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diff --git a/old/45639-h/45639-h.htm b/old/45639-h/45639-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ca135e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/45639-h/45639-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10902 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Buffon's Natural History, Volume III (of 10), by Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} + +hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em;} +hr.full {width: 95%; margin-top: 2em;} +hr.r10 {width: 10%; margin-top: 2em;} + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + +.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; + font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ +.bbox {border: solid #000 1px;} + +.center {text-align: center; margin:0; text-indent: 0;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} +.larger {font-size: 1.25em;} +.tdl {text-align: left;} +.tdr {text-align: right;} +.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} +.caption1, .caption2, .caption3 {text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;} +.caption1 {font-size:2.00em; margin: 2em 0;} +.caption2 {font-size:1.50em; margin: 1.5em 0;} +.caption3 {font-size:1.15em; margin: 1em 0;} + +/* Images */ +.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.trans_notes {background-color: #e6e6fa; color: black; padding:1.5em; + margin-bottom:5em;} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} +.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + hr.pg { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1 class="center">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Buffon's Natural History, Volume III (of 10), +by Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Translated by James Smith Barr</h1> +<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> +<p>Title: Buffon's Natural History, Volume III (of 10)</p> +<p> Containing a Theory of the Earth, a General History of Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Minerals, &c. &c.</p> +<p>Author: Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</p> +<p>Release Date: May 12, 2014 [eBook #45639]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY, VOLUME III (OF 10)***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4 class="center">E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> + from page images generously made available by<br /> + Internet Archive<br /> + (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive. See + <a href="https://archive.org/details/buffonsnaturalhi03buff"> + https://archive.org/details/buffonsnaturalhi03buff</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<div class="trans_notes"> +<p>This eBook contains several links to <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45602/45602-h/45602-h.htm">Buffon's Natural Histroy Vol. II</a> +on The Internet Archive.</p> +</div> +<hr class="pg" /> +<p> </p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 243px;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="243" height="342" alt="" /> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption3"><i>Barr's Buffon.</i></p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 118px;"> +<img src="images/bar_dbl_1.png" width="118" height="15" alt="diamond" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption1">Buffon's Natural History.</p> + +<p class="center">CONTAINING</p> + +<p class="caption3">A THEORY OF THE EARTH,</p> + +<p class="caption3 smaller">A GENERAL</p> + +<p class="caption2"><i>HISTORY OF MAN</i>,</p> + +<p class="caption2 smaller">OF THE BRUTE CREATION, AND OF<br /> +VEGETABLES, MINERALS,<br /> +<i>&c.</i> <i>&c.</i></p> + +<p class="caption3 smaller">FROM THE FRENCH.</p> + +<p class="center">WITH NOTES BY THE TRANSLATOR.</p> + + +<p class="center">IN TEN VOLUMES.</p> + + +<p class="center">VOL. III.</p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 118px;"> +<img src="images/bar_dbl_2.png" width="118" height="15" alt="" /> +</div> +<p> </p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 69px;"> +<img src="images/txt_london.png" width="69" height="21" alt="London" /> +</div> + +<p class="center">PRINTED FOR THE PROPRIETOR,</p> + +<p class="center">SOLD AND BY H. D. SYMONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW.</p> + +<hr class="r10" /> + +<p class="center">1807.</p> + +<p class="center">T. Gillet, Printer, Wild-Court</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="ToC"></a>CONTENTS<br /> +OF<br /> +THE THIRD VOLUME.</p> + + +<table summary="ToC"> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td></td> + <td class="tdr"><i>Page</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="caption2">History of Animals</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. VI.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Experiments on the Method of Generation</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. VII.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Comparison of my Observations with those of Leeuwenhoek</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. VIII.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Reflections on the preceding Experiments</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. IX.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Varieties on the Generation of Animals</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. X.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>On the Formation of the Fœtus</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. XI.</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>On the Expansion, Growth, and Delivery of the Fœtus</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Recapitulation</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p class="caption2">History of Man.</p> + +<table summary="ToC"> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. I. <i>Of the Nature of Man</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chap. II. <i>Of Infancy</i></td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><i>Directions for placing the Plates.</i></p> + + +<table summary="LoI"> +<tr> + <td>Page</td> + <td class="tdl"><a href="#Page_88">88</a>,</td> + <td class="tdl">Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdl"><a href="#Page_106">106</a>,</td> + <td class="tdl">Fig. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdl"><a href="#Page_140">140</a>,</td> + <td class="tdl">Plate III.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td></td> + <td class="tdl"><a href="#Page_148">148</a>,</td> + <td class="tdl">Plate IV.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + + + +<p class="caption1"><a name="BUFFONS" id="BUFFONS">BUFFON'S</a><br /> + +NATURAL HISTORY.</p> + +<p class="caption2"><a name="HISTORY_OF_ANIMALS" id="HISTORY_OF_ANIMALS"><i>HISTORY OF ANIMALS.</i></a></p> + + +<p>Aristotle admits, with Plato, of final +and efficient causes. These efficient +causes are sensitive and vegetative souls, that +give form to matter which, of itself, is only a +capacity of receiving forms; and as in generation +the female gives the most abundant matter, +and it being against his system of final +causes to admit that what one could effect +should be performed by many, he concludes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +that the female alone contains the necessary +matter to generation; and, as another of his +principles was, that matter itself is unformed, +and that form is a distinct being from matter, +he affirmed that the male furnished the form, +and, consequently, nothing belonging to matter.</p> + +<p>Descartes, on the contrary, who admitted +but a few mechanical principles in his philosophy, +endeavoured to explain the formation of +the fœtus by them, and thought it in his power +to comprehend, and make others understand, +how an organized and living being could be +made by the laws of motion alone. His admitted +principles differed from those used by +Aristotle; but both, instead of examining the +thing itself, without prepossession and prejudice, +have only considered it in the point of +view relative to their systems of philosophy, +which could not be attended with a successful +application to the nature of generation, because +it depends, as we have shewn, on quite +different principles. Descartes differs still +more from Aristotle, by admitting of the mixture +of the seminal liquor of the two sexes; +he thinks both furnish something material for +generation, and that the fermentation occasioned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +by the mixture of these two seminal +liquors causes the formation of the fœtus.</p> + +<p>Hippocrates, who lived under Perdicas, a +considerable time before Aristotle, established +an opinion, which was adopted by Galen, and +a great number of physicians who followed +him; his opinion was, that the male and female +had each a prolific fluid, and supposed, +besides, that there were two seminal fluids in +each sex, the one strong and active, the other +weak and inactive.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> That a mixture of the +two strongest fluids produce a male child, and +of the two weakest a female; so that, according +to him, they each contain a male and +a female seed. He supports this hypothesis +by the following circumstance; that many +women, who produce only girls by their first +husbands, have produced boys by a second; +and that men, who have had only girls by their +first wives, have had boys by others. It appears +to me, that if even this circumstance +could be well established, it would not be necessary +to give to the male and female two +kinds of seminal liquor for an explanation; because +it may easily be conceived, that women, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +who have brought forth only girls by their +first husbands, and produced boys with other +men, were only those who furnished more +particles proper for generation with their first +husband than with the second; or that the second +husband furnished more particles proper +for generation with the second wife than with +the first; for when, in the instant of conception, +the organic molecules of the male are +more abundant than those of the female, the +result will be a male, and when those of the +female abounds a female will be produced; +nor is it in the least surprising that a man +should have a disadvantage in this respect with +some women, while he will have a superiority +over others.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> See Hippocrates, lib. de Genitura, page 129, & lib. de +dięta, page 198, Lugd. Bat. 1665, vol. I.</p></div> + +<p>This great physician supposes, that the seed +of the male is a secretion of the strongest and +most essential parts of all that is humid in the +human body; and he thus explains how this +secretion is made: "Venę & nervi, he says, +ab omni corpore in pudendum vergunt, quibus +dum aliquantulum teruntur & calescunt ac implentur, +velut pruritus incidit, ex hoc toti corpori +voluptas ac caliditas accidit; quum vero +pudendum teritur & homo movetur, humidum +in corpore calescit ac diffunditur, & a motu conquassatur +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +ac spumescit, quemadmodum alii humores +omnes conquassati spumescunt.</p> + +<p>"Sic autem in homine ab humido spumescente +id quod robustissimum est ac pinguissimum +secernitur, & ad medullam spinalem venit; tendunt +enim in hanc ex omni corpore vię, & +diffundunt ex cerebro in lumbus ac in totum +corpus & in medullum; & ex ipsa medull proacedunt +vię, ut & ad ipsum humidum perferatur +& ex ipsa secedat; postquam autem ad hanc medullam +genitura pervenerit, procedit ad renes, +hac enim via tendit per venas, & si renes fuerint +exulcerati, aliquando etiam sanguis defertur: +a renibus autem transit per medois testes +in pudendum, proce dit autem non qua urina, +erum alia ipsi via est illi contigua, &c."<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> See Fęsius's Translation, vol. I. page 129.</p></div> + +<p>Anatomists will no doubt discover that Hippocrates +is not correct in tracing the road of the seminal +liquor; but that does not affect his opinion, +that the semen comes from every part of +the body, and particularly the head, because, he +says, those whose veins have been cut which +lie near the ears only bring forth a weak, and +very often an unfertile semen. The female has +also a seminal fluid, which she emits, sometimes +within the matrix, and sometimes without, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +when the internal orifice is more open than it +should. The semen of the male enters into +the matrix, where it mixes with that of the +female; and as each has two kinds of fluid, +the one strong and the other weak, if both +furnish their strong, a male will be the result, +and if their weak, a female; and if in the +mixture there are more particles of the male +liquor than the female, then the infant will +have a greater resemblance to the father than +to the mother, and so on the contrary. It +might here be asked Hippocrates what would +happen when the one furnished its weak semen +and the other its strong? I cannot conceive +what answer he could make, and that +alone is sufficient to cause his opinion of two +seeds in each sex to be rejected.</p> + +<p>In this manner then, according to him, the +formation of the fœtus is made: the seminal +fluids first mix in the matrix, where they +gradually thicken by the heat of the body of +the mother; the mixture receives and attracts +the spirit of the heat, and when too warm part +of the heat flies out, and the respiration of the +mother sends a colder spirit in; thus alternatively +a cold and a hot spirit enter the mixture, +which give life, and cause a pellicle to grow +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +on the surface, which takes a round form, because +the spirits, acting as a centre, extend it +equally on all sides. "I have seen, says this +great man, a fœtus of six days old; it was a +ball of liquor surrounded with a pellicle; the +liquor was reddish, and the pellicle was spread +over with vessels, some red and others white, +in the midst of which was a small eminence, +which I thought to be the umbilical vessels, by +which the fœtus receives nourishment and the +spirit of respiration from the mother. By degrees +another pellicle is formed, which surrounds +the first; the menstrual blood, being +suppressed, abundantly supplies it with nutriment, +and which coagulates by degrees, and +becomes flesh; this flesh articulates itself in +proportion as it grows, and receives its form +from the spirit; each part proceeds to take its +proper place; the solid particles go to their respective +situations and the fluid to theirs: each +matter seeks for that which is most like itself, +and the fœtus is at length entirely formed by +these causes and these means."</p> + +<p>This system is less obscure and more reasonable +than that of Aristotle, because Hippocrates +endeavours to explain every matter by +particular reasons: he borrows from the philosophy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +of his times but one single principle, +which is, that heat and cold produce spirits, +and that those spirits have the power of ordering +and arranging matter. He has viewed +generation more like a physician than a philosopher, +while Aristotle has explained it more +like a metaphysician than a naturalist; which +makes the defects of Hippocrates's system +particular and less apparent, while those of +Aristotle's are general and evident.</p> + +<p>These two great men have each had their +followers; almost all the scholastic philosophers, +by adopting Aristotle's philosophy, received +his system of generation, while almost every physician +followed the opinion of Hippocrates; +and seventeen or eighteen centuries passed +without any thing new being said on the +subject. At last, at the restoration of literature, +some anatomists turned their eyes on +generation, and Fabricius Aquapendente was +the first who made experiments and observations +on the impregnation and growth of +the eggs of a fowl. The following is the substance +of his observations.</p> + +<p>He distinguished two parts in the matrix +of a hen, the one superior and the other inferior. +The superior he calls the Ovarium, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +which is properly no other than a cluster of +small yellow eggs of a round form, varying in +size from the bigness of a mustard-seed to that +of a large nut or medlar. These small eggs are +fastened together by one common pellicle, and +form a body which nearly resembles a bunch of +grapes. The smallest of these eggs are white, +and they take another colour in proportion as +they increase.</p> + +<p>Having examined these eggs immediately +after the communication of the cock, he did +not perceive any remarkable difference, nor +any of the male semen in any one of these +eggs; he therefore supposed that every egg, +and the ovarium itself, became fruitful by a +subtle spirit, which came from the semen of +the male; and he says, that in order to secure +this fecundating spirit, nature has placed at the +external orifice of the vagina of birds a kind of +net-work or membrane, which permits, like +a valve, the entrance of this seminal spirit, but +at the same time prevents it from re-issuing or +evaporating.</p> + +<p>When the egg is loosened from the common +pellicle, it descends by degrees through a +winding passage into the internal part of the +matrix. This passage is filled with a liquor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +nearly similar to the white of an egg; it is also +in this part that the eggs begin to be surrounded +with this white liquor, with the membrane +which occasions it, the two ligaments +(<i>chalazę</i>) which passes over the white, and connects +it with the yolk and shell, which are +formed in a very short time before they are +laid. These ligaments, according to Fabricius, +is the part of the egg fecundated by the seminal +spirit of the male; and it is here where the +fœtus first begins to form. The egg is not +only the true matrix, that is to say, the place +of the formation of the chick, but it is from +the egg all generation depends. The egg produces +it as the agent: it supplies both the matter +and the organs; the ligaments are the substance +of formation; the white and the yolk +are the nutriment, and the seminal spirit of the +male is the efficient cause. This spirit communicates +to the ligaments at first an alterative +faculty, afterwards a formative, and lastly the +power of augmentation, &c.</p> + +<p>These observations of Fabricius have not +given us a very clear explication of generation. +Nearly at the same time as this anatomist was +employed in these researches, towards the +middle of the sixteenth century, the famous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +Aldrovandus<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> also made observations on eggs; +but as Harvey judiciously observes, he followed +Aristotle much closer than experiment. The +descriptions he gives of the chicken in the egg +are not exact. Volcher Coiter, one of his scholars, +succeeded much better in his enquiries; +and Parisanus, a physician of Venice, having +also laboured on this subject, they have each +given a description of the chicken in the egg, +which Harvey prefers to any other.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> See his Ornithology.</p></div> + +<p>This famous anatomist, to whom we are indebted +for the discovery of the circulation of +the blood, has composed a very extensive treatise +on generation; he lived towards the middle +of the last century, and was physician to +Charles I. of England. As he was obliged to +follow this unfortunate prince in his misfortunes, +he lost what he had written on the generation +of insects among other papers, and he +composed what he has left us on the generation +of birds and quadrupeds from his memory. I +shall concisely relate his observations, his experiments, +and his system.</p> + +<p>Harvey asserts that man and every animal +proceed from an egg; that the first produce +of conception in viviparous animals is a kind of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +an egg, and that the only difference between +viviparous and oviparous is, that the fœtus of +the first take their origin, acquire their growth, +and arrive at their entire expansion in the +matrix; whereas the fœtus of oviparous animals +begins to exist in the body of the mother, +where they are merely as eggs, and it is only +after they have quitted the body of the mother +that they really become fœtuses; and we +must remark, says he, that in oviparous animals, +some hold their eggs within themselves +till they are perfect, as birds, serpents and +oviparous quadrupeds; others lay their eggs +before they are perfect, as fish, crustaceous, +and testaceous animals. The eggs which +these animals deposit are only the rudiments +of real eggs, they afterwards acquire bulk +and membranes, and attract nourishment from +the matter which surrounds them. It is the +same, adds he, with insects, for example, and +caterpillars, which only seem imperfect eggs, +which seek their nutriment, and at the end +of a certain time arrive to the state of chrysalis, +which is a perfect egg. There is another +difference in oviparous animals: for fowls and +other birds have eggs of different sizes, whereas +fish, frogs, &c. lay them before they are perfect, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +have them all of the same size; he indeed +observes, that in pigeons, who only lay two +eggs, all the small eggs which remain in the +ovarium are of the same size, and it is only the +foremost two which are bigger than the rest. +It is the same, he says, in cartilaginous fish, as +in the thornback, who have only two eggs +which increase and come to maturity, while +those which remain in the ovarium are, like +those in fowls, of different sizes.</p> + +<p>He afterwards makes us an anatomical exposition +of the parts necessary to generation, +and observes, that in all birds the situation of +the anus and vulra are contrary to the situation +of those parts in other animals; the anus being +placed before and the vulra behind;<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> and with +respect to the cock, and all small birds, that +they generate by external friction, having in +fact no intermission nor real copulation; with +male ducks, geese, and ostriches, it is evidently +otherwise.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Most of these articles are taken from Aristotle.</p></div> + +<p>Hens produce eggs without the cock, but +in a very small number, and these eggs, although +perfect, are unfruitful: he does not +agree with the opinion of country people, that +two or three days cohabitation with the cock +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +is sufficient to impregnate all the eggs a hen +will lay within the year, but admits that he +separated a hen from a cock for the space of +twenty days, and that all the eggs she laid during +that space were fecundated. While the +egg is fastened to the ovarium, it derives its +nutriment from the vessel of the common pellicle. +But as soon as it is loosened from it, it derives +the white liquor which fills the passages in +which it descends, and the whole, even to the +shell, is formed by this mode.</p> + +<p>The two ligaments (<i>chalazę</i>) which Aquapendente +looks on as the shoot produced by the +seed of the male, are found in the infecund +eggs which the hen produces without the communication +with the cock, as in those which +are impregnated: and Harvey very judiciously +remarks, that those parts do not proceed from +the male, and are not those which are fecundated; +the fecundated part of an egg is a very +small white circle which is on the membrane +that covers the yolk, and forms there a small +spot, like a cicatrice, about the size of a lentil. +Harvey also remarks, that this little cicatrice +is found in every fecund or infecund egg, and +that those who think it is produced by the seed +of the male are deceived. It is of the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +size and form in fresh eggs, as in those which +have been kept a long time; but when we +would hatch them, and when the egg receives +a sufficient degree of heat, either by the hen, or +artificially, we presently see this small spot increase +and dilate nearly like the sight of the +eye. This is the first change, and is visible at +the end of a few hours incubation.</p> + +<p>When the egg has undergone a proper +warmth for twenty-four hours, the yolk, +which was before in the centre of the shell, +approaches nearer to the cavity at the broad +end; this cavity is increased by the evaporation +of the watery part of the white, and the +grosser part sinks to the small end. The cicatrice, +or speck, on the membrane of the yolk, +rises with it to the broad end, and seems to adhere +to the membrane there: this speck is then +about the bigness of a small pea, in the middle +of it a white speck is discernible, and many +circles, of which this point seems to form the +centre.</p> + +<p>At the end of the second day these circles +are larger and more visible; the streak also +appears divided by these circles into two, and +sometimes three parts of different colours; a +small protuberance also appears on the external +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +part, and nearly resembles a small eye, in the +pupil of which there is a point, or little cataract; +between these circles a clear liquor is +contained by a very delicate membrane, and +the speck now appears more to be placed in +the white than on the membrane of the yolk. +On the third day the transparent liquor is considerably +increased, as is also the small membrane +which surrounds it. The fourth day, a +small streak of purple-coloured blood is observed +at the circumference of the speck or ball, +at a little distance from the centre of which a +point may be seen of a blood colour, and +which beats like a heart. It appears like a +small spark at each diastole, and disappears at +each systole; from this animated speck issue +two small blood vessels, which these small +vessels throw out as branches into this liquor, +all of which come from the same point, nearly +in like manner as the roots of a tree shoot from +the trunk.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the fourth day, or at the +beginning of the fifth, the animated speck is so +much increased as to appear like a small bladder +filled with blood, and by its contractions and +dilations is alternatively filled and emptied. In +the same day this vessel very distinctly appears +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +to divide into two parts, each of which alternatively +impel and dilute the blood in the same +manner. Around the shortest sanguinary vessel +which we have spoken of a kind of cloud +is seen, which, although transparent, renders +the sight of this vessel more obscure; this +cloud constantly grows thicker and more attached +to the root of the blood vessel, and +appears like a small globe: this small globe +lengthens and divides into three parts, one of +which is globular, and larger than the other +two; the head and eyes now begin to appear, +and at the end of the fifth day, the place for the +vertebra is seen in the remainder part of this +globe.</p> + +<p>The sixth day the head is seen more clearly, +the outlines of the eyes now appear, the +wings and thighs lengthen, and the liver, lungs, +and beak, are distinctly observed; the fœtus +now begins to move and extend its head, although +it has as yet only the internal viscera; +for the thorax, abdomen, and all the external +coverings of the fore part, of the body are wanting. +At the end of this day, or at the beginning +of the seventh, the toes appear, the chick +opens and moves its beak, and the anterior +parts of the body begin to cover the viscera; +on the seventh day the chicken is entirely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +formed, and from this time until it comes out +of the egg, nothing happens but only an expansion +of those parts it acquired within these +first seven days: at the fourteenth or fifteenth +day the feathers appear, and at the twenty-first +it breaks the shell with its beak, and procures +its enlargement.</p> + +<p>These observations of Harvey appear to have +been made with the greatest exactness; nevertheless +we shall point out how imperfect they +are, and that he has fallen himself into the error +he reproaches others with, making experiments +to support his favourite hypothesis, that the +heart was the animated speck which first appeared; +but before we proceed on this matter, +it is but just to give an account of his other +observations, and of his system.</p> + +<p>It is well known that Harvey made many +experiments on hinds and does. They receive +the male towards the middle of September: +a few days after copulation the horns of +the matrix become thicker, and at the same +time more lax. In each of the cavities five carunculas +appear. Towards the 26th or 28th +of the above month the matrix thickens still +more, and the five carunculas are swelled nearly +to the shape and size of a nurse's nipple; +by opening them, an infinity of small white +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +specks are found. Harvey pretends to have +remarked, that there was neither then, nor immediately +after copulation, any alteration or +change in the ovarium, and that he has never +been able to find a single drop of the seed of +the male in the matrix, although he has made +many researches for that purpose.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of October, or beginning +of November, when the females separate from +the males, the thickness of the horns begins to +diminish, the internal surfaces of their cavities +are swelled, and appear fastened together; the +carunculas remain, and the whole, which resembles +the substance of the brain, is so soft +that it cannot be touched. Towards the 13th +or 14th of November, Harvey says, that he perceived +filaments, like the threads of a spider's +web, which traversed the cavities of the horns +and the matrix itself: these filaments shoot out +from the superior angle of the matrix, and by +their multiplication form a kind of membrane, +or empty tunic; a day or two after this tunic +is filled with a white, aqueous and glutinous +matter, which adheres to the matrix by a kind +of mucilage; and in the third month this +tunic, or pouch, contains an embryo about +the breadth of two fingers long, and another +internal pouch, called the amnios, containing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +a transparent crystalline liquor, in which the +fœtus swims. The fœtus at first was but an +animated speck, like that in the egg of a fowl. +All the rest is performed in the same manner as +that related of the chick; the only difference is +in the eyes, which appears much sooner in the +fowl than in the deer. The animated speck +appears about the 19th or 20th of November, a +day or two after which the oblong body, which +contains the fœtus, is seen; in six or seven +days more it is so much formed that the sex and +limbs may be distinguished; but the heart and +viscera are yet uncovered, and it is two days +more before the thorax and the abdomen cover +them, which is the last work and completion +of the edifice.</p> + +<p>From these observations upon hens and deer, +Harvey concludes, that all female animals have +eggs, that in these eggs a separation of a transparent +crystalline liquor contained in the amnios +is made, and that another external pouch, +the chorion, contains the whole liquors of the +egg; that the first thing which appears in the +crystalline liquor is the sanguinary and animated +spirit; in a word, that the formation of +viviparous animals is made after the same manner +as oviparous; and he explains the generation +of both as follows.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p> + +<p>Generation is the work of the matrix, in +which no seed of the male ever enters; the matrix +conceives by a kind of contagion, which +the male liquor communicates to it, nearly as +the magnet communicates its magnetic virtue +to steel. This male contagion not only acts +upon the matrix but over all the female body, +which is wholly fecundated, although the matrix +only has the faculty of conception, as the +brain has the sole faculty of conceiving ideas. +The ideas conceived by the brain, are like the +images of the objects transmitted by the senses; +and the foetus, which may be considered as the +idea of the matrix, is like that which produces +it. This is the reason that a child has a resemblance +to its father, &c.</p> + +<p>I shall not follow this anatomist any farther; +what I have mentioned is sufficient to judge of +his system; but we have some remarks to +make on his observations. He has given them +in a manner most likely to impose; seems to +have often repeated his experiments, and to +have taken every necessary precaution to avoid +deception; from which it might be imagined +he had seen all he writes upon, and observed +them with the greatest accuracy. Nevertheless, +I perceive both uncertainty and obscurity +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +in his descriptions; his observations are +related chiefly on memory; and although he +often says the contrary, Aristotle appears to +have been his guide more than experience; for +he has only seen in eggs what Aristotle has +before mentioned; and that most of his observations +which may be deemed essential had +been made before him, we shall be perfectly +convinced if we pay a little attention to what +follows:</p> + +<p>Aristotle knew that the ligaments (Chalazę) +were of no service to the generation of the +chicken. "Quę ad principium lutei grandines +hęrent, nil conferunt ad generationem, +ut quidam suspicantur."<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> Parisanus, Volcher, +Coiter, Aquapendente, and others, remarked +the cicatrice as well as Harvey: Aquapendente +supposed it of no use; but Parisanus +pretended that it was formed by the male +semen, or at least that the white speck in the +middle of the cicatrice was the seed of the male +which would produce the chicken. "Est-que, +says he, illud galli semen alba & tenuissima +tunica abductum, quod substat duabus communibus +toti ovo membranis, &c." Therefore +the only discovery which properly belongs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +to Harvey is, his having observed that +this cicatrice is found in infecund as well as +fecundated eggs; for others had observed, like +him, the dilation of the circles, and the growth +of the white speck; and it appears that Parisanus +had seen it much better; this is all which +he remarks in the two first days of incubation; +and what he says of the third day, is only a repetition +of Aristotle's words. <a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a>"Per id tempus +ascendit jam vetellus ad superiorem partem ovi +acutiorem, ubi & principium ovi est & fœtus +excluditur; corque ipsum apparet, in albumine +sanguinei puncti, quod punctum salit & movet +sese instar quasi animatum; ab eo meatus venarum +specie duo, sanguinei pleni, flexuosi, +qui, crescente fœtu, feruntur in utramque +tunicam ambientem, ac membrana sanguineas +fibras habens eo tempore albumen continet +sub meatibus illis venarum similibus; ac paulo +post discernitur corpus pufillum initio, ommino +& candidum, capite conspicuo, atque in +eo oculis maxime turgidis qui diu sic permanent, +sero enim parvi fiunt ac considunt. In +parte autem corporis inferiore, nullum extat +membrum per initia, quod respondeat superioribus. +Meatus autum illi qui a corde prodeunt, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +alter ad circumdantem, membranam +tendit, alter ad luteum, officio umbilici."</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> Hist. Anim. lib. vi. cap. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> Hist. Anim. lib. vi. cap. 4.</p></div> + +<p>Harvey attacks Aristotle for saying that the +yolk ascends towards the small end of the egg, +and concludes, that he had not seen any thing +himself, but had apparently received his information +from some good observer of Nature. +Harvey was wrong in thus reproaching Aristotle, +and in asserting that the yolk always ascends +towards the broad end of the egg, for that +depends on the position of the egg during the +time of incubation, for the yolk always ascends +to the uppermost part, as being lighter than the +white, whether it be to the broad or the small +end. William Langley, a physician at Dordrecht, +who made observations on the hatching +of eggs, in 1655, twenty years before Harvey, +was the first who made this remark.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> See Wm. Langley Observ. edę a justo Schradero, Amst. +1674.</p></div> + +<p>But to return to the passage we have quoted. +By that we see that the crystalline liquor, the +animated speck, the two circles, the two blood +vessels, &c. are described by Aristotle precisely +as Harvey had seen them. This anatomist +also pretends that the animated speck is the +heart, that this heart is formed the first, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +that the viscera and other parts are joined +afterwards. All this has been spoken of by +Aristotle, and seen by Harvey, and nevertheless +it is not conformable to truth. To be assured +of this we need only repeat the same experiments +on eggs, or only read with attention those +of Malpighius,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> which were made about 40 +years after those of Harvey.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> Malpighii pullus in ovo.</p></div> + +<p>This excellent observer of Nature examined, +with attention, the cicatrice, which is the essential +part of the egg; he found it was large in all +impregnated eggs, and small in those which were +not impregnated; and he discovered in eggs which +had never been sat upon, that the white speck, +spoken of by Harvey as the first which becomes +animated, is a small pouch or ball, which +swims in a liquor inclosed by the first circle, +and in the middle of this ball he observed the +embryo. The membrane of this small pouch, +which is the amnios, being very thin and transparent, +permitted him easily to see the fœtus it +surrounded. Malpighius, with reason, concludes, +from this first observation, that the fœtus exists +in the egg before incubation, and that its first +outlines are then very strong. It is not necessary +to point out how opposite this experiment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +is to the opinion of Harvey, for he saw +nothing of a form for the two first days of incubation, +and it was the third day before the +sign of the fœtus appears, which is the animated +speck: whereas according to Malpighius, the +outlines of the fœtus exist in the egg before +incubation has commenced.</p> + +<p>After being assured of this important matter, +Malpighius examined, with like attention, the +cicatrice of unimpregnated eggs, which, as we +have observed, is smaller than those which have +been impregnated; it has often irregular circumscriptions, +and sometimes differs in different +eggs. Near its centre, instead of the +ball that encloses the fœtus, there is a globular +mole, which does not contain any thing organized, +and which being opened does not present +any thing formed or arranged, but only +some appendages filled with a thick but transparent +fluid; and this unshapen mass is surrounded +with many concentric circles.</p> + +<p>After six hours incubation the cicatrice is +considerably dilated, and the ball formed by the +amnios is easily discovered; this ball is filled +with a liquor, in the middle of which the head +of the chicken and back-bone are distinctly +seen. In about six hours more the little animal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +is seen more distinctly; in another six +hours the head is grown larger, and the spine +lengthened; and at the end of twenty-four +hours the neck begins to lengthen, the vertebrę +of the back appears of a white colour, +and the head to turn to one side. The vertebrę +are disposed on each side of the spine, +like small globules; and almost at the same +time the small wings begin to shoot, and the +head, neck, and breast are lengthened. After +thirty hours nothing new appears, but every +part of the little animal is considerably increased, +especially the <i>amnios</i>. Around this membrane +the umbilical vessels are seen of a darkish +colour. At the end of thirty-eight hours, +the chicken being grown much larger, its head +is large, and in which are distinguished three +vessels surrounded with membranes, which +also cover the back bone, through which the +vertebrę are still seen. In forty hours, continues +Malpighius, it was wonderful to see +the chicken alive, floating in the liquor; the +back bone was increased, the head was turned +on one side, the vesicles of the brain were +less apparent, the first outlines of the eyes +appeared, the heart beat, and the circulation +of the blood was begun. Malpighius then +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +gives the description of the vessels and course +of the blood, and reasonably supposes that, +though the heart does not beat before thirty-eight +or forty hours incubation, it still existed +before that time, like the other parts of the +chicken; but on examining the heart in a +dark room, he discovered not the least glimpse +of light to proceed from it, as Harvey insinuates.</p> + +<p>At the end of two days the chicken is seen +floating in the liquor of the amnios; in which +the head, composed of vesicles, is turned on +one side; the back bone and vertebrę are +lengthened; the heart, which then hung out +of the breast, beat three times; for the fluid it +contains is impelled into the ventricles of the +heart, from thence into the arteries, and afterwards +into the umbilical vessels. He remarks, +that having separated the chick from +the white of the egg, the motion of the heart +still continued for a whole day. After two +days and fourteen hours, or sixty-two hours +of incubation, the chicken, although grown +stronger, remained with its head bent downwards +in the liquor, contained by the amnios; +the veins and arteries were seen among the +vessels of the brain; the lineaments of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +eyes, and the spinal marrow, also appear extending +the length of the vertebrę.</p> + +<p>At the end of the third day the head of the +chicken appeared crooked; besides the eyes +five vessels were seen in the head filled with a +liquid matter; the first outlines of the wings +and thighs were to be distinguished, and the +body began to gather flesh; the pupil of the +eye, and also the crystalline and vitreous humour +were discernible. At the fourth day the +vesicles of the brain were nearer each other; +the eminences of the vertebrę were more +prominent, the wings and thighs assumed a +greater solidity as they increased in length; the +whole body, covered with a jelly-like flesh, +was now surrounded within the body by a thin +membrane, and the umbilical vessels that unite +the animal to the yolk, appeared to come +from the abdomen. On the fifth and sixth +days the vesicles of the brain began to be +covered; the spinal marrow, divided into +two parts, began to take solidity and stretch +along the trunk; the wings and thighs lengthened; +the feet began to spread; the belly was +closed up and tumid; the liver was distinctly +seen, and appeared of a dusky white; the +ventricles of the heart were discerned to beat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +very distinctly; the body of the chicken was +covered with a skin, and the traces of the feathers +were visible; the seventh day the head +appeared very large, the brain was entirely +covered with its membranes; the beak began +to appear betwixt the eyes, and the wings, the +thighs, and the legs had acquired their perfect +figure.</p> + +<p>I shall not follow Malpighius any farther, +as the remainder relates only to the expansion +of the parts till the twenty-first day, when the +chicken breaks the shell with its beak; though +before that time it is heard to chirrup in its +imprisonment. The heart is the last part +which receives its proper form, for it is eleven +days before the arteries are seen to join, and +the ventricles become perfectly conformable +and united.</p> + +<p>We are now in a condition to judge of the value +of Harvey's experiments and observations. +There is great appearance this anatomist did +not make use of a microscope, which in fact +was not brought to perfection in his days, or +he would not have asserted there was no difference +between the cicatrice of an impregnated +and an unimpregnated egg; he would +not have said the seed of the male produced +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +no alteration in the egg, especially in the +cicatrice; he would not have affirmed that +nothing was perceptible till the third day, that +the animated speck was the first that appeared, +and into which the white speck was changed. +He would have seen that the white speck was +a ball which contained the whole apparatus of +generation, and that every part of the fœtus +are there from the moment the hen has connection +with the cock. He would also have +learnt, that without this connection it contains +only an unshapen mass, which could never become +animated, because in fact it is not organized +like an animal, and because it is only +when this mass, which we must look upon as +an assemblage of the organic particles of the +female semen, is penetrated by the organic +particles of the male semen, that there results +from it an animal, which is formed at the +moment, but whose motion is imperceptible +till the end of forty hours after: he would not +have asserted that the heart is first formed, and +that the other parts are joined to it by a juxta-position, +since it is evident from Malpighius's +observations, that the outlines of every part +are all immediately formed, but only appear in +proportion as they dilate; on the whole, if he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +had seen what Malpighius saw, he would not +have affirmed that no impression of the male seed +remained in the eggs, and that it was only by +contagion that they are fecundated, &c.</p> + +<p>It is also just to remark, that what Harvey +has said on the parts of the generation of a +cock is not exact; he asserts that the cock has +no genital member, and that there is no intromission; +nevertheless it is certain that this +animal, instead of one has two, and that they +both act at the same time, and which action +is a very strong compression, if not a true copulation;<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a> +and it is by this double organ that +the cock emits the seminal liquor into the matrix +of the hen.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> See Reyn. Graaf, page 242.</p></div> + +<p>Let us now compare the experiments made +by Harvey on hinds with those of De Graaf on +doe rabbits; we shall find that although De +Graaf supposes, with Harvey, that all animals +proceed from eggs, yet there is a great difference +in the mode which these two anatomists +have observed in the first steps of formation, or +rather expansion, of the fœtuses of viviparous +animals.</p> + +<p>After having exerted every effort to establish, +by reasons drawn from comparative anatomy, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +that the testicles of viviparous females +are real ovaries, De Graaf explains how the +eggs are loosened from the ovaries and fall into +the horns of the matrix; he then relates what +he observed in a rabbit, which he dissected half +an hour after copulation. The horns of the +matrix, he says, were more red than before, +but no other change in the rest of the parts: +there was also no appearance of any male seed, +neither in the vagina, matrix, nor horns of the +matrix.</p> + +<p>Having dissected another six hours after copulation +he observed the follicules, or coats, +which he supposes contained the eggs in the +ovary, ware become red, but found no male +seed either in the ovaria or elsewhere. He +dissected another twenty-four hours after copulation, +and remarked in one ovarium three, +and in the other five follicules that were changed, +the transparency being become dark and +red. In one dissected twenty-seven hours +after copulation he perceived the horns of the +womb had become more red and strictly embraced +the ovaries. In another, that he opened +forty hours after copulation, he found in one of +the ovaries seven, follicules, and in the other +three that were changed. Fifty-two hours +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +after copulation he examined another and found +one follicle changed in one of the ovaries and +four in another, and having opened these follicules +he found a glandular liquor, in the middle +of which there was a small cavity, where +he did not perceive any liquor, which made +him suppose that the transparent liquor, commonly +contained in the follicules, and which, +he says, is enclosed in its own membranes, +might have been separated by a kind of rupture: +he searched after this matter in the passages, +and in the horns of the matrix themselves, +but he found none; he only perceived +that the internal membrane of the horns of the +matrix was very much swelled. In another, +dissected three days after copulation, he observed +that the superior extremity of the passage, +which communicates with the horns of +the matrix, strictly embraced the ovaries; and +having separated it he perceived three follicules, +longer and harder than usual. After searching +with the greatest attention the passages above-mentioned +he found in the right passage one +egg, and in the right horn of the matrix two +more, not bigger than a grain of mustard-seed: +those little eggs were each closed in double +membranes, and the inner one was filled with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +a very limpid liquor. Having examined the +other ovarium he found four follicules that +were changed, three of which were white and +had a little liquor within them; but the fourth +was of a darker colour, and contained no liquor, +which made him judge that from this the +egg had been separated. Pursuing his enquiries +he found an egg in the superior extremity +of the other horn, and exactly like those he had +discovered in the right one. He says that +the eggs which are separated from the ovary +are ten times smaller than those which are +fastened to it; and he thinks that this difference +is occasioned from the eggs containing, +when they are in the ovaries, another matter, +and that is the glandular liquor he remarked in +the molecules.</p> + +<p>Four days after copulation he opened another, +and found in one of the ovaries four, and in the +other three follicules, emptied of their eggs; +and in the horns corresponding to these he +found an equal number of eggs. These eggs +were larger than the first that he found three +days after copulation, and were about the +size of a small bird-shot; he also remarked +that the internal membrane in these eggs was +separated from the external, and appeared like +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +a second egg in the first. In another, dissected +five days after copulation, he found five empty +follicules in the ovaries, and as many eggs in +the matrix, to which they adhered. These +eggs were about the size of duck-shot, and the +internal membrane was more apparent than in +the one he had observed before. In one which +he opened six days after copulation there were +six empty follicules in one ovaria, and only +five eggs in the corresponding horn, and they +appeared in one mass; in the other ovaria were +four empty follicules and but one egg; these +eggs were as big as swan-shot. He opened +another on the seventh day after copulation, +and found seven empty follicules; he also perceived +several internal tumours in the matrix, +from whence he took eggs the size of a pistol-bullet. +Its membrane was more distinct than +before, but contained only a very clear liquor. +In one, eight days after copulation, he found in +the matrix tumours, or cells, which contained +the eggs, but they were very adherent, for he +could not loosen them. In another, nine days +after copulation, the cells, which contained the +eggs, were greatly increased, and he saw that +the liquor inclosed by the internal membrane +had now got a light cloud floating upon it. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +He opened another ten days after copulation +and the cloud was thicker, and formed an oblong +body, like a little worm. At last, on the +twelfth day after copulation, the figure of the +embryo was distinctly to be perceived, which +two days before only presented the figure of +an oblong body; it was even so apparent that +the different members might be distinguished. +In the region of the breast he perceived two +red and two white specks, and in the abdomen +a mucilaginous substance, somewhat reddish. +Fourteen days after copulation the head of the +embryo was become large and transparent, the +eyes prominent, the mouth open, the rudiments +of the ears appeared; the back-bone, of a whitish +colour, was bent towards the breast, and small +blood-vessels came from each side, whose ramifications +ran along the back as far as the feet; +the two red specks, being considerably increased, +appeared to be no other than the ventricles +of the heart; by the sides of these red specks +were two white ones, which were the rudiments +of the lungs. In the abdomen the outlines +of the liver were seen of a reddish colour, +and a little intricate mass, like a ravelled +thread, which was the stomach and intestines. +After this the process was no more than a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +growth and expansion of every part till the +thirty-first day, when the female rabbit brings +forth her young.</p> + +<p>From these experiments De Graaf concludes, +that all viviparous females have eggs; that +these eggs are contained in the testicles, called +ovaries; that they cannot disengage themselves +till they are impregnated, because, he says, the +glandular substance, by means of which the +eggs quit their follicules, is not produced till +after an impregnation. He also insists, that +those who suppose they have seen eggs in only +two or three days increased in size, must have +been mistaken, for these eggs remain a longer +time in the ovary, although fecundated, and +instead of immediately increasing, they rather +diminish until they are descended from the +ovaries into the matrix.</p> + +<p>By comparing these observations with those +of Harvey, we shall easily perceive that the +principal circumstances have escaped the latter; +and although there are many errors in the +reasoning and experiments of De Graaf, nevertheless +this anatomist, as well as Malpighius, +has made better observations than Harvey. +They agree in the principal points, and are +both contrary to Harvey; the latter had never +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +seen the alterations which happen to the ovary; +he did not see the small globules in the matrix +which contain the apparatus of generation, and +which De Graaf calls <i>eggs</i>. He had not even +a supposition that the fœtus existed in this +egg; and though his experiments gave us nearly +an exact account of what occurs during +the growth of the fœtus, they give us no information +either of the moment of fecundation +or of the first development. Schrader, +a Dutch physician, who held Harvey in great +veneration, owns that we must not put too +great a reliance in that anatomist in many +things, and especially on what he says of the +fecundative moment, for the chicken in fact is +in the egg before incubation, and that Joseph +de Aromatarius was the first who observed +it.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a> Although Harvey pretended that every +animal proceeds from an egg, he did not imagine +that the testicles of females contained these +eggs, and has only repeated what Aristotle has +said on this subject. The first who speaks +of having discovered eggs in female ovaries is +Steno, who says, in dissecting a female sea-dog +he saw eggs in the testicles, although that animal +is viviparous; and he adds, that the testicles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +of women are analogous to the ovaries +of oviparous animals, whether the eggs fall in +any manner into the matrix, or whether there +only falls the matter they contain. Although +Steno is the first who discovered these pretended +eggs, De Graaf claims the merit to +himself, and Swammerdam has disputed it with +him, insisting that Van Horn had perceived +these eggs before De Graaf. It is true this +last writer stands charged with asserting many +things experience has found to be false. He +pretended that a judgment might be formed of +the number of fœtuses contained in the matrix +by the number of cicatrices, or empty follicules, +in the ovary, which is not true, as we +may see by the observations of Verrheyen,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[K]</a> +and by those of M. Mery,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[L]</a> and by some of +De Graaf's own observations, where he found +fewer eggs in the matrix than cicatrices in the +ovaries. Besides, we shall make it appear +that what he says concerning the separation of +the eggs, and the manner in which they descend +into the matrix, is not exact; that no +eggs exist in the female testicles; that what is +seen in the matrix is not an egg; and that nothing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +can be worse founded than the systems +endeavoured to be established on the observations +of this famous anatomist.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> See Observ. Justi Schraderi, Amst. 1674.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> Vol. I. chap. iii. Brussels edit. 1710.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> Hist. of the Academ. 1704.</p></div> + +<p>This pretended discovery of eggs in the +testicles of females attracted the attention of +most anatomists; they, however, only met +with small bladders in the testicles of female +viviparous animals, these they did not hesitate +to look on as real eggs: they therefore gave +the name of <i>ovaries</i> to the testicles, and called +the vesicles eggs, They also said, with De +Graaf, that there are eggs of different sizes in +the ovarium; that the largest in the ovarium +of women was not above the size of a small +pea; that they were very small in the young, +but increased with age and intercourse with +men; that twenty might be counted in each +ovarium; that these eggs are fecundated in the +ovarium by the spirited part of the seminal liquor +of the male; that afterwards they loosen +and fall into the matrix, where the fœtus is +formed, from the internal substance of the egg +and the placenta of the external matter; that +the glandular substance, which does not exist +in the ovarium till after a fruitful copulation, +serves to compress the egg, and make it quit +the ovarium, &c. But Malpighius having +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +examined things more minutely, detected many +of their errors before they were even received; +yet most physicians adopted the sentiments +of De Graaf, without any attention to the +observations of Malpighius; which, notwithstanding, +are very important, and to which +his scholar Valisnieri has given a great deal +of weight.</p> + +<p>Malpighius and Valisnieri, of all naturalists, +speak with the greatest foundation on the +subject of generation. We shall therefore +give an account of their experiments and remarks, +to which we cannot pay too much +attention.</p> + +<p>Malpighius having examined a great number +of the testicles of cows and other female +animals, affirms that he found vesicles of different +sizes in the testicles of all of them, +whether young or adults; these vesicles are +inclosed by a thick membrane, in the inner +parts of which there are blood-vessels, filled +with a kind of lymph, or liquor, which hardens +by the heat of the fire like the white of an +egg.</p> + +<p>In time a firm yellow body grows which +adheres to the testicles. It is prominent and +increases to the size of a cherry, occupying +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +the greatest part of the ovarium. The body is +composed of many little angular tubes, and its +position is irregular; it is covered with a coat, +or membrane, spread over with nerves and +blood-vessels. The appearance and form of +this yellow body are not always the same, but +vary according to time. When not above the +size of a millet seed, it is nearly globular, and +if divided appears composed of a kind of variegated +net-work. Very often an external +covering is observed, composed of the same +substance as the yellow body, around the vesicles +of the ovarium.</p> + +<p>When the yellow body is become nearly of +the size of a pea, it is the shape of a pear, in +which is a small cavity filled with liquor; as +is also the case when grown to the size of a +cherry. In some of these yellow substances, +when increased to their full maturity, Malpighius +says, a small egg, with its appendages, +not bigger than a millet seed, may be seen near +the centre; when they have cast out their +eggs they are empty, resemble a cavernous +passage, and the cavities which inclose them +are about the size of peas. He thinks this +yellow and glandular substance nature produces +to preserve the egg, and assist it in leaving +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +the testicles, and perhaps to contribute towards +the generation of the egg itself; consequently, +he says, the vesicles, which are +always observed in the ovary, and which are +of different sizes, are not real eggs that may +be fecundated, but only serve for the production +of the yellow body where the egg is to be +formed. On the whole, although these yellow +substances are not found at all times in all +testicles, we nevertheless always find the first +traces of them, and Malpighius having seen the +marks of them in young heifers, cows that +were with calf, and in pregnant women, he +reasonably concludes that this yellow and +glandular substance is not, as De Graaf has +supposed, the effect of fecundation, but what +produces the infecund eggs, which leave the +ovary without any communication with the +male, as well as to those which leave it after +communication. When the latter falls into +the tubes of the matrix, all the rest is performed +as De Graaf has described.</p> + +<p>These observations of Malpighius shew +that the testicles of females are not real ovaries, +as most anatomists believe; that the +vesicles they contain are not eggs; that these +vesicles never fall into the matrix; and that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +the testicles, like those of the male, are kinds +of reservoirs, containing a liquor which must +be looked upon as an imperfect seed of the female, +that is perfected in the yellow glandular +body which fills the internal cavity, and is shed +when the glandular substance has acquired its +full maturity. But before we decide on this +important point, we must relate the observations +of Valisnieri; and we shall perceive that, +though Malpighius and Valisnieri have made +good observations, they have not carried them +far enough, nor drawn those consequences +from them which their observations might naturally +have produced, because they were both +prejudiced for the system of eggs, and of the +fœtus pre-existing therein.</p> + +<p>Valisnieri began his experiments in 1692, +on the testicles of a sow, whose testicles are not +composed like those of a cow, sheep, mare, +bitch, female ass, she goat, nor most other +viviparous females, for they resemble a small +bunch of grapes, whose seeds are round and +prominent outwardly. Between these seeds +there are smaller, which have not arrived to +maturity. These seeds do not appear to be +surrounded with one common membrane; +they are, he says, similar to those yellow substances +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +which Malpighius observed in cows; +they are round, of a reddish colour, their surface +sprinkled over with sanguinary vessels like +the eggs of viviparous animals, and together +form a mass larger than the ovary; we may, +with a little address, and by dividing the membrane, +separate these grains one by one, and +draw them from the ovary, where they each +leave an impression.</p> + +<p>These glandular substances are not of the +same colour in every sow, in some they are red, +in others more clear; and they are of all sizes, +from the most minute point to that of a grape. +On opening them we find a triangular cavity +filled with a limpid liquor, which coagulates +by the fire, and becomes white like that contained +in the vesicles. Valisnieri hoped to meet +with the egg in one of those cavities, but although +he sought for it with the utmost assiduity +in the glandular substance of the ovaries +of four different sows, and afterwards in those +of other animals, yet he could never discover +the egg which Malpighius asserts to have met +with once or twice.</p> + +<p>Below these glandular substances the vesicles +of the ovary were seen, and which were in a +greater or lesser number as the glandular substances +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +are thicker or smaller, for in proportion +as the glandular substances increase, the vesicles +diminish. Some of these vesicles were the size +of a lentil, and others as small as a millet-seed. +In crude testicles twenty, thirty, or thirty-five +vesicles might be counted, but when boiled +a greater number are seen; and they are so +strongly connected by fibres and membraneous +vessels, that it is impossible to separate them +without a rupture.</p> + +<p>Having examined the testicles of a sow +which never had littered, he found there, as in +the rest, glandular bodies, and their triangular +cavities filled with lymph, but never met with +the egg either in the one or the other. The +vesicles of this sow which had never littered +were greater in number than in those which +had littered or conceived. In the testicles of +another sow which had conceived, and whose +young were much expanded, he found two +large glandular substances, that were empty, +and others smaller, in their common state. +Having also dissected many others when with +young, he found that the number of glandular +substances was always greater than that of the +fœtus, which confirms our observations on +De Graaf's experiments, and proves they are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +not exact; what he terms the follicules of +the ovary being only the glandular substances, +whose number always exceed that of the fœtus. +In the ovaries of a sow but a few months old, +the testicles were large, and sprinkled with +vesicles pretty well tumefied: between these +vesicles there were four rising glandular substances +in one of the testicles, and more in the +other.</p> + +<p>After having finished his experiments on +sows, Valisnieri repeated those of Malpighius +on the testicles of cows, and found that all he +had said was conformable to truth; only Valisnieri +owns that he has never been able to find +the egg which Malpighius thought he had seen +once or twice in the internal cavity of glandular +bodies. Valisnieri proceeded in his experiments +upon a variety of other animals to discover +this egg, but in vain; nevertheless his +prejudice for that system induced him, contrary +to his experience, to admit the existence +of eggs, which neither he nor any other man +ever did or ever will see. It is scarcely possible +to make a greater number of experiments, or +better than he has done. He observes, as something +particular to a ewe, that there are never +more glandular substances in the testicles than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +fœtuses in the matrix. In young ewes, which +have never been with the male, there is but one +glandular substance in each testicle, which +when worn away, another is found; and if a +ewe has only one fœtus in her matrix, there is +but one glandular substance in the testicles; if +there are two fœtuses there will be two glandular +substances. This substance occupies the +greatest part of the testicles; after it disappears +another is formed for the purpose of another +generation.</p> + +<p>In the testicles of a she-ass he perceived vesicles +the size of small cherries, which evidently +prove they are not eggs, since, being of that +size, they could not enter into the horns of the +matrix, which are too narrow in this animal +for their reception.</p> + +<p>The testicles of a female dog, wolf, or fox, +have a kind of cowl, or covering, which is produced +by the expansion of the membrane that +surrounds the horns of the matrix. In a bitch, +whose heat was just began, and had not been +brought to a dog, Valisnieri found this cowl, +which is not adherent to the testicle, internally +bathed with a liquor like whey: he discovered +also two glandular substances in the right testicle, +which run almost its whole length. These +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +glandular substances had each a small nipple, +with a little orifice, from which of itself issued +a clear liquor like whey, and when pressed, a +greater quantity came out, which made him +imagine, that this liquor was the same as that +found within the cowl: he blew into this orifice, +by the means of a small pipe, and immediately +the glandular body was puffed up; and +having introduced a bristle, he easily penetrated +to the end of it: he opened this glandular substance +the same way as the bristle was entered, +and found within a cavity which communicated +with the orifice, and which also contained a +good deal of liquor. Valisnieri was also in +hopes to discover the egg, but, notwithstanding +all his endeavours and strict attention, he +never could perceive it. He remarked, that the +extremity of these nipples, from which this liquor +flowed, was contracted by a sphincter, +which served to shut up, or open the orifice of +the nipple: he found also in the left testicle two +glandular bodies with the like cavities, nipples, +orifices, and liquor distilling from them. Still +not being able to find the egg, neither in this +liquor, nor in the cavity which contained it, he +boiled two of these glandular substances, hoping +that by this means he might discover the object +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +he was in pursuit of, but it was all in +vain.</p> + +<p>Having opened another bitch, eight or nine +days after she had been with the male, he found +no difference in the testicles; there were three +glandular substances like the preceding ones, +and, like them, distilled a liquor from the nipples. +Here he also persevered in his fruitless +researches after the egg. By the help of a microscope, +he perceived the glandular substances +were a kind of vascular net-work, formed by an +infinite number of small globular vesicles which +served to filtre the liquor that issues through +the end of the nipple.</p> + +<p>After this he opened another bitch whose +heat was off, and having introduced air between +the testicle and its covering, he found it dilated +like a bladder by means of inflation; having +raised this cowl, he found three glandular substances +on the testicle, but they had no apparent +nipple, nor orifice, nor did any liquor +distil from them.</p> + +<p>In another bitch that had pupped two months, +and had five puppies, he found five glandular +substances, which were become very small, and +began to obliterate, without leaving any cicatrices: +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +there still remained a small cavity in +the middle, but it was dry and empty.</p> + +<p>Not content with these, and many more experiments, +Valisnieri, who would not give up +his researches after the pretended egg, called +together the most expert anatomists of his +country, among whom was M. Morgagni, and +having opened a young bitch at the time of her +first heat, and had been with a male three days +before, they examined the vesicles of the testicles, +the glandular substances with their nipples, +orifice, and liquor which flowed from +them, and in their internal cavities, but not an +egg was to be found. After this he made experiments +on female goats, foxes, cats, and a +great number of mice, &c. He always found +vesicles in the testicles of all those animals, and +often the glandular substances, and the liquor +they contained, but never any egg.</p> + +<p>At length, desirous of examining the testicles +of a woman, he had an opportunity of +opening a farmer's wife, a young woman that +was killed by a fall from a tree. She had been +married several years, but although of a good +habit of body, yet she had never borne a child. +He sought if the cause of her sterility was not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +discoverable in the testicles; and he found the +vesicles all replete with a blackish and corrupted +matter.</p> + +<p>In the testicles of a girl of eighteen, who had +been brought up in a convent, and, according +to all appearances, was a virgin, he found the +right testicle somewhat larger than the left: +its shape was oval, and its surface a little unequal. +This inequality was produced by the +protuberance of five or six vesicles of this testicle +which advanced forwards; one of which +was more prominent than any of the rest. Having +opened this vesicle, a spirit of lymph issued +out: around it there was a glandular substance +in form of a crescent of a yellowish colour rather +bordering on the red. He cut the remainder +part of the testicle transversely, and found many +vesicles filled with a limpid liquor, and remarked +that the corresponding trunk to this testicle +was very red and a little longer than the other, +as he had frequently observed in female animals, +when in their amorous season.</p> + +<p>The left testicle was as round as the right, it +was whiter, and its surface more smooth; for +although there were some vesicles a little prominent, +yet there were not any in form of a nipple; +they were all alike, without any glandular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +substance, and the corresponding trunk was +neither inflamed nor red.</p> + +<p>In a little girl of five years old, he found the +testicles with the vesicles, blood vessels, fibres +and nerves complete.</p> + +<p>In the testicles of a woman sixty years of +age, he found some vesicles, and the vestiges +of a glandular substance, which were as so +many thick points of matter of a dark brownish +colour.</p> + +<p>From all these observations Valisnieri concludes, +that the business of generation is carried +on in the female testicles, which he looked upon +as ovaries, although he never found any eggs in +them, but on the contrary, evidently saw that +the vesicles were not eggs. He also says, that +it is not necessary for the seed of the male to +enter into the matrix to impregnate the egg: he +supposes that the egg comes from the nipple of +the glandular substance, after impregnation in +the ovarium; that from thence it falls into the +trunk, and descends by degrees, till at last it +fastens to the matrix. He adds, he is persuaded +that the egg is concealed in the glandular substance, +and that all the business of generation +is performed in the cavity, although neither he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +nor any other anatomist, have ever seen or +been able to find it.</p> + +<p>According to Valisnieri the spirit of the +male seed ascends to the ovarium, forces its +way into the egg, and gives motion to the +fœtus that pre-exists therein. In the ovarium +of the first woman were eggs, which not only +inclosed in miniature every child she brought +forth, but of the whole human race. That if +we cannot conceive this infinite chain of individuals +contained in one, it is the fault of our +minds, the weakness of which is every day +perceptible; but it is, upon that account, no +less true, that every animal which has been, is, +and will be, were created all at one time, and +inclosed in the first females. The resemblance +of children to parents only proceeds, continues +he, from the imagination of the mother, the +power of which is so great on the fœtus that +it can produce on it spots, marks, disproportions, +and extraordinary births, as well as perfect +resemblances.</p> + +<p>This system of the eggs, which is unreasonable, +and without foundation, would, nevertheless, +have obtained the unanimous suffrages +of all physicians, if, when it was first endeavoured +to be established, another system had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +not been formed on the discovery of spermatic +animals.</p> + +<p>This discovery, for which we are indebted +to Leeuwenhoeck and Hartsoeker, has been +confirmed by Andri, Valisnieri, Bourguet, and +many other observers of Nature. I shall relate +what has been said concerning the spermatic +animals which are found in the seminal +liquor of all males: they are in such vast numbers +that the semen seems to be entirely composed +of them; and Leeuwenhoeck pretends +to have seen many millions of them in a drop +smaller than the smallest grain of sand. Although +we do not meet with any in female +animals they abound in all males, both in the +semen emitted naturally and that in the testicles, +as well as in the seminal vesicles. If the semen +of a man is exposed to a moderate heat it +thickens, and the motions of all the animalcules +immediately cease, but if allowed to +cool it becomes thinner, and the animals preserve +their motion till the liquor thickens as it +dries away. The thinner the liquor becomes +the more the animalcule increase, and if water +is added it will appear like a substance of small +animals. When the motion of these animalcule +is nearly finished, whether from heat, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +any other cause, they seem to assemble closer +together, and have a whirling motion in the +centre of a small drop which may have been +taken out for observation, and appear all to +perish at one and the same time, whereas in +the larger portion of the liquor they are easily +seen to perish successively.</p> + +<p>The animalculę, say they, have different +figures in different animals; nevertheless they +are all long, slender, without any appearance +of limbs, and move with rapidity. The fluid +which contains them, as we have already observed, +is heavier than blood. The semen of a +bull afforded Verrheyen, by a chemical process, +first phlegm, afterwards a considerable quantity +of fœtid oil, but little volatile salt, and much +more earth than he could have thought.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[M]</a> This +author appears surprised that in rectifying the +distilled liquor he could not draw any spirit +from it, and being persuaded it contained a +great quantity, he attributed the evaporation to +its great subtility: but may it not be more reasonably +imagined that it contains very little or +no spirits, as neither its consistency nor smell +announce any ardent spirit, and which is only +plentifully found in fermented liquors? besides, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +with respect to volatile spirits, the horns, bones, +and other solid parts of animals, afford more +than all the liquor of the animal body. What +anatomists have called animal spirits, <i>aura seminalis</i>, +may possibly not exist; and it is certainly +not these spirits which agitate the particles +seen moving in the seminal liquors; but +we will here relate the principal observations +that have been made on this subject.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[M]</span></a> See Veerheyen, sup. anat. tom. ii. page 69.</p></div> + +<p>Leeuwenhoeck observed, in the semen of a +cock, animals which resemble the figure of an +eel, but so exceedingly minute, that he pretends +fifty thousand would not equal in size a grain +of sand; and in that of a rat many millions +would be required to make the thickness of a +hair, &c. This observer imagined that the +whole substance of the semen was only a mass +of these animalcules. He perceived these animalculę +in the semen of men, quadrupeds, +birds, fishes, insects, &c. In that of grasshoppers +they were long and slender. They are +attached, he says, by their extremities, and the +inferior of which he calls the tail, had a quick +motion, like that of the tail of a serpent, when +the upper part is motionless. He further adds, +that in the semen of young animals the animalculę +are motionless, but as the age for reproduction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +comes on they move about with great +vivacity.</p> + +<p>In the semen of a male frog he observed +animalculę, at first they were imperfect and +motionless, but some time afterwards he found +them living: they were so very small, he says, +that ten thousand would scarcely equal the size +of a single egg of the female. It was only +those in the seminal liquor of the frog which +had life and motion.</p> + +<p>In the semen of a man, and that of a dog, +he pretends to have seen two kinds, which he +looked upon as males and females. Having +inclosed the seed of a dog in a vial, he says, +that numbers of the animalculę died the first +day; the second and third there died still more, +and very few remained alive the fourth. But +having repeated this experiment on the semen +of the same dog, he found, at the end of seven +days, live animalculę, some of which swam +with as much swiftness as in fresh-extracted +semen; and having opened a bitch which had +been three times with the same dog, he could +not perceive by the naked eye any seminal +liquor of the male in either of the horns of +the matrix; but by help of a microscope he +discovered the spermatic animals of the dog +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +in both horns of the matrix, and great numbers +of them in that part of the matrix adjoining to +the vagina, which, says he, evidently proves +that the male semen enters the matrix, or at +least that the spermatic animals of the dog had +got there by their own motion, which is sufficient +to carry them four or five inches in half +an hour. In the matrix of a doe rabbit, which +had just received the buck, he likewise observed +an infinite number of spermatic animals; +he says, that their bodies are round, with long +tails, and that they often change their forms, +especially when the humid matter in which +they swim evaporates and dries.</p> + +<p>Leeuwenhoeck's experiments have been +frequently repeated and found conformable to +truth. There have been some inclined to +exceed him in these discoveries. Dr. Dalenpatius +having observed the seminal liquor of a +man, not only pretended to have discovered +animals like tadpoles, whose bodies appeared +nearly the size of a grain of wheat, and their +tails four or five times longer than their bodies, +and which moved with great agility, but, what +is still more marvellous, he observed one of +these animals quit its covering; upon which it +was no longer an animalcule, but had become +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +a human body, the two legs of which, he affirms, +were very discernible, as were the arms, +breast, and head.<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[N]</a> But by the figures which +this author has given of this pretended embryo, +it is evident his assertion is false. He +might suppose he saw what he relates, but he +was mistaken; for the embryo, such as he +describes, was more formed on quitting this +covering, and the state of a spermatic worm, +than it would have been at the end of a month +or five weeks in the matrix of its mother; +therefore this observation of Dalenpatius, instead +of having been confirmed by other observations, +has been rejected by every naturalist, +the most exact and accurate of which +have only discovered, in the seminal liquor +of man, round and oblong bodies, which seemed +to have long tails, but without any kind of +members.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[N]</span></a> See Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres, Ann. 1699, +page 552.</p></div> + +<p>It might be said that Plato had spoken +of these spermatic animals which become human +forms; for he says, "Vulva quoque matrix +que in fœminis eadem ratione animal +avidem generandi, quando procul a fœtu per +ętatis florem, aut ultra diutius detinetur, ęgre +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +fert moram ac plurimum indignatur, passimque +per corpus oberrans, meatus spiritus intercludit, +respirare non finit, extremis vexat angustiis, +morbis denique omnibus premit, quosque +atrorumque Cupido amorque quasi ex arboribus +fœtum fructumve producunt, ipsum +deinde decerpunt, & in matricem velut agrem +inspargunt; hinc animalia primum talia, ut +nec propter parvitatem videantur, necdum appareant +formata, concipiunt: mox quę conflaverant, +explicant, ingentia, intus enutriunt, +demum educunt in lucem, animaliumque generationem +perficiunt." Hippocrates, in his +treatise <i>De Dięta</i>, seems also to insinuate, that +the seed of animals is replete with animalcules. +Democritus speaks of certain worms which +take the human figure, and Aristotle says, that +the first men came out of the earth in the form +of worms; but neither the authority of Plato, +Hippocrates, Democritus, Aristotle, nor the +observation of Dalenpatius, can make us receive +the idea that these spermatic worms are +small human bodies, concealed under a covering; +for it is evidently contrary to experience +and observation.</p> + +<p>Valisnieri and Bourguet, whom we have +quoted, discovered small worms in the seed of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +a rabbit, one of whose extremities was thicker +than the other; they were very lively and active, +struck the liquor with their tails, and +twisted and turned themselves like snakes. At +last (says Valisnieri) I clearly perceived them to +be real animals, "e gli riconobbi, e gli giudicai +senza dubitamento alcuno per veri, verissimi +arciverissimi vermi<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[O]</a>." This author, +who was prejudiced with the system of eggs, +has, nevertheless, admitted of spermatic worms, +and taken them for real animals.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[O]</span></a> Opere dell. Cav. Valisnieri, vol. II. page 105.</p></div> + +<p>M. Andry having made observations on these +spermatic worms of a man, pretends that they +are only found in the age proper for generation; +that in the younger years, and in old age, they +do not exist: that in those affected with venereal +disorders there are very few, and those are +languishing, and for the most part dead: that +in impotent persons we do not see any alive; +that these worms in the semen of men have +larger heads than in that of other animals, +which agrees, he says, with the figure of the +fœtus and the child; and he adds, those +people who too frequently enjoy female amours, +have generally but few or none of these animalcules +in their semen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> + +<p>Leeuwenhoeck, Andry, and many others, +strenuously opposed the egg system; they had +discovered in the semen of all males living animalcules; +they proved that these animalcules +could not be regarded merely as dwelling in +this liquor, since their bulk was greater than +that of the liquor itself; and that nothing like +them was found either in the blood, or in the +other animal liquors. They asserted, that females +furnished nothing similar, nothing alive; +and it was therefore evident that the fecundity +attributed to them belonged, on the contrary, +to males alone: and that the discovery +of these spermatic animals in the semen tended +more to the explanation of generation than all +that had been before supposed; since, in fact, +what was most difficult to conceive in generation, +was the production of the living part, all +the rest being only accessary operations, and +therefore no doubt could remain but these little +animals were destined to become men, or perfect +animals of their kind. When it was opposed +to the partizans of this system, that it did +not seem natural to suppose that so many millions +of animalcules, every one of which might +become a human being, should be employed for +a purpose of which one alone was to reap the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +advantage; when it was asked them, why this +useless profusion of the shoots of human beings? +they answered, that it was only consonant with +the common munificence of nature: that out +of many millions of seeds which plants and +trees produce, but a very few succeed, and +therefore we must not be surprised at the same +circumstance in spermatic animals. When +the infinite minuteness of the spermatic worm, +compared to man, was objected to them, they +answered, by the example of the seed of trees; +and they added, with some foundation, metaphysical +reasonings, by which they proved +that great and small being only relations, the +transition from small to great, or from great to +small, was executed by nature with still more +facility than we can conceive.</p> + +<p>Besides, continue they, have we not very frequent +examples of transformation in insects? do +we not see small aquatic worms become winged +animals, by only throwing off their coats, +which were their apparent and external forms? +and may not spermatic animals, by a similar +transformation, become perfect animals? All +therefore, they conclude, concurs to favour +this system of generation, and confuting that +founded on eggs; and if there are eggs in viviparous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +females, the same as in the oviparous, +these eggs will only be the necessary matter for +the growth of the spermatic worm, which enters +into the egg by the pedicle that adheres to +the ovarium, and where it meets with food ready +prepared for it. All the worms which find +not this passage through the pedicle into the +egg will perish, and that one which alone has +traced its way will arrive at its transformation. +The difficulty of meeting with the passage in +the pedicle of the egg, can only be compensated +by the infinite number of spermatic worms. It +is a million to one that any particular spermatic +worm will meet with the pedicle of the egg, +and therefore what at first appears a profusion +is highly necessary. When one has entered, no +other can introduce itself, because, say they, +the first worm entirely shuts up the passage, or +there is a valve at the entrance of the pedicle, +which is free when the egg is not absolutely +full; but when the worm has filled the egg, the +valve can no longer open although impelled by +another worm. This valve is very well imagined, +because, if the first worm should chance to +return, it opposes its egress, and obliges it to +remain and undergo the transformation. The +spermatic worm then becomes the fœtus, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +substance of the egg its food, the membranes, +its covering, and when the nutriment in the +egg is nearly exhausted, the fœtus adheres to +the internal skin of the matrix, and thus derives +nourishment from the parent's blood, till +by its weight, and augmentation of its strength, +it breaks through its imprisonment, and comes +perfect into the world.</p> + +<p>By this system it was not the first woman +who inclosed all mankind, but the first man +who contained all posterity in his body. The +pre-existing germs are no longer embryos without +light, inclosed in the eggs, and contained +one in another, ad infinitum; but they are +small animals, the little homunculę organized +and actually living, included in each other in +endless succession, and to which nothing is +wanting for them to become perfect animals, +and human beings, but expansion, assisted by +a transformation similar to that which winged +insects undergo.</p> + +<p>As our present physicians are divided on +these two systems of spermatic worms and +eggs, and as all those who have lately written +on generation have adopted one or the other +of these opinions, it seems necessary to examine +them with care, and to shew that they are not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +only sufficient to explain the phenomena of +generation, but are also founded on suppositions +void of all probability.</p> + +<p>Both suppose an infinite progression; which, +as we have said, is not so much a reasonable +supposition as an illusion of the mind. A spermatic +worm is more than a thousand million +times smaller than a man; if, therefore, we +suppose the body of a man as an unit, the size +of the spermatic worm can only be expressed by +the fraction 1/1000000000; and as man is with +respect to the spermatic worm of the first generation, +what this worm is to that of the second +generation, the size of the last spermatic worm +cannot be expressed but by a number composed +of nineteen cyphers; and so likewise the size +of the spermatic worm of the third generation +will require 28 cyphers; that of the fourth +generation 37; the fifth 46, and the sixth 55 +cyphers. To form an idea of the minuteness +represented by this fraction, let us take the +dimensions of the sphere of the universe from +Sol to Saturn, and supposing the sun a million +times larger than the earth, and about a thousand +solar diameters distant from Saturn, we +shall perceive that only 45 cyphers are required +to express the number of cubic lines +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +contained in this sphere; and, by reducing +each cubic line into a thousand millions of +atoms, 54 cyphers are only required to express +that number; consequently a human being +will be greater, with relation to a spermatic +worm of the sixth generation, than the sphere +of the universe is with relation to the smallest +atom which is possible to be perceived by the +assistance of a microscope. What would it +be if we were to carry it to ten generations? +The minuteness would be so great as to leave +us no mode of expressing it. The probability +of this opinion, therefore, evidently disappears +in proportion as the object diminishes. This +calculation may be applied to eggs as well as +spermatic worms, and the want of probability +is general to both; it will, no doubt, be said, +that matter being divisible, <i>ad infinitum</i>, there +is no impossibility in this diminution of size; +and although it is not probable, yet we must +regard this division of matter as possible, since +we can always, by thought, divide an atom into +a number of parts. But I answer, that the +same illusion is made use of on this infinite +divisibility as on every other geometrical and +arithmetical infinity; they are only abstractions +of the mind, and have no existence in nature. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +If we look on infinite divisibility of matter as +an absolute infinity, it is easy to demonstrate +that in that sense it does not exist; for, if once +we suppose the smallest atom possible, by that +supposition this atom will necessarily be indivisible, +since if it were divisible it would no +longer be the smallest atom possible, which +would be contrary to the supposition. It therefore +seems to me, that every hypothesis where a +progress, <i>ad infinitum</i>, is admitted, ought to be +rejected not only as false, but as void of all +probability; and as the system of eggs and +spermatic worms supposes this progress, they +should not be admitted in philosophy.</p> + +<p>Another great difficulty against these two +systems is, that in the egg system the first +woman contained the male and female eggs: +the male eggs contained only a generation of +males; and that, on the contrary, the female +eggs contained thousands of generations, both +of males and females; insomuch that, at the +same time, and in the same woman, there was +always a certain number of eggs capable of +developing themselves to infinity, and another +number which would be unfolded but once. +The same circumstance must occur in the +other system, and therefore I ask if there is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +the smallest appearance of probability in these +suppositions?</p> + +<p>A third difficulty arises against these two +systems, which is, the resemblance that children +bear, sometimes to the father and sometimes +to the mother, and sometimes to both; +and the evident marks of extraordinary difference +in mules, &c. If from the spermatic +worm of the father the fœtus is produced, how +can the child resemble the mother; and if the +fœtus is pre-existing in the egg of the mother, +how can the child resemble its father? or if +the spermatic worm of a horse, or the egg of +a she-ass contains the fœtus, how can the mule +participate in the nature and figure of both the +horse and the ass?</p> + +<p>These general difficulties, which are invincible, +are not the only ones that can be made +against these systems; there are particular ones +which are no less potent. To begin with the +system of spermatic worms, may it not be asked +of those who admit of it, how they think this +transformation is made? and object to them, +that insects have not, nor cannot have any relation +with what they suppose. For the worm +which is to become a fly, or the caterpillar +which is to become a butterfly, passes through +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +a middle state, and when it ceases to be a chrysalis, +it is completely formed and has acquired +its full size, and is then in a condition of engendering; +whereas in the pretended transformation +of the spermatic worm into man, it +cannot be said to be in a state of chrysalis, and +even if we should suppose one during the first +days of conception, why does not the production +of this chrysalis, instead of an unformed +embryo, suppose an adult and perfect being? +We plainly see how analogy is here violated; +and that far from confirming this idea of the +transformation of the spermatic worm, it is +instantly destroyed by examination.</p> + +<p>Besides, the worm which is transformed into +a fly proceeds from an egg; the egg is the +produce of the copulation of the male and female, +and includes the fœtus, which must afterwards +enter into a chrysalis, before it arrives +at its state of perfection, as a fly; in which +form alone it has an engendering power; +whereas the spermatic worm has no faculty +of generation, nor proceeds from an egg. +Even should we allow the semen to contain +eggs, from whence issue spermatic worms, the +same difficulty will still remain, for these supposed +eggs have not the copulation of the two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +sexes for their principle of existence, as in insects; +consequently the partizans of that opinion +cannot pretend any similarity, nor derive +any advantage from the transformation of insects; +which rather destroys the basis of their +explanation.</p> + +<p>When the innumerable multitude of spermatic +worms are opposed to those physicians +who are prejudiced by this system, they answer, +as before observed, by the examples of +plants and trees. But this comparison is not +entirely just, because all the spermatic worms +excepting one perish by absolute necessity, +which is not the case with the seeds of a tree +or plant, for those which do not become vegetables, +serve as food for other organized bodies, +and for the expansion and reproduction +of animals; whereas we do not see any use for +the spermatic worms, or any end to which +we can refer their prodigious superfluity. On +the whole, I only make this remark in reply +to what is, or may be said on this matter; +for I own, that no arguments drawn from final +causes will either establish or destroy a physical +system.</p> + +<p>Another objection made against this opinion +is, there being, to all appearance, an equal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +number of separate worms in the seed of all +kinds of animals, for, say they, it is natural to +imagine, that in those kinds where fœtuses are +most abundant, as in fishes, insects, &c. the +number of spermatic worms should be more +numerous than in those where generation is least +abundant, as in man, quadrupeds, birds, &c. +for if they are the immediate cause of production, +why is there no proportion between their +number and that of the fœtus? Besides, there +is no proportionable difference in the size of +most kinds of spermatic worms, those of large +animals being as small as those of the least. +Those of a rat, and those of a man, are nearly +the same, and when there is any difference it is +no ways relative to the size of the individual. +The Calmar, which is a very small fish, has +spermatic worms above one hundred thousand +times larger than those of a man or a dog. +Another proof these worms are not the immediate +and only cause of generation.</p> + +<p>The particular difficulties that may be raised +against this egg system are no less considerable. +If the fœtus exists in the egg before the communication +of the male with the female, why +do we not perceive the fœtus as well in those +eggs produced before as after copulation? We +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +have before recounted the observations of Malpighius, +who says he always found the fœtus in +those eggs produced by hens that had received +the cock, and only a mass or mole in the cicatrice +of those who had not; it is therefore +very clear that the fœtus does not exist in the +egg till after impregnation.</p> + +<p>Another difficulty against this system is, +that not only the fœtus is not seen in eggs before +the junction of the sexes, but even the +existence of eggs in viviparous animals is by +no means proved. Those physicians who pretend +that the spermatic worm is the fœtus enveloped +in a covering, are at least assured of +spermatic worms; but those who affirm that +the fœtus is pre-existing in the egg, have no +proof of the existence of the egg itself; on the +contrary, there is a probability, almost equivalent +to a certainty, that these eggs do not +exist.</p> + +<p>Although the partizans of the egg system do +not agree what must be looked on as the true +egg in the female testicle, nevertheless they all +think that impregnation is made in the testicle +called the <i>ovarium</i>, without paying any attention +that if it was so most fœtuses would be +found in the abdomen instead of the matrix, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +for the superior extremity of the trunk being +separated from the ovarium, the pretended +eggs must often fall into the abdomen. Now, +it is certain that this case is extremely rare, +and, I believe, never happened, unless occasioned +by some accident.</p> + +<p>The general difficulties and objections +against these two systems have been noticed +by the author of <i>Venus Physique</i>, whose treatise, +although very short, has more philosophical +ideas than there are in many folio volumes +on generation. As this book is very +public, and the accuracy with which it is written +will not permit any extract, I shall only +observe, this author is the first who has returned +into the road of truth, from which we +were farther strayed than ever, since the supposition +of the egg system, and the discovery +of spermatic animals. Nothing therefore remains +farther to be said, and I shall conclude +with relating a few particular experiments, +some of which have appeared favourable, and +others contrary, to these systems.</p> + +<p>In the History of the Academy of Sciences +of Paris, 1701, some objections are proposed +by M. Mery against the egg system. This +able anatomist supports, with reason, that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +vesicles found in the female testicles are not +eggs, but are so adherent to the internal substance +of the testicle that they cannot be naturally +separated therefrom; that if they could +separate themselves from this substance it would +be impossible for them to get out, because the +common membrane, which surrounds all the +testicle, is a web of too firm a texture to admit +of a conception; that a vesicle, or round soft +egg, could open a passage in it; and as the +greatest number of physicians and anatomists +were prejudiced in favour of the egg system, +and, from the experiments of De Graaf, believed +that the number of cicatrices in the +testicles marked the number of fœtuses, M. +Mery mentions the testicles of a woman, where +there was such a quantity of these cicatrices, +that, agreeable to this system, would have supposed +a fecundity almost beyond imagination. +These difficulties excited other partizans of the +egg system to make new researches. M. Duverney +examined and dissected the testicles of +cows and sheep: he pretended that the vesicles +were eggs, because there were some less adherent +to the testicles than others, and insisted +it was natural to believe, that when they came +to perfect maturity they were separated altogether, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +especially as by inflating the internal +cavity of the testicle the air passed between +these vesicles and the adjoining parts. M. +Mery only answers that this not a sufficient +proof, since these vesicles have never been seen +separate from the testicles. M. Duverney remarked +the glandular bodies on the testicles, +but he did not look on them as an essential and +necessary part towards generation, but merely +as accidental exuberances, like gall-nuts, on +the oak. M. Littre, whose prejudice for the +egg system was still greater, pretended, not +only that the vesicles were eggs, but even asserted +he had discovered in one of them a +well-formed fœtus, of which he distinguished +the head and trunk very perfectly, and even +gave the dimensions. But besides this wonder +being only seen by that gentleman, and no +other naturalist, it is sufficient to read his Memoire<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[P]</a> +to perceive how doubtful was the fact. +By his own words we find the matrix was +schirrhous, that the testicle was corrupted, and +that the vesicle, or egg, which contained this +imaginary fœtus was smaller than the other +vesicles, or eggs, which did not contain any +thing, &c.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">[P]</span></a> Anno 1701, page 3.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p></div> + +<p>A famous experiment, in favour of the egg +system, is supplied by De Nuck; he opened a +bitch three days after copulation; he drew out +one of the horns of the matrix, and made a ligature +in the middle, so that the upper part of +the passage could have no communication with +the lower; after which he replaced this horn, +and closed up the wound, with which the bitch +seemed but little incommoded. At the end of +twenty-one days he opened it again, and found +two fœtuses in the upper part, that is between +the testicles and the ligature; but in the lower +part there was no fœtus. In the other horn of +the matrix, which had not been tied by a ligature, +he found three fœtuses, which were regularly +disposed, which proves, he says, that +the fœtus does not proceed from the seed of +the male, but exists in the female egg. Supposing +this experiment, which has only been +made once, was always followed with the same +effect, we should not then be right in concluding +that fecundation is made in the ovary, and +that eggs are detached therefrom which contain +the fœtus completely formed. It would +only prove that the fœtus may be formed in +the upper parts of the horns of the matrix as +well as in the lower; and it seems very natural +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +to imagine that the ligature, compressing +the middle of the horns of the matrix, impelled +the seminal liquors, which are in the lower +parts, to issue out, and thus destroy the business +of generation in them.</p> + +<p>Thus we have gone through the opinions of +anatomists and physicians on the subject of +generation; and it now only remains for me +to recount what I have been enabled to draw +from my own researches and experiments, and +it will then be seen whether my system is not +infinitely more agreeable to Nature than any +of those I have given an account of.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">EXPERIMENTS ON THE METHOD OF GENERATION.</p> + + +<p>I often reflected on the above system, and +was every day more and more convinced +that my theory was infinitely the most probable. +I then began to suppose that, by a +microscope, I might be able to attain a discovery +of the living organic particles, from +which I thought every animal and vegetable +drew their origin. My first supposition was, +that the spermatic animalcules seen in the seed +of every male, might possibly be these organic +particles; on which I reasoned as follows:</p> + +<p>If every animal and vegetable contain a +quantity of living organic particles, these particles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +would be found in their seed, and in a +greater quantity than in any other substance, +because the seed is an extract of what is most +analogous to the individual, and the most organic; +and the animalcule we see in the seed of +males are, perhaps, only these same living organic +molecules, or at least the first union, +or assemblage of them. But if this is so, the +seed of the female must also contain similar +living organic molecules, and, consequently, +we ought to find moving bodies there as well +as in the male: and since the living organic +particles are common both to animals and vegetables, +we should also find them in the seeds +of plants, in the nectarium, and in the stamina, +which are the most essential parts of vegetables, +and which contain the organic molecules +necessary for reproduction. I then seriously +thought of examining the seminal liquors of +both sexes, and the germs of plants, with a +microscope. I thought, likewise, that the reservoirs +of the female seed might possibly be +the cavities of the glandular bodies, in which +Valisnieri and others had uselessly sought for +the egg; and at length determined to undertake +a course of observations and experiments. +I first communicated my ideas to Mr. Needham, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +a gentleman well known for his microscopical +observations, and read to him the first +part of this work; he seemed to approve of these +ideas, and did me the favour to lend me his microscope +which was infinitely superior to my +own. At the same time I communicated my +system and project of experiments to Messrs. +Daubenton, Gueneau, and Dalibard, all of +whom encouraged me to persevere in my determination, +and from whom, in the course of making +those experiments, I received much assistance, +particularly from Mr. Daubenton.</p> + +<p>Persons not experienced in the use of the microscope +will not be displeased that I here insert +some remarks which will be useful to them, +if they repeat the following experiments, or +make new ones. We should give the preference +to double microscopes, in which we see objects +perpendicularly, from their having a plain or +concave mirror, which shews the objects clear; +the concave mirror is the most preferable when +the observations are made with the strongest +lens. Leeuwenhoek, who undoubtedly has +been the greatest and most indefatigable of all +microscopical observators, is said to have only +made use of simple microscopes, with which he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +viewed objects horizontally. If this is true, it +is necessary to remark, that most of the plates +given by Leeuwenhoek of microscopical objects, +especially spermatic animals, represents +them much thicker and longer than he really +saw them, which renders the microscopes we +speak of preferable to the horizontal, as they +are more stable; the motion of the hand, with +which the microscope is held, producing a little +trembling, which causes the object to appear +wavering, and never presents the same part for +any time. Besides, there is always a motion in +the liquors caused by the agitation of the external +air, at least, if we do not put the liquor +between two plates of glass, or even fine talc, +which diminishes somewhat of its transparency, +and greatly lengthens the experiment; but the +horizontal microscope, whose tables are vertical, +has the still greater inconvenience, that +the most ponderous parts of the drop of liquor +fall to the bottom; consequently there are +three motions, that of the trembling of the hand, +the agitation of the fluid by the action of the air, +and also that of the parts of the liquor falling to +the bottom: from the combination of which, +certain small globules, which we see in these liquors, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +may appear to move by their own motion +and powers, while they only obey the +compounded power of those three causes.</p> + +<p>When we put a drop of liquor on the table +of the double microscope, although horizontally +placed, and in the most advantageous situation, +we still see one common motion in the liquor, +which forces all what it contains to one side. +We must wait till the fluid is in an equilibrium +and at rest, before we make our observations; +for it often occurs, that this motion of the fluid +hurries away many globules, and forms a kind +of whirling motion, which returns one of these +globules in a very different direction to the +others. The eye is then fixed on the globules, +and seeing one take a different course from the +rest, supposes it an animal, or at least a body, +which moves of itself, whereas its motion is +only owing to that of the fluid; and as the liquor +is apt to dry and thicken in the circumference +of the drop, endeavours must be made +to fix the lens on the centre of it. The drop +should also be as large as possible, and contain +as much liquor as will permit a sufficient +transparency, to see perfectly what it +contains.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> + +<p>Before we begin to make observations, we +should have a perfect knowledge of our microscope. +There is no glass whatsoever but in +which there are some spots, bubbles, threads, +and other defects, which should be nicely inspected, +in order that such appearances should +not be represented as real and unknown objects: +we must also endeavour to learn what +effect the imperceptible dust has which adheres +to the glasses of the microscope; a perfect +knowledge of which may be acquired by observing +the microscope several times.</p> + +<p>To make proper observations, the sight, or +focus, of the microscope must not precisely fall +on the surface of the liquor, but a little above +it; as not so much reliance should be placed +on what passes upon the surface, as what is seen +in the body of the liquor. There are often +bubbles on the surface which have irregular +motions produced by the contact of the air.</p> + +<p>We can see much better with the light of +two short candles, than in the brightest day, +provided this light is not agitated, which is +avoided by putting a small shade on the table, +inclosing the three sides of the lights and the +microscope.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> + +<p>It will often appear as though dark and +opaque bodies become transparent, and even +take different colours, or form concentrical +and coloured rings, or a kind of rainbow on +the surface; and other matters, which are +seen at first sight transparent and clouded, become +black and obscure; these changes are not +real, but only depend on the obliquity the sight +falls on the body with, and the height of the +plain in which they are found.</p> + +<p>When there are bodies in a liquor which +seem to move with great swiftness, especially +when they are on the surface, they form a furrowed +motion in the liquor, which appears to +follow the moving body, and which we might +be inclined to mistake for a tail. This appearance +deceived me at first, but I clearly perceived +my error, when these little bodies met +others which stopped them; for there was no +longer any appearance of tails. These are +the remarks which occurred during my experiments, +and which I submit to those who would +make use of the microscope for the observation +of liquors.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> + +<div class="center bbox"> +<a name="fig_1"></a><a name="fig_2"></a><a name="fig_3"></a> +<a name="fig_4"></a><a name="fig_5"></a><a name="fig_6"></a> +<span class="caption3"><i>PLATE I.</i></span> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate I"> +<tr> + <td>Fig. 1<br /><img src="images/fig_1.png" width="264" height="260" alt="" /></td> + <td>Fig. 2<br /><img src="images/fig_2.png" width="265" height="260" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fig. 3<br /><img src="images/fig_3.png" width="264" height="262" alt="" /></td> + <td>Fig. 4<br /><img src="images/fig_4.png" width="264" height="262" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fig. 5<br /><img src="images/fig_5.png" width="269" height="262" alt="" /></td> + <td>Fig. 6<br /><img src="images/fig_6.png" width="263" height="261" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="caption3">EXPERIMENTS.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_I"></a>I. I took from the seminal vessels of a man, +who died a violent death, and whose body was +still warm, all the liquor therein contained, and +put it into a small bottle; of this I put a drop +on the table of the microscope, without the addition +of water or any other liquor. The first +thing which presented, was a vapour which +steamed from the liquor towards the lens, and +obscured it. These vapours being dissipated, +I perceived large filaments, (<a href="#fig_1"><i>fig. 1.</i></a>) which in +some places seemed to extend into different +branches, and in others to intermingle together. +These filaments clearly appeared to be internally +agitated by an undulating motion, and looked +like hollow tubes which contained some moving +substance. I distinctly saw two of these filaments +(<a href="#fig_2"><i>fig. 2.</i></a>) were joined together, and had +a vibration nearly like that of two extended +strings, which are tied at the two extremities, +and pulled asunder in the middle. These +filaments were composed of globules which +touched each other, and resembled beads. I +afterwards saw filaments which swelled in certain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +parts, and I observed, that on the side so +swelled small globules came out, which had a +distinct motion like that of a pendulum; these +small bodies were fastened to the filaments by +a small thread, (<a href="#fig_3"><i>fig. 3.</i></a>) which lengthened gradually +as the little body moved; and at last I +saw these little bodies entirely separated from +the large filament, carrying after them the +small thread which connected them. As this +liquor was very thick, and the filaments too +near each other, I dilated another drop with +rain water, in which I was assured there were +no animals. I then saw the filaments much +separated, and very distinctly perceived the +motion of these little bodies, which was now +more free, and they swam much quicker; and +if I had not seen them separate from the filaments, +and carry along with them their thread, +I should have taken the moving body in this +second observation for an animal, and the +thread for its tail. I then attentively observed +one of these filaments, that was much thicker +than these small bodies, and I had the satisfaction +of seeing two of those bodies which separated +with difficulty, drag along with them a +long and small thread, which obstructed their +motion.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> + +<p>This seminal liquor was at first very thick, +but by degrees it became more fluid; in less +than an hour it was almost transparent; and +in proportion as this fluidity increased, the +phenomena changed, as I shall relate.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_II"></a>II. When the seminal liquor attained more +fluidity, the filaments were no longer to be +seen, but the little bodies appeared in great +numbers; they have for the most part a motion +like that of a pendulum, and they draw +after them a long thread, which it may clearly +be perceived they want to get rid of; their +motion forwards is very slow, vibrating to the +right and left. The motion of a boat fastened +in the midst of a rapid stream to one fixed +point, pretty well represents the motion of +these bodies, excepting that the boat remains +in the same place, whereas they advance by +degrees; but they do not always keep the same +parts in the same direction; but at each vibration +they take a considerable rolling motion; +so that, besides their horizontal motion, they +have one of a vertical balance, which proves +that these bodies are of a globular figure, or, +at least, that their lowest part is not sufficiently +extended to maintain them in the same +position.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="ex_III"></a>III. At the end of two or three hours, when +the liquor was more fluid, we saw a greater +quantity of these moving bodies. They +seemed to be more free; the threads were +shorter; their progressive motion was more +direct, and their horizontal motion was greatly +diminished; for the longer the threads are, the +greater is the angle of their vibration; and in +proportion as these threads diminish in length, +the vibratory motion lessens, and the progressive +motion increases. The vertical balance +still subsisted, and was always plainly +perceptible.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_IV"></a>IV. In five or six hours the liquor attained +its utmost fluidity. Most of these moving substances +were entirely disengaged from their +threads; they were of an oval figure, (<a href="#fig_4"><i>fig. 4.</i></a>) +and moved progressively with great swiftness, +and by their various motions had a stronger +resemblance than ever to real animals. Those +who had their threads still adhering, were not +so brisk as the others; and among these that +had not threads, some seemed to change their +shape and size, some were round, some oval, +and others thicker at their extremities than in +the middle; the balancing and rolling motion +was still observable.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="ex_V"></a>V. At the end of twelve hours a kind of +gelatinous matter was settled at the bottom of +the bottle: it was of an ash-colour, and of a +tolerable consistency; the liquor that swam +above was almost as clear as water, with a kind +of bluish tint, resembling water in which a +little soap had been dissolved; nevertheless it +still preserved its viscidity. The moving bodies +had then a great activity, were loosened from +their threads, and moved in all directions. I +saw some of them change their form, and from +oval become round; and others separate, and +from one oval form two. As they became +smaller, their activity increased.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_VI"></a>VI. In twenty-four hours the liquor had deposited +a greater quantity of gelatinous matter. +I diluted it with water, but it did not readily +mix, and required a considerable time to dissolve. +It then appeared composed of an infinite +number of opaque tubes that formed a +kind of net-work, in which no regular disposition +nor the least motion could be seen: in +the clear liquor some few small bodies were +still moving. The next morning there were +also a very few; but after that time I saw no +more in this liquor than in the globules, without +any appearance of motion.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> + +<p>These experiments were repeated several +times with the most possible exactness; and I +am persuaded that those threads above mentioned +are not tails, nor do they make any part +of the individual body; for these threads +have no proportion with the rest of the body; +they are of different sizes, although the moving +bodies are always nearly of the same, at +the same time. The globule appears embarrassed +in its motion, as its tail is longer or +shorter; sometimes it cannot advance, but +move only from right to left, or from left to +right, when the tail is very long; and it is +clearly seen that they use great efforts to get +rid of them.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_VII"></a>VII. Having taken the seminal liquor from +another man but just dead, and still warm, I +put a drop of it on the table of the microscope, +and it immediately liquified; it had at first a +condensed appearance, and seemed to form a +compact web, composed of long and thick +filaments, which grew from the thickest part +of the liquor. These filaments separated in proportion +as the liquor became more fluid, and +at length they divided into globules, which at +first seemed not to have sufficient power to set +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +themselves in motion, but this power increased +as they separated from the filament, from which +they made many efforts to disengage themselves. +Each of them in this struggle drew +out tails from the filaments of different sizes, +some of which were so thin and so long as to +have no proportion with the bodies, which were +all so much the more embarrassed as these +threads or tails increased in length. The angle +of their vibratory motion was also much greater +as those filaments were longer: and their progressive +motion so much the more remarkable +as these tails were shorter.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_VIII"></a>VIII. Having continued these observations +for fourteen hours, I perceived that these +threads, or tails, were continually lessening, +and became so fine, that at last their extremities +were no longer visible, and at length the +whole entirely disappeared. At this time the +globules absolutely ceased their horizontal vibrations; +their progressive motion was direct, +although they had always the vertical balancing +motion, like the rolling of a ship. When +disencumbered of these threads, the bodies were +oval, transparent, and perfectly like those pretended +animals seen in the liquor of an oyster +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +on the seventh day, and still more to those +found in the jelly of roast veal at the end of the +fourth day.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_IX"></a>IX. Between the tenth and eleventh hour +the liquor became extremely fluid, and all the +globules appeared to proceed in ranks from +one and the same side; (<a href="#fig_5"><i>fig. 5.</i></a>) they passed +over the table of the microscope in less than +four seconds; they were ranged seven or eight +in front, and moved on successively, as troops +march in files. I observed this singular instance +for more than five minutes; and as their +course did not finish, I was desirous of finding +the source: and, having gently moved my +glass, I perceived that all these moving globules +came from a kind of mucilage, (<a href="#fig_6"><i>fig. 6.</i></a>) +where the filamentary net-work continually +produced them more abundant and much +quicker than the filaments had ten hours before. +There was still a remarkable difference +between these moving bodies produced in the +thick liquor, and those produced when the liquor +became more fluid; these last had no thread +behind them, their motion was quicker, and +they went in flocks like sheep. I observed the +mucilage from whence they issued for some +time, and perceived it diminished, and was successively +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +converted into moving globules, till +the diminution of more than half the bulk; +after which, the liquor being too dry, this mucilage +became obscure in its middle, and all +the environs were divided by the small threads +which appeared to be formed from the bodies +of these moving globules which were destroyed +as it dried up, not in one single mass, but in +long threads, regularly disposed, with quadrangular +intervals, forming a net-work, very like +to a cobweb, on which the moisture hung in an +infinite number of globules.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_X"></a>X. I perceived by the first experiment, +that these little moving bodies change their +form, and I thought they in general diminished, +but of that I was not certain. In this last +observation, at the twelfth and thirteenth hour +I observed it more distinctly; at the same time +remarking that though diminished considerably +in size, yet they increased in specific gravity; +especially when their motion was nearly finished, +which generally happened all at once and +they sunk to the bottom, forming a sediment of +an ash-colour, plainly perceptible to the naked +eye, and which appeared through the microscope +to be composed of globules adherent +to on another, sometimes by threads, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +at others in knots, but always in a regular +manner.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XI"></a>XI. Having procured the seed of a dog, +emitted naturally, I observed that this liquor +was clear, and had but little tenacity. I +put it in a phial, and having examined it with +a microscope, without diluting it with water, +I perceived moving bodies entirely like those +I had observed in the human semen; they had +threads, or tails, perfectly the same; they were +also nearly of the same size; in a word, they +resembled, as perfectly as possible, those I saw +in the human liquor, liquified during two or +three hours. I then sought for the filaments +which I had seen in the human liquor, but it +was useless; I perceived only some long threads +entirely like those which served as tails to the +globules. These threads were not attached +to any globules, nor had they any motion. +Those globules which were in motion, and +had tails, appeared to me to move quicker than +those in the human semen: they had scarcely +any horizontal vibrations, but a rolling motion. +They were not in a great number; and, although +their progressive motion was stronger, +they took more time to cross the microscope +than those I had before remarked. I observed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +this liquor for three hours, but perceived no +change: after which I examined it at another +time for four hours, and remarked, that the +number of moving bodies diminished by degrees; +the fourth day there was still some, +though they were very few, and often I only +found one or two in a drop of liquor. The +second day most of them were deprived of +their tails; the third day very few retained +them, yet, at the last day, there still remained +some which had them; the liquor had then deposited +a whitish sediment, which appeared to +be composed of immoveable globules, and +many threads, that seemed to be tails separated +from the globules. There were also +some attached to the globules, which appeared +to be the dead bodies of these little animals, +but whose forms were different from those that +moved, for they appeared larger than the moving +globules, or the rest, which remained without +motion at the bottom of the liquor, and +appeared to have a fissure or opening.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XII"></a>XII. Another time, having taken the seminal +liquor of the same dog, I again perceived +the fore-mentioned phenomena; and I +saw, besides, in one of the drops of this liquor, +a mucilaginous part, which produced moving +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +globules, as in the ninth experiment, (<a href="#fig_6"><i>fig. 6.</i></a>) +and these globules formed a current, and went +in ranks like troops. This mucilage appeared +to me animated with an internal inflated motion, +which produced small bloated appearances +in different parts, and from whence issued these +bloated forms, or moving globules, with a +nearly-equal swiftness, and in the same direction. +The bodies of these globules were not +different from the rest, excepting they had no +tails. I observed that many of them changed +their shape, and lengthened considerably, till +they became little cylinders, after which the +two extremities of the cylinders were bloated, +and divided into two globules, both moving +and following the same direction as that before +they were united.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XIII"></a>XIII. The phial, which contained this liquor, +having been broke by accident, I, a third +time, took the liquor of the same dog, but +whether the animal was wearied by too reiterated +emissions, or by other causes, the seminal +liquor contained none of the above +bodies, but was transparent and viscous, like +the serum of blood; I examined it then, and +at one, two, three, and even twenty-four hours +afterwards, but it presented nothing new: there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +was not a single moving body to be seen, nor +any mucilage; in a word, nothing that I had +seen before.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XIV"></a>XIV. I then opened a dog, and separated +the testicles and the adherent vessels, but I perceived +no seminal vesicles, and apparently the +seed in those animals passes directly from the +testicles into the urethra. I found but a small +quantity of liquor in the testicles, although the +dog was adult and vigorous. In the small +quantity I could collect I could not discover +any bodies that were in motion. I only perceived +a great quantity of very small globules, +most of which were motionless, and some of +the smallest had some trifling approximating +motion, which I could not follow, because +the drops I gathered were so exceedingly minute +that they dried in two or three minutes +after they were placed in the microscope.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XV"></a>XV. Having cut the testicles of this dog +into two parts, I infused it in water, and +closely sealed up the vessel. Three days after +I examined this infusion, which I made with +the design of discovering whether the flesh did +not contain moving bodies, and I saw a great +quantity of moving bodies of a globular and +oval form, like those I had seen in the seminal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +liquor of the dog, excepting they had not any +threads. They moved in all manner of directions +with great swiftness. I observed these bodies, +which appeared animated for some time, +and saw many change their form; I perceived +some to lengthen, and others to contract, while +some swelled at both extremities: there were +numbers that were smaller and thicker than the +rest; but they were all in motion, and were +about the size and figure of those I have described +in the fourth experiment.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XVI"></a>XVI. The next morning the number of +these globules were increased, but they appeared +smaller; their motion was more rapid +and irregular; they had also another appearance +with respect to their form and manner +of moving, which seemed confused; the +next and several days after, till the fifteenth +day, there were moving bodies in the water, +whose size gradually diminished till they were +no Longer visible. The last, which I perceived +with great difficulty, was on the nineteenth +and twentieth days, and they moved with +greater rapidity than ever. Upon the water a +kind of pellicle was formed, which appeared to +be composed of the coverings of those moving +bodies, small threads, scales, &c. but entirely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +motionless; this pellicle, and the moving bodies +could not come into the liquor by means +of external air, since the bottle had been kept +carefully sealed.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XVII"></a>XVII. I then successively opened ten rabbits, +on different days, to examine their seminal +liquors; the first had not a drop, either in +the testicles or seminal vessels. In the second I +was no more successful, although I was assured +he was the father of a very numerous progeny. +I succeeded no better in the third. I then imagined +that the presence of the female might be +requisite; I therefore put males and females +into cages so contrived that it was impossible +for them to copulate. At first these endeavours +did not succeed; for, on opening two, not +a drop of seminal liquor was to be found; +however, in the sixth that I opened, a large +white rabbit, I found, in the seminal vesicles, +as much liquor as could be contained in a teaspoon; +this matter resembled calves' jelly, was +nearly transparent, and of a citron colour. +Having examined it with the microscope, I +perceived it to resolve, by slow degrees, into filaments +and thick globules, many of which +appeared fastened to each other; but I did not +remark any distinct motion in them, only as the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +matter liquefied, it formed a kind of current +by which these filaments and globules seemed +to be drawn all to one side. I expected to find +this matter take a greater degree of fluidity, but +that did not happen, for, after it was a little liquefied, +it dried, and I could perceive nothing +further than what is above mentioned. When +this matter was mixed with water, the latter +did not appear to have power to dilute it.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XVIII"></a>XVIII. Having opened another rabbit, +I only found a very small quantity of seminal +matter, which was of a colour and consistency +entirely different from the former; it was +scarcely tinctured of a yellow hue, and was +much more fluid. As there was but very +little, I feared it would dry too hastily, and +therefore mixed it with water: from the first +observation, I did not perceive the filaments I +had seen in the other, but I discovered three +globules, all in a trembling and restless motion; +they had also a progressive motion, but it was +very slow; some moved round the others, and +most appeared to turn upon their centres. I +could not pursue this observation because the +liquor so soon got dry.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XIX"></a>XIX. I opened another of these rabbits, +but could not discover any of this matter; in +the seminal vessels of another, I found almost +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +as much congealed liquor as in <a href="#ex_XVII"><span class="smcap">XVII</span></a>th Experiment: +I examined it in the same manner as the +rest, but it afforded me no greater discovery. +I infused the whole I had collected, in almost +double the quantity of water, and after briskly +shaking them together, I suffered them to +settle for ten minutes; after which, on inspecting +this infusion, I saw the same large globules +as before; there were but few and those +very distant from each other. They had approximating +motions with respect to each +other, but they were so slow, as to be scarcely +discernable; two or three hours after, these +globules seemed to be diminished, their motion +was become more distinct, and they appeared +to turn upon their centres. Although this trembling +motion was more than their progressive, +nevertheless they were clearly seen to change +their situation irregularly with respect to each +other. Six or seven hours after the globules +were become still less, and their action was increased: +they appeared to me to be in much +greater numbers, and all their motions distinct. +The next morning, there was a prodigious multitude +of globules in motion, which were at +least three times smaller than those that at +first appeared. I observed these globules for +eight days, and observed that many of them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +seemed to join together, after which their motion +ceased; this union, however, appeared to +me only superficial and accidental. Some were +larger than others; most were round and spherical, +and some of them were oval. The largest +were most transparent, and the smallest were +almost black. This difference did not proceed +from the light, for in whatever situation these +small globules were in, they were always of +the same appearance; the motions of the small +were much more rapid than the large ones, and +what I remarked most clearly and most generally +in all, was their diminution of size, so +that at the eighth day they were so exceedingly +small as to be hardly perceptible, and at last +absolutely disappeared.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XX"></a>XX. At length having obtained, with no +small difficulty, the seminal liquor of another +rabbit, as it would have been conveyed to the +female, I remarked it to be more fluid than +that which had been taken from the seminal +vesicles, and the phenomena which it offered +were also very indifferent; for in this liquor +there were moving globules and filaments without +motion; and also a kind of globules with +threads or tails, resembling those of a dog or +a man, but only appearing smaller and brisker +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +(<a href="#fig_7"><i>fig. 7.</i></a>) They passed over the microscope in +an instant, their tails appeared shorter than +those of other spermatic animals, and I own I +am not certain whether some of those tails were +not false appearances, produced by the furrows +which these moving globules formed in +the liquor, as they moved with too great a rapidity +to admit of my clearly observing them; +besides, the liquor, though sufficiently fluid at +first, very speedily dried away.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXI"></a>XXI. After this I resolved to examine the +seminal liquor of a ram; I applied to a butcher, +who supplied me with the necessary parts of at +least twelve or thirteen, directly after they were +killed, but I could not find liquor sufficient for +any experiment, either in the epididymis or +seminal vesicles. In the little drops I was able +to collect, I only perceived globules which had +no motion. As I made these experiments in +March, I supposed by repeating them in October, +the season of female attachments, I should +discover more seminal liquor in these vessels. +I cut many of these testicles in two longitudinally, +and collected a small quantity of liquor, +but found nothing more in them.</p> + +<div class="fig_center bbox"> +<a name="fig_7"></a><a name="fig_8"></a><a name="fig_9"></a> +<a name="fig_10"></a><a name="fig_11"></a><a name="fig_12"></a> +<span class="caption3"><i>PLATE. II.</i></span> +<table summary="Plate II"> +<tr> + <td>Fig. 7<br /><img src="images/fig_7.png" width="269" height="261" alt="" /></td> + <td>Fig. 8<br /><img src="images/fig_8.png" width="261" height="254" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fig. 9<br /><img src="images/fig_9.png" width="266" height="257" alt="" /></td> + <td>Fig. 10<br /><img src="images/fig_10.png" width="257" height="255" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fig. 11<br /><img src="images/fig_11.png" width="272" height="268" alt="" /></td> + <td>Fig. 12<br /><img src="images/fig_12.png" width="264" height="255" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXII"></a>XXII. I took three of these testicles, of three +different rams, cut each of them into four +parts, and put them into separate bottles, with +as much water as was sufficient for them. Securing +these bottles from the admission of air +I suffered the infusion to remain for four days, +after which I examined the liquor of each by +the microscope, and found them all replete +with an infinity of moving bodies, most part +of which were oval, and the rest globular; +they were pretty thick, and resembled those +described in the <a href="#ex_VIII"><span class="smcap">VIII</span></a>th experiment; their +motion was neither brisk, uncertain, nor very +rapid, but equal, uniform, and in all directions. +These moving bodies were nearly of the same +size in each liquor, but differed one bottle with +the other. They had no tails, nor were there +any filaments or threads in this liquor; during +the fifteen or sixteen days they were retained, +they often changed their form, and seemed +successively to throw off their external coverings; +they also became every day smaller, and +on the sixteenth day, they were no longer perceptible.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXIII"></a>XXIII. In the month of October I opened +a ram, and found a great quantity of seminal +liquor in the epididymis; having examined it +with the microscope, I perceived an innumerable +multitude of moving bodies, so numerous, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +that all the liquor seemed to be entirely +composed of them; as it was too thick, +I diluted it with water, but I was surprised to +see the motion of these bodies suddenly stop, +though I perceived them very distinctly; having +many times repeated the same observation, +I perceived that the water which diluted the +seminal liquors of a man, a dog, &c. seemed +to coagulate that of a ram.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXIV"></a>XXIV. I then opened another ram, and +in order to prevent the seminal liquor from +coagulating, I permitted the parts of generation +to remain in the body of the animal, and +covered it over with warm clothes. By these +precautions I observed the seminal liquor in +its fluid state; it was replete with an infinity of +oblong moving bodies, (<a href="#fig_8"><i>fig. 8.</i></a>) traversing in +various directions; but as soon as the liquor +grew cold, the motion of all these bodies immediately +ceased. I diluted the liquor with +warm water, when the motion of the small +bodies remained for three or four minutes. +The quantity of these moving bodies was so +great in this liquor, that although diluted, they +nearly touched each other. They were all of +the same size and form, but none of them had +tails. Their motion was not very quick, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +when it stopped by the coagulation of the liquor, +they did not change their form.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXV"></a>XXV. As I was persuaded, not only by my +own theory, but also by the observations of all +those who had made experiments before me, +that the female, as well as the male, has a +seminal and prolific liquor; and, as I had no +doubt, but the reservoir of this liquor was the +glandular body of the testicle, where prejudiced +anatomists attempted to find the egg, I +purchased several dogs and bitches, and some +male and female rabbits, which I kept separate +from each other; and in order to have a comparative +object with the liquor of the female, I +again observed the seminal liquor of a dog, and +discovered there the same moving bodies as +described in the <a href="#ex_XI"><span class="smcap">XI</span></a>th experiment.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXVI"></a>XXVI. While I was thus occupied, a +bitch was dissected which had been four or five +days in heat, and had not received the dog. +The testicles were readily found, and on one +of them I discovered a red, glandular, prominent +body, about the size of a pea, which perfectly +resembled a little nipple; on the outside +was a visible orifice formed by two lips; +one of which jutted out more than the other. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +Having introduced a small instrument into +this orifice, a liquor dropped from it, which +we carefully caught to examine with the microscope. +The surgeon replaced the testicles +in the body of the animal, which was yet alive, +in order to keep them warm. I then examined +this liquor with a microscope, and, at the +first glance, had the satisfaction to see moving +bodies with tails, exactly like those I just before +saw in the seminal liquor of the dog. +(<a href="#fig_9"><i>fig. 9.</i></a>) Messrs. Needham and Daubenton, +who observed them with me, were so surprized +at this resemblance, that they could +scarcely believe but that these spermatic animals +were the same, and thought I had forgotten +to change the table of the microscope, +or that the instrument with which we had gathered +the liquor of the female, might before +have been used for the dog. Mr. Needham +then took different instruments, and having obtained +some fresh liquor, he examined it first, +and saw there the same kind of animals, and +was convinced, not only of the existence of +spermatic animals in the seminal liquor of the +female, but likewise of their resemblance to +those of the semen of the male. We repeated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +it ten times at least, in different drops of the +same liquor, without perceiving the smallest +variation in the phenomena.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXVII"></a>XXVII. Having afterwards examined the +other testicle, I found a glandular body in its +growing state; it had not any external orifice, +was much smaller, and not so red as the first. +Having opened it, I found no liquor; but only +a small fold in the internal part, which I +judged to be the origin of the cavity that was +to contain the liquor. This second vesicle +had some very small lymphatic vesicles externally. +I pierced one of them with a lancet, +and a clear and limpid liquor flowed out, +which I examined with the microscope; it +contained nothing similar to that of the glandular +body; it was a clear matter, composed +of small globules, which were motionless. +Having often repeated this observation, I was +assured, that this liquor in the vesicles was +only a kind of lymph, which contains nothing +animated, or similar to that seen in the female +seed, which is formed and perfected in the +glandular bodies.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXVIII"></a>XXVIII. Fifteen days after I opened another +bitch that had been in heat seven or eight +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +days, but had not received the dog. I found +the testicles contiguous to the extremities of +the horns of the matrix; these horns were very +long, their external tunic surrounded the testicles, +and they appeared covered with that +membrane like a cowl. In each testicle I +found a glandular body in its full maturity. +The first was half open, and there was a passage +which penetrated into the testicle, and which +was replete with seminal liquor; the second +was somewhat more large and prominent, and +the orifice, or canal, which contained the liquor +was below the nipple. I took these two +liquors, and having compared them, found +them perfectly alike. The seminal liquor of +the female is at least as liquid as that of the +male. Having afterwards examined the two +liquors with the microscope, I perceived the +like moving bodies, (<a href="#fig_10"><i>fig. 10.</i></a>) and the same +phenomena, as in the seminal liquor of the +other. I saw besides many globules which +moved very briskly, and endeavoured to disengage +themselves from the mucilage that surrounded +them: there was a great quantity of +them as in the seed of the female.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXIX"></a>XXIX. From these glandular bodies I +pressed out all the liquor, and having collected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +it, I found enough to last for four or five hours +observations. I remarked that it deposited +somewhat to the bottom, or at least began to +thicken. I took one drop of this, which was +thicker than the rest, and having put it on the +microscope, perceived that the mucilaginous +part of the seed was condensed, and formed a +continued net-work. On the external border +of this net-work, there was a torrent, or current, +composed of globules, which moved with rapidity. +These globules were lively, active, +and appeared to be disengaged from their +mucilaginous covering, and their tails. This +stream perfectly resembled the course of the +blood in small transparent veins; for they appeared +not only to be animated by their own +powers, but also to be impelled by a common +force, and constrained to follow in a herd. +From this experiment, and the <a href="#ex_XI"><span class="smcap">XI</span></a>th and <a href="#ex_XII"><span class="smcap">XII</span></a>th, +I concluded, that when the fluid begins to +coagulate and thicken, these active globules +break and tear their mucilaginous coverings, +and escape by that side where the liquor remains +most fluid. These moving bodies had +then neither threads nor tails; they were for +the most part oval, and appeared to be flat at +the bottom, for they had no rolling motion.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXX"></a>XXX. The horns of the matrix were externally +soft; I opened them longitudinally, +and only found a very small quantity of liquor, +which, upon examination, appeared to contain +the same as that pressed from the glandular substance +of the testicle. These glandular bodies +are placed so as easily to sprinkle this liquor on +the horns of the matrix; and I am persuaded +that, as long as the amorous season remains, +there is a continual dropping of this liquor +from the glandular substance into the horns of +the matrix; that this dropping remains till +the glandular substance has emptied the vesicles; +it then becomes fluid by degrees, is effaced, +and only leaves a little reddish cicatrice +on the external part of the testicle.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXI"></a>XXXI. I took this seminal liquor of the +female, with the same quantity of that just +emitted from the male, and mixed them together, +and having examined this mixture with +the microscope, I perceived nothing new, the +liquor remaining the same, and the moving +bodies were so similar, that it was impossible +to distinguish those of the male from those of +the female; I only thought their motion appeared +a little slackened.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXII"></a>XXXII. Having dissected a young bitch +that had never been in heat, I only discovered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +a small protuberance on one of the testicles, +which I supposed to be the origin of a glandular +body. The surface of the testicles was +smooth and even, and the lymphatic vessels +could scarcely be seen externally, until the tunic, +which covered the testicles, was separated; +but these vesicles were not considerable, and +contained but a small quantity of liquor, in +which I could only perceive some little globules +without any motion.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXIII"></a>XXXIII. In another bitch, which was +younger, and only three or four months old, +there was no appearance of glandular bodies +on the testicles; they were white, smooth, and +covered with a cowl like the rest. There +were some little vesicles which contained little +or no liquor; and it was with great difficulty +we could perceive any vesicles externally. I +compared one of these testicles with that of a +young dog of nearly the same age, and they +appeared internally of a fleshy nature, and perfectly +similar. I do not mean to contradict +what some anatomists have said concerning the +testicles of dogs, but only that the appearance +of the internal substance of the female testicles +is like that of the males, when the glandular +substances are not yet grown.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXIV"></a>XXXIV. The genital parts of a cow, which +had been just killed, was sent to me, covered +over with hot cloths, and put into a basket +with a live rabbit, which likewise squatted on +a cloth at the bottom, so that I received them +almost as warm as when taken out of the body. +I immediately inspected the testicles, and +found them of the size of a hen's, or, at least, +a pigeon's egg. One of these testicles had a +glandular body, about the size of a pea, protuberating +outwardly like a small nipple, but +it was not pierced, nor had any external orifice: +it was close and hard. I pressed it with my +fingers, but no liquor issued from it. I observed, +before this testicle was dissected, there +were two other glandular substances at a distance +from the other; but these were just begun +to grow; their colour was a whitish +yellow, whereas that which seemed to have +pierced the membrane of the testicle was of a +rose colour. I opened this last, and examined +it with the greatest attention, but could not +discover that it contained any liquor, I therefore +judged that it was far distant from its +maturity.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXV"></a>XXXV. The other testicle had no glandular +body which had pierced the common +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +membrane that covered the testicle, there were +only two small ones, which began to form a +little protuberance below this membrane. I +opened both of them but no liquor issued +therefrom: they were hard, whitish, and with +a little yellow tint; each of them had four or +five lymphatic vesicles, very easily distinguishable +on their surface, and appearing +transparent. I judged they contained a quantity +of liquor, and having pierced them with a +lancet, the liquor issued out to some inches +distance. I collected a sufficient quantity of +this liquor to observe it easily; I only saw +some very minute immoveable globules; and +although I continued my examination for two +days, I neither discovered alteration, change, +nor motion, therein.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXVI"></a>XXXVI. Eight days after, two more genital +parts were brought to me in the same +mode as the last. I was assured that one was +taken from a young cow that had never calved, +and the other from one that had had several, +but was not old. I first examined the testicles +of the latter, and on one of them I found a +glandular substance, as large and as red as a +cherry, which appeared a little soft towards the +nipple. I distinguished three small holes, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +which a hair might be introduced. Having +pressed this substance with my fingers a small +quantify of liquor issued, which I placed on the +table of a microscope, and had the satisfaction +to see some moving globules there, but quite +different from those which I had seen in other +seminal liquors (<a href="#fig_11"><i>fig. 11.</i></a>). These globules +were obscure and little; their progressive motion, +although distinct, was, nevertheless, very +slow. The liquor was not thick; the little +globules had no appearance of threads, or tails, +and they were not all in motion. This is all +I was able to perceive in the liquor this glandular +substance afforded me, for although I +pressed it again, it only afforded a less quantity, +mixed with blood. I again discovered it in +the small moving globules, but they seemed to +be at least four times smaller than the sanguinary +globules.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXVII"></a>XXXVII. This glandular body was situate +at one of the extremities by the side of the +horn of the matrix, and the liquor, which it +prepares, must fall upon this horn; nevertheless, +on opening this horn I found no material +quantity of liquor. This glandular body penetrated +very forward in the testicle, and occupied +more than a third of its internal substance. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +I opened them longitudinally, and +found a pretty large cavity, but entirely void +of any liquor. At some distance from this +glandular body there was a small one of the +same kind, about the size of a lentil. There +were also two small cicatrices, about the same +size, which formed two small indentations, of a +deep red colour: they were the remains of obliterated +glandular bodies. Having afterwards +examined the other testicle, I counted four +cicatrices and three glandular bodies; the foremost +of which had pierced the membrane, +was of a flesh colour, and the size of a pea. It +was solid, and without any orifice or liquor: +the two others were smaller, harder, and of a +deep orange colour. On the first testicle only +two or three apparent lymphatic vesicles remained. +I counted eight on the external part, +and having examined the liquor of these vesicles +I perceived only a transparent matter, +without any moving bodies.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXVIII"></a>XXXVIII. I then examined the testicles of +the young cow which had not calved, which, +notwithstanding, were something larger than +the other, but it is true there were no cicatrices +on either of them; the one was smooth +and very white, and a number of lymphatic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +vesicles were sprinkled about it, but there was +not the least mark of a glandular body. On +the other testicle I perceived the marks of two +glandular substances, the one had just began +to grow, and the other was the size of a pea; +there was also a great number of lymphatic +vesicles, which I pierced with a lancet, but the +liquor did not contain any thing; having +pierced the two small glandular bodies some +blood alone issued thereout.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XXXIX"></a>XXXIX. I divided each testicle of both +cows into four parts, and, having put them +into separate phials, I poured as much water +on as would cover them, and after having +closely corked them up, I suffered to infuse for +six days; I then examined these infusions, and +discovered an innumerable quantity of living +moving bodies (<a href="#fig_12"><i>fig. 12.</i></a>); they were all, in +these infusions, extremely small, moved with a +surprising rapidity in all directions. I observed +them for three days, and they always appeared +to diminish, till at last, on the third +day, they entirely disappeared.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XL"></a>XL. The following day they brought to +me the genital parts of three more cows. I +immediately searched the testicles to find one +where the glandular substance was in perfect +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +maturity; but in two of them I only discovered +some growing glandular substances on the testicles. +I could not learn whether these cows +had calved or not, but there was a great appearance +they had all been in season, for there +were a great number of cicatrices on all these +testicles. In the third I found a testicle, on +which was a glandular substance, as thick and +as red as a cherry; it was inflamed, and seemed +to be in full maturity. Its extremity was a +nipple, with a small hole; I pressed it a little +between my fingers, and a quantity of liquor +issued out. I found in this liquor moving globules, +exactly like those in the liquor pressed +from the glandular body of the other cow, I +have before spoken of in experiment <a href="#ex_XXXVI"><span class="smcap">XXXVI</span></a>. +They appeared to be more numerous, their +progressive motions were not so slow, and their +size larger. Having observed them for some +time I perceived some to lengthen and change +their form. I then introduced a very fine instrument +into the little hole of the glandular +substance, and having opened it I found the +internal cavity replete with liquor; this liquor +offered me the same phenomena, and the same +moving globules, as I before observed in experiment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +<a href="#ex_XXXVI"><span class="smcap">XXXVI</span></a>. with either filaments, threads, +or tails attached to them. The liquor of the +vesicle presented me with nothing more than +nearly a transparent matter, which did not contain +one moving thing.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XLI"></a>XLI. At different times they brought me +the genitals of several other cows. In some I +found the testicles loaded with an almost mature +glandular substance; in others they were +of different growths, and I remarked nothing +new, excepting that in the two testicles of two +different cows I perceived the glandular substance +in a decayed state; the base of one was +as broad as the circumference of a cherry; the +extremity of the nipple was soft, wrinkled, and +shrivelled; the two small holes were very perceptible, +from whence the liquor had flowed. +With some difficulty I introduced a small +hair, but there was no liquor in the canal, nor +in the internal cavity, which was still to be +seen. The flaccidity of these glandular substances +begins, therefore, at the most external +part, or extremity of the nipple. They diminish +at first in height, and afterwards in +breadth, as I observed in another testicle, where +this glandular substance had diminished more +than three fourths.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p> + +<p><a name="ex_XLII"></a>XLII. As the testicles of doe rabbits, as +well as the glandular bodies formed there, are +very small, I could observe nothing very +exactly with respect to their seminal liquor. +I only discovered, that the testicles of doe +rabbits are different, and that none of those I +saw resembled what De Graaf represents in +his engravings; for the glandular substances +did not enclose the lymphatic vesicles; and +I never saw a pointed end, as he has depicted +them.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XLIII"></a>XLIII. I found on the testicles of some +cows a kind of bladders, replete with transparent +liquor. I remarked they were of different +sizes, the largest about that of a pea; +they were fastened to the external membrane +of the testicle by a strong membraneous pedicle, +as was also another, still smaller; and a +third, nearly of the same size as the second, +appeared to be only a lymphatic vesicle, much +more apparent than the rest. I imagined these +bladders, which the anatomists have called +<i>hydatides</i>, might possibly be of the same nature +as the lymphatic vesicles of the testicles, +for having examined the liquor they contained +I found it to be perfectly similar; it was a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +transparent and homogeneous liquor, which +did not contain one moving substance.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XLIV"></a>XLIV. At the same time I made observations +on the liquor in an oyster; on the water +in which pepper had been boiled; on the water +wherein pepper had been only infused; and on +the water wherein I had put some vegetable +seed; the bottles which contained these waters +were firmly closed, and in two days I perceived +in the oyster liquor a great quantity of oval +and globular substances, which seemed to swim +like fish in a pond, and had all the appearance +of being animals; however they had no limbs +nor tails, but were very large, transparent, and +visible. I perceived them change their forms, +and become smaller for seven or eight days +successively; and at length I and Mr. Needham +observed animals similar to those in an infusion +of jelly of roast veal, which had been also very +exactly corked; so that I am persuaded they +are not real animals, at least according to the +received acceptation of the words, as we shall +hereafter explain.</p> + +<p>The infusion of the seed presented an innumerable +multitude of moving globules which +appeared animated like those of the seminal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +liquors, and in the infusions of the flesh of animals: +these were also large, and in violent +motion during the first days, but they diminished +by degrees, and disappeared only from +their minuteness.</p> + +<p>I perceived the same thing, but later, in the +liquor wherein pepper had been boiled, and +the like, though still later, in that which had +not boiled; from hence I supposed that what +is called fermentation may possibly be only the +effect of the motion of these organical parts of +animals and vegetables; and in order to see +what difference there was between this kind +of fermentation and that of minerals, I placed +a little powdered stone on the microscope, and +sprinkled thereon a drop of aquafortis, which +however produced a different phenomena, consisting +of great balls, which ascended to the +surface, and almost instantaneously obscured +the focus of the microscope: this was a dissolution +of the grosser parts, which being completed +it became motionless, and had not the +smallest resemblance to the other infusions I +had observed.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XLV"></a>XLV. I examined the seminal liquor in the +roes of different fish; such as carp, tench, barbel, +&c. which I took out while they were living, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +and having observed three different liquors +with great attention, I perceived a great quantity +of obscure globules, all in motion. I took +several more of these fish alive, and with my +fingers gently compressed that part of the belly +where this liquor is emitted; and in that which +I obtained, I perceived an infinity of moving +globules therein, very black and very small.</p> + +<p><a name="ex_XLVI"></a>XLVI. Before I finish this chapter I shall +relate the experiments of Mr. Needham on the +seed of a kind of cuttle fish, called calmar. +This able naturalist having sought for spermatic +animals in the milts of many different fish, +found them in the roe of a calmar, apparent to +the naked eye. During the summer he dissected +calmars at Lisbon, but found no appearance +of any roe, nor any reservoir which appeared +to be destined for the reception of the +seminal liquor; and it was in the middle of +December that he began to discern the first +traces of a new vessel replete with a milky juice. +This reservoir increased, and the seed which it +contained was diffused very abundantly. By +examining this liquor with the microscope, he +perceived only small opaque globules, which +floated in a kind of serous matter, without the +least appearance of life. But some time after, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +in the milt of another calmar, he found these +organic parts completely formed; they seemed +like spiral springs shut up in a kind of transparent +case. They appeared as perfect at first as +they did at last, excepting that by degrees they +contracted and formed a kind of screw. The +lid of the case was a species of valve that opened +outwardly, and by which all the contents might +issue; it contained another valve, a barrel, and +a spongy substance; therefore the whole machine +consisted in an external, transparent, and +cartilaginous case, whose upper extremity is +terminated by a round head, formed by the case +itself, and which performs the office of a valve. +In this external case is contained a transparent +tube, which encloses the spring, piston, or valve, +barrel, or spongy substance. The screw occupies +the upper part of the tube and case, the +piston and barrel are placed in the middle, and +the spongy substance occupies the lower part. +These machines pump up the lacteal liquor, +of which the spongy substance is full; and +before the animal spawns, the whole milt is +no more than a composition of these organic +parts, which have absolutely pumped up the +lacteal liquor. As soon as these little machines +are taken from the body of the animal, and deposited +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +either in water, or held in the air, they +begin to act; the spring ascends, followed by +the piston, the barrel, and the spongy substance +which contains the liquor; and as soon as the +spring and the tube which contain it begin to +quit the case, the spring folds up; and all that +remains within begins to move, till the spring, +the sucker, &c. are entirely come out: as soon as +that is done, the remainder immediately follow, +and the lacteal liquor, which has been pumped +out, and which was contained in the spongy +substance flows out by the barrel.</p> + +<p>As this observation is very singular, and incontestibly +proves that the moving bodies found +in the milt of the calmar are not animals, but +simple machines, a kind of pumps, I have +deemed it necessary to give Mr. Needham's +own words.<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[Q]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">[Q]</span></a> See New Discoveries made with the microscope by Mr. +Needham, chap. vi. Leyden, 1747.</p></div> + +<p>"When the small machines, he says, are arrived +to their perfect maturity, many of them +act the moment they are in the open air; nevertheless +most of them may be commodiously +placed, so as to be seen with a microscope, before +their action begins; and even to make +them act, the upper extremity of the external +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +case must be moistened with a drop of water +which then begins to expand, while the two +small ligaments which issue from the case twist +and turn in different manners: at the same time, +the screw ascends slowly, the volutes, which are +at its upper end, approach and act against the +top of the case: those at the bottom also advance, +and seem to be continually followed by +others which come from the piston. I say, they +seem to be followed, because I do not think +they are so effectually, but only a deception +produced by the nature and motion of the +screw. The piston and barrel also follow the +same direction, extend lengthways, and at the +same time move towards the top of the case, +which is perceived by the vacuum at the bottom. +As soon as the screw, with the tube in +which it is enclosed, begins to appear externally +from the case, it folds, because it is retained +by its two ligaments: nevertheless, all +the internal contents continue to move gently +and gradually, until the screw, piston, and +bladder, are entirely come out. When that +is done, the rest follow directly after. The +piston separates from the barrel, and the apparent +ligament, which is below the latter, swells +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +and acquires a diameter equal to that of the +spongy substance which follows it. This, +although much larger than when in the case, +becomes still five times longer than before. +The tube which incloses it all is straightened in +its middle, and forms two kinds of knots, about +a third of its length distant from each extremity: +the semen then flows through, and is composed +of small opaque globules, which float in a serous +matter, without shewing any signs of life, and +which are precisely such as I have said to have +seen them when they were diffused in the reservoir +of the milt. In the figure, the part between +the two knots seems to be broken: when it is examined +attentively, we find that what causes it to +appear as such, is, that the spongy substance +with in the tube is broken in nearly equal pieces, +which the following phenomena will clearly +prove. Sometimes it happens, that the screw +and the tube break by the piston, which remains +in the barrel; then the tube closes in a moment, +and takes a conical figure, by contracting, as +much as it is possible, above the end of the screw, +which demonstrates its great elasticity in that +part: and the manner in which it accommodates +itself with the figure of the substance it incloses, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +when it receives the least change, proves, that +it is equal in every other respect."</p> + +<p>Mr. Needham from this conceives that we +might imagine the actions of all this machine +were owing to the spring of the screw, but he +proves, by many experiments, that the screw, +on the contrary, only obeys a power which +resides in the spongy part. As soon as the +screw is separated from the rest, it ceases its +action, and loses all its activity. The author +afterwards makes this reflection on this singular +machine:</p> + +<p>"If, says he, I had seen the animalcule +pretended to be in the semen of living animals, +perhaps I might be in a condition to determine +whether they are really living creatures, or +simple machines prodigiously minute, and +which are in miniature, what the vessels of the +calmar are in the great."</p> + +<p>By this, and some other analogies, Mr. +Needham concludes, there is a great appearance +that the spermatic worms of other animals +are only organized bodies and machines, like +to those of the calmar, whose actions are +made at different times; "for, says he, let us +suppose, that in the prodigious number of spermatic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +worms seen on the table of a microscope, +there are some thousands which act at the same +time, that will be sufficient to shew us, they +are all alive. Let us also conceive, adds he, +that the motion of these spermatic worms remains, +like that of the machines of the calmar, +about half a minute; then the succession of +action of these small machines, will remain +a long time, and the pretended animals will +appear to decrease successively. Besides why +should the calmar alone have machines in its +seed, whereas every other animal has spermatic +worms, and real animals? Analogy is here of +such great weight, that it does not appear possible +to refuse it." Mr. Needham likewise very +justly remarks, that even the observations of +Leeuwenhoek, seems to indicate that the spermatic +worms have a great resemblance with +the organized bodies in the seed of the calmar. +"I have, says Leeuwenhoek, speaking of the +cod, taken those real substances for hollow and +extended animalcule, because they were four +times as large as the living animalcule." And +in another part, "I have remarked, he says, +speaking of the seed of a dog, that the animalcules +often change their form, especially when +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +the liquor in which they float evaporates. +The progressive motion does not extend above +the diameter of a hair."<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[R]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">[R]</span></a> See Leeuwenh. Arch. Nat. page 306, 309, 310.</p></div> + +<p>After considering all these circumstances +Mr. Needham conjectures, that the supposed +spermatic animals might possibly be only natural +machines, substances much more simply +organized than the bodies of animals. I have +seen with the microscope, these machines in +the calmar, and the description he gives of +them, is very faithful and exact. His observations +then shew us, that the seminal liquor is +composed of parts which seek to be organized; +that it, in fact, produces organized substances, +but that they are not as yet, either animals or +organized substances, like the individual which +produced them. We might suppose, that these +substances are only instruments which serve to +perfect the seminal liquor, and strongly impel +it; and that it is by their brisk and internal +action, that it most intimately penetrates the +seminal liquor of the female.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">COMPARISON OF MY OBSERVATIONS WITH THOSE +OF LEEUWENHOEK.</p> + + +<p>Although I made the preceding experiments +with all the circumspection +possible; and although I repeated them a number +of times, I am persuaded that many things +escaped my notice; I have only related what I +saw, and what all the world may see, with a +little art and much practice. In order to be +free from prejudices, I endeavoured to forget +what other naturalists asserted to have seen, +conceiving that by so doing, I should be more +certain of only seeing in fact what really appeared; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +and it was not till after I had digested +my observations, that I compared them with +those of Leeuwenhoek, &c. I by no means +pretend to have greater abilities in microscopical +observations than that great naturalist, who +passed more than sixty years in making various +experiments.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the authority his observations +may justly claim, it is surely permitted +to examine and compare others with them. +Truth can only be gained by such examinations, +and errors discovered, particularly as +we do it without any partiality, and in the sole +view of establishing something fixed and certain +on the nature of those moving bodies seen +in the seminal liquors.</p> + +<p>In November 1677, Leeuwenhoek, who had +already communicated to the Royal Society +of London many microscopical observations +on the optic nerve, the blood, the juice of +the plants, the texture of trees, rain-water, +&c. addressed to Lord Brouncker, President +of the Society, in the following words: +"Postquam Exc.<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[S]</a> &c. Dominus Professor +Cranen me visitatione sua sępius honorarat, +litteris rogavis, Domino Ham concrato suo, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +quasdam observationum mearum, videndas darem. +Hic dominus Ham me secundo invisens, +secum in laguncula, vitrea semen viri, gonorrhęa +laborantis, sponte destillatum, attulit, +dicens, se post paucissimas temporis minutias +(cum materia ilia jam in tantum esset resoluta +ut fistulę vitreę immitti posset) animalcula +viva in eo observasse, quę caudam & ultra 24 +horas non viventia judicabat; idem referebat +se animalcula observasse mortua post sumptam +ab ęgroto therebintinam. Materiam prędicatam +fistulę vitreę immissam, pręsente Domino +Ham, observavi, quasdamque in ea creaturas +viventes, at post decursum 2 aut 3 horarum +eamdem solus materiam observans, mortuas +vidi.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">[S]</span></a> See Phil. Trans. No. 141, page 1041.</p></div> + +<p>"Eamdem materiam (semen virile) non +ęgroti alicujus, non diuturna conservatione +corruptam, vel post aliquot momenta fluidiorem +factam, sed sani viri statim post ejectionem, +ne interlabentibus quidem sex arterię +pulsibus, sępiuscule observavi, tantamque in +ea viventium animalculorum multitudinem +vidi, ut interdum plura quam 1000 in magnitudine +arenę sese moverent; non in toto semine, +sed in materia fluida crassiori adhęrente, ingentem +illam animalculorum multitudinem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +observavi; in crassiori vero seminis materia +quasi sine motu jacebant, quod inde provenire +mihi imaginabar, quod materia illa crassa ex +tam variis cohęreat partibus, ut animalcula +in ea se movere nequirent; minora globulis +sanguini ruborem adferentibus hęc animalcula +erant, ut judicem, millena millia arenam grandiorem +magnitudine non ęquatura. Corpora +corum rotunda, anteriora obtusa, posteriora +ferme in aculeum desinentia habebant; cauda +tenui longitudine corpus quinquies sexiesve +excedente, & pellucida crassitiem vero ad 25 +partem corporis habente prędita erant, adeo +ut ea quoad figuram cum cyclaminis minoribus, +longam caudam habentibus, optime, comparare +queam; motu caudę serpentino, aut ut +anguillę in aqua natantis progrediebantur; +in materia vero aliquantulum crassiori caudam +octies deciesve quidem evibrabant antequam +latitudinem capilli procedebant. Interdum +mihi imaginabar me internoscere posse adhuc +varias in corpore horum animalculorum partes, +quia vero continuo eas videre nequibam, de iis +tacebo. His animalculis minora adhuc animalcula, +quibus non nisi globuli figuram attribuere +possum, permissa erant.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p> + +<p>"Memini me ante tres aut quatuor annos, +rogatu Domini Oldenburg, B. M. semen virile +observasse, & prędicta animalia pro globulis +habuisse; sed quia fastidiebam ab ulteriori inquisitione, +& magis quidem a descriptione, +tunc temporis eam omisi. Jam quoad partes +ipsas, ex quibus crassam seminis materiam, +quoad majorem sui partem consistere sępius +cum admiratione observavi, ea sunt tam varia +ac multa vasa, imo in tanta multitudine hęc +vasa vidi, ut credam me in unica seminis gutta +plura observasse quam anatomico per integrum +diem subjectum aliquod secanti occurrant. +Quibus visis, firmiter credebam nulla in corpore +humano jam formato esse vasa, quę in semine +virili bene constituto non reperiantur. Cum +materia hęc per momenta quędam aėri fuisset +exposita, prędicta vasorum multitudo in aquosam +magnis oleaginosis globulis permistam +materiam mutabatur, &c."</p> + +<p>The Secretary of the Royal Society, in answer +to this letter, says, that it would be proper +to make the like experiments on the seed +of other animals, as dogs, horses, &c. not +only to form a better judgment on the first +discovery, but to know the differences which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +might be found in the number, and the figure +of those animalcules. And with relation to +the vessels of the thickest part of the seminal +liquors, he greatly doubts they were only filaments +without any organization, "quę tibi +videbatur vasorum congeries, fortassis seminis +sunt quędam filamenta, haud organice constructa, +sed dum permearunt vasa generationi +inservientia in istiusmodi figuram elongata. +Non dissimili modo ac sępius notatus sum salivam +crassiorem ex glandularum faucium +foraminibus editam quasi e convolutis fibrilis +constantem."<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[T]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">[T]</span></a> See the Secretary's answer to Leeuwenhoek's Letter in +the Phil. Trans. No. 141, page 1043.</p></div> + +<p>Leeuwenhoek answered him on the 18th of +March, 1678, in the following words: "Si +quando canes coeunt marem a fœmina statim +seponas materia quędam tenuis & aquosa +(lympha scilicet spermatica) e pene solet paulatim +exstillare; hanc materiam numerosissimis +animalculis repletam aliquoties vidi, eorum +magnitudine quę in semine virili conspiciuntur, +quibus particulę globulares aliquot quinquagies +majores permiscebantur.</p> + +<p>"Quod ad vasorem in crassiori seminis virilis +portione spectabilium observationem attinet, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +denuo non semel iteratam, saltem mihimetipsi +comprobasse videor; meque omnino +persuasum habeo, cuniculi, canis, felis, arterias +venasve fuisse a peritissimo anatomico +haud unquam magis perspicue observatas, +quam mihi rasa in semine virili, ope perspicilli, +in confectum venere.</p> + +<p>"Cum mihi prędicta vasa primum innotuere, +statim etiam pituitam, tum & salivam +perspicillo applicavi; verum his minime existentia +animalia frustra quęsivi.</p> + +<p>"A cuniculorum coitu lymphę spermaticę +guttulam, unam et alteram, e femella exstillantem, +examini subjeci, ubi animalia prędictorum +similia, sed longe pauciora, comparuere. +Globuli item quam plurimi, plerique +magnitudine animalium, iisdem permisti +sunt.</p> + +<p>"Horum animalium aliquot etiam delineationes +transmisi, figura <i>a</i> (<a href="#fig_a"><i>plate 3.</i></a>) exprimit +corum aliquot vivum (in semine cuniculi arbitror) +eaque forma qua videbatur, dum aspicientem +me versus tendit. A B C, capitulum +cum trunco indicant; C D, ejusdem caudam, +quam pariter ut suam anguilla inter natandum +vibrat. Horum millena millia, quantum conjectare +est, arenulę majoris molem vix superant, +(<a href="#fig_b"><i>fig. b, c, d,</i></a>) sunt ejusdem generis animalia, +sed jam mortua.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 620px;"> +<span class="caption3"><i>PLATE. III.</i></span> +<a name="fig_a"></a><a name="fig_b"></a><a name="fig_c"></a> +<a name="fig_d"></a><a name="fig_e"></a><a name="fig_f"></a> +<a name="fig_g"></a><a name="fig_h"></a> +<table summary="Plate III"> +<tr> + <td><img src="images/plate_iii_a-h.png" width="495" height="383" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a name="fig_i"></a><img src="images/plate_iii_i.png" width="493" height="422" alt="" /></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> + +<p>"(<a href="#fig_e"><i>Fig. e.</i></a>) Delineatur vivum animalculum, +quemadmodum in semine canino sese aliquoties +mihi attentius intuenti exhibuit. E F G, +caput cum trunco indigitant, G H ejusdem +caudam, (<a href="#fig_f"><i>fig. f, g, h,</i></a>) alia sunt in semine canino +quę motu & vita privantur, qualium +etiam vivorum numerum adeo ingentem vidi, +ut judicarem portionem lymphę spermaticę +arenulę mediocri respondentem, eorum ut +minimum decena millia continere."</p> + +<p>By another letter written to the Royal Society, +the 31st of May, 1678, Leeuwenhoek +adds, "Seminis canini tantillum microscopio +applicatum iterum contemplatus sum, in eoque +antea descripta animalia numerosissime conspexi. +Aqua pluvialis pari quantitate adjecta, +iisdem confestim mortem accersit. Ejusdem +seminis canini portiuncula in vitreo tubulo +uncię partem duodecimalem crasso servata, +sex & triginta horarum spatio contenta animalia +vita destitua pleraque, reliqua moribunda +videbantur.</p> + +<p>"Quo de vasorum in semine genitali existentia +magis constaret, delineationem eorum +aliqualem mitto, ut in figura ABCDE, (<a href="#fig_i"><i>fig. i.</i></a>)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +quibus literis circumscriptum spatium arenulam +mediocrem vix superat."</p> + +<p>I have copied these first remarks of Leeuwenhoek +from the Philosophical Transactions, +because, in matters of this kind, observations +made without any systematical view are those +which are the most faithfully described, and +even this able naturalist no sooner formed a +system on spermatic animals, than he began to +vary in essential points.</p> + +<p>It is evident by the above dales, that Hartsoeker +is not the first who published, if he was +the first who discovered spermatic animals. +In the Journal de Sēavans, in the year 1774, +there is a letter from Mr. Huguens, on the subject +of a microscope, made by one small ball +of glass, with which he asserts he perceived +animals in the water, wherein pepper had been +infused for two or three days, as Leeuwenhoek +before had observed with the like microscopes, +but whose balls were not so minute. "There +are also other seeds, he continues, which engender +such animals, as coriander seeds, &c. +and I have seen the same thing in the pith of +the birch tree, after having kept it for four or +five days; and some have observed them in +the water where nutmegs and cinnamon have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +been soaked. These animals may be said to +engender from some corruption or fermentation: +but there are others which must have a +different origin; as those in the seed of animals, +which seem in such great numbers, as to be +almost composed of them; they are all transparent, +have a quick motion, and their figures +are like the tadpole."</p> + +<p>Huguens does not mention the author of this +discovery; but in the Journal of the 29th of +August in the same year, there is an extract of a +letter of M. Hartsoeker, in which he gives the +method of forming these glass balls by means +of the flame of a lamp; and the author of the +Journal says, "By this method he has discovered +that little animals are engendered in urine +which has been kept for some days, and have +the figure of little eels: he found some in the +seed of a cock, which appeared of the same form, +but quite different from those found in the seed +of other animals, which resemble tadpoles, or +young frogs, before their legs are formed." +The author seems to attribute the invention to +Hartsoeker; but if we reflect on the uncertain +manner in which it is there represented, and on +the particular manner in which Leeuwenhoek +speaks in his letter, written and published above +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +a year before, we must allow him to be the +first who made this observation; but between +them a contest took place as to the discovery +which has never been decided. Be this as it +will, Leeuwenhoek was undoubtedly the first +inventor of the microscope, whose focuses are +balls of glass formed by the flame of a lamp. +But to return to his observations.</p> + +<p>I shall first remark, that what he says of +the number and motion of these pretended +animals is true; but the figure of the body +is not always the same as he describes it: +sometimes the part which precedes the tail +is round and at others long; often flat, and +frequently broader than it is long, &c. and +with respect to the tail, it is often much +larger and shorter than he asserts. The motion +of vibrations which he gives to the tail, +and by means of which he pretends that the +animalcules advance progressively in this fluid, +has never appeared to me as he has described +it. I have seen these moving substances make +eight or ten oscillations from the right to the +left, or vice versa, without advancing the +breadth of a hair; and I have even seen many +more which could not advance at all; because +this tail, instead of being of any assistance to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +them was, on the contrary, a thread attached +either in the filaments or mucilaginous parts of +the liquor, and rather retained the moving substance +like as a thread fastened to the point retains +the ball of a pendulum; and when this +tail had any motion, it only resembled a thread +which forms a curve at the end of an oscillation. +I have seen these threads, or tails, fastened to the +filaments which Leeuwenhoek stiles vessels; I +have seen them separate after many reiterated +efforts of the moving bodies; I have seen them +at first lengthen, then diminish, and at last totally +disappear. I therefore think these tails +should be considered as accidental parts, and +not as essential to the bodies of these pretended +animals. But what is most remarkable, Leeuwenhoek +precisely says, in his letter to Lord +Brouncker, that, besides these animals that had +tails, there were also smaller animals in this liquor, +which had no other form than that of a +globule. "His animalculis (caudatis scilicet) +minora adhuc animalcula, quibus non nisi +globuli figuram attribuere possum, permista +erant." This is the truth; but after Leeuwenhoek +had advanced that these animals were the +only efficient principle of generation, and that +they were transformed into human figures, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +has only regarded those as animals which had +tails; and as it was consistent for animals that +were transformed into human figures, to have +a constant form, he never afterwards mentions +those smaller animalcules without tails; and I +was greatly surprised, on comparing the copy of +this letter with that he published twenty years +after, in his 3d volume, where, instead of the +above words, the following are found: "Animalculis +hisce permistę jacebant alię minutiores +particulę, quibus non aliam quam globulorum +seu sphęricam figuram assignare queo;" +which is quite different. A particle of matter to +which he attributes no motion, is very different +from an animalcule: and it is astonishing that +Leeuwenhoek, in copying his own works, has +altered this essential article. What he adds +immediately after likewise merits attention: he +says, that by the desire of Mr. Oldenburg he +had examined this liquor three or four years +before, when he took these animalcules for globules; +that is, there are times when these pretended +animalcules are no more than globules, +without any remarkable motion, and others +when they move with great activity; sometimes +they have tails, and at others they have none. +Speaking in general of spermatic animals he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +says, "Ex hisce meis observationibus cogitare +cœpi, quamvis antehac de animalculis in seminibus +masculinis agens, scripserim, me in illis +caudas non detexisse, fieri tamen posse ut illa +animalcula ęque caudis fuerint instructa ac +nunc comperi de animalculis in gallorum gallinaceorum +semine masculino;" another proof +that he has often seen spermatic animals of all +kinds without tails.</p> + +<p>In the second place we must remark, that the +filaments which are seen in the seminal liquor +before it is liquefied were discovered by Leeuwenhoek, +and that in his first observations, before +he had made any hypothesis on spermatic +animals, he considered these filaments as veins, +nerves, and arteries; and firmly believed all the +parts and vessels of the human body might +clearly be seen in the seminal liquor. This opinion +he persisted in, in defiance of the representations +which Oldenburg made to him on +this subject from the Royal Society: but as soon +as he thought of transforming these pretended +spermatic animals into men, he no longer mentioned +these vessels; and instead of looking on +them as nerves, arteries, and veins, of the human +body already formed in the seed; he did +not even attribute to them the functions they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +really possess, the producing of these moving +bodies: and he says, vol. I. p. 7, "Quid fiet +de omnibus illis particulis seu corpusculis pręter +illa animalcula semini virili hominum inhęrentibus? +Olim & priusquam hęc scriberem, +in ea sententia fui, prędictas strias vel vasa ex +testiculis principium secum ducere, &c." And +in another part he says, that if he had formerly +written any thing on the subject of these vessels +found in the seed, we must pay no attention +to it.</p> + +<div class="fig_center" style="width: 672px;"> +<a name="Plate_IV"></a> +<table summary="Plate IV"> +<tr> + <td><div class="fig_center" style="width: 538px;"> +<img src="images/plate_iv_top2.png" width="538" height="564" alt="" /> +</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><div class="fig_center" style="width: 505px;"> +<img src="images/plate_iv_bot2.png" width="505" height="252" alt="" /> +</div></td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<p>We shall observe in the third place, that if +we compare the figures <i>a, b, c, d</i>, (<a href="#fig_a"><span class="smcap">PLATE III.</span></a>) +copied from the Philosophical Transactions, +with those which Leeuwenhoek had engraved +many years after, (<a href="#Plate_IV"><span class="smcap">PLATE IV.</span></a>) we shall find +considerable difference, especially in the figures +of the dead animals, of a rabbit and in those of +a dog, (which plate we have also copied for the +satisfaction of our readers) from all which we +may conclude, that Leeuwenhoek has not always +observed objects entirely alive: that the +moving bodies, which he looked upon as animals, +appeared to him under different forms; +and that he has varied in his assertions, with a +view of making the species of men and animals +perfectly consistent; he has not only varied in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a><br /><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a><br /><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +the basis of these experiments, but even in the +manner of making them, for he expressly says, +that he always diluted the liquor with water, in +order to separate, and to give more motion to +these animalcules: nevertheless, in his letter to +Lord Brouncker, he says, that having mingled +an equal quantity of rain water with the seminal +liquor of a dog, in which he had before perceived +an infinity of living animalcules, yet the +mixing of this water killed them. The first experiment +of Leeuwenhoek's therefore was made, +like mine, without any mixture; and it even +seems, that he was not of opinion to mix any +water with the liquor till a long time after; because +he thought he had discovered, by his first +essay, that water caused the death of the animalculę; +which however is not the fact. I think +that the mixture of the water only dissolves the +filaments very suddenly; for I have seen but very +few filaments in all the experiments I have made +after mixing the water with the seminal liquor.</p> + +<p>As soon as Leeuwenhoek was persuaded that +spermatic animals were transformed into men, +and other animals, he imagined he saw two sorts +in the seminal liquor of every animal, the one +male, and the other female; and this difference, +according to him, served not only for the generation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +of themselves, but for the production +of males and females, which was very difficult +to conceive by a simple transformation. He +speaks of the male and female animalcule, in his +letter printed in the Philosophical Transactions, +No. 145, and in many parts of his works,<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[U]</a> but +he does not describe the difference of these male +and female animalcules, and which in fact never +existed but in his own imagination.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">[U]</span></a> See vol I. page 163, and vol. III. page 101, of his works.</p></div> + +<p>The famous Boerhaave having asked Leeuwenhoek, +if he had not observed in spermatic +animals different degrees of growth and size? +Leeuwenhoek answered, that having dissected +a rabbit, he observed in the semen an infinite +number of living animals. "Incredibilem, says +he, viventium animalculorum, numerum conspexerunt, +cum hęc animalcula scypho imposita +vitreo & illic emortua, in rariores ordines +disparassent, & per continuos aliquot dies sępius +visu examinassem, quędam ad justam +magnitudinem nondum excrevisse adverti. Ad +hęc quasdam observavi particulas perexiles & +oblongas, alias aliis majores, &, quantum oculis +apparebat, cauda destitutas; quas quidem particulas +non nisi animalcula esse credidi, quę ad +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +justam magnitudinem non excrevissent."<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[V]</a> +Here then are animalcules of different sizes, +some with tails and others without, which much +better agrees with my experiments, than with +Leeuwenhoek's own system. We differ only +in one particular; he says, that those without +tails were young animalculę, which were not +arrived at their full growth; while I, on the +contrary, have seen these pretended animals +quit the filaments with tails or threads, and +afterwards lose them by degrees.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">[V]</span></a> See vol. IV. pages 280 and 281.</p></div> + +<p>In the same letter to Boerhaave, he says, in +the semen of a ram, he perceived animalcules +following each other in swarms like a flock of +sheep. "A tribus circiter annis testes arietis, +adhuc calentes, ad ędes meas deferri curaveram, +cum igitur materiam ex epididymibus +eductam, ope microscopii contemplarer, non +sine ingenti voluptate advertebam animalcula +omnia, quotquot innatabant semini masculino, +eundem natando cursum tenere, ita nimirum +ut quo itinere priora prinatarent eodem posteriora +subsequerentur, adeo ut hisce animalculis +quasis sit ingenitum, quod oves factitare vidimus, +scilicet ut precedentium vestigiis grex +universus incedat." This observation, which +Leeuwenhoek made in 1713, and which he +looks upon as singular and novel, proves to +me, that he had never examined the seminal +liquors of animals with attention, at least sufficient +to give very exact descriptions of them. +Leeuwenhoek was sixty-one years old in 1713, +had made microscopical observations for more +than forty-five years, had published the discovery +of spermatic animals for about thirty-six +years, and then, for the first time, saw in +the seminal liquor of a ram, what is seen in all +seminal liquors, and what I have described +in Experiment <a href="#ex_IX"><span class="smcap">IX</span></a> in the seed of a man; +Experiment <a href="#ex_XII"><span class="smcap">XII</span></a> in the seed of a dog; and in +Experiment <a href="#ex_XXIX"><span class="smcap">XXIX</span></a> in that of a bitch. It is +not necessary to suppose the spermatic animals +of the ram are endowed with instinct, to +explain the floating of these animals, in flocks +like sheep, since those of a man, dog, or bitch, +does the same; and which motion depends +solely on particular circumstances, whose principle +is, that all the fluid matter of the seed +is on one side, while the thick matter is on +the other; for then all the bodies in motion +will be disengaged from the mucilage, and +follow the same road into the most fluid part +of the liquor.</p> + +<p>In another letter, written the same year, to +Boerhaave, he relates some further observations +he made on rams, and says, that he has seen, in +the <i>vasa deferentia</i>, flocks of animals which +float all on one side, and others which go in a +contrary direction; and he adds, "Neque illud +in unica epididymum parte, sed & in aliis quas +pręcideram partibus, observavi. Ad hęc, in +quadam parastatarum resecta portione complura +vidi animalcula, quę necdum in justam +magnitudinem adoleverant, nam et corpuscula +illis exiliora & caudę triplo breviores erant +quam adultis. Ad hęc, caudas non habebant +desinentes in mucronem, quales tamen adultis +esse passim comperio. Pręterea in quandam parastatarum +portionem incidi, animalculis quantum +discernere potui, destitutam, tantum illi +quędam perexiguę inerant particulę, partim +longiores, partim breviores, sed altera sui extremitate +crassiunculę; istas particulas in animalcula +transituras esse non dubitabam." It +is easy to see, by this passage, that Leeuwenhoek +had seen, in this seminal liquor, what I +found in all; that is to say, moving bodies of +different sizes, figures, and motions; and which +agrees much better with the idea of organic particles +in motion than of that with real animals.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that Leeuwenhoek's +observations are not contrary to mine, although +he has drawn very different conclusions from +them. I am persuaded that if any person +would take the trouble of making the like experiments +they would not have any difficulty +in discovering from whence these differences +proceed, and would find that I have advanced +nothing which is not conformable to truth; +and to enable the reader to decide thereon, I +shall subjoin a few remarks.</p> + +<p>The filaments I have spoken of are not always +to be perceived in the seminal liquor of a +man. To discover them it must be examined +the moment it is taken from the body, and +even then it will sometimes happen that there +is not one to be seen. Sometimes the seminal +liquor presents, especially when it is very thick, +only large globules, which may be even distinguished +with a common lens. By inspecting +them with the microscope they appear like +young oranges; they are very opaque, and a +single one often fills up the whole table of the +microscope. The first time I saw these globules +I thought they were some foreign matters +fallen into the liquor, but having examined +different drops I discovered that the whole was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +composed of these thick globules. I selected +one of the roundest, and whose size was such +that, its centre being in the middle of the table +of the microscope, I could at the same time +observe the whole circumference; at first it was +absolutely opaque; a short time afterwards +I perceived a bright luminous ring to form on +its surface, which remained about half an hour, +and then approached by degrees towards the +centre, which became clear, and of different +colours, while the remainder of the globule +continued opaque. This light, which brightened +in the centre of the globule, resembled +those seen in the great air bubbles. The globule +then began to get a little flat, and acquire +a small degree of transparency. Having examined +it more than three hours I perceived no +more alteration, nor any appearance of motion, +either internally or externally. I then +imagined, that by mixing this liquor with +water, these globules might be changed; in +fact they did change, but they presented only a +transparent and homogeneous liquor, wherein +was nothing remarkable. I suffered the seminal +liquor to liquefy of itself, and examined +it at the end of six, twelve, and twenty-four +hours, but saw nothing more than a fluid; without +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +the smallest resemblance of life or motion. +I only relate this observation to shew that there +are times when the common phenomena are +not to be seen in the seminal liquor.</p> + +<p>At times all the moving bodies appear to +have tails, especially in the semen of a man +and a dog; the motion is then the least brisk, +and performed with difficulty. If this liquor +is suffered to dry, the tails or threads are deprived +of motion the first; the anterior extremity +continues to vibrate for some time, and +then all motion entirely ceases. These substances +may be preserved in this state of dryness +for a long time: if a small drop of water is +mixed therewith, their figure changes, they +are reduced into many globules, which sometimes +appear to be in motion, as well by their +approximation to each other, as by the trepidation +and twirling round their centres.</p> + +<p>These moving bodies in the seminal liquor +of a man, dog, or bitch, so nearly resemble +each other, as to admit of mistaking one for +the other, especially if they are examined the +moment the liquor is drawn from the animal. +Those of the rabbit appear smaller and brisker; +but these differences proceed more from the +different states in which the liquor is at the time +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +of observation, than from the nature of the +liquor itself, which ought to be different in +different kinds of animals; for example, in +that of a man I have seen streaks of thick filaments, +(<a href="#fig_3"><i>fig. 3.</i></a>) and have perceived the moving +bodies separate themselves from these filaments +from whence they appeared to proceed; +but I have never seen any thing like it in the +semen of a dog; where, instead of filaments, or +separated streaks, it is commonly a mucilage +whose texture is more compact, and in which +we with difficulty discern any filamentary +parts; yet this mucilage gives birth to moving +bodies like those in the semen of men.</p> + +<p>The motions of these bodies remain a longer +time in the liquor of a dog, than in that of a +man; from which it is more easy to be certain +of the alteration of form above mentioned. +The moment the liquor issues from the body +of the animal we perceive the animalcules to +have tails; in twelve, twenty-four, or thirty-six +hours after, we shall find they have lost those +tails, and are then no more than ovals in motion, +often much brisker than at first.</p> + +<p>The moving bodies are always a little below +the surface of the liquor. On the surface +some large transparent air bubbles, which have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +no motion, generally appear, though sometimes +these bubbles stir and seem to have a +progressive motion, but which is nothing more +than the agitation of the air. Below the moving +substances we often see others much smaller, +and which only appear like globules, having +no tails, but the greatest number of which +are oftentimes in motion. I have also generally +remarked, that in the infinite number of +globules, in all those liquors, those which are +very small, are commonly black, or darker +than the rest; and that those which are extremely +minute and transparent, have but little +or no motion; they appear also to weigh specifically +heavier, for they are always the deepest +in the liquor.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">REFLECTIONS ON THE PRECEDING EXPERIMENTS.</p> + + +<p>By the experiments we have just described, I +was assured that females, as well as males, +have a seminal liquor which contains moving +substances; that these substances were not real +animals, but only living organic particles; and +that those particles exist, not only in the seminal +liquors of the two sexes, but even in the flesh +of animals, and in the germs of vegetables. +To discover whether all the parts of animals, +and all the germs of vegetables, contained +living organic particles, I caused infusions of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +the flesh of different animals to be made, and +of more than twenty kinds of seeds of different +plants; and after they had infused four or +five days, in phials closely stopt up, I had the +satisfaction to see moving organic parts in +them all; some appeared sooner, and others +later; some preserved their motion for months +together, while others were soon deprived of +it; some directly produced large moving +globules, that had the appearance of real +animals, which changed their figures, separated, +and became successively smaller: others +produced only small globules, whose motions +were very brisk; others produced filaments +which lengthened and seemed to vegetate, +swelled, and afterwards thousands of moving +globules issued therefrom; but it is useless to +detail my observations on the infusion of +plants, since Mr. Needham has published so +excellent a treatise on the subject. I read +the preceding treatise to that able naturalist, +and often reasoned with him on the subject, +particularly on the probability that the germs +of vegetables contained similar moving bodies +to those in the seed of male and female animals. +He thought those views sufficiently founded to +deserve to be pursued; and therefore began +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +to make experiments on all parts of vegetables; +and I must own that the ideas I gave him on +this subject have reaped greater profit under +his hands than they would have done from me. +I could quote many examples, but shall confine +myself to one, because I indicated the circumstance +I am going to relate.</p> + +<p>To determine whether the moving substances +seen in the infusions of flesh were true +animals, or only, as I supposed, moving organic +particles, Mr. Needham imagined that he had +only to examine some roasted meat, because +if they were animals the fire must destroy +them; and if not animals, they might still be +found there as well as when the meat was raw; +having therefore taken the jelly of veal, and +other roasted meat, he infused them for several +days in water, closely corked up in phials, +and upon examination he found in every one +of them a great quantity of moving substances. +He shewed me some of these infusions, and +among the rest that of the jelly of veal, in +which there were moving substances, perfectly +like those in the seminal liquor of a man, a +dog, and a bitch, when they have no threads, +or tails; and although we perceived them to +change their figures, their motions so perfectly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +resembled those of an animal which swims, that +whoever saw them, without being acquainted +with what has been already mentioned, might +certainly have taken them for real animals. I +shall only add, that Mr. Needham assured +himself, by a multiplicity of experiments, that +all parts of vegetables contain moving organic +particles, which confirms what I have said, +and extends my theory on the composition of +organized beings, and their reproduction.</p> + +<p>All animals, both male and female, and all +vegetables whatsoever, it is therefore evident +are composed of living organic parts. These +organic parts are in the greatest abundance in +the seminal liquor of animals, and in seeds of +vegetables. It is from the union of these organic +parts returned from all parts of the animal +or vegetable body, that reproduction is +performed, and is always like the animal or +vegetable in which it operates; because the +union of these organic parts cannot be made +but by the means of an internal mould, in +which the form of an animal or vegetable is +produced. It is in this also the essence of the +unity and continuity of the species consists, +and will so continue while the great Creator +permits their existence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p> + +<p>But before I draw general conclusions from +the system I am establishing, I must endeavour +to remove some objections which might be +made, and mention some other circumstances +which will serve to place this matter in a better +light.</p> + +<p>It will be asked, why I deny those moving +substances in the seminal liquors to be animals, +since they have constantly been regarded as +such by Leeuwenhoek, and every other naturalist, +who has examined them? I may also be +told, that living organic particles are not perfectly +intelligible, if they are to be looked upon +as animalculę; and to suppose an animal is +composed of a number of small animals, is +nearly the same as saying that an organized +being is composed of living organic particles. +I shall therefore endeavour to answer these objections +in a satisfactory manner.</p> + +<p>It is certain that almost all naturalists agree +in looking on the moving substances in seminal +liquors as real animals; but it is no less certain, +from my own observations, and those of +Mr. Needham, on the seed of the calmar, that +these moving substances are more simple and +less organized beings than animals.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> + +<p>The word <i>animal</i>, in the acceptation we +commonly receive it, represents a general idea +formed of particular ideas drawn from particular +animals. All general ideas include many +different ones, which approach, or are more or +less distant from each other, and consequently +no general idea can either be exact or precise. +The general idea which we form of an animal +may be taken principally from the particular +idea of a dog, a horse, and other beasts, which +appear to us to act and move according to the +impulse of their will, and which are besides +composed of flesh and blood, seek after their +food, have sexes, and the faculty of reproduction. +The general idea, therefore, expressed +by the word <i>animal</i>, must comprehend a number +of particular ideas, not one of which constitutes +the essence of the general idea, for there +are animals which appear to have no reason, +will, progressive motion, flesh nor blood, and +which only appear to be a congealed substance: +there are some which cannot seek their food, +but only receive it from the element they live +in: there are some which have no sensation, +not even that of feeling, at least in any sensible +degree: there are some have no sexes, or are +both in one; there only belongs, therefore, to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +the animal a general idea of what is common +also to the vegetable, that is, the faculty of reproduction.</p> + +<p>The general idea then is formed from the +whole taken together, which whole being composed +of different parts, there is consequently +between these parts degrees and links. An insect, +in this sense, is something less of an animal +than a dog; an oyster still less than an insect; +a sea-nettle, or a fresh-water polypus, +still less than an oyster; and as nature acts by +insensible links, we may find beings which are +still less animated than a sea-nettle, or a polypus. +Our general ideas are only artificial methods +to collect a quantity of objects in the +same point of view; and they have, like the +artificial methods we shall speak of, the defect +of never being able to comprehend the whole. +They are likewise opposite to the walk of nature, +which is uniform, insensible, and always +particular, insomuch that by our endeavouring +to comprehend too great a number of particular +ideas in one single word, we have no +longer a clear idea of what that word conveys; +because, the word being received, we imagine +that it is a line drawn between the productions +of nature; that all above this line is <i>animal</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +and all below it <i>vegetable</i>; another word, as +general as the first, and which is used as a line +of separation between organized bodies and inanimate +matter. But as we have already said, +these lines of separation do not exist in nature; +there are beings which are neither animals, +vegetables, nor minerals, and which we in vain +might attempt to arrange with either. For +example, when Mr. Trembly first observed the +polypus, he employed a considerable time before +he could determine whether it was an animal +or a plant; and possibly from this reason +that it is perhaps neither one nor the other, +and all that can be said is, that it approaches +nearest to an animal; and as we suppose every +living thing must be either an animal or a plant, +we do not credit the existence of an organized +being, that cannot be referred to one of those +general names; whereas there must, and in fact +are, a great number of organized beings which +are neither the one nor the other. The moving +substances perceived in seminal liquors, in infusions +of the flesh of animals, in seed, and +other parts of plants, are all of this kind. We +cannot call these animals, nor can we say they +are vegetables, and certainly we can still less +assert they are minerals.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p> + +<p>We can therefore affirm, without fear of advancing +too much, that the grand division of +nature's productions into <i>Animals</i>, <i>Vegetables</i>, +and <i>Minerals</i>, do not contain every material +being; since there are some that exist which +cannot be classed in this division. We have already +observed, that nature passes by insensible +links from the animal to the vegetable, but from +the vegetable to the mineral the passage is quick, +and the distance considerable; from whence the +law of nature's passing by imperceptible degrees +appears untrue. This made me suppose +that by examining nature closely we shall discover +intermediate organized beings, which +without having the power of reproduction, like +animals and vegetables, would nevertheless have +a kind of life and motion; other beings which, +without being either vegetables or animals, +might possibly enter into the composition of +both, and likewise other beings which would +be only the assemblage of the organic molecules +I have spoken of in the preceding chapters.</p> + +<p>In the first class of these kind of beings +eggs must be placed; those of hens, and other +birds, are fastened to a common pedicle, and +draw their nourishment and growth from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +body of the animal, but when fastened to the +ovary, they are not then real eggs, but only +yellow globules which separate from the ovary +as soon as they have attained a certain growth. +Their internal organization is such that they +derive nourishment from the lymph, the matrix +of the hen, and by which they form the +white membranes, and at last the shell. The +egg therefore has a kind of life and organization, +a growth, expansion, and a form which +it assumes by its own powers. It does not live +like an animal, nor vegetate like a plant, nor +is possessed of the power of reproduction; nevertheless +it grows, acts externally, and is organized. +Must we not then look upon it as a +being of a separate class, and which ought not +to be ranked either with animal or mineral? +for if it is pretended that the egg is only an +animal production, destined for the nutriment +of the chicken, and should be looked upon as +a part of the hen; I answer, that the eggs, +whether impregnated or not, will be always +organized after the same mode: that impregnation +only changes an almost invisible +part; and that it attains its perfection and +growth, as well externally as internally, whether +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +it contains the chicken or not, and that +consequently it ought to be considered as a separate +being.</p> + +<p>What I have said will appear more clear, if +we consider the formation and growth of the +eggs of fish; when the female deposits them in +the water they are only the outlines of eggs, +which being separated from the body of the +animal, attract and appropriate to themselves +the particles which agree the best for their +nourishment, and grow thus by intussusception. +In the same manner as the hen's egg +acquires the white and membranes in the matrix, +wherein it floats, so the eggs of fish acquire +their membranes and white in the water; +and whether the male impregnates them, +by emitting on these the liquor of its roe, or +whether they remain unimpregnated, they do +not the less attain their entire perfection. It +appears to me, therefore, that the eggs should +be considered as organized bodies, which being +neither animals nor vegetables, are a genus +apart.</p> + +<p>A second class of beings, of the same kind, +are the organized bodies found in the semen +of all animals, and which, like those in the +milt of a calmar, are rather natural machines +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +than animals. These are properly the first +assemblages which result from the organic +molecules we have so much spoken of, and +they are, perhaps, the parts which constitute +the organized bodies of animals. They are +found in the semen of all animals, because the +semen is only the residue of the organic molecules +that the animal takes in with its aliment, +and which, as we have already observed, are +those parts most analogous to the animal itself, +and most organic; it is those particles which +compose the matter of the semen, and consequently +we must not be astonished to find organized +bodies therein.</p> + +<p>To be perfectly convinced that these organized +bodies are not real animals, we need +only reflect on the preceding experiments. +The moving bodies in the seminal liquor have +been taken for animals, because they have a +progressive motion, and are thought to have +a tail; but if we consider, on one hand, the +nature of this progressive motion, which +finishes in a very short time without ever renewing +its motion; and on the other, the +nature of these tails, which are only threads +which the moving bodies draw after them, we +shall begin to hesitate; for an animal goes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +sometimes slow, sometimes fast, and sometimes +remains in a state of rest; these moving bodies, +on the contrary, always continue the same +motion, and I have never seen them stop and +renew their movement again. I ask, whether +this kind of continued motion, without any +rest, is common to animals, and if that ought +not to make us doubt these moving bodies +being real animals? An animal of any kind +must also have a constant form and distinct +limbs; but these moving bodies vary, and +change their forms every moment, have no +distinct limbs, and their tails appear as a part +which does not belong to the individual. Can +we then imagine these bodies to be real animals? +In seminal liquors filaments are seen +which lengthen and appear to vegetate; after +which they swell and produce moving bodies. +These filaments may be kinds of vegetables, +but the moving bodies which spring from them +cannot be animals, for a vegetable has never +yet been seen to produce an animal. These +moving bodies are found in all vegetable and +animal substances; they are not produced by +the modes of generation, they have no uniformity +of species, and therefore can neither +be animals nor vegetables. They are to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +met with in the flesh of animals, and in the substance +of vegetables, but are most numerous in +their seeds; is it not therefore natural to regard +them as living organic particles which compose +the animal or vegetable; as particles which +having motion and a kind of life, ought, by +their union, to produce moving and living +beings, and so form animals and vegetables?</p> + +<p>But in order to leave this matter as little in +doubt as possible, let us examine other substances. +Can it be said, the active machines +which Mr. Needham perceived in the milt of +the calmar were animals? Can it be thought +that eggs, which are active machines of another +kind, are also animals? If we turn our eyes to +the representation of almost all the moving bodies +Leeuwenhoek saw in different matters, +shall we not be convinced, even at the first inspection, +that those bodies are not animals, since +not one of them has any limbs, but are all either +globular or oval? If we afterwards examine +what this celebrated naturalist says, when he +describes the motion of these pretended animals, +we can no longer doubt of his being in an error +when he considered them as such; and we shall +be still more and more confirmed that they are +only moving organic particles by the following +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +examples: Leeuwenhoek gives<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[W]</a> the figure of +the moving bodies which he observed in the +liquor of a male frog. This figure only represents +a slender body, long, and pointed at one +of its extremities; and of this he says, "Uno +tempore caput (thus he calls the thickest extremity +of this moving body) crassius mihi +apparebat alio; plerumque agnoscebam animalculum +haud ulterius quam a capite ad +medium corpus, ob caudę tenuitatem, & cum +idem animalculum paulo vehementius moveretur +(quod tamen tarde fiebat) quasi volumine +quodam circa caput ferebatur. Corpus fere +carebat motu; cauda tamen in tres quatuorve +flexus volvebatur." This then is the change +of form which I mentioned to have seen, the +mucilage from which the moving bodies use +all their efforts to be disengaged, the slowness +of their motion before they are disengaged; +and the animal, according to Leeuwenhoek, +one part of which is in motion, and the other +dead: for he afterwards says, "Movebant +posteriorem solum partem, quę ultima, morti +vicinia esse judicabam." All this does not +agree with an animal, but with what I have +spoken of; excepting that I never saw the tail +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +move but by the agitation of the body. He afterwards +says, speaking of the seminal liquor +of a cod, "Non est putandum omnia animalcula +in semine aselli contenta uno eodemque +tempore vivere, sed illa potius tantum vivere +quę exitui seu partui viciniora sunt, quę & +copiosiori humido innatant prę reliquis vita +carentibus, adhuc in crassa materia, quam humor +eorum efficit, jacentibus."</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">[W]</span></a> Vol. I. p. 51.</p></div> + +<p>If these are animals, why have they not all +life? why are they in the most fluid part of the +liquor alive, while those in the thickest are +not so? Leeawenhoek did not perceive that +the thick matter, the origin of which he attributes +to the humour of the animalculę, +is nothing but a mucilaginous matter which +produces them. By diluting this mucilage +with water, he would have given life to the +whole of them. Even this mucilage is oftentimes +only a mass of those bodies which are +set in motion on being separated; and consequently +this thick matter, instead of being a +humour, produced by the animalcules, is only +the substance of the animals themselves, or rather, +as we have already observed, the matter +from which they originate. Speaking of the +seed of a cock, Leeuwenhoek says, in his letter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +to Grew, "Contemplando materiam (seminalem) +animadverti ibidem tantam abundantiam +viventium animalium, ut ea stuperem; +forma seu externa figura sua nostrates anguillas +fluviatiles referebant, vehementissima agitatione +movebantur; quibus tamen substrati videbantur +multi & admodum exiles globuli, item multę +plan-ovales figurę, quibus etiam vita posset +attribui, & quidem propter earundem commotiones; +sed existimabam omnes hasce commotiones +& agitationes pro venire ab animalcules, +sicque etiam res se habebat; attamen +ego non opinione solum, sed etiam ad veritatem +mihi persuadeo has particulas planam & +ovalem figuram habentes, esse quędam animalcula +inter se ordine suo disposita & mixta +vitaque adhuc carentia." Here we see in the +same seminal liquor animalcules of different +forms; and I am convinced, by my own experiments, +that if Leeuwenhoek had closely observed +these oval substances, he would have discovered +that they moved by their own powers, +and that consequently they were as much alive +as the rest. This change perfectly coincides +with what I have said, that they are organic +particles which take different forms, and not +constant species of animals; for in the present +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +case, if the bodies, which have the figure of +an eel, are true spermatic animalcules, each, +destined to become a cock, which supposes a +very perfect organization, and a very constant +form, what will those be which have an oval +figure, and what end do they answer? He says +indeed afterwards, that these ovals maybe conceived +to be the same animals, by supposing +their bodies to be twisted in a spiral form; but +then how shall we conceive that an animal, +whose body is constrained, can move without +being extended? I maintain, therefore, that +these oval substances are no other than the +organic particles separated from their threads, +and that the eels were the separated parts +which dragged those threads after them, as I +have many times perceived in other seminal +liquors.</p> + +<p>Leeuwenhoek, who imagined all these moving +bodies were animals, and established a system +thereon; who also pretended, that spermatic +animals must become men and animals, now +suspected they were only natural machines, or +organic particles in motion; for he does not +doubt these spermatic animals contained the +great animal in miniature, he says, "Progeneratio +animalis ex animalculo in seminibus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +masculinis omni exceptione major est; nam +etiamsi in animalculo ex semine masculo unde +ortum est, figuram animalis conspicere nequeamus, +attamen satis superque certi esse possumus +figuram animalis ex qua animal ortum est, in +animalculo quod in semine masculo reperitur, +conclusam jacere sive esse; & quanquam mihi +sępius conspectis animalculis in semine masculo +animalis, imaginatus fuerim me posse +dicere, en ibi caput, en ibi humeros, en ibi +femora; attamen eum ne minima quidem certitudine +de iis judicium ferre potuerim, hujusque +certi quid statuere supersedeo, donec +tale animal, cujus semina mascula tam magna +erunt, ut in iis figuram creaturę ex qua +provenit, agnoscere queam, invenire secunda +nobis concedat fortuna." This fortunate +chance, which Leeuwenhoek desires, presented +itself to Mr. Needham. Every part of the +spermatic animals of the calmar are easy to +be seen without a microscope; but they are +not young calmars, as Leeuwenhoek thinks, +nor even animated, although they are in motion, +but only machines which must be regarded +as the first produce of the union of organic +particles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> + +<p>Although Leeuwenhoek had not such an +opportunity of undeceiving himself, he nevertheless +had another phenomena which ought +to have had that effect; for example, he had +remarked that the spermatic animals of a dog +often change their figures, especially when the +liquor was on the point of evaporating; that +these pretended animals had a hole in the head +when they were dead, and that this hole did +not appear when they were alive; he had seen +that the part which he looked upon as the +head was full and plump when it was alive, +and flaccid and flat when dead. All this ought +to have led him to doubt whether these moving +bodies were real animals; and consider it as +agreeing better with a machine, which empties +itself like that of the calmar, than with a +moving animal.</p> + +<p>I have said that these moving bodies, these +organic particles, do not move like animals, +nor have an interval of rest. Leeuwenhoek has +observed the same: "Quotiescunque, says he, +animalcula in semine masculo animalium fucrim +contemplatus, attamen illa se unquam ad +quietem contulisse, me nunquam vidisse, mihi +dicendum est, si modo sat fluidę superesset materię +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +in qua sese commode movere poterant; +et eadem in continuo manent motu, & tempore +quo ipsis moriendum appropinquante, +motus magis magisque deficit, usquedum nullus +prorsus motus in illis agnoscendus sit." +It appears difficult to conceive that animals +can exist, from the moment of their birth till +that of their death, in a continual rapid motion +without the least interval of rest; and I +cannot possibly imagine how these animals in +the semen of a dog, which Leeuwenhoek saw +the seventh day in as rapid motion as they +were when they were first taken from the body +of the animal, preserved a motion during that +time so exceedingly swift, that no animal has +sufficient power to move in for an hour; especially +if we consider the resistance which proceeds +from the density and the tenacity of the +liquor. This kind of continued motion, on the +contrary, agrees with the organic particles, +which, like artificial machines, produce their +effects in a continual operation, and which stop +when that effect is over.</p> + +<p>Among the great number of Leeuwenhoek's +experiments, he, without doubt, often perceived +spermatic animals without tails; and +he endeavours to explain this phenomena +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +by a supposition; for example, he says, speaking +of the semen of a cod, "Ubi vero ad lactum +accederem observationem, in iis partibus +quas animalcula esse censebam neque vitam +neque caudam dignoscere potui; cujus rei rationem +esse existimabam, quod quamdiu animalcula +natando loca sua perfecte mutare non +possunt tam diu etiam cauda concinne circa +corpus maneat ordinata, quodque ideo singula +animalcula rotundum repręsentent corpusculorum."</p> + +<p>It would have been better to have said, as it +in fact is, that the spermatic animals of these +fish have tails at certain times and none at +others, than to suppose their tails twisted so +exactly round their bodies as to give them +the shape of a globule. But this must not lead +us to think that Leeuwenhoek only attended +to the moving bodies which he saw with +tails, but rather that he did not describe the +others, because, although they were in motion, +he did not regard them as animals; and this +is the cause that all the spermatic animals he +has depicted resemble each other, and drawn +with tails, since he only took them for real +animals in that state; and that when he saw +them under other forms, he thought them imperfect, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +or rather that they were dead. On +the whole it appears, by my experiments, that +far from displaying their tails the more as they +are in a more perfect condition of swimming, +as Leeuwenhoek says, they, on the contrary, +lose their tails in a gradual manner, till at last +these tails, which are no more than foreign bodies +of the animalcules, and which they drag +after them, entirely disappear.</p> + +<p>In another part Leeuwenhoek, speaking of the +spermatic animals of man, says, "Aliquando +etiam animadverti inter animalcula particulas +quasdam minores & subrotundas; cum vero se +ea aliquoties eo modo oculis meis exhibuerint, +ut mihi imaginarer eas exiguis instructas esse +caudis, cogitare cœpi annon hę forte particulę +forent animalcula recens nata; certum enim +mihi est ea etiam animalcula per generationem +provenire, vel ex mole minuscula ad adultam +procedere quantitatem: & quis sit annoa ea +animalcula, ubi moriuntur, aliorum animalculorum +nutritioni atque augmini inserviant?" +By this passage it appears that Leeuwenhoek +had seen animals without tails in the seminal +liquor of a man, and that he is obliged to suppose +them to be just born, and not adult; but +I have observed quite the contrary; for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +moving bodies are never larger than when they +separate from the filaments, and begin to move. +When they are entirely disengaged from the +mucilage they become smaller, and continue +decreasing as long as they remain in motion. +With respect to the generation of these animals, +which Leeuwenhoek speaks of as certain, I am +persuaded no sign of generation has ever been +discovered; all he says is advanced on mere suppositions, +which it is easy to prove by his own +observations; for example, he says that the milt +of certain fish, as the cod, fills by degrees with +seminal liquor, which after the fish has emitted, +the milt dries up, leaving only a membrane destitute +of any liquor. "Eo tempore, says he, +quo ascellus major lactes suos emisit, rugę illę, +seu tortiles lactium partes, usque adeo contrahuntur, +ut nihil pręter pelliculas seu membranę +esse videantur." How then does he understand +that this dry membrane, in which there is no +longer either seminal liquor or animalcules, can +reproduce animals of the same kind the succeeding +year? if there was a regular generation in +these animals, there could not be this interruption, +which in most fishes lasts for a whole year. +To draw himself out of this difficulty, he says, +"Necessario statuendum erit, ut ascellus major +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +semen suum emiserit, in lactibus etiamnum +multum materię seminalis gignendis animalculis +aptę remansisse, ex qua materia plura +oportet provenire animalcula seminalia quam +anno proxime elapso emissa fuerant." This +supposition, that there remains something in the +seminal liquor in the milts to produce spermatic +animals for the succeeding year, is absolutely +contrary to observations, for the milt is in this +interval only a thin and absolutely dry membrane. +But what reply can be made to a still +further opposition to this point, there being fish +like the calmar, the seminal liquor of which is +not only renewed every year, but even the reservoir +which contains it? Can it be said, that +there remains a seminal matter in the milt for +the production of the animals for the succeeding +year, when even the milt does not remain? it is +therefore very certain that these pretended spermatic +animals are not multiplied, like other animals, +by the mode of generation; which alone +is sufficient to make us presume, that those particles +which move in the seminal liquors are +not real animals. Thus Leeuwenhoek, who +in the passage above quoted says, it is certain +that spermatic animals multiply and propagate +by generation, nevertheless owns, in another +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +part, that the manner in which these animals +are produced is very obscure, and that he leaves +to others the task of clearing up this matter. +"Persuadebam mihi," says he, speaking of the +spermatic animals of the dormouse, "hęcce +animalcula ovibus prognasci, quia diversa in orbem +jacentia & in semet convoluta videbam; +sed unde, quęso, primam illorum originem derivabimus? +in animo nostro concipiemus horum +animalculorum semen jam procreatum esse in +ipsa generatione, hocque semen tam diu in testiculis +hominum hęrere, usquedum ad annum +ętatis decimum-quartum vel decimum-quintum +aut sextum pervenerint, eademque animalcula +tum demum vita donari vel in justam +staturam excrevisse, illoque temporis articulo +generandi maturitatem adesse! sed hęc lampada +aliis trado." I do not think it necessary +to make any remarks on what Leeuwenhoek +says on this subject: he saw spermatic animals +without tails, and round, in the seed of a dormouse; +"in semet convoluta," says he, because +he supposes that they should have tails, and instead +of being certain, as he before had been, +that the animals propagate by generation, he +here seems convinced of the contrary. But when +he had observed the generation of pucerons, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +and was assured<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[X]</a> that they engendered without +copulation, he caught the idea to explain the +generation of spermatic animals. "Quemadmodum, +says he, animalcula hęc quę pediculorum +antea nomine designavimus (the pucerons) +dum adhuc in utero materno latent, jam prędita +sunt materia seminali ex qua ejusdem generis +proditura sunt animalcula, pari ratione cogitare +licet animalculę in seminibus masculinis ex +animalium testiculis non migrate seu ejici quin +post se relinquant minuta animalcula aut saltem +materiam seminalem ex qua iterum alia ejusdem +generis animalcula proventura sunt idque +absque coitu; eadem ratione qua supradicta animalcula +generari observavimus." This supposition +gives no more satisfaction than the preceding: +for we do not understand by this comparison +of the generation of these animalcules +with that of a puceron, why they are not found +in the seminal liquor of a man, before he has +attained the age of fourteen or fifteen years; +nor do we know from whence they proceed, nor +how they are renewed every year in fish, &c. +and it appears, that whatever efforts Leeuwenhoek +made to establish the generation of spermatic +animals on some probability, it still remained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +an entire obscurity, and would, perhaps, +perpetually have remained so, if the +preceding experiments had not evinced that +they are not animals, but moving organic particles +contained in the nutriment the animal +receives, and which are found in great numbers +in the seminal liquor, which is the most +pure, and in the most organic extracts drawn +from this nutriment.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">[X]</span></a> See vol. II. page 499, and vol. III. page 271.</p></div> + +<p>Leeuwenhoek acknowledges that he had not +always found animalcules in the seminal liquor +of males; in that of the cock, for example, +which he had often examined, he saw spermatic +animals in the form of eels but once, and +some years after he could not discover any under +that form, but observed some with large +heads and tails, which his designer could not +perceive. He says also, that one season he could +not find living animals in the seminal liquor +of the cod. All these disappointments proceeded +from his desire of finding tails to these +animals; and although he perceived little bodies +in motion, he did not consider them as animals, +because they were without tails, notwithstanding +it is under that form they are generally +seen, either in seminal liquors, or infusions +of animal or vegetable substances. He says, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +the same place, that he was never able to make +his designer perceive the spermatic animalcules +of a cod, which he had so often seen himself.—"Non +solum, says he, ob eximiam eorum +exilitatem, sed etiam quod eorum corpora +adeo essent fragilia, ut corpuscula passim dirumperentur; +unde factum fuit ut nonnisi rare, +nec sine attentissima observatione, animadverterem +particulas planas atque ovorum in morem +longas, in quibus ex parte caudas dignoscere +licebat; particulas has oviformes existimavi +animalcula esse dirupta, quod particulę +hę diruptę quadruplo fere viderentur majores +corporibus animalculorum vivorum." When +an animal of any kind ceases to live, it does not +then suddenly alter its form, and from being +long, like a thread, becomes round like a ball; +neither does it become four times larger after +its death than it was before. Nothing that +Leeuwenhoek says here agrees with the nature +of animals; but, on the contrary, the whole +corresponds with a kind of machine, which, +like those of a calmar, empty themselves after +having performed their functions. But let us +pursue this observation; he says, he has seen +the spermatic animals of the cod in different +forms, "multa apparebant animalcula sphęram +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +pellucidam representantia;" he has also +seen them of different sizes, "hęc animalcula +minori videbantur mole, quam ubi eadem antehac +in tubo vitreo rotundo examinaveram."</p> + +<p>There needs nothing more to shew that +there are no constant and uniform species of +these animalcules; and that consequently they +are not animals, but only organic particles in +motion, which, by their different combinations, +take different forms and sizes. These +organic moving particles are found in great +quantities in the extract and residue of our +nutriment. The matter which adheres to the +teeth, and which in healthy people has the +same smell as the seminal liquor, is only a residue +of the food, and a great number of these +pretended animals are also found there, some +of which have tails, and resemble those in the +seminal liquor. Mr. Baker had four different +kinds of them engraved, and which +were all of a cylindrical or oval make, or +globules with and without tails. I am persuaded, +after having strictly examined them, +that not any of them are real animals, but are +like those in the seed, only living organical +parts of the nutriment which present themselves +under different forms, Leeuwenhoek, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +who did not know how to account for these +pretended animals in the matter which adhered +to the teeth, supposed them to proceed from +certain food they were previously in, as cheese, +&c. but we find them among the teeth of those +who do not eat cheese, as well as in those that +do; besides, they have not the least resemblance +to mites, nor the other animalcules seen +in rotten cheese. In another place he says, +these animals of the teeth may proceed from +the cistern water that is drank, because he observed +animals like them in dew and rain water, +especially in that which stagnates upon +lead and tiles; but with which we can prove +there is not the least resemblance.</p> + +<p>Most seminal liquors dilute of themselves, +and liquefy when exposed to the air or a certain +degree of cold; but they thicken when a +moderate degree of heat is communicated to +them. I have exposed some of these liquors +to a very intense cold, as water on the point of +freezing, but it did no injury to these supposed +animals; they continued to move with the +same swiftness, and as long as those which had +not been so exposed, but those which had suffered +but a little warmth soon ceased to move, +because the liquor thickened. If the moving +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +bodies were animals, they were of a complexion +and temperament quite different from all others, +to whom a gentle and moderate heat strengthens +their powers and motions, which the cold stops +and destroys.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding it may be thought I have +dwelt too long upon this subject, I cannot conclude +it without making one remark, from +which some useful conclusions may be drawn. +These pretended spermatic animals, which are +only living organic particles of the nutriment, +not only exist in the seminal liquors of the +two sexes, and in the residue of the nutriment +which adheres to the teeth, but also in the +chyle and excrements. Leeuwenhoek having +met with them in the excrements of frogs, and +other animals, which he dissected, was at +first very much surprised, and notable to conceive +from whence these animals proceeded, +so entirely like those he had observed in the +seminal liquors, accuses himself of having, in +dissecting the animal, opened the seminal vessels, +and that the seed had by that means been +mixed with the excrements. But having afterwards +found them in the excrements of other +animals, and even in his own, he no longer +knew to what to attribute them. Leeuwenhoek, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +it is worthy remark, never met with them in his +own excrements, but when they were liquid. +Every time he was disordered and the stomach +did not perform its functions, and was relaxed, +he discovered these animalcules; but when the +concoction of the food was well performed, +and the excrement was hard, there was not a +single one, although it was diluted with water. +This seems perfectly to agree with all we have +before advanced: for when the stomach and +intestines perform their functions, the excrements +are only the grosser parts of the nutriment; +and all that is really nutritive and +organic passes into the vessels which serve to +nourish the animal; whereas if the stomach +and intestines are not in a condition to comminute +the food, then it passes with the inanimate +parts, and we find the living organic +molecules in the excrements; from whence it +may be concluded, that those which are often +lax must have less seminal liquor, and be less +proper for generation, than those of a different +habit of body.</p> + +<p>In all I have said, I constantly supposed the +female furnished a seminal liquor, which was +as necessary to generation as that of the male. +I have endeavoured to establish in <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45602/45602-h/45602-h.htm#Page_255">Chap. I.</a> that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +every organized body must contain living organic +particles, and I have endeavoured to +prove Chap. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45602/45602-h/45602-h.htm#Page_272">II.</a> and <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45602/45602-h/45602-h.htm#Page_298">III.</a> that nutrition and reproduction +operates by the same cause; that +nutrition is made by the intimate penetration +of these organic particles through each part of +the body, and that reproduction operates by +the superfluity of these same organic particles +collected together from all parts of the body +and deposited in proper reservoirs. I have explained +in Chap. <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45602/45602-h/45602-h.htm#Page_311">IV</a>. how this theory must be +understood in the generation of man and animals +which have sexes. Females then being organized +bodies like males, they must also have +some reservoirs for the superfluity of organic +particles returned from every part of their bodies. +This superfluity cannot come there +through any other form than that of a liquor, +since it is an extract of all parts of the body; +and this liquor is that to which I have given +the name of the female semen.</p> + +<p>This liquor is not, as Aristotle pretends, an +infecund matter of itself, which enters neither +as matter nor form into the business of generation, +but as essentially prolific as that of the +male, containing characteristic parts of the feminine +sex, which the female alone can produce, +the same as the male contains particles necessary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +to form the masculine organs; and each of +them contains every other organic particle that +can be looked on as common to both sexes; +which causes that, by their mixture, the daughter +may resemble her father, and the son his mother. +This semen Hippocrates says, is composed +of two liquors; the one strong, for the +production of males; and the other weak, for +the production of females. But this supposition +is too extended; I do not see how it is to be conceived +that a liquor, which is the extract of +every part of the female body, should contain +particles for the formation of the male organs.</p> + +<p>This liquor must enter by some way into the +matrix of animals which bear and nourish their +fœtus within the body, and in others, as oviparous +animals, it must be absorbed by the eggs, +which may be looked upon as portable matrixes. +Each of these matrixes contains a +small drop of this prolific liquor of the female, +in the part that is called the <i>cicatrice</i>. When +there has been no communication with the +male, this prolific drop collects under the form +of a small mole, or mass, as Malpighius observes; +but when impregnated by that of the +male; it produces a fœtus which receives its +nutriment from the juices of the egg.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> + +<p>Eggs, instead of being parts generally found +in every female, are therefore only instruments +made use of by Nature to serve as the matrix +in females which are deprived of that organ. +Instead also of being active and essential to the +first fecundation, they only serve as passive and +accidental parts for the nutrition of the fœtus +already formed by the mixture of the liquor of +the two sexes in a particular part of this matrix. +Instead also of being existing bodies, inclosed, +<i>ad infinitum</i>, one within the other, eggs, on the +contrary, are bodies formed from the superfluity +of a more gross and less organic part of +the food, than that which produces the seminal +and prolific liquor; and are in oviparous females +something equivalent, not only to the matrix, +but even to the menstrua in the viviparous.</p> + +<p>We should be perfectly convinced, that eggs +are only destined by Nature to serve as a matrix +in animals who have not that viscera, by +those females producing eggs independant of +the male. In the same manner as the matrix +exists in viviparous animals, as a part appertaining +to the female sex, hens, which have no +matrix, have eggs in their room, which are +successively produced of themselves, and necessarily +exist in the female independently of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +any communication with the male. To pretend +that the fœtus is pre-existing in the eggs, +and that these eggs are contained, <i>ad infinitum</i>, +within each other, is nearly the same as to pretend +that the fœtus, is pre-existing in the matrix, +and that the matrix of the first female inclosed +all that ever were or will be produced.</p> + +<p>Anatomists have taken the word <i>egg</i> in several +acceptations and meanings. When Harvey +took for his motto, <i>Omnia ex ovo</i>, he understood +by the word egg, as applied to viviparous +animals, the membrane which includes the fœtus +and all its appendages: he thought, he perceived +this egg, or membrane, form immediately +after the copulation of the male and the +female. But this egg does not proceed from the +ovium of the female; and he has even maintained, +that he did not remark the least alteration +in this testicle, &c. We perceive there is +here nothing like what is commonly understood +by the word egg unless the figure of the bag may +be supposed to have some resemblance thereto. +Harvey, who dissected so many viviparous females, +did not, he says, ever perceive any alteration +in the ovaria; he looked on them even as +small glands, perfectly useless to general ion,<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[Y]</a> although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +they undergo very remarkable changes +and alterations in them, since we may perceive +in cows the glandular bodies grow from the size +of a millet seed to that of a cherry. This great +anatomist was led into this error by the smallness +of the glandular bodies in the species of deer, +to which he principally paid his attention. C. +Peyerus, who also made many experiments on +them, says, "Exigui quidem sunt damarum +testiculi, sed post coitum fœcundum, in alterutro +eorum, papilla, sive tuberculum fibrosum, +semper succrescit; scrofis autem pręgnantibus +tanta accidit testiculorum mutatio, +ut mediocrem quoque attentionem fugere nequeat."<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[Z]</a> +This author imagines, with some +reason, that the minuteness of the testicles of +does, is the cause of Harvey's not having remarked +the alterations; but he is wrong in advancing +that the alterations he had remarked, +and which had escaped Harvey's notice, did +not happen till after impregnation.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">[Y]</span></a> See Harvey Exercit. 64 and 65.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">[Z]</span></a> Vide Conradi Peyeri Merycologia.</p></div> + +<p>It appears that Harvey was deceived in many +other essential points; he asserts, that the seed +of the male does not enter into the matrix of the +female, and even that it cannot; yet Verheyen +found a great quantity of the male seed in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +matrix of a cow, which he dissected six hours +after copulation.<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[AA]</a> The celebrated Ruysch +asserts, that having dissected a woman who had +been caught in the act of adultery, and was assassinated, +he found, not only in the cavity of +the matrix, but also in the trunks, a quantity of +the seminal liquor of the male,<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[AB]</a> Valisnieri affirms, +that Fallopius and other anatomists had +also discovered male seed in the matrix of many +women. After the positive testimony of these +great anatomists, there can remain no doubt but +Harvey was deceived in this important point; +especially when to these are added that of Leeuwenhoek, +who found the male seed in the matrix +of a great number of females of different species.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">[AA]</span></a> See Verheyen Sup. Anat. Tra. v. cap. iii.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">[AB]</span></a> See Ruysch, Thes. Anat. p. 90, tab. <span class="smcap">VI</span>, fig. I.</p></div> + +<p>Harvey makes another error in speaking of an +abortion in the second month, where the mass +was as large as a pigeon's egg, but without any +fœtus regularly formed; whereas, it is maintained +by Ruysch, and many other anatomists, +that the fœtus is perceptible, even to the naked +eye, in the first month. The History of the +Academy mentions a fœtus, that was completely +formed in twenty-one days after impregnation. +If to these authorities we add that of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +Malpighius, who perceived the chicken in the +cicatrice, immediately after the egg was laid +by the hen, we cannot doubt, but that the +fœtus is formed immediately after copulation; +consequently, we must not pay any credit to +what Harvey says on the parts increasing one +after the other by juxta-position, since they are +all existent from the first, and gradually expand +until the whole is complete.</p> + +<p>De Graaf took the acceptation of the word +egg in a quite different light to Harvey: he insists +that the testicles of women were true ovaries, +and contain eggs like those of oviparous, +animals, only that they are much smaller, do +not quit the body, and are never detached till +after impregnation, when they descend from the +ovary into the horns of the matrix. The experiments +of De Graaf have contributed most to +establish the existence of these pretended eggs, +which yet is not at all founded; for this famous +anatomist is deceived, first, by mistaking the +vesicles of the ovarium for eggs, whereas they +are inseparable from it, form parts of its substance, +and are filled with a kind of lymph. +Secondly, he is also deceived when he considers +the glandular bodies to be the covering of those +eggs, or vesicles; for it is certain, by Malpighius's, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +Valisnieri's, and my own observations, +that the glandular bodies neither surround nor +contain one of those vesicles. Thirdly, he is +deceived still more when he supposes the glandular +body is never formed till after fecundation; +as they are invariably found in every female +who has attained the age of puberty. Fourthly, +he is no less deceived when he believes that the +globules which he saw in the matrix, and which +contained the fœtuses, ware the same vesicles, +or eggs, which had fallen from the ovariam, +and which, he remarks, were become ten times +smaller than they were in the ovary. This remark +alone, one would imagine, Should have +made him perceive his error. Fifthly, he is +wrong in saying that the glandular bodies are +only the coverings of the fecundated eggs, and +that the number of coverings, or empty follicles, +always answer to the number of fœtuses. +This assertion is entirely contrary to truth: +for on the testicles of all females we find a +greater number of glandular bodies, or cicatrices, +than there are productions of fœtuses, +and they are also found in those which have +never brought forth. To this we may add, +that neither he, Verheyen, nor any other person, +have ever seen these eggs, much less these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +pretended coverings, on which they have, notwithstanding, +established their system.</p> + +<p>Malpighius, who perceived the growth of +the glandular bodies in the female testicles, +was deceived when he thought he had seen +the egg in their cavities, since they contain +only liquor; nor indeed has anything like an +egg ever been discovered.</p> + +<p>Valisnieri, who was not deceived in facts, +has yet drawn false conclusions in asserting +that, although neither himself, nor any anatomist +in whom he could confide, ever found +the egg in the cavity of the glandular body, +yet it must there exist.</p> + +<p>Let us, therefore, examine what may be +fairly called the real discoveries of these naturalists. +Graaf was the first who perceived +there were alterations in the female testicles; +and he had reason to affirm, they were parts +essential and necessary to generation. Malpighius +demonstrated that these alterations +were occasioned by the glandular bodies which +grew to perfect maturity, afterwards they become +flaccid, obliterated, and left only a slight +cicatrice remaining. Valisnieri has placed +this discovery in a very clear light; he has +shewn that these glandular bodies are found +in the testicles of every female; that they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +are augmented considerably in the season of +love, that they increase at the expence of the +lymphatic vesicles of the testicles, and that at +the time of their maturity they were hollow +and filled with liquor. This, then, is all that +can be reduced to truth on the subject of the +pretended ovaries and eggs of viviparous animals. +What must we conclude therefrom? +Two things appear very evident: the one, that +there does not exist any eggs in the female testicles; +the other, that there exists a liquor in +the vesicles of the testicle, and in the cavity of +the glandular bodies. We have demonstrated +by the preceding experiments, that this last +liquor is the true seed of the female, since it +contains, like that of the male, spermatic animals, +or rather organic moving particles.</p> + +<p>We must, therefore, now be assured, that +females have, as well as males, a seminal liquor. +After all that has been advanced, we +cannot doubt but the seminal liquor is the superfluity +of the organic nutriment, which is +sent back from all parts of the body into the +testicles and seminal vesicles of the males, and +into the testicles and glandular bodies of females. +This liquor, which issues by the nipple +of the glandular bodies, continually sprinkles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +the horns of the matrix, and may easily procure +admission either by the suction of the +membrane of these horns, or by the little opening +which is at the upper extremity, and thus +enter into the matrix; but in the supposition +of these pretended eggs, which were ten or +twenty times larger than the opening of the +horns of the matrix, we cannot comprehend +how they could enter therein.</p> + +<p>The liquor emitted by females, when they +are excited, and which, according to de Graaf, +issues from the neck of the matrix, and the +orifice of the urethra, may be a superabundant +portion of the seminal liquor which continually +distills from the glandular bodies on the trunks +of the matrix. But, possibly, this liquor may +be a secretion of another kind, and perfectly +useless in generation. To decide this question +observations with a microscope are requisite; +but <i>all</i> experiments are not permitted even to +philosophers. I can only say, that I am inclined +to believe that the same spermatic animals +would be met with in this liquor as in that +of the glandular bodies. I can quote an Italian +doctor on this subject, who made this observation +with attention, and which is thus related +by Valisnieri: "Aggiugne il lodato fig. Bono +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +d'avergli anco veduti (animali spermatici) in +questa linfa o siero, diro cosi voluttuoso, che +nel tempore dell'amorosa zuffa scappa dalle +femine libidinose, senza che si potesse sospettare +che fossero di que' del maschio, &c." If +this circumstance is true, as I do not doubt, it +is certain, that this liquor is the same as that +found in the glandular bodies, and that, consequently, +it is the true seminal liquor: and although +anatomists have not discovered the +communication between the vacuities of de +Graaf and the testicles, that does not prevent +it being once in the matrix, from issuing out +by the vacuities about the exterior orifice of +the urethra.</p> + +<p>From hence we must conclude that the most +abandoned women will be the least fruitful, +because they emit that liquor which ought to +remain in the matrix for the formation of the +fœtus. Thus we see why common prostitutes +seldom have children, and why women in hot +countries, where they have stronger desires +than in the cold, are much less fertile; but we +shall have occasion to speak of this hereafter.</p> + +<p>It is natural to think that the seminal liquor +of the male or female would not be fertile but +when it contains moving bodies; nevertheless +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +that is still a question, and I should be led to +think, as there are different states of this liquor, +that in which these organic particles are seen in +motion is not absolutely necessary for the purpose +of generation. The Italian physician, +above quoted, never perceived spermatic animals +in his semen till he had attained a middle +age, although he was father of several children +before, and continued to have them afterwards.</p> + +<p>These spermatic bodies, which move, may +be looked upon as the first assemblages of the +organic molecules which proceed from every +part of the body; when a quantity of them +collect they may be perceived with the microscope; +but if they collect only in small quantity +the body which they form will be too minute +to be perceived, and in this case we shall +not be able to distinguish any in the seminal +liquor. A very long continuance of observations +would be necessary to determine what can +be the cause of all the differences remarked in +the states of this liquor.</p> + +<p>I can assert, from having often tried it, that +by infusing the seminal liquors in water closely +corked, at the end of three or four days an infinite +multitude of moving bodies will be found, +although the seminal liquors had no motion on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +being first taken from the body of the animal. +Flesh, blood, chyle, urine, nay all animal or vegetable +substances, contain organic particles, +which move at the end of some days in an infusion +of water; they appear to act and move +nearly in the same manner, and though produced +from different bodies are perfectly similar, +without any of them having a power peculiar +to themselves. If these bodies must absolutely +be termed animals, it must be allowed +they are so imperfect that they ought to be +looked upon as the outlines of them, or rather +as bodies simply composed of particles the +most essential to the existence of an animal; for +natural machines, such as those found in the +roe of a calmar, although they put themselves +in action at certain times, are certainly not +animals, although they are organized, acting, +and, as I may say, living beings.</p> + +<p>If it is once allowed, that the productions of +Nature follow in an uniform order, and advance +by imperceptible degrees and links, we +shall have no difficulty in conceiving there are +organic bodies existing, which belong neither +to animals, vegetables, nor minerals.</p> + +<p>It is certain, however, that all animals and +vegetables contain an infinity of organic living +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +molecules. These molecules successively take +different forms, and different degrees of motion +and activity, according to different circumstances +They are in a much greater number +in the seminal liquor of both sexes, and in the +germs of plants, than in other parts of the animal +or vegetable. There exists, then, a living +substance in animals and vegetables, common +to both, and which substance is necessary to +their nutrition. An animal procures nutriment +from an animal or vegetable substance, +and the vegetable can likewise be nourished +from an animal or vegetable in a decomposed +state. This nutritive substance, common to +both, is always living, always active, and produces +an animal or vegetable, as it finds an +internal mould or an analogous matrix, as we +have explained in the first chapters; but when +this active substance collects in great abundance, +in those parts where it can unite, it forms +in the animal body other living creatures, such +as the tape-worm, ascarides, and worms, which +are sometimes found in the veins, in the sinus +of the brain, in the liver, &c. These kinds of +animals do not owe their existence to the animals +of the same species, and we may, therefore, +suppose, they are produced by this organic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +matter when it is extravasated, or is too +abundant for the lacteal vessels to absorb. +We shall hereafter have occasion to examine +more largely the nature of those worms, and +many other animals which are formed in a similar +manner.</p> + +<p>When this organic matter, which may be +looked on as an universal seed, is collected in +any great quantity, as in the seminal liquors, +and in the mucilaginous parts of the infusion of +plants, its first effect is to vegetate, or rather +to produce vegetating beings. These zoophytes +swell, extend, ramify, and produce +globules, ovals, and other small bodies, of different +figures, which have all a kind of animal +life, a progressive motion, which is often very +swift, and sometimes very slow. These globules +themselves decompose, change their +figures, and become smaller; and in proportion +as they diminish in size the rapidity of +their motion augments.</p> + +<p>I have sometimes thought that the venom of +the viper, and other active poisons, even that +of the bite of a mad dog, might possibly be +this active matter too rarefied; but I have not +as yet had time to make the experiments which +I had projected on this matter, as well as on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +drugs used in medicine; all that I can at present +ascertain is, that all infusions of the most +active drugs swarm with moving bodies, which +form therein in much less time than in other +substances.</p> + +<p>Almost all microscopic animals are of the +same nature as the organized bodies which +move in the seminal liquor, in the infusions of +vegetables and the flesh of animals; the eel-like +bodies in flour, vinegar, and water, in which +lead has been soaked, are beings of the same +nature as the first, and have a like origin.</p> + + +<hr class="chap" /> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">VARIETIES IN THE GENERATION OF ANIMALS.</p> + + +<p>The matter which serves for the nutrition +and reproduction of animals and vegetables +is therefore the same; it is a productive +and universal substance, composed of organic +molecules, and whose union produces organized +bodies. Nature always works on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +same fund, which is inexhaustible, but the +means she employs to stamp its value are different, +and these differences, or general agreements, +deserve attention, because it is from +thence we must derive our reasons to account +for exceptions and particular varieties.</p> + +<p>In general large animals are less productive +than small. The whale, elephant, rhinoceros, +camel, horse, the human species, &c. only produce +one, and very seldom two, at a birth; +whereas small animals, as rats, herrings, insects, +&c. produce a great number at a time. +Does not this difference proceed from there +being more food required to support a large +body than to nourish a small one, and from +hence the former has less superfluous organic +particles, which would convert into semen, +than the latter? It is certain that small animals +eat more in proportion than large ones; +but it is likewise probable that the prodigious +multiplication of the small animals, as bees, +flies, and other insects, may be attributed to +their being endowed with very fine and slender +limbs and organs, by which they are in a condition +to chuse what is most substantial and +organic in the vegetable or animal matters +from whence they derive their nutriment. A +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +bee, who lives on the purest parts of flowers, +certainly receives more organic particles in +proportion than a horse who feeds on the +grosser parts of vegetables, hay, &c. The +horse produces but one at one time, whereas +the bee will bring forth three thousand.</p> + +<p>Oviparous animals are in general smaller +than the viviparous, and produce also more at +a birth. The duration of the fœtus in the matrix +of viviparous animals likewise opposes +their increase, nor can there be any new generation +take place during gestation, or while +they are suckling their young; whereas oviparous +animals produce at the same time both +matrix and fœtuses, which they cast out of +the body, and are therefore almost always in +a state of reproduction; and it is well known +that by preventing a hen from setting, and +largely feeding, the number of her eggs will +be considerably increased. If hens cease to +lay when they sit, it is because they have ceased +to feed; and it is the fear lest their eggs should +not produce which causes them not to quit +their nests but once a day, and that for a very +short time, during which they take a little nutriment, +but not one-tenth part of what they +take at other times.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> + +<p>Animals which produce but a small number +at a time, acquire the chief part of their +growth before they are fit for engendering, +whereas those which multiply numerously +generate before they have received half their +growth. The human species, the horse, the +ass, the goat, and the ram, are not able to engender +until they have obtained nearly the +whole of their growth. It is the same with +pigeons and other birds, who lay but a few +eggs; but those which produce in great numbers, +as poultry, fish, &c. engender much +sooner. A cock is capable of engendering at +the age of three months, when he has not attained +a third part of his growth; a fish, which +at the end of twenty years will weigh thirty +pounds, engenders in the first or second year, +when perhaps it does not weigh half a pound. +But exact observations on the growth and duration +of the life of fish are still wanting: their +age may be nearly known by examining the +annual layers of their scales; but we are not +certain how far that may extend. I have seen +carp in the Comte de Maurepas' canals, at his +castle at Pont Chartrain, which were said to +be 150 years old, and they appeared as brisk +and lively as the common carp. I will not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +say, with Leeuwenhoek, that fish are immortal, +or at least can never die with age; all must perish +in time, that is; all which have a beginning, +a birth, must arrive to an end, or death; +but fish, living in an uniform element, and +being sheltered from the vicissitudes and all +the injuries of the air, must live a longer time +in the same state than other animals, especially +if these vicissitudes of the air be, as a great philosopher +asserts, the principal causes of the +destruction of living beings. But what must +contribute to the long duration of their life is, +that their bones are softer than those of other +animals, and do not harden with age. The +bones of fish lengthen, and grow thick without +taking any more solidity; whereas the bones +of other animals continually increase in hardness +and density, until at length, being absolutely +full, the motion of their fluid ceases, +and death ensues. In their bones the repletion +or obstruction, which is the cause of natural +death, is formed by such slow and insensible +degrees, that fish must require much time to +arrive at what we call old age.</p> + +<p>All quadrupeds covered with hair are viviparous; +all those covered with scales oviparous. +May we not then believe than in oviparous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +quadrupeds, a much less waste is made by +transpiration, than the cloathing of scales retains; +whereas in animals covered with hair +this transpiration is more free and abundant? +and is it not partly by this superabundance of +nutriment, which cannot be carried off by +transpiration, that those animals multiply so +abundantly, and are enabled to go so long +without food? All birds and all insects that fly +are oviparous, excepting some kinds of flies +which bring forth their young alive. These +flies have no wings at their birth, but they +shoot out and grow by degrees, and which they +cannot use before they are of full growth. +Scaly fish are likewise oviparous; as are all +reptiles which have no legs, such as snakes and +different kinds of serpents; they change their +skins, which are composed of small scales. The +viper is only a slight exception to the general +rule, for it is not truly viviparous, as it produces +eggs, from which the young are hatched; +it is certain this is performed in the body +of the mother, who instead of casting those +eggs, like other oviparous animals, she retains +and hatches them in her own body. The salamander, +in which eggs and young ones are +found at the same time, as observed by M. de +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +Maupertuis, is an exception of the same kind +in oviparous quadrupeds.</p> + +<p>Most animals are perpetuated by copulation; +yet many birds seem only strongly to +compress the females; indeed the ostrich, +Crane, and some few others, are so well supplied +as to leave intromission no ways equivocal. +Male fish approach the female in the +spawning time; they seem even to rub their +bellies against each other, for the male often +turns upon its back to meet the belly of the +female; but the necessary part for copulation +does not exist in them; and the male fish approaches +the female only to emit the liquor +in their milts on the eggs, which the female +then deposits; and it seems rather to be attracted +by the eggs than the female; for when +she ceases throwing out the eggs, he instantly +forsakes her, and with eagerness pursues the +eggs, which the stream carries away, or that +the wind disperses. Male fish may be seen to +pass and repass every spot where eggs are deposited +several times. It is certainly not for +the love he bears the female that all these motions +are made, because it is not to be presumed +he always knows her; often being seen to +emit his liquor on all eggs that he comes near, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +and that often before he has met with the female +to which they belonged.</p> + +<p>There are therefore animals, distinguished +by sexes, which have proper parts for copulation, +and some which are deficient in them; +others, as snails, have both, and the two sexes +in the same individual; others, as vine-fretters, +have no sex, and engender in themselves separately; +although they couple together when +they please, we cannot determine whether that +is a conjunction of sexes; if it is so, we must +suppose that Nature has included in this small +individual more faculties for generation than +in any other kind of animal, and that it not +only has the power of reproducing distinctly, +but also the means of multiplying by the communication +of another individual.</p> + +<p>But whatever difference takes place in generation, +Nature, by a new production, prepares +the body for it, and which, whether +manifested outwardly, or concealed internally, +always precedes generation. The ovaries of +oviparous animals, and the testicles of female +viviparous animals, before the season of impregnation, +experience a considerable change. +Oviparous animals produce eggs, which at +first are attached to the ovaries, by degrees +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +they increase in size, until they fall into the +canal of the matrix, where they acquire their +white membranes, and shell. This production +has marks of the fecundity of the female, and +without which generation cannot be performed: +so in viviparous females there are always +one or more glandular bodies on the testicles, +which by degrees grow under the membrane +that surrounds them; these glandular bodies +enlarge and pierce, or rather impel and lift up +the membrane of the testicle; when their maturity +is complete, a small slit or several small +holes appear at their extremities, by which the +seminal liquor escapes, and falls into the matrix: +these glandular bodies are new productions +that precede generation, and without +which there would not be any.</p> + +<p>In males there is also a similar change +which always precedes their capacity for +generating. In oviparous animals a great +quantity of liquor fills a considerable reservoir, +and which reservoir itself is sometimes +formed every year; as in the calmar and +some other fish. The testicles of birds swell +surprisingly just preceding their amorous +season. In viviparous males the testicles +also swell considerably in those who have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +seasons, and in general there is a swelling and +an extension of the genital members in all species, +which, although it be external, must be +regarded as a new production necessarily preceding +generation.</p> + +<p>In the body of every animal, male or female, +new productions are formed which precede generation; +and when there is no real production +there is always a swelling, and considerable extension +in some of the parts. There are species +in which this new production is not only +manifest, but even the whole body seems to be +renewed before generation can be performed; +as is the case with insects whose various metamorphoses +seem to be only for the purpose of +generating; for the growth of the animal is +completed before it is transformed. It ceases +from taking nutriment, has no organs for generation, +no means of converting the nutritive +particles, of which they abound, into eggs or +seminal liquor, and therefore this superfluity +unites and moulds itself at first into a form +something like that of the original. The caterpillar +becomes a butterfly, because, for these +reasons, it is unable to produce small organized +beings like itself; the organic particles, always +active, take another form, by uniting, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +whose figure answers in part, and even in essential +constitution, to that of the caterpillar, +but in which the organs of generation are developed, +and may receive and transmit the organic +particles of the nutriment which forms +the eggs, and the individuals of the species. +The individuals which proceed from the butterfly +ought not to be butterflies, because the +nutriment, from whence the organic particles +proceed, was taken while in the form of caterpillars; +the produce therefore must be similar, +and not butterflies, which is only an occasional +production of the superabundant nutriment; +a method adapted by Nature to accomplish +the purposes of generation in these species, +as by the glandular bodies and milts in other +animals.</p> + +<p>When the superabundant quantity of organic +nutriment is not great, as in man and most +large animals, generation is not made till the +growth of the animal is nearly complete, and +then it is confined to the production of a small +number of individuals. When these particles +are more abundant, as in many kinds of birds, +and in oviparous fishes, generation is completed +before the animal has received its full +growth, and their production of individuals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +is very numerous. When the quantity of particles +is still greater, as in insects, it first forms +a large organic body, which, though retaining +the essential constitution of its original, +differs in many parts, as the butterfly from +the caterpillar, but shortly produces an astonishing +number of young, similar in form to +the animal which selected the nutriment. +When the superabundance is greater still, and +when at the same time the animal has the necessary +organs for generation, as the vine-fretter, +it immediately produces a generation +in every individual, and afterwards a transformation, +like other insects. The vine-fretter +becomes a fly, but cannot produce any thing, +because it is only the remainder of the organized +particles which had not been made use of +in the production of the young.</p> + +<p>Almost every animal except man has stated +times for generation. Spring is marked out +for birds. Carp, and many kinds of fish, spawn +in June and August. Barbel, and other kinds, +in spring. Cats have three seasons, in January, +May, and September. Roebucks, in +December. Wolves and Foxes, in January. +Horses, in summer. Stags, in September and +October; and almost all insects generate in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +autumn: these last seem to be totally exhausted +by generation, and die a short time after. +Other animals, though not exhausted, become +extremely lean and very weak, and require a +considerable time to repair the loss which is +made of the organic substance. Others are +exhausted still less, and are soon restored to +an engendering state; while man is scarcely in +the least affected; his loss is speedily repaired, +and therefore may be said to be at all times +in a state for propagation; all which depends +solely on the particular construction of the +animal organs. The grand limits Nature has +placed in the mode of existence are equally +conspicuous in the manner of receiving and +digesting the food, in the manner of retaining +it in, or excluding it from, the body, and in the +means by which the organic molecules, necessary +for reproduction, are extracted. In a +word, we shall find throughout all nature, that +all what can be, is.</p> + +<p>The same difference exists in the time of +female gestation; some, as mares, carry their +young eleven or twelve months; others, as +women, cows, &c. nine months; others, as +foxes, wolves, &c. five months; bitches, nine +weeks; cats, six weeks; rabbits, thirty-one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +days. Most birds come out of the egg at the +end of twenty-one days; though some, as canary +birds, hatch in thirteen or fourteen days. +The variety is as great here as in every thing +else relative to animals. The largest animals +which produce only few, are those which go +the longest with young; this still more confirms +what we have already said, that the quantity +of organic food is in proportion less in +large than in small animals; for it is from the +superfluity of the mother's food that the fœtus +derives what is necessary to the growth and +expansion of its parts, and since this expansion +demands much more time in large than in +small animals, it is a proof that the quantity of +matter which contributes is not so abundant +in the first as in the last.</p> + +<p>There is, therefore, an infinite variety in animals, +with respect to the time and manner of +gestation, engendering, and bringing forth; +and this variety is found even in the causes of +generation; for although the general principle +of production is this organic matter common +to all that lives or vegetates, the manner in +which the union is made, must have infinite +combinations, which must all proceed from +the source of new productions. My experiments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +clearly demonstrate, that there are no +pre-existing germs, and at the same time prove +that the generation of animals and vegetables +is not equivocal; there are, perhaps, as many +beings, either living or vegetating, which are +produced by the fortuitous assemblage of organic +molecules, as by a constant and successive +generation. It is to those productions we should +apply the axiom of the ancients, "Corruptio +unius, generatio alterius." The corruption and +composition of animals and vegetables produce +an infinite number of organized bodies; +some, as those of the calmar, form only kinds +of machines, which, although very simple, are +exceedingly active; others, as the spermatic +animalcules, seem by their motion, to imitate +animals; others imitate vegetables by their +manner of growing or extending; there are +others, as those of blighted corn, which may be +made to live and die alternately, and as often +as we please; there are still others, even in +great quantities, which are at first kinds of vegetables, +afterwards become species of animals, +then return again to vegetables, and so +on alternately. There is a great appearance, +that the more we shall observe this race of organized +beings, the more we shall discover +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +varieties, always so much the more singular as +they are the more remote from our sight, and +from the varieties of other animals that have +already become known to us.</p> + +<p>For example, spurred barley, which is produced +by an alteration or decomposition of the +organic substance of the grain, is composed of +an infinity of little organized bodies, like to eels. +By infusing the grain for ten or twelve hours in +water, we find them to have a remarkable +twirling, and a slight progressive motion; when +almost dry, they cease to move, but by adding +fresh water their motion returns. The same +effects may be produced for months, or even +years; insomuch that we can make these little +machines act as often and as long as we please +without destroying them, or their losing any +of their power or activity. Their threads +will sometimes open, like the filaments of semen, +and produce moving globules; we may +therefore suppose them to be of the same nature, +only more fixed and solid.</p> + +<p>Eels, in paste made with flour, have no +other origin than the union of the organic +particles of the most essential parts of the +grain: the first which appear are certainly +not produced by many others; yet, although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +they have not been engendered, they engender +others. By cutting them with the point of a +lancet, we may perceive small eels come from +their bodies in great numbers; the body of the +animal appears to be only a sheath or bag +which contains a multitude of other little +animals, which perhaps are themselves only +sheaths of the same kind, in which the organic +matter assimilates, and takes the form +of eels.</p> + +<p>There requires a great number of observations +to be made to establish classes and races +between such singular beings, which are at present +so little known; there are some which +may be regarded as real zoophytes, which vegetate, +and at the same time appear to twirl +and move like animals. There are some +that at first appear to be animals, which afterwards +join and form kinds of vegetables. +A little attention to the decomposition of a +grain of wheat infused in water will elucidate +all I have asserted. I could add more +examples, but I have related these only to +point out the varieties there are in generation. +There are certainly organized beings which +we regard as animals, but which are not engendered +by others of the same kind; there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +are some which are only a kind of machines, +whose action is limited to a certain effect, and +which can act but once in such a certain time, +as those in the calmar; and there are others, as +we have just remarked, which we can cause to +act as long and as often as we please. There +are vegetating beings which produce animated +bodies, as the filaments of the human seed, +from whence the active globules spring, and +which move by their own powers. In the corruption, +fermentation, or rather the decomposition +of animal and vegetable substances, there +are organized bodies which are real animals, +and can propagate their like, although they +have not been so produced. The limits of +these varieties are perhaps still greater than +we can imagine. We may extend our ideas, +and exert every effort to reduce the effects of +Nature to certain points, and class her productions +to certain classes, yet an infinite number +of links will always escape us.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">OF THE FORMATION OF THE FŒTUS.</p> + + +<p>It appears to be clearly ascertained by the +experiments of Verheyen, who in one of +them found the seed of a bull in the matrix of +a cow; and by those of Ruysch, Fallopius, +Leeuwenhoek, and many others, who perceived +the male semen in the uterus of women, and +numberless other animals, that the seminal liquor +of the male enters by some means into the +matrix of the female. It is probable, that in +the time of copulation the orifice of the matrix +opens to receive the seminal liquor, but if that +is not the case, the active and prolific substance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +of this liquor, may penetrate the membranes +of the matrix; for the seminal liquor +being, as we have proved, almost all composed +of organic molecules, which are in great +motion, and extremely minute, they may pass +across the coat of the closest membranes, and +penetrate those of the matrix with the greatest +facility.</p> + +<p>What proves that the active part of this liquor +may not only pass through the pores of +the matrix, but even penetrate its substance, +is the sudden change that immediately takes +place after conception. The menses are suppressed, +the matrix becomes softer, swells, and +appears inflamed. All these alterations can +only happen by the action of an external cause; +by the penetration of some part of the seminal +liquor into the substance even of the matrix. +This penetration not only operates on the external +surface of the matrix, but on all the +other parts of which this viscera is composed, +like that penetration by which nutrition and +expansion is produced.</p> + +<p>We shall be easily persuaded that it is so, +when we consider that the matrix, during the +time of gestation, not only augments in bulk +but also in quantity of matter, and that it has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +a kind of life or vegetation, which is continually +increasing till the time of delivery; for if +the matrix was only a pouch, a destined receptacle +to receive the seed and contain the fœtus, +it would extend and grow thin in proportion +as the fœtus increased in size; but in reality +the matrix not only extends in proportion +as the fœtus grows larger, but receives at the +same time a thickness and solidity. This +augmentation is a real growth, like the expansion +of the body in young animals, which can +only be produced by the intimate penetration +of the organic molecules analogous to the substance +of the parts: and as this expansion of +the matrix never happens but after impregnation, +we cannot doubt its being produced by +the liquor of the male, especially as the expansion +takes place before the fœtus has sufficient +bulk to dilate it.</p> + +<p>It seems certain, by my experiments, that +the female has a seminal liquor which commences +to be formed in the testicles, and is +completed in the glandular bodies: this liquor +distills through the small holes, at the extremities +of these bodies; and may, like that of +the male, enter into the matrix in two different +manners, either by these holes at the extremities, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +or through the membraneous coat of the +matrix.</p> + +<p>These seminal liquors are both extracts from +all parts of the body, and in the mixture of +them there is every thing necessary to form a +certain number of males and females; and the +more the animal abounds with this liquor, and +the more that abounds with organic molecules, +the greater is their number of young; as we +have already remarked is the case with the +small animals, and diminishes in the large.</p> + +<p>But to pursue our subject with greater attention, +we shall first examine the particular +formation of the human fœtus, and afterwards +return to the other animals. In the human species, +as well as in large animals, the seminal +liquors of the male and female do not contain +a great abundance of organic molecules, and +therefore seldom produce more than one at a +time: the fœtus is a male, if the number of +the organic molecules of the male predominates +in the mixture, and a female if the contrary; +and it resembles the father or the mother +as they happen to abound in the mixture +of the two liquors.</p> + +<p>I conceive, therefore, that the seminal liquor +of both are two matters equally active +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +and necessary for generation; and this I think +is sufficiently proved by my experiments, since +I have seen the same moving bodies in the one +as the other. I perceived that the liquor of the +male enters into the matrix, where it meets +with that of the female: that they have a perfect +analogy, and are both not only composed +of similar parts by their form, but also in their +motions and actions; as we have remarked in +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45602/45602-h/45602-h.htm#Page_311"><span class="smcap">Chap. VI.</span></a></p> + +<p>By the mixture of these two liquors I conceive +the activity of the organic molecules of +each is stopped, and that the actions of one +counterbalance that of the other, insomuch that +each particle ceasing to move, remains in the +place most analogous to itself, and that they +will naturally take the same position, and will +dispose themselves in the same order they held +in the animal body; those that came from the +head will arrange themselves in the head of the +fœtus, those of the back the same, and so of +every other part; consequently they will form +a small organized being, in every thing like the +animal from which they are extracted.</p> + +<p>It must be observed that this mixture of organic +molecules of the two sexes contains similar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +and different particles; the similar ones +are those which have been extracted from every +part common to both sexes. The different +particles are those which have been extracted +from the parts whereby the sexes are distinguished; +thus there is, in this mixture, double +the number of organic molecules to form the +head, or the heart, or such other parts common +to both, whereas there are only what are requisite +to form the parts of the sex. Now the similar +particles may act upon each other without +being disordered, and collect together as if +they had been extracted from the same body; +but the dissimilar parts cannot act on each other, +nor unite together, because they have not any +relation; hence these particles will preserve +their nature without mixture, and will fix of +themselves the first, without the need of being +penetrated by the others. Thus the molecules +proceeding from the sexual parts will be the +first fixed, and all the rest which are common +to both, will afterwards fix indiscriminately, +whether they are those of the male or female, +and form an organized being which, in its +sexual parts, will perfectly resemble its father, +if it is a male, and its mother if a female; but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +which may resemble one another, or both, in +all the other parts of the body.</p> + +<p>It seems to me that if this was well understood, +we shall in a great measure be enabled +to answer the objections made to the sentiments +pf Aristotle, and which might also be +advanced against this system. The question +is, Why each individual, male and female, +does not produce of itself an animal of its own +sex? It must be acknowledged this question +seems to carry weight with it; but having reflected +a long time on this subject I think I +have found an answer, and which I shall endeavour +to explain.</p> + +<p>It is certainly evident, from what we have +said in the preceding chapters, and the experiments +we have described, that reproduction is +effected by the union of organic molecules returned +from each part of the body of the animal, +or vegetable, into one or many common reservoirs; +and that they are the same molecules +which serve for nutriment and expansion of the +body. This appears to me to have been so +clearly proved, that I apprehend no scruple can +remain as to the foundation of the theory; but +I admit there may be some reason to ask, Why +each animal and vegetable does not produce its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +own likeness, since each individual returns +from every part of its body, and collects in a +common reservoir, all the organic molecules +necessary for the formation of a small organized +being? Why then is not this organized +being formed? and why, in almost every animal, +is a mixture of the liquors of the two sexes +required to produce an animal? If I content +myself with answering, that in almost all vegetables, +and all kinds of animals which multiply +by cutting, that it appears the design of +Nature that each individual should increase its +own species, and that we must regard as an exception +to this rule, the use which is made of +the sexes in other kind of animals; it may be +said, that the exception is more universal than +the rule itself. This difficulty will be very little +weakened, if we were to say, that each individual +perhaps would produce its like, if it had +proper organs, and contained the necessary +matter towards the nutriment of the embryo; +because females have both this matter, and organs, +and yet do not produce either male or +female fœtus without the intervention of the +male; which intervention of sexes in all animals +is essential and absolutely necessary.</p> + +<p>Although the testicles and seminal vesicles of +a man, contain all the necessary molecules to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +form a male, yet the local establishment and +arrangement of these molecules cannot be made, +because the effect of an union is prevented by +the continual circulation of the seed both by +absorption, and the action of the new organic +molecules which constantly come into this reservoir +from all parts of the body. The same +circumstances taking place with the organic +molecules of the female, is an evident reason +why neither can produce of themselves, because +when the seminal liquors of the male and female +are mixed, they have more analogy to each +other, than with the parts of the body of the +female where the mixture is performed. By +admitting of this explication, it may be asked, +Why the common mode of generation in animals +does not agree with it; for, upon that +supposition, each individual would produce +like snails, and impregnate each other, and each +individual receiving the organic molecules the +other furnished, the union would be made of +itself, and by the sole power of the affinity of +these molecules among themselves? I own, if +it was by this cause alone the organic molecules +could unite it would be natural to conclude, +that the shortest mode to perform the reproduction +of animals, would be to give to one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +individual both sexes. But it is quite contrary +to the general rule pursued by Nature, as this +manner of generation is confined to snails, and +a small number of other animals. This answer +cannot be said to fully satisfy the question, as +it merely supposes the male does not produce, +as it cannot receive any thing from the female, +and that having besides no proper viscera to +contain and nourish the fœtus.</p> + +<p>We may also suppose that the activity of +the organic molecules, in the semen of one individual, +has need of being counterbalanced by +the activity or force of those of another individual, +in order to fix and bring them into a kind +of equilibrium, a state of rest highly necessary +to the formation of the animal; and that this +activity in the organic molecules can only be +counterbalanced by there being a contrary action +in those which come from the male, and +those proceeding from the female; so that, in +this sense, all living or vegetating beings +must have two sexes, conjointly and separately, +to produce their resemblances. But this +answer is too general to be entirely clear; nevertheless, +if we pay attention to all the phenomena, +we shall find some explanation resulting +therefrom. The mixture of those two liquors +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +produces not only a male or female fœtus, but +also other organized bodies, which have a kind +of growth or expansion. The placenta, membranes, +&c. are produced at the same time as +the fœtus. There are, therefore, in the seminal +liquor of the male or female, or in the mixture +of both, not only organic molecules necessary +for the production of the fœtus, but also those +which form the placenta and membranes. We +know not from whence these molecules come, +since there is no part of the body, either of the +male or female, from which they could be sent +back. From hence it seems it must be admitted, +that the molecules of the seminal liquors of +each, being alike active, form organized bodies +every time they can fix, by acting mutually one +on the other: that the particles employed to +form a male, will be those of the masculine sex, +which will fix the first, and form the sexual +parts; and that those common to both sexes +will then fix indifferently to form the rest of +the body, and that the placenta and membranes +are then formed from the superabundant particles, +which have not been used to form the +fœtus; if, as we suppose, the fœtus is a male, +then there remains to form the placenta, and +membranes, all the organic particles peculiar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +to the feminine sex which have not been employed; +and also all those of both which +shall not have entered the composition of the +fœtus, and which cannot be less than one half. +So likewise, if the fœtus is a female, the same +abundance will be left for the formation of the +placenta, and membranes, and the whole effects +be the same, excepting it will have the +superfluity of the male, instead of that of the +female.</p> + +<p>But, it may be said, that in that case the +placenta and membranes ought to become +another fœtus, which would be a female, if the +first was a male; and a male if the first was a +female; for the first having consumed the organic +molecules of the sexual parts of only one +individual, and half those common to both, +there remains all the molecules of the sexual +parts of the other individual, and the other half +of those common to both. To this I answer, +that the first union of the organic molecules +prevents a second, at least, under a similar +form; that the fœtus, being the first formed, +exercises an external power, which disorders the +arrangement of the other organic molecules, +prevents the formation of a second fœtus, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +throws them into a state from which the form +of the placenta and membranes result.</p> + +<p>We are assured by the experiments and observations +we have made, that every living +being contains a great quantity of living and +active molecules. The life of the animal or vegetable +appears to be only the result of all the +young lives (if that expression is permitted +me) of each of these active molecules, whose life +is primitive, and appears impossible to be destroyed. +We have found these living molecules +in every living or vegetating being, and +are assured, that they are alike necessary for +nutrition, and consequently, for the reproduction +of animals or vegetables. It is not, then, +difficult to conceive, that a certain number of +those molecules united should compose a living +being. Each of these particles possessing animation, +an assemblage of them must be endowed +with life, and thus these living organic +molecules, being common to all living beings, +they necessarily form any particular animal or +vegetable, according as they are arranged. +Now, this arrangement absolutely depends +on the form of the individuals which furnish +those molecules. If they are furnished by an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +animal, they will arrange under the form of +an individual like to it, exactly as they were +arranged when they served for the expansion +of the animal itself; but must we not then +suppose that this arrangement cannot be made +either in animals or vegetables, but by the +means of a kind of base, round which the +molecules might unite to form the fœtus? +Now, it is plain, this basis is furnished by particles +peculiar to the different sexes, as I shall +explain.</p> + +<p>While the molecules of either sex remain +by themselves, their action produces no effect, +because they are without any opposition from +any different kind of particles; but, when these +molecules are mixed, then there are dissimilar +parts, and those serve for the base and point +of rest to the other molecules, and fix their +activity.</p> + +<p>In this supposition that the organic molecules, +which, in the mixture of the seminal +liquors of the two individuals, represent the +sexual parts of the male, can alone serve for a +base to the organic molecules proceeding from +every part of the female, and those peculiar +to the female sex as a base to them which are +extracted from the male, we might conclude, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +that the sexual part of the male infant is formed +of the organic molecules of the father, and +from those of the mother, for the rest of the +body: and that, on the contrary, the female +partakes of its mother only in sex, and takes +the rest of its body from its father. Boys, +therefore, ought, excepting the parts of the +sex, to have a greater resemblance to their +mother than to their father, and girls more +to the father than to the mother; but this +consequence is not, perhaps, conformable to +experience.</p> + +<p>By considering, under this point of view, +generation by sexes, we should conclude it to +be the most general mode of reproduction, as +it is in fact. Beings, whose organization is +the most complete, as animals, whose bodies +compose a whole, which can neither be separated +nor divided, and whose powers are con-centered +to one single point, can only reproduce +by this mode; because they contain only +particles which resemble each other, and whose +union can only be made by different particles, +furnished by another individual. Those +where organization is less perfect, as that of +vegetables, whose bodies may be divided and +separated without being destroyed, can be reproduced +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +by other modes. First, because they +contain dissimilar particles; secondly, because +their forms not being so determinate and fixed +as that of animals, the particles may supply +the functions of each other, and change according +to circumstances; as we see roots become +branches, and shoot out leaves when +exposed to the air, which causes that the vegetable +particles obtain a local establishment, +become fixed, and are enabled to multiply, by +various modes.</p> + +<p>It will be the same with animals, whose organization +is less perfect, as the fresh water polypus, +and others, which can reproduce by division +of their parts. These organized beings +are not so much a single animal, as a number +united under one common covering, as trees +are composed of a multiplicity of young trees, +(see Chap, <span class="smcap">II.</span>) Pucerons, which engender +singly, also contain dissimilar particles, since, +after producing their young they change into +flies which do not produce at all. Snails communicate +mutually these dissimilar particles, +and afterwards they both produce. Thus, in +all known matters of generation, we see that +the requisite union of organic particles, can +only be made by the mixture of different particles, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +which serve as a basis capable of fixing +their motions.</p> + +<p>If to the idea of the word <i>sex</i>, we give all the +extent here supposed, we shall say, that sexes +are found throughout all nature; for then sex +will mean only the parts which furnish the +organic particles, different from the common +particles, and which must serve as a fixed point +for their union. But, enough of reasoning on +a question that can be at once resolved, by saying, +that God having created sexes, it necessarily +follows that animals should reproduce by +their connection. In fact, we are not made, +as I have formerly said, to give a reason for +every <i>why</i>. We are not in a state of explaining +<i>why</i> Nature, almost throughout her works, +makes use of sexes for the reproduction of +animals, or why sexes exist; we ought, therefore, +to content ourselves with reasoning on +what is, on things as they are, since we cannot +go beyond, by forming suppositions which +will remove us from the sphere we ought to +contain ourselves in, and to which the small +extent of our knowledge is limited.</p> + +<p>Quitting, therefore, all doubtful conjectures, +I shall rest on facts and observations. I find, +that the reproduction of beings is formed in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +many different manners; but, at the same +time, I clearly perceive, that it is by the union +of the organic particles sent back from every +part of the individual, that the reproduction +of vegetables and animals are effected. I am +certain of the existence of these organic and +active molecules in the seminal liquors of male +and female animals and seed of vegetables; +and cannot doubt but every species of reproduction +is accomplished by the union of these +organic molecules. Nor can I doubt, that in +the generation of animals, and particularly in +that of man, that the male and female particles +mix in the formation of the fœtus, since we see +infants which resemble both father and mother; +and what confirms this conclusion is, that +those parts, common to both sexes, mix promiscuously; +whereas those never mix which +represent the sexual parts. For we every day +see children with eyes like the father, and the +forehead and mouth like the mother; but we +never find a like mixture of the sexual parts; +it never happens that they have the testicles +of the father, and the vagina of the mother, +for even the fact of hermaphrodites is very +doubtful.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the parts of generation of the two sexes +in the human species, there is so much resemblance, +and so singular a conformity, that we +might be inclined to think those which appear +so different externally, are at bottom the same +organs, only more or less developed; this was +the opinion of the ancients, and M. Daubenton's +ideas on this subject appear to me very +ingenious.</p> + +<p>The formation of the fœtus is, then, made +by the union of the organic particles contained +in the mixture of the seminal liquor of both +sexes; this union produces the local establishment +of the particles, which determines them +to arrange themselves as they were in the individuals +which furnished them; insomuch, that +the molecules, which proceed from the head, +cannot, by virtue of these laws, place themselves +in the legs, or any other part of the +fœtus. All these molecules must be in motion +when they unite, and in a motion which must +cause them to tend to a kind of centre, about +which the union is made. This centre, or +fixed point, which is necessary to the union +of the molecules, and which, by its re-action +and inertia, fixes the activity, and destroys +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +the motion, is, probably, the first assemblage +of the molecules which proceed from the sexual +parts of the other individual; they must arrange +under the form of an organized body +which will not be another fœtus, for the reasons +we have before given.<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[AC]</a></p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">[AC]</span></a> In this, as in some other places, our author has gone +into a diffuse repetition which we have considered unnecessary +and therefore avoid.</p></div> + +<p>On the whole, I conceive there are organic +particles of the sexual parts, which serve as a +fixed point, or a centre of union, around which +all the other parts that form the embryo collect. +I speak of it only as probable; but as they are +the only particles which differ, I have thought +it more natural to imagine, that it is around +these different particles the union is formed +than those which are common to both sexes.</p> + +<p>We have before observed, that those who +have imagined the heart was the first formed, +are deceived: those who say it is the blood, are +no less so. All is formed at the same time. If +we only consult observation, the chicken is seen +in the egg before it has been sat upon; we perceive +the spine of the back and the head, and, +at the same time, the appendages which form +the placenta. I have opened a great number of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +eggs, before and after incubation; and I am +convinced, by my sight, that the chicken exists +entirely in the middle of the cicatrice, the moment +it comes from the body of the hen. The +heat, communicated to it by incubation, only +expands the parts by setting the liquors in motion; +but it is not possible to determine which +parts of the fœtus are fixed in the instant of +formation.</p> + +<p>I have always said, that the organic molecules +were fixed, and that their uniting was +caused only by their loss of motion. This appears +to me certain: for, if we separately examine +the seminal liquor of the male and female, +we shall see an infinity of small bodies in great +motion, but being mixed, their motion is instantly +suspended, and heat is necessary to renew +their activity; for the chicken which exists +in the centre of the cicatrice is without any +motion before incubation; and even twenty-four +hours after, when it begins to become perceptible +with a microscope, there is not the least +appearance of motion then, nor even the day +following. During the first day it is only a +small white mucilaginous mass, which is of a +consistence on the second, and insensibly increases, +but whose motion is very slow, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +does not at all resemble that of the organic particles +which move rapidly in the seminal liquor. +Besides, I have reason to say, that this motion +of the organic molecules is absolutely destroyed; +for if we keep an egg without exposing it +to a degree of heat necessary to expand the +chicken, the embryo, although formed entirely, +will remain without any motion; and the organic +molecules of which it is composed, will +remain fixed without being able to give motion +and life to the embryo which has been formed +by their union. Thus, after the motion of the +organic molecules has been destroyed, after the +union of these molecules, necessary to form an +animal body, there is still an external agent +required to animate and give it life and motion; +and this agent is heat, which, by rarefying the +liquors, obliges them to circulate and put also +every organ in action, which afterwards do no +more than develope and grow, provided that +this external heat continues to assist them in +their functions.</p> + +<p>Before the action of this external heat, not +the least appearance of blood is to be seen; and +it is not till twenty-four hours after, that I have +perceived any change in the colour of the vessels. +The blood first appears in the placenta, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +which communicates with the body of the chicken: +but this blood seems to lose its colour as it approaches +the body of the animal; for the chicken +is entirely white, and we with difficulty discover +in the first, second, and third days after incubation, +a few small sanguinary points which +are close to the body of the animal, but which +seem not to make part of it, although it is these +sanguinary points which afterwards form the +heart. Thus, the formation of the blood is a +change occasioned in the liquors by the motion +heat communicates to them, and this +blood is formed even out of the body of the +animal, the whole substance of which is then +only a kind of mucilage, or thick jelly.</p> + +<p>The fœtus, as well as the placenta, derives +the necessary nutriment for expansion, by a +kind of absorption, and they assimilate the organic +parts of the liquor in which they float: +for the placenta cannot be said to nourish the +animal, no more than the animal nourishes the +placenta; since, if the one nourished the other, +the first would soon appear to diminish, while +the other increased, whereas both increase together, +I have indeed observed in eggs, that +the placenta at first increases much more in +proportion than the fœtus, and therefore it may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +nourish the animal, or rather convey the nutriment +to it, by intussusception.</p> + +<p>What we have just said concerning the +chicken, is easily applied to the human fœtus, +which is formed by the union of the organic +molecules of the two sexes. The membranes, +and placenta, are formed from the superabundance +of the particles which have entered into +the composition of the embryo: which is then +inclosed in a double membrane, where there is +also a quantity of liquor, which is, perhaps, at +first, but a portion of the semen of the father +and the mother; and as the fœtus does not quit +the matrix, it enjoys, from the instant even of +its formation, an external heat necessary for its +expansion; this heat communicates a motion +to liquors, and sets the organs in play, and +blood is formed in the placenta, and in the +body of the embryo, by the motion occasioned +by this heat. It may be even said, that the +formation of the blood of the infant is as independent +of the mother, as that which passes +into the egg, is of the hen which hatches it, +or of the oven which heats it.</p> + +<p>It is certain, that the fœtus, placenta, and +membranes, grow by intussusception: for, in +the earliest days of conception, the pouch, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +contains the whole product of generation, is +not adherent to the matrix. De Graaf, in his +experiments on doe rabbits, made these globules, +wherein the whole business of generation +lies, move about in the matrix. Thus, in the +first stages, they increase and grow by drawing +nutriment from the liquors which bathe the +matrix, to which they are afterwards attached +by a mucilage, in which small vessels are formed +with time, as we shall hereafter explain.</p> + +<p>But, not to quit the subject, let us return to +the immediate formation of the fœtus, on which +there are many remarks to be made, both as to +its situation, and the different circumstances +which may prevent or stop its formation.</p> + +<p>In the human species, the seed of the male +enters into the matrix, the cavity of which is +considerable; and when it meets with a sufficient +quantity of female semen, a mixture of the +organic particles succeed, and the formation of +the fœtus ensues: the whole, perhaps, is done +instantaneously, especially if the liquors are +both in an active and flourishing state. The +place where the fœtus is formed, is the cavity +of the matrix, because the seed of the male can +enter there more easily than into the trunks; +and as this viscera has but one small orifice, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +which is always shut, excepting when the ardour +of love causes it to open, the materials of +generation remain there with safety, and scarcely +ever reissue but by rare and unfrequent circumstances: +but as the liquor of the male +sprinkles the vagina, before it penetrates the +matrix, by the activity of the organic molecules +which compose it, it may go farther into the +trunks, and, perhaps, into the ovarium. As +the liquor of the female has already its perfection +in the glandular bodies of the testicles, +from which it flows and moistens the trunks +and other parts before it descends into the matrix, +and as it may issue out of the vacuities left +around the neck of the matrix, it is not impossible, +that the mixture of the two liquors may +be made in all these different places. It is, +therefore, probable that fœtuses are often formed +in the vagina, but which fall out as soon as +they are formed, because there is nothing to +retain them. It may also sometimes happen, +that fœtuses are formed in the trunks; but this +case is very rare, and cannot happen but when +the seminal liquor of the male enters the matrix +in great plenty.</p> + +<p>The collection of anatomical observations +makes mention of fœtuses not only being found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +in the trunks, but also in the testicles. In the +History of the Old Academy of Sciences, (vol. +II. page 91.) we meet with an observation on +this subject. M. Theroude, a surgeon at Paris, +shewed the academy an unformed mass, which +he found in the right testicle of a girl of eighteen +years of age. In it were two open slits, furnished +with hair like two eye-lids, above which +was a kind of forehead, with a black line instead +of eyebrows; immediately over that were +many hairs matted together in two separate +lines, one of which was seven, and the other +three inches long; under the great angle of the +eye, two of the grinding teeth appeared to shoot, +hard, thick, and white; they had their prongs, +and a third tooth thicker than the rest above +them. There appeared likewise other teeth at +different distances from each other: two between +these, of the canine nature, issued from +an opening where the ear is placed. In the same +volume, page 144, it is related, that M. Mery +found, in the testicle of a woman who had conceived, +a bone of the upper jaw, with many +teeth therein, so perfect that some appeared to +be of more than ten years growth. We find, in +the <i>Journal de Medicine</i>, for January 1683, +published by the Abbé de la Roque, the history +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +of a lady who died with the ninth child, +which was formed in or near one of the testicles, +which is not very clearly explained. The fœtus +was about an inch in size, completely formed, +and the sex easily to be distinguished. We also +find, in the Philosophical Transactions, some +observations on the testicles of women, wherein +teeth, hair, and bones, have been found. If all +these circumstances are true, we must suppose, +that the seminal liquor of the male sometimes +ascends, although very seldom, to the testicles +of the female. Yet, notwithstanding all this, I +have some difficulty to believe it; first, because +the circumstances, which appear to prove it, +are extremely rare: secondly, because a perfect +fœtus has never been seen in the testicles but +by M. Littre, who seems to relate it in a very +suspicious manner: thirdly, because it is not +impossible, that the seminal liquor of the female +alone may produce organized masses, as moles, +hair, bones, flesh, and, in short, because if we +give credit to anatomists, fœtuses may be +formed in the testicles of men, as well as in +those of women: for we find, in the History of +the Royal Academy, vol. <span class="smcap">II.</span> p. 298, an observation +of a surgeon, who says, he discovered +in the scrotum of a man, the figure of a child +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +inclosed in his membranes: and that the head, +feet, eyes, bones, and cartilages, were distinguishable. +If all these observations were equally +true, we must necessarily adopt one of these +two hypotheses, either that the seminal liquor, +of each sex, cannot produce any thing without +being mixed with that of the other sex, or that +either of them can produce irregular masses of +itself. By keeping to the first, we should be +obliged to admit, to explain in all the circumstances +we have related, that the liquor of the +male sometimes ascends to the testicle, and, by +mixing with the seminal liquor of the female, +forms organized bodies; and so may also the +female fluid, by being plentiful in the vagina, +penetrate, during the time of copulation, into +the scrotum of the male, nearly as the venereal +virus often reaches that part; and that in this +case, an organized body may be found in the +scrotum, by the mixture of the male and female +fluids; or, if we admit the other hypothesis, +which appears to be the most probable, +and suppose, that the seminal liquor of each +individual may produce organized masses, +then we may be able to say, that all these bony, +fleshy, and hairy productions, sometimes +found in the testicles of females, and in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +scrotum of males, may derive their origin from +the liquor of the individual in which they are +found. But enough of observations upon facts, +which appear to be as uncertain as inexplicable, +for I am much inclined to believe, that, in +certain circumstances, the seminal liquor of +each individual may produce something alone +and of itself, and that young girls might form +moles without any communication with the +male, as hens form eggs without having received +the cock. I might support this opinion +with observations which appear to me as credible +as those I have quoted. M. de la Saone, +physician and anatomist of the Academy of +Sciences, published a memoir on this subject, +in which he asserts, that religious nuns, though +strictly cloistered, had formed moles. Why +should that be impossible, since hens form +eggs without communication with the cock? +and in the cicatrice of these eggs we perceive a +mole, with appendages, instead of a chicken? +The analogy appears to me to have sufficient +power for us, at least to doubt, or suspend our +determination. Be this as it will, it is certain +that the mixture of the two liquors are required +to form a fœtus , and that this mixture +cannot come to any effect but when it is in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +matrix, where the anatomists have sometimes +found fœtuses; and it is natural to imagine, +that those which have been found out of the +matrix, and in the cavity of the abdomen, +have escaped by the extremity of the trunks, +or by some accidental opening, and that they +never fall from the testicles into the abdomen, +because it is almost an impossibility that the +seminal liquor of the male can ascend so high. +Leeuwenhoek has computed the motion of +these pretended spermatic animals to be four +or five inches in forty minutes, which would +be more than sufficient for the animalcules +to traverse from the vagina into the matrix, +from the matrix into the trunks, and from +the trunks into the testicles, in an hour or +two, provided all the liquor had that motion. +But how is this to be conceived, that the organic +molecules, whose motion ceases as soon +as the liquid fails, can arrive as far as the testicles, +unless brought there by the liquor in +which they swim? This progressive motion +cannot be given by the organic molecules to +the liquor which it contains, therefore, whatever +activity these molecules may be supposed +to have, we cannot see how they can arrive at +the testicles, and form a fœtus there, unless the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +liquor itself was pumped up and attracted thither, +a supposition not only gratuitous but +even against all human probability.</p> + +<p>The doubts which this supposition gives rise +to, confirm the opinion that the male fluid penetrates +the matrix, and enters therein by the +orifice, or across the membraneous coat of the +viscera. The female fluid may also enter +into the matrix, either by the opening at the +upper extremity of the trunks, or across the +skin even of the trunks and matrix. M. de +Weirbrech, an able anatomist of Petersburg, +confirms this opinion:——"Res omni attentione +dignissima (says he) oblata mihi est in +utero feminę alicujus a me dissectę; erat +uterus ea magnitudine qua esse solet in virginibus, +tubęque ambę apertę quidem ad ingressum +uteri, ita ut ex hoc in illas cum specillo +facile possem transire ac flatum injicere, +sed in turbarum extremo nulla dabatur apertura, +nullus aditus; fimbriarum enim ne vestigium +quidem aderat, sed loco illarum bulbus +aliquis pyriformis materia subalbida fluida +turgens, in cujus medio fibra plana nervea, +cicatriculę ęmula, apparebat, quę sub ligamentuli +specie usque ad ovarii involucra +protendebatur.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p> + +<p>"Dices, eadem a Regnero de Graaf jam +olim notata. Equidem non negaverim illustrem +hunc prosectorem in libro suo de organis mulieribus +non modo similem tubam delineasse, +Tabula <span class="smcap">XIX</span>, fig. 3, sed & monuisse, 'tubas +quamvis secundum ordinariam naturę dispositionem +in extremitate sua notabilem semper +coarctationem habeant, pręter naturam tamen +aliquando claudi;' verum enimvero cum non +meminerit auctor an id in utraque tuba ita +deprehenderit; an in virgine; an status iste +pręternaturalis sterilitatem inducat: an vero +conceptio nihilominus fieri possit; an a principio +vitę talis structura suam originem ducat; +sive an tractu tempora ita degenerare tubę +possint; facile perspicimus multa nobis relicta +esse problemata quę, utcumque soluta, multum +negotii facessant in exemplo nostro. Erat +enim hęc femina maritata, viginti quatuor +annos nata, quę filium pepererat quem vidi +ipse, octo jam annos natum. Dic igitur tubas +ab incunabulis clausas sterilitatem inducere: +quare hęc nostra femina peperit? Dic concepisse +tubis clausis; quomodo ovulum ingredi +tubam potuit? Dic coaluisse tubas post partum: +quomodo id nosti? Quomodo adeo +evanescere in utroque latere fimbrię possunt, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +tanquam nunquam adfuissent? Si quidem ex +ovario ad tubas alia daretur via, pręter illarum +orificium, unico gressu omnes superarentur +difficultates; sed fictiones intellectum quidem +adjuvant, rei veritatem non demonstrant; pręstat +igitur ignorationem fateri, quam speculationibus +indulgere<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[AD]</a>." The difficulties which +occurred to this able author are insurmountable +in the egg system, but which disappear in our +explanation. This observation seems only to +prove what we have observed, that the seminal +liquor of both male and female may penetrate +the coat of the matrix, and enter across the +pores of the membranes; to be assured of it, +it is only necessary to pay attention to the alteration +that the seminal liquor of the male +causes to the viscera, and to the kind of vegetation +or expansion that it causes there. Besides, +the liquor which issues by the vacuities +of De Graaf, being of the same nature as the +liquor of the glandular bodies, it is very evident +that this liquor comes from the testicles, +and yet there is no vessel through which it can +pass; consequently we must conclude, that it +penetrates the spongy coat of all these parts, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +and that it not only enters the matrix, but +even can issue out when these parts are in +irritation.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">[AD]</span></a> Vide Comment. Acad. Petropol, vol IV. page 261 +and 262.</p></div> + +<p>But even should we refuse this idea of penetration, +we cannot deny that the liquor of the +female, which flows from the glandular bodies +of the testicles, may enter by the opening at the +extremity of the trunk, as that of the male does +by the orifice of the viscera; and that consequently +these two liquors may mix of themselves +in this cavity, and form there the fœtus in the +manner we have explained.</p> + + +<hr class="chap" /> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">OF THE EXPANSION, GROWTH, AND DELIVERY OF +THE FŒTUS, &C.</p> + + +<p>In the expansion of the fœtus, two different +degrees of growth make different kinds of +expansion. The first, which succeeds immediately +after the formation of the fœtus, is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +not proportionable in all the parts of which it +is composed. The more distant it is from the +formation, the more in proportion are its parts, +and it is only after it has quitted the womb of +its mother that the growth of the parts is +made in nearly an equal manner. It must +not be imagined that the figure of the fœtus, +at the moment of formation, is absolutely like +that of an adult. It is certain that the embryo +contains every part which, must compose a +man, but they differ in their successive expansion.</p> + +<p>In an organized body, as that of an animal, +we may suppose some parts are more essential +than others, and though some may be useless +or superfluous, there are some on which the +rest seem to depend for their expansion and +disposition. We must consider some as fundamental +parts, without which the animal cannot +exist, and which are more accessory and external, +and appear to derive their origin from +the first, and which seem to be formed as +much for the ornament, symmetry, and external +perfection of the animal, as for the necessity +of its existence, and the exercise of the +essential functions of life. These two kinds +of different parts expand successively, and are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +almost equally apparent when the fœtus quits +the womb; but there are others which Nature +seems to keep in reserve, as the teeth, which +do not appear for some time, and also the +glandular bodies in the testicles of females, the +beards of males, &c. which do not shew themselves +till the age of puberty.</p> + +<p>In order to discover the fundamental and +essential parts of an animal body, we must pay +attention to the number, situation, and nature +of the whole; those which are simple, those +whose position is invariable, and those without +which the animal cannot exist, will be the +essential parts; those, on the contrary, which +are double, or in a greater number, those whose +size and position vary, and those which may be +retrenched from the animal without destroying +or even doing it an injury, may be looked +upon as less necessary, and more accessory, to +the animal machine. Aristotle has said that +the only parts essential to animals were those +with which they take their nutriment, and +throw out the superfluous parts of it from the +body. From the mouth to the arms are simple +parts, which no other can supply. The head +and spine of the back are also simple parts, +whose position is invariable. The spine of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +back serves for a foundation to the fabric of +the body; and it is from the marrow which it +contains that the motion and action of most +of the members and organs proceed; it is also +this part which appears one of the first in the +embryo. Now these simple parts which appear +the first are all essential to the existence and +form of the animal. There are many more +double than simple parts in the body of an animal, +and seem to be produced on each side of +the simple parts by a kind of vegetation; for +these double parts are similar in form, and different +in position. The left hand exactly resembles +the right, because it is composed of the +same number of parts; nevertheless, if it was +placed in the situation of the right, we could +not make use of it for the same purposes, and +should have reason to regard it as a very different +member. It is the same with respect to +the other double parts; they are similar as to +form, and different as to the position which is +connected to the body of the animal; and by +supposing a line to divide the body into two +equal parts, the position of all the similar parts +would refer to this line as a centre.</p> + +<p>The spinal marrow, and the vertebrę which +contains it, appear to be the real axis, to which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> +we must refer all the double parts of the animal, +for they seem to derive their origin, and +to be only symmetrical branches issuing from +this trunk or common base, for we see the ribs +shoot out on each side of the vertebrę in the +young chicken as the young branches shoot +out from the principal branch of a tree. In +all embryos the middle of the head and vertebrę +appear to be the first formed; afterwards +we see on the two sides of a vesicle which +forms the middle of the head two other vesicles +which appear to proceed from the first. These +two vesicles contain the eyes and the other +double parts of the head; so likewise we perceive +little tubercles shoot out in equal numbers +from each side of the vertebrę, which extend +by degrees and form the ribs, and other +double parts of the trunk. On the side of this +trunk already formed, as the conclusion, the +legs and arms appear. This first expansion is +very different from that which is made afterwards; +it is the production of parts which appear +for the first time; that which succeeds is +only a growth of all the parts already created.</p> + +<p>This symmetrical order of all the double +parts found in every animal, the regularity of +their position, the equality of their extension +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +and growth, and the perfect resemblance between +them, seem to indicate that they derive +their origin from the simple parts; that there +must reside in these simple parts a power which +acts equally on each side, or, which answers +the same meaning, they are the fixed points +against which the power that produces the expansion +of the double parts is exercised. That +the power which acts on the right is equalled +by that of the left side, and consequently they +are counterbalanced by this re-action.</p> + +<p>From hence we may infer, that if there is +any defect or excess in the matter which is to +serve for the formation of the double parts, as +the powers which impel them on each side are +equal, the defect or excess must be formed +the same both on the right and left; for example, +if, from a defect of matter, a man has +but two fingers instead of five on the right +hand, he will have but two on the left hand; or +if, by an excess of matter, he has six fingers +on one hand, he will have six on the other; or +if the matter be vitiated, and causes an alteration +in the right part, it will be the same on +the left. This fact is very often seen. Most +monsters are made with symmetry; the disarrangement +of the parts of monsters appears +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +to be made with order: Nature, therefore, even +in her errors, mistakes as little as possible.</p> + +<p>This harmony of position in the double parts +of animals is found also in vegetables; branches +shoot out from buds on every side; the veins +in the leaves are equally disposed as to the principal +vein; and although symmetrical order +appears to be less exact in vegetables than in +animals, it is only because it is more varied, +and its limits are more extended, and less precise; +but we may nevertheless easily discover +this order, and distinguish the simple and essential +parts from those which are double, and +the latter we must regard as having taken their +origin from the former. We shall more fully +discuss this point, as far as relates to vegetables, +when we come to treat of them.</p> + +<p>It is not possible to determine under What +form the double parts exist before expansion, +nor in what manner they are folded, nor what +figure results from their position by connection +with the simple parts. The body of the +animal, in the instant of formation, certainly +contains every part which is to compose it; +but the relative position of these parts must be +very different then from what it becomes afterwards. +It is the same with vegetables, for if +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +we observe the expansion of a young leaf, we +shall perceive that it is folded on both sides the +principal vein, and that its figure does not resemble +at that time what it afterwards assumes.</p> + +<p>When we amuse ourselves by folding paper +to form crowns, boats, &c. the different folds +of the paper seem to have no resemblance to the +form which must result by the unfolding; we +only see that these folds are always made in an +uniform order, and exactly the same on one side +as that we have made on t he other; but it +would be a problem beyond known geometry, +to determine the figures which may result from +all the unfoldings of a certain given number of +folds. All what immediately relates to the +position, is beyond our mathematical sciences. +This art, which Leibnitz calls <i>Analysis Situs</i>, +is not yet found out; though the art, which +would shew us the connections that result from +the position of things, would perhaps be more +useful than that which has only bulk for its +object, for we have often more need to know +the form than the matter.</p> + +<p>In the unfolding of Nature's productions, +not only the folded parts take new positions, +but they acquire, at the same time, extent and +solidity. Since we cannot therefore determine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +the result of the simple unfolding of a +folded form, in which, as in a piece of folded +paper, there is but one change of position between +the parts, without any augmentation or +diminution of the bulk or mass of the matter, +how is it possible for us to judge of the complex +unfolding of the body of an animal, in which +not only the relative position of the parts, but +also their mass of matter, undergoes considerable +changes? We cannot, therefore, reason upon +this subject, but by drawing some inductions +from the examination of the things at the different +periods of their unfolding, and by assisting +ourselves with the observations that we +have had the opportunity to make.</p> + +<p>It is true we see the chick in the egg before +incubation; it floats in a transparent liquor, +contained in a small purse, formed by a very +fine membrane in the centre of the cicatrice; +but this chick is then only a particle of inanimate +matter, in which we cannot discern any +organization, nor any determined figure. We +judge by the external form that one of the extremities +is the head, and the rest to be the +spine of the back. It appears that this is the +first product of fecundation resulting from the +mixture of the seed of the male and female; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +nevertheless, before asserting this as a fact, +there are many things should be considered. +When the hen has cohabited with the cock for +a few days, and afterwards separated from him, +the eggs she produces for a month after separation +are as fertile as those she produced during +the time of cohabitation with the male, and +unfold at the same time; they only require +twenty-one days sitting, and the embryo of the +one will be as forward and as completely formed +as that of the other. From hence we might +think, that this form, under which the chick +at first appears to us in the egg, does not immediately +proceed from a mixture of the two +liquors, but that it existed in other forms during +the time the egg remained in the body of the +mother; for the embryo in the form we see it +before incubation, requires only heat to unfold +and bring it forth. Now, if it had this form +twenty days, or a month before, when the egg +was first fecundated, why was it not hatched +by the internal heat of the hen? and why is not +the chicken perfectly formed in those eggs +which are fecundated twenty-one days before +the hen lays them?</p> + +<p>This difficulty is not so great as it appears; +for we must conceive, that in the time of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +cock's cohabitation with the hen, each egg +receives in its cicatrice, wherein the female +liquor is contained, a small portion of the semen +of the male. The egg attached to the ovary +is in oviparous females, what the glandular +substance is in the testicles of viviparous females. +The cicatrice of the egg corresponds +with the glandular bodies in which the seminal +liquor of the female resides; that of the male +penetrates and mixes there with it; from this +mixture, the formation of the embryo instantly +results. The first egg which the hen lays after +coition is fecundated, and capable of producing +a chicken; those which she lays afterwards +were fecundated at the same instant; +but as there is still wanting essential parts to +this egg, the production of which is independent +of the seed of the male, as the white, +membranes, and shell, the young embryo contained +in the cicatrice cannot unfold in this +imperfect egg, although assisted by the internal +heat of the mother. It remains, therefore, in +the cicatrice in the state in which it was formed, +until the egg has acquired all the parts necessary +to the growth and nourishment of the +chicken: and it is not till the egg has attained +its perfection that the embryo begins to unfold: +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +this unfolding is performed by the external heat +of incubation; but it is certain, if the egg could +be confined within the body of the hen for +21 days after it was completely formed, the +chicken would be produced, unless the internal +heat of the hen should prove too powerful, for +the degrees of heat necessary to hatch chickens +are not very extended, and the least defect or +excess is equally prejudicial to their unfolding. +The last eggs the hen lays, containing the same +as the first, proves nothing more than that the +egg must acquire entire perfection before the +embryo can unfold itself; and for want of the +heat necessary to this unfolding, eggs may be +kept a considerable time before incubation, +without preventing the produce of the chickens +they contain.</p> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that the state of the +embryo, when the egg is laid by the hen, is the +first state which succeeds fecundation; that the +form under which we see it is the first form +resulting from the intimate mixture, and form +the penetration of the two seminal liquors; +and consequently by following, as Malpighius +has done, this unfolding from hour to hour, we +discover all that is possible to be known, unless +we could see the two liquors mix before our +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +eyes, and how the first arrangement of the particles +are made, which produces the first form +of the embryo.</p> + +<p>If we reflect on this fecundation (which is +made at the same time) of these eggs, which +are laid successively, and along time after each +other, we shall find new arguments against +the existence of eggs in viviparous animals; +for if the females of viviparous animals, or if +women contained eggs, like hens, why are +there not many fecund at the same time? why +are not some of them produced in nine months, +and others at distant periods? and when women +have two or three children, why do they +all come into the world at one time? If +these fœtuses were produced by the means of +eggs, would not they come successively, according +as the eggs come to perfection, after +the time of impregnation? And would not +super-fœtation be as frequent as they now are +scarce, or as natural as they appear to be accidental?</p> + +<p>We cannot follow the unfolding of the +fœtus in the matrix as we pursue that of the +chick in the egg; the opportunities of observing +it are few, and we can only know what +anatomists, surgeons, and midwives have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +written thereon. It is by collecting all their +particular observations, and by comparing +their remarks and their descriptions, that we +have made the following abridged history of +the human fœtus.</p> + +<p>There is a great appearance that, immediately +after the mixture of the two seminal +liquors, the whole materials of generation exist +in the matrix under the form of a globe; since +we know, by anatomists, that three or four +days after conception there is a small oval ball +in the matrix, this ball is formed by an extremely +fine membrane, which incloses a limpid +liquor like the white of an egg. We can +then perceive some small united fibres in this +liquor, which are the first outlines of the fœtus. +A net-work of fine fibres collects on the surface +of the ball, which extends from one of the extremities +to the middle. These are the first +vestiges of the placenta.</p> + +<p>Seven days after conception we may distinguish, +by the naked eye, the first lineaments of +the fœtus, as yet unformed; being only a mass +of transparent jelly, which has acquired some +small degree of solidity; the head and trunk are +easily discernible, because this mass is of an +oblong form, and the trunk is more delicate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +and somewhat longer. Some small fibres, in +form of a plume of feathers, spring from the +body of the fœtus, and which turn towards +the membrane in which it is included; these +fibres are to form the umbilical cord.</p> + +<p>Fifteen days after conception, the head, and +the most apparent features of the face, are distinguishable; +the nose resembles a small prominent +and perpendicular thread affixed to a +line, which indicates the division of the lips. +Two small black points are in the places of +the eyes, and two little holes in those of the +ears; the body of the fœtus has also received +some growth. On each side of the upper and +inferior parts of the trunk, little protuberances +appear, which are the first outlines of the arms +and legs.</p> + +<p>Eight days after, that is in three weeks, the +body of the fœtus has only increased about a +line; but the arms and legs, the hands and feet, +are apparent; the growth of the arms is more +quick than that of the legs, and the fingers +separate sooner than the toes. At this time +internal organization begins to be discernible; +the bones appear like small threads as fine as +hairs; the ribs are disposed regularly from the +two sides of the back bone; and as well as the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> +arms, legs, fingers, and toes, are represented +by very small threads.</p> + +<p>At a month the fœtus is more than an inch +long; it naturally takes a curved posture, in the +middle of the liquor which surrounds it, and +the membranes which contain the whole are +increased in extent and thickness; the mass is +oval, and it is then about an inch and an half +in its greatest, and an inch and a quarter the +smallest diameter. The human figure is no +longer equivocal, every part of the face is +already discernible; the body is fashioned, the +thighs and belly are seen, the limbs formed, +the toes and fingers divided, the skin thin and +transparent, the viscera marked by fibres, the +vessels as fine as threads, and the membranes +extremely delicate, the bones are as yet soft, +and have only taken solidity in some few parts; +the vessels which compose the umbilical cord, +are as yet in a straight line by the side of each +other; now the placenta only occupies a third +of the whole mass; whereas in the beginning +it occupied the half. It appears, therefore, that +its growth, in superficial extent, has not been +so great as that of the fœtus, and the rest +of the mass; but it has increased much more +in solidity; its thickness has become greater +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +in proportion than the membranes of the fœtus, +both of which are now easily distinguished.</p> + +<p>According to Hippocrates, the male fœtus +is developed sooner than the female. He says +all parts of the body in the first are apparent +in thirty, whereas the latter are not so till the +expiration of forty-two days.</p> + +<p>In six weeks the fœtus is nearly two inches +long; the human figure begins to be more perfect; +the head is only larger in proportion than +the other parts of the body; the motion of the +heart is perceived about this time. It has been +seen to beat in a fœtus of sixty days, a long +while after it had been taken out of the womb +of its mother.</p> + +<p>In two months the fœtus is more than two +inches long; the ossification is discernible as +far as the middle of the arm, thigh, and leg, +and in the point of the lower jaw, which is +then very forward before the upper. These, +however, are only ossified points; but by the +effect of a more ready expansion, the clavicles +are wholly ossified. The umbilical cord is +formed, and the vessels which compose it, begin +to twist nearly like threads which compose a +rope: but this cord is still very short in comparison +of what it becomes hereafter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p> + +<p>In three months the fœtus is nearly three +inches long, and weighs about three ounces. +Hippocrates says, that it is at this time the +motion of the male fœtus begins to be felt by +its mother; but that those of the female are +not felt till after the fourth; there are women +who affirm they have felt the motions of the +child at the beginning of the second month. +It is very difficult to be certain on this subject, +the sensations excited by the first motions of +the fœtus depending, perhaps more on the sensibility +of the mother than the strength of the +child.</p> + +<p>Four months after conception the length of +the fœtus is six or seven inches; every part of +its body is so greatly augmented as to be perfectly +distinguished from each other; even the +nails appear on the fingers and toes. The +testicles of the males are shut up in the belly +above the kidneys; the stomach is filled with +somewhat of a thick humour, like that which +incloses the amnios. We find a milky fluid +in the little vessels, and in the large ones a +black liquid matter. There is a little bile in +the gall, and some urine in the bladder. As +the fœtus floats freely in the liquid which surrounds +it, there is always a space between the +body and membranes in which it is contained. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +These coverings grow at first more than the +fœtus; but after a certain time it is quite the +contrary. Before the end of the third month +the head is bent forward, the chin rests on the +breast, the knees are lifted up, the legs bent +backwards upon the thighs (sometimes the +knees are so high as almost to touch the jaws), +the arms are generally folded across the breast, +and one of the hands, and often both touch the +face. The fœtus afterwards takes different +situations, as it acquires strength. Experienced +midwives have pretended to be certain +that it changes much oftener than is +commonly thought, and which they prove +by several observations; first, the umbilical +cord is often found twisted round the body and +limbs of the child, in a manner which necessarily +supposes, that the fœtus has moved in +many directions, and taken different positions; +secondly, a mother feels the motions of the +fœtus sometimes on one side of the womb and +sometimes on another; and it often strikes +against many different places, which must be +occasioned by different positions, and supposes +that it takes different situations; thirdly, as it +floats in a liquid which surrounds it on all +sides, it can very easily turn and extend itself by +its own strength; and it must also take different +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +situations according to the various attitudes +of the mother; for example, when she +lies down, the fœtus must be in another situation +to what it was when she stood upright.</p> + +<p>Most anatomists have said, that the fœtus is +constrained to bend its body, because it is too +confined in its covering; but this opinion does +not appear well founded, for in the first five or +six months there is more space than is required +for the fœtus to extend, and yet during that +time it is bent and folded. We also see the +chicken is in a curved posture in the liquor of +the amnios, although this membrane and its +liquor are sufficient to contain a body five or +six times as large as the fœtus. Thus we may +conclude that this curved form of the fœtus is +natural, and not the effect of force. I am +somewhat of Harvey's opinion, who says, it +takes this attitude because it is the most favourable +to rest and sleep; and as the fœtus +sleeps almost continually, it naturally takes the +most advantageous situation. "Certe (says +this famous anatomist) animalia omnia, dum +quiescunt & dormiunt, membra sua ut plurimum +adducunt & complicant, figuramque +ovalem ac conglobatam quęrunt: ita pariter +embryones qui ętatem suam maxime somno +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +transigunt, membra sua positione ea qua plasmantur +(tanquam naturalissima ac maxime indolenti +quietique aptissima) componunt<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[AE]</a>."</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">[AE]</span></a> Harvey on Generation, page 257.</p></div> + +<p>The matrix, as we have already said, takes +a very ready growth after conception, and it +continues also to increase in proportion with +the fœtus; but the fœtus at length outgrows +the matrix, and then, especially when it approaches +maturity, it may be too much confined, +and agitate the matrix by reiterated motions +and violent efforts. The mother sensibly +feels the impression of these painful sensations, +and which are called periodic pains after the +labour commences. The more power the +fœtus exerts to dilate the matrix the greater it +finds the resistance, from the natural compression +of the parts. From thence all the effect +falls on the orifice, which has been increasing +by degrees during the latter months of pregnancy. +The head of the fœtus, forcibly inclining +against the sides of the orifice, dilates +it, by a continual pressure, till the moment of +delivery, when it opens sufficiently for the +child to escape from the womb.</p> + +<p>What makes it probable that the labour-pains +proceed only from the dilatation of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +orifice of the matrix is, that this dilatation is +the only means to discover whether the pains +felt are in fact the pains of labour, for women +often feel very sensible pains, which are not +those that immediately precede delivery. To +distinguish the false from true pains, it has been +recommended for the midwife to touch the +orifice of the matrix, as if the pains be true +the dilatation will always increase, and if they +are false pains, that is to say, pains which proceed +from some other cause than that of the +approaching delivery, the orifice will contract +rather than dilate, or at least will not continue +to dilate. From hence we have sufficient +foundation to imagine, that these pains proceed +from a forced dilatation of the orifice. The +only thing which embarrasses on this occasion +is that alternative of rest and sufferings the +mother endures. This circumstance of the +effect does not perfectly agree with the cause +which we have just indicated; for the dilatation +of an orifice, which is made by degrees, should +produce a constant and continued pain, without +any intervals of ease. But possibly the whole +may be attributed to the separation of the +placenta, which we know is fastened to the +matrix by a number of papillę, which penetrate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +into the vacuities or cavities of this viscera; +therefore may it not be supposed that +they do not separate from their cavities all at +the same time; that each separation causes those +acute pains, and the intervals between are those +of ease and rest? The effect in this case perfectly +answers the cause, and we can support +this conjecture by another observation.—Immediately +before delivery there issues a whitish +and viscous liquor, like that which flows from +the nipples of the placenta when drawn out of +their places, which makes it probable that this +liquor, which then issues from the matrix, is +produced by the separation of some of the papillę +of the placenta.</p> + +<p>It often happens that the fœtus quits the +matrix without bursting the membranes, and +consequently without the contained liquor +flowing out. This kind of delivery appears +to be most natural, and resembles that of most +animals; nevertheless, the human fœtus commonly +pierces its membranes by the resistance +it meets with at the orifice of the matrix. It +also sometimes brings away part of the amnios, +and even the chorion, upon its head like a cap. +When these membranes are pierced or torn, +the liquors, called the <i>waters</i>, which they contain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +flow out, and the sides of the orifice of the +matrix, and the vagina, being thus moistened, +give way more easily to the passage of the child. +After the flowing of this liquor there remains +sufficient room in the matrix for the midwife +to return the child, if the position is unfavourable. +When the fœtus is come out the +delivery is not entirely completed, the placenta +and membranes remain in the matrix, and the +new-born infant adheres to them by the umbilical +cord; the hand of the midwife, or the +weight of the body of the infant alone, draws +them out by means of this cord. Those organs +which were necessary to the life of the fœtus +become useless, and even noxious to the new-born +infant. They are instantly separated +from the body of the child, by tying the umbilical +cord about an inch distance from the +navel, and by cutting it about an inch from the +ligature. The remainder of this cord dries +away, and separates of itself from the navel, +about the sixth or seventh day.</p> + +<p>On examining the fœtus previous to its +birth we may form some idea of its natural +functions. It has organs, which are necessary +to it while in the womb of its mother, but +which become useless. For the better understanding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +the mechanism of these functions, we +must explain a little more particularly the +nature of those necessary parts, the umbilical +cord, the membranes, the liquor which they +contain and the placenta. The umbilical +cord, which is attached to the body of the +fœtus at the navel, is composed of two arteries +and one vein; these prolong the circulation +of the blood, but the vein is larger +than the arteries. At the extremity of the +cord each of these vessels divide into an infinity +of ramifications, which extend between two +membranes. They separate at equal distances +from the common trunk; so that these ramifications +are round and flat, and are called, +when thus collected, the <i>placenta</i>. The external +surface, which is applied against the +matrix, is convex; the internal concave. The +blood of the fœtus circulates in the cord, and +in the placenta. The arteries of the cord +spring from two large arteries of the fœtus, +and carry the blood through the arterial ramifications +of the placenta; from thence it passes +into the venous branches which carry it into +the umbilical vessels; these communicate with +a vein of the fœtus, in which vessels it is received.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p> + +<p>The concave surface of the placenta is +clothed by the chorion; the convex is also +covered by a kind of soft membrane, easily +torn, which seems to be a continuation of the +chorion, and the fœtus is included under the +double coat of the chorion and the amnios. +The form is globular, because the intervals +between the membranes and the fœtus are +filled with a transparent liquor. This liquor +is contained by the amnios, which is the internal +membrane, it is thin and transparent; +it folds round the umbilical cord at its insertion +into the placenta, and covers it the +whole length to the navel of the fœtus. The +chorion is the external membrane; it is thick +and spongy, sprinkled with sanguinary vessels, +and composed of many coats, the exterior +of which covers the convex surface of the +placenta. It follows the inequalities, and +covers the papillę, which spring from the +placenta, and are received in the cavities found +at the bottom of the matrix, called <i>lacunę</i>. +The fœtus adheres to the matrix by these insertions.</p> + +<p>Some anatomists have thought that the human +form had, like those of certain quadrupeds; +a membrane called <i>allantois</i>, destined +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +to receive the urine; and they have pretended +to have found it between the chorion and the +amnios, or in the middle of the placenta at the +root of the umbilical cord, under the form +of a very large bladder, in which the urine +entered by a long pipe that composed part of +the chord, and which opened on one side into +the bladder, and on the other in this allantois +membrane, being similar to the urachus in +other animals. They owned, however, that it +was not near so large in the human fœtus as +in quadrupeds, but that it was divided into +many tubes, so minute, that they could +scarcely be perceived, and that the urine +passed into their cavities.</p> + +<p>The experience and observations of most +anatomists are contrary to this supposed discovery. +They admit there is a kind of ligament +which adheres by one end to the external surface +of the bottom of the bladder, and extends +to the navel; but it becomes so delicate, on +entering into the cord, as to be nearly reduced +to nothing: in common this ligament is not +hollow, and we can see no orifice at the bottom +of the bladder.</p> + +<p>The fœtus has no communication with the +open air, and the experiments made upon the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +lungs prove they have never respired; for they +sink to the bottom when put in water: whereas +those of infants who have breathed always float +on the top; the fœtus then does not respire +in the womb, consequently it cannot form +any sound by its voice; and therefore what +has been related of the groaning and crying +of children before their birth may be considered +as fables. After the flowing of the +waters it may happen, that the air has found +an entrance into the cavity of the matrix, and +then the infant may begin to respire before it +is brought forth. In this case it may be able +to cry, as the chicken cries before the shell of +the egg is broken, which it can do from +there being air in the cavity which is between +the external membrane and the shell. This +air is found in all eggs, and is produced by the +internal fermentation of matters contained in +them<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[AF]</a>.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">[AF]</span></a> See La Statique des Vegetaux, Chap. vi.</p></div> + +<p>The lungs of the fœtus being without any +motion, have no more blood enter into them +than is requisite to nourish and make them +grow; and there is another road opened for the +course of its circulation. The blood in the +right auricle of the heart, instead of passing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +into the pulmonary artery, and returning, after +having ran through the lungs into the left +auricle by the pulmonary vein, passes immediately +into the left by an opening, called the +<i>foramen ovale</i>, which is in the partition of the +heart between the two auricles. It enters afterwards +into the aorta, which distributes it by +its ramifications, at going out of which the +venous branches receive it, and bring it back +to the heart by uniting all in the <i>vena cava</i>, +which terminates at the right auricle of the +heart. The blood which this auricle contains, +instead of passing entirely by the foramen ovale, +may escape in part into the pulmonary and the +aorta by an arterial canal, which goes immediately +from the one to the other. It is by these +roads that the blood of the fœtus circulates +without entering into the lungs, as it enters +into those of children, adults, and every animal +which breathes.</p> + +<p>It has been thought that the blood of the +mother passes into the body of the fœtus, by +means of the placenta and umbilical cord. It +was supposed that the sanguinary vessels of the +matrix opened into the vacuities, and those +of the placenta into the nipples, and that they +joined one to the other; but experience is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +quite contrary to this opinion; for if the arteries +of the umbilical cord is injected the liquor +returns by the veins, and not any part +of it escapes externally. Besides, the nipples +may be drawn from the vacuities where they +are lodged, without any blood issuing either +from the matrix or placenta: a milky liquor +only issues from both, and which, we have already +observed, serves the fœtus for nutriment. +This liquor possibly enters into the veins of +the placenta, as the chyle enters into the subclavian +vein; and perhaps the placenta in a +great measure performs the office of the lungs +in bringing the blood to maturity. It is certain +that the blood appears much sooner in the +placenta than in the fœtus, and I have often +observed in eggs that have been under the hen +for a day or two, that the blood appeared at +first in the membranes, and that their sanguinary +vessels are very large and numerous, while +the whole body of the chicken, excepting the +point where these blood-vessels terminate, is +only a white and almost transparent matter, in +which there is not the smallest sign of a sanguinary +vessel.</p> + +<p>It has been imagined, that the liquor +of the amnios is a nutriment the fœtus receives +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +by its mouth. Some naturalists pretend +to have observed this liquor in the stomach, and +to have seen some fœtuses to which +the umbilical cord was entirely wanting, and +others who had but a very small portion, which +did not at, all adhere to the placenta; but in this +case might not the liquor have entered into the +body of the fœtus by the small portion of the +umbilical cord, or by the umbilical vessel itself? +Besides, to these observations we may oppose +others. Some fœtuses have been found whose +lips were not separated, and others without any +opening in the œsophagus. To conciliate +these circumstances, some anatomists have +thought that the aliments passed into the fœtus +partly by the umbilical cord, and partly by the +mouth: none of these opinions appear to have +any foundation. It is not the question to examine +the growth of the fœtus alone, and to +seek from whence and by what it draws its +nutriment, but how the growth of the whole +is made; for the placenta, liquor, and membrane +increase in size as well as in the fœtus; +and consequently the instruments and canals +employed to receive or carry this nutriment +to the fœtus, have a kind of life themselves. +The expansion of the placenta and membranes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +is as difficult to conceive as that of the fœtus; +and we might say, with equal propriety, that +the fœtus nourishes the placenta, as that the +placenta nourishes the fœtus. The whole mass +is floating in the matrix, and without any adherence +at the commencement of this growth: +therefore the nourishment can be only made +by an absorption of the milky matter contained +in the matrix. The placenta appears first to +draw this nutriment, to convert this milk +into blood, and to carry it to the fœtus by +veins. The liquor of the amnios appears to +be only this milky liquor depurated, the quantity +of which increases by a like absorption, +proportionate to the increase of the membranes, +and the fœtus probably absorbs the liquor, +which appears to be the necessary nutriment +for its expansion. For we must observe, that +for the first two or three months the fœtus +contains very little blood; it is as white as +ivory, and appears to be composed of lymph +which has taken some solidity; and as the +skin is transparent, and all the parts very soft, +we may easily conceive that the liquor in +which the fœtus swims may penetrate them, +and thus furnish the necessary matter for its +nutrition and expansion. It may be supposed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +that the fœtus in the latter stages takes its nutriment +by the mouth, since in the stomach we +find a liquor similar to that in the amnios, urine +in the bladder, and excrements in the intestines; +and as we find neither urine nor <i>meconium</i> +in the amnios, there is reason to conclude that +the fœtus does not void its excrements, especially +as some are born without having the +anus pierced, although they had a great quantity +of <i>meconium</i> in the intestines.</p> + +<p>Although the fœtus does not immediately +adhere to the matrix, but is only attached to +it by small external nipples, though it has no +communication with the blood of its mother, +but is as independant of her who bears it, in +many respects, as the egg is of the hen that +hatches it, yet it has been pretended, that all +which affects the mother affects the fœtus; that +the impressions of the one act on the brain of +the other; and to this imaginary influence resemblances, +monsters, and especially marks on +the skin of some children, have been attributed. +I have examined many of these marks, and they +all appear to me to have been caused by a +derangement in the texture of the skin. Every +mark must have a figure which will resemble +something or other; but I am certain the resemblances +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +so formed depend rather on the +imagination of those who see them than on that +of the mother. On this subject the marvellous +has been carried as far as it could go. It +has not been only said that the fœtus carried +real representations of the longings of its +mother, but that, by a singular sympathy, the +marks, which represent strawberries, cherries, +&c. change their colour, and become deeper +in the season of those fruits. With a little +more consideration, and less prejudice, this +colour may be seen to change much oftener, +and that it must happen every time the motion +of the blood is accelerated, whether by the heat +of summer or from any other cause. These +marks are either yellow, red, or black, because +the blood gives these tints to the skin when it +enters in too great quantities into the vessels. +If these marks have the longings of the mother +for their cause, why have they not the +forms and colours as varied as the objects of +her desires? What a curious assemblage of +figures would be seen if all the whimsical desires +of the mother were written on the skin of +the child?</p> + +<p>As our sensations have no resemblance to the +objects which cause them, it is impossible that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +desire, fear, horror, or any passion, or internal +emotion, can produce real representations of +those objects; and the child being in this respect +as independant of the mother as the egg +is of the hen, I should as soon believe that a +hen, which saw the neck of a cock twisted, +would hatch chickens with wry necks, as that, +by the power of imagination, a woman, who +happened to see a man broke upon the wheel, +would bring forth a child with its limbs broken +in the same manner.</p> + +<p>But even supposing this circumstance attested, +I should still support the opinion, that +the imagination of the mother had not been +the cause, for what is the effect of horror? an +internal motion, a convulsion in the body of +the mother, which might shake, compress, and +agitate the womb. What can result from this +commotion? nothing similar to the cause, for +if this commotion was very violent the fœtus +might be killed, wounded, or deformed in some +of its parts; but how is it to be conceived that +this commotion can produce any thing resembling +the fancy of the mother in the fœtus, +unless we believe, with Harvey, that the matrix +has the faculty of conceiving ideas, and +realizing them on the fœtus?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p> + +<p>But, it may be urged, if it was not affected +by the imagination of the mother, why did the +child come into the world with broken limbs? +However rash it may appear to explain a matter +which is extraordinary and uncertain, and +of which we have no right to exact a solution, +yet this question appears to me answerable in +a satisfactory manner. Circumstances of the +most rare and extraordinary kind happen as +necessarily as those which are frequent and +common. In the infinite combinations which +matter can take, the most extraordinary arrangements +must sometimes happen; hence we might +venture to wager, that in a million, or a thousand +millions of children, there will be one +born with two heads, four legs, or with broken +limbs; it may, therefore, naturally happen, +without the concurrence of the mother's imagination, +that a child should be born with +broken limbs. This may have happened more +than once, and the mother, while pregnant, +might have been present at the breaking on the +wheel, and therefore the defect of the child's +formation has been attributed to what she had +seen, and to her impressed imagination. But, +independant of this general answer, we may +give a more direct explanation. The fœtus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +as we have said, has nothing in common with +the mother; its functions, organs, blood, &c. +are all particular, and belong to itself; the only +thing which it derives from its mother is the +liquor, or nutritive lymph, which filtrates from +the matrix. If this lymph is bad, or envenomed +with the venereal virus, the child will +be alike disordered; and it may be imagined, +that all the diseases which proceed from vitiated +humours may be communicated from the mother +to the child. We know that the small-pox +is communicative, and we have but too +many examples of children who are, directly +after their birth, the victims of the debauches +of their parents. The venereal virus attacks +the most solid parts of the bones, and it appears +to act with more force towards the middle of +the bone, where ossification commences; I +conceive, therefore, that the child here spoken +of has been attacked by the venereal disorder +while in its mother's womb, and from that +cause it came into the world with its bones +broken through the middle.</p> + +<p>Rickets may also produce the same effect. +There is a skeleton of a rickety child in the +French king's cabinet, whose arms and legs +have callosities in the middle of their bones. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +By the inspection of this skeleton, it appeared +evident that the bones had been broken during +the time it was in the womb, and that afterwards +the bones re-united, and formed these +callosities.</p> + +<p>But enough of a subject which credulity +alone has rendered marvellous. Prejudice, +especially that sort which is founded on the +marvellous, will always triumph over reason, +and we should have but little philosophy if we +were astonished at it. We must not therefore +ever expect to be able to persuade women, that +the marks on their children have no connection +with their unsatisfied longings. Yet might it +not be asked them, before the birth of the +child, of what particular longings they had +been disappointed, and consequently what will +be the marks their children will bear? I have +often asked this question, and have only made +persons angry without having ever convinced +them.</p> + +<p>The time that a woman goes with child is +generally about nine months; but it is however +sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. Many +children are born at seven or eight months, and +some not till after the ninth; but in general +the deliveries which precede the term of nine +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +months are more frequent than the others. +The common time of a natural delivery extends +to twenty days, that is, from eight +months fourteen days to nine months and four +hours.</p> + +<p>Many children are born before the 260th +day, and although these deliveries precede the +general term, they are not abortions, because +these children mostly live. It is commonly +thought that children born at eight months +cannot live, or at least that many more of them +die than those born at seven months. This +opinion appears to be a paradox; and by consulting +experience I think we shall find it an +error. The child brought forth at eight months +is more formed, and consequently more vigorous, +and likely to live than that which is born +at the seventh. Nevertheless this opinion is +pretty generally received, and founded on the +authority of Aristotle.</p> + +<p>The beginning of the seventh month is the +earliest term for delivery; if the fœtus is +brought forth sooner it dies, and is termed an +abortion. There are, however, great limits +for the time of human delivery, since they extend +from the seventh to the tenth, and perhaps +to the eleventh month.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p> + +<p>Women who have had many children assert, +that girls remain longer in the womb than boys. +If this is really the case, we must not be surprized +at female children being born at ten +months. When children come before nine +months they are not so well proportioned as +those who are not brought into the world till +ten months, the bodies of the latter are sensibly +larger and better formed; their hair is longer, +the growth of the teeth, although still hid under +the gums, is more advanced; the voice is +clearer, and the tone more deep.</p> + +<p>There is much uncertainty on the occasional +causes of delivery, and we do not perfectly +know what obliges the infant to quit the womb. +Some imagine, that the fœtus having acquired +a certain size, the matrix is too confined for its +longer stay, and that the constraint felt by the +fœtus, obliges it to use every effort to quit its +prison; others say, and it is nearly to the same +purport, that the weight of the fœtus becomes +so great, that the matrix is forced to open to free +itself from the burthen. These reasons do not +appear satisfactory; for the matrix must always +have capacity and strength to contain and sustain +the weight of a fœtus of nine months, since +it often contains two, and it is certain that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +weight and size of the twins of eight months are +more considerable than the weight and size of +a single child of nine. Besides, it often happens +that a child born at nine months is smaller +than the fœtus of eight months, although +it continues in the womb.</p> + +<p>Galen pretends, that the child remains in the +matrix till it is able to receive its food by the +mouth, and that it only forces its escape from +the need of nutriment. Others have said, that +the fœtus always receives its nourishment by +the mouth from the liquor of the amnios; but +which becomes at length so contaminated, by +the transpiration and urine of the fœtus, that +it becomes disgustful, and obliges the fœtus to +use every exertion to quit its confinement. +These reasons do not appear better than the +first; for it would from thence follow, that the +weakest and smallest fœtuses would remain +longer in the womb than the strongest and +largest, which never happens; besides, it is not +food that the fœtus seeks immediately after it is +born, for it can stay some time without it; on +the contrary, it seems most desirous to disembarrass +itself from the nutriment it took when in +the womb of its mother, and to return the meconium. +Other anatomists have supposed that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> +the excrement accumulated in the bowels of +the fœtus, gives it great pain, and causes it to +make such efforts, that the matrix is at length +obliged to give way, and to open a passage for +its escape. I acknowledge I am not better satisfied +with this explanation than the rest; +because, why cannot the fœtus void its excrements +in the amnios, if it was pressed so to do? +Now this never happens; it appears, on the +contrary, that this necessity of voiding the meconium +is not felt till after the birth, when the +motion of the diaphragm, occasioned by that of +the lungs, compresses the intestines and causes +this evacuation; for the meconium has never +been found in the amnios of a fœtus of ten +months who had not respired, whereas a fœtus +of six or seven months voids this meconium a +short time after respiration.</p> + +<p>Other anatomists, and among them Fabricius +de Aquapendente, have supposed the fœtus +quitted the matrix through the need of procuring +refreshment by means of respiration. +This cause appears to me still more remote than +all the rest, because the fœtus can have no idea +of respiration without having respired.</p> + +<p>After having weighed all these explanations, +I suppose the fœtus's quitting the matrix depends +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +on a quite different cause. The flowing +of the menstrua is periodical, and at determined +intervals; and although conception suppresses +its appearance, it does not destroy the cause; +for notwithstanding the blood does not appear +at the accustomed times, yet a kind of revolution +takes place, like that which is made before +conception. Thus it is, there are many women +whose menstrua are not suppressed in the +first two or three months. I imagine, therefore, +that when a woman has conceived, the +periodical revolution is made as regular as before; +but as the matrix is swelled, the excretory +canals cannot give issue to the blood, at least +unless it arrives there with such force, and in +such quantities, as to open a passage in spite of +the resistance, that is opposed to it. In this case +blood will appear, and if it flows in a great +quantity abortion will ensue, and the matrix +take the form it had before. But if the blood +only forces one part of these canals, the business +of generation will not be destroyed, although +the blood appears, because the greatest part of +the matrix still remains in the state which is +necessary for that purpose.</p> + +<p>When no blood appears, as is generally the +case, the first periodical revolution is remarkable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> +and felt by the same pains and symptoms. +From the first suppression of the menses, therefore, +a violent action on the matrix is made, +and provided the action is augmented, it destroys +the product of generation. It may from +thence be concluded, that every conception +which is made just before the useful return of +the menses seldom succeeds, and that the action +of that blood easily destroys the weak roots of +a germ so tender and so delicate. The conceptions, +on the contrary, which are made just +after the periodical evacuations succeed the +best, because the produce of the conception +has more time to grow, strengthen, and resist +the action of the blood, by the time the next +revolution happens.</p> + +<p>The fœtus having undergone this first trial, +and having resisted it, receives more strength +and growth, and is more in a condition to contend +against the succeeding revolutions. Miscarriages +may and do happen in all the periodical +revolutions; but they are less frequent +in the fourth and fifth months, than either at the +beginning or near the end. We have assigned +the reasons why they are more frequent at the +beginning; it therefore only remains to explain +why they are also more frequent towards the +end.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p> + +<p>The fœtus generally comes into the world +during the tenth revolution. When it is born +at the eighth or ninth it lives, and these deliveries +are not looked upon as miscarriages, +because the child, although not so perfectly +formed, is still sufficiently so for the purpose +of life. It has been pretended, that examples +have been seen of children born at the seventh +and even at the sixth revolution, that is, at +five or six months, which have lived. There +is, therefore, no difference between a birth and +a miscarriage but what is relative to the living +powers of the infant. In general the number +of miscarriages in the first, second, and third +months are very considerable for the reasons we +have given ; and the number of deliveries of +the seventh and eighth months are also very +great, in comparison with the miscarriages of +the fourth, fifth, and sixth months, because in +this middle period the product of generation has +received more solidity and strength, and having +resisted the action of the four first periodical +revolutions, a more violent force than the +preceding is required to destroy it. The same +reason subsists, with additional force, for the +fifth and sixth months. But the fœtus, which +till then is weak, and can act only by its own +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> +feeble strength, begins to get strong, and move +with vigour; and at the eighth revolution the +fœtus, uniting its efforts with those of the matrix, +facilitates its exclusion, and it may come +into the world in the seventh month, and be +capable of living, especially if it happens, as is +sometimes the case, to have more than ordinary +strength for that period. But if it comes into +the world only through the weakness of the +matrix, which could not resist the action of the +blood in this eighth revolution, the delivery +would be regarded as a miscarriage, and the +child would not live. But these cases are very +rare, for if the fœtus has resisted the seven first +revolutions, only particular accidents can prevent +it from resisting the eighth. The fœtus, +which has acquired this same degree of strength +and vigour only a little later, will come into the +world at the ninth revolution; and those which +require nine months to obtain this same strength, +will come at the tenth revolution, which is the +most common and general term; but when the +fœtus has not acquired in nine months this degree +of perfection, it may remain in the womb +till the eleventh, and even till the twelfth revolution; +that is, till the tenth or eleventh +month, as we have many examples.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span></p> + +<p>This opinion, that it is the menstrua which +is the occasional cause of delivery at different +times, may be confirmed by many other reasons. +The females of every animal which +have no menses, bring forth at nearly the same +terms, and there is but a very slight variation +in the duration of their gestation. We may, +therefore, suppose that this variation, which is +so great in women, comes from the action of +the menstrual blood, which is constantly exerted +at every periodic return.</p> + +<p>We have observed, that the placenta adheres +to the papillę, or the matrix, only by nipples; +that there is no blood either in these nipples or +in the vacuities they are niched into, and that +when they are separated (which is easily done) +a milky liquor only issues from them. Now, +how happens it that delivery is always accompanied +with a considerable hęmorrhage, at first +of pure blood, and afterwards mixed with a +watery liquor? This blood does not proceed +from the separation of the placenta, as the +nipples are drawn out without any effusion of +blood. Delivery, which entirely consists, of +this separation, should not, therefore, produce +any blood. Is it not then more accordant +with reason to suppose, that it is the action of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +the blood which causes delivery, and that it is +this menstrual blood which forces the vessels +as soon as the matrix is emptied, and which +begins to flow immediately after delivery as it +did before conception?</p> + +<p>It is known, that in the first months of pregnancy +that which contains the seed of generation +is not adherent to the matrix. By the +experiments of De Graaf it has been seen, that +by blowing on the little ball we can make it +move. The adhesion to the matrix is never +very strong, and at first the placenta with difficulty +adheres to the internal membrane of +the viscera, and those parts are only contiguous, +or joined by a mucilaginous matter, which has +scarcely any adhesion. Why then does it occur, +that in miscarriages of the first and second +month this ball never escapes without a great +effusion of blood? It is certainly not caused +by the passage of the ball quitting the matrix, +since it does not adhere to it; but it is, on the +contrary, by the action of this blood that the +ball is driven out. Must we not then conclude +this blood to be menstrual, which by +forcing the canals, through which it had +been accustomed to pass before impregnation, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> +destroys the product of conception by retaking +its common road?</p> + +<p>It appears, therefore, that the periodical revolution +of the menstrual blood has great influence +on delivery, and that it is the cause +why the times of delivery in women vary so +much more than in every other female who is +not subject to the periodical evacuation, and +which always bring forth at the same times. +It also appears that this revolution, occasioned +by the action of the menstrual blood, is not the +sole cause of birth, but that the action of the +fœtus itself contributes towards it, since there +are instances of a child escaping from the +womb after the death of the mother, which necessarily +supposes an action proper and particular +in itself.</p> + +<p>The space of time which cows, sheep, and +other animals go with young is always the +same, and their deliveries are not attended with +an hęmorrhage. May we not then conclude, +that the blood voided by women after delivery +is the menstrual blood, and that the human +fœtus being born at such different terms, can +only be by the actions of this blood on the +matrix during every periodical revolution? It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> +is natural to imagine, that if the females of viviparous +animals had menses like women, their +deliveries would be followed with an effusion +of blood, and happen at different terms. The +fœtuses of animals come into the world clothed +with their membranes (and it seldom happens +that the membranes are broken), and the +waters flow before the delivery; whereas it is +very rare a child is brought forth with its membranes +entire. This seems to prove that the +human fœtus makes more efforts than other +animals to quit its prison; or that the matrix +of a woman does not so naturally incline to the +passage of the child, for it is the fœtus which +tears its membranes, by the efforts it makes +against the resistance it meets with at the orifice +of the viscera.</p> + + + +<hr class="chap" /> +<p class="caption2"><a name="RECAPITULATION" id="RECAPITULATION">RECAPITULATION.</a></p> + + +<p>All animals procure nutriment from vegetables, +or other animals which feed upon +vegetables; there is, therefore, one common +matter to both, which serves for the nutrition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> +and expansion bf every thing which lives or +vegetates. This matter cannot perform them +but by assimilating itself to each part of the +animal or vegetable, and by intimately penetrating +the texture and form of these parts, +which I have called the <i>internal mould</i>. When +this nutritive matter is more abundant than is +necessary to nourish and expand the animal or +vegetable, it is sent back from every part of the +body, and deposited in one or more reservoirs, +in the form of a liquor; this liquor contains +all the molecules analogous to all parts of the +body; and consequently all that is necessary for +the reproduction of a young being, perfectly +resembling the first. Commonly this nutritive +matter does not become superabundant, in most +kinds of animals, till they have acquired the +greatest part of their growth; and it is for this +reason that animals are not in a state of engendering +before that time.</p> + +<p>When this nutritive and productive matter, +which is universally spread abroad, has passed +through the internal mould of an animal or +vegetable, and has found a proper matrix, it +produces an animal or vegetable, of the same +kind; but when it does not meet with a proper +matrix, it produces organized beings different +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> +from animals and vegetables, as the moving +and vegetating bodies seen in the seminal liquor +of animals, in the infusion of the germ +of plants, &c.</p> + +<p>This productive matter is composed of organic +particles, always active, the motion and +action of which are fixed by the inanimate parts +of matter in general, and particularly by oily +and saline bodies, but as soon as they are disengaged +from this foreign matter, they retake +their action, and produce different kinds of +vegetations and other animated, beings.</p> + +<p>By the microscope, the effects of this productive +matter may be perceived in the seminal +liquors of animals of both sexes. The seed +of the female viviparous animals is filtered +through the glandular bodies which grow upon +their testicles, and these glandular bodies contain +a large quantity of seminal fluid in their +internal cavities. Oviparous females have, as +well as the viviparous, a seminal liquor, which +is still more active than the viviparous. The +seed of the female is in general like that of the +male, when, they are both in a natural state: +they decompose after the same manner, contain +similar organic bodies, and they alike +offer the same phenomena.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p> + +<p>All animal or vegetable substances include +a great quantity of this organic and productive +matter. To perceive it, we need only separate +the inanimate parts in which the active particles +of this matter are engaged. And this +is done by infusing animal or vegetable substances +in water. The salts will dissolve, the +oils separate, and the organic particles will +be seen by their putting themselves in motion. +They are in greater abundance in the seminal +liquors than in any other parts, or rather, +they are less entangled by the inanimate parts. +In the beginning of this infusion, when the +flesh is but slightly dissolved, the organic matter +is seen under the form of moving bodies, +which are almost as large as those of the seminal +liquors: but, in proportion as the decomposition +augments, these organnic particles diminish +in size and increase in motion; and +when the flesh is entirely decomposed, or corrupted, +these same particles are exceedingly +minute, and their motion exceedingly rapid. It +is then that their matter may become a poison, +like that of the tooth of a viper, wherein Mr. +Mead perceived an infinite number of small +pointed bodies, which he took for salts, although +they are only these same organic particles in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> +state of great activity. The pus which issues +from wounds abounds with little insects, and +it may take such a degree of corruption as to +become one of the most subtle poisons; for +every time this active matter is exalted to a +certain point, which may be known by the +rapidity and minuteness of the moving bodies +it contains, it will become a species of poison. +It is the same with the poison of vegetables. +The same matter which serves to feed us when +in its natural state, will destroy us when corrupted. +Spurred barley, for instance, throws +the limbs of men and animals into a gangrene +who feed on it. It is also evident by comparing +the matter which adheres to our teeth, +which is the residue of our food, with that +from the teeth of a viper or mad dog, which is +only the same matter too much exalted, and +corrupted to the last degree.</p> + +<p>When this organic and productive matter is +found collected in a great quantity in some part +of an animal, where it is obliged to remain, it +forms living beings which have been ever regarded +as animals; the tęnia, ascarides, all the +worms found in the veins, liver, in wounds, in +corrupted flesh, and pus, have no other origin; +the eels in paste, vinegar, and all the pretended +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> +microscopical animals are only different forms +which this active matter takes of itself, according +to circumstances, and which invariably +tends to organization.</p> + +<p>In all animal and vegetable substances, decomposed +by infusion, this productive matter +manifests itself immediately under the form of +vegetation. Filaments are seen to form, which +grow and extend like plants. Afterwards these +extremities and knots swell and burst, to give +passage to a multitude of bodies in motion, +which appear to be animals; so that it seems as +if all nature began by a motion of vegetation. +It is seen by microscopical objects, and likewise +by the expansion or unfolding of the animal +embryo; for the fœtus at first has only a +species of vegetable motion.</p> + +<p>Sound food does not furnish any of these +moving molecules for a considerable time. +Several days infusion in water is required for +fresh meat, grain, kernels, &c. before they +offer to our sight any moving bodies; but the +more matters are corrupted, decomposed, or +exalted, the more suddenly these moving bodies +manifest themselves; they are all free from other +matters in seminal liquors; but a few hours +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> +infusion is required to see them in pus, spurred +barley, honey, drugs, &c.</p> + +<p>There exists therefore, an organic matter, +universally diffused in all animal and vegetable +substances, which alike serves for their nutrition, +their growth, and their reproduction. +Nutrition is performed by the intimate penetration +of this matter in all parts of the animal +or vegetable body. Expansion or growth is +only a kind of more extended nutrition, which +is made and performed as long as the parts have +sufficient ductility to swell and extend; and +reproduction is made by the same matter when +it superabounds in the body of the animal or +vegetable; each part of the body sends back, to +the appropriate reservoirs, the organic particles +which exceed what are sufficient for their nourishment. +These particles are absolutely analogous +to each part from which they are sent +back, because they were destined to nourish those +parts from hence, when all the particles sent +back from, collect together, they must form +a body similar to the first, since each particle is +like that part from which it was detached; thus +it is that reproduction is effected in all kinds of +trees, plants, polypuses, pucerons, &c. where +one individual can produce its like; and it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> +also the first mode which Nature uses for the +reproduction of animals which have need of the +communication of different sexes; for the seminal +liquors of both sexes contain all the necessary +molecules for reproduction; but something +more is required for its effectual completion, +which is the mixture of these two liquors +in some places suitable to the expansion of the +fœtus which must result therefrom, which place +is the matrix of the female.</p> + +<p>There are, therefore, no pre-existing germs, +no germs contained one in the other, <i>ad infinitum</i>; +but there is an organic matter perpetually +active, and always ready to form, assimilate, and +produce beings similar to those which receive +it. Animals and vegetables, therefore, can +never be extinct; so long as there subsist individuals +the species will ever be new; they +are the same at present as they were three thousand +years ago, and will perpetually exist, by +the powers they are endowed with, unless annihilated +by the will of the Almighty Creator.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="HISTORY_OF_MAN" id="HISTORY_OF_MAN">HISTORY OF MAN.</a></p> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">OF THE NATURE OF MAN.</p> + + +<p>Though so much interested in acquiring +a thorough knowledge of ourselves, yet I +do not know if man is not less acquainted with +the human, than with any other existence. +Provided by nature with organs, calculated +solely for our preservation, we only employ +them to receive foreign impressions. Intent +on multiplying the functions of our senses, +and on enlarging the external bounds of our +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> +being, we rarely make use of that internal +sense which reduces us to our true dimensions, +and abstracts us from every other part of the +creation. It is, however, by a cultivation of +this sense alone that we can form a proper +judgment of ourselves. But how shall we +give it its full activity and extent? How shall +the soul, in which it resides, be disengaged +from all the illusions of the mind? We have +lost the habit of employing this sense; it has +remained inactive amidst the tumult of our +corporeal sensations, and dried up by the heat +of our passions; the heart, the mind, the senses, +have all co-operated against it.</p> + +<p>Unalterable in its substance, and invulnerable +by its essence, it still, however, continues +the same. Its splendor has been overcast, but +its power has not been diminished: it may be +less luminous, but its guidance is not the less +certain. Let us then collect those rays, of +which we are not yet deprived, and its obscurity +will decrease; and though the road may not +in every part be equally filled with light, we +yet shall have a torch that will prevent us from +going astray.</p> + +<p>The first and most difficult step which +leads to the knowledge of ourselves, is a distinct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> +conception of the two substances that +constitute our being. To say simply, that the +one is unextended, immaterial, and immortal, +and that the other is extended, material, and +mortal, is only to deny to the one, what we affirm +the other possesses. What knowledge is +to be acquired from this mode of negation? +Such negative expressions can exhibit no positive +ideas: but to say that we are certain of the +existence of the former, and that of the latter +is less evident; that the substance of the one is +simple, indivisible, and has no form, since it +only manifests itself by a single modification, +which is thought; that the other is a less substance +than a subject, capable of receiving different +forms, which bear a relation to our +senses, but are all as uncertain and variable as +the organs themselves; that is to say something; +it is to ascribe to each such distinct and positive +properties as may lead us to an elemental knowledge +of both, and to a comparison between +them.</p> + +<p>From the smallest reflection on the origin of +our knowledge, it is easy to perceive that it is +by comparison alone we acquire it. What is +absolutely incomparable, is utterly incomprehensible; +of this God is the only example; he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> +exceeds all comprehension, because he is above +all comparison. But whatever is capable of +being compared, contemplated, and considered +relatively, in different lights, may always come +within the sphere of our understanding. The +more subjects of comparison we have for examining +any object, the more methods there +are for obtaining a knowledge of it, and with +greater facility.</p> + +<p>The existence of the soul is fully demonstrated. +To be and to think are with us identically +the same. This truth is more than intuitive; +it is independent of our senses, of our +imagination, of our memory, and of all our +other relative faculties. The existence of our +bodies, and of external objects, is however held +in uncertainty by every unprejudiced reasoner; +for what is that extension of length, breadth, +and thickness, which we call our body, and +which seems to be so much our own, but as it +relates to our senses? What are even the material +organs of those senses, but so many conformities +with the objects that affect them? +And with regard to our internal sense, has it +any thing similar or in common with these +external organs? Have the sensations excited +by light or sound any resemblance to that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> +tenuous matter, which seems to diffuse light, or +to that tremulous undulation, which sound produces +in the air? The effects are certainly produced +by the necessary conformity there is between +the eyes and ears, and those matters +which act upon them. Is not that a sufficient +proof, that the nature of the soul is different +from that of matter?</p> + +<p>It is then a certain truth, that the internal sensation +is altogether different from its cause; as +also, if external objects exist, they are in themselves +very different from what we conceive +them. As sensation therefore bears no resemblance +to the thing by which it is excited; does +it not follow, that the causes of our sensations, +necessarily differ from our ideas of +them? The extension which we perceive by +our eyes, the impenetrability, of which we receive +an idea by the touch in all those qualities, +whose various combinations constitute matter, +are of a doubtful existence; since our internal +sensations of extension, impenetrability, &c. +are neither extended nor impenetrable, and have +not even the smallest affinity with those qualities.</p> + +<p>The mind being often affected with sensations, +during sleep, very different from those +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> +which it has experienced by the presence of the +same objects, does it not lead to a belief, that +the presence of objects is not necessary to the +existence of our sensations; and that, of consequence, +our mind and body may exist independent +of those objects? During sleep, and after +death, for example, our body has the same existence +as before; yet the mind no longer perceives +this existence, and the body with regard +to us, has ceased to be. The question is therefore, +whether a thing which can exist, and afterwards +be no more, and which affects us in a +manner altogether different from what it is, or +what it has been, may yet be a reality of indubitable +existence.</p> + +<p>That something exists without us, we may +believe, though not with a positive assurance; +whereas of the real existence of every thing +within us, we have a certainty. That of our +soul, therefore, is incontestable, and that of our +body seems doubtful; because the mind has one +mode of perception when we are awake, and +another when we are asleep; after death, it +will perceive by a method still more different, +and the objects of its sensations, or matter in +general, may then cease to exist with respect to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> +it, as well as our bodies with which we have no +further connection.</p> + +<p>But let us admit this existence of matter; and +that it even exists as it appears to our senses, +yet by comparing the mind with any material +object, we shall find differences so great, and +qualities so opposite that every doubt will vanish +of the latter being of a nature totally different, +and infinitely superior.</p> + +<p>The mind has but one form, which is simple, +general, and uniform. Thought is this form; +has nothing in it of division, extension, impenetrability, +nor any other quality of matter; of +consequence, therefore, our mind, the subject +of this form, is indivisible, and immaterial. +Our bodies on the contrary, and all other objects +have many forms, each of which is compounded, +divisible, variable, and perishable; +and has a relation to the different organs, +through which we perceive them. Our bodies, +and matter in general, therefore, have neither +permanent, real, nor general properties, by +which we can attain a certain knowledge of +them. A blind man has no idea of those objects, +which sight represents to us; a leper, whose skin +has lost the sense of feeling, is denied all the +ideas which arise from the touch; and a deaf +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> +man has no knowledge of sounds. Let these +three modes of sensation be successively destroyed, +yet the mind will exist, its external +functions will subsist, and thought will still manifest +it within the man so deprived. But +divest matter of all its qualities; strip it of colour, +of solidity, and of every other property +which has any relation to our senses, and the +consequence will be its annihilation. Our +mind, then, is unperishable, but matter may, +and will perish.</p> + +<p>It is the same with all the other faculties of +our soul when compared with the most essential +properties of matter. As the mind wills +and commands, so the body obeys in every +thing within its power. The mind forms, at +pleasure, an intimate union with any object; +neither distance, magnitude, nor figure, can +obstruct this union, when the mind wills it, it +is effected in an instant. The body can form +no union; whatever touches it too closely injures +it; it requires a long time in order to approach +another body; it every where meets +with resistance, and obstacles, and from the smallest +shock its motion ceases. Is will then nothing +more than a corporeal movement; and is contemplation +but a simple contact? How could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> +this contact take place upon a remote object +or abstracted subjects? How could this movement +be accomplished in an indivisible instant? +Is it possible to have a conception of motion +without having a conception of space and time? +Will, therefore, if it be a motion, is not a material +one; and if the union of the mind with +its object be a contact, it is effected at a distance: +and is not this contact a penetration? +qualities which are absolutely opposite to those +of matter, and which of consequence can only +belong to the immaterial being.</p> + +<p>But I fear I have already dwelt too long on +a subject which, by many, may be considered +as foreign to our purpose; and it might be +asked, "Ought Metaphysical Considerations +on the Soul to find a place in a System of Natural +History?" Were I conscious of abilities +equal to the discussion of a topic so exalted, +this reflection, I must own, would have little +weight with me; and I have contracted my +remarks only because I was afraid I should +not be able to comprehend a subject so enlarged +and so important in its full extent. +Why retrench from the Natural History of +Man the history of his noblest part? Why +thus preposterously debase him; by considering +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> +him merely as an animal, while he is of a nature +so different, and so superior, to that of the +brutes, that those must be immersed in ignorance +like the brutes themselves who ever +thought of confounding them.</p> + +<p>Man, as to the material part of his existence, +certainly bears a resemblance to other +animals, and in comprehending the circle of +natural beings there is a necessity for placing +him in the class of animals. Nature, however, +has neither classes nor species; it contains +only individuals. These species and classes +are nothing but ideas which we have ourselves +formed and established, and though we place +man in one of such classes we do not change +his being; we do not derogate from his dignity; +we do not alter his condition. In a word, we +only place him at the head of those who bear a +similitude to him in the material part of his +being.</p> + +<p>In comparing man with the animal we find +in both an organized body, senses, flesh, blood, +motion, and a multitude of other resemblances. +But these resemblances are all external, and +not sufficient to justify a decision, that the human +and the animal natures are similar. In +order to form a proper judgment of the nature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> +of each we ought to have as distinct a knowledge +of the internal qualities of an animal as +we have of our own. As the knowledge of +what passes within animals is impossible to be +attained, and as we know not of what order +and kind its sensations may be, in relation to +those of man, we can only judge from a comparison +of the effects which result from the natural +operations of both.</p> + +<p>Let us, then, take a view of these effects; +and, while we admit of all the particular resemblances, +limit our investigation to the most +general distinctions. It will be allowed, that +the most stupid man is able to manage the most +acute animal; he governs it, and renders if +subservient to his purposes; and this, not so +much on account of his strength or skill as by +the superiority of his nature, and from his +being possessed of reason, which enables him +to form a rational system of action and method, +by which he compels the animals to obey him. +The strongest and most acute animals do not +give law to the inferior, nor hold them in servitude. +The stronger, it is true, devour the +weaker, but this action implies no more than an +urgent necessity, or a rage of appetite; qualities +very different from that which produces a series +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> +of actions, all tending to the same end. Did +animals enjoy this faculty, should we not see +some of them assume dominion over others, +and oblige them to furnish their food, to watch +over them, and to attend them when sick or +wounded? Now, throughout the creation of +animals, there is no vestige of such subordination, +no appearance that one of them knows, +or is sensible of, the superiority of his own nature +over that of others. It follows, then, that +they must all be considered as of one nature, +and that the nature of man is not only highly +superior to that of the brute, but also entirely +different from it.</p> + +<p>Man, by outward signs, indicates what passes +within him; he communicates his sentiments +by speech, which is a sign common to the +whole human species. The savage and the +civilized man have the same powers of utterance; +both speak naturally, and so as to be +understood. No other animal is endowed with +this expression of thought; nor is that defect +owing, as some have imagined, to the want of +proper organs. Anatomists have found the +tongue of an ape to be as perfect as that of a +man. The ape, therefore, if he had thought, +would have speech, and if its thoughts had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> +aught analogous to ours, this speech would +have an analogy to ours also. Supposing its +thoughts were peculiar to its species, it still +would hold discourse with those of its kind, a +circumstance of which we should have heard +had it been endowed with the powers of speech. +So far then is the ape from having any thought +like ours, that it has not even any order of +thoughts of its own. As they express nothing +by combined and settled signs, they of consequence +are void of thought, or at most have it +in a very small degree.</p> + +<p>That it is from no organical defect animals +are denied the gift of speech is plain, as several +species of them may be taught to pronounce +words, and even repeat sentences of some +length. Perhaps many others might be found +capable of articulating particular sounds<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[AG]</a>; but +to make them conceive the ideas which such +sounds denote is an impracticable task. They +seem to repeat and articulate merely as an +echo, or an artificial machine. It is not in +the mechanical powers, or the material organs, +but in the intellectual faculties, that they are +deficient.</p> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">[AG]</span></a> Leibnitz mentions a dog which had been taught to pronounce +several German and French words.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></p></div> + +<p>As all language supposes a chain of thought, +it is on that account that brute animals have no +speech, for even allowing something in them +which resembles our first apprehensions, our +most gross and mechanical sensations, they still +will be found incapable of forming that association +of ideas which can alone produce reflection; +and in this consists the essence of thought. +To this inability of connecting and separating +ideas it is that they are destitute of thought and +speech, as also that they neither can invent nor +improve any thing. Were they endowed with +the power of reflection, even in the most subordinate +degree, they would be capable of making +some kind of proficiency, and acquire more +industry; the modern beaver would build with +more art and solidity than the ancient; and the +bee would daily be adding new improvements +to its cell; for if we suppose this cell as perfect +already as it can be, we ascribe to the insect an +intelligence superior to our own; by which it +could discern at once the last degree of perfection +to which its work might be carried, while +we ourselves are for ever in the dark as to this +degree, and stand in need of much reflection, +time, and practice, in order to perfect even one +of our most trivial arts.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span></p> + +<p>Whence can arise the uniformity that is in +all the works of animals? Why does each +species invariably perform the same actions in +the same manner? And why does not one +individual perform them better or worse than +another? Can there be a stronger proof that +their operations are merely the effects of mechanism +and materiality? If they possessed the +smallest spark of that light which is inherent +in mankind, their works would display variety +at least, if not perfection, and one individual +would, in its performance, make some little +difference from what another had done. But +this is far from being the case. One plan of +action is common to the whole species, and +whoever would attribute a mind or soul to animals, +must of necessity allow but one to each +species, of which each individual would be an +equal partaker, and as thereby it would be divisible, +it would consequently be material, and +of a nature widely different from ours.</p> + +<p>Why, on the other hand, are the productions +and performances of men so various, and so +diversified? Why is a servile imitation more +troublesome to us than an original design? It +is because our souls are our own, and independent +of any other, and because we have nothing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> +in common with our species but the matter +which forms our body, and in which our +resemblance to brute animals is confined.</p> + +<p>Were internal sensations dependent on corporeal +organs, should we not see as remarkable +difference in the works of animals of the same +species as in those of men? Would not those +which were the most happily organized, build +their nests and contrive their cells in a manner +more solid, elegant, and commodious? And +if any individual possessed a superior genius, +would it not take an opportunity to manifest +that superiority in its actions? But nothing of +this kind has ever happened, and therefore the +corporeal organs, however perfect or imperfect, +have no influence on the nature of the internal +sensations. Hence we may conclude, +that animals have no sensations of this kind; +that such sensations have no connection with +matter, no dependence in their nature on the +texture of corporeal organs, and that of consequence +there must be a substance in man different +from matter, which is the subject and +the cause that produces and receives those sensations.</p> + +<p>But these proofs of the immateriality of the +human mind may be carried still farther. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> +all the works of nature there are imperceptible +gradations maintained. This truth, which in +no other instance admits of exception, is here +expressly contradicted. Between the faculties +of man and those of the most perfect animal +the distance is infinite; an evident proof that +man is of a different nature from the brute +species, and that of himself he forms a distinct +class, between which and that of animals there +is an immense chasm. If man belonged to the +class of animals, there would be a certain number +of beings in nature less perfect than man, +and more perfect than beast, in order to complete +the gradation from a man to the monkey. +But this is not the case; the transition is +immediate from the thinking being to the material +being; from intellectual faculties to mechanical +powers; from order and design to +blind motion; from reflection and choice to +sensual appetite.</p> + +<p>Enough has been here advanced to demonstrate +the excellence of our nature, and of the +immense distance which the bounty of the Creator +has placed between man and the brute. +The former is a rational being, the latter a being +devoid of reason. And as there is no medium +between the positive and the negative, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> +between the rational and irrational being, it is +evident that man is of a nature entirely different +from that of the animal; that all the resemblance +he bears to it is merely external; +and that to judge of him by this resemblance, +is wilfully to shut our eyes against that light, +by which we ought to distinguish truth from +falsehood.</p> + +<p>Having thus considered man as to his internal +properties, and proved the immateriality of his +soul; we shall now proceed to examine his +external part, and give the history of his body. +We have already traced him from his formation +to his birth, and after taking a view of the different +ages of his life, we shall conduct him to +that period when he must be separated from +his body, and then resign him to the common +mass of matter to which he belongs.</p> + + +<hr class="chap" /> + + +<p class="caption2"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></p> + +<p class="caption2">OF INFANCY.</p> + + +<p>Nothing can give us a more striking idea +of imbecility, than the condition in which +an infant appears on its first entrance into the +world. Incapable of making use of its organs, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> +or senses, the infant is in want of every assistance. +It is an image of pain and misery; it is +more helpless than the young of any other animal; +it seems as if every moment would finish +its doubtful existence; it can neither move nor +support itself; hardly has it strength enough to +exist or announce, by its cries, the sufferings it +experiences; as if nature chose to apprise it, +that it was born to suffer, and that it has obtained +a place among the human species to partake +of its infirmities and sorrows.</p> + +<p>Let us not disdain to consider that state +through which we have all passed; let us view +human kind in the cradle; let us enquire by +what degrees this delicate machine, this new-born +and hardly existing body, acquires motion, +consistency, and strength.</p> + +<p>The infant at its birth comes from one element +into another. On emerging from its +watery residence in the womb, it becomes exposed +to the air, and instantly experiences the +impressions of that active fluid. The air acts +upon the olfactory nerves and upon the organs +of respiration, and thereby produces a shock, a +kind of sneezing which expands the chest, and +allows the air a passage into the lungs; the vesicles +of which it dilates, and the air remaining +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> +for some time becomes warm and rarified to a +certain degree; after which this spring of the +fibres thus dilated re-acts upon this light fluid, +and expels it from the lungs. Instead of undertaking +to explain the causes of the alternate motion +of respiration, we shall confine ourselves to +an elucidation of its effects. This function is +essential to the existence of man and of several +species of animals. It is by respiration that life +is preserved; and when it is once begun, it never +ceases till death. Yet there is reason to believe +that the foramen ovale is not closed immediately +after the birth; and of consequence a +part of the blood may continue to pass through +that aperture. All the blood cannot, therefore, +at first have a communication with the lungs; +and it is probable a new-born child might sustain +a privation of air for a considerable time +without losing its existence. Or at least the +possibility of this, I once seemingly confirmed +fey an experiment upon some young dogs. I +put a pregnant bitch, of the large greyhound +species, just as she was about to litter, into a +tub filled with warm water, where after fastening +her in such a manner that the lower parts +were covered with some water, she brought +forth three puppies, which were accordingly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> +received into a liquid as warm as they had left. +After washing them in this water, I removed +the puppies, without giving them time to breathe, +into a smaller tub filled with warm milk; I +chose milk in order that they might receive +nourishment if they required it. In this milk +they were kept immersed above half an hour: +and when taken out they were all found +alive. They began to breathe, and to discharge +some moisture by the mouth. Having allowed +them to respire for half an hour, I again put +them into warm milk, and left them a second +half-hour; at the expiration of which two of +them were taken out vigorous and seemingly +no wise incommoded, but the third appeared +rather in a languishing state; this I caused to +be carried to the mother, which by this time +had produced, in the natural way, six other puppies; +and though it had been brought forth in +water and had lived in milk one half hour before, +and another after it had breathed, it yet +received so little injury from the experiment, +that it presently recovered and was as strong +and lively as the rest of the litter. After allowing +the other two about an hour to breathe, I +put them once more into the warm milk, in +which they remained another half hour. Whether +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> +they swallowed any of this liquor or not +is uncertain; but on being taken out they appeared +nearly as vigorous as ever. After being +carried to the mother, however, one died the +same day; but whether by any accident, or by +what it had suffered while immersed in the liquid, +and deprived of air, I could not determine. +The other lived, as well as the first, +and both throve equally with those which had +not gone through the same trials. This experiment +I never carried farther; but I saw enough +to convince me that respiration is less necessary +to a new-born, than to a grown animal; +and that it might be possible, with proper precautions, +to keep the foramen ovale from being +closed, and thus produce excellent divers, and +different kinds of amphibious animals, which +might live equally in air or in water.</p> + +<p>The air, on its first admission into the lungs, +generally meets with some obstacle, occasioned +by a liquid collected in the wind-pipe. This +obstacle is more or less great, in proportion as +the liquid is more or less viscous. At its birth, +however, the infant raises its head, which before +reclined on its breast, and by this movement +the canal of the wind-pipe is lengthened, the +air obtains a place, and forces the liquid into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> +the lungs: and by dilating the bronchia, it +distributes over their coats the mucous substance +which opposes its passage. The superfluity +of this moisture is presently dried up by +the renewal of the air; or, if the infant is incommoded +by it, it coughs, and at length relieves +itself by expectoration, which, as it has +not yet the strength to spit, is seen to flow from +the mouth.</p> + +<p>As we remember nothing of what happened +to us at this period, it is impossible to determine +what feelings the impression of air produces +in a new-born infant. Its cries, however, +the instant it first draws breath, are pretty certain +signs of the pain it feels from the action of +the air. Till the moment of its birth, the infant +is accustomed to the mild warmth of a +tranquil liquid; and we may suppose, that the +action of a fluid, whose temperature is unequal, +gives too violent a shock to the delicate fibres +of its body. By warmth and by cold it seems +to be equally affected; in every situation it +complains, and pain appears to be its first, its +only sensation.</p> + +<p>For some days after they are brought into the +world, most animals have their eye-lids closed. +Infants open them the moment of their birth, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> +but they are fixed and dull; they want that +lustre which they afterwards acquire; and when +they move, it is rather an accidental roll than +an act of vision. The pupil of the eye is seen +to dilate, or contract, in proportion to the quantity +of light it receives, yet is incapable of distinguishing +objects, because the organs of vision +are still imperfect; the tunica cornea, or +horny tunicle is wrinkled, and perhaps the +retina is also too soft to receive the images +of external objects, and admit the sense of +seeing.</p> + +<p>The same remark is equally applicable to the +other senses; they have not acquired that consistency +which is necessary to their operations; +and even when they have, a long time must +elapse before the sensations of the infant can +be just and complete. The senses are so many +instruments which we must learn to employ. +Of these sight, which seems to be the noblest +and the most admirable, is also the most uncertain +and delusive; and were its effects not every +moment corrected by the testimony of touching +we should constantly be misled and draw +false conclusions. This sense of touching is the +measure and criterion of all the others; it alone +is essential to the animal's existence; and is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> +alone diffused universally over its body. Yet, +even this sense, in an infant just born, is imperfect; +by its cries, indeed, it gives indication +of pain; but it has no expression to denote +pleasure. It is forty days before it begins to +smile; about the same time also it begins to +weep; its former expressions of pain being +unaccompanied with tears. On the countenance +of a new born infant there appears no +vestige of the passions, the features of the face +not having acquired that consistence and form +which are necessary for expressing the sentiments +of the soul. All the other parts of its body are +alike feeble and delicate; its motions are unsteady +and uncertain; it is unable to stand upright; +its legs and thighs are still bent, from +the habit it contracted in the womb; it has +not strength enough to stretch forth its arms or +to grasp any thing with its hands; and, if +abandoned, it would remain on its back, without +being able to turn itself.</p> + +<p>From all which it appears, that the pain felt +by infants soon after their birth, and which they +express by crying, is a sensation merely corporeal, +similar to that of other animals, who +also cry the minute they are brought forth; as +also, that the mental sensations do not begin to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> +manifest themselves till forty days have elapsed; +smiling and weeping being produced by two +internal sensations, which both depend on the +action of the mind. The former is the effect +of an agreeable emotion, which can only arise +from the sight, or resemblance of an object +known, beloved, and desired; the latter is that +of a disagreeable impression, compounded of +sympathy, and anxious concern for ourselves; +both imply a certain degree of knowledge, as +well as an ability to compare, and to reflect. +Smiles and tears, therefore, are signs peculiar +to the human species, for expressing mental +pleasure or pain; while cries, and the other +signs of bodily pain and pleasure, are common +to man, and to the greatest part of the animal +creation.</p> + +<p>But let us return to the material organs and +affections of the body. The size of an infant +born at the full time, is usually about twenty-one +inches; this is not without exception, some +falling short of and others exceeding this measurement. +In children of twenty-one inches, +the breast, measured by the length of the sternum, +is nearly three inches; and in those of +fourteen, only two inches. At nine months, +the fœtus generally weighs from twelve to fourteen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> +pounds. The head is large in proportion +to the rest of the body; but this disproportion +gradually wears off as the size of the child increases. +Its skin is very soft, and from its +transparency, by which the blood beneath appears, +it is also of a reddish cast. It is even +pretended, that those children whose skins are +the most red when born, will afterwards be the +fairest, and the most beautiful.</p> + +<p>The form of the body and the members +of a new born infant, are by no means perfect: +all the parts are too round, and even when the +child is in good health, they seem swelled. At +the end of three days, there generally appears +a kind of jaundice; and at this time there is +generally milk in the breasts of the infants, +which is squeezed out with the fingers. The +superfluous juices, and the swelling of the different +parts diminish by degrees, as the child +increases in growth.</p> + +<p>In some children just born, the brain-pan +may be observed to palpitate; and in all, the +action of the sinuses, or arteries of the brain, +may be felt at this place. Over this aperture +is formed a kind of scurf, which is sometimes +very thick, and must be rubbed with brushes +in proportion as it begins to dry. This matter +seems to have some analogy with that of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> +horns of some animals, which also derive their +origin from an aperture of the skull, and from +the substance of the brain. We shall hereafter +take an opportunity to shew, that the extremities +of the nerves become solid by being +exposed to the air, and that it is this nervous +substance produces claws, nails, horns, &c.</p> + +<p>The fluid contained in the amnios leaves a +viscous, whitish matter upon the infant, which +is sometimes so adhesive, that it must be diluted +with some mild liquid before it can be +removed. In this country we never wash the +infant but in warm water; yet there are whole +nations, who inhabit climates much more +severe than ours, that plunge their children +into cold water the minute they are born, +without their suffering the least injury. The +Laplanders are even said to leave their infants +in snow, till by the cold their respiration is nearly +stopped, and then plunge them into a bath of +warm water. They are treated thus roughly +thrice every day during the first year, and +afterwards as often every week, do they undergo +an immersion in cold water. The people +of the North are persuaded that the practice +of cold bathing renders men more healthy +and robust; and it is for this reason they +enure their progeny to it from their birth. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> +The truth is, we are ignorant with the extent +of what our body is capable of suffering, acquiring, +or losing by the power of habit. The +Indians in the isthmus of America, for example, +receive no injury from plunging into +cold water when in a sweat; and as the most +speedy remedy for intoxication, the women +throw their husbands into the river when they +are drunk; the minute after delivery, mothers +scruple not to bathe in cold water with their +infants, and yet dangerous as we should consider +this practice, these women are rarely +known to die in child-bearing.</p> + +<p>A few minutes after birth the infant discharges +urine, and this generally when it feels +the heat of the fire: and sometimes also the +meconium or excrement which have been collected +in the intestines during its residence in +the matrix. This last evacuation is not always +performed so soon, but if it does not happen in +the course of the first day, the child is often affected +with a pain in the bowels; in which case +methods are taken to facilitate the discharge. +The meconium is black, and when the infant +is effectually eased of it, the subsequent stools +are of a whitish cast. This change generally +happens on the second or third day, and then +the excrement becomes more fœtid than the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> +meconium; a proof that the bile and other +bitter humours of the body begin to intermix +with it. This fact tends to support our former +remark, that the fœtus did not receive any +food by its mouth, but received all its nourishment +by absorption.</p> + +<p>The infant is allowed time to throw off the +slime and meconium, which are in its bowels +and intestines, before it is allowed to suck. As +these substances might sour the milk, and produce +bad effects, it is first made to swallow a +little wine and sugar, in order to fortify the stomach, +and to procure such evacuations as may +be necessary to prepare it for receiving and digesting +its food; nor ought it to receive the +breast till 10 or 12 hours after the birth.</p> + +<p>Hardly has the infant left the womb of its +mother, and enjoyed the liberty of extending +its limbs, when it is again put into a more cruel +confinement. The head of the helpless infant +is fixed to one position; its arms and legs put +in strict bondage, and it is laced with bandages +so strait as not to be able to move a single +joint. Well is it when the compression is not +so great as to obstruct the respiration, or that +the midwife has taken the precaution to lay it +upon its side, that the natural moisture may +emit of itself from the mouth, since it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> +denied the power of turning its head in order +to facilitate this emission. Do not then those +nations act more wisely than we who cover or +clothe their children without shackling them +in swathing-bands? the Siamese, the Japanese, +the Indians, the Negroes, the Savages of Canada, +of Virginia, or Brazil, and almost all +the inhabitants of South America, lay their +infants naked upon a suspended bed of cotton +or put them into their cradles lined with fur. +Those practices are certainly liable to less inconveniences +than ours. In swaddling a child, +it is impossible but the restraint must give it uneasiness; +and the efforts it makes to disentangle +itself have a greater tendency to injure the +form of the body, than any position it might +assume was it left at full liberty. Swathing-bands +may be compared to stays, which young +girls are made to wear in order to preserve their +shapes, but which nevertheless occasion more +diseases and deformities than they are supposed +to prevent.</p> + +<p>If the efforts which children make for liberty, +when confined in the swaddling-clothes, are +hurtful, the inaction in which they are held by +it, is perhaps still more so. Want of exercise +naturally retards the growth of their limbs, +and diminishes the strength of their bodies; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> +and of consequence such children as enjoy the +liberty of moving at pleasure, must be the most +vigorous. It was for this reason that the ancient +Peruvians gave their infants the full freedom +of their arms in a swathing-bag; afterwards, +as their children grew, they put them +up to the middle in a hole dug in the earth, and +lined with linen; by this method they had their +arms free, and could move their heads and bend +their bodies, without falling or hurting themselves. +So soon as they were able to step, they +were presented with the breast, at a little distance, +as an incentive for them to walk. The +children of Negroes are often exposed to much +greater fatigues, in order to come at the nipple, +they cling round one of their mother's haunches +with their legs, and support themselves without +any assistance from her; seizing the breast they +continue to suck in perfect safety, notwithstanding +she is all the while in motion, or at +work. These children begin to walk, or rather +creep on their knees and hands, in the second +month; and this exercise qualities them +for running afterwards in this manner, almost +as nimble as they do upon their feet.</p> + + +<p class="caption3"><i>END OF THE THIRD VOLUME.</i></p> + + +<p class="center larger">T. Gillet, Printer, Wild Court.</p> + + +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="trans_notes"> +<p class="caption2"><a name="Transcriber_Note" id="Transcriber_Note">Transcriber's Note</a></p> + +<p>All paragraphs split by illustrations were rejoined.</p> + +<p>All obvious typographical errors were corrected.</p> + +<p>In the <a href="#ToC">Table of +Contents</a>, <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI</a>'s starting page was corrected to +<a href="#Page_81"> 81</a>.</p> + +<p>On page <a href="#Page_203">page 203</a>, +the word sospetare was changed to sospettare.</p> + +<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Chapter XI</a> (p. 260) was mislabeled +as "IX" and was corrected.</p> + +<p>Likewise, <a href="#Page_334">Chapter II</a> (page 334) was mislabeled "III" and +was corrected.</p> + +<p>Otherwise, all text is as presented in the printed version.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<hr class="pg" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY, VOLUME III (OF 10)***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 45639-h.txt or 45639-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/5/6/3/45639">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/5/6/3/45639</a></p> +<p> +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p> +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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