig, hydatids from the, in the Hunterian Museum, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"&emsp;occurrence of Cysticerci in the brain of the, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Pigs, the cause of “husk” in young, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></p>
+
+<p>Pike-whale, large fluke from the, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></p>
+
+<p>Pike, worms from the urinary bladder of the, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Pinnipedia</i>, parasites of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></p>
+
+<p>Pintado, ascarides in the vulturine, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Physaloptera turgida</i> infesting opossums, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Plagiotænia gigantea</i> of the rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></p>
+
+<p>Plagues, parasites considered as a cause of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Platanista gangetica</i>, fluke from, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Podiceps</i> and <i>Gallinula</i>, legs of, infested by filariæ, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Polecats, filariæ in the cranial sinuses of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Polystoma</i> and <i>Amphistoma</i> of the frog, <a href="#Page_452">452</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>appendiculata</i>, allusion to the eggs of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Polystomes, general characters of the, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Polystomidæ</i>, a family of flukes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Ponies, Welsh mountain, epizoöty affecting, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></p>
+
+<p>Porcupine ant-eater, tapeworm from the, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p>
+
+<p>Pork tapeworm, general description of the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;sources of infection by the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Porpoise, flukes found in the common, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp;  remarkable cestode from the common, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp;  worm from the tympanic cavity of the, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Porrigo, mortality in England from, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p>
+
+<p>Poultry lousiness not a human disorder, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Proglottides</i> mistaken for <i>Distomata</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="504"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Prosthecosacter</i>, several species of, <a href="#Page_423">423</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;specimens of, in Hunter’s Museum, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Proteles</i> or earth-wolf, parasites of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Protozoa</i>, parasitic families belonging to the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&emsp;parasitic forms of, and gregarinæ, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Psorospermiæ</i> as a family of Protozoa, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;considered as human parasites, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Psorosperms abundant in the hog, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;in the flesh of animals, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Pulex penetrans</i>, gigger or chigoe, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p>
+
+<p>Pulmonary vessels of whales, worms in the, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Pycnogonidæ</i>, a family of Arachnida, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Quadrumana</i>, entozoa and ectozoa of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></p>
+
+<p>Quail, entozoa of the, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></p>
+
+<p>Queensland, Bancroft’s collection of entozoa in, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Rabbits and hares, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.4em;">"&emsp;&ensp;attacked by the autumnal spider, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.4em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>Cœnuri</i> found in the soft parts of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Racoons, parasites infesting, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></p>
+
+<p>Rats, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Rediæ</i> and <i>Cercariæ</i>, Pagenstecher’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></p>
+
+<p>Redshank, entozoa from the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Reduvius</i>, or fly bug, various species of, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p>
+
+<p>Redwing, <i>Echinorhynchi</i> from a, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></p>
+
+<p>Reptiles, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Rhea Americana</i>, filariæ obtained by Darwin from, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Rhinoceroses, parasites of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Rhopalophorus</i>, a genus of flukes, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Rhynchotæniada</i> considered as a group, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Rhytina stelleri</i>, parasites of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></p>
+
+<p>Rodentia, parasites of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></p>
+
+<p>“Rot” affecting the liver of porpoises, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;disease, conclusions respecting the, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Round worms, various families of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Ruminating animals, ectozoa found on, <a href="#Page_350">350</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;entozoa of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Salmon, pit-headed tapeworms of the, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Salmo umbla</i>, worms in the kidney of, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Sanguisuga medicinalis</i> or the grey leech, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p>
+
+<p>Sanitation in connection with “rot”, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Sarcoptes</i> of the hog, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.8em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>scabiei</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Savages, little known about the parasites of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></p>
+
+<p>Scabies, mortality in England from, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></p>
+
+<p>Scab or itch insect of man, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Scalops canadensis</i>, nematode found in, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Schistosoma</i>, considered as a synonym of Bilharzia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Sclerostoma</i> and <i>Anchylostoma</i> as synonyms, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="505"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Sclerostoma dentatum</i> of the hog, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;<i>pinguicola</i> of Verrill, the so-called, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;<i>syngamus</i> in birds, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Seals and walruses, parasites of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></p>
+
+<p>Sheep, hydatids from cattle and, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;of New South Wales, fatal epizoöty in, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;parasitic bronchitis affecting, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&ensp;whip-worms occasioning “scour” in, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Shrews, parasites known to infest, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Simondsia paradoxa</i>, description of, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Simulium reptans</i> or the creeping gnat, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Skunk, tapeworm infesting the, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></p>
+
+<p>Sloths, nematode worms found in, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></p>
+
+<p>Snake-birds, parasites in the cranium of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></p>
+
+<p>Snake, larval nematode from the heart of a, <a href="#Page_455">455</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp; worms from an Egyptian hooded, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Solidungula</i>, parasites of the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Solpugidæ</i>, a family of Arachnida, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Soorti and masuri parasites of elephants, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Sphærularia bombi</i>, Sir J. Lubbock’s description of, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;found in various bees, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Schneider’s account of the development of, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Spirilla</i>, found in the blood of fever patients, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Spiroptera helicina</i> in the feet of birds, <a href="#Page_440">440</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>megastoma</i> of the horse, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>sanguinolenta</i>, Lewis’s remarks on, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>sexalata</i> infesting <i>Dicotyles</i>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>strongylina</i> of the hog, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sporocysts or unorganised germ-sacs, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></p>
+
+<p>Squirrels, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Stephanurus dentatus</i> discovered by Natterer, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Diesing’s description of, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;in Australia, announcement respecting, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;in relation to porcine epizoöty, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;<i>Nattereri</i>, proposed synonym, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Professor Fletcher’s account of, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.4em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;rediscovered by Dr White, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sticklebacks, <i>Gyrodactylus</i> from the tail of, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></p>
+
+<p>Stoat, parasites found in the common, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Stomoxys calcitrans</i>, or the leg-sticker, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></p>
+
+<p>Strongyle, meaning and origin of the term, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Strongyles, Welsh equine epizoöty from, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Strongylidæ</i>, family of round worms, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Strongylus acuticaudatus</i> from a Tinamou, <a href="#Page_447">447</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>armatus</i> of the horse, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>dentatus</i> confounded with <i>Stephanurus</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;(<i>Eustrongylus</i>) <i>gigas</i>, found in man, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>filaria</i>, experiments by Leuckart with, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&ensp;temperature necessary to kill the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="506"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506"></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>micrurus</i>, or cattle lung-worm, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;original experiments with, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>minutissimus</i> in Algerian sheep, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>Pallasii</i> from <i>Beluga leucas</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>paradoxus</i> a cause of husk, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>pergracilis</i> and the grouse disease, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;<i>tetracanthus</i>, larvæ of, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sturgeon, <i>Echinostoma hispidum</i> from a, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Suidæ</i>, rarity of flukes in the, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></p>
+
+<p>Sun-fish, <i>Tetrarhynchus</i> infesting the, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p>
+
+<p>Swine Breeders’ Association, U.S. National, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;external parasites of, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sword-fish, parasites of the, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></p>
+
+<p>Sydney, entozoa collected by Krefft and Masters near, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Syngamus</i> (<i>Sclerostoma</i>) <i>trachealis</i> in birds, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Syrphidæ</i> include rat-tailed maggots, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Tachyglossus setosus</i>, tapeworm found in, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></p>
+
+<p>Tacuschi, parasites of the so-called, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></p>
+
+<p>Tapeworm, Cullingworth’s monstrous variety of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;from the vulpine opossum, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;in the Baikal, statements of Kaschin respecting, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;mortality in England from, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;the broad, derived from fish, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tapeworms infesting marsupials, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;injurious to avian bearers, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;(<i>Ligulæ</i>) causing piscine epizoöty, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;of the dog, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;symptoms occasioned by, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.2em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;various families of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tapir, parasites of the American, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tænia abietina</i>, a variety of <i>T. mediocanellata</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>acanthotrias</i>, remarks on the so-called, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;and <i>cysticercus</i>, coexistence of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>angulata</i> in nestling blackbirds, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>bipapillosa</i> from the wombat, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>calva</i> and the grouse disease, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>canina</i> identical with <i>T. elliptica</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>crassicollis</i>, its source suggested by Goeze, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;possessing two heads, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>cyathiformis</i>, allusion to the eggs of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>echinococcus</i>, its prevalence in Iceland, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;reared from hydatids, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>elliptica</i> as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>festiva</i> in <i>Macropus</i> and <i>Halmaturus</i>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>flavopuncta</i>, brief description of the, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;from the Cape of Good Hope, variety of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>geophiloides</i> a new tapeworm, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>lata</i> of Pruner, probable synonym of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>lophosoma</i>, considered as a species, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="507"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507"></a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>Madagascariensis</i>, brief description of the, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>magna</i> of the rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_401">401</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>marginata</i>, as a human parasite, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>mediocanellata</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Cullingworth’s specimen of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;feeding experiments with, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Mussulmans infested by, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>megaloön</i>, doubtful character of the, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>nana</i>, brief description of the, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>perfoliata</i>, temperature necessary to kill the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>phalangistæ</i> from the vulpine opossum, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>phoptica</i>, a new tapeworm, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;remarkable Hunterian specimen of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>saginata</i>, considered as a synonym, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>serrata</i>, temperature necessary to kill, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>solium</i>, general description of the, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  "&nbsp; &nbsp;  sources of infection by, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>tenella</i>, probable source of the, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.1em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;<i>variabilis</i>, allusion to the eggs of, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Tetrarhynchi</i> of sharks and rays, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tetraphyllobothridæ</i>, a family of tapeworms, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tetrarhynchus reptans</i> of the sun-fish, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></p>
+
+<p>Tenches destroyed by <i>Ligulæ</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tetrastoma renale</i>, notice of the so-called, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tetrabothrium triangulare</i>, from <i>Delphinis</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Thecosoma</i> considered as a synonym of <i>Bilharzia</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></p>
+
+<p>Thorn-headed worms resemble nematodes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Thread-worm, description of the common, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></p>
+
+<p>Tinamou, worms from the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Tongues of living animals inspected for “cyst”, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></p>
+
+<p>Tope, or penny dog-fish, <i>Tetrarhynchus</i> of the, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></p>
+
+<p>Trachearian arachnida, parasitic families of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Trematoda</i>, families of the order of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Trematode-larvæ, Pagenstecher’s researches on, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></p>
+
+<p>Trematodes infesting opossums, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Triænophoras nodulosus</i> with two heads, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Trichina affinis</i>, the so-called, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&ensp;<i>spiralis</i>, discovery of, in man, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&emsp;description of the mature, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&emsp;experiments conducted in England with, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&emsp;in relation to diseased meat, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&emsp;temperature necessary to kill the, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Trichinidæ</i> form a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Trichinosis in animals, symptoms of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;in England, an outbreak of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&emsp;in Germany, outbreaks of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Trichocephalidæ, a family of round worms, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Trichocephalus affinis</i> in sheep, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>crenatus</i> of the hog, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>dispar</i>, description of the, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><span class="pagenum" title="508"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Trichosoma</i>, new species found by Solger, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tricuspidaria nodulosa</i>, with two heads, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.8em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;(<i>Triænophorus</i>) <i>nodulosa</i> infesting fishes, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tristomes not strictly entozoa, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tristomidæ</i>, a family of flukes, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p>
+
+<p>Trout, <i>Echinorhynchi</i> in the, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.2em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;the, a probable source of <i>Bothriocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tsetse fly fatal to the horse, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></p>
+
+<p>Turbellarians, remark concerning the, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>Turbot, <i>Echinorhynchi</i> in the, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></p>
+
+<p>Turkeys, water, parasites found by Wyman in, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></p>
+
+<p>Turtle, worms from a snapping, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></p>
+
+<p>Tympanum of whales, worms in the cavity of the, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Tyroglyphus Méricourti</i> of Laboulbène, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Urobales palustris</i> in connection with the guinea-worm, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Udonella caligorum</i>, peculiar habit of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp;  mode of development of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></span><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Wagtail, flukes reared by Zeller in the, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></p>
+
+<p>Wallaby, <i>Filaria</i> from the abdomen of a, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;tapeworms observed in the, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Warblers, development of flukes in, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></p>
+
+<p>Warbles formed by the larvæ of Œstrus, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></p>
+
+<p>Wasps (<i>Vespa</i>), <i>Sphærularia</i> in, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></p>
+
+<p>Water-hen, worms found in the legs of the, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></p>
+
+<p>Water-turkeys, worms in the cranium of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a></p>
+
+<p>Weasles, internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.7em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;source of tapeworms in, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whale-lice (<i>Cyami</i> and <i>Pycnogonidæ</i>), <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;(<i>Cyamidæ</i>), zoological position of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whale-worms found by John Hunter, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></p>
+
+<p>Whales, ectozoa of, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.65em;">"&emsp;&ensp;internal parasites of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whip-worm (<i>Trichocephalus</i>) of the hog, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></p>
+
+<p>White-throat, flukes reared by Zeller in the, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></p>
+
+<p>Wombat, tapeworm found in the, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></p>
+
+<p>Worm-aneurism, Bollinger’s researches on, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></p>
+
+<p>Worm-like sac in the mitral valve of a horse, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></p>
+
+<p>Worms are not a criterion of previous disease, <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;from the heart of a guillemot, <a href="#Page_447">447</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;infesting the Virginian opossum, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;in the knee-joint of a kangaroo, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;in the tympanic cavity of whales, <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;in whales, found by John Hunter, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;mortality in England from, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&emsp;&nbsp;of the kangaroo in the Hunterian Museum, <a href="#Page_433">433</a></span><br /></p>
+
+
+<p>Zebra, hydatids from the liver of the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;from a, described by Huxley, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="tac fs70">PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="advertisement">
+<tr><td class="tac brlt fs110 pt10">WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><hr class="t30" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs70">Post 8vo, price 5<i>s.</i>, Illustrated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs100 plr10"><b>THE INTERNAL PARASITES OF OUR DOMESTICATED<br />ANIMALS:</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs85"><span class="smcap">A Manual of the Entozoa of the Ox, Sheep, Dog, Horse,<br />Pig, and Cat</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl10 fs85">“En fait d’helminthologie, M. Cobbold est considéré en Angleterre<br />comme la première autorité.”&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cosmos</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs85">London: ‘<span class="smcap">The Field</span>’ Office, 346, Strand, W.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><hr class="t15" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs70">Price 1<i>s.</i>, with Two Illustrations.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs100 ls01em"><b>THE GROUSE DISEASE:</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs85"><span class="smcap">A Statement of Facts tending to prove the Parasitic Origin<br />of the Epidemic</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs85">London: ‘<span class="smcap">The Field</span>’ Office, 346, Strand, W.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><hr class="t15" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs70">Third Edition, Re-written, price 5<i>s.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs100"><b>TAPEWORMS (HUMAN ENTOZOA):<br />
+<span class="brl fs85">THEIR SOURCES, VARIETIES, AND TREATMENT.</span></b><br />
+<span class="smcap brl fs85">With One Hundred Cases.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tal brl pl10 fs85">“It treats upon a subject of which the author is the first scientific<br />exponent in this country.”&mdash;<span class="smcap">Popular Science Review</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs85">London: <span class="smcap">Longmans</span> and Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl"><hr class="t15" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs70">Price 2<i>s.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brl fs100"><b>CATALOGUE OF ENTOZOA IN THE MUSEUM OF THE<br />ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tac brlb fs85 pb10">London: <span class="smcap">Hardwicke</span> and <span class="smcap">Bogue</span>, 192, Piccadilly.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<table class="fs120" width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="advertisement">
+<col width="25%" /><col width="20%" /><col width="55%" />
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+    <td class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tac brt fs70 pb10"><i>London, New Burlington Street.<br />May, 1879.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl fs130">SELECTION</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl fs50">FROM</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl fs160 lsm01em"><b>MESSRS J. &amp; A. CHURCHILL’S</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 159px;"><img src="images/label.png" width="159" height="33" alt="" /></div></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl fs50">COMPRISING</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl fs70 ptb06">ALL RECENT WORKS PUBLISHED BY THEM</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl fs50">ON THE</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl ptb06">ART AND SCIENCE</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brl fs50">OF</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="tac brlb fs130 pb10 ls02em">MEDICINE<br /><br /><br /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h2><ins title="Transcriber’s note:An index to the following collection of other publications by J. &amp; A. Churchill Ltd.">INDEX</ins></h2>
+
+<div id="catalogue">
+<p>
+Acton on the Reproductive Organs, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Adams (W.) on Clubfoot, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;(R.) on Rheumatic Gout, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a></span><br />
+Allingham’s Diseases of the Rectum, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a><br />
+Anatomical Remembrancer, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+Anderson (McC.) on Eczema, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;(McC.) on Parasitic Affections, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a></span><br />
+Aveling’s Influence of Posture, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br /><br />
+
+Balfour’s Diseases of the Heart, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Bantock’s Rupture of Perineum, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+Barclay’s Medical Diagnosis, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Barker’s Puerperal Diseases, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+Barnes’ Obstetric Operations, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;Diseases of Women, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a></span><br />
+Basham on Diseases of the Kidneys, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Beale on Kidney Diseases, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&ensp;on Microscope in Medicine, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a></span><br />
+Bellamy’s Guide to Surgical Anatomy, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a><br />
+Bennet’s Winter and Spring on the Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;Pulmonary Consumption, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;Nutrition, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a></span><br />
+Bennett (J. R.) on Cancerous Growths, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a><br />
+Berkart’s Asthma, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Bigg’s Orthopraxy, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+Binz’s Elements of Therapeutics, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Black on the Urinary Organs, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Blakiston’s Clinical Reminiscences, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+Bose’s Rational Therapeutics, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;Recognisant Medicine, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a></span><br />
+Braune’s Topographical Anatomy, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+Brodhurst’s Orthopædic Surgery, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+Bryant’s Practice of Surgery, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+Burdett’s Cottage Hospital, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Burnett on the Ear, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+Buzzard on Syphilitic Nervous Affections, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br /><br />
+
+Carpenter’s Human Physiology, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a><br />
+Carter (H. V.) on Mycetoma, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Carter (W.) on Renal and Urinary Diseases, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Cauty on Diseases of the Skin, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Chapman on Neuralgia, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a><br />
+Charteris’ Practice of Medicine, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+Clark’s Outlines of Surgery, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&nbsp;Surgical Diagnosis, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a></span><br />
+Clay’s Obstetric Surgery, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+Coles’ Dental Mechanics, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+Cormack’s Clinical Studies, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Cottle’s Hair in Health and Disease, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Cullingworth’s Nurse’s Companion, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+Curling’s Diseases of the Rectum, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;Diseases of the Testis, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a></span><br /><br />
+
+Dalby on the Ear, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+Dalton’s Human Physiology, <a href="#Page_9i">9</a><br />
+Day on Children’s Diseases, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash; on Headaches, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a></span><br />
+Dobell’s Lectures on Winter Cough, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;Loss of Weight, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_15i">15</a></span><br />
+Domville’s Manual for Hospital Nurses, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Druitt’s Surgeon’s Vade-Mecum, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+Duncan on the Female Perineum, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+Dunglison’s Medical Dictionary, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br /><br />
+
+Ellis’s Manual of Diseases of Children, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Emmet’s Gynæcology, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+Eulenburg and Guttmann’s Sympathetic System of Nerves, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a><br /><br />
+
+Fayrer’s Observations in India, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+Fergusson’s Practical Surgery, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+Fenwick’s Guide to Medical Diagnosis, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Flint on Phthisis, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&nbsp; on Percussion and Auscultation, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a></span><br />
+Foster’s Clinical Medicine, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+Fox (C. B.) Sanitary Examinations, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br />
+Fox (T.) Atlas of Skin Diseases, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Frey’s Histology, <a href="#Page_9i">9</a><br /><br />
+
+Gamgee on Fractures of the Limbs, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;on Treatment of Wounds, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a></span><br />
+Gant’s Science and Practice of Surgery, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;Diseases of the Bladder, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a></span><br />
+Gaskoin on Psoriasis or Lepra, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Glenn’s Laws affecting Medical Men, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Godlee’s Atlas of Human Anatomy, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+Gowan on Consumption, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br /><br />
+
+Habershon on Diseases of the Liver, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;on Diseases of the Abdomen, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;on Diseases of the Stomach, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;on the Pneumogastric Nerve, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a></span><br />
+Hamilton’s Nervous Diseases, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a><br />
+Hancock’s Surgery of Foot and Ankle, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+Harris on Lithotomy, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a><br />
+Harrison’s Stricture of Urethra, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a><br />
+Hayden on the Heart, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Heath’s Minor Surgery and Bandaging, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&nbsp;Diseases and Injuries of Jaws, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&nbsp;Operative Surgery, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&nbsp;Practical Anatomy, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a></span><br />
+Higgens’ Ophthalmic Practice, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+Holden’s Landmarks, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;Human Osteology, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a></span><br />
+Hood on Gout, Rheumatism, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_19i">19</a><br />
+Hooper’s Physician’s Vade-Mecum, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+Horton’s Tropical Diseases, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+Hutchinson’s Clinical Surgery, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a><br />
+Huth’s Marriage of Near Kin, <a href="#Page_9i">9</a><br /><br />
+
+Ireland’s Idiocy and Imbecility, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br /><br />
+
+James’ Sore Throat, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Jones (C. H.) and Sieveking’s Pathological Anatomy, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&nbsp; (C. H.) on Functional Nervous Disorders, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a></span><br />
+Jones (H. McN.) Aural Surgery, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Atlas of Diseases of Membrana Tympani, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a></span><br />
+Jones (Wharton) Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+Jordan’s Surgical Inflammations, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><span class="pagenum" title="3"><a name="Page_3i" id="Page_3i"></a></span><br />
+Jordan’s Surgical Inquiries, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br /><br />
+
+Leber and Rottenstein’s Dental Caries, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+Lee (H.) on Syphilis, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Leared on Imperfect Digestion, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a><br />
+Liebreich’s Atlas of Ophthalmoscopy, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+Liveing on Megrim, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_18i">18</a><br /><br />
+
+Macdonald’s (A.) Disease of the heart, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Macdonald’s (J. D.) Examination of Water, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br />
+Mackenzie on Diphtheria, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Macnamara on Diseases of the Eye, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+Madden’s Health Resorts, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+Marsden on certain Forms of Cancer, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a><br />
+Mason on Harelip and Cleft Palate, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Surgery of the Face, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a></span><br />
+Maunder’s Operative Surgery, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Surgery of Arteries, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a></span><br />
+Mayne’s Medical Vocabulary, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+Morris (H.) Anatomy of the Joints, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a><br /><br />
+
+Ogston’s Medical Jurisprudence, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Osborn on Hydrocele, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a><br /><br />
+
+Parkes’ Manual of Practical Hygiene, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br />
+Parkin’s Epidemiology, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+Pavy on Food and Dietetics, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash; on Diabetes, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a></span><br />
+Peacock’s Valvular Disease, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Phillips’ Materia Medica, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Pirrie’s Surgery, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+Pollock’s Rheumatism, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a><br /><br />
+
+Ramsbotham’s Obstetrics, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+Reynolds’ Uses of Electricity, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+Roberts’ (C.) Manual of Anthropometry, <a href="#Page_9i">9</a><br />
+Roberts’ (D. Lloyd) Practice of Midwifery, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+Roussel’s Transfusion of Blood, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a><br />
+Routh’s Infant Feeding, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+Roy’s Burdwan Fever, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+Royle and Harley’s Materia Medica, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Rutherford’s Practical Histology, <a href="#Page_9i">9</a><br /><br />
+
+Salt’s Medico-Electric Apparatus, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+Sanderson’s Physiological Handbook, <a href="#Page_9i">9</a><br />
+Sansom’s Diseases of the Heart, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Savage on the Female Pelvic Organs, <a href="#Page_4i">4</a><br />
+Savory’s Domestic Medicine, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Sayre’s Orthopædic Surgery, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+Schroeder’s Manual of Midwifery, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+Semple on the Heart, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Sewill’s Dental Anatomy, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+Shapter’s Diseases of the Heart, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Sheppard on Madness, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br />
+Sibson’s Medical Anatomy, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a><br />
+Sieveking’s Life Assurance, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br />
+Smith (E.) Wasting Diseases of Children, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Clinical Studies, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a></span><br />
+Smith (Henry) Surgery of the Rectum, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Smith (Heywood) Gynæcology, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+Smith (J.) Dental Anatomy, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+Smith (W. R.) Nursing, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Spender’s Bath Waters, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+Steiner’s Diseases of Children, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+Stillé and Maisch’s Dispensatory, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Stocken’s Dental Materia Medica, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+Stowe’s Toxicological Chart, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+Sullivan’s Tropical Diseases, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+Swain’s Surgical Emergencies, <a href="#Page_5i">5</a><br />
+Swayne’s Obstetric Aphorisms, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br /><br />
+
+Taft’s Operative Dentistry, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+Tait’s Hospital Mortality, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Taylor’s Principles of Medical Jurisprudence, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;Manual of Medical Jurisprudence, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;Poisons in relation to Medical Jurisprudence, <a href="#Page_20i">20</a></span><br />
+Teale’s Dangers to Health, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br />
+Thomas on Ear and Throat Diseases, <a href="#Page_6i">6</a><br />
+Thompson’s Stricture of Urethra, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Practical Lithotomy and Lithotrity, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Diseases of Urinary Organs, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Diseases of the Prostate, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Calculous Disease, <a href="#Page_7i">7</a></span><br />
+Thornton on Tracheotomy, <a href="#Page_16i">16</a><br />
+Thorowgood on Asthma, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;on Materia Medica, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a></span><br />
+Thudichum’s Pathology of Urine, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Tibbits’ Medical Electricity, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;Map of Motor Points, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a></span><br />
+Tilt’s Uterine Therapeutics, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&ensp;Change of Life, <a href="#Page_13i">13</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&ensp;Health in India, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a></span><br />
+Tomes’ (C. S.) Dental Anatomy, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&ensp;(J. and C. S.) Dental Surgery, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a></span><br />
+Tuke on the Influence of the Mind upon the Body, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br /><br />
+
+Van Buren on Diseases of the Genito-Urinary Organs, <a href="#Page_8i">8</a><br />
+Veitch’s Handbook for Nurses, <a href="#Page_15i">15</a><br />
+Virchow’s Post-mortem Examinations, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a><br /><br />
+
+Wagstaffe’s Human Osteology, <a href="#Page_9i">9</a><br />
+Walton’s Diseases of the Eye, <a href="#Page_22i">22</a><br />
+Ward on Affections of the Liver, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+Waring’s Practical Therapeutics, <a href="#Page_12i">12</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;Bazaar Medicines of India, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a></span><br />
+Wells (Soelberg) on Diseases of the Eye, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;Long, Short, and Weak Sight, <a href="#Page_23i">23</a></span><br />
+Wells (Spencer) on Diseases of the Ovaries, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+West’s Diseases of Women, <a href="#Page_14i">14</a><br />
+Whistler’s Syphilis of Larynx, <a href="#Page_17i">17</a><br />
+Wilks’ Diseases of Nervous System, <a href="#Page_18i">18</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;Pathological Anatomy, <a href="#Page_10i">10</a></span><br />
+Wilson’s (E.) Anatomist’s Vade-Mecum, <a href="#Page_11i">11</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Diseases of the Skin, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Lectures on Ekzema, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&mdash;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;Lectures on Dermatology, <a href="#Page_19i">19</a></span><br />
+Wilson’s (G.) Handbook of Hygiene, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a><br />
+Woodman &amp; Tidy’s Forensic Medicine, <a href="#Page_21i">21</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="4"><a name="Page_4i" id="Page_4i"></a></span></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="hangin">THE PRACTICE OF SURGERY:<br />
+a Manual by <span class="smcap">Thomas Bryant</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Guy’s Hospital.
+Third Edition, 2 vols., crown 8vo, with 672 Engravings, 28s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SURGERY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">William Pirrie</span>, F.R.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University
+of Aberdeen. Third Edition, 8vo, with 490 Engravings, 28s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A SYSTEM OF PRACTICAL SURGERY,<br />
+by Sir <span class="smcap">William Fergusson</span>, Bart., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. Fifth Edition,
+8vo, with 463 Engravings, 21s. [1870]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">OPERATIVE SURGERY,<br />
+by C. F. <span class="smcap">Maunder</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the London Hospital.
+Second Edition, post 8vo, with 164 Engravings, 6s. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">SURGERY OF THE ARTERIES:<br />
+Lettsomian Lectures for 1875, on Aneurisms, Wounds, Hæmorrhages,
+&amp;c. Post 8vo, with 18 Engravings, 5s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE SURGEON’S VADE-MECUM,<br />
+a Manual of Modern Surgery, by <span class="smcap">Robert Druitt</span>. Eleventh Edition,
+fcap. 8vo, with 369 Engravings, 14s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF SURGERY:<br />
+a complete System and Textbook by F. J. <span class="smcap">Gant</span>, F.R.C.S., Senior Surgeon
+to the Royal Free Hospital. 8vo, with 470 Engravings, 24s. [1871]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">OUTLINES OF SURGERY AND SURGICAL PATHOLOGY,<br />
+including the Diagnosis and Treatment of Obscure and Urgent
+Cases, and the Surgical Anatomy of some Important Structures and
+Regions, by F. <span class="smcap">Le Gros Clark</span>, F.R.S., Consulting Surgeon to St.
+Thomas’s Hospital. Second Edition, Revised and Expanded by the
+Author, assisted by W. W. <span class="smcap">Wagstaffe</span>, F.R.C.S., Assistant-Surgeon
+to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN INDIA,<br />
+by Sir J. <span class="smcap">Fayrer</span>, K.C.S.I., M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., F.R.S.E., Honorary
+Physician to the Queen. 8vo, with Engravings, 20s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">TREATMENT OF WOUNDS:<br />
+Clinical Lectures, by <span class="smcap">Sampson Gamgee</span>, F.R.S.E., Surgeon to the
+Queen’s Hospital, Birmingham. Crown 8vo, with Engravings, 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">FRACTURES OF THE LIMBS<br />
+and their Treatment. 8vo, with Plates, 10s. 6d. [1871]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE FEMALE PELVIC ORGANS,<br />
+their Surgery, Surgical Pathology, and Surgical Anatomy, in a
+Series of Coloured Plates taken from Nature: with Commentaries,
+Notes, and Cases, by <span class="smcap">Henry Savage</span>, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.S., Consulting
+Officer of the Samaritan Free Hospital. Third Edition, 4to, £1 15s. [1875]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="5"><a name="Page_5i" id="Page_5i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">SURGICAL EMERGENCIES<br />
+together with the Emergencies attendant on Parturition and the
+Treatment of Poisoning: a Manual for the use of General Practitioners,
+by <span class="smcap">William P. Swain</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Royal Albert
+Hospital, Devonport. Second Edition, post 8vo, with 104 Engravings,
+6s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">TRANSFUSION OF HUMAN BLOOD:<br />
+with Table of 50 cases, by Dr <span class="smcap">Roussel</span>, of Geneva. Translated by
+<span class="smcap">Claude Guinness</span>, B.A. With a Preface by <span class="smcap">Sir James Paget</span>, Bart.
+Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ILLUSTRATIONS OF CLINICAL SURGERY,<br />
+consisting of Coloured Plates, Photographs, Woodcuts, Diagrams, &amp;c.,
+illustrating Surgical Diseases, Symptoms and Accidents; also Operations
+and other methods of Treatment. By <span class="smcap">Jonathan Hutchinson</span>,
+F.R.C.S., Senior Surgeon to the London Hospital. In Quarterly
+Fasciculi, 6s. 6d. each. Fasciculi I to X bound, with Appendix and
+Index, £3 10s. [1876&ndash;9]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRINCIPLES OF SURGICAL DIAGNOSIS<br />
+especially in Relation to Shock and Visceral Lesions, by <span class="smcap">F. Le Gros
+Clark</span>, F.R.C.S., Consulting Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital.
+8vo, 10s. 6d. [1870]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MINOR SURGERY AND BANDAGING:<br />
+a Manual for the Use of House-Surgeons, Dressers, and Junior
+Practitioners, by <span class="smcap">Christopher Heath</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to University
+College Hospital, and Holme Professor of Surgery in University
+College. Fifth Edition, fcap 8vo, with 86 Engravings, 5s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE JAWS:<br />
+<span class="smcap">Jacksonian Prize Essay</span>. Second Edition, 8vo, with 164 Engravings,
+12s. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A COURSE OF OPERATIVE SURGERY:<br />
+with 20 Plates drawn from Nature by <span class="smcap">M. Léveillé</span>, and coloured
+by hand under his direction. Large 8vo. 40s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HARE-LIP AND CLEFT PALATE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Francis Mason</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon and Lecturer on Anatomy at
+St. Thomas’s Hospital. With 66 Engravings, 8vo, 6s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE SURGERY OF THE FACE:<br />
+with 100 Engravings. 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]
+<span class="pagenum" title="6"><a name="Page_6i" id="Page_6i"></a></span></p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES AND INJURIES OF THE EAR,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">W. B. Dalby</span>, F.R.C.S., M.B., Aural Surgeon and Lecturer on
+Aural Surgery at St. George’s Hospital. Crown 8vo, with 21 Engravings,
+6s. 6d. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">AURAL SURGERY:<br />
+A Practical Treatise, by <span class="smcap">H. Macnaughton Jones</span>, M.D., Professor
+of the Queen’s University in Ireland, Surgeon to the Cork Ophthalmic
+and Aural Hospital. With 46 Engravings, crown 8vo, 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ATLAS OF DISEASES OF THE MEMBRANA TYMPANI.<br />
+In Coloured Plates, containing 62 Figures, with Text, crown 4to, 21s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE EAR:<br />
+its Anatomy, Physiology, and Diseases. A Practical Treatise, by
+<span class="smcap">Charles H. Burnett</span>, A.M., M.D., Aural Surgeon to the Presbyterian
+Hospital, and Surgeon in Charge of the Infirmary for Diseases
+of the Ear, Philadelphia. With 87 Engravings, 8vo, 18s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">EAR AND THROAT DISEASES.<br />
+Essays by <span class="smcap">Llewellyn Thomas</span>, M.D., Surgeon to the Central
+London Throat and Ear Hospital. Post 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CLUBFOOT:<br />
+its Causes, Pathology, and Treatment: Jacksonian Prize Essay by <span class="smcap">Wm.
+Adams</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Great Northern Hospital. Second
+Edition, 8vo, with 106 Engravings and 6 Lithographic Plates, 15s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ORTHOPÆDIC SURGERY:<br />
+Lectures delivered at St. George’s Hospital, by <span class="smcap">Bernard E. Brodhurst</span>,
+F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Royal Orthopædic Hospital. Second
+Edition, 8vo, with Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">OPERATIVE SURGERY OF THE FOOT AND ANKLE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Henry Hancock</span>, F.R.C.S., Consulting Surgeon to Charing Cross
+Hospital. 8vo, with Engravings, 15s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE TREATMENT OF SURGICAL INFLAMMATIONS<br />
+by a New Method, which greatly shortens their Duration, by <span class="smcap">Furneaux
+Jordan</span>, F.R.C.S., Professor of Surgery in Queen’s College, Birmingham.
+8vo, with Plates, 7s. 6d. [1870]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">SURGICAL INQUIRIES.<br />
+With numerous Lithographic Plates. 8vo, 5s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ORTHOPRAXY:<br />
+the Mechanical Treatment of Deformities, Debilities, and Deficiencies of
+the Human Frame, by <span class="smcap">H. Heather Bigg</span>, Associate of the Institute of
+Civil Engineers. Third Edition, with 319 Engravings, 8vo, 15s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ORTHOPÆDIC SURGERY:<br />
+and Diseases of the Joints. Lectures by <span class="smcap">Lewis A. Sayre</span>, M.D.,
+Professor of Orthopædic Surgery, Fractures and Dislocations, and
+Clinical Surgery, in Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York.
+With 274 Wood Engravings, 8vo, 20s. [1876]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="7"><a name="Page_7i" id="Page_7i"></a></span></p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE RECTUM,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Thomas B. Curling</span>, F.R.S., Consulting Surgeon to the London
+Hospital. Fourth Edition, Revised, 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE TESTIS, SPERMATIC CORD, AND SCROTUM.<br />
+Third Edition, with Engravings, 8vo, 16s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">FISTULA, HÆMORRHOIDS, PAINFUL ULCER, STRICTURE,<br />
+Prolapsus, and other Diseases of the Rectum: their Diagnosis and
+Treatment. By <span class="smcap">William Allingham</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to St.
+Mark’s Hospital for Fistula. Third Edition, 8vo, 10s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HYDROCELE:<br />
+its several Varieties and their Treatment, by <span class="smcap">Samuel Osborn</span>, F.R.C.S.,
+late Surgical Registrar to St. Thomas’s Hospital. With Engravings,
+fcap. 8vo, 3s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA<br />
+and Urinary Fistulæ; their Pathology and Treatment: Jacksonian
+Prize Essay by Sir <span class="smcap">Henry Thompson</span>, F.R.C.S., Emeritus Professor
+of Surgery to University College. Third Edition, 8vo, with Plates,
+10s. [1869]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRACTICAL LITHOTOMY AND LITHOTRITY;<br />
+or, An Inquiry into the best Modes of removing Stone from the
+Bladder. Second Edition, 8vo, with numerous Engravings. 10s. [1871]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">ALSO,</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS:<br />
+(Clinical Lectures). Fifth Edition, 8vo, with 2 Plates and 71
+Engravings, 10s. 6d. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">ALSO,</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE PROSTATE:<br />
+their Pathology and Treatment. Fourth Edition, 8vo, with numerous
+Plates, 10s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">ALSO,</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE PREVENTIVE TREATMENT OF CALCULOUS DISEASE<br />
+and the Use of Solvent Remedies. Second Edition, fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA,<br />
+and other Diseases of the Urinary Organs, by <span class="smcap">Reginald Harrison</span>,
+F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Liverpool Royal Infirmary. With 10 plates.
+8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LITHOTOMY AND EXTRACTION OF STONE<br />
+from the Bladder, Urethra, and Prostate of the Male, and from the
+Bladder of the Female, by <span class="smcap">W. Poulett Harris</span>, M.D., Surgeon-Major
+H.M. Bengal Medical Service. With Engravings, 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="8"><a name="Page_8i" id="Page_8i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">THE SURGERY OF THE RECTUM:<br />
+Lettsomian Lectures by <span class="smcap">Henry Smith</span>, F.R.C.S., Professor of Surgery
+in King’s College, Surgeon to King’s College Hospital. Fourth
+Edition, fcap. 8vo, 5s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">KIDNEY DISEASES, URINARY DEPOSITS,<br />
+and Calculous Disorders by <span class="smcap">Lionel S. Beale</span>, M.B., F.R.S., F.R.C.P.,
+Physician to King’s College Hospital. Third Edition, 8vo, with
+70 Plates, 25s. [1868]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE BLADDER,<br />
+Prostate Gland and Urethra, including a practical view of Urinary
+Diseases, Deposits and Calculi, by <span class="smcap">F. J. Gant</span>, F.R.C.S., Senior Surgeon
+to the Royal Free Hospital. Fourth Edition, crown 8vo, with
+Engravings, 10s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS,<br />
+with Aids thereto, by <span class="smcap">W. R. Basham</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., late Senior
+Physician to the Westminster Hospital. 8vo, with 10 Plates, 5s. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">RENAL AND URINARY DISEASES:<br />
+Clinical Reports, by <span class="smcap">William Carter</span>, M.B., M.R.C.P., Physician
+to the Liverpool Southern Hospital. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS<br />
+in Childhood, Youth, Adult Age, and Advanced Life (Functions and
+Disorders of), considered in their Physiological, Social, and Moral
+Relations, by <span class="smcap">William Acton</span>, M.R.C.S. Sixth Edition, 8vo, 12s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">URINARY AND REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS:<br />
+their Functional Diseases, by <span class="smcap">D. Campbell Black</span>, M.D., L.R.C.S.
+Edin. Second Edition. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LECTURES ON SYPHILIS,<br />
+and on some forms of Local Disease, affecting principally the Organs
+of Generation, by <span class="smcap">Henry Lee</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to St. George’s Hospital.
+With Engravings, 8vo, 10s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">SYPHILITIC NERVOUS AFFECTIONS:<br />
+Their Clinical Aspects, by <span class="smcap">Thomas Buzzard</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond.,
+Physician to the National Hospital for Paralysis and Epilepsy. Post
+8vo, 5s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PATHOLOGY OF THE URINE,<br />
+including a Complete Guide to its Analysis, by <span class="smcap">J. L. W. Thudichum</span>,
+M.D., F.R.C.P. Second Edition, rewritten and enlarged, with Engravings,
+8vo, 15s. [1877]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="9"><a name="Page_9i" id="Page_9i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">GENITO-URINARY ORGANS, INCLUDING SYPHILIS:<br />
+A Practical Treatise on their Surgical Diseases, designed as a Manual
+for Students and Practitioners, by <span class="smcap">W. H. Van Buren</span>, M.D., Professor
+of the Principles of Surgery in Bellevue Hospital Medical College,
+New York, and <span class="smcap">E. L. Keyes</span>, M.D., Professor of Dermatology in
+Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York. Royal 8vo, with 140
+Engravings, 21s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HISTOLOGY AND HISTO-CHEMISTRY OF MAN:<br />
+A Treatise on the Elements of Composition and Structure of the
+Human Body, by <span class="smcap">Heinrich Frey</span>, Professor of Medicine in Zurich.
+Translated from the Fourth German Edition by <span class="smcap">Arthur E. J.
+Barker</span>, Assistant-Surgeon to University College Hospital. And
+Revised by the Author. 8vo, with 608 Engravings, 21s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY:<br />
+A Treatise designed for the Use of Students and Practitioners of
+Medicine, by <span class="smcap">John C. Dalton</span>, M.D., Professor of Physiology and
+Hygiene in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. Sixth
+Edition, royal 8vo, with 316 Engravings, 20s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HANDBOOK FOR THE PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">E. Klein</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Assistant Professor in the Pathological Laboratory
+of the Brown Institution, London; <span class="smcap">J. Burdon-Sanderson</span>,
+M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Practical Physiology in University College,
+London; <span class="smcap">Michael Foster</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Prælector of Physiology
+in Trinity College, Cambridge; and <span class="smcap">T. Lauder Brunton</span>, M.D.,
+F.R.S., Lecturer on Materia Medica at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital;
+edited by <span class="smcap">J. Burdon-Sanderson</span>. 8vo, with 123 Plates, 24s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRACTICAL HISTOLOGY:<br />
+By <span class="smcap">William Rutherford</span>, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of
+Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. Second Edition, with
+63 Engravings. Crown 8vo (with additional leaves for notes), 6s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN,<br />
+Considered with respect to the Laws of Nations, Results of Experience,
+and the Teachings of Biology, by <span class="smcap">Alfred H. Huth</span>. 8vo, 14s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MANUAL OF ANTHROPOMETRY:<br />
+A Guide to the Measurement of the Human Body, containing an
+Anthropometrical Chart and Register, a Systematic Table of Measurements,
+&amp;c. By <span class="smcap">Charles Roberts</span>, F.R.C.S., late Assistant
+Surgeon to the Victoria Hospital for Children. With numerous
+Illustrations and Tables. 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO HUMAN OSTEOLOGY,<br />
+By <span class="smcap">William Warwick Wagstaffe</span>, F.R.C.S., Assistant-Surgeon
+and Lecturer on Anatomy, St. Thomas’s Hospital. With 23 Plates
+and 66 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="10"><a name="Page_10i" id="Page_10i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">W. B. Carpenter</span>, C.B., M.D., F.R.S. Eighth Edition by <span class="smcap">Henry
+Power</span>, M.B., F.R.C.S., Examiner in Natural Science, University of
+Oxford, and in Natural Science and Medicine, University of Cambridge.
+8vo, with 3 Steel Plates and 371 Engravings, 31s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LANDMARKS, MEDICAL AND SURGICAL,<br />
+By <span class="smcap">Luther Holden</span>, F.R.C.S., Member of the Court of Examiners of
+the Royal College of Surgeons. Second Edition, 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HUMAN OSTEOLOGY:<br />
+Comprising a Description of the Bones, with Delineations of the
+Attachments of the Muscles, the General and Microscopical Structure
+of Bone, and its Development. Fifth Edition, with 61 Lithographic
+Plates and 89 Engravings. 8vo, 16s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY:<br />
+Lectures by <span class="smcap">Samuel Wilks</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Physician to, and Lecturer
+on Medicine at, Guy’s Hospital; and <span class="smcap">Walter Moxon</span>, M.D.,
+F.R.C.P., Physician to, and Lecturer on Materia Medica at, Guy’s
+Hospital. Second Edition, 8vo, with Plates, 18s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY:<br />
+A Manual by <span class="smcap">C. Handfield Jones</span>, M.B., F.R.S., Physician to St.
+Mary’s Hospital, and <span class="smcap">Edward H. Sieveking</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+Physician to St. Mary’s Hospital. Edited by <span class="smcap">J. F. Payne</span>, M.D.,
+F.R.C.P., Assistant Physician and Lecturer on General Pathology
+at St. Thomas’s Hospital. Second Edition, crown 8vo, with 195
+Engravings, 16s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">POST-MORTEM EXAMINATIONS:<br />
+a Description and Explanation of the Method of Performing them,
+with especial Reference to Medico-Legal Practice. By Professor
+<span class="smcap">Rudolph Virchow</span>, of Berlin. Fcap 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">STUDENT’S GUIDE TO SURGICAL ANATOMY:<br />
+a Text-book for the Pass Examination, by <span class="smcap">E. Bellamy</span>, F.R.C.S.,
+Surgeon and Lecturer on Anatomy at Charing Cross Hospital. Fcap
+8vo, with 50 Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ANATOMY OF THE JOINTS OF MAN,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Henry Morris</span>, F.R.C.S., Senior Assistant-Surgeon to, and Lecturer
+on Anatomy and Demonstrator of Operative Surgery at, the
+Middlesex Hospital. With 44 Lithographic Plates (several being
+coloured) and 13 Wood Engravings. 8vo, 16s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MEDICAL ANATOMY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Francis Sibson</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. Imp. folio, with 21
+coloured Plates, cloth, 42s., half-morocco, 50s. [1869]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRACTICAL ANATOMY:<br />
+a Manual of Dissections by <span class="smcap">Christopher Heath</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon
+to University College Hospital, and Holme Professor of Surgery in
+University College. Fourth Edition, crown 8vo, with 16 Coloured
+Plates and 264 Engravings, 14s. [1877]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="11"><a name="Page_11i" id="Page_11i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">AN ATLAS OF HUMAN ANATOMY:<br />
+illustrating most of the ordinary Dissections, and many not usually
+practised by the Student. To be completed in 12 or 13 Bi-monthly
+Parts, each containing 4 Coloured Plates, with Explanatory Text. By
+<span class="smcap">Rickman J. Godlee</span>, M.S., F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon to University
+College Hospital, and Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy in University
+College. Parts I to VII. Imp. 4to, 7s. 6d. each Part. [1877&ndash;9]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE ANATOMIST’S VADE-MECUM:<br />
+a System of Human Anatomy by <span class="smcap">Erasmus Wilson</span>, F.R.C.S., F.R.S.
+Ninth Edition, by <span class="smcap">G. Buchanan</span>, M.A., M.D., Professor of Clinical
+Surgery in the University of Glasgow, and <span class="smcap">Henry E. Clark</span>, F.F.P.S.,
+Lecturer on Anatomy at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary School of
+Medicine. Crown 8vo, with 371 Engravings, 14s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ATLAS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY,<br />
+after Plane Sections of Frozen Bodies. By <span class="smcap">Wilhelm Braune</span>,
+Professor of Anatomy in the University of Leipzig. Translated by
+<span class="smcap">Edward Bellamy</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to, and Lecturer on Anatomy,
+&amp;c., at, Charing Cross Hospital. With 34 Photo-lithographic Plates
+and 46 Woodcuts. Large Imp. 8vo, 40s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE ANATOMICAL REMEMBRANCER;<br />
+or, Complete Pocket Anatomist. Eighth Edition, 32mo, 3s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Matthew Charteris</span>, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Anderson’s
+College, and Lecturer on Clinical Medicine in the Royal Infirmary,
+Glasgow. Second Edition, with Engravings on Copper and Wood,
+fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE MICROSCOPE IN MEDICINE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Lionel S. Beale</span>, M.B., F.R.S., Physician to King’s College
+Hospital. Fourth Edition, with 86 Plates, 8vo, 21s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HOOPER’S PHYSICIAN’S VADE-MECUM;<br />
+or, Manual of the Principles and Practice of Physic, Ninth Edition
+by <span class="smcap">W. A. Guy</span>, M.B., F.R.S., and <span class="smcap">John Harley</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.
+Fcap 8vo, with Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A NEW SYSTEM OF MEDICINE;<br />
+entitled Recognisant Medicine, or the State of the Sick, by
+<span class="smcap">Bholanoth Bose</span>, M.D., Indian Medical Service. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRINCIPLES OF RATIONAL THERAPEUTICS.<br />
+Commenced as an Inquiry into the Relative Value of Quinine and
+Arsenic in Ague. 8vo, 4s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CLINICAL MEDICINE:<br />
+Lectures and Essays by <span class="smcap">Balthazar Foster</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond.,
+Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College, Birmingham. 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CLINICAL REMINISCENCES:<br />
+By <span class="smcap">Peyton Blakiston</span>, M.D., F.R.S. Post 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="12"><a name="Page_12i" id="Page_12i"></a></span></p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Samuel Fenwick</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the London
+Hospital. Fourth Edition, fcap. 8vo, with 106 Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A MANUAL OF MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">A. W. Barclay</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to, and Lecturer on
+Medicine at, St. George’s Hospital. Third Edition, fcap 8vo, 1Os. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CLINICAL STUDIES:<br />
+Illustrated by Cases observed in Hospital and Private Practice, by Sir
+<span class="smcap">J. Rose Cormack</span>, M.D., F.R.S.E., Physician to the Hertford British
+Hospital of Paris. 2 vols., post 8vo, 20s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ROYLE’S MANUAL OF MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS.<br />
+Sixth Edition by <span class="smcap">John Harley</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant Physician
+to, and Joint Lecturer on Physiology at, St. Thomas’s Hospital. Crown
+8vo, with 139 Engravings, 15s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRACTICAL THERAPEUTICS:<br />
+A Manual by <span class="smcap">E. J. Waring</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond. Third Edition,
+fcap 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1871]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE ELEMENTS OF THERAPEUTICS.<br />
+A Clinical Guide to the Action of Drugs, by <span class="smcap">C. Binz</span>, M.D., Professor
+of Pharmacology in the University of Bonn. Translated and Edited
+with Additions, in Conformity with the British and American Pharmacopœias,
+by <span class="smcap">Edward I. Sparks</span>, M.A., M.B. Oxon., formerly
+Radcliffe Travelling Fellow. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE NATIONAL DISPENSATORY;<br />
+containing the Natural History, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Actions and
+Uses of Medicines, including those recognised in the Pharmacopœias of
+the United States and Great Britain. By <span class="smcap">Alfred Stillé</span>, M.D., and
+<span class="smcap">John M. Maisch</span>, Ph. D. 1628 pp., with 201 Engravings, royal 8vo,
+34s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO MATERIA MEDICA,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">John C. Thorowgood</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Physician to the
+City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest. Fcap 8vo, with
+Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS:<br />
+(Vegetable Kingdom), by <span class="smcap">Charles D. F. Phillips</span>, M.D., F.R.C.S.E.
+8vo, 15s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DENTAL MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS,<br />
+Elements of, by <span class="smcap">James Stocken</span>, L.D.S.R.C.S., Lecturer on Dental
+Materia Medica and Therapeutics to the National Dental Hospital.
+Second Edition, Fcap 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE DISEASES OF CHILDREN:<br />
+A Practical Manual, with a Formulary, by <span class="smcap">Edward Ellis</span>, M.D.,
+late Senior Physician to the Victoria Hospital for Children. Third
+Edition, crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="13"><a name="Page_13i" id="Page_13i"></a></span></p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE WASTING DISEASES OF CHILDREN,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Eustace Smith</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Physician to the King of
+the Belgians, Physician to the East London Hospital for Children.
+Third Edition, post 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CLINICAL STUDIES OF DISEASE IN CHILDREN.<br />
+Post 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">INFANT FEEDING AND ITS INFLUENCE ON LIFE;<br />
+or, the Causes and Prevention of Infant Mortality, by <span class="smcap">Charles H. F.
+Routh</span>, M.D., Senior Physician to the Samaritan Hospital for Women
+and Children. Third Edition, fcap 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">COMPENDIUM OF CHILDREN’S DISEASES:<br />
+A Handbook for Practitioners and Students, by <span class="smcap">Johann Steiner</span>,
+M.D., Professor in the University of Prague. Translated from the
+Second German Edition by <span class="smcap">Lawson Tait</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the
+Birmingham Hospital for Women. 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE DISEASES OF CHILDREN:<br />
+Essays by <span class="smcap">William Henry Day</span>, M.D., Physician to the Samaritan
+Hospital for Diseases of Women and Children. Second Edition, fcap 8vo. [In the Press]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PUERPERAL DISEASES:<br />
+Clinical Lectures by <span class="smcap">Fordyce Barker</span>, M.D., Obstetric Physician
+to Bellevue Hospital, New York. 8vo, 15s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE STUDENT’S GUIDE TO THE PRACTICE OF MIDWIFERY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">D. Lloyd Roberts</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to St. Mary’s Hospital,
+Manchester. Second Edition, fcap. 8vo, with 111 Engravings. 7s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">OBSTETRIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY:<br />
+Their Principles and Practice, by <span class="smcap">F. H. Ramsbotham</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.
+Fifth Edition, 8vo, with 120 Plates, 22s. [1867]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">OBSTETRIC SURGERY:<br />
+A Complete Handbook, giving Short Rules of Practice in every Emergency,
+from the Simplest to the most Formidable Operations connected
+with the Science of Obstetricy, by <span class="smcap">Charles Clay</span>, Ext.L.R.C.P. Lond.,
+L.R.C.S.E., late Senior Surgeon and Lecturer on Midwifery, St.
+Mary’s Hospital, Manchester. Fcap 8vo, with 91 Engravings, 6s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">SCHROEDER’S MANUAL OF MIDWIFERY,<br />
+including the Pathology of Pregnancy and the Puerperal State.
+Translated by <span class="smcap">Charles H. Carter</span>, B.A., M.D. 8vo, with Engravings,
+12s. 6d. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A HANDBOOK OF UTERINE THERAPEUTICS,<br />
+and of Diseases of Women, by <span class="smcap">E. J. Tilt</span>, M.D., M.R.C.P. Fourth
+Edition, post 8vo, 10s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE CHANGE OF LIFE<br />
+in Health and Disease: a Practical Treatise on the Nervous and other
+Affections incidental to Women at the Decline of Life. Third Edition,
+8vo, 10s. 6d. [1870]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="14"><a name="Page_14i" id="Page_14i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">OBSTETRIC OPERATIONS,<br />
+including the Treatment of Hæmorrhage, and forming a Guide to the
+Management of Difficult Labour; Lectures by <span class="smcap">Robert Barnes</span>, M.D.,
+F.R.C.P., Obstetric Physician and Lecturer on Obstetrics and the Diseases
+of Women and Children at St. George’s Hospital. Third Edition,
+8vo, with 124 Engravings, 18s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MEDICAL AND SURGICAL DISEASES OF WOMEN:<br />
+a Clinical History. Second Edition, 8vo, with 181 Engravings, 28s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE DISEASES OF WOMEN.<br />
+By <span class="smcap">Charles West</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P. Revised and in part Re-written
+by the Author, with numerous Additions by <span class="smcap">J. Matthews Duncan</span>,
+M.D., Obstetric Physician to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Fourth
+Edition, 8vo, 16s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">OBSTETRIC APHORISMS:<br />
+for the Use of Students commencing Midwifery Practice by <span class="smcap">J. G.
+Swayne</span>, M.D., Consulting Physician-Accoucheur to the Bristol
+General Hospital, and Lecturer on Obstetric Medicine at the Bristol
+Medical School. Sixth Edition, fcap 8vo, with Engravings, 3s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE OVARIES:<br />
+their Diagnosis and Treatment, by <span class="smcap">T. Spencer Wells</span>, F.R.C.S..
+Surgeon to the Queen’s Household and to the Samaritan Hospital.
+8vo, with about 150 Engravings, 21s. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRACTICAL GYNÆCOLOGY:<br />
+A Handbook of the Diseases of Women, by <span class="smcap">Heywood Smith</span>, M.D.
+Oxon., Physician to the Hospital for Women and to the British Lying-in
+Hospital. With Engravings, crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF GYNÆCOLOGY.<br />
+By <span class="smcap">Thomas Addis Emmet</span>, M.D., Surgeon to the Woman’s Hospital
+of the State of New York. With 130 Engravings, 8vo, 24s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">RUPTURE OF THE FEMALE PERINEUM,<br />
+Its treatment, immediate and remote, by <span class="smcap">George G. Bantock</span>, M.D.,
+Surgeon (for In-patients) to the Samaritan Free Hospital for Women
+and Children. With 2 plates, 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PAPERS ON THE FEMALE PERINEUM, &amp;c.,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">James Matthews Duncan</span>, M.D., Obstetric Physician to St. Bartholomew’s
+Hospital. 8vo, 6s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">INFLUENCE OF POSTURE ON WOMEN<br />
+In Gynecic and Obstetric Practice, by <span class="smcap">J. H. Aveling</span>, M.D., Physician
+to the Chelsea Hospital for Women, Vice-President of the
+Obstetrical Society of London. 8vo, 6s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE NURSE’S COMPANION:<br />
+A Manual of General and Monthly Nursing, by <span class="smcap">Charles J. Cullingworth</span>,
+Surgeon to St. Mary’s Hospital, Manchester. Fcap. 8vo,
+2s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="15"><a name="Page_15i" id="Page_15i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">A MANUAL FOR HOSPITAL NURSES<br />
+and others engaged in Attending on the Sick by <span class="smcap">Edward J. Domville</span>,
+L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Exeter Lying-in Charity.
+Third Edition, crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LECTURES ON NURSING,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">William Robert Smith</span>, M.B., Honorary Medical Officer,
+Hospital for Sick Children, Sheffield. Second Edition, with 26 Engravings.
+Post 8vo, 6s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HANDBOOK FOR NURSES FOR THE SICK,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Zepherina P. Veitch</span>. Second Edition, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A COMPENDIUM OF DOMESTIC MEDICINE<br />
+and Companion to the Medicine Chest; intended as a Source of Easy
+Reference for Clergymen, and for Families residing at a Distance
+from Professional Assistance, by <span class="smcap">John Savory</span>, M.S.A. Ninth
+Edition, 12mo, 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HOSPITAL MORTALITY<br />
+being a Statistical Investigation of the Returns of the Hospitals of
+Great Britain and Ireland for fifteen years, by <span class="smcap">Lawson Tait</span>, F.R.C.S.,
+F.S.S. 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE COTTAGE HOSPITAL:<br />
+Its Origin, Progress, Management, and Work, by <span class="smcap">Henry C. Burdett</span>,
+the Seaman’s Hospital, Greenwich. With Engravings, crown 8vo,
+7s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">WINTER COUGH:<br />
+(Catarrh, Bronchitis, Emphysema, Asthma), Lectures by <span class="smcap">Horace
+Dobell</span>, M.D., Consulting Physician to the Royal Hospital for Diseases
+of the Chest. Third Edition, with Coloured Plates, 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LOSS OF WEIGHT, BLOOD-SPITTING, AND LUNG DISEASE.<br />
+With Chromo-lithograph, 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CONSUMPTION:<br />
+Its Nature, Symptoms, Causes, Prevention, Curability, and Treatment.
+By <span class="smcap">Peter Gowan</span>, M.D., B. Sc., late Physician and Surgeon in
+Ordinary to the King of Siam. Crown 8vo. 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">NOTES ON ASTHMA;<br />
+its Forms and Treatment, by <span class="smcap">John C. Thorowgood</span>, M.D. Lond.,
+F.R.C.P., Physician to the Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, Victoria
+Park. Third Edition, crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ASTHMA<br />
+Its Pathology and Treatment, by <span class="smcap">J. B. Berkart</span>, M.D., Assistant
+Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest.
+8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE HEART:<br />
+Their Pathology, Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment (a Manual),
+by <span class="smcap">Robert H. Semple</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the Hospital for
+Diseases of the Throat. 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="16"><a name="Page_16i" id="Page_16i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">PROGNOSIS IN CASES OF VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE<br />
+Heart, by <span class="smcap">Thomas B. Peacock</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Honorary Consulting
+Physician to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CHRONIC DISEASE OF THE HEART:<br />
+Its Bearings upon Pregnancy, Parturition and Childbed. By <span class="smcap">Angus
+Macdonald</span>, M.D., F.R.S.E., Physician to, and Clinical Lecturer on
+the Diseases of Women at, the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. With
+Engravings, 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PHTHISIS:<br />
+In a series of Clinical Studies, by <span class="smcap">Austin Flint</span>, M.D., Professor of
+the Principles and Practice of Medicine and of Clinical Medicine in
+the Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 8vo, 16s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A MANUAL OF PERCUSSION AND AUSCULTATION,<br />
+of the Physical Diagnosis of Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, and of
+Thoracic Aneurism. Post 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DIPHTHERIA:<br />
+its Nature and Treatment, Varieties, and Local Expressions, by
+<span class="smcap">Morell Mackenzie</span>, M.D., Physician to the Hospital for Diseases of
+the Throat. Crown 8vo, 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE HEART AND AORTA,<br />
+By <span class="smcap">Thomas Hayden</span>, F.K.Q.C.P. Irel., Physician to the Mater
+Misericordiæ Hospital, Dublin. With 80 Engravings. 8vo, 25s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE HEART<br />
+and of the Lungs in Connexion therewith&mdash;Notes and Observations
+by <span class="smcap">Thomas Shapter</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P. Lond., Senior Physician to the
+Devon and Exeter Hospital. 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE HEART AND AORTA:<br />
+Clinical Lectures by <span class="smcap">George W. Balfour</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician
+to, and Lecturer on Clinical Medicine in, the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh.
+8vo, with Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES OF THE HEART.<br />
+Lectures by <span class="smcap">Arthur E. Sansom</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant Physician
+to the London Hospital. Second Edition, with Engravings, fcap. 8vo,
+4s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">TRACHEOTOMY,<br />
+especially in Relation to Diseases of the Larynx and Trachea, by
+<span class="smcap">Pugin Thornton</span>, M.R.C.S., late Surgeon to the Hospital for Diseases
+of the Throat. With Photographic Plates and Woodcuts, 8vo, 5s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">SORE THROAT:<br />
+Its Nature, Varieties, and Treatment, including the Connexion
+between Affections of the Throat and other Diseases. By <span class="smcap">Prosser
+James</span>, M.D., Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics at the
+London Hospital, Physician to the Hospital for Diseases of the Throat.
+Third Edition, with Coloured Plates, 5s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="17"><a name="Page_17i" id="Page_17i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">SYPHILIS OF THE LARYNX<br />
+(Lesions of the Secondary and Intermediate Stages). Lectures
+delivered at the Hospital for Diseases of the Throat and Chest,
+London, by <span class="smcap">W. Macneill Whistler</span>, M.D., M.R.C.P., Physician to
+the Hospital; Honorary Physician to the National Training School
+for Music. With Engravings, crown 8vo, 4s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">WINTER AND SPRING<br />
+on the Shores of the Mediterranean. By <span class="smcap">Henry Bennet</span>, M.D.
+Fifth Edition, post 8vo, with numerous Plates, Maps, and Engravings,
+12s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION<br />
+by Hygiene, Climate, and Medicine. Third Edition, 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PRINCIPAL HEALTH RESORTS<br />
+of Europe and Africa, and their Use in the Treatment of Chronic
+Diseases. A Handbook by <span class="smcap">Thomas More Madden</span>, M.D., M.R.I.A.,
+Vice-President of the Dublin Obstetrical Society. 8vo, 10s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE BATH THERMAL WATERS:<br />
+Historical, Social, and Medical, by <span class="smcap">John Kent Spender</span>, M.D.,
+Surgeon to the Mineral Water Hospital, Bath. With an Appendix
+on the Climate of Bath by the Rev. <span class="smcap">L. Blomefield</span>, M.A., F.L.S.,
+F.G.S. 8vo, 7s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ENDEMIC DISEASES OF TROPICAL CLIMATES,<br />
+with their Treatment, by <span class="smcap">John Sullivan</span>, M.D., M.R.C.P. Post 8vo,
+6s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF TROPICAL CLIMATES<br />
+and their Treatment: with Hints for the Preservation of Health in the
+Tropics, by <span class="smcap">James A. Horton</span>, M.D., Surgeon-Major, Army Medical
+Department. Second Edition, post 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HEALTH IN INDIA FOR BRITISH WOMEN<br />
+and on the Prevention of Disease in Tropical Climates by <span class="smcap">Edward J.
+Tilt</span>, M.D., Consulting Physician-Accoucheur to the Farringdon
+General Dispensary. Fourth Edition, crown 8vo, 5s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">BURDWAN FEVER,<br />
+or the Epidemic Fever of Lower Bengal (Causes, Symptoms, and
+Treatment), by <span class="smcap">Gopaul Chunder Roy</span>, M.D., Surgeon Bengal
+Establishment. New Edition, 8vo, 5s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">BAZAAR MEDICINES OF INDIA<br />
+and Common Medical Plants: Remarks on their Uses, with Full Index
+of Diseases, indicating their Treatment by these and other Agents procurable
+throughout India, &amp;c., by <span class="smcap">Edward J. Waring</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.
+Lond., Retired Surgeon H.M. Indian Army. Third Edition. Fcap
+8vo, 5s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">SOME AFFECTIONS OF THE LIVER<br />
+and Intestinal Canal; with Remarks on Ague and its Sequelæ, Scurvy,
+Purpura, &amp;c., by <span class="smcap">Stephen H. Ward</span>, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P., Physician
+to the Seamen’s Hospital, Greenwich. 8vo, 7s. [1872]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="18"><a name="Page_18i" id="Page_18i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE LIVER:<br />
+Lettsomian Lectures for 1872 by <span class="smcap">S. O. Habershon</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+Senior Physician to Guy’s Hospital. Post 8vo, 3s, 6d. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE STOMACH: DYSPEPSIA.<br />
+Third Edition, crown 8vo, 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PATHOLOGY OF THE PNEUMOGASTRIC NERVE,<br />
+being the Lumleian Lectures fur 1876. Post 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE ABDOMEN,<br />
+comprising those of the Stomach and other parts of the Alimentary
+Canal, Œsophagus, Cæcum, Intestines, and Peritoneum. Third
+Edition, with 5 Plates, 8vo, 21s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">FUNCTIONAL NERVOUS DISORDERS:<br />
+Studies by <span class="smcap">C. Handfield Jones</span>, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Physician
+to St. Mary’s Hospital. Second Edition. 8vo, 18s. [1870]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LECTURES ON DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Samuel Wilks</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Physician to, and Lecturer on
+Medicine at, Guy’s Hospital. 8vo, 15s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">NERVOUS DISEASES:<br />
+their Description and Treatment, by <span class="smcap">Allen Mclane Hamilton</span>, M.D.,
+Physician at the Epileptic and Paralytic Hospital. Blackwell’s Island,
+New York City. Roy. 8vo. with 53 Illustrations, 14s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">NUTRITION IN HEALTH AND DISEASE:<br />
+A Contribution to Hygiene and to Clinical Medicine. By <span class="smcap">Henry
+Bennet</span>, M.D. Third (Library) Edition. 8vo, 7s. Cheap Edition,
+Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">FOOD AND DIETETICS.<br />
+Physiologically and Therapeutically Considered. By <span class="smcap">Frederick W.
+Pavy</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Physician to Guy’s Hospital. Second Edition,
+8vo, 15s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CERTAIN POINTS CONNECTED WITH DIABETES<br />
+(Croonian Lectures). 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HEADACHES:<br />
+their Causes, Nature, and Treatment. By <span class="smcap">William H. Day</span>, M.D.,
+Physician to the Samaritan Free Hospital for Women and Children.
+Second Edition, crown 8vo, with Engravings. 6s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">IMPERFECT DIGESTION:<br />
+its Causes and Treatment by <span class="smcap">Arthur Leared</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+Senior Physician to the Great Northern Hospital. Sixth Edition,
+fcap 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MEGRIM, SICK-HEADACHE,<br />
+and some Allied Disorders: a Contribution to the Pathology of Nerve-Storms,
+by <span class="smcap">Edward Liveing</span>, M.D. Cantab., F.R.C.P., Hon. Fellow
+of King’s College, London. 8vo, with Coloured Plate, 15s. [1873]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="19"><a name="Page_19i" id="Page_19i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">NEURALGIA AND KINDRED DISEASES<br />
+of the Nervous System: their Nature, Causes, and Treatment, with a
+series of Cases, by <span class="smcap">John Chapman</span>, M.D., M.R.C.P. 8vo, 14s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM OF NERVES:<br />
+their Physiology and Pathology, by <span class="smcap">A. Eulenburg</span>, Professor of
+Medicine, University of Greifswald, and Dr <span class="smcap">P. Guttmann</span>, Priva Docen
+in Medicine, University of Berlin. Translated by <span class="smcap">A. Napier</span>, M.D.,
+F.F.P.S. 8vo, 5s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">RHEUMATIC GOUT,<br />
+or Chronic Rheumatic Arthritis of all the Joints; a Treatise by
+<span class="smcap">Robert Adams</span>, M.D., M.R.I.A., late Surgeon to H.M. the Queen in
+Ireland, and Regius Professor of Surgery in the University of Dublin.
+Second Edition, 8vo, with Atlas of Plates, 21s. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">GOUT, RHEUMATISM,<br />
+and the Allied Affections; with a chapter on Longevity and the
+Causes Antagonistic to it, by <span class="smcap">Peter Hood</span>, M.D. Second Edition,
+crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">RHEUMATISM:<br />
+Notes by <span class="smcap">Julius Pollock</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Senior Physician to, and
+Lecturer on Medicine at, Charing Cross Hospital. Second Edition,
+with Engravings, fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CERTAIN FORMS OF CANCER,<br />
+with a New and successful Mode of Treating it, to which is prefixed a
+Practical and Systematic Description of all the varieties of this Disease,
+by <span class="smcap">Alex. Marsden</span>, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Consulting Surgeon to the
+Royal Free Hospital, and Senior Surgeon to the Cancer Hospital.
+Second Edition, with Coloured Plates, 8vo, 8s. 6d. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE SKIN:<br />
+a System of Cutaneous Medicine by <span class="smcap">Erasmus Wilson</span>, F.R.C.S.,
+F.R.S. Sixth Edition, 8vo, 18s., with Coloured Plates, 36s. [1867]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LECTURES ON EKZEMA<br />
+and Ekzematous Affections: with an Introduction on the General
+Pathology of the Skin, and an Appendix of Essays and Cases. 8vo,
+10s. 6d. [1870]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">ALSO,</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LECTURES ON DERMATOLOGY:<br />
+delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons, 1870, 6s.; 1871&ndash;3, 10s. 6d.,
+1874&ndash;5, 10s. 6d.; 1876&ndash;8, 10s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ECZEMA:<br />
+by <span class="smcap">McCall Anderson</span>, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in the University
+of Glasgow. Third Edition, 8vo, with Engravings, 7s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PARASITIC AFFECTIONS OF THE SKIN<br />
+Second Edition, 8vo, with Engravings, 7s. 6d. [1868]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="20"><a name="Page_20i" id="Page_20i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">ATLAS OF SKIN DISEASES:<br />
+a series of Illustrations, with Descriptive Text and Notes upon Treatment.
+By <span class="smcap">Tilbury Fox</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the Department
+for Skin Diseases in University College Hospital. With 72 Coloured
+Plates, royal 4to, half morocco, £6 6s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">PSORIASIS OR LEPRA,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">George Gaskoin</span>, M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the British Hospital for
+Diseases of the Skin. 8vo, 5s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MYCETOMA;<br />
+or, the Fungus Disease of India, by <span class="smcap">H. Vandyke Carter</span>, M.D., Surgeon-Major
+H.M. Indian Army. 4to, with 11 Coloured Plates, 42s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE SKIN,<br />
+in Twenty-four Letters on the Principles and Practice of Cutaneous
+Medicine, by <span class="smcap">Henry Evans Cauty</span>, M.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Liverpool
+Dispensary for Diseases of the Skin, 8vo, 12s. 6d. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE HAIR IN HEALTH AND DISEASE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">E. Wyndham Cottle</span>, F.R.C.S., Senior Assistant Surgeon to the
+Hospital for Diseases of the Skin, Blackfriars. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE LAWS AFFECTING MEDICAL MEN:<br />
+a Manual by <span class="smcap">Robert G. Glenn</span>, LL.B., Barrister-at-Law; with a
+Chapter on Medical Etiquette by Dr <span class="smcap">A. Carpenter</span>. 8vo, 14s. [1871]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE.<br />
+Its Principles and Practice, by <span class="smcap">Alfred S. Taylor</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
+F.R.S. Second Edition, 2 vols., 8vo, with 189 Engravings, £1 11s. 6d. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A MANUAL OF MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE.<br />
+Tenth Edition. Crown 8vo, with Engravings, 14s. [1879]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">ALSO,</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">POISONS,<br />
+in Relation to Medical Jurisprudence and Medicine. Third Edition,
+crown 8vo, with 104 Engravings, 16s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE:<br />
+Lectures by <span class="smcap">Francis Ogston</span>, M.D., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence
+and Medical Logic in the University of Aberdeen. Edited
+by <span class="smcap">Francis Ogston</span>, Jun., M.D., Assistant to the Professor of
+Medical Jurisprudence and Lecturer on Practical Toxicology in the
+University of Aberdeen. 8vo, with 12 Copper Plates, 18s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A TOXICOLOGICAL CHART,<br />
+exhibiting at one View the Symptoms, Treatment, and mode of
+Detecting the various Poisons&mdash;Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal:
+with Concise Directions for the Treatment of Suspended Animation,
+by <span class="smcap">William Stowe</span>, M.R.C.S.E. Thirteenth Edition, 2s.; on
+roller, 5s. [1872]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="21"><a name="Page_21i" id="Page_21i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">A HANDY-BOOK OF FORENSIC MEDICINE AND TOXICOLOGY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">W. Bathurst Woodman</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Assistant Physician
+and Co-Lecturer on Physiology and Histology at the London Hospital;
+and <span class="smcap">C. Meymott Tidy</span>, M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry and of
+Medical Jurisprudence and Public Health at the London Hospital.
+With 8 Lithographic Plates and 116 Engravings, 8vo, 31s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">THE MEDICAL ADVISER IN LIFE ASSURANCE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Edward Henry Sieveking</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to St.
+Mary’s and the Lock Hospitals; Physician-Extraordinary to the
+Queen; Physician-in-Ordinary to the Prince of Wales, &amp;c. Crown
+8vo, 6s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">IDIOCY AND IMBECILITY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">William W. Ireland</span>, M.D., Medical Superintendent of the
+Scottish National Institution for the Education of Imbecile Children
+at Larbert, Stirlingshire. With Engravings, 8vo, 14s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MADNESS:<br />
+in its Medical, Legal, and Social Aspects, Lectures by <span class="smcap">Edgar
+Sheppard</span>, M.D., M.R.C.P., Professor of Psychological Medicine in
+King’s College; one of the Medical Superintendents of the Colney
+Hatch Lunatic Asylum. 8vo, 6s. 6d. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">INFLUENCE OF THE MIND UPON THE BODY<br />
+in Health and Disease, Illustrations designed to elucidate the Action
+of the Imagination, by <span class="smcap">Daniel Hack Tuke</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.
+8vo, 14s. [1872]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL HYGIENE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">E. A. Parkes</span>, M.D., F.R.S. Fifth Edition, by <span class="smcap">F. De Chaumont</span>,
+M.D., Professor of Military Hygiene in the Army Medical School.
+8vo, with 9 Plates and 112 Engravings, 18s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A HANDBOOK OF HYGIENE AND SANITARY SCIENCE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">George Wilson</span>, M.A., M.D., Medical Officer of Health for Mid-Warwickshire.
+Third Edition, post 8vo, with Engravings, 10s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">SANITARY EXAMINATIONS<br />
+of Water, Air, and Food. A Vade Mecum for the Medical Officer of
+Health, by <span class="smcap">Cornelius B. Fox</span>, M.D., Medical Officer of Health of
+East, Central, and South Essex. With 94 Engravings, crown 8vo,
+12s. 6d. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DANGERS TO HEALTH:<br />
+A Pictorial Guide to Domestic Sanitary Defects, by <span class="smcap">T. Pridgin
+Teale</span>, M.A., Surgeon to the Leeds General Infirmary. With 55
+Lithographs, 8vo, 10s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF DRINKING WATER:<br />
+A Guide, by <span class="smcap">John D. Macdonald</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Assistant Professor
+of Naval Hygiene, Army Medical School. 8vo, with 24 Plates,
+7s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="22"><a name="Page_22i" id="Page_22i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">HANDBOOK OF MEDICAL AND SURGICAL ELECTRICITY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Herbert Tibbits</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., Senior Physician to the
+West London Hospital for Paralysis and Epilepsy. Second Edition,
+8vo, with 95 Engravings, 9s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A MAP OF ZIEMSSEN’S MOTOR POINTS OF THE HUMAN BODY:<br />
+a Guide to Localised Electrisation. Mounted on Rollers, 35&nbsp;×&nbsp;21.
+With 20 Illustrations, 5s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">CLINICAL USES OF ELECTRICITY;<br />
+Lectures delivered at University College Hospital by <span class="smcap">J. Russell
+Reynolds</span>, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine
+in University College. Second Edition, post 8vo, 3s. 6d. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">MEDICO-ELECTRIC APPARATUS;<br />
+A Practical Description of every Form in Modern Use, with Plain
+Directions for Mounting, Charging, and Working, by <span class="smcap">Salt &amp; Son</span>,
+Birmingham. Second Edition, revised and enlarged, with 33 Engravings,
+8vo, 2s. 6d. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A DICTIONARY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE;<br />
+containing a concise explanation of the various subjects and terms of
+Medicine, &amp;c.; Notices of Climate and Mineral Waters; Formulæ for
+Officinal, Empirical, and Dietetic Preparations; with the Accentuation
+and Etymology of the terms and the French and other Synonyms, by
+<span class="smcap">Robley Dunglison</span>, M.D., LL.D. New Edition, royal 8vo, 28s. [1874]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A MEDICAL VOCABULARY;<br />
+being an Explanation of all Terms and Phrases used in the various
+Departments of Medical Science and Practice, giving their derivation,
+meaning, application, and pronunciation, by <span class="smcap">Robert G. Mayne</span>, M.D.,
+LL.D. Fourth Edition, fcap 8vo, 10s. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">ATLAS OF OPHTHALMOSCOPY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">R. Liebreich</span>, Ophthalmic Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital.
+Translated into English by <span class="smcap">H. Rosborough Swaney</span>, M.B. Dub.
+Second Edition, containing 59 Figures, 4to, £1 10s. [1870]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE EYE:<br />
+a Manual by <span class="smcap">C. Macnamara</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to Westminster Hospital.
+Third Edition, fcap. 8vo, with Coloured Plates and Engravings,
+12s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE EYE:<br />
+A Practical Treatise by <span class="smcap">Haynes Walton</span>, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to St.
+Mary’s Hospital and in charge of its Ophthalmological Department.
+Third Edition, 8vo, with 3 Plates and nearly 300 Engravings, 25s. [1875]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HINTS ON OPHTHALMIC OUT-PATIENT PRACTICE,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Charles Higgens</span>, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Assistant Surgeon to,
+and Lecturer on Ophthalmology at, Guy’s Hospital. Second Edition,
+fcap. 8vo, 3s. [1879]</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" title="23"><a name="Page_23i" id="Page_23i"></a></span></p>
+<p class="hangin">OPHTHALMIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY:<br />
+a Manual by <span class="smcap">T. Wharton Jones</span>, F.R.C.S., F.R.S., Professor of Ophthalmic
+Medicine and Surgery in University College. Third Edition,
+fcap. 8vo, with 9 Coloured Plates and 173 Engravings, 12s. 6d. [1865]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DISEASES OF THE EYE:<br />
+A Treatise by <span class="smcap">J. Soelberg Wells</span>, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Surgeon to
+King’s College Hospital and Surgeon to the Royal London Ophthalmic
+Hospital. Third Edition, 8vo, with Coloured Plates and Engravings,
+25s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="tac" style="font-size: 65%;">BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">LONG, SHORT, AND WEAK SIGHT,<br />
+and their Treatment by the Scientific use of Spectacles. Fourth
+Edition, 8vo, 6s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A SYSTEM OF DENTAL SURGERY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">John Tomes</span>, F.R.S., and <span class="smcap">Charles S. Tomes</span>, M.A., F.R.S., Lecturer
+on Dental Anatomy and Physiology at the Dental Hospital of
+London. Second Edition, fcap 8vo, with 268 Engravings, 14s. [1873]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DENTAL ANATOMY, HUMAN AND COMPARATIVE:<br />
+A Manual, by <span class="smcap">Charles S. Tomes</span>, M.A., F.R.S., Lecturer on Dental
+Anatomy and Physiology at the Dental Hospital of London. With
+179 Engravings, crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">A MANUAL OF DENTAL MECHANICS,<br />
+with an Account of the Materials and Appliances used in Mechanical
+Dentistry, by <span class="smcap">Oakley Coles</span>, L.D.S., R.C.S., Surgeon-Dentist to
+the Hospital for Diseases of the Throat. Second Edition, crown 8vo,
+with 140 Engravings, 7s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">HANDBOOK OF DENTAL ANATOMY<br />
+and Surgery for the use of Students and Practitioners by <span class="smcap">John
+Smith</span>, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., Surgeon-Dentist to the Queen in Scotland.
+Second Edition, fcap 8vo, 4s. 6d. [1871]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">STUDENT’S GUIDE TO DENTAL ANATOMY AND SURGERY,<br />
+by <span class="smcap">Henry Sewill</span>, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., late Dentist to the West London
+Hospital. With 77 Engravings, fcap. 8vo, 5s. 6d. [1876]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">OPERATIVE DENTISTRY:<br />
+A Practical Treatise, by <span class="smcap">Jonathan Taft</span>, D.D.S., Professor of Operative
+Dentistry in the Ohio College of Dental Surgery. Third Edition,
+thoroughly revised, with many additions, and 134 Engravings, 8vo,
+18s. [1877]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">DENTAL CARIES<br />
+and its Causes: an Investigation into the influence of Fungi in the
+Destruction of the Teeth, by Drs. <span class="smcap">Leber</span> and <span class="smcap">Rottenstein</span>. Translated
+by <span class="smcap">H. Chandler</span>, D.M.D., Professor in the Dental School of
+Harvard University. With Illustrations, royal 8vo, 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<p class="hangin">EPIDEMIOLOGY;<br />
+or, the Remote Cause of Epidemic Diseases in the Animal and in the
+Vegetable Creation, by <span class="smcap">John Parkin</span>, M.D., F.R.C.P.E. Part I,
+Contagion&mdash;Modern Theories&mdash;Cholera&mdash;Epizootica. 8vo, 5s. [1878]</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The following <span class="smcap">Catalogues</span> issued by Messrs <span class="smcap">Churchill</span>
+will be forwarded post free on application:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Messrs Churchill’s General List of nearly 600 works on
+Medicine, Surgery, Midwifery, Materia Medica, Hygiene,
+Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry, &amp;c., &amp;c., with a complete
+Index to their Titles, for easy reference.</i> N.B.&mdash;<i>This List
+includes Nos. 2 and 3.</i></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Selection from Messrs Churchill’s General List, comprising
+all recent Works published by them on the Art and
+Science of Medicine.</i></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>A selected and descriptive List of Messrs Churchill’s
+Works on Chemistry, Materia Medico, Pharmacy, Botany,
+Photography, Zoology, the Microscope, and other branches
+of Science.</i></p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Medical Intelligencer, an Annual List of New
+Works and New Editions published by Messrs J. &amp;c. A.
+Churchill, together with Particulars of the Periodicals issued
+from their House.</i></p>
+
+<p class="bq">[Sent in January of each year to every Medical Practitioner in
+the United Kingdom whose name and address can be ascertained.
+A large number are also sent to the United States of America,
+Continental Europe, India, and the Colonies.]</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Messrs</span> CHURCHILL have a special arrangement with <span class="smcap">Messrs</span>
+LINDSAY &amp;c. BLAKISTON, <span class="smcap">of Philadelphia</span>, in accordance with
+which that Firm act as their Agents for the United States of America,
+either keeping in Stock most of Messrs <span class="smcap">Churchill’s</span> Books, or reprinting
+them on Terms advantageous to Authors. Many of the Works in
+this Catalogue may therefore be easily obtained in America.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="tac fs70">PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="transnote"><p><b><a id="List_of_corrections"></a>Corrections and inconsistencies:</b><br />
+&emsp;<a href="#Transcribers_notes">(Return to Transcriber’s notes)</a></p>
+
+<p><b>Corrections:</b><br />
+Acaris mystax-->Ascaris mystax<br />
+adminstration-->administration<br />
+althougth-->although<br />
+Anthomyia canicularis-->Anthomyia canalicularis<br />
+Arynchotænia-->Arhynchotænia<br />
+Arynchotæniada-->Arhynchotæniada<br />
+Biblliography-->Bibliography<br />
+Bilb.-->Bibl.<br />
+Bothrocephali-->Bothriocephali<br />
+C. simplicornis-->C. simplicicornis<br />
+Cænurus-->Cœnurus<br />
+Capercaille-->Capercaillie<br />
+chrisoptera-->chrysoptera<br />
+Conorhinus nigrovarious-->Conorhinus nigrovarius<br />
+consquently-->consequently<br />
+D[istoma]. megostomum-->D. megastomum<br />
+diplayed--> displayed<br />
+disloged-->dislodged<br />
+Dr.-->Dr<br />
+echinoccocus-->echinococcus<br />
+epizöoty-->epizoöty<br />
+favour-->favor<br />
+favoured-->favored<br />
+Gastereosteus-->Gasterosteus<br />
+Gymnorynchus-->Gymnorhynchus<br />
+Haus-Saügethiere-->Haus-Säugethiere<br />
+i. e.-->i.e.<br />
+Incidently-->Incidentally<br />
+Involdsorme-->Indvoldsorme<br />
+Lernæadæ-->Lernæidæ<br />
+Mallacobdellidæ-->Malacobdellidæ<br />
+Managerie-->Menagerie<br />
+mesentric-->mesenteric<br />
+Parasites of Wales-->Parasites of Whales<br />
+phemonenon-->phenomenon<br />
+reavealed-->revealed<br />
+reseaches-->researches<br />
+Scarcoptes-->Sarcoptes<br />
+Schleisner's-->Schleissner's<br />
+acuticudatus-->acuticaudatus<br />
+Structually-->Structurally<br />
+the the-->the<br />
+themelves-->themselves<br />
+they becomes-->they become<br />
+Thierarztliche-->Thierärztliche<br />
+Thierhielk-->Thierheilk<br />
+tres-->très<br />
+Tricocephalus-->Trichocephalus<br />
+Vieteljahrschr-->Vierteljahrschr<br />
+where-->were</p>
+
+<p><b>Common inconsistencies:</b><br />
+<i>a) spelling variations</i><br />
+approximate(ly)/approximative(ly)<br />
+Blaptidæ/Blapsidæ<br />
+color/colour (ed, ing)<br />
+Cotylogaster cochleariforme/Cotylegaster cochleariform<br />
+Didelphis/Didelphus/Didelphys<br />
+Distoma coronarium/Distoma coronatum<br />
+Entwickelungsgeschichte/Entwicklungsgeschichte<br />
+Fürstenberg/Furstenberg/Furstenburg/Fürstenburg<br />
+harbor/harbour (ed, ing, s)<br />
+Idolocoris/Idocoloris<br />
+imbedded/embedded<br />
+labor/labour (er, ing, s)<br />
+learnt/learned<br />
+Leipsic/Leipsig/Leipzig<br />
+Linnæus/Linneus<br />
+Paramecium coli/Paramæcium coli<br />
+racoon/raccoon<br />
+Sp. chrisoptera/Sp. chrysoptera<br />
+yolk/yelk<br /><br />
+
+<i>b) accents</i><br />
+Böllinger/Bollinger<br />
+Cestoïdes/Cestoides<br />
+Corré/Corre<br />
+Crévaux/Crevaux<br />
+développement/dévélopment<br />
+escrôto/escroto<br />
+Glüge/Gluge<br />
+Grübe/Grube<br />
+Hyperoödon/Hyperoodon<br />
+mètre/mêtre – latter occurs in a quotation – ?accuracy<br />
+Sömmer/Sommer<br /><br />
+
+<i>c) hyphenation</i><br />
+bladderworms/bladder-worms<br />
+widespread/wide-spread<br />
+post mortem/post-mortem<br /><br />
+
+<i>d) possessive apostrophe</i><br />
+Charteris'/Ellis's<br />
+Peters'/Chambers's<br /><br />
+
+<i>e) abbreviations</i><br />
+A. lumbricoides / Asc. lumbricoides<br />
+A. simplex / Asc. simplex<br />
+Bibl./Bibliog.<br /><br />
+
+<i>f) capitalisation</i><br />
+van/Van<br />
+cercaria/Cercaria</p>
+
+<p>&emsp;<a href="#Transcribers_notes">(Return to Transcriber’s notes)</a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Parasites, by T. Spencer Cobbold
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diff --git a/45923/45923-h/images/i_title.jpg b/45923/45923-h/images/i_title.jpg
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diff --git a/45923/45923-h/images/label.png b/45923/45923-h/images/label.png
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-03-01 08:19:39 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-03-01 08:19:39 -0800
commit	a10aa830e14c76ca5b2c2864e06cd27770c16091 (patch)
tree	d6c18a7801b2b19227ff7e69aad201e77f3f5a16