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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: The Quest of the Historical Jesus + +Author: Albert Schweitzer + +Release Date: April 26, 2014 [Ebook #45422] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE QUEST OF THE HISTORICAL JESUS*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">The Quest of the Historical Jesus</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">A Critical Study of its Progress From Reimarus to + Wrede</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">By</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">Albert Schweitzer</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Privatdocent in New + Testament Studies in the University of Strassburg</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">Translated By</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">W. Montgomery, B.A., B.D.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">With a Preface by</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">F. C. Burkitt, M.A., D.D.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Norrisian Professor of + Divinity in the University of Cambridge</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Second English Edition</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">London</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Adam and Charles + Black</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1911</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Preface</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">I. The Problem</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc5">II. Hermann Samuel Reimarus</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc7">III. The Lives Of Jesus Of The Earlier + Rationalism</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc9">IV. The Earliest Fictitious Lives Of + Jesus</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc11">V. Fully Developed Rationalism—Paulus</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc13">VI. The Last Phase Of Rationalism—Hase And + Schleiermacher</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc15">VII. David Friedrich Strauss—The Man And His + Fate</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc17">VIII. Strauss's First “Life Of Jesus”</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc19">IX. Strauss's Opponents And + Supporters</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc21">X. The Marcan Hypothesis</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc23">XI. Bruno Bauer. The First Sceptical Life Of + Jesus</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc25">XII. Further Imaginative Lives Of + Jesus</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc27">XIII. Renan</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc29">XIV. The “Liberal” Lives Of Jesus</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc31">XV. The Eschatological Question</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc33">XVI. The Struggle Against Eschatology</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc35">XVII. Questions Regarding The Aramaic + Language, Rabbinic Parallels, And Buddhistic Influence</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc37">XVIII. The Position Of The Subject At The + Close Of The Nineteenth Century</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc39">XIX. Thoroughgoing Scepticism And + Thoroughgoing Eschatology</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc41">XX. Results</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc43">Index Of Authors And Works</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc45">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"></p> + + <div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 40%; text-align: center"> + <a href="images/cover.jpg"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt= + "Cover Art" /></a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageiv">[pg iv]</span><a name="Pgiv" + id="Pgiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">First Edition published + March 1910</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" + id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The book here + translated is offered to the English-speaking public in the belief + that it sets before them, as no other book has ever done, the history + of the struggle which the best-equipped intellects of the modern + world have gone through in endeavouring to realise for themselves the + historical personality of our Lord.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Every one nowadays is + aware that traditional Christian doctrine about Jesus Christ is + encompassed with difficulties, and that many of the statements in the + Gospels appear incredible in the light of modern views of history and + nature. But when the alternative of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus or Christ</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span><span style= + "font-style: italic">is put forward, as it has been in a recent + publication, or when we are bidden to choose between the Jesus of + history and the Christ of dogma, few except professed students know + what a protean and kaleidoscopic figure the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus of history</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">is. Like the Christ in the Apocryphal Acts of + John, He has appeared in different forms to different minds.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style="font-style: italic">We know + Him right well,</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">says Professor Weinel.</span><a id="noteref_1" + name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a><span style="font-style: italic">What + a claim!</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Among the many bold + paradoxes enunciated in this history of the Quest, there is one that + meets us at the outset, about which a few words may be said here, if + only to encourage those to persevere to the end who might otherwise + be repelled halfway—the paradox that the greatest attempts to write a + Life of Jesus have been written with hate.</span><a id="noteref_2" + name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; font-style: italic; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> + <span style="font-style: italic">It is in full accordance with this + faith that Dr. Schweitzer gives, in paragraph after paragraph, the + undiluted expression of the views of men who agree only in their + unflinching desire to attain historical truth. We are not accustomed + to be so ruthless in England. We sometimes tend to forget that the + Gospel has moved the world, and we think our faith and devotion to it + so tender and delicate a thing that it will break, if it be not + handled with the utmost circumspection. So we become dominated</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevi">[pg vi]</span><a name="Pgvi" id= + "Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">by + phrases and afraid of them. Dr. Schweitzer is not afraid of phrases, + if only they have been beaten out by real contact with facts. And + those who read to the end will see that the crude sarcasm of Reimarus + and the unflinching scepticism of Bruno Bauer are not introduced + merely to shock and by way of contrast. Each in his own way made a + real contribution to our understanding of the greatest historical + problem in the history of our race. We see now that the object of + attack was not the historical Jesus after all, but a temporary idea + of Him, inadequate because it did not truly represent Him or the + world in which He lived. And by hearing the writers' characteristic + phrases, uncompromising as they may be, by looking at things for a + moment from their own point of view, different as it may be from + ours, we are able to be more just, not only to these men of a past + age, but also to the great Problem that occupied them, as it also + occupies us.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">For, as Father Tyrrell + has been pointing out in his last most impressive message to us all, + Christianity is at the Cross Roads. If the Figure of our Lord is to + mean anything for us we must realise it for ourselves. Most English + readers of the New Testament have been too long content with the + rough and ready Harmony of the Four Gospels that they unconsciously + construct. This kind of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harmony</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span><span style= + "font-style: italic">is not a very convincing picture when looked + into, if only because it almost always conflicts with inconvenient + statements of the Gospels themselves, statements that have been + omitted from the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Harmony</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span><span style= + "font-style: italic">, not on any reasoned theory, but simply from + inadvertence or the difficulty of fitting them in. We treat the Life + of our Lord too much as it is treated in the Liturgical</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gospels</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span><span style= + "font-style: italic">, as a simple series of disconnected + anecdotes.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dr. Schweitzer's book + does not pretend to be an impartial survey. He has his own solution + of the problems, and it is not to be expected that English students + will endorse the whole of his view of the Gospel History, any more + than his German fellow-workers have done. But valuable and suggestive + as I believe his constructive work to be in its main outlines, I + venture to think his grasp of the nature and complexity of the great + Quest is even more remarkable, and his exposition of it cannot fail + to stimulate us in England. Whatever we may think of Dr. Schweitzer's + solution or that of his opponents, we too have to reckon with the Son + of Man who was expected to come before the apostles had gone over the + cities of Israel, the Son of Man who would come in His Kingdom before + some that heard our Lord speak should taste death, the Son of Man who + came to give His life a ransom for many, whom</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name="Pgvii" id="Pgvii" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">they + would see hereafter coming with the clouds of heaven.</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style="font-style: italic">Who is + this Son of Man?</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">Dr. Schweitzer's book is an attempt to give the + full historical value and the true historical setting to these + fundamental words of the Gospel of Jesus.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Our first duty, with + the Gospel as with every other ancient document, is to interpret it + with reference to its own time. The true view of the Gospel will be + that which explains the course of events in the first century and the + second century, rather than that which seems to have spiritual and + imaginative value for the twentieth century. Yet I cannot refrain + from pointing out here one feature of the theory of thoroughgoing + eschatology, which may appeal to those who are accustomed to the + venerable forms of ancient Christian aspiration and worship. It may + well be that absolute truth cannot be embodied in human thought and + that its expression must always be clothed in symbols. It may be that + we have to translate the hopes and fears of our spiritual ancestors + into the language of our new world. We have to learn, as the Church + in the second century had to learn, that the End is not yet, that New + Jerusalem, like all other objects of sense, is an image of the truth + rather than the truth itself. But at least we are beginning to see + that the apocalyptic vision, the New Age which God is to bring in, is + no mere embroidery of Christianity, but the heart of its enthusiasm. + And therefore the expectations of vindication and judgment to come, + the imagery of the Messianic Feast, the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">other-worldliness</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">against which so many eloquent words were said + in the nineteenth century, are not to be regarded as regrettable + accretions foisted on by superstition to the pure morality of the + original Gospel. These ideas are the Christian Hope, to be + allegorised and</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">spiritualised</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">by us for our own use whenever necessary, but + not to be given up so long as we remain Christians at all. Books + which teach us boldly to trust the evidence of our documents, and to + accept the eschatology of the Christian Gospel as being historically + the eschatology of Jesus, help us at the same time to retain a real + meaning and use for the ancient phrases of the Te Deum, and for the + mediaeval strain of</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jerusalem the Golden.</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">F. C. + Burkitt.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cambridge, + 1910.</span></span></p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name= + "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">I. The Problem</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When, at some + future day, our period of civilisation shall lie, closed and + completed, before the eyes of later generations, German theology will + stand out as a great, a unique phenomenon in the mental and spiritual + life of our time. For nowhere save in the German temperament can + there be found in the same perfection the living complex of + conditions and factors—of philosophic thought, critical acumen, + historical insight, and religious feeling—without which no deep + theology is possible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the greatest + achievement of German theology is the critical investigation of the + life of Jesus. What it has accomplished here has laid down the + conditions and determined the course of the religious thinking of the + future.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the history of + doctrine its work has been negative; it has, so to speak, cleared the + site for a new edifice of religious thought. In describing how the + ideas of Jesus were taken possession of by the Greek spirit, it was + tracing the growth of that which must necessarily become strange to + us, and, as a matter of fact, has become strange to us.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of its efforts to + create a new dogmatic we scarcely need to have the history written; + it is alive within us. It is no doubt interesting to trace how modern + thoughts have found their way into the ancient dogmatic system, there + to combine with eternal ideas to form new constructions; it is + interesting to penetrate into the mind of the thinker in which this + process is at work; but the real truth of that which here meets us as + history we experience within ourselves. As in the monad of Leibnitz + the whole universe is reflected, so we intuitively experience within + us, even apart from any clear historical knowledge, the successive + stages of the progress of modern dogma, from rationalism to Ritschl. + This experience is true knowledge, all the truer because we are + conscious of the whole <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg + 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as + something indefinite, a slow and difficult movement towards a goal + which is still shrouded in obscurity. We have not yet arrived at any + reconciliation between history and modern thought—only between + half-way history and half-way thought. What the ultimate goal towards + which we are moving will be, what this something is which shall bring + new life and new regulative principles to coming centuries, we do not + know. We can only dimly divine that it will be the mighty deed of + some mighty original genius, whose truth and rightness will be proved + by the fact that we, working at our poor half thing, will oppose him + might and main—we who imagine we long for nothing more eagerly than a + genius powerful enough to open up with authority a new path for the + world, seeing that we cannot succeed in moving it forward along the + track which we have so laboriously prepared.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For this reason + the history of the critical study of the life of Jesus is of higher + intrinsic value than the history of the study of ancient dogma or of + the attempts to create a new one. It has to describe the most + tremendous thing which the religious consciousness has ever dared and + done. In the study of the history of dogma German theology settled + its account with the past; in its attempt to create a new dogmatic, + it was endeavouring to keep a place for the religious life in the + thought of the present; in the study of the life of Jesus it was + working for the future—in pure faith in the truth, not seeing + whereunto it wrought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, we are + here dealing with the most vital thing in the world's history. There + came a Man to rule over the world; He ruled it for good and for ill, + as history testifies; He destroyed the world into which He was born; + the spiritual life of our own time seems like to perish at His hands, + for He leads to battle against our thought a host of dead ideas, a + ghostly army upon which death has no power, and Himself destroys + again the truth and goodness which His Spirit creates in us, so that + it cannot rule the world. That He continues, notwithstanding, to + reign as the alone Great and alone True in a world of which He denied + the continuance, is the prime example of that antithesis between + spiritual and natural truth which underlies all life and all events, + and in Him emerges into the field of history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is only at + first sight that the absolute indifference of early Christianity + towards the life of the historical Jesus is disconcerting. When Paul, + representing those who recognise the signs of the times, did not + desire to know Christ after the flesh, that was the first expression + of the impulse of self-preservation by which Christianity continued + to be guided for centuries. It felt that with the introduction of the + historic Jesus into its faith, there would arise something new, + something which had not been foreseen in the thoughts of the Master + Himself, and that thereby a contradiction <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> would be brought to light, the solution of + which would constitute one of the great problems of the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Primitive + Christianity was therefore right to live wholly in the future with + the Christ who was to come, and to preserve of the historic Jesus + only detached sayings, a few miracles, His death and resurrection. By + abolishing both the world and the historical Jesus it escaped the + inner division described above, and remained consistent in its point + of view. We, on our part, have reason to be grateful to the early + Christians that, in consequence of this attitude they have handed + down to us, not biographies of Jesus but only Gospels, and that + therefore we possess the Idea and the Person with the minimum of + historical and contemporary limitations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the world + continued to exist, and its continuance brought this one-sided view + to an end. The supra-mundane Christ and the historical Jesus of + Nazareth had to be brought together into a single personality at once + historical and raised above time. That was accomplished by Gnosticism + and the Logos Christology. Both, from opposite standpoints, because + they were seeking the same goal, agreed in sublimating the historical + Jesus into the supra-mundane Idea. The result of this development, + which followed on the discrediting of eschatology, was that the + historical Jesus was again introduced into the field of view of + Christianity, but in such a way that all justification for, and + interest in, the investigation of His life and historical personality + were done away with.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Greek theology was + as indifferent in regard to the historical Jesus who lives concealed + in the Gospels as was the early eschatological theology. More than + that, it was dangerous to Him; for it created a new + supernatural-historical Gospel, and we may consider it fortunate that + the Synoptics were already so firmly established that the Fourth + Gospel could not oust them; instead, the Church, as though from the + inner necessity of the antitheses which now began to be a + constructive element in her thought, was obliged to set up two + antithetic Gospels alongside of one another.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When at Chalcedon + the West overcame the East, its doctrine of the two natures dissolved + the unity of the Person, and thereby cut off the last possibility of + a return to the historical Jesus. The self-contradiction was elevated + into a law. But the Manhood was so far admitted as to preserve, in + appearance, the rights of history. Thus by a deception the formula + kept the Life prisoner and prevented the leading spirits of the + Reformation from grasping the idea of a return to the historical + Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This dogma had + first to be shattered before men could once more go out in quest of + the historical Jesus, before they could even grasp the thought of His + existence. That the historic Jesus is something <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> different from the Jesus Christ of the + doctrine of the Two Natures seems to us now self-evident. We can, at + the present day, scarcely imagine the long agony in which the + historical view of the life of Jesus came to birth. And even when He + was once more recalled to life, He was still, like Lazarus of old, + bound hand and foot with grave-clothes—the grave-clothes of the dogma + of the Dual Nature. Hase relates, in the preface to his first Life of + Jesus (1829), that a worthy old gentleman, hearing of his project, + advised him to treat in the first part of the human, in the second of + the divine Nature. There was a fine simplicity about that. But does + not the simplicity cover a presentiment of the revolution of thought + for which the historical method of study was preparing the way—a + presentiment which those who were engaged in the work did not share + in the same measure? It was fortunate that they did not; for + otherwise how could they have had the courage to go on?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The historical + investigation of the life of Jesus did not take its rise from a + purely historical interest; it turned to the Jesus of history as an + ally in the struggle against the tyranny of dogma. Afterwards when it + was freed from this πάθος it sought to present the historic Jesus in + a form intelligible to its own time. For Bahrdt and Venturini He was + the tool of a secret order. They wrote under the impression of the + immense influence exercised by the Order of the Illuminati<a id= + "noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> at the + end of the eighteenth century. For Reinhard, Hess, Paulus, and the + rest of the rationalistic writers He is the admirable revealer of + true virtue, which is coincident with right reason. Thus each + successive epoch of theology found its own thoughts in Jesus; that + was, indeed, the only way in which it could make Him live.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was not + only each epoch that found its reflection in Jesus; each individual + created Him in accordance with his own character. There is no + historical task which so reveals a man's true self as the writing of + a Life of Jesus. No vital force comes into the figure unless a man + breathes into it all the hate or all the love of which he is capable. + The stronger the love, or the stronger the hate, the more life-like + is the figure which is produced. For hate as well as love can write a + Life of Jesus, and the greatest of them are written with hate: that + of Reimarus, the Wolfenbüttel Fragmentist, and that of David + Friedrich Strauss. It was not so much hate of the Person of Jesus as + of the supernatural nimbus with which it was so easy to surround Him, + and with which He had in fact been surrounded. They were eager to + picture Him as truly and purely human, to strip from Him the robes of + splendour with which He <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg + 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had + been apparelled, and clothe Him once more with the coarse garments in + which He had walked in Galilee.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And their hate + sharpened their historical insight. They advanced the study of the + subject more than all the others put together. But for the offence + which they gave, the science of historical theology would not have + stood where it does to-day. <span class="tei tei-q">“It must needs be + that offences come; but woe to that man by whom the offence + cometh.”</span> Reimarus evaded that woe by keeping the offence to + himself and preserving silence during his lifetime—his work, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Aims of Jesus and His Disciples,”</span> + was only published after his death, by Lessing. But in the case of + Strauss, who, as a young man of twenty-seven, cast the offence openly + in the face of the world, the woe fulfilled itself. His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus”</span> was his ruin. But he did not cease + to be proud of it in spite of all the misfortune that it brought him. + <span class="tei tei-q">“I might well bear a grudge against my + book,”</span> he writes twenty-five years later in the preface to the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Conversations of Ulrich von + Hutten,”</span><a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href= + "#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“for it has done me much evil (<span class= + "tei tei-q">‘And rightly so!’</span> the pious will exclaim). It has + excluded me from public teaching in which I took pleasure and for + which I had perhaps some talent; it has torn me from natural + relationships and driven me into unnatural ones; it has made my life + a lonely one. And yet when I consider what it would have meant if I + had refused to utter the word which lay upon my soul, if I had + suppressed the doubts which were at work in my mind—then I bless the + book which has doubtless done me grievous harm outwardly, but which + preserved the inward health of my mind and heart, and, I doubt not, + has done the same for many others also.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before him, Bahrdt + had his career broken in consequence of revealing his beliefs + concerning the Life of Jesus; and after him, Bruno Bauer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was easy for + them, resolved as they were to open the way even with seeming + blasphemy. But the others, those who tried to bring Jesus to life at + the call of love, found it a cruel task to be honest. The critical + study of the life of Jesus has been for theology a school of honesty. + The world had never seen before, and will never see again, a struggle + for truth so full of pain and renunciation as that of which the Lives + of Jesus of the last hundred years contain the cryptic record. One + must read the successive Lives of Jesus with which Hase followed the + course of the study from the 'twenties to the 'seventies of the + nineteenth century to get an inkling of what it must have cost the + men who lived through that decisive period really to maintain that + <span class="tei tei-q">“courageous freedom of investigation”</span> + which the great Jena professor, in the preface to his first Life of + Jesus, claims for his researches. One sees in him the marks of the + struggle with which he gives up, bit by bit, things <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which, when he wrote that preface, he + never dreamed he would have to surrender. It was fortunate for these + men that their sympathies sometimes obscured their critical vision, + so that, without becoming insincere, they were able to take white + clouds for distant mountains. That was the kindly fate of Hase and + Beyschlag.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The personal + character of the study is not only due, however, to the fact that a + personality can only be awakened to life by the touch of a + personality; it lies in the essential nature of the problem itself. + For the problem of the life of Jesus has no analogue in the field of + history. No historical school has ever laid down canons for the + investigation of this problem, no professional historian has ever + lent his aid to theology in dealing with it. Every ordinary method of + historical investigation proves inadequate to the complexity of the + conditions. The standards of ordinary historical science are here + inadequate, its methods not immediately applicable. The historical + study of the life of Jesus has had to create its own methods for + itself. In the constant succession of unsuccessful attempts, five or + six problems have emerged side by side which together constitute the + fundamental problem. There is, however, no direct method of solving + the problem in its complexity; all that can be done is to experiment + continuously, starting from definite assumptions; and in this + experimentation the guiding principle must ultimately rest upon + historical intuition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cause of this + lies in the nature of the sources of the life of Jesus, and in the + character of our knowledge of the contemporary religious world of + thought. It is not that the sources are in themselves bad. When we + have once made up our minds that we have not the materials for a + complete Life of Jesus, but only for a picture of His public + ministry, it must be admitted that there are few characters of + antiquity about whom we possess so much indubitably historical + information, of whom we have so many authentic discourses. The + position is much more favourable, for instance, than in the case of + Socrates; for he is pictured to us by literary men who exercised + their creative ability upon the portrait. Jesus stands much more + immediately before us, because He was depicted by simple Christians + without literary gift.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But at this point + there arises a twofold difficulty. There is first the fact that what + has just been said applies only to the first three Gospels, while the + fourth, as regards its character, historical data, and discourse + material, forms a world of its own. It is written from the Greek + standpoint, while the first three are written from the Jewish. And + even if one could get over this, and regard, as has often been done, + the Synoptics and the Fourth Gospel as standing in something of the + same relation to one another as Xenophon does to Plato as sources for + the life of Socrates, yet the complete irreconcilability of the + historical data would compel the critical <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> investigator to decide from the first in favour + of one source or the other. Once more it is found true that + <span class="tei tei-q">“No man can serve two masters.”</span> This + stringent dilemma was not recognised from the beginning; its + emergence is one of the results of the whole course of + experiment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second + difficulty regarding the sources is the want of any thread of + connexion in the material which they offer us. While the Synoptics + are only collections of anecdotes (in the best, historical sense of + the word), the Gospel of John—as stands on record in its closing + words—only professes to give a selection of the events and + discourses.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From these + materials we can only get a Life of Jesus with yawning gaps. How are + these gaps to be filled? At the worst with phrases, at the best with + historical imagination. There is really no other means of arriving at + the order and inner connexion of the facts of the life of Jesus than + the making and testing of hypotheses. If the tradition preserved by + the Synoptists really includes all that happened during the time that + Jesus was with His disciples, the attempt to discover the connexion + must succeed sooner or later. It becomes more and more clear that + this presupposition is indispensable to the investigation. If it is + merely a fortuitous series of episodes that the Evangelists have + handed down to us, we may give up the attempt to arrive at a critical + reconstruction of the life of Jesus as hopeless.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is not only + the events which lack historical connexion; we are without any + indication of a thread of connexion in the actions and discourses of + Jesus, because the sources give no hint of the character of His + self-consciousness. They confine themselves to outward facts. We only + begin to understand these historically when we can mentally place + them in an intelligible connexion and conceive them as the acts of a + clearly defined personality. All that we know of the development of + Jesus and of His Messianic self-consciousness has been arrived at by + a series of working hypotheses. Our conclusions can only be + considered valid so long as they are not found incompatible with the + recorded facts as a whole.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be + maintained by the aid of arguments drawn from the sources that the + self-consciousness of Jesus underwent a development during the course + of His public ministry; it may, with equally good grounds, be denied. + For in both cases the arguments are based upon little details in the + narrative in regard to which we do not know whether they are purely + accidental, or whether they belong to the essence of the facts. In + each case, moreover, the experimental working out of the hypothesis + leads to a conclusion which compels the rejection of some of the + actual data of the sources. Each view equally involves a violent + treatment of the text.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Furthermore, the + sources exhibit, each within itself, a striking <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> contradiction. They assert that Jesus + felt Himself to be the Messiah; and yet from their presentation of + His life it does not appear that He ever publicly claimed to be so. + They attribute to Him, that is, an attitude which has absolutely no + connexion with the consciousness which they assume that He possessed. + But once admit that the outward acts are not the natural expression + of the self-consciousness and all exact historical knowledge is at an + end; we have to do with an isolated fact which is not referable to + any law.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This being so, the + only way of arriving at a conclusion of any value is to experiment, + to test, by working them out, the two hypotheses—that Jesus felt + Himself to be the Messiah, as the sources assert, or that He did not + feel Himself to be so, as His conduct implies; or else to try to + conjecture what kind of Messianic consciousness His must have been, + if it left His conduct and His discourses unaffected. For one thing + is certain: the whole account of the last days at Jerusalem would be + unintelligible, if we had to suppose that the mass of the people had + a shadow of a suspicion that Jesus held Himself to be the + Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, whereas in + general a personality is to some extent defined by the world of + thought which it shares with its contemporaries, in the case of Jesus + this source of information is as unsatisfactory as the documents.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What was the + nature of the contemporary Jewish world of thought? To that question + no clear answer can be given. We do not know whether the expectation + of the Messiah was generally current or whether it was the faith of a + mere sect. With the Mosaic religion as such it had nothing to do. + There was no organic connexion between the religion of legal + observance and the future hope. Further, if the eschatological hope + was generally current, was it the prophetic or the apocalyptic form + of that hope? We know the Messianic expectations of the prophets; we + know the apocalyptic picture as drawn by Daniel, and, following him, + by Enoch and the Psalms of Solomon before the coming of Jesus, and by + the Apocalypses of Ezra and Baruch about the time of the destruction + of Jerusalem. But we do not know which was the popular form; nor, + supposing that both were combined into one picture, what this picture + really looked like. We know only the form of eschatology which meets + us in the Gospels and in the Pauline epistles; that is to say, the + form which it took in the Christian community in consequence of the + coming of Jesus. And to combine these three—the prophetic, the + Late-Jewish apocalyptic, and the Christian—has not proved + possible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even supposing we + could obtain more exact information regarding the popular Messianic + expectations at the time of Jesus, we should still not know what form + they assumed in the self-consciousness <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of One who knew Himself to be the Messiah but + held that the time was not yet come for Him to reveal Himself as + such. We only know their aspect from without, as a waiting for the + Messiah and the Messianic Age; we have no clue to their aspect from + within as factors in the Messianic self-consciousness. We possess no + psychology of the Messiah. The Evangelists have nothing to tell us + about it, because Jesus told them nothing about it; the sources for + the contemporary spiritual life inform us only concerning the + eschatological expectation. For the form of the Messianic + self-consciousness of Jesus we have to fall back upon conjecture.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such is the + character of the problem, and, as a consequence, historical + experiment must here take the place of historical research. That + being so, it is easy to understand that to take a survey of the study + of the life of Jesus is to be confronted, at first sight, with a + scene of the most boundless confusion. A series of experiments are + repeated with constantly varying modifications suggested by the + results furnished by the subsidiary sciences. Most of the writers, + however, have no suspicion that they are merely repeating an + experiment which has often been made before. Some of them discover + this in the course of their work to their own great astonishment—it + is so, for instance, with Wrede, who recognises that he is working + out, though doubtless with a clearer consciousness of his aim, an + idea of Bruno Bauer's.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href= + "#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> If old + Reimarus were to come back again, he might confidently give himself + out to be the latest of the moderns, for his work rests upon a + recognition of the exclusive importance of eschatology, such as only + recurs again in Johannes Weiss.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Progress, too, is + curiously fitful, with long intervals of marking time between the + advances. From Strauss down to the 'nineties there was no real + progress, if one takes into consideration only the complete Lives of + Jesus which appeared. But a number of separate problems took a more + clearly defined form, so that in the end the general problem suddenly + moved forward, as it seemed, with a jerk.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is really no + common standard by which to judge the works with which we have to do. + It is not the most orderly narratives, those which weave in + conscientiously every detail of the text, which have advanced the + study of the subject, but precisely the eccentric ones, those that + take the greatest liberties with the text. It is not by the mass of + facts that a writer sets down alongside of one another as + possible—because he writes easily and there is no one there to + contradict him, and because facts on paper do not come into collision + so sharply as they do in reality—it is not in that way that he shows + his power of reconstructing history, but by that which he recognises + as impossible. The constructions <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of Reimarus and Bruno Bauer have no solidity; + they are mere products of the imagination. But there is much more + historical power in their clear grasp of a single definite problem, + which has blinded them to all else, than there is in the + circumstantial works of Beyschlag and Bernard Weiss.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But once one has + accustomed oneself to look for certain definite landmarks amid this + apparent welter of confusion one begins at last to discover in vague + outline the course followed, and the progress made, by the critical + study of the life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It falls, + immediately, into two periods, that before Strauss and that after + Strauss. The dominant interest in the first is the question of + miracle. What terms are possible between a historical treatment and + the acceptance of supernatural events? With the advent of Strauss + this problem found a solution, viz., that these events have no + rightful place in the history, but are simply mythical elements in + the sources. The way was thus thrown open. Meanwhile, alongside of + the problem of the supernatural, other problems had been dimly + apprehended. Reimarus had drawn attention to the contemporary + eschatological views; Hase, in his first Life of Jesus (1829), had + sought to trace a development in the self-consciousness of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But on this point + a clear view was impossible, because all the students of the subject + were still basing their operations upon the harmony of the Synoptics + and the Fourth Gospel; which means that they had not so far felt the + need of a historically intelligible outline of the life of Jesus. + Here, too, Strauss was the light-bringer. But the transient + illumination was destined to be obscured by the Marcan + hypothesis,<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href= + "#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> which now + came to the front. The necessity of choosing between John and the + Synoptists was first fully established by the Tübingen school; and + the right relation of this question to the Marcan hypothesis was + subsequently shown by Holtzmann.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While these + discussions of the preliminary literary questions were in progress + the main historical problem of the life of Jesus was slowly rising + into view. The question began to be mooted: what was the significance + of eschatology for the mind of Jesus? With this problem was + associated, in virtue of an inner connexion which was not at first + suspected, the problem of the self-consciousness of Jesus. At the + beginning of the 'nineties it was generally felt that, in the + solution given to this dual problem, an in some measure assured + knowledge of the outward and inward course of the life of Jesus had + been reached. At this point Johannes Weiss revived the comprehensive + claim of Reimarus on behalf of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> eschatology; and scarcely had criticism + adjusted its attitude to this question when Wrede renewed the attempt + of Bauer and Volkmar to eliminate altogether the Messianic element + from the life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are now once + more in the midst of a period of great activity in the study of the + subject. On the one side we are offered a historical solution, on the + other a literary. The question at issue is: Is it possible to explain + the contradiction between the Messianic consciousness of Jesus and + His non-Messianic discourses and actions by means of a conception of + His Messianic consciousness which will make it appear that He could + not have acted otherwise than as the Evangelists describe; or must we + endeavour to explain the contradiction by taking the non-Messianic + discourses and actions as our fixed point, denying the reality of His + Messianic self-consciousness and regarding it as a later + interpolation of the beliefs of the Christian community into the life + of Jesus? In the latter case the Evangelists are supposed to have + attributed these Messianic claims to Jesus because the early Church + held Him to be the Messiah, but to have contradicted themselves by + describing His life as it actually was, viz., as the life of a + prophet, not of one who held Himself to be the Messiah. To put it + briefly: Does the difficulty of explaining the historical personality + of Jesus lie in the history itself, or only in the way in which it is + represented in the sources?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This alternative + will be discussed in all the critical studies of the next few years. + Once clearly posed it compels a decision. But no one can really + understand the problem who has not a clear notion of the way in which + it has shaped itself in the course of the investigation; no one can + justly criticise, or appraise the value of, new contributions to the + study of this subject unless he knows in what forms they have been + presented before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The history of the + study of the life of Jesus has hitherto received surprisingly little + attention. Hase, in his Life of Jesus of 1829, briefly records the + previous attempts to deal with the subject. Friedrich von Ammon, + himself one of the most distinguished students in this department, in + his <span class="tei tei-q">“Progress of Christianity,”</span><a id= + "noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> gives + some information <span class="tei tei-q">“regarding the most notable + biographies of Jesus of the last fifty years.”</span> In the year + 1865 Uhlhorn treated together the Lives of Jesus of Renan, Schenkel, + and Strauss; in 1876 Hase, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“History of + Jesus,”</span> gave the only complete literary history of the + subject;<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href= + "#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> in 1892 + Uhlhorn extended his former lecture to include the works of Keim, + Delff, Beyschlag, and Weiss;<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href= + "#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> in 1898 + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" + id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Frantzen described, in a short + essay, the progress of the study since Strauss;<a id="noteref_10" + name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> in 1899 + and 1900 Baldensperger gave, in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologische + Rundschau</span></span>, a survey of the most recent + publications;<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href= + "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> Weinel's + book, <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus in the Nineteenth + Century,”</span> naturally only gives an analysis of a few classical + works; Otto Schmiedel's lecture on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Main + Problems of the Critical Study of the Life of Jesus”</span> (1902) + merely sketches the history of the subject in broad outline.<a id= + "noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Apart from + scattered notices in histories of theology this is practically all + the literature of the subject. There is room for an attempt to bring + order into the chaos of the Lives of Jesus. Hase made ingenious + comparisons between them, but he was unable to group them according + to inner principles, or to judge them justly. Weisse is for him a + feebler descendant of Strauss, Bruno Bauer is the victim of a + fantastic imagination. It would indeed have been difficult for Hase + to discover in the works of his time any principle of division. But + now, when the literary and eschatological methods of solution have + led to complementary results, when the post-Straussian period of + investigation seems to have reached a provisional close, and the goal + to which it has been tending has become clear, the time seems ripe + for the attempt to trace genetically in the successive works the + shaping of the problem as it now confronts us, and to give a + systematic historical account of the critical study of the life of + Jesus. Our endeavour will be to furnish a graphic description of all + the attempts to deal with the subject; and not to dismiss them with + stock phrases or traditional labels, but to show clearly what they + really did to advance the formulation of the problem, whether their + contemporaries recognised it or not. In accordance with this + principle many famous Lives of Jesus which have prolonged an honoured + existence through many successive editions, will make but a poor + figure, while others, which have received scant notice, will appear + great. Behind Success comes Truth, and her reward is with her.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name= + "Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">II. Hermann Samuel Reimarus</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Von dem Zwecke Jesu und seiner + Jünger.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Noch ein Fragment des Wolfenbüttelschen + Ungenannten. Herausgegeben von Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. + Braunschweig, 1778, 276 pp. (The Aims of Jesus and His Disciples. A + further Instalment of the anonymous Wolfenbüttel Fragments. Published + by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Brunswick, 1778.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johann Salomo + Semler.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Beantwortung der + Fragmente eines Ungenannten insbesondere vom Zwecke Jesu und seiner + Jünger. (Reply to the anonymous Fragments, especially to that + entitled</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The Aims of + Jesus and His Disciples.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">) + Halle, 1779, 432 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before Reimarus, + no one had attempted to form a historical conception of the life of + Jesus. Luther had not so much as felt that he cared to gain a clear + idea of the order of the recorded events. Speaking of the chronology + of the cleansing of the Temple, which in John falls at the beginning, + in the Synoptists near the close, of Jesus' public life, he remarks: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Gospels follow no order in recording the + acts and miracles of Jesus, and the matter is not, after all, of much + importance. If a difficulty arises in regard to the Holy Scripture + and we cannot solve it, we must just let it alone.”</span> When the + Lutheran theologians began to consider the question of harmonising + the events, things were still worse. Osiander (1498-1552), in his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Harmony of the Gospels,”</span> maintained + the principle that if an event is recorded more than once in the + Gospels, in different connexions, it happened more than once and in + different connexions. The daughter of Jairus was therefore raised + from the dead several times; on one occasion Jesus allowed the devils + whom He cast out of a single demoniac to enter into a herd of swine, + on another occasion, those whom He cast out of two demoniacs; there + were two cleansings of the Temple, and so forth.<a id="noteref_13" + name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> The + correct view of the Synoptic Gospels as being interdependent was + first formulated by Griesbach.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only Life of + Jesus written prior to the time of Reimarus which has any interest + for us, was composed by a Jesuit in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Persian language. The author was the Indian + missionary Hieronymus Xavier, nephew of Francis Xavier, and it was + designed for the use of Akbar, the Moghul Emperor, who, in the latter + part of the sixteenth century, had become the most powerful potentate + in Hindustan. In the seventeenth century the Persian text was brought + to Europe by a merchant, and was translated into Latin by Louis de + Dieu, a theologian of the Reformed Church, whose intention in + publishing it was to discredit Catholicism.<a id="noteref_14" name= + "noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> It is a + skilful falsification of the life of Jesus in which the omissions, + and the additions taken from the Apocrypha, are inspired by the sole + purpose of presenting to the open-minded ruler a glorious Jesus, in + whom there should be nothing to offend him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus there had + been nothing to prepare the world for a work of such power as that of + Reimarus. It is true, there had appeared earlier, in 1768, a Life of + Jesus by Johann Jakob Hess<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href= + "#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> + (1741-1828), written from the standpoint of the older rationalism, + but it retains so much supernaturalism and follows so much the lines + of a paraphrase of the Gospels, that there was nothing to indicate to + the world what a master-stroke the spirit of the time was + preparing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not much is known + about Reimarus. For his contemporaries he had no existence, and it + was Strauss who first made his name known in literature.<a id= + "noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> He was + born in Hamburg on the 22nd of December, 1694, and spent his life + there as a professor of Oriental Languages. He died in 1768. Several + of his writings appeared during his lifetime, all of them asserting + the claims of rational religion as against the faith of the Church; + one of them, for example, being an essay on <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Leading Truths of Natural Religion.”</span> His + <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">magnum opus</span></span>, however, which laid + the historic basis of his attacks, was only circulated, during his + lifetime, among his acquaintances, as an anonymous manuscript. In + 1774 Lessing began to publish the most important portions of it, and + up to 1778 had published seven fragments, thereby involving himself + in a quarrel with Goetze, the Chief Pastor of Hamburg. The manuscript + of the whole, which runs to 4000 pages, is preserved in the Hamburg + municipal library.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following are + the titles of Fragments which he published:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Toleration of + the Deists.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Decrying of + Reason in the Pulpit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The impossibility + of a Revelation which all men should have good grounds for + believing.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg + 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Passing of the + Israelites through the Red Sea.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Showing that the + books of the Old Testament were not written to reveal a Religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Concerning the + story of the Resurrection.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Aims of Jesus + and His disciples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The monograph on + the passing of the Israelites through the Red Sea is one of the + ablest, wittiest, and most acute which has ever been written. It + exposes all the impossibilities of the narrative in the Priestly + Codex, and all the inconsistencies which arise from the combination + of various sources; although Reimarus has not the slightest inkling + that the separation of these sources would afford the real solution + of the problem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To say that the + fragment on <span class="tei tei-q">“The Aims of Jesus and His + Disciples”</span> is a magnificent piece of work is barely to do it + justice. This essay is not only one of the greatest events in the + history of criticism, it is also a masterpiece of general literature. + The language is as a rule crisp and terse, pointed and + epigrammatic—the language of a man who is not <span class= + "tei tei-q">“engaged in literary composition”</span> but is wholly + concerned with the facts. At times, however, it rises to heights of + passionate feeling, and then it is as though the fires of a volcano + were painting lurid pictures upon dark clouds. Seldom has there been + a hate so eloquent, so lofty a scorn; but then it is seldom that a + work has been written in the just consciousness of so absolute a + superiority to contemporary opinion. And withal, there is dignity and + serious purpose; Reimarus's work is no pamphlet.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lessing could not, + of course, accept its standpoint. His idea of revelation, and his + conception of the Person of Jesus, were much deeper than those of the + Fragmentist. He was a thinker; Reimarus only a historian. But this + was the first time that a really historical mind, thoroughly + conversant with the sources, had undertaken the criticism of the + tradition. It was Lessing's greatness that he grasped the + significance of this criticism, and felt that it must lead either to + the destruction or to the re-casting of the idea of revelation. He + recognised that the introduction of the historical element would + transform and deepen rationalism. Convinced that the fateful moment + had arrived, he disregarded the scruples of Reimarus's family and the + objections of Nicolai and Mendelssohn, and, though inwardly trembling + for that which he himself held sacred, he flung the torch with his + own hand.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Semler, at the + close of his refutation of the fragment, ridicules its editor in the + following apologue. <span class="tei tei-q">“A prisoner was once + brought before the Lord Mayor of London on a charge of arson. He had + been seen coming down from the upper story of the burning house. + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Yesterday,’</span> so ran his defence, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘about four o'clock I went into my + neighbour's store-room and saw there a burning candle which the + servants had carelessly forgotten. In <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the course of the night it would have burned + down, and set fire to the stairs. To make sure that the fire should + break out in the day-time, I threw some straw upon it. The flames + burst out at the sky-light, the fire-engines came hurrying up, and + the fire, which in the night might have been dangerous, was promptly + extinguished.’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘Why did you not + yourself pick up the candle and put it out?’</span> asked the Lord + Mayor. <span class="tei tei-q">‘If I had put out the candle the + servants would not have learned to be more careful; now that there + has been such a fuss about it, they will not be so careless in + future.’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘Odd, very odd,’</span> said + the Lord Mayor, <span class="tei tei-q">‘he is not a criminal, only a + little weak in the head.’</span> So he had him shut up in the + mad-house, and there he lies to this day.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story is + extraordinarily apposite—only that Lessing was not mad; he knew quite + well what he was doing. His object was to show how an unseen enemy + had pushed his parallels up to the very walls, and to summon to the + defence <span class="tei tei-q">“some one who should be as nearly the + ideal defender of religion as the Fragmentist was the ideal + assailant.”</span> Once, with prophetic insight into the future, he + says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Christian traditions must be + explained by the inner truth of Christianity, and no written + traditions can give it that inner truth, if it does not itself + possess it.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Reimarus takes as + his starting-point the question regarding the content of the + preaching of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“We are + justified,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“in drawing an + absolute distinction between the teaching of the Apostles in their + writings and what Jesus Himself in His own lifetime proclaimed and + taught.”</span> What belongs to the preaching of Jesus is clearly to + be recognised. It is contained in two phrases of identical meaning, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Repent, and believe the Gospel,”</span> or, + as it is put elsewhere, <span class="tei tei-q">“Repent, for the + Kingdom of Heaven is at hand.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Kingdom of + Heaven must however be understood <span class="tei tei-q">“according + to Jewish ways of thought.”</span> Neither Jesus nor the Baptist ever + explain this expression; therefore they must have been content to + have it understood in its known and customary sense. That means that + Jesus took His stand within the Jewish religion, and accepted its + Messianic expectations without in any way correcting them. If He + gives a new development to this religion it is only in so far that He + proclaims as near at hand the realisation of ideals and hopes which + were alive in thousands of hearts.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was thus no + need for detailed instruction regarding the nature of the Kingdom of + Heaven; the catechism and confession of the Church at its + commencement consisted of a single phrase. Belief was not difficult: + <span class="tei tei-q">“they need only believe the Gospel, namely + that Jesus was about to bring in the Kingdom of God.”</span><a id= + "noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As there were many + among the Jews who were already waiting for the Kingdom of God, it + was no wonder that in a few days, nay in a few hours, some thousands + believed, although they had been told only that Jesus was the + promised prophet.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the sum + total of what the disciples knew about the Kingdom of God when they + were sent out by their Master to proclaim its coming. Their hearers + would naturally think of the customary meaning of the term and the + hopes which attached themselves to it. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + purpose of sending out such propagandists could only be that the Jews + who groaned under the Roman yoke and had long cherished the hope of + deliverance should be stirred up all over Judaea and assemble + themselves in their thousands.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus must have + known, too, that if the people believed His messengers they would + look about for an earthly deliverer and turn to Him for this purpose. + The Gospel, therefore, meant nothing more or less to all who heard it + than that, under the leadership of Jesus, the Kingdom of Messiah was + about to be brought in. For them there was no difficulty in accepting + the belief that He was the Messiah, the Son of God, for this belief + did not involve anything metaphysical. The nation was the Son of God; + the kings of the covenant-people were Sons of God; the Messiah was in + a pre-eminent sense the Son of God. Thus even in His Messianic claims + Jesus remained <span class="tei tei-q">“within the limits of + humanity.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact that He + did not need to explain to His contemporaries what He meant by the + Kingdom of God constitutes a difficulty for us. The parables do not + enlighten us, for they presuppose a knowledge of the conception. + <span class="tei tei-q">“If we could not gather from the writings of + the Jews some further information as to what was understood at that + time by the Messiah and the Kingdom of God, these points of primary + importance would be very obscure and incomprehensible.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“If, therefore, we desire to gain a historical + understanding of Jesus' teaching, we must leave behind what we + learned in our catechism regarding the metaphysical Divine Sonship, + the Trinity, and similar dogmatic conceptions, and go out into a + wholly Jewish world of thought. Only those who carry the teachings of + the catechism back into the preaching of the Jewish Messiah will + arrive at the idea that He was the founder of a new religion. To all + unprejudiced persons it is manifest that Jesus had not the slightest + intention of doing away with the Jewish religion and putting another + in its place.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From Matt. v. 18 + it is evident that Jesus did not break with the Law, but took His + stand upon it unreservedly. If there was anything at all new in His + preaching, it was the righteousness which was requisite for the + Kingdom of God. The righteousness of the Law will no longer suffice + in the time of the coming Kingdom; a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> new and deeper morality must come into being. + This demand is the only point in which the preaching of Jesus went + beyond the ideas of His contemporaries. But this new morality does + not do away with the Law, for He explains it as a fulfilment of the + old commandments. His followers, no doubt, broke with the Law later + on. They did so, however, not in pursuance of a command of Jesus, but + under the pressure of circumstances, at the time when they were + forced out of Judaism and obliged to found a new religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus shared the + Jewish racial exclusiveness wholly and unreservedly. According to + Matt. x. 5 He forbade His disciples to declare to the Gentiles the + coming of the Kingdom of God. Evidently, therefore, His purpose did + not embrace them. Had it been otherwise, the hesitation of Peter in + Acts x. and xi., and the necessity of justifying the conversion of + Cornelius, would be incomprehensible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baptism and the + Lord's Supper are no evidence that Jesus intended to found a new + religion. In the first place the genuineness of the command to + baptize in Matt. xxviii. 19 is questionable, not only as a saying + ascribed to the risen Jesus, but also because it is universalistic in + outlook, and because it implies the doctrine of the Trinity and, + consequently, the metaphysical Divine Sonship of Jesus. In this it is + inconsistent with the earliest traditions regarding the practice of + baptism in the Christian community, for in the earliest times, as we + learn from the Acts and from Paul, it was the custom to baptize, not + in the name of the Trinity, but in the name of Jesus, the + Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, furthermore, + it is questionable whether Baptism really goes back to Jesus at all. + He Himself baptized no one in His own lifetime, and never commanded + any of His converts to be baptized. So we cannot be sure about the + origin of Baptism, though we can be sure of its meaning. Baptism in + the name of Jesus signified only that Jesus was the Messiah. + <span class="tei tei-q">“For the only change which the teaching of + Jesus made in their religion was that whereas they had formerly + believed in a Deliverer of Israel who was to come in the future, they + now believed in a Deliverer who was already present.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Lord's Supper,”</span> again, was no new institution, + but merely an episode at the last Paschal Meal of the Kingdom which + was passing away, and was intended <span class="tei tei-q">“as an + anticipatory celebration of the Passover of the New Kingdom.”</span> + A Lord's Supper in our sense, <span class="tei tei-q">“cut loose from + the Passover,”</span> would have been inconceivable to Jesus, and not + less so to His disciples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is useless to + appeal to the miracles, any more than to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sacraments,”</span> as evidence for the founding of a + new religion. In the first place, we have to remember what happens in + the case of miracles handed down by tradition. That Jesus effected + cures, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name= + "Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which in the eyes of + His contemporaries were miraculous, is not to be denied. Their + purpose was to prove Him to be the Messiah. He forbade these miracles + to be made known, even in cases where they could not possibly be kept + hidden, <span class="tei tei-q">“with the sole purpose of making + people more eager to talk of them.”</span> Other miracles, however, + have no basis in fact, but owe their place in the narrative to the + feeling that the miracle-stories of the Old Testament must be + repeated in the case of Jesus, but on a grander scale. He did no + really miraculous works; otherwise, the demands for a sign would be + incomprehensible. In Jerusalem when all the people were looking + eagerly for an overwhelming manifestation of His Messiahship, what a + tremendous effect a miracle would have produced! If only a single + miracle had been publicly, convincingly, undeniably, performed by + Jesus before all the people on one of the great days of the Feast, + such is human nature that all the people would at once have flocked + to His standard.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For this popular + uprising, however, He waited in vain. Twice He believed that it was + near at hand. The first time was when He was sending out the + disciples and said to them: <span class="tei tei-q">“Ye shall not + have gone over the cities of Israel before the Son of Man + comes”</span> (Matt. x. 23). He thought that, at the preaching of the + disciples, the people would flock to Him from every quarter and + immediately proclaim Him Messiah; but His expectation was + disappointed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second time, + He thought to bring about the decisive issue in Jerusalem. He made + His entry riding on an ass's colt, that the Messianic prophecy of + Zechariah might be fulfilled. And the people actually did cry + <span class="tei tei-q">“Hosanna to the Son of David!”</span> Relying + on the support of His followers He might now, He thought, bid + defiance to the authorities. In the temple He arrogates to Himself + supreme power, and in glowing words calls for an open revolt against + the Sanhedrin and the Pharisees, on the ground that they have shut + the doors of the Kingdom of Heaven and forbidden others to go in. + There is no doubt, now, that He will carry the people with Him! + Confident in the success of His cause, He closes the great incendiary + harangue in Matt. xxiii. with the words <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Truly from henceforth ye shall not see me again until ye + shall say Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord”</span>; + that is, until they should hail Him as Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the people in + Jerusalem refused to rise, as the Galilaeans had refused at the time + when the disciples were sent out to rouse them. The Council prepared + for vigorous action. The voluntary concealment by which Jesus had + thought to whet the eagerness of the people became involuntary. + Before His arrest He was overwhelmed with dread, and on the cross He + closed His life with the words <span class="tei tei-q">“My God! my + God! why hast Thou forsaken me?”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“This + avowal cannot, without violence, be interpreted otherwise than as + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" + id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> meaning that God had not aided + Him in His aim and purpose as He had hoped. That shows that it had + not been His purpose to suffer and die, but to establish an earthly + kingdom and deliver the Jews from political oppression—and in that + God's help had failed Him.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the disciples + this turn of affairs meant the destruction of all the dreams for the + sake of which they had followed Jesus. For if they had given up + anything on His account, it was only in order to receive it again an + hundredfold when they should openly take their places in the eyes of + all the world as the friends and ministers of the Messiah, as the + rulers of the twelve tribes of Israel. Jesus never disabused them of + this sensuous hope, but, on the contrary, confirmed them in it. When + He put an end to the quarrel about pre-eminence, and when He answered + the request of the sons of Zebedee, He did not attack the assumption + that there were to be thrones and power, but only addressed Himself + to the question how men were in the present to establish their claims + to that position of authority.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this implies + that the time of the fulfilment of these hopes was not thought of by + Jesus and His disciples as at all remote. In Matt. xvi. 28, for + example, He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Truly I say unto you there + are some standing here who shall not taste of death, till they see + the Son of man coming in his kingdom.”</span> There is no + justification for twisting this about or explaining it away. It + simply means that Jesus promises the fulfilment of all Messianic + hopes before the end of the existing generation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the disciples + were prepared for anything rather than that which actually happened. + Jesus had never said a word to them about His dying and rising again, + otherwise they would not have so played the coward at His death, nor + have been so astonished at His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“resurrection.”</span> The three or four sayings + referring to these events must therefore have been put into His mouth + later, in order to make it appear that He had foreseen these events + in His original plan.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How, then, did + they get over this apparently annihilating blow? By falling back upon + the second form of the Jewish Messianic hope. Hitherto their + thoughts, like those of their Master, had been dominated by the + political ideal of the prophets—the scion of David's line who should + appear as the political deliverer of the nation. But alongside of + that there existed another Messianic expectation which transferred + everything to the supernatural sphere. Appearing first in Daniel, + this expectation can still be traced in the Apocalypses, in Justin's + <span class="tei tei-q">“Dialogue with Trypho,”</span> and in certain + Rabbinic sayings. According to these—Reimarus makes use especially of + the statements of Trypho—the Messiah is to appear twice; once in + human lowliness, the second time upon the clouds of heaven. When the + first <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name= + "Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">systema</span></span>, as Reimarus calls it, was + annihilated by the death of Jesus, the disciples brought forward the + second, and gathered followers who shared their expectation of a + second coming of Jesus the Messiah. In order to get rid of the + difficulty of the death of Jesus, they gave it the significance of a + spiritual redemption—which had not previously entered their field of + vision or that of Jesus Himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this spiritual + interpretation of His death would not have helped them if they had + not also invented the resurrection. Immediately after the death of + Jesus, indeed, such an idea was far from their thoughts. They were in + deadly fear and kept close within doors. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Soon, however, one and another ventures to slip out. + They learn that no judicial search is being made for them.”</span> + Then they consider what is to be done. They did not take kindly to + the idea of returning to their old haunts; on their journeyings the + companions of the Messiah had forgotten how to work. They had seen + that the preaching of the Kingdom of God will keep a man. Even when + they had been sent out without wallet or money they had not lacked. + The women who are mentioned in Luke viii. 2, 3, had made it their + business to make good provision for the Messiah and His future + ministers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why not, then, + continue this mode of life? They would surely find a sufficient + number of faithful souls who would join them in directing their hopes + towards a second coming of the Messiah, and while awaiting the future + glory, would share their possessions with them. So they stole the + body of Jesus and hid it, and proclaimed to all the world that He + would soon return. They prudently waited, however, for fifty days + before making this announcement, in order that the body, if it should + be found, might be unrecognisable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What was much in + their favour was the complete disorganisation of the Jewish state. + Had there been an efficient police administration the disciples would + not have been able to plan this fraud and organise their communistic + fellowship. But, as it was, the new society was not even subjected to + any annoyance in consequence of the remarkable death of a married + couple who were buried from the apostles' house, and the brotherhood + was even allowed to confiscate their property to its own uses.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It appears, then, + that the hope of the Parousia was the fundamental thing in primitive + Christianity, which was a product of that hope much more than of the + teaching of Jesus. Accordingly, the main problem of primitive + dogmatics was the delay of the Parousia. Already in Paul's time the + problem was pressing, and he had to set to work in 2 Thessalonians to + discover all possible and impossible reasons why the Second Coming + should be delayed. Reimarus mercilessly exposes the position of the + apostle, who was obliged to fob people off somehow or other. The + author of 2 Peter <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg + 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has + a much clearer notion of what he would be at, and undertakes to + restore the confidence of Christendom once for all with the sophism + of the thousand years which are in the sight of God as one day, + ignoring the fact that in the promise the reckoning was by man's + years, not by God's. <span class="tei tei-q">“Nevertheless it served + the turn of the Apostles so well with those simple early Christians, + that after the first believers had been bemused with it, and the + period originally fixed had elapsed, the Christians of later + generations, including Fathers of the Church, could continue ever + after to feed themselves with empty hopes.”</span> The saying of + Christ about the generation which should not die out before His + return clearly fixes this event at no very distant date. But since + Jesus has not yet appeared upon the clouds of heaven <span class= + "tei tei-q">“these words must be strained into meaning, not that + generation, but the Jewish people. Thus by exegetical art they are + saved for ever, for the Jewish race will never die out.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In general, + however, <span class="tei tei-q">“the theologians of the present day + skim lightly over the eschatological material in the Gospels because + it does not chime in with their views, and assign to the coming of + Christ upon the clouds quite a different purpose from that which it + bears in the teaching of Christ and His apostles.”</span> Inasmuch as + the non-fulfilment of its eschatology is not admitted, our + Christianity rests upon a fraud. In view of this fact, what is the + evidential value of any miracle, even if it could be held to be + authentic? <span class="tei tei-q">“No miracle would prove that two + and two make five, or that a circle has four angles; and no miracles, + however numerous, could remove a contradiction which lies on the + surface of the teachings and records of Christianity.”</span> Nor is + there any weight in the appeal to the fulfilment of prophecy, for the + cases in which Matthew countersigns it with the words <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that the Scripture might be fulfilled”</span> are all + artificial and unreal; and for many incidents the stage was set by + Jesus, or His disciples, or the Evangelists, with the deliberate + purpose of presenting to the people a scene from the fulfilment of + prophecy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sole argument + which could save the credit of Christianity would be a proof that the + Parousia had really taken place at the time for which it was + announced; and obviously no such proof can be produced.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such is Reimarus' + reconstruction of the history. We can well understand that his work + must have given offence when it appeared, for it is a polemic, not an + objective historical study. But we have no right simply to dismiss it + in a word, as a Deistic production, as Otto Schmiedel, for example, + does;<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href= + "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> it is + time that Reimarus came to his own, and that we should recognise a + historical performance of no mean order in this piece of Deistic + polemics. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg + 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> His + work is perhaps the most splendid achievement in the whole course of + the historical investigation of the life of Jesus, for he was the + first to grasp the fact that the world of thought in which Jesus + moved was essentially eschatological. There is some justification for + the animosity which flames up in his writing. This historical truth + had taken possession of his mind with such overwhelming force that he + could no longer understand his contemporaries, and could not away + with their profession that their beliefs were, as they professed to + be, directly derived from the preaching of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What added to the + offence was that he saw the eschatology in a wrong perspective. He + held that the Messianic ideal which dominated the preaching of Jesus + was that of the political ruler, the son of David. All his other + mistakes are the consequence of this fundamental error. It was, of + course, a mere makeshift hypothesis to derive the beginnings of + Christianity from an imposture. Historical science was not at that + time sufficiently advanced to lead even the man who had divined the + fundamentally eschatological character of the preaching of Jesus + onward to the historical solution of the problem; it needed more than + a hundred and twenty years to fill in the chasm which Reimarus had + been forced to bridge with that makeshift hypothesis of his.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the light of + the clear perception of the elements of the problem which Reimarus + had attained, the whole movement of theology, down to Johannes Weiss, + appears retrograde. In all its work the thesis is ignored or obscured + that Jesus, as a historical personality, is to be regarded, not as + the founder of a new religion, but as the final product of the + eschatological and apocalyptic thought of Late Judaism. Every + sentence of Johannes Weiss's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes</span></span> + (1892) is a vindication, a rehabilitation, of Reimarus as a + historical thinker.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even so the + traveller on the plain sees from afar the distant range of mountains. + Then he loses sight of them again. His way winds slowly upwards + through the valleys, drawing ever nearer to the peaks, until at last, + at a turn of the path, they stand before him, not in the shapes which + they had seemed to take from the distant plain, but in their actual + forms. Reimarus was the first, after eighteen centuries of + misconception, to have an inkling of what eschatology really was. + Then theology lost sight of it again, and it was not until after the + lapse of more than a hundred years that it came in view of + eschatology once more, now in its true form, so far as that can be + historically determined, and only after it had been led astray, + almost to the last, in all its historical researches by the sole + mistake of Reimarus—the assumption that the eschatology was earthly + and political in character. Thus theology shared at least the error + of the man whom it knew only as a Deist, not as an <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> historian, and whose true greatness was + not recognised even by Strauss, though he raised a literary monument + to him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The solution + offered by Reimarus may be wrong; the data of observation from which + he starts out are, beyond question, right, because the primary datum + of all is genuinely historical. He recognised that two systems of + Messianic expectation were present side by side in Late Judaism. He + endeavoured to bring them into mutual relations in order to represent + the actual movement of the history. In so doing he made the mistake + of placing them in consecutive order, ascribing to Jesus the + political Son-of-David conception, and to the Apostles, after His + death, the apocalyptic system based on Daniel, instead of + superimposing one upon the other in such a way that the Messianic + King might coincide with the Son of Man, and the ancient prophetic + conception might be inscribed within the circumference of the + Daniel-descended apocalyptic, and raised along with it to the + supersensuous plane. But what matters the mistake in comparison with + the fact that the problem was really grasped?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Reimarus felt that + the absence in the preaching of Jesus of any definition of the + principal term (the Kingdom of God), in conjunction with the great + and rapid success of His preaching constituted a problem, and he + formulated the conception that Jesus was not a religious founder and + teacher, but purely a preacher.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He brought the + Synoptic and Johannine narratives into harmony by practically leaving + the latter out of account. The attitude of Jesus towards the law, and + the process by which the disciples came to take up a freer attitude, + was grasped and explained by him so accurately that modern historical + science does not need to add a word, but would be well pleased if at + least half the theologians of the present day had got as far.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, he + recognised that primitive Christianity was not something which grew, + so to speak, out of the teaching of Jesus, but that it came into + being as a new creation, in consequence of events and circumstances + which added something to that preaching which it did not previously + contain; and that Baptism and the Lord's Supper, in the historical + sense of these terms, were not instituted by Jesus, but created by + the early Church on the basis of certain historical assumptions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, Reimarus + felt that the fact that the <span class="tei tei-q">“event of + Easter”</span> was first proclaimed at Pentecost constituted a + problem, and he sought a solution for it. He recognised, further, + that the solution of the problem of the life of Jesus calls for a + combination of the methods of historical and literary criticism. He + felt that merely to emphasise the part played by eschatology would + not suffice, but that it was necessary to assume a creative element + in the tradition, to which he ascribed the miracles, the stories + which turn on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg + 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + fulfilment of Messianic prophecy, the universalistic traits and the + predictions of the passion and the resurrection. Like Wrede, too, he + feels that the prescription of silence in the case of miracles of + healing and of certain communications to the disciples constitutes a + problem which demands solution.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still more + remarkable is his eye for exegetical detail. He has an unfailing + instinct for pregnant passages like Matt. x. 23, xvi. 28, which are + crucial for the interpretation of large masses of the history. The + fact is there are some who are historians by the grace of God, who + from their mother's womb have an instinctive feeling for the real. + They follow through all the intricacy and confusion of reported fact + the pathway of reality, like a stream which, despite the rocks that + encumber its course and the windings of its valley, finds its way + inevitably to the sea. No erudition can supply the place of this + historical instinct, but erudition sometimes serves a useful purpose, + inasmuch as it produces in its possessors the pleasing belief that + they are historians, and thus secures their services for the cause of + history. In truth they are at best merely doing the preliminary + spade-work of history, collecting for a future historian the dry + bones of fact, from which, with the aid of his natural gift, he can + recall the past to life. More often, however, the way in which + erudition seeks to serve history is by suppressing historical + discoveries as long as possible, and leading out into the field to + oppose the one true view an army of possibilities. By arraying these + in support of one another it finally imagines that it has created out + of possibilities a living reality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This obstructive + erudition is the special prerogative of theology, in which, even at + the present day, a truly marvellous scholarship often serves only to + blind the eyes to elementary truths, and to cause the artificial to + be preferred to the natural. And this happens not only with those who + deliberately shut their minds against new impressions, but also with + those whose purpose is to go forward, and to whom their + contemporaries look up as leaders. It was a typical illustration of + this fact when Semler rose up and slew Reimarus in the name of + scientific theology.<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href= + "#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Reimarus had + discredited progressive theology. Students—so Semler tells us in his + preface—became unsettled and sought other callings. The great Halle + theologian—born in 1725—the pioneer of the historical view of the + Canon, the precursor of Baur in the reconstruction of primitive + Christianity, was urged to do away with the offence. As Origen of + yore with Celsus, so Semler takes Reimarus sentence by sentence, in + such a way that if his work were lost it could be recovered from the + refutation. The fact was that Semler had nothing in the nature of a + complete or well-articulated <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> argument to oppose to him; therefore he + inaugurated in his reply the <span class="tei tei-q">“Yes, + but”</span> theology, which thereafter, for more than three + generations, while it took, itself, the most various modifications, + imagined that it had finally got rid of Reimarus and his + discovery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Reimarus—so ran + the watchword of the guerrilla warfare which Semler waged against + him—cannot be right, for he is one-sided. Jesus and His disciples + employed two methods of teaching: one sensuous, pictorial, drawn from + the sphere of Jewish ideas, by which they adapted their meaning to + the understanding of the multitude, and endeavoured to raise them to + a higher way of thinking; and alongside of that a purely spiritual + teaching which was independent of that kind of imagery. Both methods + of teaching continued to be used side by side, because there were + always contemporary representatives of the two degrees of capability + and the two kinds of temperament. <span class="tei tei-q">“This is + historically so certain that the Fragmentist's attack must inevitably + be defeated at this point, because he takes account only of the + sensuous representation.”</span> But his attack was not defeated. + What happened was that, owing to the respect in which Semler was + held, and the absolute incapacity of contemporary theology to + overtake the long stride forward made by Reimarus, his work was + neglected, and the stimulus which it was capable of imparting failed + to take effect. He had no predecessors; neither had he any disciples. + His work is one of those supremely great works which pass and leave + no trace, because they are before their time; to which later + generations pay a just tribute of admiration, but owe no gratitude. + Indeed it would be truer to say that Reimarus hung a mill-stone about + the neck of the rising theological science of his time. He avenged + himself on Semler by shaking his faith in historical theology and + even in the freedom of science in general. By the end of the eighth + decade of the century the Halle professor was beginning to retrace + his steps, was becoming more and more disloyal to the cause which he + had formerly served; and he finally went so far as to give his + approval to Wöllner's edict for the regulation of religion (1788). + His friends attributed this change of front to senility—he died + 1791.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + magnificent overture in which are announced all the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motifs</span></span> of the future historical + treatment of the life of Jesus breaks off with a sudden discord, + remains isolated and incomplete, and leads to nothing further.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name= + "Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">III. The Lives Of Jesus Of The Earlier + Rationalism</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johann + Jakob Hess.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Geschichte der + drei letzten Lebensjahre Jesu. (History of the Last Three Years of + the Life of Jesus.) 3 vols., 1400 pp. Leipzig-Zurich, 1768-1772; 3rd + ed., 1774 ff.; 7th ed., 1823 ff.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Franz + Volkmar Reinhard.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Versuch über den Plan, welchen der Stifter der + christlichen Religion zum Besten der Menschheit entwarf. (Essay + upon the Plan which the Founder of the Christian Religion adopted + for the Benefit of Mankind.) 500 pp. 1781; 4th ed., 1798; 5th ed., + 1830. Our account is based on the 4th ed. The 5th contains + supplementary matter by Heubner.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ernst + August Opitz.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Preacher + at Zscheppelin. Geschichte und Characterzüge Jesu. (History of + Jesus, with a Delineation of His Character.) Jena and Leipzig, + 1812. 488 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johann Adolph + Jakobi.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Superintendent + at Waltershausen. Die Geschichte Jesu für denkende und gemütvolle + Leser, 1816. (The History of Jesus for thoughtful and sympathetic + readers.) A second volume, containing the history of the apostolic + age, followed in 1818.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johann Gottfried + Herder.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Vom Erlöser der + Menschen. Nach unsern drei ersten Evangelien. (The Redeemer of men, + as portrayed in our first three Gospels.) 1796. Von Gottes Sohn, + der Welt Heiland. Nach Johannes Evangelium. (The Son of God, the + Saviour of the World, as portrayed by John's Gospel.) Accompanied + by a rule for the harmonisation of our Gospels on the basis of + their origin and order. Riga, published by Hartknoch, 1797. See + Herder's complete works, ed. Suphan, vol. xix.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That + thorough-going theological rationalism which accepts only so much of + religion as can justify itself at the bar of reason, and which + conceives and represents the origin of religion in accordance with + this principle, was preceded by a rationalism less complete, as yet + not wholly dissociated from a simple-minded supernaturalism. Its + point of view is one at which it is almost impossible for the modern + man to place himself. Here, in a single consciousness, orthodoxy and + rationalism lie stratified in successive layers. Here, to change the + metaphor, rationalism surrounds religion without touching it, and, + like a lake surrounding some ancient castle, mirrors its image with + curious refractions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + half-developed rationalism was conscious of an impulse—it is the + first time in the history of theology that this impulse <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> manifests itself—to write the Life of + Jesus; at first without any suspicion whither this undertaking would + lead it. No rude hands were to be laid upon the doctrinal conception + of Jesus; at least these writers had no intention of laying hands + upon it. Their purpose was simply to gain a clearer view of the + course of our Lord's earthly and human life. The theologians who + undertook this task thought of themselves as merely writing an + historical supplement to the life of the God-Man Jesus. These + <span class="tei tei-q">“Lives”</span> are, therefore, composed + according to the prescription of the <span class="tei tei-q">“good + old gentleman”</span> who in 1829 advised the young Hase to treat + first of the divine, and then of the human side of the life of + Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The battle about + miracle had not yet begun. But miracle no longer plays a part of any + importance; it is a firmly established principle that the teaching of + Jesus, and religion in general, hold their place solely in virtue of + their inner reasonableness, not by the support of outward + evidence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only thing + that is really rationalistic in these older works is the treatment of + the teaching of Jesus. Even those that retain the largest share of + supernaturalism are as completely undogmatic as the more advanced in + their reproduction of the discourses of the Great Teacher. All of + them make it a principle to lose no opportunity of reducing the + number of miracles; where they can explain a miracle by natural + causes, they do not hesitate for a moment. But the deliberate + rejection of all miracles, the elimination of everything supernatural + which intrudes itself into the life of Jesus, is still to seek. That + principle was first consistently carried through by Paulus. With + these earlier writers it depends on the degree of enlightenment of + the individual whether the irreducible minimum of the supernatural is + larger or smaller.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, the + period of this older rationalism, like every period when human + thought has been strong and vigorous, is wholly unhistorical. What it + is looking for is not the past, but itself in the past. For it, the + problem of the life of Jesus is solved the moment it succeeds in + bringing Jesus near to its own time, in portraying Him as the great + teacher of virtue, and showing that His teaching is identical with + the intellectual truth which rationalism deifies.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The temporal + limits of this half-and-half rationalism are difficult to define. For + the historical study of the life of Jesus the first landmark which it + offers is the work of Hess, which appeared in 1768. But it held its + ground for a long time side by side with rationalism proper, which + failed to drive it from the field. A seventh edition of Hess's Life + of Jesus appeared as late as 1823; while a fifth edition of + Reinhard's work saw the light in 1830. And when Strauss struck the + death-blow of out-and-out rationalism, the half-and-half rationalism + did not perish with it, but allied itself <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with the neo-supernaturalism which Strauss's + treatment of the life of Jesus had called into being; and it still + prolongs an obscure existence in a certain section of conservative + literature, though it has lost its best characteristics, its + simple-mindedness and honesty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These older + rationalistic Lives of Jesus are, from the aesthetic point of view, + among the least pleasing of all theological productions. The + sentimentality of the portraiture is boundless. Boundless, also, and + still more objectionable, is the want of respect for the language of + Jesus. He must speak in a rational and modern fashion, and + accordingly all His utterances are reproduced in a style of the most + polite modernity. None of the speeches are allowed to stand as they + were spoken; they are taken to pieces, paraphrased, and expanded, and + sometimes, with the view of making them really lively, they are + recast in the mould of a freely invented dialogue. In all these Lives + of Jesus, not a single one of His sayings retains its authentic + form.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet we must + not be unjust to these writers. What they aimed at was to bring Jesus + near to their own time, and in so doing they became the pioneers of + the historical study of His life. The defects of their work in regard + to aesthetic feeling and historical grasp are outweighed by the + attractiveness of the purposeful, unprejudiced thinking which here + awakens, stretches itself, and begins to move with freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Johann Jakob Hess + was born in 1741 and died in 1828. After working as a curate for + seventeen years he became one of the assistant clergy at the + Frauminster at Zurich, and later <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Antistes,”</span> president, of the cantonal synod. In + this capacity he guided the destinies of the Church in Zurich safely + through the troublous times of the Revolution. He was not a deep + thinker, but was well read and not without ability. As a man, he did + splendid work.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His Life of Jesus + still keeps largely to the lines of a paraphrase of the Gospels; + indeed, he calls it a paraphrasing history. It is based upon a + harmonizing combination of the four Gospels. The matter of the + Synoptic narratives is, as in all the Lives of Jesus prior to + Strauss—with the sole exception of Herder's—fitted more or less + arbitrarily into the intervals between the Passovers in the fourth + Gospel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to + miracles, he admits that these are a stumbling-block. But they are + essential to the Gospel narrative and to revelation; had Jesus been + only a moral teacher and not the Son of God they would not have been + necessary. We must be careful, however, not to prize miracles for + their own sake, but to look primarily to their ethical teaching. It + was, he remarks, the mistake of the Jews to regard all the acts of + Jesus solely from the point of view of their strange and miraculous + character, and to forget their moral teaching; whereas we, from + distaste for miracle as such, run the risk of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> excluding from the Gospel history events + which are bound up with the Gospel revelation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Above all, we must + retain the supernatural birth and the bodily resurrection, because on + the former depends the sinlessness of Jesus, on the latter the + certainty of the general resurrection of the dead. The temptation of + Jesus in the wilderness was a stratagem of Satan by which he hoped to + discover <span class="tei tei-q">“whether Jesus of Nazareth was + really so extraordinary a person that he would have cause to fear + Him.”</span> The resurrection of Lazarus is authentic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the Gospel + narrative is rationalised whenever it can be done. It was not the + demons, but the Gadarene demoniacs themselves, who rushed among the + swine. Alarmed by their fury the whole herd plunged over the + precipice into the lake and were drowned; while by this accommodation + to the fixed idea of the demoniacs, Jesus effected their cure. + Perhaps, too, Hess conjectures, the Lord desired to test the + Gadarenes, and to see whether they would attach greater importance to + the good deed done to two of their number than to the loss of their + swine. This explanation, reinforced by its moral, held its ground in + theology for some sixty years and passed over into a round dozen + Lives of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This plan of + <span class="tei tei-q">“presenting each occurrence in such a way + that what is valuable and instructive in it immediately strikes the + eye”</span> is followed out by Hess so faithfully that all clearness + of impression is destroyed. The parables are barely recognisable, + swathed, as they are, in the mummy-wrappings of his paraphrase; and + in most cases their meaning is completely travestied by the ethical + or historical allusions which he finds in them. The parable of the + pounds is explained as referring to a man who went, like Archelaus, + to Rome to obtain the kingship, while his subjects intrigued behind + his back.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the peculiar + beauty of the speech of Jesus not a trace remains. The parable of the + Sower, for instance, begins: <span class="tei tei-q">“A countryman + went to sow his field, which lay beside a country-road, and was here + and there rather rocky, and in some places weedy, but in general was + well cultivated, and had a good sort of soil.”</span> The beatitude + upon the mourners appears in the following guise: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Happy are they who amid the adversities of the present + make the best of things and submit themselves with patience; for such + men, if they do not see better times here, shall certainly elsewhere + receive comfort and consolation.”</span> The question addressed by + the Pharisees to John the Baptist, and his answer, are given + dialogue-wise, in fustian of this kind:—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Pharisees</span></span>: <span class="tei tei-q">“We are directed to + enquire of you, in the name of our president, who you profess to be? + As people are at present expecting the Messiah, and seem not + indisposed to accept you in that capacity, we are the more anxious + that you should declare yourself with regard to your vocation and + person.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg + 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + John: <span class="tei tei-q">“The conclusion might have been drawn + from my discourses that I was not the Messiah. Why should people + attribute such lofty pretensions to me?”</span> etc. In order to give + the Gospels the true literary flavour, a characterisation is tacked + on to each of the persons of the narrative. In the case of the + disciples, for instance, this runs: <span class="tei tei-q">“They had + sound common sense, but very limited insight; the capacity to receive + teaching, but an incapacity for reflective thought; a knowledge of + their own weakness, but a difficulty in getting rid of old + prejudices; sensibility to right feeling, but weakness in following + out a pre-determined moral plan.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The simplest + occurrences give occasion for sentimental portraiture. The saying + <span class="tei tei-q">“Except ye become as little children”</span> + is introduced in the following fashion: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jesus called a boy who was standing near. The boy came. + Jesus took his hand and told him to stand beside Him, nearer than any + of His disciples, so that he had the foremost place among them. Then + Jesus threw His arm round the boy and pressed him tenderly to His + breast. The disciples looked on in astonishment, wondering what this + meant. Then He explained to them,”</span> etc. In these expansions + Hess does not always escape the ludicrous. The saying of Jesus in + John x. 9, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the door,”</span> takes on + the following form: <span class="tei tei-q">“No one, whether he be + sheep or shepherd, can come into the fold (if, that is to say, he + follows the right way) except in so far as he knows me and is + admitted by me, and included among the flock.”</span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Reinhard's work is + on a distinctly higher level. The author was born in 1753. In 1792, + after he had worked for fourteen years as Docent in Wittenberg, he + was appointed Senior Court Chaplain at Dresden. He died in 1812.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“I am, as you know, a very prosaic person,”</span> writes + Reinhard to a friend, and in these words he has given an admirable + characterisation of himself. The writers who chiefly appeal to him + are the ancient moralists; he acknowledges that he has learned more + from them than from a <span class="tei tei-q">“collegium + homileticum.”</span> In his celebrated <span class= + "tei tei-q">“System of Christian Ethics”</span> (5 vols., 1788-1815) + he makes copious use of them. His sermons—they fill thirty-five + volumes, and in their day were regarded as models—show some power and + depth of thought, but are all cast in the same mould. He seems to + have been haunted by a fear that it might some time befall him to + admit into his mind a thought which was mystical or visionary, not + justifiable by the laws of logic and the canons of the critical + reason. With all his philosophising and rationalising, however, + certain pillars of the supernaturalistic view of history remain for + him immovable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At first sight one + might be inclined to suppose that he frankly shared the belief in + miracle. He mentions the raising of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> widow's son, and of Lazarus, and accepts as an + authentic saying the command of the risen Jesus to baptize all + nations. But if we look more closely, we find that he deliberately + brings very few miracles into his narrative, and the definition by + which he disintegrates the conception of miracle from within leaves + no doubt as to his own position. What he says is this: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“All that which we call miraculous and supernatural is to + be understood as only relatively so, and implies nothing further than + an obvious exception to what can be brought about by natural causes, + so far as we know them and have experience of their capacity. A + cautious thinker will not venture in any single instance to pronounce + an event to be so extraordinary that God could not have brought it + about by the use of secondary causes, but must have intervened + directly.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The case stands + similarly with regard to the divinity of Christ. Reinhard assumes it, + but his <span class="tei tei-q">“Life”</span> is not directed to + prove it; it leads only to the conclusion that the Founder of + Christianity is to be regarded as a wonderful <span class= + "tei tei-q">“divine”</span> teacher. In order to prove His + uniqueness, Reinhard has to show that His plan for the welfare of + mankind was something incomparably higher than anything which hero or + sage has ever striven for. Reinhard makes the first attempt to give + an account of the teaching of Jesus which should be historical in the + sense that all dogmatic considerations should be excluded. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Above all things, let us collect and examine + the indications which we find in the writings of His companions + regarding the designs which He had in view.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The plan of Jesus + shows its greatness above all in its universality. Reinhard is well + aware of the difficulty raised in this connexion by those sayings + which assert the prerogative of Israel, and he discusses them at + length. He finds the solution in the assumption that Jesus in His own + lifetime naturally confined Himself to working among His own people, + and was content to indicate the future universal development of His + plan.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the intention + <span class="tei tei-q">“of introducing a universal change, tending + to the benefit of the whole human race,”</span> Jesus attaches His + teaching to the Jewish eschatology. It is only the form of His + teaching, however, which is affected by this, since He gives an + entirely different significance to the terms Kingdom of Heaven and + Kingdom of God, referring them to a universal ethical reorganisation + of mankind. But His plan was entirely independent of politics. He + never based His claims upon His Davidic descent. This was, indeed, + the reason why He held aloof from His family. Even the entry into + Jerusalem had no Messianic significance. His plan was so entirely + non-political that He would, on the contrary, have welcomed the + severance of all connexion between the state and religion, in order + to avoid the risk of a conflict between these two powers. Reinhard + explains the voluntary death of Jesus as due to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> this endeavour. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He quitted the stage of the world by so early and + shameful a death because He wished to destroy at once and for ever + the mistaken impression that He was aiming at the foundation of an + earthly kingdom, and to turn the thoughts, wishes, and efforts of His + disciples and companions into another channel.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to make + the Kingdom of God a practical reality, it was necessary for Him to + dissociate it from all the forces of this world, and to bring + morality and religion into the closest connexion. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The law of love was the indissoluble bond by which Jesus + for ever united morality with religion.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Moral instruction was the principal content and the very + essence of all His discourses.”</span> His efforts <span class= + "tei tei-q">“were directed to the establishment of a purely ethical + organisation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was important, + therefore, to overthrow superstition and to bring religion within the + domain of reason. First of all the priesthood must be deprived for + ever of its influence. Then an improvement of the social condition of + mankind must be introduced, since the level of morality depends upon + social conditions. Jesus was a social reformer. Through the + attainment of <span class="tei tei-q">“the highest perfection of + which Society is capable, universal peace”</span> was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“gradually to be brought about.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the point of + primary importance for Him was the alliance of religion with reason. + Reason was to maintain its freedom by the aid of religion, and + religion was not to be withdrawn from the critical judgment of + reason: all things were to be tested, and only the best retained.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“From these data it is easy to determine the + characteristics of a religion which is to be the religion of all + mankind: it must be ethical, intelligible, and spiritual.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the plan of + Jesus has been expounded on these lines, Reinhard shows, in the + second part of his work, that, prior to Jesus, no great man of + antiquity had devised a plan of beneficence of a scope commensurate + with the whole human race. In the third part the conclusion is drawn + that Jesus is the uniquely divine Teacher.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But before the + author can venture to draw this conclusion, he feels it necessary + first to show that the plan of Jesus was no chimera. If we were + obliged to admit its impracticability Jesus would have to be ranked + with the visionaries and enthusiasts; and these, however noble and + virtuous, can only injure the cause of rational religion. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Visionary enthusiasm and enlightened + reason—who that knows anything of the human mind can conceive these + two as united in a single soul?”</span> But Jesus was no visionary + enthusiast. <span class="tei tei-q">“With what calmness, + self-mastery, and cool determination does He think out and pursue His + divine purpose?”</span> By the truths which He revealed and declared + to be divine communications He <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> did not desire to put pressure upon the human + mind, but only to guide it. <span class="tei tei-q">“It would be + impossible to show a more conscientious respect and a more delicate + consideration for the rights of human reason than is shown by Jesus. + He will conquer only by convincing.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He is willing to bear with contradiction, and + condescends to meet the most irrational objections and the most + ill-natured misrepresentations with the most incredible + patience.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was well for + Reinhard that he had no suspicion how full of enthusiasm Jesus was, + and how He trod reason under His feet!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what kind of + relation was there between this rational religion taught by Jesus and + the Christian theology which Reinhard accepted? How does he harmonise + the symbolical view of Baptism and the Lord's Supper which he here + expounds with ecclesiastical doctrine? How does he pass from the + conception of the divine teacher to that of the Son of God?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is a question + which he does not feel himself obliged to answer. For him the one + circle of thought revolves freely within the other, but they never + come into contact with each other.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far as concerns + the presentation of the teaching, the Life of Jesus by Opitz follows + the same lines as that of Reinhard. It is disfigured, however, by a + number of lapses of taste, and by a crass supernaturalism in the + description of the miracles and experiences of the Great Teacher.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jakobi writes + <span class="tei tei-q">“for thoughtful and sympathetic + readers.”</span> He recognises that much of the miraculous is a later + addition to the facts, but he has a rooted distrust of thoroughgoing + rationalism, <span class="tei tei-q">“whose would-be helpful + explanations are often stranger than the miracles themselves.”</span> + A certain amount of miracle must be maintained, but not for the + purpose of founding belief upon it: <span class="tei tei-q">“the + miracles were not intended to authenticate the teaching of Jesus, but + to surround His life with a guard of honour.”</span><a id= + "noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a></p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether Herder, in + his two Lives of Jesus, is to be classed with the older rationalists + is a question to which the answer must be <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Yes, and No,”</span> as in the case of every attempt to + classify those men of lonely greatness who stand apart from their + contemporaries, but who nevertheless are not in all points in advance + of them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Properly speaking, + he has really nothing to do with the rationalists, since he is + distinguished from them by the depth of his insight and his power of + artistic apprehension, and he is far from sharing their lack of + taste. Further, his horizon embraces problems of which rationalism, + even in its developed form, never <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> came in sight. He recognises that all attempts + to harmonise the Synoptists with John are unavailing; a conclusion + which he had avowed earlier in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Letters + referring to the Study of Theology.”</span><a id="noteref_21" name= + "noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> He + grasps this incompatibility, it is true, rather by the aid of poetic, + than of critical insight. <span class="tei tei-q">“Since they cannot + be united,”</span> he writes in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of + Jesus according to John,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“they must + be left standing independently, each evangelist with his own special + merit. Man, Ox, Lion, and Eagle, they advance together, supporting + the throne of glory, but they refuse to coalesce into a single form, + to unite into a Diatessaron.”</span> But to him belongs the honour of + being the first and the only scholar, prior to Strauss, to recognise + that the life of Jesus can be construed either according to the + Synoptists, or according to John, but that a Life of Jesus based on + the four Gospels is a monstrosity. In view of this intuitive + historical grasp, it is not surprising that the commentaries of the + theologians were an abomination to him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fourth Gospel + is, in his view, not a primitive historical source, but a protest + against the narrowness of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Palestinian + Gospels.”</span> It gives free play, as the circumstances of the time + demanded, to Greek ideas. <span class="tei tei-q">“There was need, in + addition to those earlier, purely historical Gospels, of a Gospel at + once theological and historical, like that of John,”</span> in which + Jesus should be presented, not as the Jewish Messiah, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“but as the Saviour of the World.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The additions and + omissions of this Gospel are alike skilfully planned. It retains only + those miracles which are symbols of a continuous permanent miracle, + through which the Saviour of the World works constantly, + unintermittently, among men. The Johannine miracles are not there for + their own sakes. The cures of demoniacs are not even represented + among them. These had no interest for the Graeco-Roman world, and the + Evangelist was unwilling <span class="tei tei-q">“that this + Palestinian superstition should become a permanent feature of + Christianity, to be a reproach of scoffers or a belief of the + foolish.”</span> His recording of the raising of Lazarus is, in spite + of the silence of the Synoptists, easily explicable. The latter could + not yet tell the story <span class="tei tei-q">“without exposing a + family which was still living near Jerusalem to the fury of that + hatred which had sworn with an oath to put Lazarus to death.”</span> + John, however, could recount it without scruple, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“for by this time Jerusalem was probably in ruins, and + the hospitable family of Bethany were perhaps already with their + Friend in the other world.”</span> This most naïve of explanations is + reproduced in a whole series of Lives of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In dealing with + the Synoptists, Herder grasps the problem with <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the same intuitive insight. Mark is no + epitomist, but the creator of the archetype of the Synoptic + representation. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Gospel of Mark is not an + epitome; it is an original Gospel. What the others have, and he has + not, has been added by them, not omitted by him. Consequently Mark is + a witness to an original, shorter Gospel-scheme, to which the + additional matter of the others ought properly to be regarded as a + supplement.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mark is the + <span class="tei tei-q">“unornamented central column, or plain + foundation stone, on which the others rest.”</span> The birth-stories + of Matthew and Luke are <span class="tei tei-q">“a new growth to meet + new needs.”</span> The different tendencies, also, point to a later + period. Mark is still comparatively friendly towards the Jews, + because Christianity had not yet separated itself from Judaism. + Matthew is more hostile towards them because his Gospel was written + at a time when Christians had given up the hope of maintaining + amicable relations with the Jews and were groaning under the pressure + of persecution. It is for that reason that the Jesus of the Matthaean + discourses lays so much stress upon His second coming, and + presupposes the rejection of the Jewish nation as something already + in being, a sign of the approaching end.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pure history, + however, is as little to be looked for in the first three Gospels as + in the fourth. They are the sacred epic of Jesus the Messiah, and + model the history of their hero upon the prophetic words of the Old + Testament. In this view, also, Herder is a precursor of Strauss.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In essence, + however, Herder represents a protest of art against theology. The + Gospels, if we are to find the life of Jesus in them, must be read, + not with pedantic learning, but with taste. From this point of view, + miracles cease to offend. Neither Old Testament prophecies, nor + predictions of Jesus, nor miracles, can be adduced as evidence for + the Gospel; the Gospel is its own evidence. The miracles stand + outside the possibility of proof, and belong to mere <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Church belief,”</span> which ought to lose itself more + and more in the pure Gospel. Yet miracles, in a limited sense, are to + be accepted on the ground of the historic evidence. To refuse to + admit this is to be like the Indian king who denied the existence of + ice because he had never seen anything like it. Jesus, in order to + help His miracle-loving age, reconciled Himself to the necessity of + performing miracles. But, in any case, the reality of a miracle is of + small moment in comparison with its symbolic value.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this, + therefore, Herder, though in his grasp of many problems he was more + than a generation in advance of his time, belongs to the primitive + rationalists. He allows the supernatural to intrude into the events + of the life of Jesus, and does not feel that the adoption of the + historical standpoint involves the necessity of doing away with + miracle. He contributed much to the clearing up of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ideas, but by evading the question of + miracle he slurred over a difficulty which needed to be faced and + solved before it should be possible to entertain the hope of forming + a really historical conception of the life of Jesus. In reading + Herder one is apt to fancy that it would be possible to pass straight + on to Strauss. In reality, it was necessary that a very prosaic + spirit, Paulus, should intervene, and should attack the question of + miracle from a purely historical standpoint, before Strauss could + give expression to the ideas of Herder in an effectual way, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> in such a way as to produce + offence. The fact is that in theology the most revolutionary ideas + are swallowed quite readily so long as they smooth their passage by a + few small concessions. It is only when a spicule of bone stands out + obstinately and causes choking that theology begins to take note of + dangerous ideas. Strauss is Herder with just that little bone + sticking out—the absolute denial of miracle on historical grounds. + That is to say, Strauss is a Herder who has behind him the + uncompromising rationalism of Paulus.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name= + "Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">IV. The Earliest Fictitious Lives Of + Jesus</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Karl + Friedrich Bahrdt.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Briefe + über die Bibel im Volkston. Eine Wochenschrift von einem Prediger auf + dem Lande. (Popular Letters about the Bible. A weekly paper by a + country clergyman.) J. Fr. Dost, Halle, 1782. 816 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Ausführung des Plans und Zwecks Jesu. In Briefen + an Wahrheit suchende Leser. (An Explanation of the Plans and Aims + of Jesus. In letters addressed to readers who seek the truth.) 11 + vols., embracing 3000 pp. August Mylius, Berlin, 1784-1792. This + work is a sequel to the Popular Letters about the Bible.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Die sämtlichen Reden Jesu aus den Evangelisten + ausgezogen. (The Whole of the Discourses of Jesus, extracted from + the Gospels.) Berlin, 1786.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Karl + Heinrich Venturini.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Natürliche Geschichte des grossen Propheten von + Nazareth. (A Non-supernatural History of the Great Prophet of + Nazareth.) Bethlehem (Copenhagen), 1st ed., 1800-1802; 2nd ed., + 1806. 4 vols., embracing 2700 pp. The work appeared anonymously. + The description given below is based on the 2nd ed., which shows + dependence, in some of the exegetical details, upon the then + recently published commentaries of Paulus.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is strange to + notice how often in the history of our subject a few imperfectly + equipped free-lances have attacked and attempted to carry the + decisive positions before the ordered ranks of professional theology + have pushed their advance to these decisive points.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, it was the + fictitious <span class="tei tei-q">“Lives”</span> of Bahrdt and + Venturini which, at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the + nineteenth centuries, first attempted to apply, with logical + consistency, a non-supernatural interpretation to the miracle stories + of the Gospel. Further, these writers were the first who, instead of + contenting themselves with the simple reproduction of the successive + sections of the Gospel narrative, endeavoured to grasp the inner + connexion of cause and effect in the events and experiences of the + life of Jesus. Since they found no such connexion indicated in the + Gospels, they had to supply it for themselves. The particular form + which their explanation takes—the hypothesis of a secret society of + which Jesus is the tool—is, it is true, rather a sorry makeshift. + Yet, in a sense, these Lives of Jesus, for all their colouring of + fiction, are the first which deserve the name. The rationalists, and + even Paulus, confine themselves to describing the teaching of Jesus; + Bahrdt and Venturini make a bold attempt to paint the portrait of + Jesus Himself. It is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg + 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not + surprising that their portraiture is at once crude and fantastic, + like the earliest attempts of art to represent the human figure in + living movement.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Karl Friedrich + Bahrdt was born in 1741 at Bischofswerda. Endowed with brilliant + abilities, he made, owing to a bad upbringing and an undisciplined + sensuous nature, a miserable failure. After being first Catechist and + afterwards Professor Extraordinary of Sacred Philology at Leipzig, he + was, in 1766, requested to resign on account of scandalous life. + After various adventures, and after holding for a time a + professorship at Giessen, he received under Frederick's minister + Zedlitz authorisation to lecture at Halle. There he lectured to + nearly nine hundred students who were attracted by his inspiring + eloquence. The government upheld him, in spite of his serious + failings, with the double motive of annoying the faculty and + maintaining the freedom of learning. After the death of Frederick the + Great, Bahrdt had to resign his post, and took to keeping an inn at a + vineyard near Halle. By ridiculing Wöllner's edict (1788), he brought + on himself a year of confinement in a fortress. He died in disrepute, + in 1792.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bahrdt had begun + as an orthodox cleric. In Halle he gave up his belief in revelation, + and endeavoured to explain religion on the ground of reason. To this + period belong the <span class="tei tei-q">“Popular Letters about the + Bible,”</span> which were afterwards continued in the further series, + <span class="tei tei-q">“An Explanation of the Plans and Aims of + Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His treatment of + the life of Jesus has been too severely censured. The work is not + without passages which show a real depth of feeling, especially in + the continually recurring explanations regarding the relation of + belief in miracle to true faith, in which the actual description of + the life of Jesus lies embedded. And the remarks about the teaching + of Jesus are not always commonplace. But the paraphernalia of + dialogues of portentous length make it, as a whole, formless and + inartistic. The introduction of a galaxy of imaginary + characters—Haram, Schimah, Avel, Limmah, and the like—is nothing less + than bewildering.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bahrdt finds the + key to the explanation of the life of Jesus in the appearance in the + Gospel narrative of Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea. They are not + disciples of Jesus, but belong to the upper classes; what rôle, then, + can they have played in the life of Jesus, and how came they to + intercede on His behalf? They were Essenes. This Order had secret + members in all ranks of society, even in the Sanhedrin. It had set + itself the task of detaching the nation from its sensuous Messianic + hopes and leading it to a higher knowledge of spiritual truths. It + had the most widespread ramifications, extending to Babylon and to + Egypt. In order to deliver the people from the limitations of the + national faith, which could only lead to disturbance and + insurrection, they must find a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Messiah who would destroy these false Messianic + expectations. They were therefore on the look-out for a claimant of + the Messiahship whom they could make subservient to their aims.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus came under + the notice of the Order immediately after His birth. As a child He + was watched over at every step by the Brethren. At the feasts at + Jerusalem Alexandrian Jews, secret members of the Essene Order, put + themselves into communication with Him, explained to Him the falsity + of the priests, inspired Him with a horror of the bloody sacrifices + of the Temple, and made him acquainted with Socrates and Plato. This + is set forth in dialogues of a hundred pages long. At the story of + the death of Socrates, the boy bursts into a tempest of sobs which + His friends are unable to calm. He longs to emulate the martyr-death + of the great Athenian.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the + market-place at Nazareth a mysterious Persian gives Him two sovereign + remedies—one for affections of the eye, the other for nervous + disorders.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His father does + his best for Him, teaching Him, along with His cousin John, + afterwards the Baptist, about virtue and immortality. A priest + belonging to the Essene Order, who makes their acquaintance disguised + as a shepherd, and takes part in their conversations, leads the lads + deeper into the knowledge of wisdom. At twelve years old, Jesus is + already so far advanced that He argues with the Scribes in the Temple + concerning miracles, maintaining the thesis that they are + impossible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When they feel + themselves ready to appear in public the two cousins take counsel + together how they can best help the people. They agree to open the + eyes of the people regarding the tyranny and hypocrisy of the + priests. Through Haram, a prominent member of the Essene Order, Luke + the physician is introduced to Jesus and places all his science at + His disposal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + produce any effect they were obliged to practise accommodation to the + superstitions of the people, and introduce their wisdom to them under + the garb of folly, in the hope that, beguiled by its attractive + exterior, the people would admit into their minds the revelation of + rational truth, and after a time be able to emancipate themselves + from superstition. Jesus, therefore, sees Himself obliged to appear + in the rôle of the Messiah of popular expectation, and to make up His + mind to work by means of miracles and illusions. About this He felt + the gravest scruples. He was obliged, however, to obey the Order; and + His scruples were quieted by the reminder of the lofty end which was + to be reached by these means. At last, when it is pointed out to Him + that even Moses had followed the same plan, He submits to the + necessity. The influential Order undertakes the duty of + stage-managing the miracles, and that of maintaining His father. On + the reception of Jesus into the number of the Brethren of the First + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" + id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Degree of the Order it is made + known to Him that these Brethren are bound to face death in the cause + of the Order; but that the Order, on its part, undertakes so to use + the machinery and influence at its disposal that the last extremity + shall always be avoided and the Brother mysteriously preserved from + death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then begins the + cleverly staged drama by means of which the people are to be + converted to rational religion. The members of the Order are divided + into three classes: The Baptized, The Disciples, The Chosen Ones. The + Baptized receive only the usual popular teaching; the Disciples are + admitted to further knowledge, but are not entrusted with the highest + mysteries; the Chosen Ones, who in the Gospels are also spoken of as + <span class="tei tei-q">“Angels,”</span> are admitted into all + wisdom. As the Apostles were only members of the Second Degree, they + had not the smallest suspicion of the secret machinery which was at + work. Their part in the drama of the Life of Jesus was that of + zealous <span class="tei tei-q">“supers.”</span> The Gospels which + they composed therefore report, in perfect good faith, miracles which + were really clever illusions produced by the Essenes, and they depict + the life of Jesus only as seen by the populace from the outside.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is therefore + not always possible for us to discover how the events which they + record as miracles actually came about. But whether they took place + in one way or another—and as to this we can sometimes get a clue from + a hint in the text—it is certain that in all cases the process was + natural. With reference to the feeding of the five thousand, Bahrdt + remarks: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is more reasonable here to think + of a thousand ways by which Jesus might have had sufficient supplies + of bread at hand, and by the distribution of it have shamed the + disciples' lack of courage, than to believe in a miracle.”</span> The + explanation which he himself prefers is that the Order had collected + a great quantity of bread in a cave and this was gradually handed out + to Jesus, who stood at the concealed entrance and took some every + time the apostles were occupied in distributing the former supply to + the multitude. The walking on the sea is to be explained by supposing + that Jesus walked towards the disciples over the surface of a great + floating raft; while they, not being able to see the raft, must needs + suppose a miracle. When Peter tried to walk on the water he failed + miserably. The miracles of healing are to be attributed to the art of + Luke. He also called the attention of Jesus to remarkable cases of + apparent death, which He then took in hand, and restored the + apparently dead to their sorrowing friends. In such cases, however, + the Lord never failed expressly to inform the disciples that the + persons were not really dead. They, however, did not permit this + assurance to deprive them of their faith in the miracle which they + felt they had themselves witnessed.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In teaching, Jesus + had two methods: one, exoteric, simple, for the world; the other, + esoteric, mystic, for the initiate. <span class="tei tei-q">“No + attentive reader of the Bible,”</span> says Bahrdt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“can fail to notice that Jesus made use of two different + styles of speech. Sometimes He spoke so plainly and in such + universally intelligible language, and declared truths so simple and + so well adapted to the general comprehension of mankind that even the + simplest could follow Him. At other times he spoke so mystically, so + obscurely, and in so veiled a fashion that words and thoughts alike + baffled the understandings of ordinary people, and even by more + practised minds were not to be grasped without close reflection, so + that we are told in John vi. 60 that <span class="tei tei-q">‘many of + His disciples, when they heard this, said, This is an hard saying; + who can hear it?’</span> And Jesus Himself did not deny it, but only + told them that the reason of their not understanding His sayings lay + in their prejudices, which made them interpret everything literally + and materially, and overlook the ethical meaning which underlay His + figurative language.”</span> Most of these mystical discourses are to + be found in John, who seems to have preserved for us the greater part + of the secret teaching imparted to the initiate. The key to the + understanding of this esoteric teaching is to be found, therefore, in + the prologue to John's Gospel, and in the sayings about the new + birth. <span class="tei tei-q">“To be born again”</span> is identical + with the degree of perfection which was attained in the highest class + of the Brotherhood.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The members of the + Order met on appointed days in caves among the hills. When we are + told in the Gospels that Jesus went alone into a mountain to pray, + this means that He repaired to one of these secret gatherings, but + the disciples, of course, knew nothing about that. The Order had its + hidden caves everywhere; in Galilee as well as in the neighbourhood + of Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Only by sensuous means can sensuous ideas be + overcome.”</span> The Jewish Messiah must die and rise again, in + order that the false conceptions of the Messiah which were cherished + by the multitude might be destroyed in the moment of their + fulfilment—that is, might be spiritualised. Nicodemus, Haram, and + Luke met in a cave in order to take counsel how they might bring + about the death of Jesus in a way favourable to their plans. Luke + guaranteed that by the aid of powerful drugs which he would give Him + the Lord should be enabled to endure the utmost pain and suffering + and yet resist death for a long time. Nicodemus undertook so to work + matters in the Sanhedrin that the execution should follow immediately + upon the sentence, and the crucified remain only a short time upon + the cross. At this moment Jesus rushed into the cave. He had scarcely + had time to replace the stone which concealed the entrance, so + closely had He been pursued over the rocks by hired assassins. He + Himself is firmly resolved <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg + 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + die, but care must be taken that He shall not be simply assassinated, + or the whole plan fails. If He falls by the assassin's knife, no + resurrection will be possible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end, the + piece is staged to perfection. Jesus provokes the authorities by His + triumphal Messianic entry. The unsuspected Essenes in the council + urge on His arrest and secure His condemnation—though Pilate almost + frustrates all their plans by acquitting Him. Jesus, by uttering a + loud cry and immediately afterwards bowing His head, shows every + appearance of a sudden death. The centurion has been bribed not to + allow any of His bones to be broken. Then comes Joseph of Ramath, as + Bahrdt prefers to call Joseph of Arimathea, and removes the body to + the cave of the Essenes, where he immediately commences measures of + resuscitation. As Luke had prepared the body of the Messiah by means + of strengthening medicines to resist the fearful ill-usage which He + had gone through—the being dragged about and beaten and finally + crucified—these efforts were crowned with success. In the cave the + most strengthening nutriment was supplied to Him. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Since the humours of the body were in a thoroughly + healthy condition, His wounds healed very readily, and by the third + day He was able to walk, in spite of the fact that the wounds made by + the nails were still open.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the morning of + the third day they forced away the stone which closed the mouth of + the grave. As Jesus was descending the rocky slopes the watch + awakened and took to flight in alarm. One of the Essenes appeared, in + the garb of an angel, to the women and announced to them the + resurrection of Jesus. Shortly afterwards the Lord appeared to Mary. + At the sound of His voice she recognises Him. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thereupon Jesus tells her that He is going to His Father + (to heaven—in the mystic sense of the word—that is to say, to the + Chosen Ones in their peaceful dwellings of truth and blessedness—to + the circle of His faithful friends, among whom He continued to live, + unseen by the world, but still working for the advancement of His + purpose). He bade her tell His disciples that He was + alive.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From His place of + concealment He appeared several times to His disciples. Finally He + bade them meet Him at the Mount of Olives, near Bethany, and there + took leave of them. After exhorting them, and embracing each of them + in turn, He tore Himself away from them and walked away up the + mountain. <span class="tei tei-q">“There stood those poor men, + amazed—beside themselves with sorrow—and looked after Him as long as + they could. But as He mounted higher, He entered ever deeper into the + cloud which lay upon the hill-top, until finally He was no longer to + be seen. The cloud received Him out of their sight.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the mountain + He returned to the chief lodge of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Brotherhood. Only at rare intervals did He + again intervene in active life—as on the occasion when He appeared to + Paul upon the road to Damascus. But, though unseen, He continued to + direct the destinies of the community until His death.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Venturini's + <span class="tei tei-q">“Non-supernatural History of the Great + Prophet of Nazareth”</span> is related to Bahrdt's work as the + finished picture to the sketch.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Karl Heinrich + Venturini was born at Brunswick in 1768. On the completion of his + theological studies he vainly endeavoured to secure a post as Docent + in the theological faculty at Helmstadt, or as Librarian at + Wolfenbüttel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His life was + blameless and his personal piety beyond reproach, but he was + considered to be too free in his ideas. The Duke of Brunswick was + personally well disposed towards him, but did not venture to give him + a post on the teaching staff in face of the opposition of the + consistories. He was reduced to earning a bare pittance by literary + work, and finally in 1806 was thankful to accept a small living in + Hordorf near Brunswick. He then abandoned theological writing and + devoted his energies to recording the events of contemporary history, + of which he published a yearly chronicle—a proceeding which under the + Napoleonic <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">régime</span></span> was not + always unattended with risk, as he more than once had occasion to + experience. He continued this undertaking till 1841. In 1849 death + released him from his tasks.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Venturini's + fundamental assumption is that it was impossible, even for the + noblest spirit of mankind, to make Himself understood by the Judaism + of His time except by clothing His spiritual teaching in a sensuous + garb calculated to please the oriental imagination, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“and, in general, by bringing His higher spiritual world + into such relations with the lower sensuous world of those whom He + wished to teach as was necessary to the accomplishment of His + aims.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“God's Messenger was morally + bound to perform miracles for the Jews. These miracles had an ethical + purpose, and were especially designed to counteract the impression + made by the supposed miracles of the deceivers of the people, and + thus to hasten the overthrow of the kingdom of Satan.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For modern medical + science the miracles are not miraculous. He never healed without + medicaments and always carried His <span class="tei tei-q">“portable + medicine chest”</span> with Him. In the case of the Syro-phoenician + woman's daughter, for example, we can still detect in the narrative a + hint of the actual course of events. The mother explains the case to + Jesus. After enquiring where her dwelling was he made a sign to John, + and continued to hold her in conversation. The disciple went to the + daughter and gave her a sedative, and when the mother returned she + found her child cured.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg + 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The raisings from + the dead were cases of coma. The nature-miracles were due to a + profound acquaintance with the powers of Nature and the order of her + processes. They involve fore-knowledge rather than control.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many miracle + stories rest on obvious misunderstandings. Nothing could be simpler + than the explanation of the miracle at Cana. Jesus had brought with + Him as a wedding-gift some jars of good wine and had put them aside + in another room. When the wine was finished and His mother became + anxious, He still allowed the guests to wait a little, as the stone + vessels for purification had not yet been filled with water. When + that had been done He ordered the servants to pour out some of his + wine, but to tell no one whence it came. When John, as an old man, + wrote his Gospel, he got all this rather mixed up—had not indeed + observed it very closely at the time, <span class="tei tei-q">“had + perhaps been the least thing merry himself,”</span> says Venturini, + and had believed in the miracle with the rest. Perhaps, too, he had + not ventured to ask Jesus for an explanation, for he had only become + His disciple a few days before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The members of the + Essene Order had watched over the child Jesus even in Egypt. As He + grew older they took charge of His education along with that of His + cousin, John, and trained them both for their work as deliverers of + the people. Whereas the nation as a whole looked to an insurrection + as the means of its deliverance, they knew that freedom could only be + achieved by means of a spiritual renewal. Once Jesus and John met a + band of insurgents: Jesus worked on them so powerfully by His fervid + speech that they recognised the impiousness of their purpose. One of + them sprang towards Him and laid down his arms; it was Simon, who + afterwards became His disciple.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Jesus was + about thirty years old, and, owing to the deep experiences of His + inner life, had really far outgrown the aims of the Essene Order, He + entered upon His office by demanding baptism from John. Just as this + was taking place a thunderstorm broke, and a dove, frightened by the + lightning, fluttered round the head of Jesus. Both Jesus and John + took this as a sign that the hour appointed by God had come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The temptations in + the wilderness, and upon the pinnacle of the Temple, were due to the + machinations of the Pharisee Zadok, who pretended to enter into the + plans of Jesus and feigned admiration for Him in order the more + surely to entrap Him. It was Zadok, too, who stirred up opposition to + Him in the Sanhedrin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Jesus did not + succeed in destroying the old Messianic belief with its earthly aims. + The hatred of the leading circles against Him grew, although He + avoided everything <span class="tei tei-q">“that could offend their + prejudices.”</span> It was for this reason that He even forbade His + disciples to preach the Gospel beyond the borders of Jewish + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" + id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> territory. He paid the + temple-tax, also, although he had no fixed abode. When the collector + went to Peter about it, the following dialogue took place.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tax-collector</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">drawing Peter + aside</span></span>). Tell me, Simon, does the Rabbi pay the + didrachma to the Temple treasury, or should we not trouble Him about + it?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peter.</span></span> + Why shouldn't He pay it? Why do you ask?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tax-collector.</span></span> It's been owing + from both of you since last Nisan, as our books show. We did not like + to remind your Master, out of reverence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Peter.</span></span> + I'll tell Him at once. He will certainly pay the tax. You need have + no fear about that.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tax-collector.</span></span> That's good. That + will put everything straight, and we shall have no trouble over our + accounts. Good-bye!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Jesus hears + of it He commands Peter to go and catch a fish, and to take care, in + removing the hook, not to tear its mouth, that it may be fit for + salting (!) In that case it will doubtless be worth a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">stater</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The time arrived + when an important move must be made. In full conclave of the Secret + Society it was resolved that Jesus should go up to Jerusalem and + there publicly proclaim Himself as the Messiah. Then He was to + endeavour to disabuse the people of their earthly Messianic + expectations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The triumphal + entry succeeded. The whole people hailed Him with acclamations. But + when He tried to substitute for their picture of the Messiah one of a + different character, and spoke of times of severe trial which should + come upon all, when He showed Himself but seldom in the Temple, + instead of taking His place at the head of the people, they began to + doubt Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus was suddenly + arrested and put to death. Here, then, the death is not, as in + Bahrdt, a piece of play-acting, stage-managed by the Secret Society. + Jesus really expected to die, and only to meet His disciples again in + the eternal life of the other world. But when He so soon gave up the + ghost, Joseph of Arimathea was moved by some vague premonition to + hasten at once to Pontius Pilate and make request for His body. He + offers the Procurator money. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pilate</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sternly and + emphatically</span></span>): <span class="tei tei-q">“Dost thou also + mistake me? Am I, then, such an insatiable miser? Still, thou art a + Jew—how could this people do me justice? Know, then, that a Roman can + honour true nobility wherever he may find it. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">He sits down and writes + some words on a strip of parchment.</span></span>) Give this to the + captain of the guard. Thou shall be permitted to remove the body. I + ask nothing for this. It is granted to thee freely.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“A tender embrace from his wife rewarded the noble deed + of the Roman, while Joseph left the Praetorium, and with Nicodemus, + who was impatiently awaiting him, hastened to Golgotha.”</span> There + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" + id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he received the body; he + washed it, anointed it with spices, and laid it on a bed of moss in + the rock-hewn grave. From the blood which was still flowing from the + wound in the side, he ventured to draw a hopeful augury, and sent + word to the Essene Brethren. They had a hold close by, and promised + to watch over the body. In the first four-and-twenty hours no + movement of life showed itself. Then came the earthquake. In the + midst of the terrible commotion a Brother, in the white robes of the + Order, was making his way to the grave by a secret path. When he, + illumined by a flash of lightning, suddenly appeared above the grave, + and at the same moment the earth shook violently, panic seized the + watch, and they fled. In the morning the Brother hears a sound from + the grave: Jesus is moving. The whole Order hastens to the spot, and + Jesus is removed to their Lodge. Two brethren remain at the + grave—these were the <span class="tei tei-q">“angels”</span> whom the + women saw later. Jesus, in the dress of a gardener, is afterwards + recognised by Mary Magdalene. Later, He comes out at intervals from + the hiding-place, where He is kept by the Brethren, and appears to + the disciples. After forty days He took His leave of them: His + strength was exhausted. The farewell scene gave rise to the mistaken + impression of His Ascension.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the + historical point of view these lives are not such contemptible + performances as might be supposed. There is much penetrating + observation in them. Bahrdt and Venturini are right in feeling that + the connexion of events in the life of Jesus has to be discovered; + the Gospels give only a series of occurrences, and offer no + explanation why they happened just as they did. And if, in making + Jesus subservient to the plans of a secret society, they represented + Him as not acting with perfect freedom, but as showing a certain + passivity, this assumption of theirs was to be brilliantly + vindicated, a hundred years later, by the eschatological school, + which asserts the same remarkable passivity on the part of Jesus, in + that He allows His actions to be determined, not indeed by a secret + society, but by the eschatological plan of God. Bahrdt and Venturini + were the first to see that, of all Jesus' acts, His death was most + distinctively His own, because it was by this that He purposed to + found the kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Venturini's + <span class="tei tei-q">“Non-supernatural History of the Great + Prophet of Nazareth”</span> may almost be said to be reissued + annually down to the present day, for all the fictitious <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Lives”</span> go back directly or indirectly to the type + which he created. It is plagiarised more freely than any other Life + of Jesus, although practically unknown by name.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name= + "Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">V. Fully Developed + Rationalism—Paulus</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob + Paulus.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Leben Jesu als + Grundlage einer reinen Geschichte des Urchristentums. Heidelberg, C. + F. Winter. (The Life of Jesus as the Basis of a purely Historical + Account of Early Christianity.) 1828. 2 vols., 1192 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Freut euch mit Gottesandacht, wenn + es gewährt euch ist,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Dem, so kurz er war, + weltumschaffenden Lebensgang</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Nach Jahrhunderten fern zu + folgen,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 1.80em"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Denket, glaubet, folget des + Vorbildes Spur!</span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Closing words of vol. ii.)</span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Rejoice with grateful devotion, + if unto you 'tis permitted,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">After the lapse of centuries, + still to follow afar off</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">That Life which, short as it was, + changed the course of the ages;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Think ye well, and believe; follow + the path of our Pattern.)</span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Paulus was not the + mere dry-as-dust rationalist that he is usually represented to have + been, but a man of very versatile abilities. His limitation was that, + like Reinhard, he had an unconquerable distrust of anything that went + outside the boundaries of logical thought. That was due in part to + the experiences of his youth. His father, a deacon in Leonberg, + half-mystic, half-rationalist, had secret difficulties about the + doctrine of immortality, and made his wife promise on her death-bed + that, if it were possible, she would appear to him after her death in + bodily form. After she was dead he thought he saw her raise herself + to a sitting posture, and again sink down. From that time onwards he + firmly believed himself to be in communication with departed spirits, + and he became so dominated by this idea that in 1771 he had to be + removed from his office. His children suffered sorely from a + <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">régime</span></span> of compulsory spiritualism, + which pressed hardest upon Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob, born in 1761, + who, for the sake of peace, was obliged to pretend to his father that + he was in communication with his mother's spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He himself had + inherited only the rationalistic side of his father's temperament. As + a student at the Tübingen Stift (theological institute) he formed his + views on the writings of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg + 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Semler and Michaelis. In 1789 he was called to Jena as Professor of + Oriental Languages, and succeeded in 1793 to the third ordinary + professorship of theology. The naturalistic interpretation of + miracles which he upheld in his commentary on the Synoptic Gospels, + published in 1800-1802, aroused the indignation of the consistories + of Meiningen and Eisenach. But their petition for his removal from + the professorship was unsuccessful, since Herder, who was president + of the consistorium, used his influence to protect him. In 1799 + Paulus, as Pro-rector, used his influence on behalf of his colleague + Fichte, who was attacked on the ground of atheism; but in vain, owing + to the passionate conduct of the accused.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With Goethe, + Schiller, and Wieland, Paulus and his wife, a lively lady of some + literary talents, stood in the most friendly relations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the Jena + circle began to break up, he accepted, in 1803, an invitation from + the Elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph II., to go to Würzburg as + Konsistorialrat and professor. There the liberal minister, Montgelas, + was desirous of establishing a university founded on the principles + of illuminism—Schelling, Hufeland, and Schleiermacher were among + those whom he contemplated appointing as Docents. Here the Catholic + theological students were obliged to attend the lectures of the + Protestant professor of theology, as there were no Protestants to + form an audience. His first course was on <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Encyclopädie”</span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> + introduction to the literature of theology).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The plan failed. + Paulus resigned his professorship and became in 1807 a member of the + Bavarian educational council (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schulrat</span></span>). In this capacity he + worked at the reorganisation of the Bavarian school system at the + time when Hegel was similarly engaged. He gave four years to this + task, which he felt to be laid upon him as a duty. Then, in 1811, he + went to Heidelberg as professor of theology; and he remained there + until his death, in 1851, at the age of ninety. One of his last + sayings, a few hours before he died, was, <span class="tei tei-q">“I + am justified before God, through my desire to do right.”</span> His + last words were, <span class="tei tei-q">“There is another + world.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The forty years of + his Heidelberg period were remarkably productive; there was no + department of knowledge on which he did not write. He expressed his + views about homoeopathy, about the freedom of the Press, about + academic freedom, and about the duelling nuisance. In 1831, he wrote + upon the Jewish Question; and there the veteran rationalist showed + himself a bitter anti-Semite, and brought upon himself the scorn of + Heine. On politics and constitutional questions he fought for his + opinions so openly and manfully that he had to be warned to be more + discreet. In philosophy he took an especially keen interest. When in + Jena he had, in conjunction with Schiller, busied himself in the + study <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name= + "Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Kant. He did a + particularly meritorious service in preparing an edition of Spinoza's + writings, with a biography of that thinker, in 1803, at the time when + neo-Spinozism was making its influence felt in German philosophy. He + constituted himself the special guardian of philosophy, and the + moment he detected the slightest hint of mysticism, he sounded the + alarm. His pet aversion was Schelling, who was born fourteen years + later than he, in the very same house at Leonberg, and whom he had + met as colleague at Jena and at Würzburg. The works, avowed and + anonymous, which he directed against this <span class= + "tei tei-q">“charlatan, juggler, swindler, and obscurantist,”</span> + as he designated him, fill an entire library.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1841, Schelling + was called to the chair of philosophy in Berlin, and in the winter of + 1841-1842 he gave his lectures on <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Philosophy of Revelation”</span> which caused the Berlin + reactionaries to hail him as their great ally. The veteran + rationalist—he was eighty years old—was transported with rage. He had + had the lectures taken down for him, and he published them with + critical remarks under the title <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Philosophy of Revelation at length Revealed, and set forth for + General Examination, by Dr. H. E. G. Paulus”</span> (Darmstadt, + 1842). Schelling was furious, and dragged <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the impudent scoundrel”</span> into a court of law on + the charge of illicit publication. In Prussia the book was + suppressed. But the courts decided in favour of Paulus, who coolly + explained that <span class="tei tei-q">“the philosophy of Schelling + appeared to him an insidious attack upon sound reason, the unmasking + of which by every possible means was a work of public utility, nay, + even a duty.”</span> He also secured the result at which he aimed; + Schelling resigned his lectureship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his last days + the veteran rationalist was an isolated survival from an earlier age + into a period which no longer understood him. The new men reproached + him for standing in the old ways; he accused them of a want of + honesty. It was just in his immobility and his one-sidedness that his + significance lay. By his consistent carrying through of the + rationalistic explanation he performed a service to theology more + valuable than those who think themselves so vastly his superiors are + willing to acknowledge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His Life of Jesus + is awkwardly arranged. The first part gives a historical exposition + of the Gospels, section by section. The second part is a synopsis + interspersed with supplementary matter. There is no attempt to grasp + the life of Jesus as a connected whole. In that respect he is far + inferior to Venturini. Strictly regarded, his work is only a harmony + of the gospels with explanatory comments, the ground plan of which is + taken from the Fourth Gospel.<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" + href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main interest + centres in the explanations of the miracles, though the author, it + must be admitted, endeavoured to guard against this. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is my chief desire,”</span> he writes in his preface, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that my views regarding the miracle stories + should not be taken as by any means the principal thing. How empty + would devotion or religion be if one's spiritual well-being depended + on whether one believed in miracles or no!”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The truly miraculous thing about Jesus is Himself, the + purity and serene holiness of His character, which is, + notwithstanding, genuinely human, and adapted to the imitation and + emulation of mankind.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question of + miracle is therefore a subsidiary question. Two points of primary + importance are certain from the outset: (1) that unexplained + alterations of the course of nature can neither overthrow nor attest + a spiritual truth, (2) that everything which happens in nature + emanates from the omnipotence of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Evangelists + intended to relate miracles; of that there can be no doubt. Nor can + any one deny that in their time miracles entered into the plan of + God, in the sense that the minds of men were to be astounded and + subdued by inexplicable facts. This effect, however, is past. In + periods to which the miraculous makes less appeal, in view of the + advance in intellectual culture of the nations which have been led to + accept Christianity, the understanding must be satisfied if the + success of the cause is to be maintained.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since that which + is produced by the laws of nature is really produced by God, the + Biblical miracles consist merely in the fact that eyewitnesses report + events of which they did not know the secondary causes. Their + knowledge of the laws of nature was insufficient to enable them to + understand what actually happened. For one who has discovered the + secondary causes, the fact remains, as such, but not the miracle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question of + miracle, therefore, does not really exist, or exists only for those + <span class="tei tei-q">“who are under the influence of the sceptical + delusion that it is possible really to think any kind of natural + powers as existing apart from God, or to think the Being of God apart + from the primal potentialities which unfold themselves in the + never-ceasing process of Becoming.”</span> The difficulty arises from + the <span class="tei tei-q">“original sin”</span> of dissolving the + inner unity of God and nature, of denying the equivalence implied by + Spinoza in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Deus sive Natura.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the normal + intelligence the only problem is to discover the secondary causes of + the <span class="tei tei-q">“miracles”</span> of Jesus. It is true + there is one miracle which Paulus retains—the miracle of the birth, + or at least the possibility of it; in the sense that it is through + holy <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name= + "Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> inspiration that Mary + receives the hope and the power of conceiving her exalted Son, in + whom the spirit of the Messiah takes up its dwelling. Here he + indirectly denies the natural generation, and regards the conception + as an act of the self-consciousness of the mother.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the miracles + of healing, however, the case is very simple. Sometimes Jesus worked + through His spiritual power upon the nervous system of the sufferer; + sometimes He used medicines known to Him alone. The latter applies, + for instance, to the cures of the blind. The disciples, too, as + appears from Mark vi. 7 and 13, were not sent out without + medicaments, for the oil with which they were to anoint the sick was, + of course, of a medicinal character; and the casting out of evil + spirits was effected partly by means of sedatives.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Diet and + after-treatment played a great part, though the Evangelists say + little about this because directions on these points would not be + given publicly. Thus, the saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“This kind + goeth not out save by prayer and fasting,”</span> is interpreted as + an instruction to the father as to the way in which he could make the + sudden cure of the epileptic into a permanent one, viz. by keeping + him to a strict diet and strengthening his character by devotional + exercises.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The nature + miracles suggest their own explanation. The walking on the water was + an illusion of the disciples. Jesus walked along the shore, and in + the mist was taken for a ghost by the alarmed and excited occupants + of the boat. When Jesus called to them, Peter threw himself into the + water, and was drawn to shore by Jesus just as he was sinking. + Immediately after taking Jesus into the boat they doubled a headland + and drew clear of the storm centre; they therefore supposed that He + had calmed the sea by His command. It was the same in the case where + He was asleep during the storm. When they waked Him He spoke to them + about the wind and the weather. At that moment they gained the + shelter of a hill which protected them from the wind that swept down + the valley; and they marvelled among themselves that even the winds + and the sea obeyed their Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The feeding of the + five thousand is explained in the following way. When Jesus saw the + multitude all hungered, He said to His disciples, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We will set the rich people among them a good example, + that they may share their supplies with the others,”</span> and he + began to distribute His own provisions, and those of the disciples, + to the people who were sitting near them. The example had its effect, + and soon there was plenty for every one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The explanation of + the transfiguration is somewhat more complicated. While Jesus was + lingering with a few followers in this mountainous district He had an + interview upon a high mountain at night with two dignified-looking + men whom His three companions took for Moses and Elias. These unknown + persons, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg + 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as + we learn from Luke ix. 31, informed Him of the fate which awaited Him + at Jerusalem. In the early morning, as the sun was rising, the three + disciples, only half awake, looked upwards from the hollow in which + they had been sleeping and saw Jesus with the two strangers upon the + higher part of the mountain, illuminated by the beams of the rising + sun, and heard them speak, now of the fate which threatened Him in + the capital, now of the duty of steadfastness and the hopes attached + thereto, and finally heard an exhortation addressed to themselves, + bidding them ever to hold Jesus to be the beloved Son of the Deity, + whom they must obey.... Their drowsiness, and the clouds which in an + autumnal sunrise float to and fro over those mountains,<a id= + "noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> left + them no clear recollection of what had happened. This only added to + the wonder of the vague undefined impression of having been in + contact with apparitions from a higher sphere. The three who had been + with Him on the mount never arrived at any more definite knowledge of + the facts, because Jesus forbade them to speak of what they had seen + until the end should come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In dealing with + the raisings from the dead the author is in his element. Here he is + ready with the unfailing explanation taken over from Bahrdt that they + were only cases of coma. These narratives should not be headed + <span class="tei tei-q">“raisings from the dead,”</span> but + <span class="tei tei-q">“deliverances from premature burial.”</span> + In Judaea, interment took place three hours after death. How many + seemingly dead people may have returned to consciousness in their + graves, and then have perished miserably! Thus Jesus, owing to a + presentiment suggested to Him by the father's story, saves the + daughter of Jairus from being buried while in a cataleptic trance. A + similar presentiment led Him to remove the covering of the bier which + He met at the gate of Nain, and to discover traces of life in the + widow's son. A similar instinct moved Him to ask to be taken to the + grave of Lazarus. When the stone is rolled away He sees His friend + standing upright and calls to him joyfully, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Come forth!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Jewish love of + miracle <span class="tei tei-q">“caused everything to be ascribed + immediately to the Deity, and secondary causes to be overlooked; + consequently no thought was unfortunately given to the question of + how to prevent these horrible cases of premature burial from taking + place!”</span> But why does it not appear strange to Paulus that + Jesus did not enlighten His countrymen as to the criminal character + of over-hasty burial, instead of allowing even his closest followers + to believe in miracle? Here the hypothesis condemns itself, although + it has a foundation of fact, in so far as cases of premature burial + are abnormally frequent in the East.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The resurrection + of Jesus must be brought under the same category if we are to hold + fast to the facts that the disciples saw Him in His natural body with + the print of the nails in His hands, and that He took food in their + presence. Death from crucifixion was in fact due to a condition of + rigor, which extended gradually inwards. It was the slowest of all + deaths. Josephus mentions in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Contra + Apionem</span></span> that it was granted to him as a favour by + Titus, at Tekoa, that he might have three crucified men whom he knew + taken down from the cross. Two of them died, but one recovered. + Jesus, however, <span class="tei tei-q">“died”</span> surprisingly + quickly. The loud cry which he uttered immediately before His head + sank shows that His strength was far from being exhausted, and that + what supervened was only a death-like trance. In such trances the + process of dying continues until corruption sets in. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“This alone proves that the process is complete and that + death has actually taken place.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the case of + Jesus, as in that of others, the vital spark would have been + gradually extinguished, had not Providence mysteriously effected on + behalf of its favourite that which in the case of others was + sometimes effected in more obvious ways by human skill and care. The + lance-thrust, which we are to think of rather as a mere surface + wound, served the purpose of a phlebotomy. The cool grave and the + aromatic unguents continued the process of resuscitation, until + finally the storm and the earthquake aroused Jesus to full + consciousness. Fortunately the earthquake also had the effect of + rolling away the stone from the mouth of the grave. The Lord stripped + off the grave-clothes and put on a gardener's dress which He managed + to procure. That was what made Mary, as we are told in John xx. 15, + take Him for the gardener. Through the women, He sends a message to + His disciples bidding them meet Him in Galilee, and Himself sets out + to go thither. At Emmaus, as the dusk was falling, He met two of His + followers, who at first failed to recognise Him because His + countenance was so disfigured by His sufferings. But His manner of + giving thanks at the breaking of bread, and the nail-prints in His + uplifted hands, revealed to them who He was. From them He learns + where His disciples are, returns to Jerusalem, and appears + unexpectedly among them. This is the explanation of the apparent + contradiction between the message pointing to Galilee and the + appearances in Jerusalem. Thomas was not present at this first + appearance, and at a later interview was suffered to put his hand + into the marks of the wounds. It is a misunderstanding to see a + reproach in the words which Jesus addresses to him. What, then, is + the meaning of <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed are they that have + not seen and have believed”</span>? It is a benediction upon Thomas + for what he has done in the interests of later generations. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Now,”</span> Jesus says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“thou, Thomas, art convinced because thou hast so + unmistakably seen Me. It is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg + 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + well for those who now or in the future shall not see Me; for after + this they can feel a firm conviction, because thou hast convinced + thyself so completely that to thee, whose hands have touched Me, no + possible doubt can remain of My corporeal reanimation.”</span> Had it + not been for Thomas's peculiar mental constitution we should not have + known whether what was seen was a phantom or a real appearance of the + reanimated Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this way Jesus + lived with them for forty days, spending part of that time with them + in Galilee. In consequence of the ill-treatment which He had + undergone, He was not capable of continuous exertion. He lived + quietly and gathered strength for the brief moments in which He + appeared among His own followers and taught them. When He felt his + end drawing near He returned to Jerusalem. On the Mount of Olives, in + the early sunlight, He assembled His followers for the last time. He + lifted up His hands to bless them, and with hands still raised in + benediction He moved away from them. A cloud interposes itself + between them and Him, so that their eyes cannot follow Him. As he + disappeared there stood before them, clothed in white, the two + dignified figures whom the three disciples who were present at the + transfiguration had taken for Moses and Elias, but who were really + among the secret adherents of Jesus in Jerusalem. These men exhorted + them not to stand waiting there but to be up and doing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where Jesus really + died they never knew, and so they came to describe His departure as + an ascension.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This Life of Jesus + is not written without feeling. At times, in moments of exaltation, + the writer even dashes into verse. If only the lack of all natural + aesthetic feeling did not ruin everything! Paulus constantly falls + into a style that sets the teeth on edge. The episode of the death of + the Baptist is headed <span class="tei tei-q">“Court-and-Priest + intrigues enhance themselves to a judicial murder.”</span> Much is + spoiled by a kind of banality. Instead of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“disciples,”</span> he always says <span class= + "tei tei-q">“pupils,”</span> instead of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“faith,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“sincerity of + conviction.”</span> The appeal which the father of the lunatic boy + addresses to Jesus, <span class="tei tei-q">“Lord, I believe, help + thou my unbelief,”</span> runs <span class="tei tei-q">“I am + sincerely convinced; help me, even if there is anything lacking in + the sincerity of my conviction.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The beautiful + saying in the story of Martha and Mary, <span class="tei tei-q">“One + thing is needful,”</span> is interpreted as meaning that a single + course will be sufficient for the meal.<a id="noteref_24" name= + "noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> The + scene in the home at Bethany rejoices in the heading, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Geniality of Jesus among sympathetic friends in a + hospitable family circle at Bethany. A Messiah with no stiff + solemnity about Him.”</span> The following is the explanation + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" + id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> which Paulus discovers for the + saying about the tribute-money: <span class="tei tei-q">“So long as + you need the Romans to maintain some sort of order among you,”</span> + says Jesus, <span class="tei tei-q">“you must provide the means + thereto. If you were fit to be independent you would not need to + serve any one but God.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + historical problems, Paulus is especially interested in the idea of + the Messiahship, and in the motives of the betrayal. His sixty-five + pages on the history of the conception of the Messiah are a real + contribution to the subject. The Messianic idea, he explains, goes + back to the Davidic kingdom; the prophets raised it to a higher + religious plane; in the times of the Maccabees the ideal of the + kingly Messiah perished and its place was taken by that of the + super-earthly deliverer. The only mistake which Paulus makes is in + supposing that the post-Maccabean period went back to the political + ideal of the Davidic king. On the other hand, he rightly interprets + the death of Jesus as the deed by which He thought to win the + Messiahship proper to the Son of Man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With reference to + the question of the High Priest at the trial, he remarks that it does + not refer to the metaphysical Divine Sonship, but to the Messiahship + in the ancient Jewish sense, and accordingly Jesus answers by + pointing to the coming of the Son of Man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The importance of + eschatology in the preaching of Jesus is clearly recognised, but + Paulus proceeds to nullify this recognition by making the risen Lord + cut short all the questions of the disciples in regard to this + subject with the admonition <span class="tei tei-q">“that in whatever + way all this should come about, and whether soon or late, their + business was to see that they had done their own part.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How did Judas come + to play the traitor? He believed in the Messiahship of Jesus and + wanted to force Him to declare Himself. To bring about His arrest + seemed to Judas the best means of rousing the people to take His side + openly. But the course of events was too rapid for him. Owing to the + Feast the news of the arrest spread but slowly. In the night + <span class="tei tei-q">“when people were sleeping off the effects of + the Passover supper,”</span> Jesus was condemned; in the morning, + before they were well awake, He was hurried away to be crucified. + Then Judas was overcome with despair, and went and hanged himself. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Judas stands before us in the history of the + Passion as a warning example of those who allow their cleverness to + degenerate into cunning, and persuade themselves that it is + permissible to do evil that good may come—to seek good objects, which + they really value, by intrigue and chicanery. And the underlying + cause of their errors is that they have failed to overcome their + passionate desire for self-advancement.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the + consistently rationalistic Life of Jesus, which evoked so much + opposition at the time of its appearance, and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seven years later received its death-blow + at the hands of Strauss. The method is doomed to failure because the + author only saves his own sincerity at the expense of that of his + characters. He makes the disciples of Jesus see miracles where they + could not possibly have seen them; and makes Jesus Himself allow + miracles to be imagined where He must necessarily have protested + against such a delusion. His exegesis, too, is sometimes violent. But + in this, who has the right to judge him? If the theologians dragged + him before the Lord, He would command, as of old, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Let him that is without sin among you cast the first + stone at him,”</span> and Paulus would go forth unharmed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, a number + of his explanations are right in principle. The feeding of the + multitudes and the walking on the sea must be explained somehow or + other as misunderstandings of something that actually happened. And + how many of Paulus' ideas are still going about in all sorts of + disguises, and crop up again and again in commentaries and Lives of + Jesus, especially in those of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“anti-rationalists”</span>! Nowadays it belongs to the + complete duty of the well-trained theologian to renounce the + rationalists and all their works; and yet how poor our time is in + comparison with theirs—how poor in strong men capable of loyalty to + an ideal, how poor, so far as theology is concerned, in simple + commonplace sincerity!</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name= + "Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">VI. The Last Phase Of Rationalism—Hase + And Schleiermacher</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Karl + August Hase.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Leben + Jesu zunächst für akademische Studien. (The Life of Jesus, primarily + for the use of students.) 1829. 205 pp. This work contains a + bibliography of the earliest literature of the subject. 5th ed., + 1865.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Friedrich Ernst Daniel + Schleiermacher.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Leben Jesu. 1864. Edited by Rütenik. The edition is based upon a + student's note-book of a course of lectures delivered in + 1832.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">David + Friedrich Strauss.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Der + Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus der Geschichte. Eine Kritik des + Schleiermacher'schen Lebens Jesu. (The Christ of Faith and the + Jesus of History. A criticism of Schleiermacher's Life of Jesus.) + 1865.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their treatment + of the life of Jesus, Hase and Schleiermacher are in one respect + still wholly dominated by rationalism. They still cling to the + rationalistic explanation of miracle; although they have no longer + the same ingenuous confidence in it as their predecessors, and + although at the decisive cases they are content to leave a + question-mark instead of offering a solution. They might, in fact, be + described as the sceptics of rationalism. In another respect, + however, they aim at something beyond the range of rationalism, + inasmuch as they endeavour to grasp the inner connexion of the events + of Jesus' ministry, which in Paulus had entirely fallen out of sight. + Their Lives of Jesus are transitional, in the good sense of the word + as well as in the bad. In respect of progress, Hase shows himself the + greater of the two.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Scarcely thirteen + years have elapsed since the death of the great Jena professor, his + Excellency von Hase, and already we think of him as a man of the + past. Theology has voted to inscribe his name upon its records in + letters of gold—and has passed on to the order of the day. He was no + pioneer like Baur, and he does not meet the present age on the + footing of a contemporary, offering it problems raised by him and + still unsolved. Even his <span class="tei tei-q">“Church + History,”</span> with its twelve editions, has already had its day, + although it is still the most brilliantly written work in this + department, and conceals beneath its elegance of form a massive + erudition. He <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg + 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was + more than a theologian; he was one of the finest monuments of German + culture, the living embodiment of a period which for us lies under + the sunset glow of the past, in the land of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“once upon a time.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His path in life + was unembarrassed; he knew toil, but not disappointment. Born in + 1800, he finished his studies at Tübingen, where he qualified as a + Privat-Docent in 1823. In 1824-1825 he spent eleven months in the + fortress of Hohenasperg, where he was confined for taking the part of + the Burschenschaften,<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href= + "#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> and had + leisure for meditation and literary plans. In 1830 he went to Jena, + where, with a yearly visit to Italy to lay in a store of sunshine and + renewed strength, he worked until 1890.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not without a + certain reverence does one take this little text-book of 205 pages + into one's hands. This is the first attempt by a fully equipped + scholar to reconstruct the life of Jesus on a purely historical + basis. There is more creative power in it than in almost any of his + later works. It manifests already the brilliant qualities of style + for which he was distinguished—clearness, terseness, elegance. What a + contrast with that of Bahrdt, Venturini, or Paulus!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet the + keynote of the work is rationalistic, since Hase has recourse to the + rationalistic explanation of miracles wherever that appears possible. + He seeks to make the circumstances of the baptism intelligible by + supposing the appearance of a meteor. In the story of the + transfiguration, the fact which is to be retained is that Jesus, in + the company of two unknown persons, appeared to the disciples in + unaccustomed splendour. Their identification of His companions as + Moses and Elias is a conclusion which is not confirmed by Jesus, and + owing to the position of the eyewitnesses, is not sufficiently + guaranteed by their testimony. The abrupt breaking off of the + interview by the Master, and the injunction of silence, point to some + secret circumstance in His history. By this hint Hase seems to leave + room for the <span class="tei tei-q">“secret society”</span> of + Bahrdt and Venturini.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He makes no + difficulty about the explanation of the story of the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">stater</span></span>. It is only intended to + show <span class="tei tei-q">“how the Messiah avoided offence in + submitting Himself to the financial burdens of the community.”</span> + In regard to the stilling of the storm, it seems uncertain whether + Jesus through His knowledge of nature was enabled to predict the end + of the storm or whether He brought it about by the possession of + power over nature. The <span class="tei tei-q">“sceptic of + rationalism”</span> thus leaves open the possibility of miracle. He + proceeds somewhat similarly in explaining the raisings from the dead. + They can be made intelligible by supposing that they were cases of + coma, but it is also possible to look upon them as <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> supernatural. For the two great Johannine + miracles, the change of the water into wine and the increase of the + loaves, no naturalistic explanation can be admitted. But how + unsuccessful is his attempt to make the increase of the bread + intelligible! <span class="tei tei-q">“Why should not the bread have + been increased?”</span> he asks. <span class="tei tei-q">“If nature + every year in the period between seed-time and harvest performs a + similar miracle, nature might also, by unknown laws, bring it about + in a moment.”</span> Here crops up the dangerous anti-rationalistic + intellectual supernaturalism which sometimes brings Hase and + Schleiermacher very close to the frontiers of the territory occupied + by the disingenuous reactionaries.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The crucial point + is the explanation of the resurrection of Jesus. A stringent proof + that death had actually taken place cannot, according to Hase, be + given, since there is no evidence that corruption had set in, and + that is the only infallible sign of death. It is possible, therefore, + that the resurrection was only a return to consciousness after a + trance. But the direct impression made by the sources points rather + to a supernatural event. Either view is compatible with the Christian + faith. <span class="tei tei-q">“Both the historically possible + views—either that the Creator gave new life to a body which was + really dead, or that the latent life reawakened in a body which was + only seemingly dead—recognise in the resurrection a manifest proof of + the care of Providence for the cause of Jesus, and are therefore both + to be recognised as Christian, whereas a third view—that Jesus gave + Himself up to his enemies in order to defeat them by the bold stroke + of a seeming death and a skilfully prepared resurrection—is as + contrary to historical criticism as to Christian faith.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hase, however, + quietly lightens the difficulty of the miracle question in a way + which must not be overlooked. For the rationalists all miracles stood + on the same footing, and all must equally be abolished by a + naturalistic explanation. If we study Hase carefully, we find that he + accepts only the Johannine miracles as authentic, whereas those of + the Synoptists may be regarded as resting upon a misunderstanding on + the part of the authors, because they are not reported at first hand, + but from tradition. Thus the discrimination of the two lines of + Gospel tradition comes to the aid of the anti-rationalists, and + enables them to get rid of some of the greatest difficulties. Half + playfully, it might almost be said, they sketch out the ideas of + Strauss, without ever suspecting what desperate earnest the game will + become, if the authenticity of the Fourth Gospel has to be given + up.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hase surrenders + the birth-story and the <span class="tei tei-q">“legends of the + Childhood”</span>—the expression is his own—almost without striking a + blow. The same fate befalls all the incidents in which angels figure, + and the miracles at the time of the death of Jesus. He <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> describes these as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mythical touches.”</span> The ascension is merely + <span class="tei tei-q">“a mythical version of His departure to the + Father.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hase's conception + even of the non-miraculous portion of the history of Jesus is not + free from rationalistic traits. He indulges in the following + speculations with regard to the celibacy of the Lord. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If the true grounds of the celibacy of Jesus do not lie + hidden in the special circumstances of His youth, the conjecture may + be permitted that He from whose religion was to go forth the ideal + view of marriage, so foreign to the ideas of antiquity, found in His + own time no heart worthy to enter into this covenant with + Him.”</span> It is on rationalistic lines also that Hase explains the + betrayal by Judas. <span class="tei tei-q">“A purely intellectual, + worldly, and unscrupulous character, he desired to compel the + hesitating Messiah to found His Kingdom upon popular violence.... It + is possible that Judas in his terrible blindness took that last word + addressed to him by Jesus, <span class="tei tei-q">‘What thou doest, + do quickly,’</span> as giving consent to his plan.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Hase again + rises superior to this rationalistic conception of the history when + he refuses to explain away the Jewish elements in the plan and + preaching of Jesus as due to mere accommodation, and maintains the + view that the Lord really, to a certain extent, shared this Jewish + system of ideas. According to Hase there are two periods in the + Messianic activity of Jesus. In the first He accepted almost without + reservation the popular ideas regarding the Messianic age. In + consequence, however, of His experience of the practical results of + these ideas, He was led to abandon this error, and in the second + period He developed His own distinctive views. Here we meet for the + first time the idea of two different periods in the life of Jesus, + which, especially through the influence of Holtzmann and Keim, became + the prevailing view, and down to Johannes Weiss, determined the plan + of all Lives of Jesus. Hase created the modern + historico-psychological picture of Jesus. The introduction of this + more penetrating psychology would alone suffice to place him in + advance of the rationalists.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another + interesting point is the thorough way in which he traces out the + historical and literary consequences of this idea of development. The + apostles, he thinks, did not understand this progress of thought on + the part of Jesus, and did not distinguish between the sayings of the + first and second periods. They remained wedded to the eschatological + view. After the death of Jesus this view prevailed so strongly in the + primitive community of disciples that they interpolated their + expectations into the last discourses of Jesus. According to Hase, + the apocalyptic discourse in Matt. xxiv. was originally only a + prediction of the judgment upon and destruction of Jerusalem, but + this was obscured later by the influx of the eschatological views of + the apostolic community. Only John remained free from this error. + Therefore the non-eschatological <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Fourth Gospel preserves in their pure form the + ideas of Jesus in His second period.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hase rightly + observes that the Messiahship of Jesus plays next to no part in His + preaching, at any rate at first, and that, before the incident at + Caesarea Philippi, it was only in moments of enthusiastic admiration, + rather than with settled conviction, that even the disciples looked + on Him as the Messiah. This indication of the central importance of + the declaration of the Messiahship at Caesarea Philippi is another + sign-post pointing out the direction which the future study of the + life of Jesus was to follow.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Schleiermacher's + Life of Jesus introduces us to quite a different order of + transitional ideas. Its value lies in the sphere of dogmatics, not of + history. Nowhere, indeed, is it so clear that the great dialectician + had not really a historical mind than precisely in his treatment of + the history of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the first it + was no favourable star which presided over this undertaking. It is + true that in 1819 Schleiermacher was the first theologian who had + ever lectured upon this subject. But his Life of Jesus did not appear + until 1864. Its publication had been so long delayed, partly because + it had to be reconstructed from students' note-books, partly because + immediately after Schleiermacher, in 1832, had delivered the course + for the last time, it was rendered obsolete by the work of Strauss. + For the questions raised by the latter's Life of Jesus, published in + 1835, Schleiermacher had no answer, and for the wounds which it made, + no healing. When, in 1864, Schleiermacher's work was brought forth to + view like an embalmed corse, Strauss accorded to the dead work of the + great theologian a dignified and striking funeral oration.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Schleiermacher is + not in search of the historical Jesus, but of the Jesus Christ of his + own system of theology; that is to say, of the historic figure which + seems to him appropriate to the self-consciousness of the Redeemer as + he represents it. For him the empirical has simply no existence. A + natural psychology is scarcely attempted. He comes to the facts with + a ready-made dialectic apparatus and sets his puppets in lively + action. Schleiermacher's dialectic is not a dialectic which generates + reality, like that of Hegel, of which Strauss availed himself, but + merely a dialectic of exposition. In this literary dialectic he is + the greatest master that ever lived.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The limitations of + the historical Jesus both in an upward and downward direction are + those only which apply equally to the Jesus of dogma. The uniqueness + of His Divine self-consciousness is not to be tampered with. It is + equally necessary to avoid Ebionism which does away with the Divine + in Him, and Docetism <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg + 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + which destroys His humanity. Schleiermacher loves to make his hearers + shudder by pointing out to them that the least false step entails + precipitation into one or other of these abysses; or at least would + entail it for any one who was not under the guidance of his + infallible dialectic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the course of + this dialectic treatment, all the historical questions involved in + the life of Jesus come into view one after another, but none of them + is posed or solved from the point of view of the historian; they are + <span class="tei tei-q">“moments”</span> in his argument.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He is like a + spider at work. The spider lets itself down from aloft, and after + making fast some supporting threads to points below, it runs back to + the centre and there keeps spinning away. You look on fascinated, and + before you know it, you are entangled in the web. It is difficult + even for a reader who is strong in the consciousness of possessing a + sounder grasp of the history than Schleiermacher to avoid being + caught in the toils of that magical dialectic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And how loftily + superior the dialectician is! Paulus had shown that, in view of the + use of the title Son of Man, the Messianic self-consciousness of + Jesus must be interpreted in accordance with the passage in Daniel. + On this Schleiermacher remarks: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have + already said that it is inherently improbable that such a + predilection (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sc.</span></span> for the Book of Daniel) would + have been manifested by Christ, because the Book of Daniel does not + belong to the prophetic writings properly so-called, but to the third + division of the Old Testament literature.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his estimate of + the importance to be attached to the story of the baptism, too, he + falls behind the historical knowledge of his day. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“To lay such great stress upon the baptism,”</span> he + says, <span class="tei tei-q">“leads either to the Gnostic view that + it was only there that the λόγος united itself with Jesus, or to the + rationalistic view that it was only at the baptism that He became + conscious of His vocation.”</span> But what does history care whether + a view is gnostic or rationalistic if only it is historical!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This dialectic, so + fatal often to sound historical views, might have been expressly + created to deal with the question of miracle. Compared with + Schleiermacher's discussions all that has been written since upon + this subject is mere honest—or dishonest—bungling. Nothing new has + been added to what he says, and no one else has succeeded in saying + it with the same amazing subtlety. It is true, also, that no one else + has shown the same skill in concealing how much in the way of miracle + he ultimately retains and how much he rejects. His solution of the + problem is, in fact, not historical, but dialectical, an attempt to + transcend the necessity for a rationalistic explanation of miracle + which does not really succeed in getting rid of it.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Schleiermacher + arranges the miracles in an ascending scale of probability according + to the degree in which they can be seen to depend on the known + influence of spirit upon organic matter. The most easily explained + are the miracles of healing <span class="tei tei-q">“because we are + not without analogies to show that pathological conditions of a + purely functional nature can be removed by mental influence.”</span> + But where, on the other hand, the effect produced by Christ lies + outside the sphere of human life, the difficulties involved become + insoluble. To get rid, in some measure, of these difficulties he + makes use of two expedients. In the first place, he admits that in + particular cases the rationalistic method may have a certain limited + application; in the second place he, like Hase, recognises a + difference between the miracle stories themselves, retaining the + Johannine miracles, but surrendering, more or less completely, the + Synoptic miracles as not resting on evidence of the same certainty + and exactness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That he is still + largely under the sway of rationalism can be seen in the fact that he + admits on an equal footing, as conceptions of the resurrection of + Jesus, a return to consciousness from a trance-state, or a + supernatural restoration to life, thought of as a resurrection. He + goes so far as to say that the decision of this question has very + little interest for him. He fully accepts the principle of Paulus + that apart from corruption there is no certain indication of + death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“All that we can say on this point,”</span> he concludes, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is that even to those whose business it was + to ensure the immediate death of the crucified, in order that the + bodies might at once be taken down, Christ appeared to be really + dead, and this, moreover, although it was contrary to their + expectations, for it was a subject of astonishment. It is no use + going any further into the matter, since nothing can be ascertained + in regard to it.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is certain is + that Jesus in His real body lived on for a time among His followers; + that the Fourth Gospel requires us to believe. The reports of the + resurrection are not based upon <span class= + "tei tei-q">“apparitions.”</span> Schleiermacher's own opinion is + what really happened was reanimation after apparent death. + <span class="tei tei-q">“If Christ had only eaten to show that He + could eat, while He really had no need of nourishment, it would have + been a pretence—something docetic. This gives us a clue to all the + rest, teaching us to hold firmly to the way in which Christ intends + Himself to be represented, and to put down all that is miraculous in + the accounts of the appearances to the prepossessions of the + disciples.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When He revealed + himself to Mary Magdalene He had no certainty that He would + frequently see her again. <span class="tei tei-q">“He was conscious + that His present condition was that of genuine human life, but He had + no confidence in its continuance.”</span> He bade His <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> disciples meet Him in Galilee because He + could there enjoy greater privacy and freedom from observation in His + intercourse with them. The difference between the present and the + past was only that He no longer showed Himself to the world. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It was possible that a movement in favour of + an earthly Messianic Kingdom might break out, and we need only take + this possibility into account in order to explain completely why + Jesus remained in such close retirement.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It was the premonition of the approaching end of this + second life which led Him to return from Galilee to + Jerusalem.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the ascension + he says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Here, therefore, something + happened, but what was seen was incomplete, and has been + conjecturally supplemented.”</span> The underlying rationalistic + explanation shows through!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the + condition in which Jesus lived on after His crucifixion was + <span class="tei tei-q">“a condition of reanimation,”</span> by what + right does Schleiermacher constantly speak of it as a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“resurrection,”</span> as if resurrection and reanimation + were synonymous terms? Further, is it really true that faith has no + interest whatever in the question whether it was as risen from the + dead, or merely as recovered from a state of suspended animation, + that Jesus showed Himself to His disciples? In regard to this, it + might seem, the rationalists were more straightforward.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The moment one + tries to take hold of this dialectic it breaks in one's fingers. + Schleiermacher would not indeed have ventured to play so risky a game + if he had not had a second position to retire to, based on the + distinction between the Synoptic and the Johannine miracle stories. + In this respect he simplified matters for himself, as compared with + the rationalists, even more than Hase. The miracle at the baptism is + only intelligible in the narrative of the Fourth Gospel, where it is + not a question of an external occurrence, but of a purely subjective + experience of John, with which we have nothing to do. The Synoptic + story of the temptation has no intelligible meaning. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“To change stones into bread, if there were need for it, + would not have been a sin.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“A leap + from the Temple could have had no attraction for any one.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The miracles of + the birth and childhood are given up without hesitation; they do not + belong to the story of the life of Jesus; and it is the same with the + miracles at His death. One might fancy it was Strauss speaking when + Schleiermacher says: <span class="tei tei-q">“If we give due + consideration to the fact that we have certainly found in these for + the most part simple narratives of the last moments of Christ two + incidents, such as the rending of the veil of the Temple and the + opening of the graves, in reference to which we cannot possibly + suppose that they are literal descriptions of actual facts, then we + are bound to ask the question whether the same does not apply to many + other points. Certainly the mention of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the sun's light failing and the consequent + great darkness looks very much as if it had been imported by poetic + imagination into the simple narrative.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A rebuke could + have no possible effect upon the wind and sea. Here we must suppose + either an alteration of the facts or a different causal + connexion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this way + Schleiermacher—and it was for this reason that these lectures on the + life of Jesus became so celebrated—enabled dogmatics, though not + indeed history, to take a flying leap over the miracle question.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is chiefly + fatal to a sound historical view is his one-sided preference for the + Fourth Gospel. It is, according to him, only in this Gospel that the + consciousness of Jesus is truly reflected. In this connexion he + expressly remarks that of a progress in the teaching of Jesus, and of + any <span class="tei tei-q">“development”</span> in Him, there can be + no question. His development is the unimpeded organic unfolding of + the idea of the Divine Sonship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the outline of + the life of Jesus, also, the Fourth Gospel is alone authoritative. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Johannine representation of the way in + which the crisis of His fate was brought about is the only clear + one.”</span> The same applies to the narrative of the resurrection in + this Gospel. <span class="tei tei-q">“Accordingly, on this point + also,”</span> so he concludes his discussion, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I take it as established that the Gospel of John is the + narrative of an eyewitness and forms an organic whole. The first + three Gospels are compilations formed out of various narratives which + had arisen independently; their discourses are composite structures, + and their presentation of the history is such that one can form no + idea of the grouping of events.”</span> The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“crowded days,”</span> such as that of the sermon on the + mount and the day of the parables, exist only in the imagination of + the Evangelists. In reality there were no such days. Luke is the only + one of them who has some semblance of historical order. His Gospel is + compiled with much insight and critical tact out of a number of + independent documents, as Schleiermacher believed himself to have + shown convincingly in his critical study of Luke's Gospel, published + in 1817.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is only on the + ground of such a valuation of the sources that we can arrive at a + just estimate of the different representations of the locality of the + life of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“The contradictions,”</span> + Schleiermacher proceeds, <span class="tei tei-q">“could not be + explained if all our Gospels stood equally close to Jesus. But if + John stands closer than the others, we may perhaps find the key in + the fact that John, too, mentions it as a prevailing opinion in + Jerusalem that Jesus was a Galilaean, and that Luke, when he has got + to the end of the sections which show skilful arrangement and are + united by similarity of subject, gathers all the rest into the + framework of a journey to Jerusalem. Following this analogy, and not + remembering that Jesus had occasion to go <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> several times a year to Jerusalem, the other + two gathered into one mass all that happened there on various + occasions. This could only have been done by + Hellenists.”</span><a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href= + "#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Schleiermacher is + quite insensible to the graphic realism of the description of the + last days at Jerusalem in Mark and Matthew, and has no suspicion that + if only a single one of the Jerusalem sayings in the Synoptists is + true Jesus had never before spoken in Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ground of + Schleiermacher's antipathy to the Synoptists lies deeper than a mere + critical view as to their composition. The fact is that their + <span class="tei tei-q">“picture of Christ”</span> does not agree + with that which he wishes to insert into the history. When it serves + his purpose, he does not shrink from the most arbitrary violence. He + abolishes the scene in Gethsemane because he infers from the silence + of John that it cannot have taken place. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + other Evangelists,”</span> he explains, <span class="tei tei-q">“give + us an account of a sudden depression and deep distress of spirit + which fell upon Jesus, and which He admitted to His disciples, and + they tell us how He sought relief from it in prayer, and afterwards + recovered His serenity and resolution. John passes over this in + silence, and his narrative of what immediately precedes is not + consistent with it.”</span> It is evidently a symbolical story, as + the thrice-repeated petition shows. <span class="tei tei-q">“If they + speak of such a depression of spirit, they have given the story that + form in order that the example of Christ might be the more applicable + to others in similar circumstances.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On these premises + it is possible to write a Life of Christ; it is not possible to write + a Life of Jesus. It is, therefore, not by accident that + Schleiermacher regularly speaks, not of Jesus, but of Christ.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name= + "Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">VII. David Friedrich Strauss—The Man + And His Fate</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + understand Strauss one must love him. He was not the greatest, and + not the deepest, of theologians, but he was the most absolutely + sincere. His insight and his errors were alike the insight and the + errors of a prophet. And he had a prophet's fate. Disappointment and + suffering gave his life its consecration. It unrolls itself before us + like a tragedy, in which, in the end, the gloom is lightened by the + mild radiance which shines forth from the nobility of the + sufferer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss was born + in 1808 at Ludwigsburg. His father was a merchant, whose business, + however, was unsuccessful, so that his means steadily declined. The + boy took his ability from his mother, a good, self-controlled, + sensible, pious woman, to whom he raised a monument in his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Memorial of a Good Mother”</span> written in + 1858, to be given to his daughter on her confirmation-day.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From 1821 to 1825 + he was a pupil at the <span class="tei tei-q">“lower seminary”</span> + at Blaubeuren, along with Friedrich Vischer, Pfizer, Zimmermann, + Märklin, and Binder. Among their teachers was Ferdinand Christian + Baur, whom they were to meet with again at the university.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His first year at + the university was uninteresting, as it was only in the following + year that the reorganisation of the theological faculty took place, + in consequence of the appointment of Baur. The instruction in the + philosophical faculty was almost equally unsatisfactory, so that the + friends would have gained little from the two years of philosophical + propaedeutic which formed part of the course prescribed for + theological students, if they had not combined to prosecute their + philosophical studies for themselves. The writings of Hegel began to + exercise a powerful influence upon them. For the philosophical + faculty, Hegel's philosophy was as yet non-existent.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These student + friends were much addicted to poetry. Two <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> journeys which Strauss made along with his + fellow-student Binder to Weinsberg to see Justinus Kerner made a deep + impression upon him. He had to make a deliberate effort to escape + from the dream-world of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Prophetess of + Prevorst.”</span> Some years later, in a Latin note to Binder, he + speaks of Weinsberg as <span class="tei tei-q">“Mecca + nostra.”</span><a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href= + "#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Vischer's picture of him, the tall stripling made an impression of + great charm, though he was rather shy except with intimates. He + attended lectures with pedantic regularity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baur was at that + time still immersed in the prolegomena to his system; but Strauss + already suspected the direction which the thoughts of his young + teacher were to take.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Strauss and + his student friends entered on their duties as clergymen, the others + found great difficulty in bringing their theological views into line + with the popular beliefs which they were expected to preach. Strauss + alone remained free from inner struggles. In a letter to Binder<a id= + "noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> of the + year 1831, he explains that in his sermons—he was then assistant at + Klein-Ingersheim near Ludwigsburg—he did not use <span class= + "tei tei-q">“representative notions”</span> (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vorstellungen</span></span>, used as a + philosophical technicality) such as that of the Devil, which the + people were already prepared to dispense with; but others which still + appeared to be indispensable, such as those of an eschatological + character, he merely endeavoured to present in such a way that the + <span class="tei tei-q">“intellectual concept”</span> (<span lang= + "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Begriff</span></span>) which lay behind, might + so far as possible shine through. <span class="tei tei-q">“When I + consider,”</span> he continues, <span class="tei tei-q">“how far even + in intellectual preaching the expression is inadequate to the true + essence of the concept, it does not seem to me to matter much if one + goes even a step further. I at least go about the matter without the + least scruple, and cannot ascribe this to a mere want of sincerity in + myself.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That is Hegelian + logic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After being for a + short time Deputy-professor at Maulbronn, he took his doctor's degree + with a dissertation on the ἀποκατάστασις πάντων (restoration of all + things, Acts iii. 21). This work is lost. From his letters it appears + that he treated the subject chiefly from the religious-historical + point of view.<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href= + "#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Binder took + his doctorate with a philosophical thesis on the immortality of the + soul, Strauss, in 1832, wrote to him expressing the opinion that the + belief in personal immortality could not properly be regarded as a + consequence of the Hegelian system, since according <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to Hegel, it was not the subjective + spirit of the individual person, but only the objective Spirit, the + self-realising Idea which constantly embodies itself in new + creations, to which immortality belongs.<a id="noteref_30" name= + "noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In October 1831 he + went to Berlin to hear Hegel and Schleiermacher. On the 14th of + November Hegel, whom he had visited shortly before, was carried off + by cholera. Strauss heard the news in Schleiermacher's house, from + Schleiermacher himself, and is said to have exclaimed, with a certain + want of tact, considering who his informant was: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“And it was to hear him that I came to + Berlin!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was no + satisfactory basis for a relationship between Schleiermacher and + Strauss. They had nothing in common. That did not prevent Strauss's + Life of Jesus being sometimes described by opponents of + Schleiermacher as a product of the latter's philosophy of religion. + Indeed, as late as the 'sixties, Tholuck thought it necessary to + defend the memory of the great theologian against this reproach.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a matter of + fact, the plan of the Life of Jesus arose during Strauss's + intercourse with Vatke, to whom he felt himself strongly drawn. + Moreover, what was first sketched out was not primarily the plan of a + Life of Jesus, but that of a history of the ideas of primitive + Christianity, intended to serve as a standard by which to judge + ecclesiastical dogma. The Life of Jesus was originally designed, it + might almost be said, as a mere prologue to this work, the plan of + which was subsequently carried out under the title, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christian Theology in its Historical Development and in + its Antagonism with Modern Scientific Knowledge”</span> (published in + 1840-1841).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When in the spring + of 1832 he returned to Tübingen to take up the position of + <span class="tei tei-q">“Repetent”</span><a id="noteref_31" name= + "noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> in the + theological college (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stift</span></span>), these plans were laid on + the shelf in consequence of his pre-occupation with philosophy, and + if things had gone according to Strauss's wishes, they would perhaps + never have come to fulfilment. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Repetents”</span> had the right to lecture upon + philosophy. Strauss felt himself called upon to come forward as an + apostle of Hegel, and lectured upon Hegel's logic with tremendous + success. Zeller, who attended these lectures, records the + unforgettable impression which they made on him. Besides championing + Hegel, Strauss also lectured upon Plato, and upon the history of + modern philosophy. These were three happy semesters.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“In my theology,”</span> he writes in a letter of + 1833,<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href= + "#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“philosophy occupies such a predominant + position that my theological views can only be worked out to + completeness by means of a more thorough study of philosophy, and + this course of study I am now <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> going to prosecute uninterruptedly and without + concerning myself whether it leads me back to theology or + not.”</span> Further on he says: <span class="tei tei-q">“If I know + myself rightly, my position in regard to theology is that what + interests me in theology causes offence, and what does not cause + offence is indifferent to me. For this reason I have refrained from + delivering lectures on theology.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The philosophical + faculty was not altogether pleased at the success of the apostle of + Hegel, and wished to have the right of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Repetents”</span> to lecture on philosophy curtailed. + The latter, however, took their stand upon the tradition. Strauss was + desired to intermit his lectures until the matter should be settled. + He would have liked best to end the situation by entering the + philosophical faculty. The other <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Repetents,”</span> however, begged him not to do so, but + to continue to champion their rights. It is possible also that + obstacles were placed in the way of his plan by the philosophical + faculty. However that may be, it was in any case not carried through. + Strauss was forced back upon theology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Hase,<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href= + "#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> Strauss + began his studies for the Life of Jesus by writing a detailed + critical review of his (Hase's) text-book. He sent this to Berlin to + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche + Kritik</span></span>, which, however, refused it. His resolve to + publish first, instead of the general work on the genesis of + Christian doctrine, a critical study on the life of Jesus was + doubtless determined by Schleiermacher's lectures on this subject. + When in Berlin he had procured a copy of a lecture note-book, and the + reading of it incited him to opposition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Considering its + character, the work was rapidly produced. He wrote it sitting at the + window of the Repetents' room, which looks out upon the gateway-arch. + When its two volumes appeared in 1835 the name of the author was + wholly unknown, except for some critical studies upon the Gospels. + This book, into which he had poured his youthful enthusiasm, rendered + him famous in a moment—and utterly destroyed his prospects. Among his + opponents the most prominent was Steudel, a member of the theological + faculty, who, as president of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stift</span></span>, + made representations against him to the Ministry, and succeeded in + securing his removal from the post of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Repetent.”</span> The hopes which Strauss had placed + upon his friends were disappointed. Only two or three at most dared + to publish anything in his defence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He first accepted + a transfer to the post of Deputy-professor at Ludwigsburg, but in + less than a year he was glad to give it up, and he then returned to + Stuttgart. There he lived for several years, busying himself in the + preparation of new editions <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg + 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the Life of Jesus, and in writing answers to the attacks which were + made upon him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Towards the end of + the 'thirties he became conscious of a growing impulse towards more + positive views. The criticisms of his opponents had made some + impression upon him. The second volume of polemics was laid aside. In + its place appeared the third edition of the Life of Jesus, 1838-1839, + containing a series of amazing concessions. Strauss explains that in + consequence of reading de Wette's commentary and Neander's Life of + Jesus he had begun to feel some hesitation about his former doubts + regarding the genuineness and credibility of the Fourth Gospel. The + historic personality of Jesus again began to take on intelligible + outlines for him. These inconsistencies he removed in the next + edition, acknowledging that he did not know how he could so have + temporarily vacillated in his point of view. The matter admits, + however, of a psychological explanation. He longed for peace, for he + had suffered more than his enemies suspected or his friends knew. The + ban of the outlaw lay heavy upon his soul. In this spirit he composed + in 1839 the monologues entitled <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vergängliches und Bleibendes im + Christentum</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-q">“Transient and + Permanent Elements in Christianity”</span>), which appeared again in + the following year under the title <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Friedliche + Blätter</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-q">“Leaves of + Peace”</span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For a moment it + seemed as though his rehabilitation would be accomplished. In January + 1839 the noble-minded Hitzig succeeded in getting him appointed to + the vacant chair of dogmatics in Zurich. But the orthodox and pietist + parties protested so vehemently that the Government was obliged to + revoke the appointment. Strauss was pensioned off, without ever + entering on his office.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About that time + his mother died. In 1841 he lost his father. When the estate came to + be settled up, it was found that his affairs were in a less + unsatisfactory condition than had been feared. Strauss was secure + against want. The success of his second great work, his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christian Theology”</span> (published in 1840-41), + compensated him for his disappointment at Zurich. In conception it is + perhaps even greater than the Life of Jesus; and in depth of thought + it is to be classed with the most important contributions to + theology. In spite of that it never attracted so much attention as + the earlier work. Strauss continued to be known as the author of the + Life of Jesus. Any further ground of offence which he might give was + regarded as quite subsidiary.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the book + contains matter for offence in no common degree. The point to which + Strauss applies his criticism is the way in which the Christian + theology which grew out of the ideas of the ancient world has been + brought into harmony with <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg + 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + Christianity of rationalism and of speculative philosophy. Either, to + use his own expression, both are so finely pulverised in the + process—as in the case of Schleiermacher's combination of Spinozism + with Christianity—that it needs a sharp eye to rediscover the + elements of the mixture; or the two are shaken together like water + and oil, in which case the semblance of combination is only + maintained so long as the shaking continues. For this crude procedure + he desires to substitute a better method, based upon a preliminary + historical criticism of dogma, in order that thought may no longer + have to deal with the present form of Church theology, but with the + ideas which worked as living forces in its formation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is + brilliantly worked out in detail. The result is not a positive, but a + negative Hegelian theology. Religion is not concerned with + supra-mundane beings and a divinely glorious future, but with present + spiritual realities which appear as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“moments”</span> in the eternal being and becoming of + Absolute Spirit. At the end of the second volume, where battle is + joined on the issue of personal immortality, all these ideas play + their part in the struggle. Personal immortality is finally rejected + in every form, for the critical reasons which Strauss had already set + forth in the letters of 1832. Immortality is not something which + stretches out into the future, but simply and solely the present + quality of the spirit, its inner universality, its power of rising + above everything finite to the Idea. Here the thought of Hegel + coincides with that of Schleiermacher. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + saying of Schleiermacher, <span class="tei tei-q">‘In the midst of + finitude to be one with the Infinite, and to be eternal in a + moment,’</span> is all that modern thought can say about + immortality.”</span> But neither Schleiermacher nor Hegel was willing + to draw the natural inferences from their ultimate position, or at + least they did not give them any prominence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not the + application of the mythological explanation to the Gospel history + which irrevocably divides Strauss from the theologians, but the + question of personal immortality. It would be well for them if they + had only to deal with the Strauss of the Life of Jesus, and not with + the thinker who posed this question with inexorable trenchancy. They + might then face the future more calmly, relieved of the anxiety lest + once more Hegel and Schleiermacher might rise up in some pious but + critical spirit, not to speak smooth things, but to ask the ultimate + questions, and might force theology to fight its battle with Strauss + all over again.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the very time + when Strauss was beginning to breathe freely once more, had turned + his back upon all attempts at compromise, and reconciled himself to + giving up teaching; and when, after settling his father's affairs, he + had the certainty of being secure <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> against penury; at that very time he sowed for + himself the seeds of a new, immitigable suffering by his marriage + with Agnese Schebest, the famous singer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They were not made + for one another. He could not look to her for any sympathy with his + plans, and she on her part was repelled by the pedantry of his + disposition. Housekeeping difficulties and the trials of a limited + income added another element of discord. They removed to Sontheim + near Heilbronn with the idea of learning to adapt themselves to one + another far from the distractions of the town; but that did not + better matters. They lived apart for a time, and after some years + they procured a divorce, custody of the children being assigned to + the father. The lady took up her residence in Stuttgart, and Strauss + paid her an allowance up to her death in 1870.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What he suffered + may be read between the lines in the passage in <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Old Faith and the New”</span> where he speaks of the + sacredness of marriage and the admissibility of divorce. The wound + bled inwardly. His mental powers were disabled. At this time he wrote + little. Only in the apologue <span class="tei tei-q">“Julian the + Apostate, or the Romanticist on the throne of the + Caesars”</span>—that brilliant satire upon Frederic William IV., + written in 1847—is there a flash of the old spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in spite of + his antipathy to the romantic disposition of the King of Prussia he + entered the lists in 1848 on behalf of the efforts of the smaller + German states to form a united Germany, apart from Austria, under the + hegemony of Prussia. He did not suffer his political acumen to be + blunted either by personal antipathies or by particularism. The + citizens of Ludwigsburg wished to have him as their representative in + the Frankfort parliament, but the rural population, who were + pietistic in sympathies, defeated his candidature. Instead, his + native town sent him to the Würtemberg Chamber of Deputies. But here + his philistinism came to the fore again. The phrase-mongering + revolutionary party in the chamber disgusted him. He saw himself more + and more forced to the <span class="tei tei-q">“right,”</span> and + was obliged to act politically with men whose reactionary sympathies + he was far from sharing. His constituents, meanwhile, were thoroughly + discontented with his attitude. In the end the position became + intolerable. It was also painful to him to have to reside in + Stuttgart, where he could not avoid meeting the woman who had brought + so much misery into his life. Further—he himself mentions this point + in his memoirs—he had no practice in speaking without manuscript, and + cut a poor figure as a debater. Then came the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Blum Case.”</span> Robert Blum, a revolutionary, had + been shot by court martial in Vienna. The Würtemberg Chamber desired + to vote a public celebration of his funeral. <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Strauss did not think there was any ground for + making a hero of this agitator, merely because he had been shot, and + was not inclined to blame the Austrian Government very severely for + meting out summary justice to a disturber of the peace. His attitude + brought on him a vote of censure from his constituents. When, + subsequently, the President of the Chamber called him to order for + asserting that a previous speaker had <span class= + "tei tei-q">“concealed by sleight of hand”</span> (<span lang="de" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">wegeskamotiert</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“juggled away”</span>) an important point in the debate, + he refused to accept the vote of censure, resigned his membership, + and ceased to attend the diets. As he himself put it, he <span class= + "tei tei-q">“jumped out of the boat.”</span> Then began a period of + restless wandering, during which he beguiled his time with literary + work. He wrote, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">inter alia</span></span>, upon Lessing, Hutten, + and Reimarus, rediscovering the last-named for his + fellow-countrymen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the end of the + 'sixties he returned once more to theology. His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus adapted for the German People”</span> + appeared in 1864. In the preface he refers to Renan, and freely + acknowledges the great merits of his work.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + Prusso-Austrian war placed him in a difficult position. His + historical insight made it impossible for him to share the + particularism of his friends; on the contrary, he recognised that the + way was now being prepared for the realisation of his dream of + 1848—an alliance of the smaller German States under the hegemony of + Prussia. As he made no secret of his opinions, he had the bitter + experience of receiving the cold shoulder from men who had hitherto + loyally stood by him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the year 1870 + it was granted to him to become the spokesman of the German people; + through a publication on Voltaire which had appeared not long before + he had become acquainted with Renan. In a letter to Strauss, written + after the first battles, Renan made a passing allusion to these great + events. Strauss seized the opportunity to explain to him, in a + vigorous <span class="tei tei-q">“open letter”</span> of the 12th of + August, Germany's reason and justification for going to war. + Receiving an answer from Renan, he then, in a second letter, of the + 29th of September, took occasion to defend Germany's right to demand + the cession of Alsace, not on the ground of its having formerly been + German territory, but for the defence of her natural frontiers. The + resounding echo evoked by these words, inspired, as they were, by the + enthusiasm of the moment, compensated him for much of the obloquy + which he had had to bear.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His last work, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Old Faith and the New,”</span> appeared + in 1872. Once more, as in the work on theology published in + 1840-1841, he puts to himself the question, What is there of + permanence in this artificial compound of theology and philosophy, + faith and thought? <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg + 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> But + he puts the question with a certain bitterness, and shows himself too + much under the influence of Darwinism, by which his mind was at that + time dominated. The Hegelian system of thought, which served as a + firm basis for the work of 1840, has fallen in ruins. Strauss is + alone with his own thoughts, endeavouring to raise himself above the + new scientific world-view. His powers of thought, never, for all his + critical acumen, strong on the creative side, and now impaired by + age, were unequal to the task. There is no force and no greatness in + the book.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the question, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Are we still Christians?”</span> he answers, + <span class="tei tei-q">“No.”</span> But to his second question, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Have we still a religion?”</span> he is + prepared to give an affirmative answer, if the assumption is granted + that the feeling of dependence, of self-surrender, of inner freedom, + which has sprung from the pantheistic world-view, can be called + religion. But instead of developing the idea of this deep inner + freedom, and presenting religion in the form in which he had + experienced it, he believes himself obliged to offer some new + construction based upon Darwinism, and sets himself to answer the two + questions, <span class="tei tei-q">“How are we to understand the + world?”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“How are we to regulate + our lives?”</span>—the form of the latter is somewhat lacking in + distinction—in a quite impersonal way. It is only the schoolmaster + and pedant in him—who was always at the elbow of the thinker even in + his greatest works—that finds expression here.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a dead + book, in spite of the many editions which it went through, and the + battle which raged over it was, like the fiercest of the Homeric + battles, a combat over the dead.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The theologians + declared Strauss bankrupt, and felt themselves rich because they had + made sure of not being ruined by a similar unimaginative honesty. + Friedrich Nietzsche, from the height of his would-be Schopenhauerian + pessimism, mocked at the fallen hero.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before the year + was out Strauss began to suffer from an internal ulcer. For many + months he bore his sufferings with quiet resignation and inner + serenity, until on the 8th of February 1874, in his native town of + Ludwigsburg, death set him free.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few weeks + earlier, on the 29th of December 1873, his sufferings and his + thoughts received illuminating expression in the following poignant + verses:—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Wem ich dieses klage,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Weiss, ich klage nicht;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Der ich dieses sage,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Fühlt, ich zage nicht.</span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Heute heisst's verglimmen,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Wie ein Licht verglimmt,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">In die Luft verschwimmen,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Wie ein Ton verschwimmt.</span> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name= + "Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Möge schwach wie immer,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Aber hell und rein,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Dieser letzte Schimmer</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Dieser Ton nur sein.</span><a id= + "noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He was buried on a + stormy February day.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name= + "Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">VIII. Strauss's First</span> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">“</span><span style="font-size: 173%">Life Of + Jesus</span><span style="font-size: 173%">”</span></span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">First edition, 1835 and 1836. 2 + vols. 1480 pp.</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">The second edition was + unaltered.</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Third edition, with alterations, + 1838-1839.</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Fourth edition, agreeing with the + first, 1840.</span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Considered as a + literary work, Strauss's first Life of Jesus is one of the most + perfect things in the whole range of learned literature. In over + fourteen hundred pages he has not a superfluous phrase; his analysis + descends to the minutest details, but he does not lose his way among + them; the style is simple and picturesque, sometimes ironical, but + always dignified and distinguished.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to the + application of the mythological explanation to Holy Scripture, + Strauss points out that De Wette, Eichhorn, Gabler, and others of his + predecessors had long ago freely applied it to the Old Testament, and + that various attempts had been made to portray the life of Jesus in + accordance with the critical assumptions upon which his undertaking + was based. He mentions especially Usteri as one who had helped to + prepare the way for him. The distinction between Strauss and those + who had preceded him upon this path consists only in this, that prior + to him the conception of myth was neither truly grasped nor + consistently applied. Its application was confined to the account of + Jesus' coming into the world and of His departure from it, while the + real kernel of the evangelical tradition—the sections from the + Baptism to the Resurrection—was left outside the field of its + application. Myth formed, to use Strauss's illustration, the lofty + gateways at the entrance to, and at the exit from, the Gospel + history; between these two lofty gateways lay the narrow and crooked + streets of the naturalistic explanation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The principal + obstacle, Strauss continues, which barred the way to a comprehensive + application of myth, consisted in the supposition that two of our + Gospels, Matthew and John, were reports of eyewitnesses; and a + further difficulty was the offence caused by <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the word myth, owing to its associations with + the heathen mythology. But that any of our Evangelists was an + eyewitness, or stood in such relations with eyewitnesses as to make + the intrusion of myth unthinkable, is a thesis which there is no + extant evidence sufficient to prove. Even though the earthly life of + the Lord falls within historic times, and even if only a generation + be assumed to have elapsed between His death and the composition of + the Gospels; such a period would be sufficient to allow the + historical material to become intermixed with myth. No sooner is a + great man dead than legend is busy with his life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Then, too, the + offence of the word myth disappears for any one who has gained an + insight into the essential character of religious myth. It is nothing + else than the clothing in historic form of religious ideas, shaped by + the unconsciously inventive power of legend, and embodied in a + historic personality. Even on a priori grounds we are almost + compelled to assume that the historic Jesus will meet us in the garb + of old Testament Messianic ideas and primitive Christian + expectations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The main + distinction between Strauss and his predecessors consisted in the + fact that they asked themselves anxiously how much of the historical + life of Jesus would remain as a foundation for religion if they dared + to apply the conception of myth consistently, while for him this + question had no terrors. He claims in his preface that he possessed + one advantage over all the critical and learned theologians of his + time without which nothing can be accomplished in the domain of + history—the inner emancipation of thought and feeling in regard to + certain religious and dogmatic prepossessions which he had early + attained as a result of his philosophic studies. Hegel's philosophy + had set him free, giving him a clear conception of the relationship + of idea and reality, leading him to a higher plane of Christological + speculation, and opening his eyes to the mystic interpenetration of + finitude and infinity, God and man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">God-manhood, the + highest idea conceived by human thought, is actually realised in the + historic personality of Jesus. But while conventional thinking + supposes that this phenomenal realisation must be perfect, true + thought, which has attained by genuine critical reasoning to a higher + freedom, knows that no idea can realise itself perfectly on the + historic plane, and that its truth does not depend on the proof of + its having received perfect external representation, but that its + perfection comes about through that which the idea carries into + history, or through the way in which history is sublimated into idea. + For this reason it is in the last analysis indifferent to what extent + God-manhood has been realised in the person of Jesus; the important + thing is that the idea is now alive in the common consciousness of + those who have been <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg + 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + prepared to receive it by its manifestation in sensible form, and of + whose thought and imagination that historical personality took such + complete possession, that for them the unity of Godhood and manhood + assumed in Him enters into the common consciousness, and the + <span class="tei tei-q">“moments”</span> which constitute the outward + course of His life reproduce themselves in them in a spiritual + fashion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A purely + historical presentation of the life of Jesus was in that first period + wholly impossible; what was operative was a creative reminiscence + acting under the impulse of the idea which the personality of Jesus + had called to life among mankind. And this idea of God-manhood, the + realisation of which in every personality is the ultimate goal of + humanity, is the eternal reality in the Person of Jesus, which no + criticism can destroy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However far + criticism may go in proving the reaction of the idea upon the + presentment of the historical course of the life of Jesus, the fact + that Jesus represented that idea and called it to life among mankind + is something real, something that no criticism can annul. It is alive + thenceforward—to this day, and for ever more.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is in this + emancipation of spirit, and in the consciousness that Jesus as the + creator of the religion of humanity is beyond the reach of criticism, + that Strauss goes to work, and batters down the rubble, assured that + his pick can make no impression on the stone. He sees evidence that + the time has come for this undertaking in the condition of exhaustion + which characterised contemporary theology. The supernaturalistic + explanation of the events of the life of Jesus had been followed by + the rationalistic, the one making everything supernatural, the other + setting itself to make all the events intelligible as natural + occurrences. Each had said all that it had to say. From their + opposition now arises a new solution—the mythological interpretation. + This is a characteristic example of the Hegelian method—the + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">synthesis</span></em> of a <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thesis</span></em> + represented by the supernaturalistic explanation with an <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">antithesis</span></em> represented by the + rationalistic interpretation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss's Life of + Jesus is, therefore, like Schleiermacher's, the product of antithetic + conceptions. But whereas in the latter the antitheses Docetism and + Ebionism are simply limiting conceptions, between which his view is + statically suspended, the synthesis with which Strauss operates + represents a composition of forces, of which his view is the dynamic + resultant. The dialectic is in the one case descriptive, in the other + creative. This Hegelian dialectic determines the method of the work. + Each incident of the life of Jesus is considered separately; first as + supernaturally explained, and then as rationalistically explained, + and the one explanation is refuted by the other. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“By this means,”</span> says Strauss in his preface, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the incidental advantage is secured that + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" + id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the work is fitted to serve as + a repertory of the leading views and discussions of all parts of the + Gospel history.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In every case the + whole range of representative opinions is reviewed. Finally the + forced interpretations necessitated by the naturalistic explanation + of the narrative under discussion drives the reader back upon the + supernaturalistic. That had been recognised by Hase and + Schleiermacher, and they had felt themselves obliged to make a place + for inexplicable supernatural elements alongside of the historic + elements of the life of Jesus. Contemporaneously there had sprung up + in all directions new attempts to return by the aid of a mystical + philosophy to the supernaturalistic point of view of our forefathers. + But in these Strauss recognises only the last desperate efforts to + make the past present and to conceive the inconceivable; and in + direct opposition to the reactionary ineptitudes by means of which + critical theology was endeavouring to work its way out of + rationalism, he sets up the hypothesis that these inexplicable + elements are mythical.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the stories + prior to the baptism, everything is myth. The narratives are woven on + the pattern of Old Testament prototypes, with modifications due to + Messianic or messianically interpreted passages. Since Jesus and the + Baptist came into contact with one another later, it is felt + necessary to represent their parents as having been connected. The + attempts to construct Davidic genealogies for Jesus, show us that + there was a period in the formation of the Gospel History during + which the Lord was simply regarded as the son of Joseph and Mary, + otherwise genealogical studies of this kind would not have been + undertaken. Even in the story of the twelve-year-old Jesus in the + temple, there is scarcely more than a trace of historical + material.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the narrative + of the baptism we may take it as certainly unhistorical that the + Baptist received a revelation of the Messianic dignity of Jesus, + otherwise he could not later have come to doubt this. Whether his + message to Jesus is historical must be left an open question; its + possibility depends on whether the nature of his confinement admitted + of such communication with the outer world. Might not a natural + reluctance to allow the Baptist to depart this life without at least + a dawning recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus have here led to + the insertion of a legendary trait into the tradition? If so, the + historical residuum would be that Jesus was for a time one of the + adherents of the Baptist, and was baptized by him, and that He soon + afterwards appeared in Galilee with the same message which John had + proclaimed, and even when He had outgrown his influence, never ceased + to hold John in high esteem, as is shown by the eulogy which He + pronounced upon him. But if the baptism of John was a baptism of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" + id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> repentance with a view to + <span class="tei tei-q">“him who was to come,”</span> Jesus cannot + have held Himself to be sinless when He submitted to it. Otherwise we + should have to suppose that He did it merely for appearance' sake. + Whether it was in the moment of the baptism that the consciousness of + His Messiahship dawned upon Him, we cannot tell. This only is + certain, that the conception of Jesus as having been endowed with the + Spirit at His baptism, was independent of, and earlier than, that + other conception which held Him to have been supernaturally born of + the Spirit. We have, therefore, in the Synoptists several different + strata of legend and narrative, which in some cases intersect and in + some are superimposed one upon the other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of the + temptation is equally unsatisfactory, whether it be interpreted as + supernatural, or as symbolical either of an inward struggle or of + external events (as for example in Venturini's interpretation of it, + where the part of the Tempter is played by a Pharisee); it is simply + primitive Christian legend, woven together out of Old Testament + suggestions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The call of the + first disciples cannot have happened as it is narrated, without their + having known anything of Jesus beforehand; the manner of the call is + modelled upon the call of Elisha by Elijah. The further legend + attached to it—Peter's miraculous draught of fishes—has arisen out of + the saying about <span class="tei tei-q">“fishers of men,”</span> and + the same idea is reflected, at a different angle of refraction, in + John xxi. The mission of the seventy is unhistorical.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether the + cleansing of the temple is historical, or whether it arose out of a + Messianic application of the text, <span class="tei tei-q">“My house + shall be called a house of prayer,”</span> cannot be determined. The + difficulty of forming a clear idea of the circumstances is not easily + to be removed. How freely the historical material has been worked up, + is seen in the groups of stories which have grown out of a single + incident; as, for example, the anointing of Jesus at Bethany by an + unknown woman, out of which Luke has made an anointing by a penitent + sinner, and John an anointing by Mary of Bethany.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + healings, some of them are certainly historical, but not in the form + in which tradition has preserved them. The recognition of Jesus as + Messiah by the demons immediately arouses suspicion. It is doubtless + rather to be ascribed to the tendency which grew up later to + represent Him as receiving, in His Messianic character, homage even + from the world of evil spirits, than to any advantage in respect of + clearness of insight which distinguished the mentally deranged, in + comparison with their contemporaries. The cure of the demoniac in the + synagogue at Capernaum may well be historical, but, in other cases, + the procedure is so often raised into the region of the miraculous + that a psychical influence of Jesus upon the sufferer no longer + suffices <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg + 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to + explain it; the creative activity of legend must have come in to + confuse the account of what really happened.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One cure has + sometimes given rise to three or four narratives. Sometimes we can + still recognise the influences which have contributed to mould a + story. When, for example, the disciples are unable to heal the + lunatic boy during Jesus' absence on the Mount of Transfiguration, we + are reminded of 2 Kings iv., where Elisha's servant Gehazi tries in + vain to bring the dead boy to life by using the staff of the prophet. + The immediate healing of leprosy has its prototype in the story of + Naaman the Syrian. The story of the ten lepers shows so clearly a + didactic tendency that its historic value is thereby rendered + doubtful.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cures of + blindness all go back to the case of the blind man at Jericho. But + who can say how far this is itself historical? The cures of + paralytics, too, belong rather to the equipment of the Messiah than + to history. The cures through touching clothes, and the healings at a + distance, have myth written on their foreheads. The fact is, the + Messiah must equal, nay, surpass, the deeds of the prophets. That is + why raisings from the dead figure among His miracles.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The nature + miracles, over a collection of which Strauss puts the heading + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sea-Stories and Fish-Stories,”</span> have a + much larger admixture of the mythical. His opponents took him + severely to task for this irreverent superscription.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The repetition of + the story of the feeding of the multitude arouses suspicion regarding + the credibility of what is narrated, and at once invalidates the + hypothesis of the apostolic authorship of the Gospel of Matthew. + Moreover, the incident was so naturally suggested by Old Testament + examples that it would have been a miracle if such a story had not + found its way into the Life of Jesus. An explanation on the analogy + of an expedited process of nature, is here, as in the case of the + miracle at Cana also, to be absolutely rejected. Strauss allows it to + be laughed out of court. The cursing of the fig-tree and its + fulfilment go back in some way or other to a parable of Jesus, which + was afterwards made into history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">More important + than the miracles heretofore mentioned are those which have to do + with Jesus Himself and mark the crises of His history. The + transfiguration had to find a place in the life of Jesus, because of + the shining of Moses' countenance. In dealing with the narratives of + the resurrection it is evident that we must distinguish two different + strata of legend, an older one, represented by Matthew, which knew + only of appearances in Galilee, and a later, in which the Galilaean + appearances are excluded in favour of appearances in Jerusalem. In + both cases, however, the narratives are mythical. In any attempt to + explain <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name= + "Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> them we are forced on + one horn of the dilemma or the other—if the resurrection was real, + the death was not real, and vice versa. That the ascension is a myth + is self-evident.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such, and so + radical, are the results at which Strauss's criticism of the + supernaturalistic and the rationalistic explanations of the life of + Jesus ultimately arrives.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In reading + Strauss's discussions one is not so much struck with their radical + character, because of the admirable dialectic skill with which he + shows the total impossibility of any explanation which does not take + account of myth. On the whole, the supernaturalistic explanation, + which at least represents the plain sense of the narratives, comes + off much better than the rationalistic, the artificiality of which is + everywhere remorselessly exposed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sections which + we have summarised are far from having lost their significance at the + present day. They marked out the ground which is now occupied by + modern critical study. And they filled in the death-certificates of a + whole series of explanations which, at first sight, have all the air + of being alive, but are not really so. If these continue to haunt + present-day theology, it is only as ghosts, which can be put to + flight by simply pronouncing the name of David Friedrich Strauss, and + which would long ago have ceased to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“walk,”</span> if the theologians who regard Strauss's + book as obsolete would only take the trouble to read it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The results so far + considered do not represent the elements of the life of Jesus which + Strauss was prepared to accept as historical. He sought to make the + boundaries of the mythical embrace the widest possible area; and it + is clear that he extended them too far.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For one thing, he + overestimates the importance of the Old Testament motives in + reference to the creative activity of the legend. He does not see + that while in many cases he has shown clearly enough the source of + the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">form</span></em> of the narrative in question, + this does not suffice to explain its <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">origin</span></em>. + Doubtless, there is mythical material in the story of the feeding of + the multitude. But the existence of the story is not explained by + referring to the manna in the desert, or the miraculous feeding of a + multitude by Elisha.<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href= + "#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> The + story in the Gospel has far too much individuality for that, and + stands, moreover, in much too closely articulated an historical + connexion. It must have as its basis some historical fact. It is not + a myth, though there is myth in it. Similarly with the account of the + transfiguration. The substratum of historical fact in the life of + Jesus is much more extensive than Strauss is prepared to admit. + Sometimes he fails to see the foundations, because he proceeds like + an explorer who, in working on the ruins of an Assyrian city, should + cover up the most valuable <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg + 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + evidence with the rubbish thrown out from another portion of the + excavations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, he + sometimes rules out statements by assuming their impossibility on + purely dialectical grounds, or by playing off the narratives one + against another. The Baptist's message to Jesus is a case in point. + This is connected with the fact that he often fails to realise the + strong confirmation which the narratives derive from their connexion + with the preceding and following context.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That, however, was + only to be expected. Who ever discovered a true principle without + pressing its application too far?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What really + alarmed his contemporaries was not so much the comprehensive + application of the mythical theory, as the general mining and sapping + operations which they were obliged to see brought to bear upon the + Gospels.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In section after + section Strauss cross-examines the reports on every point, down to + the minutest detail, and then pronounces in what proportion an alloy + of myth enters into each of them. In every case the decision is + unfavourable to the Gospel of John. Strauss was the first to take + this view. It is true that, at the end of the eighteenth century, + many doubts as to the authenticity of this Gospel had been expressed, + and Bretschneider, the famous General Superintendent at Gotha + (1776-1848), had made a tentative collection of them in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Probabilia</span></span>.<a id="noteref_36" + name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> The + essay made some stir at the time. But Schleiermacher threw the aegis + of his authority over the authenticity of the Gospel, and it was the + favourite Gospel of the rationalists because it contained fewer + miracles than the others. Bretschneider himself declared that he had + been brought to a better opinion through the controversy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After this episode + the Johannine question had been shelved for fifteen years. The + excitement was, therefore, all the greater when Strauss reopened the + discussion. He was opposing a dogma of critical theology, which, even + at the present day, is wont to defend its dogmas with a tenacity + beyond that of the Church itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The luminous haze + of apparent circumstantiality which had hitherto prevented men from + recognising the true character of this Gospel is completely + dissipated. Strauss shows that the Johannine representation of the + life of Jesus is dominated by a theory, and that its portraiture + shows the further development of the tendencies which are perceptible + even in the Synoptists. He shows this, for example, in the case of + the Johannine narrative of the baptism of Jesus, in which critics had + hitherto seen the most credible account of what occurred, pointing + out that it is just in this pseudo-simplicity that the process of + bringing Jesus and the Baptist into the closest possible relations + reaches its limit. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg + 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Similarly, in regard to the call of the first disciples, it is, + according to Strauss, a later postulate that they came from the + Baptist's following and were brought by him to the Lord. Strauss does + not scruple even to assert that John introduces imaginary characters. + If this Gospel relates fewer miracles, the miracles which it retains + are proportionately greater; so great, indeed, that their absolutely + miraculous character is beyond the shadow of doubt; and, moreover, a + moral or symbolical significance is added.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, therefore, + it is no longer the unconscious action of legend which selects, + creates, or groups the incidents, but a clearly-determined apologetic + and dogmatic purpose.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question + regarding the different representations of the locality and + chronology of the life of Jesus, had always been decided, prior to + Strauss, in favour of the Fourth Gospel. De Wette makes it an + argument against the genuineness of Matthew's Gospel that it + mistakenly confines the ministry of Jesus to Galilee. Strauss refuses + to decide the question by simply weighing the chronological and + geographical statements one against the other, lest he should be as + one-sided in his own way as the defenders of the authenticity of the + Fourth Gospel were in theirs. On this point, he contents himself with + remarking that if Jesus had really taught in Jerusalem on several + occasions, it is absolutely unintelligible how all knowledge of this + could have so completely disappeared from the Synoptic tradition; for + His going up to the Passover at which He met His death is there + represented as His sole journey to Jerusalem. On the other hand, it + is quite conceivable that if Jesus had only once been in Jerusalem + there would be a tendency for legend gradually to make several + journeys out of this one, on the natural assumption that He regularly + went up to the Feasts, and that He would proclaim His Gospel not + merely in the remote province, but also in the capital.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the triumphal + entry to the resurrection, the difference between the Synoptic and + Johannine narratives is so great that all attempts to harmonise them + are to be rejected. How are we to reconcile the statement of the + Synoptists that the ovation at the triumphal entry was offered by + Galilaeans who accompanied him, with that of John, according to which + it was offered by a multitude from Jerusalem which came out to + welcome Jesus—who, moreover, according to John, was not coming from + Galilee and Jericho—and escorted Him into the city. To suppose that + there were two different triumphal entries is absurd.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the decision + between John and the Synoptists is not based solely upon their + representation of the facts; the decisive consideration is found in + the ideas by which they are respectively dominated. John represents a + more advanced stage of the mythopoeic process, inasmuch as he has + substituted for the Jewish Messianic conception, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Greek metaphysical conception of the + Divine Sonship, and, on the basis of his acquaintance with the + Alexandrian Logos doctrine, even makes Jesus apply to Himself the + Greek speculative conception of pre-existence. The writer is aware of + an already existing danger from the side of a Gnostic docetism, and + has himself an apologetic Christology to propound, thus fighting the + Gnostics as a Gnostic of another kind. That he is free from + eschatological conceptions is not, from the historical point of view, + an advantage, but very much the reverse. He is not unacquainted with + eschatology, but deliberately transforms it, endeavouring to + substitute for the expectation of the Second Coming of Christ, as an + external event of the future, the thought of His inward presence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most decisive + evidence of all is found in the farewell discourses and in the + absence of all mention of the spiritual struggle in Gethsemane. The + intention here is to show that Jesus not only had a foreknowledge of + His death, but had long overcome it in anticipation, and went to meet + His tragic fate with perfect inward serenity. That, however, is no + historical narrative, but the final stage of reverent + idealisation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question is + decided. The Gospel of John is inferior to the Synoptics as a + historical source just in proportion as it is more strongly dominated + than they by theological and apologetic interests. It is true that + the assignment of the dominant motives is for Strauss's criticism + mainly a matter of conjecture. He cannot define in detail the + attitude and tendency of this Gospel, because the development of + dogma in the second century was still to a great extent obscure. He + himself admits that it was only subsequently, through the labours of + Baur, that the positions which he had taken up in 1835 were rendered + impregnable. And yet it is true to say that Johannine study has added + in principle nothing new to what was said by Strauss. He recognised + the decisive point. With critical acumen he resigned the attempt to + base a decision on a comparison of the historical data, and allowed + the theological character of the two lines of tradition to determine + the question. Unless this is done the debate is endless, for an able + man who has sworn allegiance to John will always find a thousand ways + in which the Johannine data can be reconciled with those of the + Synoptists, and is finally prepared to stake his life upon the exact + point at which the missing account of the institution of the Lord's + Supper must be inserted into the narrative.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This changed + estimate of John carries with it a reversal of the order in which the + Gospels are supposed to have originated. Instead of John, Luke, + Matthew, we have Matthew, Luke, and John—the first is last, and the + last first. Strauss's unsophisticated instinct freed Matthew from the + humiliating vassalage to which <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Schleiermacher's aesthetic had consigned him. + The practice of differentiating between John and the Synoptists, + which in the hands of Schleiermacher and Hase had been an elegant + amusement, now received unexpected support, and it at last became + possible for the study of the life of Jesus to go forward.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But no sooner had + Strauss opened up the way than he closed it again, by refusing to + admit the priority of Mark. His attitude towards this Gospel at once + provokes opposition. For him Mark is an epitomising narrator, a mere + satellite of Matthew with no independent light. His terse and graphic + style makes on Strauss an impression of artificiality. He refuses to + believe this Evangelist when he says that on the first day at + Capernaum <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole town”</span> (Mark i. + 33) came together before Peter's door, and that, on other occasions + (Mark iii. 20, vi. 31), the press was so great that Jesus and His + disciples had no leisure so much as to eat. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“All very improbable traits,”</span> he remarks, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the absence of which in Matthew is entirely + to his advantage, for what else are they than legendary + exaggerations?”</span> In this criticism he is at one with + Schleiermacher, who in his essay on Luke<a id="noteref_37" name= + "noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> speaks + of the unreal vividness of Mark <span class="tei tei-q">“which often + gives his Gospel an almost apocryphal aspect.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This prejudice + against Mark has a twofold cause. In the first place, this Gospel + with its graphic details had rendered great service to the + rationalistic explanation of miracle. Its description of the cure of + the blind man at Bethsaida (Mark viii. 22-26)—whose eyes Jesus first + anointed with spittle, whereupon he at first saw things dimly, and + then, after he had felt the touch of the Lord's hand upon his eyes a + second time, saw more clearly—was a veritable treasure-trove for + rationalism. As Strauss is disposed to deal much more peremptorily + with the rationalists than with the supernaturalists, he puts Mark + upon his trial, as their accessory before the fact, and pronounces + upon him a judgment which is not entirely unprejudiced. Moreover, it + is not until the Gospels are looked at from the point of view of the + plan of the history and the inner connexion of events that the + superiority of Mark is clearly realised. But this way of looking at + the matter does not enter into Strauss's purview. On the contrary, he + denies that there is any traceable connexion of events at all, and + confines his attention to determining the proportion of myth in the + content of each separate narrative.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the Synoptic + question he does not, strictly speaking, take any account. That was + partly due to the fact that when he wrote it was in a thoroughly + unsatisfactory position. There was a confused welter of the most + various hypotheses. The priority of Mark, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which had had earlier champions in Koppe,<a id= + "noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> + Storr,<a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href= + "#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> + Gratz,<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href= + "#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> and + Herder,<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href= + "#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> was now + maintained by Credner and Lachmann, who saw in Matthew a combination + of the logia-document with Mark. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“primitive Gospel”</span> hypothesis of Eichhorn, + according to which the first three Gospels went back to a common + source, not identical with any of them, had become somewhat + discredited. There had been much discussion and various modifications + of Griesbach's <span class="tei tei-q">“dependence theory,”</span> + according to which Mark was pieced together out of Matthew and Luke, + and Schleiermacher's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diegesentheorie</span></span>,<a id="noteref_42" + name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> which + saw the primary material not in a gospel, but in unconnected notes; + from these, collections of narrative passages were afterwards formed, + which in the post-apostolic period coalesced into continuous + descriptions of the life of Jesus such as the three which have been + preserved in our Synoptic Gospels.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this matter + Strauss is a sceptical eclectic. In the main he may be said to + combine Griesbach's theory of the secondary origin of Mark with + Schleiermacher's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diegesentheorie</span></span>, the latter + answering to his method of treating the sections separately. But + whereas Schleiermacher had used the plan of John's Gospel as a + framework into which to fit the independent narratives, Strauss's + rejection of the Fourth Gospel left him without any means of + connecting the sections. He makes a point, indeed, of sharply + emphasising this want of connexion; and it was just this that made + his work appear so extreme.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Synoptic + discourses, like the Johannine, are composite structures, created by + later tradition out of sayings which originally belonged to different + times and circumstances, arranged under certain leading ideas so as + to form connected discourses. The sermon on the mount, the discourse + at the sending forth of the twelve, the great parable-discourse, the + polemic against the Pharisees, have all been gradually formed like + geological deposits. So far as the original juxtaposition may be + supposed to have been here and there preserved, Matthew is doubtless + the most trustworthy authority for it. <span class="tei tei-q">“From + the comparison which we have been making,”</span> says Strauss in one + passage, <span class="tei tei-q">“we can already see that the hard + grit of these sayings of Jesus (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style="font-style: italic">die + körnigen Reden Jesu</span></span>) has not indeed been dissolved by + the flood of oral tradition, but they have often been washed away + from their original position and like rolling pebbles (<span lang= + "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gerölle</span></span>) have been deposited in + places to which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg + 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + they do not properly belong.”</span><a id="noteref_43" name= + "noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> And, + moreover, we find this distinction between the first three + Evangelists, viz. that Matthew is a skilful collector who, while he + is far from having been able always to give the original connexion, + has at least known how to bring related passages aptly together, + whereas in the other two many fragmentary sayings have been left + exactly where chance had deposited them, which was generally in the + interstices between the larger masses of discourse. Luke, indeed, has + in some cases made an effort to give them an artistic setting, which + is, however, by no means a satisfactory substitute for the natural + connexion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is in his + criticism of the parables that Strauss is most extreme. He starts out + from the assumption that they have mutually influenced one another, + and that those which may possibly be genuine have only been preserved + in a secondary form. In the parable of the marriage supper of the + king's son, for example, he confidently assumes that the conduct of + the invited guests, who finally ill-treated and slew the messengers, + and the question why the guest is not wearing a wedding-garment are + secondary features.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How external he + supposes the connexion of the narratives to be is clear from the way + in which he explains the juxtaposition of the story of the + transfiguration with the <span class="tei tei-q">“discourse while + descending the mountain.”</span> They have, he says, really nothing + to do with one another. The disciples on one occasion asked Jesus + about the coming of Elijah as forerunner; Elijah also appears in the + story of the transfiguration: accordingly tradition simply grouped + the transfiguration and the discourse together under the heading + <span class="tei tei-q">“Elijah,”</span> and, later on, manufactured + a connexion between them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tendency of + the work to purely critical analysis, the ostentatious avoidance of + any positive expression of opinion, and not least, the manner of + regarding the Synoptists as mere bundles of narratives and + discourses, make it difficult—indeed, strictly speaking, + impossible—to determine Strauss's own distinctive conception of the + life of Jesus, to discover what he really thinks is moving behind the + curtain of myth. According to the view taken in regard to this point + his work becomes either a negative or a positive life of Jesus. There + are, for instance, a number of incidental remarks which contain the + suggestion of a positive construction of the life of Jesus. If they + were taken out of their context and brought together they would yield + a picture which would have points of contact with the latest + eschatological view. Strauss, however, deliberately restricts his + positive suggestions to these few detached remarks. He follows out no + line to its conclusion. Each separate problem is indeed considered, + and light is thrown upon it from various quarters with much critical + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" + id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> skill. But he will not venture + on a solution of any of them. Sometimes, when he thinks he has gone + too far in the way of positive suggestion, he deliberately wipes it + all out again with some expression of scepticism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the duration + of the ministry he will not even offer a vague conjecture. As to the + connexion of certain events, nothing can, according to him, be known, + since the Johannine outline cannot be accepted and the Synoptists + arrange everything with an eye to analogies and association of ideas, + though they flattered themselves that they were giving a + chronologically arranged narrative. From the contents of the + narratives, however, and from the monotonous recurrence of certain + formulae of connexion, it is evident that no clear view of an + organically connected whole can be assumed to be present in their + work. We have no fixed points to enable us to reconstruct even in a + measure the chronological order.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Especially + interesting is his discussion of the title <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Son of Man.”</span> In the saying <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Son of Man is Lord also of the Sabbath day”</span> + (Matt. xii. 8), the expression might, according to Strauss, simply + denote <span class="tei tei-q">“man.”</span> In other passages one + gets the impression that Jesus spoke of the Son of Man as a + supernatural person, quite distinct from Himself, but identified with + the Messiah. This is the most natural explanation of the passage in + Matt. x. 23, where he promises the disciples, in sending them forth, + that they shall not have gone over the cities of Israel before the + Son of Man shall come. Here Jesus speaks of the Messiah as if He + Himself were his forerunner. These sayings would, therefore, fall in + the first period, before He knew Himself to be the Messiah. Strauss + does not suspect the significance of this incidental remark; it + contains the germ of the solution of the problem of the Son of Man on + the lines of Johannes Weiss. But immediately scepticism triumphs + again. How can we tell, asks Strauss, where the title Son of Man is + genuine in the sayings of Jesus, and where it has been inserted + without special significance, merely from habit?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not less + insoluble, in his opinion, is the question regarding the point of + time at which Jesus claimed the Messianic dignity for Himself. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Whereas in John,”</span> Strauss remarks, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus remains constant in His avowal, his + disciples and followers constant in their conviction, that He is the + Messiah; in the Synoptics, on the other hand, there are, so to speak, + relapses to be observed; so that, in the case of the disciples and + the people generally, the conviction of Jesus' Messiahship expressed + on earlier occasions, sometimes, in the course of the narrative, + disappears again and gives place to a much lower view of Him; and + even Jesus Himself, in comparison with His earlier unambiguous + declaration, is more reserved on later occasions.”</span> The account + of the confession of the Messiahship at Caesarea Philippi, where + Jesus pronounces Peter blessed because of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> his confession, and at the same time forbids + the Twelve to speak of it, is unintelligible, since according to this + same Gospel His Messiahship had been mooted by the disciples on + several previous occasions, and had been acknowledged by the + demoniacs. The Synoptists, therefore, contradict themselves. Then + there are the further cases in which Jesus forbids the making known + of His Messiahship, without any reason whatever. It would, no doubt, + be historically possible to assume that it only gradually dawned upon + Him that He was the Messiah—in any case not until after His baptism + by John, as otherwise He would have to be supposed to have made a + pretence upon that occasion—and that as often as the thought that He + might be the Messiah was aroused in others by something that + occurred, and was suggested to Him from without, He was immediately + alarmed at hearing spoken, aloud and definitely, that which He + Himself had scarcely dared to cherish as a possibility, or in regard + to which He had only lately attained to a clear conviction.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From these + suggestions one thing is evident, namely, that for Strauss the + Messianic consciousness of Jesus was an historical fact, and is not + to be referred, as has sometimes been supposed, to myth. To assert + that Strauss dissolved the life of Jesus into myth is, in fact, an + absurdity which, however often it may be repeated by people who have + not read his book, or have read it only superficially, does not + become any the less absurd by repetition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To come to detail, + Jesus thought of His Messiahship, according to Strauss, in the form + that He, although of human parentage, should after His earthly life + be taken up into heaven, and thence should come again to bring in His + Kingdom. <span class="tei tei-q">“As, moreover, in the higher Jewish + theology, immediately after the time of Jesus, the idea of the + pre-existence of the Messiah was present, the conjecture naturally + suggests itself that it was also present at the time when Jesus' + thoughts were being formed, and that consequently, if He once began + to think of Himself as the Messiah, He might also have referred to + Himself this feature of the Messianic conception. Whether Jesus had + been initiated, as Paul was, into the wisdom of the schools in such a + way that He could draw this conception from it, is no doubt open to + question.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his treatment + of the eschatology Strauss makes a valiant effort to escape from the + dilemma <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">either</span></em> + spiritual <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">or</span></em> political”</span> in regard to + the Messianic plans of Jesus, and to make the eschatological + expectation intelligible as one which did not set its hopes upon + human aid, but on Divine intervention. This is one of the most + important contributions to a real understanding of the eschatological + problem. Sometimes one almost seems to be reading Johannes Weiss; as, + for example, when Strauss explains that Jesus could promise His + followers that they should sit on thrones without <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> thinking of a political revolution, + because He expected a reversal of present conditions to be brought + about by God, and referred this judicial authority and kingly rule to + the time of the παλιγγενεσία. <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus, + therefore, certainly expected to restore the throne of David, and, + with His disciples, to rule over a people freed from political + bondage, but in this expectation He did not set His hopes on the + sword of human followers (Luke xxii. 38, Matt. xxvi. 52), but upon + the legions of angels which His heavenly Father could give Him (Matt. + xxvi. 53). When He speaks of the coming of His Messianic glory, it is + with angels and heavenly powers that He surrounds Himself (Matt. xvi. + 27, xxiv. 30 ff., xxv. 31). Before the majesty of the Son of Man + coming in the clouds of heaven the nations will submit without + striking a blow, and at the sound of the angel's trumpet-blast will, + with the dead who shall then arise, range themselves before Him and + His disciples for judgment. All this Jesus did not purpose to bring + about by any arbitrary action of His own, but left it to His heavenly + Father, who alone knew the right moment for this catastrophic change + (Mark xiii. 32), to give Him the signal of its coming; and He did not + waver in His faith even when death came upon Him before its + realisation. Any one who shrinks from adopting this view of the + Messianic background of Jesus' plans, because he fears by so doing to + make Jesus a visionary enthusiast, must remember how exactly these + hopes corresponded to the long-cherished Messianic expectation of the + Jews; and how easily, on the supernaturalistic assumptions of the + period and among a people which preserved so strict an isolation as + the Jews, an ideal which was in itself fantastic, if it were the + national ideal and had some true and good features, could take + possession of the mind even of one who was not inclined to + fanaticism.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the + principal proofs that the preaching of Jesus was eschatologically + conditioned is the Last Supper. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“When,”</span> says Strauss, <span class="tei tei-q">“He + concluded the celebration with the saying, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I + will not drink henceforth of the fruit of the vine until I drink it + new with you in my Father's kingdom,’</span> He would seem to have + expected that in the Messianic kingdom the Passover would be + celebrated with peculiar solemnity. Therefore, in assuring them that + they shall next partake of the Feast, not in the present age, but in + the new era, He evidently expects that within a year's time the + pre-Messianic dispensation will have come to an end and the Messianic + age will have begun.”</span> But it must be admitted, Strauss + immediately adds, that the definite assurance which the Evangelists + put into His mouth may after all only have been in reality an + expression of pious hope. In a similar way he qualifies his other + statements regarding the eschatological ideas of Jesus by recalling + that we cannot determine the part which the expectations of primitive + Christianity may have had in moulding these sayings.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, for example, + the opinions which he expresses on the great Parousia discourse in + Matt. xxiv. are extremely cautious. The detailed prophecies regarding + the Second Coming which the Synoptists put into the mouth of Jesus + cannot be derived from Jesus Himself. The question suggests itself, + however, whether He did not cherish the hope, and make the promise, + that He would one day appear in glory as the Messiah? <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If in any period of His life He held Himself to be the + Messiah—and that there was a period when He did so there can be no + doubt—and if He described Himself as the Son of Man, He must have + expected the coming in the clouds which Daniel had ascribed to the + Son of Man; but it may be questioned whether He thought of this as an + exaltation which should take place even in His lifetime, or as + something which was only to take place after His death. Utterances + like Matt. x. 23, xvi. 28 rather suggest the former, but the + possibility remains that later, when he had begun to feel that His + death was certain, his conception took the latter form, and that + Matt. xxvi. 64 was spoken with this in view.”</span> Thus, even for + Strauss, the problem of the Son of Man is already the central problem + in which are focused all the questions regarding the Messiahship and + eschatology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From all this it + may be seen how strongly he had been influenced by Reimarus, whom, + indeed, he frequently mentions. It would be still more evident if he + had not obscured his historical views by constantly bringing the + mythological explanation into play.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thought of the + supernatural realisation of the Kingdom of God must also, according + to Strauss, be the starting-point of any attempt to understand Jesus' + attitude towards the Law and the Gentiles, so far as that is possible + in view of the conflicting data. The conservative passages must carry + most weight. They need not necessarily fall at the beginning of His + ministry, because it is questionable whether the hypothesis of a + later period of increasing liberality in regard to the law and the + Gentiles can be made probable. There would be more chance of proving + that the conservative sayings are the only authentic ones, for unless + all the indications are misleading the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">terminus a quo</span></span> for this change of + attitude is the death of Jesus. He no doubt looked forward to the + abolition of the Law and the removal of the barriers between Jew and + Gentile, but only in the future Kingdom. <span class="tei tei-q">“If + that be so,”</span> remarks Strauss, <span class="tei tei-q">“the + difference between the views of Jesus and of Paul consisted only in + this, that while Jesus expected these limitations to fall away when, + at His second coming, the earth should be renewed, Paul believed + himself justified in doing away with them in consequence of the first + coming of the Messiah, upon the still unregenerated + earth.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The eschatological + passages are therefore the most authentic of all. If there is + anything historic about Jesus, it is His assertion <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the claim that in the coming kingdom + He would be manifested as the Son of Man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other hand, + in the predictions of the passion and resurrection we are on quite + uncertain ground. The detailed statements regarding the manner of the + catastrophe place it beyond doubt that we have here <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">vaticinia ex eventu</span></span>. Otherwise the + despair of the disciples when the events occurred could not be + explained. Yet it is possible that Jesus had a prevision of His + death. Perhaps the resolve to die was essential to His conception of + the Messiahship and He was not forced thereto by circumstances. This + we might be able to determine with certainty if we had more exact + information regarding the conception of the suffering Messiah in + contemporary Jewish theology; which is, however, not available. We do + not even know whether the conception had ever existed in Judaism. + <span class="tei tei-q">“In the New Testament it almost looks as if + no one among the Jews had ever thought of a suffering or dying + Messiah.”</span> The conception can, however, certainly be found in + later passages of Rabbinic literature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question is + therefore insoluble. We must be content to work with possibilities. + The result of a full discussion of the resolve to suffer and the + significance attached to the suffering is summed up by Strauss in the + following sentences. <span class="tei tei-q">“In view of these + considerations it is possible that Jesus might, by a natural process + of thought, have come to see how greatly such a catastrophe would + contribute to the spiritual development of His disciples, and in + accordance with national conceptions, interpreted in the light of + some Old Testament passages, might have arrived at the idea of an + atoning power in His Messianic death. At the same time the explicit + utterance which the Synoptists attribute to Jesus describing His + death as an atoning sacrifice, might well belong rather to the system + of thought which grew up after the death of Jesus, and the saying + which the Fourth Gospel puts into His mouth regarding the relation of + His death to the coming of the Paraclete might seem to be prophecy + after the event. So that even in these sayings of Jesus regarding the + purpose of His death, it is necessary to distinguish between the + particular and the general.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss's + <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus”</span> has a different + significance for modern theology from that which it had for his + contemporaries. For them it was the work which made an end of miracle + as a matter of historical belief, and gave the mythological + explanation its due.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We, however, find + in it also an historical aspect of a positive character, inasmuch as + the historic Personality which emerges from the mist of myth is a + Jewish claimant of the Messiahship, whose world of thought is purely + eschatological. Strauss is, therefore, no mere destroyer of untenable + solutions, but also the prophet of a coming advance in + knowledge.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg + 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was, however, + his own fault that his merit in this respect was not recognised in + the nineteenth century, because in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Life + of Jesus for the German People”</span> (1864), where he undertook to + draw a positive historic picture of Jesus, he renounced his better + opinions of 1835, eliminated eschatology, and, instead of the + historic Jesus, portrayed the Jesus of liberal theology.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name= + "Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">IX. Strauss's Opponents And + Supporters</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">David + Friedrich Strauss.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Streitschriften zur Verteidigung meiner Schrift über + das Leben-Jesu und zur Charakteristik der gegenwärtigen Theologie. + (Replies to criticisms of my work on the Life of Jesus; with an + estimate of present-day theology.) Tübingen, 1837.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Das Leben-Jesu, 3te verbesserte Auflage (3rd + revised edition). 1838-1839, Tübingen.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">August Tholuck.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Die Glaubwürdigkeit der evangelischen + Geschichte, zugleich eine Kritik des Lebens Jesu von Strauss. (The + Credibility of the Gospel History, with an incidental criticism of + Strauss's</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Leben-Jesu.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">) + Hamburg, 1837.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Aug. + Wilh. Neander.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Leben + Jesu-Christi. Hamburg, 1837.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Dr. Neanders auf höhere Veranlassung abgefasstes + Gutachten über das Buch des Dr. Strauss'</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Leben-Jesu</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">und + das in Beziehung auf die Verbreitung desselben zu beachtende + Verfahren. (Dr. Neander's report, drawn up at the request of the + authorities, upon Dr. Strauss's</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Leben-Jesu</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">and + the measures to be adopted in regard to its circulation.) + 1836.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Leonhard Hug.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Gutachten über das Leben-Jesu, + kritisch bearbeitet von D. Fr. Strauss. (Report on D. Fr. Strauss's + critical work upon the Life of Jesus.) Freiburg, 1840.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Christian Gottlob + Wilke.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Tradition und + Mythe. Ein Beitrag zur historischen Kritik der kanonischen + Evangelien überhaupt, wie insbesondere zur Würdigung des mythischen + Idealismus im Leben-Jesu von Strauss. (Tradition and Myth. A + Contribution to the General Historical Criticism of the Gospels; + with special reference to the mythical idealism of Strauss's</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Leben-Jesu.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">) + Leipzig, 1837.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">August Ebrard.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Wissenschaftliche Kritik der + evangelischen Geschichte. (Scientific Criticism of the Gospel + History.) Frankfort, 1842.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Georg + Heinr. Aug. Ewald.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Geschichte Christus' und seiner Zeit. (History of + Christ and His Times.) 1855. Fifth volume of the</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Geschichte + des Volkes Israel.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Christoph Friedrich von + Ammon.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die Geschichte + des Lebens Jesu mit steter Rücksicht auf die vorhandenen Quellen. + (History of the Life of Jesus with constant reference to the extant + sources.) 3 vols. 1842-1847.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Scarcely ever has + a book let loose such a storm of controversy; and scarcely ever has a + controversy been so barren of immediate result. The fertilising rain + brought up a crop of toad-stools. Of the forty or fifty essays on the + subject which appeared in the next <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> five years, there are only four or five which + are of any value, and even of these the value is very small.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss's first + idea was to deal with each of his opponents separately, and he + published in 1837 three successive <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Streitschriften</span></span>.<a id="noteref_44" + name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> In the + preface to the first of these he states that he has kept silence for + two years from a rooted objection to anything in the nature of reply + or counter-criticism, and because he had little expectation of any + good results from such controversy. These essays are able, and are + often written with biting scorn, especially that directed against his + inveterate enemy, Steudel of Tübingen, the representative of + intellectual supernaturalism, and that against Eschenmayer, a pastor, + also of Tübingen. To a work of the latter, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Iscariotism of our Days”</span> (1835), he had + referred in the preface to the second volume of his Life of Jesus in + the following remark: <span class="tei tei-q">“This offspring of the + legitimate marriage between theological ignorance and religious + intolerance, blessed by a sleep-walking philosophy, succeeds in + making itself so completely ridiculous that it renders any serious + reply unnecessary.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But for all his + sarcasm Strauss does not show himself an adroit debater in this + controversy, any more than in later times in the Diet.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is indeed + remarkable how unskilled in polemics is this man who had produced a + critical work of the first importance with almost playful ease. If + his opponents made no effort to understand him rightly—and many of + them certainly wrote without having carefully studied the fourteen + hundred pages of his two volumes—Strauss on his part seemed to be + stricken with a kind of uncertainty, lost himself in a maze of + detail, and failed to keep continually re-formulating the main + problems which he had set up for discussion, and so compelling his + adversaries to face them fairly.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of these problems + there were three. The first was composed of the related questions + regarding miracle and myth; the second concerned the connexion of the + Christ of faith with the Jesus of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> history; the third referred to the relation of + the Gospel of John to the Synoptists.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was the first + that attracted most attention; more than half the critics devoted + themselves to it alone. Even so they failed to get a thorough grasp + of it. The only thing that they clearly see is that Strauss + altogether denies the miracles; the full scope of the mythological + explanation as applied to the traditional records of the life of + Jesus, and the extent of the historical material which Strauss is + prepared to accept, is still a riddle to them. That is in some + measure due, it must in fairness be said, to the arrangement of + Strauss's own work, in which the unconnected series of separate + investigations makes the subject unnecessarily difficult even for one + who wishes to do the author justice.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The attitude + towards miracle assumed in the anti-Strauss literature shows how far + the anti-rationalistic reaction had carried professedly scientific + theology in the direction of supernaturalism. Some significant + symptoms had begun to show themselves even in Hase and Schleiermacher + of a tendency towards the overcoming of rationalism by a kind of + intellectual gymnastic which ran some risk of falling into + insincerity. The essential character of this new kind of historical + theology first came to light when Strauss put it to the question, and + forced it to substitute a plain yes or no for the ambiguous phrases + with which this school had only too quickly accustomed itself to + evade the difficulties of the problem of miracle. The mottoes with + which this new school of theology adorned the works which it sent + forth against the untimely troubler of their peace manifest its + complete perplexity, and display the coquettish resignation with + which the sacred learning of the time essayed to cover its nakedness, + after it had succumbed to the temptation of the serpent insincerity. + Adolf Harless of Erlangen chose the melancholy saying of Pascal: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Tout tourne bien pour les élus, jusqu'aux + obscurités de l'écriture, car ils les honorent à cause des clartés + divines qu'ils y voient; et tout tourne en mal aux reprouvés, + jusqu'aux clartés, car ils les blasphèment à cause des obscurités + qu'ils n'entendent pas.”</span><a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" + href="#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Herr Wilhelm + Hoffmann,<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href= + "#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> deacon + at Winnenden, selected Bacon's aphorism: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Animus ad amplitudinem mysteriorum pro modulo suo + dilatetur, non mysteria ad angustias animi constringantur.”</span> + (Let the mind, so far as possible, be expanded to the greatness of + the mysteries, not the mysteries contracted to the compass of the + mind.)</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg + 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor Ernst + Osiander,<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href= + "#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> of the + seminary at Maulbronn, appeals to Cicero: <span class="tei tei-q">“O + magna vis veritatis, quae contra hominum ingenia, calliditatem, + sollertiam facillime se per ipsam defendit.”</span> (O mighty power + of truth, which against all the ingenious devices, the craft and + subtlety, of men, easily defends itself by its own strength!)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Franz Baader, of + Munich,<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href= + "#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> + ornaments his work with the reflection: <span class="tei tei-q">“Il + faut que les hommes soient bien loin de toi, ô Vérité! puisque tu + supporte (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sic!</span></span>) leur ignorance, leurs + erreurs, et leurs crimes.”</span> (Men must indeed be far from thee, + O Truth, since thou art able to bear with their ignorance, their + errors, and their crimes!)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tholuck<a id= + "noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> girds + himself with the Catholic maxim of Vincent of Lerins: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Teneamus quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus + creditum est.”</span> (Let us hold that which has been believed + always, everywhere, by all.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fear of + Strauss had, indeed, a tendency to inspire Protestant theologians + with catholicising ideas. One of the most competent reviewers of his + book, Dr. Ullmann in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Studien und Kritiken</span></span>, had + expressed the wish that it had been written in Latin to prevent its + doing harm among the people.<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" + href="#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> An + anonymous dialogue of the period shows us the schoolmaster coming in + distress to the clergyman. He has allowed himself to be persuaded + into reading the book by his acquaintance the Major, and he is now + anxious to get rid of the doubts which it has aroused in him. When + his cure has been safely accomplished, the reverend gentleman + dismisses him with the following exhortation: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Now I hope that after the experience which you have had + you will for the future refrain from reading books of this kind, + which are not written for you, and of which there is no necessity for + you to take any notice; and for the refutation of which, should that + be needful, you have no <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg + 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + equipment. You may be quite sure that anything useful or profitable + for you which such books may contain will reach you in due course + through the proper channel and in the right way, and, that being so, + you are under no necessity to jeopardise any part of your peace of + mind.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tholuck's work + professedly aims only at presenting a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“historical argument for the credibility of the miracle + stories of the Gospels.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Even if we + admit,”</span> he says in one place, <span class="tei tei-q">“the + scientific position that no act can have proceeded from Christ which + transcends the laws of nature, there is still room for the mediating + view of Christ's miracle-working activity. This leads us to think of + mysterious powers of nature as operating in the history of + Christ—powers such as we have some partial knowledge of, as, for + example, those magnetic powers which have survived down to our own + time, like ghosts lingering on after the coming of day.”</span> From + the standpoint of this spurious rationalism he proceeds to take + Strauss to task for rejecting the miracles. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Had this latest critic been able to approach the Gospel + miracles without prejudice, in the Spirit of Augustine's declaration, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘dandum est deo, eum aliquid facere posse + quod nos investigare non possumus,’</span> he would certainly—since + he is a man who in addition to the acumen of the scholar possesses + sound common sense—have come to a different conclusion in regard to + these difficulties. As it is, however, he has approached the Gospels + with the conviction that miracles are impossible; and on that + assumption, it was certain before the argument began that the + Evangelists were either deceivers or deceived.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Neander, in his + Life of Jesus,<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href= + "#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> handles + the question with more delicacy of touch, rather in the style of + Schleiermacher. <span class="tei tei-q">“Christ's miracles,”</span> + he explains, <span class="tei tei-q">“are to be understood as an + influencing of nature, human or material.”</span> He does not, + however, give so much <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg + 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + prominence as Schleiermacher had done to the difficulty involved in + the supposition of an influence exercised upon material nature. He + repeats Schleiermacher's assertions, but without the imposing + dialectic which in Schleiermacher's hands almost commands assent. In + regard to the miracle at Cana he remarks: <span class="tei tei-q">“We + cannot indeed form any clear conception of an effect brought about by + the introduction of a higher creative principle into the natural + order, since we have no experience on which to base such a + conception, but we are by no means compelled to take this extreme + view as to what happened; we may quite well suppose that Christ by an + immediate influence upon the water communicated to it a higher + potency which enabled it to produce the effects of strong + wine.”</span> In the case of all the miracles he makes a point of + seeking not only the explanation, but the higher symbolical + significance. The miracle of the fig-tree—which is <span lang="la" + class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sui generis</span></span>—has only this + symbolical significance, seeing that it is not beneficent and + creative but destructive. <span class="tei tei-q">“It can only be + thought of as a vivid illustration of a prediction of the Divine + judgment, after the manner of the symbolic actions of the Old + Testament prophets.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With reference to + the ascension and the resurrection he writes: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Even though we can form no clear idea of the exact way + in which the exaltation of Christ from the earth took place—and + indeed there is much that is obscure in regard to the earthly life of + Christ after His resurrection—yet, in its place in the organic unity + of the Christian faith, it is as certain as the resurrection, which + apart from it cannot be recognised in its true + significance.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That extract is + typical of Neander's Life of Jesus, which in its time was hailed as a + great achievement, calculated to provide a learned refutation of + Strauss's criticism, and of which a seventh edition appeared as late + as 1872. The real piety of heart with which it is imbued cannot + conceal the fact that it is a patchwork of unsatisfactory + compromises. It is the child of despair, and has perplexity for + godfather. One cannot read it without pain.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Neander, however, + may fairly claim to be judged, not by this work, but by his personal + attitude in the Strauss controversy. And here he appears as a + magnanimous and dignified representative of theological science. + Immediately after the appearance of Strauss's book, which, it was at + once seen, would cause much offence, the Prussian Government asked + Neander to report upon it, with a view to prohibiting the + circulation, should there appear to be grounds for doing so. He + presented his report on the 15th of November 1835, and, an inaccurate + account of it having appeared in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Allgemeine + Zeitung</span></span>, subsequently published it.<a id="noteref_52" + name="noteref_52" href="#note_52"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> In it he + censures the work as being written from a too purely rationalistic + point of view, but strongly urges the Government not to suppress it + by an edict. He <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg + 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + describes it as <span class="tei tei-q">“a book which, it must be + admitted, constitutes a danger to the sacred interests of the Church, + but which follows the method of endeavouring to produce a reasoned + conviction by means of argument. Hence any other method of dealing + with it than by meeting argument with argument will appear in the + unfavourable light of an arbitrary interference with the freedom of + science.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In holding that + scientific theology will be able by its own strength to overthrow + whatever in Strauss's Life of Jesus deserves to be overthrown, + Neander is at one with the anonymous writer of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Aphorisms in Defence of Dr. Strauss and his + Work,”</span><a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href= + "#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> who + consoles himself with Goethe's saying—</p> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Tüchtige, auch wenn es falsch + ist,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Wirkt Tag für Tag, von Haus zu + Haus;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Tüchtige, wenn's wahrhaftig + ist,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Wirkt über alle Zeiten + hinaus.</span><a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href= + "#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">(Strive hard, and though your aim + be wrong,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Your work shall live its little + day;</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Strive hard, and for the truth be + strong,</span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Your work shall live and grow for + aye.)</span> + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dr. Strauss,”</span> says this anonymous writer, + <span class="tei tei-q">“does not represent the author's views, and + he on his part cannot undertake to defend Dr. Strauss's conclusions. + But it is clear to him that Dr. Strauss's work considered as a + scientific production is more scientific than the works opposed to it + from the side of religion are religious. Otherwise why are they so + passionate, so apprehensive, so unjust?”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This confidence in + pure critical science was not shared by Herr Privat-Docent Daniel + Schenkel of Basle, afterwards Professor at Heidelberg. In a dreary + work dedicated to his Göttingen teacher Lücke, on <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Historical Science and the Church,”</span><a id= + "noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> he looks + for future salvation towards that middle region where faith and + science interpenetrate, and hails the new supernaturalism which + approximates to a scientific treatment of these subjects <span class= + "tei tei-q">“as a hopeful phenomenon.”</span> He rejoices in the + violent opposition at Zurich which led to the cancelling of Strauss's + appointment, regarding it as likely to exercise an elevating + influence. A similarly lofty position is taken up by the anonymous + author of <span class="tei tei-q">“Dr. Strauss and the Zurich + Church,”</span><a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href= + "#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> to which + De Wette contributed a preface. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Though professing great esteem for Strauss, and + admitting that from the purely historical point of view he is in the + right, the author feels bound to congratulate the Zurichers on having + refused to admit him to the office of teacher.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The pure + rationalists found it much more difficult than did the mediating + theologians, whether of the older or younger school, to adjust their + attitude to the new solution of the miracle question. Strauss himself + had made it difficult for them by remorselessly exposing the absurd + and ridiculous aspects of their method, and by refusing to recognise + them as allies in the battle for truth, as they really were. Paulus + would have been justified in bearing him a grudge. But the inner + greatness of that man of hard exterior comes out in the fact that he + put his personal feelings in the background, and when Strauss became + the central figure in the battle for the purity and freedom of + historical science he ignored his attacks on rationalism and came to + his defence. In a very remarkable letter to the Free Canton of + Zurich, on <span class="tei tei-q">“Freedom in Theological Teaching + and in the Choice of Teachers for Colleges,”</span><a id="noteref_57" + name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> he urges + the council and the people to appoint Strauss because of the + principle at stake, and in order to avoid giving any encouragement to + the retrograde movement in historical science. It is as though he + felt that the end of rationalism had come, but that, in the person of + the enemy who had defeated it, the pure love of truth, which was the + only thing that really mattered, would triumph over all the forces of + reaction.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would not, + however, be true to say that Strauss had beaten rationalism from the + field. In Ammon's famous Life of Jesus,<a id="noteref_58" name= + "noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> in which + the author takes up a very respectful attitude towards Strauss, there + is a vigorous survival of a peculiar kind of rationalism inspired by + Kant. For Ammon, a miraculous event can only exist when its natural + causes have been discovered. <span class="tei tei-q">“The sacred + history is subject to the same laws as all other narratives of + antiquity.”</span> Lücke, in dealing with the raising of Lazarus, had + thrown out the question whether Biblical miracles could be thought of + historically at all, and in so doing supposed that he was putting + their absolute character on a firmer basis. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We,”</span> says Ammon, <span class="tei tei-q">“give + the opposite answer from that which is expected; only historically + conceivable miracles can be admitted.”</span> He cannot away with the + constant confusion of faith and knowledge found in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> so many writers <span class= + "tei tei-q">“who swim in an ocean of ideas in which the real and the + illusory are as inseparable as salt and sea-water in the actual + ocean.”</span> In every natural process, he explains, we have to + suppose, according to Kant, an interpenetration of natural and + supernatural. For that very reason the purely supernatural does not + exist for our experience. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is no doubt + certain,”</span> so he lays it down on the lines of Kant's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kritik der + reinen Vernunft</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“that every + act of causation which goes forth from God must be immediate, + universal, and eternal, because it is thought as an effect of His + will, which is exalted above space and time and interpenetrates both + of them, but without abolishing them, leaving them undisturbed in + their continuity and succession. For us men, therefore, all action of + God is mediate, because we are completely surrounded by time and + space, as the fish is by the sea or the bird by the air, and apart + from these relations we should be incapable of apperception, and + therefore of any real experience. As free beings we can, indeed, + think of miracle as immediately Divine, but we cannot perceive it as + such, because that would be impossible without seeing God, which for + wise reasons is forbidden to us.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“In + accordance with these principles, we shall hold it to be our duty in + what follows to call attention to the natural side even of the + miracles of Jesus, since apart from this no fact can become an object + of belief.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is only in this + intelligible sense that the cures of Jesus are to be thought of as + <span class="tei tei-q">“miracles.”</span> The magnetic force, with + which the mediating theology makes play, is to be rejected. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The cure of psychical diseases by the power + of the word and of faith is the only kind of cure in which the + student of natural science can find any basis for a conjecture + regarding the way in which the cures of Jesus were + effected.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the case of the + other miracles Ammon assumes a kind of Occasionalism, in the sense + that it may have pleased the Divine Providence <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to fulfil in fact the confidently spoken promises of + Jesus, and in that way to confirm His personal authority, which was + necessary to the establishment of His doctrine of the Divine + salvation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In most cases, + however, he is content to repeat the rationalistic explanation, and + portrays a Jesus who makes use of medicines, allows the demoniac + himself to rush upon the herd of swine, helps a leper, whom he sees + to be suffering only from one of the milder forms of the disease, to + secure the public recognition of his being legally clean, and who + exerts himself to prevent by word and act the premature burial of + persons in a state of trance. The story of the feeding of the + multitude is based on some occasion when there was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a bountiful display of hospitality, a generous sharing + of provisions, inspired by Jesus' prayer of thanksgiving and the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" + id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> example which He set when the + disciples were inclined selfishly to hold back their own + supply.”</span> The story of the miracle at Cana rests on a mere + misunderstanding, those who report it not having known that the wine + which Jesus caused to be secretly brought forth was the wedding-gift + which he was presenting in the name of the family. As a disciple of + Kant, however, Ammon feels obliged to refute the imputation that + Jesus could have done anything to promote excess, and calculates that + the present of wine which Jesus had intended to give the bridal pair + may be estimated as equivalent to not more than eighteen + bottles.<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href= + "#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> He + explains the walking on the sea by claiming for Jesus an acquaintance + with <span class="tei tei-q">“the art of treading water.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only in regard to + the explanation of the resurrection does Ammon break away from + rationalism. He decides that the reality of the death of Jesus is + historically proved. But he does not venture to suppose a real + reawakening to life, and remains at the standpoint of Herder.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the way in + which, in spite of the deeper view of the conception of miracle which + he owes to Kant, he constantly falls back upon the most pedestrian + naturalistic explanations, and his failure to rid himself of the + prejudice that an actual, even if not a miraculous fact must underlie + all the recorded miracles, is in itself sufficient to prove that we + have here to do with a mere revival of rationalism: that is, with an + untenable theory which Strauss's refutation of Paulus had already + relegated to the past.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was an easier + task for pure supernaturalism than for pure rationalism to come to + terms with Strauss. For the former Strauss was only the enemy of the + mediating theology—there was nothing to fear from him and much to + gain. Accordingly Hengstenberg's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelische + Kirchenzeitung</span></span> hailed Strauss's book as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“one of the most gratifying phenomena in the domain of + recent theological literature,”</span> and praises the author for + having carried out with logical consistency the application of the + mythical theory which had formerly been restricted to the Old + Testament and certain parts only of the Gospel tradition. + <span class="tei tei-q">“All that Strauss has done is to bring the + spirit of the age to a clear consciousness of itself and of the + necessary consequences which flow from its essential <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> character. He has taught it how to get + rid of foreign elements which were still present in it, and which + marked an imperfect stage of its development.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He has been the + most influential factor in the necessary process of separation. There + is no one with whom Hengstenberg feels himself more in agreement than + with the Tübingen scholar. Had he not shown with the greatest + precision how the results of the Hegelian philosophy, one may say, of + philosophy in general, reacted upon Christian faith? <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The relation of speculation to faith has now come + clearly to light.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Two nations,”</span> writes Hengstenberg in 1836, + <span class="tei tei-q">“are struggling in the womb of our time, and + two only. They will be ever more definitely opposed to one another. + Unbelief will more and more cast off the elements of faith to which + it still clings, and faith will cast off its elements of unbelief. + That will be an inestimable advantage. Had the Time-spirit continued + to make concessions, concessions would constantly have been made to + it in return.”</span> Therefore the man who <span class= + "tei tei-q">“calmly and deliberately laid hands upon the Lord's + anointed, undeterred by the vision of the millions who have bowed the + knee, and still bow the knee, before His appearing,”</span> has in + his own way done a service.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss on his + part escaped with relief from the musty atmosphere of the + study—beloved by theology in carpet-slippers—to the bracing air of + Hengstenberg's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kirchenzeitung</span></span>. In his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Replies”</span> he devotes to it some + fifty-four pages. <span class="tei tei-q">“I must admit,”</span> he + says, <span class="tei tei-q">“that it is a satisfaction to me to + have to do with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Evangelische Kirchenzeitung</span></span>. In + dealing with it one knows where one is and what one has to expect. If + Herr Hengstenberg condemns, he knows why he condemns, and even one + against whom he launches his anathema must admit that the attitude + becomes him. Any one who, like the editor of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelische + Kirchenzeitung</span></span>, has taken upon him the yoke of + confessional doctrine with all its implications, has paid a price + which entitles him to the privilege of condemning those who differ + from his opinions.”</span><a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href= + "#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hengstenberg's + only complaint against Strauss is that he does not go far enough. He + would have liked to force upon him the rôle of the Wolfenbüttel + Fragmentist, and considers that if Strauss did not, like the latter, + go so far as to suppose the apostles guilty of deliberate deceit, + that is not so much from any regard for the historical kernel of + Christianity as in order to mask his attack.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in Catholic + theology Strauss's work caused a great sensation. Catholic theology + in general did not at that time take up an attitude of absolute + isolation from Protestant scholarship; <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> it had adopted from the latter numerous + rationalistic ideas, and had been especially influenced by + Schleiermacher. Thus, Catholic scholars were almost prepared to + regard Strauss as a common enemy, against whom it was possible to + make common cause with Protestants. In 1837 Joseph Mack, one of the + Professors of the Catholic faculty at Tübingen, published his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Report on Herr Dr. Strauss's Historical + Study of the Life of Jesus.”</span><a id="noteref_61" name= + "noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> In 1839 + appeared <span class="tei tei-q">“Dr. Strauss's Life of Jesus, + considered from the Catholic point of view,”</span><a id="noteref_62" + name="noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> by Dr. + Maurus Hagel, Professor of Theology at the Lyceum at Dillingen; in + 1840 that lover of hypotheses and doughty fighter, Johann Leonhard + Hug,<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> + presented his report upon the work.<a id="noteref_64" name= + "noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even French + Catholicism gave some attention to Strauss's work. This marks an + epoch—the introduction of the knowledge of German critical theology + into the intellectual world of the Latin nations. In the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des deux + mondes</span></span> for December 1838, Edgar Quinet gave a clear and + accurate account of the influence of the Hegelian philosophy upon the + religious ideas of cultured Germany.<a id="noteref_65" name= + "noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> In an + eloquent peroration he lays bare the danger which was menacing the + Church from the nation of Strauss and Hegel. His countrymen need not + think that it could be charmed away by some ingenious formula; a + mighty effort of the Catholic spirit was necessary, if it was to be + successfully opposed. <span class="tei tei-q">“A new barbarian + invasion was rolling up against sacred Rome. The barbarians were + streaming from every quarter of the horizon, bringing their strange + gods with them and preparing to beleaguer the holy city. As, of yore, + Leo went forth to meet Attila, so now let the Papacy put on its + purple and come forth, while yet there is time, to wave back with an + authoritative gesture the devastating hordes into that moral + wilderness which is their native home.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Quinet might have + done better still if he had advised the Pope to issue, as a + counterblast to the unbelieving critical work of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Strauss, the Life of Jesus which had been + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">revealed</span></em> to the faith of the blessed + Anna Katharina Emmerich.<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href= + "#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> How + thoroughly this refuted Strauss can be seen from the fragment issued + in 1834, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Bitter Sufferings of Our Lord + Jesus Christ,”</span> where even the age of Jesus on the day of His + death is exactly given. On that Maundy Thursday the 13th Nisan, it + was exactly thirty-three years and eighteen weeks less one day. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“pilgrim”</span> Clement Brentano would + certainly have consented, had he been asked, to allow his note-books + to be used in the sacred cause, and to have given to the world the + Life of Jesus as it was revealed to him by this visionary from the + end of July 1820 day by day for three years, instead of allowing this + treasure to remain hidden for more than twenty years longer. He + himself ascribed to these visions the most strictly historical + character, and insisted on considering them not merely as reflections + on what had happened, but as the immediate reflex of the facts + themselves, so that the picture of the life of Jesus is given in them + as in a mirror. Hug, it may be mentioned, in his lectures, called + attention to the exact agreement of the topography of the passion + story in Katharina's vision with the description of the locality in + Josephus. If he had known her complete Life of Jesus he would + doubtless have expressed his admiration for the way in which she + harmonises John and the Synoptists; and with justice, for the harmony + is really ingenious and skilfully planned.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Apart from these + merits, too, this Life of Jesus, written, it should be observed, + earlier than Strauss's, contains a wealth of interesting information. + John at first baptized at Aenon, but later was directed to remove to + Jericho. The baptisms took place in <span class= + "tei tei-q">“baptismal springs.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Peter owned three + boats, of which one was fitted up especially <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> for the use of Jesus, and carried a complement + of ten persons. Forward and aft there were covered-in spaces where + all kinds of gear could be kept, and where also they could wash their + feet; along the sides of the boat were hung receptacles for the + fish.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Judas + Iscariot became a disciple of Jesus he was twenty-five years old. He + had black hair and a red beard, but could not be called really ugly. + He had had a stormy past. His mother had been a dancing-woman, and + Judas had been born out of wedlock, his father being a military + tribune in Damascus. As an infant he had been exposed, but had been + saved, and later had been taken charge of by his uncle, a tanner at + Iscariot. At the time when he joined the company of Jesus' disciples + he had squandered all his possessions. The disciples at first liked + him well enough because of his readiness to make himself useful; he + even cleaned the shoes.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fish with the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">stater</span></span> in its mouth was so large + that it made a full meal for the whole company.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A work to which + Jesus devoted special attention—though this is not mentioned in the + Gospels—was the reconciliation of unhappy married couples. Another + matter which is not mentioned in the Gospels is the voyage of Jesus + to Cyprus, upon which He entered after a farewell meal with His + disciples at the house of the Canaanitish woman. This voyage took + place during the war between Herod and Aretas while the disciples + were making their missionary journey in Palestine. As they could not + give an eyewitness report of it they were silent; nor did they make + any mention of the feast to which the Proconsul at Salamis invited + the Saviour. In regard to another journey, also, which Jesus made to + the land of the wise men of the East, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“pilgrim's”</span> oracle has the advantage of knowing + more than the Evangelists.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In spite of these + additional traits a certain monotony is caused by the fact that the + visionary, in order to fill in the tale of days in the three years, + makes the persons known to us from the Gospel history meet with the + Saviour on several occasions previous to the meeting narrated in the + Gospels. Here the artificial character of the composition comes out + too clearly, though in general a lively imagination tends to conceal + this. And yet these naïve embellishments and inventions have + something rather attractive about them; one cannot handle the book + without a certain reverence when one thinks amid what pains these + revelations were received. If Brentano had published his notes at the + time of the excitement produced by Strauss's Life of Jesus, the work + would have had a tremendous success. As it was, when the first two + volumes appeared at the end of the 'fifties, there were sold in one + year three thousand and several hundred copies, without reckoning the + French edition which appeared contemporaneously.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end, + however, all the efforts of the mediating theology, of rationalism + and supernaturalism, could do nothing to shake Strauss's conclusion + that it was all over with supernaturalism as a factor to be reckoned + with in the historical study of the Life of Jesus, and that + scientific theology, instead of turning back from rationalism to + supernaturalism, must move straight onward between the two and seek + out a new path for itself. The Hegelian method had proved itself to + be the logic of reality. With Strauss begins the period of the + non-miraculous view of the Life of Jesus; all other views exhausted + themselves in the struggle against him, and subsequently abandoned + position after position without waiting to be attacked. The + separation which Hengstenberg had hailed with such rejoicing was + really accomplished; but in the form that supernaturalism practically + separated itself from the serious study of history. It is not + possible to date the stages of this process. After the first outburst + of excitement everything seems to go on as quietly as before; the + only difference is that the question of miracle constantly falls more + and more into the background. In the modern period of the study of + the Life of Jesus, which begins about the middle of the 'sixties, it + has lost all importance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That does not mean + that the problem of miracle is solved. From the historical point of + view it is really impossible to solve it, since we are not able to + reconstruct the process by which a series of miracle stories arose, + or a series of historical occurrences were transformed into miracle + stories, and these narratives must simply be left with a question + mark standing against them. What has been gained is only that the + exclusion of miracle from our view of history has been universally + recognised as a principle of criticism, so that miracle no longer + concerns the historian either positively or negatively. Scientific + theologians of the present day who desire to show their <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sensibility,”</span> ask no more than that two or three + little miracles may be left to them—in the stories of the childhood, + perhaps, or in the narratives of the resurrection. And these miracles + are, moreover, so far scientific that they have at least no relation + to those in the text, but are merely spiritless, miserable little + toy-dogs of criticism, flea-bitten by rationalism, too insignificant + to do historical science any harm, especially as their owners + honestly pay the tax upon them by the way in which they speak, write, + and are silent about Strauss.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even that is + better than the delusive fashion in which some writers of the present + day succeed in discussing the narratives of the resurrection + <span class="tei tei-q">“as pure historians”</span> without betraying + by a single word whether they themselves believe it to be possible or + not. But the reason modern theology can allow itself these liberties + is that the foundation laid by Strauss is unshakable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Compared with the + problem of miracle, the question regarding <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the mythical explanation of the history takes a + very subordinate place in the controversy. Few understood what + Strauss's real meaning was; the general impression was that he + entirely dissolved the life of Jesus into myth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There appeared, + indeed, three satires ridiculing his method. One showed how, for the + historical science of the future, the life of Luther would also + become a mere myth,<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href= + "#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> the + second treated the life of Napoleon in the same way;<a id= + "noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> in the + third, Strauss himself becomes a myth.<a id="noteref_69" name= + "noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">M. Eugène Mussard, + <span class="tei tei-q">“candidat au saint ministère,”</span> made it + his business to set at rest the minds of the premier faculty at + Geneva by his thesis, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Du système mythique appliqué à l'histoire de la + vie de Jésus</span></span>, 1838, which bears the ingenious motto οὐ + σεσοφισμένοις μύθοις (not ... in cunningly devised myths, 2 Peter i. + 16). He certainly did not exaggerate the difficulties of his task, + but complacently followed up an <span class="tei tei-q">“Exposition + of the Mythical Theory,”</span> with a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Refutation of the Mythical Theory as applied to the Life + of Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only writer + who really faced the problem in the form in which it had been raised + by Strauss was Wilke in his work <span class="tei tei-q">“Tradition + and Myth.”</span><a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href= + "#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> He + recognises that Strauss had given an exceedingly valuable impulse + towards the overcoming of rationalism and supernaturalism and to the + rejection of the abortive <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg + 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + mediating theology. <span class="tei tei-q">“A keener criticism will + only establish the truth of the Gospel, putting what is tenable on a + firmer basis, sifting out what is untenable, and showing up in all + its nakedness the counterfeit theology of the new evangelicalism with + its utter lack of understanding and sincerity.”</span> Again, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the approval which Strauss has met with, and + the excitement which he has aroused, sufficiently show what an + advantage rationalistic speculation possesses over the theological + second-childishness of the new evangelicals.”</span> The time has + come for a rational mysticism, which shall preserve undiminished the + honesty of the old rationalism, making no concessions to + supernaturalism, but, on the other hand, overcoming the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“truculent rationalism of the Kantian criticism”</span> + by means of a religious conception in which there is more warmth and + more pious feeling.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This rational + mysticism makes it a reproach against the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mythical idealism”</span> of Strauss that in it + philosophy does violence to history, and the historic Christ only + retains His significance as a mere ideal. A new examination of the + sources is necessary to decide upon the extent of the mythical + element.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Gospel of + Matthew cannot, Wilke agrees, have been the work of an eyewitness. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The principal argument against its + authenticity is the absence of the characteristic marks of an + eyewitness, which must necessarily have been present in a gospel + actually composed by a disciple of the Lord, and which are not + present here. The narrative is lacking in precision, fragmentary and + legendary, tradition everywhere manifest in its very form.”</span> + There are discrepancies in the legends of the first and second + chapters, as well as elsewhere, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> the stories of the baptism, + the temptation, and the transfiguration. In other cases, where there + is a basis of historic fact, there is an admixture of legendary + material, as in the narratives of the death and resurrection of + Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Gospel of + Mark, Wilke recognises the pictorial vividness of many of the + descriptions, and conjectures that in some way or other it goes back + to the Petrine tradition. The author of the Fourth Gospel is not an + eyewitness; the κατά (according to) only indicates the origin of the + tradition; the author received it, either directly or indirectly, + from the Apostle, but he gave to it the gnosticising dialectical form + of the Alexandrian theology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As against the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diegesentheorie</span></span><a id="noteref_71" + name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> Wilke + defends the independence and originality of the individual Gospels. + <span class="tei tei-q">“No one of the Evangelists knew the writing + of any of the others, each produced an independent work drawn from a + separate source.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the remarks on + points of detail in this work of Wilke's there is evidence of a + remarkable grasp of the critical data; we already get a hint of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“mathematician”</span> of the Synoptic + problem, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg + 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + who, two years later, was to work out convincingly the literary + argument for the priority of Mark. But the historian is quite + subordinated to the literary critic, and, when all is said, Wilke + takes up no clearly defined position in regard to Strauss's main + problem, as is evident from his seeking to retain, on more or less + plausible grounds, a whole series of miracles, among them the miracle + of Cana and the resurrection.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For most thinkers + of that period, however, the question <span class="tei tei-q">“myth + or history”</span> yielded in interest to the philosophical question + of the relation of the historical Jesus to the ideal Christ. That was + the second problem raised by Strauss. Some thought to refute him by + showing that his exposition of the relation of the Jesus of history + to the ideal Christ was not justified even from the point of view of + the Hegelian philosophy, arguing that the edifice which he had raised + was not in harmony with the ground-plan of the Hegelian speculative + system. He therefore felt it necessary, in his reply to the review in + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche + Kritik</span></span>, to expound <span class="tei tei-q">“the general + relationship of the Hegelian philosophy to theological + criticism,”</span><a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href= + "#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> and to + express in more precise form the thoughts upon speculative and + historical Christology which he had suggested at the close of the + second volume of his <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of + Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He admits that + Hegel's philosophy is ambiguous in this matter, since it is not clear + <span class="tei tei-q">“whether the evangelical fact as such, not + indeed in its isolation, but together with the whole series of + manifestations of the idea (of God-manhood) in the history of the + world, is the truth; or whether the embodiment of the idea in that + single fact is only a formula of which consciousness makes use in + forming its concept.”</span> The Hegelian <span class= + "tei tei-q">“right,”</span> he says, represented by Marheineke and + Göschel, emphasises the positive side of the master's religious + philosophy, implying that in Jesus the idea of God-manhood was + perfectly fulfilled and in a certain sense intelligibly realised. + <span class="tei tei-q">“If these men,”</span> Strauss explains, + <span class="tei tei-q">“appeal to Hegel and declare that he would + not have recognised my book as an expression of his meaning, they say + nothing which is not in accordance with my own convictions. Hegel was + personally no friend to historical criticism. It annoyed him, as it + annoyed Goethe, to see the historic figures of antiquity, on which + their thoughts were accustomed lovingly to dwell, assailed by + critical doubts. Even if it was in some cases wreaths of mist which + they took for pinnacles of rock, they did not want to have this + forced upon their attention, nor to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> be disturbed in the illusion from which they + were conscious of receiving an elevating influence.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But though + prepared to admit that he had added to the edifice of Hegel's + religious philosophy an annexe of historical criticism, of which the + master would hardly have approved, Strauss is convinced that he is + the only logical representative of Hegel's essential view. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The question which can be decided from the + standpoint of the philosophy of religion is not whether what is + narrated in the Gospels actually happened or not, but whether in view + of the truth of certain conceptions it must necessarily have + happened. And in regard to this, what I assert is that from the + general system of the Hegelian philosophy it by no means necessarily + follows that such an event must have happened, but that from the + standpoint of the system the truth of that history from which + actually the conception arose is reduced to a matter of indifference; + it may have happened, but it may just as well not have happened, and + the task of deciding on this point may be calmly handed over to + historical criticism.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss reminds us + that, even according to Hegel, the belief in Jesus as God-made-man is + not immediately given with His appearing in the world of sense, but + only arose after His death and the removal of His sensible presence. + The master himself had acknowledged the existence of mythical + elements in the Life of Jesus; in regard to miracle he had expressed + the opinion that the true miracle was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Spirit.”</span> The conception of the resurrection and + ascension as outward facts of sense was not recognised by him as + true.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hegel's authority + may, no doubt, fairly be appealed to by those who believe, not only + in an incarnation of God in a general sense, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“but also that this manifestation of God in flesh has + taken place in this man (Jesus) at this definite time and + place.”</span>... <span class="tei tei-q">“In making the + assertion,”</span> concludes Strauss, <span class="tei tei-q">“that + the truth of the Gospel narrative cannot be proved, whether in whole + or in part, from philosophical considerations, but that the task of + inquiring into its truth must be left to historical criticism, I + should like to associate myself with the <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘left wing’</span> of the Hegelian school, were it not + that the Hegelians prefer to exclude me altogether from their + borders, and to throw me into the arms of other systems of + thought—only, it must be admitted, to have me tossed back to them + like a ball.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to the + third problem which Strauss had offered for discussion, the relation + of the Synoptists to John, there was practically no response. The + only one of his critics who understood what was at stake was + Hengstenberg. He alone perceived the significance of the fact that + critical theology, having admitted mythical elements first in the Old + Testament, and then in the beginning and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> end of the Gospel history, and having, in + consequence of the latter admission, felt obliged to give up the + first three Gospels, retaining only the fourth, was now being + besieged by Strauss in its last stronghold. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“They withdrew,”</span> says the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelische + Kirchenzeitung</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“into the + Gospel of John as into a fortress, and boasted that they were safe + there, though they could not suppress a secret consciousness that + they only held it at the enemy's pleasure; now the enemy has appeared + before it; he is using the same weapons with which he was formerly + victorious; the Gospel of John is in as desperate case as formerly + the Synoptists. The time has come to make a bold resolve, a decisive + choice; either they must give up everything, or else they must + successively re-occupy the more advanced positions which at an + earlier date they had successively abandoned.”</span> It would be + impossible to give a more accurate picture of the desperate position + into which Hase and Schleiermacher had brought the mediating theology + by their ingenious expedient of giving up the Synoptics in favour of + the Gospel of John. Before any danger threatened, they had abandoned + the outworks and withdrawn into the citadel, oblivious of the fact + that they thereby exposed themselves to the danger of having their + own guns turned upon them from the positions they had abandoned, and + being obliged to surrender without striking a blow the position of + which they had boasted as impregnable. It is impossible to emphasise + strongly enough the fact that it was not Strauss, but Hase and + Schleiermacher, who had brought the mediating theology into this + hopeless position, in which the fall of the Fourth Gospel carried + with it the surrender of the historical tradition as a whole.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there is no + position so desperate that theology cannot find a way out of it. The + mediating theologians simply ignored the problem which Strauss had + raised. As they had been accustomed to do before, so they continued + to do after, taking the Gospel of John as the authentic framework, + and fitting into it the sections of the Synoptic narrative wherever + place could best be found for them. The difference between the + Johannine and Synoptic representations of Jesus' method of teaching, + says Neander, is only apparently irreconcilable, and he calls out in + support of this assertion all the reserves of old worn-out expedients + and artifices, among others the argument that the Pauline Christology + is only explicable as a combination of the Synoptic and Johannine + views. Other writers who belong to the same apologetic school, such + as Tholuck, Ebrard,<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href= + "#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" + id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Wieseler,<a id="noteref_74" + name="noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> + Lange,<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href= + "#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> and + Ewald,<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href= + "#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> maintain + the same point of view, only that their defence is usually much less + skilful.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only writer + who really in some measure enters into the difficulties is Ammon. He, + indeed, is fully conscious of the difference, and thinks we cannot + rest content with merely recognising it, but must find a solution, + even if rather a forced one, <span class="tei tei-q">“by + subordinating the indefinite chronological data of the Synoptists, of + whom, after all, only one was, or could have been, an eyewitness, to + the ordered narrative of John.”</span> The fourth Evangelist makes so + brief a reference to the Galilaean period because it was in + accordance with his plan to give more prominence to the discourses of + Jesus in the Temple and His dialogues with the Scribes as compared to + the parables and teaching given to the people. The cleansing of the + Temple falls at the outset of Jesus' ministry; Jesus begins His + Messianic work in Jerusalem by this action of making an end of the + unseemly chaffering in the court of the Temple. The question + regarding the relative authenticity of the reports is decisively + settled by a comparison of the two accounts of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the triumphal entry, because there it is + quite evident that <span class="tei tei-q">“Matthew, the chief + authority among the Synoptists, adapts his narrative to his special + Jewish-Messianic standpoint.”</span> According to Ammon's + rationalistic view, the work of Jesus consisted precisely in the + transformation of this Jewish-Messianic idea into the conception of a + <span class="tei tei-q">“Saviour of the world.”</span> In this lies + the explanation of the fate of Jesus: <span class="tei tei-q">“The + mass of the Jewish people were not prepared to receive a Christ so + spiritual as Jesus was, since they were not ripe for so lofty a view + of religion.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ammon here turns + his Kantian philosophy to account. It serves especially to explain to + him the consciousness of pre-existence avowed by the Jesus of the + Johannine narrative as something purely human. We, too, he explains, + can <span class="tei tei-q">“after the spirit”</span> claim an ideal + existence prior to the spatial creation without indulging any + delusion, and without, on the other hand, thinking of a real + existence. In this way Jesus is for Himself a Biblical idea, with + which He has become identified. <span class="tei tei-q">“The purer + and deeper a man's self-consciousness is, the keener may his + consciousness of God become, until time disappears for him, and his + partaking in the Divine nature fills his whole soul.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Ammon's + support of the authenticity of John's Gospel is, even from a purely + literary point of view, not so unreserved as in the case of the other + opponents of Strauss. In the background stands the hypothesis that + our Gospel is only a working-over of the authentic John, a suggestion + in regard to which Ammon can claim priority, since he had made it as + early as 1811,<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href= + "#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> nine + years before the appearance of Bretschneider's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Probabilia</span></span>. Were it not for the + ingenuous fashion in which he works the Synoptic material into the + Johannine plan, we might class him with Alexander Schweizer and + Weisse, who in a similar way seek to meet the objections of Strauss + by an elaborate theory of editing.<a id="noteref_78" name= + "noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first stage of + the discussion regarding the relation of John to the Synoptists + passed without result. The mediating theology continued to hold its + positions undisturbed—and, strangest of all, Strauss himself was + eager for a suspension of hostilities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is as though + history took the trouble to countersign the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> genuineness of the great critical discoveries + by letting the discoverers themselves attempt to cancel them. As Kant + disfigures his critical idealism by making inconsistent additions in + order to refute a reviewer who had put him in the same category with + Berkeley, so Strauss inserts additions and retractations in the third + edition of his Life of Jesus in deference to the uncritical works of + Tholuck and Neander! Wilke, the only one of his critics from whom he + might have learned something, he ignores. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“From the lofty vantage ground of Tholuck's many-sided + knowledge I have sometimes, in spite of a slight tendency to vertigo, + gained a juster point of view from which to look at one matter or + another,”</span> is the avowal which he makes in the preface to this + ill-starred edition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would, indeed, + have done no harm if he had confined himself to stating more exactly + here and there the extent of the mythical element, had increased the + number of possible cures, had inclined a little less to the negative + side in examining the claims of reported facts to rank as historical, + and had been a little more circumspect in pointing out the factors + which produced the myths; the serious thing was that he now began to + hesitate in his denial of the historical character of the Fourth + Gospel—the very foundation of his critical view.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A renewed study of + it, aided by De Wette's commentary and Neander's Life of Jesus, had + made him <span class="tei tei-q">“doubtful about his doubts regarding + the genuineness and credibility of this Gospel.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Not that I am convinced of its genuineness,”</span> he + admits, <span class="tei tei-q">“but I am no longer convinced that it + is not genuine.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He feels bound, + therefore, to state whatever makes in its favour, and to leave open a + number of possibilities which formerly he had not recognised. The + adhesion of the first disciples may, he now thinks, have happened + essentially in the form in which it is reported in the Fourth Gospel; + in transferring the cleansing of the Temple to the first period of + Jesus' ministry, John may be right as against the Synoptic tradition + <span class="tei tei-q">“which has no decisive evidence in its + favour”</span>; in regard to the question whether Jesus had been only + once, or several times, in Jerusalem, his opinion now is that + <span class="tei tei-q">“on this point the superior circumstantiality + of the Fourth Gospel cannot be contested.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + prominence allowed to the eschatology also all is toned down and + softened. Everywhere feeble compromises! But what led Strauss to + place his foot upon this shelving path was the essentially just + perception that the Synoptists gave him no clearly ordered plan to + set against that of the Fourth Gospel; consequently he felt obliged + to make some concessions to its strength in this respect.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet he recognised + almost immediately that the result was a mere patchwork. Even in the + summer of 1839 he complained <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to Hase in conversation that he had been + deafened by the clamour of his opponents, and had conceded too much + to them.<a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href= + "#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> In the + fourth edition he retracted all his concessions. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Babel of voices of opponents, critics, and + supporters,”</span> he says in his preface, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to which I had felt it my duty to listen, had confused + me in regard to the idea of my work; in my diligent comparison of + various views I had lost sight of the thing itself. In this way I was + led to make alterations which, when I came to consider the matter + calmly, surprised myself; and in making which it was obvious that I + had done myself an injustice. In all these passages the earlier text + has been restored, and my work has therefore consisted, it might be + said, in removing from my good sword the notches which had not so + much been hewn in it by the enemy as ground into it by + myself.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss's + vacillation had, therefore, not even been of any indirect advantage + to him. Instead of endeavouring to find a purposeful connexion in the + Synoptic Gospels by means of which he might test the plan of the + Fourth Gospel, he simply restores his former view unaltered, thereby + showing that in the decisive point it was incapable of development. + In the very year in which he prepared his improved edition, Weisse, + in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Evangelische Geschichte</span></span>, had set + up the hypothesis that Mark is the ground-document, and had thus + carried criticism past the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“dead-point”</span> which Strauss had never been able to + overcome. Upon Strauss, however, the new suggestion made no + impression. He does, it is true, mention Weisse's book in the preface + to his third edition, and describes it as <span class="tei tei-q">“in + many respects a very satisfactory piece of work.”</span> It had + appeared too late for him to make use of it in his first volume; but + he did not use it in his second volume either. He had, indeed, a + distinct antipathy to the Marcan hypothesis.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was unfortunate + that in this controversy the highly important suggestions in regard + to various historical problems which had been made incidentally in + the course of Strauss's work were never discussed at all. The impulse + in the direction of progress which might have been given by his + treatment of the relation of Jesus to the law, of the question + regarding His particularism, of the eschatological conception, the + Son of Man, and the Messiahship of Jesus, wholly failed to take + effect, and it was only after long and circuitous wanderings that + theology again came in sight of these problems from an equally + favourable point of view. In this respect Strauss shared the fate of + Reimarus; the positive solutions of which the outlines were visible + behind their negative criticism escaped observation in consequence of + the offence caused by the negative side of their work; and even the + authors themselves failed to realise their full significance.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name= + "Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> + <a name="Chapter_X" id="Chapter_X" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">X. The Marcan Hypothesis</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Christian Hermann + Weisse.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die evangelische + Geschichte kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet. (A Critical and + Philosophical Study of the Gospel History.) 2 vols. Leipzig, + Breitkopf and Härtel, 1838. Vol. i. 614 pp. Vol. ii. 543 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Christian Gottlob + Wilke.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Der Urevangelist. + (The Earliest Evangelist.) 1838. Dresden and Leipzig. 694 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Christian Hermann + Weisse.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die + Evangelienfrage in ihrem gegenwärtigen Stadium. (The Present + Position of the Problem of the Gospels.) Leipzig, 1856.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Gospel History”</span> of Weisse was written, like + Strauss's Life of Jesus, by a philosopher who had been driven out of + philosophy and forced back upon theology. Weisse was born in 1801 at + Leipzig, and became Professor Extraordinary of Philosophy in the + university there in 1828. In 1837, finding his advance to the + Ordinary Professorship barred by the Herbartians, he withdrew from + academic teaching and gave himself to the preparation of this work, + the plan of which he had had in mind for some time. Having brought it + to a satisfactory completion, he began again in 1841 as a + Privat-Docent in Philosophy, and became Ordinary Professor in 1845. + From 1848 onwards he lectured on Theology also. His work on + <span class="tei tei-q">“Philosophical Dogmatics, or the Philosophy + of Christianity,”</span><a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href= + "#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> is well + known. He died in 1866, of cholera. Lotze and Lipsius were both much + influenced by him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weisse admired + Strauss and hailed his Life of Jesus as a forward step towards the + reconciliation of religion and philosophy. He expresses his gratitude + to him for clearing the ground of the primeval forest of theology, + thus rendering it possible for him (Weisse) to develop his views + without wasting time upon polemics, <span class="tei tei-q">“since + most of the views which have hitherto prevailed may be regarded as + having received the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">coup de grâce</span></span> from + Strauss.”</span> He is at one with Strauss also in his general view + of the relations of philosophy and religion, holding that it is only + if philosophy, by following its own path, attains independently to + the conviction of the truth of Christianity that its alliance with + theology and religion <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg + 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> can + be welcomed as advantageous.<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" + href="#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> His + work, therefore, like that of Strauss, leads up finally to a + philosophical exposition in which he shows how for us the Jesus of + history becomes the Christ of faith.<a id="noteref_82" name= + "noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weisse is the + direct continuator of Strauss. Standing outside the limitations of + the Hegelian formulae, he begins at the point where Strauss leaves + off. His aim is to discover, if possible, some thread of general + connexion in the narratives of the Gospel tradition, which, if + present, would represent a historically certain element in the Life + of Jesus, and thus serve as a better standard by which to determine + the extent of myth than can possibly be found in the subjective + impression upon which Strauss relies. Strauss, by way of gratitude, + called him a dilettante. This was most unjust, for if any one + deserved to share Strauss's place of honour, it was certainly + Weisse.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The idea that + Mark's Gospel might be the earliest of the four, first occurred to + Weisse during the progress of his work. In March 1837, when he + reviewed Tholuck's <span class="tei tei-q">“Credibility of the Gospel + History,”</span> he was as innocent of this discovery as Wilke was at + the same period. But when once he had observed that the graphic + details of Mark, which had hitherto been regarded as due to an + attempt to embellish an epitomising narrative, were too insignificant + to have been inserted with this purpose, it became clear to him that + only one other possibility remained open, viz., that their absence in + Matthew and Luke was due to omission. He illustrates this from the + description of the first day of Jesus' ministry at Capernaum. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The relation of the first Evangelist to + Mark,”</span> he avers, <span class="tei tei-q">“in those portions of + the Gospel which are common to both is, with few exceptions, mainly + that of an epitomiser.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The decisive + argument for the priority of Mark is, even more than his graphic + detail, the composition and arrangement of the whole. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is true, the Gospel of Mark shows very distinct + traces of having arisen out of spoken discourses, which themselves + were by no means ordered and connected, but disconnected and + fragmentary”</span>—being, he means, in its original form based on + notes of the incidents related by Peter. <span class="tei tei-q">“It + is not the work of an eyewitness, nor even of one who had had an + opportunity of questioning eyewitnesses thoroughly and carefully; nor + even of deriving assistance from inquirers who, on their part, had + made a connected <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg + 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + study of the subject, with a view to filling up the gaps and placing + each individual part in its right position, and so articulating the + whole into an organic unity which should be neither merely inward, + nor on the other hand merely external.”</span> Nevertheless the + Evangelist was guided in his work by a just recollection of the + general course of the life of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is + precisely in Mark,”</span> Weisse explains, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that a closer study unmistakably reveals that the + incidental remarks (referring for the most part to the way in which + the fame of Jesus gradually extended, the way the people began to + gather round Him and the sick to besiege Him), far from shutting off + and separating the different narratives, tend rather to unite them + with each other, and so give the impression not of a series of + anecdotes fortuitously thrown together, but of a connected history. + By means of these remarks, and by many other connecting links which + he works into the narration of the individual stories, Mark has + succeeded in conveying a vivid impression of the stir which Jesus + made in Galilee, and from Galilee to Jerusalem, of the gradual + gathering of the multitudes to Him, of the growing intensity of + loyalty in the inner circle of disciples, and as the counterpart of + all this, of the growing enmity of the Pharisees and Scribes—an + impression which mere isolated narratives, strung together without + any living connexion, would not have sufficed to produce.”</span> A + connexion of this kind is less clearly present in the other + Synoptists, and is wholly lacking in John. The Fourth Gospel, by + itself, would give us a completely false conception of the relation + of Jesus to the people. From the content of its narratives the reader + would form the impression that the attitude of the people towards + Jesus was hostile from the very first, and that it was only in + isolated occasions, for a brief moment, that Jesus by His miraculous + acts inspired the people with astonishment rather than admiration; + that, surrounded by a little company of disciples he contrived for a + time to defy the enmity of the multitude, and that, having repeatedly + provoked it by intemperate invective, he finally succumbed to it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The simplicity of + the plan of Mark is, in Weisse's opinion, a stronger argument for his + priority than the most elaborate demonstration; one only needs to + compare it with the perverse design of Luke, who makes Jesus + undertake a journey through Samaria. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“How,”</span> asks Weisse, <span class="tei tei-q">“in + the case of a writer who does things of this kind can it be possible + at this time of day to speak seriously of historical exactitude in + the use of his sources?”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To come down to + detail, Weisse's argument for the priority of Mark rests mainly on + the following propositions:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. In the first + and third Gospels, traces of a common plan are found only in those + parts which they have in common <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with Mark, not in those which are common to + them, but not to Mark also.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. In those parts + which the three Gospels have in common, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“agreement”</span> of the other two is mediated through + Mark.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. In those + sections which the First and Third Gospels have, but Mark has not, + the agreement consists in the language and incidents, not in the + order. Their common source, therefore, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Logia”</span> of Matthew, did not contain any type of + tradition which gave an order of narration different from that of + Mark.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. The divergences + of wording between the two other Synoptists is in general greater in + the parts where both have drawn on the Logia document than where Mark + is their source.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">5. The first + Evangelist reproduces this Logia-document more faithfully than Luke + does; but his Gospel seems to have been of later origin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This historical + argument for the priority of Mark was confirmed in the year in which + it appeared by Wilke's work, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Earliest + Gospel,”</span><a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href= + "#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> which + treated the problem more from the literary side, and, to take an + illustration from astronomy, supplied the mathematical confirmation + of the hypothesis.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg + 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to the + Gospel of John, Weisse fully shared the negative views of Strauss. + What is the use, he asks, of keeping on talking about the plan of + this Gospel, seeing that no one has yet succeeded in showing what + that plan is? And for a very good reason: there is none. One would + never guess from the Gospel of John that Jesus, until His departure + from Galilee, had experienced almost unbroken success. It is no good + trying to explain the want of plan by saying that John wrote with the + purpose of supplementing and correcting his predecessors, and that + his omissions and additions were determined by this purpose. Such a + purpose is betrayed by no single word in the whole Gospel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The want of plan + lies in the very plan itself. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is a fixed + idea, one may say, with the author of this Gospel, who had heard that + Jesus had fallen a victim in Jerusalem to the hatred of the Jewish + rulers, especially the Scribes, that he must represent Jesus as + engaged, from His first appearance onward, in an unceasing struggle + with <span class="tei tei-q">‘the Jews’</span>—whereas we know that + the mass of the people, even to the last, in Jerusalem itself, were + on the side of Jesus; so much so, indeed, that His enemies were only + able to get Him into their power by means of a secret + betrayal.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to the + graphic descriptions in John, of which so much has been made, the + case is no better. It is the graphic detail of a writer who desires + to work up a vivid picture, not the natural touches of an eyewitness, + and there are, moreover, actual inconsistencies, as in the case of + the healing at the pool of Bethesda. The circumstantiality is due to + the care of the author not to assume an acquaintance, on the part of + his readers, with Jewish usages or the topography of Palestine. + <span class="tei tei-q">“A considerable proportion of the details are + of such a character as inevitably to suggest that the narrator + inserts them because of the trouble which it has cost him to + orientate himself in regard to the scene of the action and the + dramatis personae, his object being to spare his readers a similar + difficulty; though he does not always go about it in the way best + calculated to effect his purpose.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The impossibility + also that the historic Jesus can have preached the doctrine of the + Johannine Christ, is as clear to Weisse as to Strauss. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is not so much a picture of Christ that John sets + forth, as a conception of Christ; his Christ does not speak + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">in</span></em> His own Person, but <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of</span></em> His + own Person.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other hand, + however, <span class="tei tei-q">“the authority of the whole + Christian Church from the second century to the nineteenth”</span> + carries too much weight with Weisse for him to venture altogether to + deny the Johannine origin of the Gospel; and he seeks a <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> middle path. He assumes that the didactic + portions really, for the most part, go back to John the Apostle. + <span class="tei tei-q">“John,”</span> he explains, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“drawn on by the interest of a system of doctrine which + had formed itself in his mind, not so much as a direct reflex of the + teaching of his Master, as on the basis of suggestions offered by + that teaching in combination with a certain creative activity of his + own, endeavoured to find this system also in the teaching of his + Master.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Accordingly, with + this purpose, and originally for himself alone, not with the object + of communicating it to others, he made an effort to exhibit, in the + light of this system of thought, what his memory still retained of + the discourses of the Lord. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Johannine + discourses, therefore, were recalled by a laborious effort of memory + on the part of the disciple. When he found that his memory-image of + his Master was threatening to dissolve into a mist-wraith, he + endeavoured to impress the picture more firmly in his recollection, + to connect and define its rapidly disappearing features, + reconstructing it by the aid of a theory evolved by himself or drawn + from elsewhere regarding the Person and work of the Master.”</span> + For the portrait of Christ in the Synoptic Gospels the mind of the + disciples who describe Him is a neutral medium; for the portrait in + John it is a factor which contributes to the production of the + picture. The same portrait is outlined by the apostle in the first + epistle which bears his name.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These tentative + <span class="tei tei-q">“essays,”</span> not originally intended for + publication, came, after the death of the apostle, into the hands of + his adherents and disciples, and they chose the form of a complete + Life of Jesus as that in which to give them to the world. They, + therefore, added narrative portions, which they distributed here and + there among the speeches, often doing some violence to the latter in + the process. Such was the origin of the Fourth Gospel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weisse is not + blind to the fact that this hypothesis of a Johannine basis in the + Gospel is beset with the gravest—one might almost say with + insuperable—difficulties. Here is a man who was an immediate disciple + of the Lord, one who, in the Synoptic Gospels, in Acts, and in the + Pauline letters, appears in a character which gives no hint of a + coming spiritual metamorphosis, one, moreover, who at a relatively + late period, when it might well have been supposed that his + development was in all essentials closed (at the time of Paul's visit + to Jerusalem, which falls at least fourteen years after Paul's + conversion), was chosen, along with James and Peter, and in contrast + with the apostles of the Gentiles, Paul and Barnabas, as an apostle + of the Jews—<span class="tei tei-q">“how is it possible,”</span> asks + Weisse, <span class="tei tei-q">“to explain and make it intelligible, + that a man of these antecedents displays in his thought and speech, + in fact in his whole mental attitude, a thoroughly Hellenistic stamp? + How came he, the beloved disciple, who, according to this very Gospel + which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name= + "Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> bears his name, was + admitted more intimately than any other into the confidence of Jesus, + how came he to clothe his Master in this foreign garb of Hellenistic + speculation, and to attribute to Him this alien manner of speech? + But, however difficult the explanation may be, whatever extreme of + improbability may seem to us to be involved in the assumption of the + Johannine authorship of the Epistle and of these essential elements + of the Gospel, it is better to assent to the improbability, to submit + to the burden of being forced to explain the inexplicable, than to + set ourselves obstinately against the weight of testimony, against + the authority of the whole Christian Church from the second century + to the present day.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There could be no + better argument against the genuineness of the Fourth Gospel than + just such a defence of its genuineness as this. In this form the + hypothesis may well be destined to lead a harmless and never-ending + life. What matters for the historical study of the Life of Jesus is + simply that the Fourth Gospel should be ruled out. And that Weisse + does so thoroughly that it is impossible to imagine its being done + more thoroughly. The speeches, in spite of their apostolic authority, + are unhistorical, and need not be taken into account in describing + Jesus' system of thought. As for the unhappy redactor, who by adding + the narrative pictures created the Gospel, all possibility of his + reports being accurate is roundly denied, and as if that was not + enough, he must put up with being called a bungler into the bargain. + <span class="tei tei-q">“I have, to tell the truth, no very high + opinion of the literary art of the editor of the Johannine + Gospel-document,”</span> says Weisse in his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Problem of the Gospels”</span> of 1856, which is the + best commentary upon his earlier work.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His treatment of + the Fourth Gospel reminds us of the story that Frederic the Great + once appointed an importunate office-seeker to the post of + <span class="tei tei-q">“Privy Councillor for War,”</span> on + condition that he would never presume to offer a syllable of + advice!</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hypothesis + which was brought forward about the same time by Alexander + Schweizer,<a id="noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href= + "#note_84"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> with the + intention of saving the genuineness of the Gospel of John, did not + make any real contribution to the subject. The reading of the facts + which form his starting-point is almost the exact converse of that of + Weisse, since he regards, not the speeches, but certain parts of the + narrative as Johannine. That which it is possible, in his opinion, to + refer <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name= + "Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to the apostle is an + account, not involving any miracles, of the ministry of Jesus at + Jerusalem, and the discourses which He delivered there. The more or + less miraculous events which occur in the course of it—such as, that + Jesus had seen Nathanael under the fig-tree, knew the past life of + the Samaritan woman, and healed the sick man at the Pool of + Bethesda—are of a simple character, and contrast markedly with those + which are represented to have occurred in Galilee, where Jesus turned + water into wine and fed a multitude with a few crusts of bread. We + must, therefore, suppose that this short, authentic, spiritual + Jerusalem-Gospel has had a Galilaean Life of Jesus worked into it, + and this explains the inconsistencies of the representation and the + oscillation between a sensuous and a spiritual point of view.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This distinction, + however, cannot be made good. Schweizer was obliged to ascribe the + reports of a material resurrection to the Galilaean source, whereas + these, since they exclude the Galilaean appearances of Jesus, must + belong to the Jerusalem Gospel; and accordingly, the whole + distinction between a spiritual and material Gospel falls to the + ground. Thus this hypothesis at best preserves the nominal + authenticity of the Fourth Gospel, only to deprive it immediately of + all value as a historical source.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Had Strauss calmly + examined the bearing of Weisse's hypothesis, he would have seen that + it fully confirmed the line he had taken in leaving the Fourth Gospel + out of account, and he might have been less unjust towards the + hypothesis of the priority of Mark, for which he cherished a blind + hatred, because, in its fully developed form, it first met him in + conjunction with seemingly reactionary tendencies towards the + rehabilitation of John. He never in the whole course of his life got + rid of the prejudice that the recognition of the priority of Mark was + identical with a retrograde movement towards an uncritical + orthodoxy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is certainly + not true as regards Weisse. He is far from having used Mark + unreservedly as a historical source. On the contrary, he says + expressly that the picture which this Gospel gives of Jesus is drawn + by an imaginative disciple of the faith, filled with the glory of his + subject, whose enthusiasm is consequently sometimes stronger than his + judgment. Even in Mark the mythopoeic tendency is already actively at + work, so that often the task of historical criticism is to explain + how such myths could have been accepted by a reporter who stands as + near the facts as Mark does.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">miracula</span></span><a id="noteref_85" name= + "noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a>—so + Weisse denominates the <span class="tei tei-q">“non-genuine”</span> + miracles, in contradistinction to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“genuine”</span>—the feeding of <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the multitude is that which, above all others, + cries aloud for an explanation. Its historical strength lies in its + being firmly interwoven with the preceding and following context; and + this applies to both the Marcan narratives. It is therefore + impossible to regard the story, as Strauss proposes to do, as pure + myth; it is necessary to show how, growing out of some incident + belonging to that context, it assumed its present literary form. The + authentic saying about the leaven of the Pharisees, which, in Mark + viii. 14 and 15, is connected with the two miracles of feeding the + multitude, gives ground for supposing that they rest upon a parabolic + discourse repeated on two occasions, in which Jesus spoke, perhaps + with allusion to the manna, of a miraculous food given through Him. + These discourses were later transformed by tradition into an actual + miraculous giving of food. Here, therefore, Weisse endeavours to + substitute for Strauss's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“unhistorical”</span> conception of myth a different + conception, which in each case seeks to discover a sufficient + historical cause.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The miracles at + the baptism of Jesus are based upon His account of a vision which He + experienced in that moment. The present form of the story of the + transfiguration has a twofold origin. In the first place, it is + partly based on a real experience shared by the three disciples. That + there is an historical fact here is evident from the way in which it + is connected with the context by a definite indication of time. The + six days of Mark ix. 2 cannot really be connected, as Strauss would + have us suppose, with Ex. xxiv. 16;<a id="noteref_86" name= + "noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> the + meaning is simply that between the previously reported discourse of + Jesus and the event described there was an interval of six days. The + three disciples had a waking, spiritual vision, not a dream-vision, + and what was revealed in this vision was the Messiahship of Jesus. + But at this point comes in the second, the mythico-symbolical + element. The disciples see Jesus accompanied, according to the Jewish + Messianic expectations, by those whom the people thought of as His + forerunners. He, however, turns away from them, and Moses and Elias, + for whom the disciples were about to build tabernacles, for them to + abide in, disappear. The mythical element is a reflection of the + teaching which Jesus imparted to them on that occasion, in + consequence of which there dawned on them the spiritual <span class= + "tei tei-q">“significance of those expectations and predictions, + which they were to recognise as no longer pointing forward to a + future fulfilment, but as already fulfilled.”</span> The high + mountain upon which, according to Mark, the event took place is not + to be understood in a literal sense, but as symbolical of the + sublimity of the revelation; it is to be sought not on the map of + Palestine, but in the recesses of the spirit.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most striking + case of the formation of myth is the story of the resurrection. Here, + too, myth must have attached itself to an historical fact. The fact + in question is not, however, the empty grave. This only came into the + story later, when the Jews, in order to counteract the Christian + belief in the resurrection, had spread abroad the report that the + body had been stolen from the grave. In consequence of this report + the empty grave had necessarily to be taken up into the story, the + Christian account now making use of the fact that the body of Jesus + was not found as a proof of His bodily resurrection. The emphasis + laid on the identity of the body which was buried with that which + rose again, of which the Fourth Evangelist makes so much, belongs to + a time when the Church had to oppose the Gnostic conception of a + spiritual, incorporeal immortality. The reaction against Gnosticism + is, as Weisse rightly remarks, one of the most potent factors in the + development of myth in the Gospel history. As an additional instance + of this he might have cited the anti-gnostic form of the Johannine + account of the baptism of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What, then, is the + historical fact in the resurrection? <span class="tei tei-q">“The + historical fact,”</span> replies Weisse, <span class="tei tei-q">“is + only the existence of a belief—not the belief of the later Christian + Church in the myth of the bodily resurrection of the Lord—but the + personal belief of the Apostles and their companions in the + miraculous presence of the risen Christ in the visions and + appearances which they experienced.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The question whether those extraordinary phenomena + which, soon after the death of the Lord, actually and undeniably took + place within the community of His disciples, rest upon fact or + illusion—that is, whether in them the departed spirit of the Lord, of + whose presence the disciples supposed themselves to be conscious, was + really present, or whether the phenomena were produced by natural + causes of a different kind, spiritual and psychical, is a question + which cannot be answered without going beyond the confines of purely + historical criticism.”</span> The only thing which is certain is + <span class="tei tei-q">“that the resurrection of Jesus is a fact + which belongs to the domain of the spiritual and psychic life, and + which is not related to outward corporeal existence in such a way + that the body which was laid in the grave could have shared + therein.”</span> When the disciples of Jesus had their first vision + of the glorified body of their Lord, they were far from Jerusalem, + far from the grave, and had no thought of bringing that spiritual + corporeity into any kind of relation with the dead body of the + Crucified. That the earliest appearances took place in Galilee is + indicated by the genuine conclusion of Mark, according to which the + angel charges the women with the message that the disciples were to + await Jesus in Galilee.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss's + conception of myth, which failed to give it any point <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of vital connexion with the history, had + not provided any escape from the dilemma offered by the rationalistic + and supernaturalistic views of the resurrection. Weisse prepared a + new historical basis for a solution. He was the first to handle the + problem from a point of view which combined historical with + psychological considerations, and he is fully conscious of the + novelty and the far-reaching consequences of his attempt. Theological + science did not overtake him for sixty years; and though it did not + for the most part share his one-sidedness in recognising only the + Galilaean appearances, that does not count for much, since it was + unable to solve the problem of the double tradition regarding the + appearances. His discussion of the question is, both from the + religious and from the historical point of view, the most satisfying + treatment of it with which we are acquainted; the pompous and + circumspect utterances of the very latest theology in regard to the + <span class="tei tei-q">“empty grave”</span> look very poor in + comparison. Weisse's psychology requires only one correction—the + insertion into it of the eschatological premise.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not only the + admixture of myth, but the whole character of the Marcan + representation, which forbids us to use it without reserve as a + source for the life of Jesus. The inventor of the Marcan hypothesis + never wearies of repeating that even in the Second Gospel it is only + the main outline of the Life of Jesus, not the way in which the + various sections are joined together, which is historical. He does + not, therefore, venture to write a Life of Jesus, but begins with a + <span class="tei tei-q">“General Sketch of the Gospel History”</span> + in which he gives the main outlines of the Life of Jesus according to + Mark, and then proceeds to explain the incidents and discourses in + each several Gospel in the order in which they occur.<a id= + "noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He avoids the + professedly historical forced interpretation of detail, which later + representatives of the Marcan hypothesis, Schenkel in particular, + employ in such distressing fashion that Wrede's book, by making an + end of this inquisitorial method of extracting the Evangelist's + testimony, may be said to have released the Marcan hypothesis from + the torture-chamber. Weisse is free from these over-refinements. He + refuses to divide the Galilaean ministry of Jesus into a period of + success and a period of failure and gradual falling off of adherents, + divided by the controversy <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg + 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + about legal purity in Mark vii.; he does not allow this episode to + counterbalance the general evidence that Jesus' public work was + accompanied by a constantly growing success. Nor does it occur to him + to conceive the sojourn of the Lord in Phoenician territory, and His + journey to the neighbourhood of Caesarea Philippi, as a compulsory + withdrawal from Galilee, an abandonment of His cause in that + district, and to head the chapter, as was usual in the second period + of the exegesis of Mark, <span class="tei tei-q">“Flights and + Retirements.”</span> He is content simply to state that Jesus once + visited those regions, and explicitly remarks that while the + Synoptists speak of the Pharisees and Scribes as working actively + against Him, there is nowhere any hint of a hostile movement on the + part of the people, but that, on the contrary, in spite of the + Scribes and Pharisees the people are always ready to approve Him and + take His part; so much so that His enemies can only hope to get Him + into their power by a secret betrayal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weisse does not + admit any failure in Jesus' work, nor that death came upon Him from + without as an inevitable necessity. He cannot, therefore, regard the + thought of suffering as forced upon Jesus by outward events. Later + interpreters of Mark have often held that the essential thing in the + Lord's resolve to die was that by His voluntary acceptance of a fate + which was more and more clearly revealing itself as inevitable, He + raised it into the sphere of ethico-religious freedom: this was not + Weisse's view. Jesus, according to him, was not moved by any outward + circumstances when He set out for Jerusalem in order to die there. He + did it in obedience to a supra-rational higher necessity. We can at + most venture to conjecture that a cessation of His miracle-working + power, of which He had become aware, revealed to Him that the hour + appointed by God had come. He did, in fact, no further miracle in + Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How far Isaiah + liii. may have contributed to suggest the conception of such a death + being a necessary part of Messiah's work, it is impossible to + discover. In the popular expectation there was no thought of the + Messiah as suffering. The thought was conceived by Jesus + independently, through His deep and penetrating spiritual insight. + Without any external suggestion whatever He announces to His + disciples that He is to die at Jerusalem, and that He is going + thither with that end in view. He journeyed, not to the Passover, but + to His death. The fact that it took place at the time of the Feast + was, so far as Jesus was concerned, accidental. The circumstances of + His entry were such as to suggest anything rather than the fulfilment + of His predictions; but though the jubilant multitude surrounded Him + day by day, as with a wall of defence, He did not let that make Him + falter in His purpose; rather He forced the authorities to arrest + Him; He preserved silence <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg + 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + before Pilate with the deliberate purpose of rendering His death + inevitable. The theory of later defenders of the Marcan hypothesis + that Jesus, giving up His cause in Galilee for lost, went up to + Jerusalem to conquer or die, is foreign to Weisse's conception. In + his view, Jesus, breaking off His Galilaean work while the tide of + success was still flowing strongly, journeyed to Jerusalem, in the + scorn of consequence, with the sole purpose of dying there.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true there + are some premonitions of the later course of Marcan exegesis. The + Second Gospel mentions no Passover journeys as falling in the course + of the public ministry of Jesus; consequently the most natural + conclusion would be that no Passover journeys fall within that + period; that is, that Jesus' ministry began after one Passover and + closed with the next, thus lasting less than a full year. Weisse + thinks, however, that it is impossible to understand the success of + His teaching unless we assume a ministry of several years, of more + than three years, indeed. Mark does not mention the Feasts simply + because Jesus did not go up to Jerusalem. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Intrinsic probability is, in our opinion, so strongly in + favour of a duration of a considerable number of years, that we are + at a loss to explain how it is that at least a few unprejudiced + investigators have not found in this a sufficient reason for + departing from the traditional opinion.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The account of the + mission of the Twelve is also, on the ground of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“intrinsic probability,”</span> explained in a way which + is not in accordance with the plain sense of the words. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We do not think,”</span> says Weisse, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that it is necessary to understand this in the sense + that He sent all the twelve out at one time, two and two, remaining + alone in the meantime; it is much more natural to suppose that He + only sent them out two at a time, keeping the others about Him. The + object of this mission was less the immediate spreading abroad of His + teaching than the preparation of the disciples themselves for the + independent activity which they would have to exercise after His + death.”</span> These are, however, the only serious liberties which + he takes with the statements of Mark.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When did Jesus + begin to think of Himself as the Messiah? The baptism seems to have + marked an epoch in regard to His Messianic consciousness, but that + does not mean that He had not previously begun to have such thoughts + about Himself. In any case He did not on that occasion arrive all at + once at that point of His inward journey which He had reached at the + time of His first public appearance. We must assume a period of some + duration between the baptism and the beginning of His ministry—a + longer period than we should suppose from the Synoptists—during which + Jesus cast off the Messianic ideas of Judaism and attained to a + spiritual conception of the Messiahship. When He began to + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" + id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> teach, His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“development”</span> was already closed. Later + interpreters of Mark have generally differed from Weisse in assuming + a development in the thought of Jesus during His public ministry.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His conception of + the Messiahship was therefore fully formed when He began to teach in + Capernaum; but He did not allow the people to see that He held + Himself to be the Messiah until His triumphal entry. It was in order + to avoid declaring His Messiahship that He kept away from Jerusalem. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It was only in Galilee and not in the Jewish + capital that an extended period of teaching and work was possible for + Him without being obliged to make an explicit declaration whether He + were the Messiah or no. In Jerusalem itself the High Priests and + Scribes would soon have put this question to Him in such a way that + He could not have avoided answering it, whereas in Galilee He + doubtless on more than one occasion cut short such attempts to + question Him too closely by the incisiveness of His replies.”</span> + Like Strauss, Weisse recognises that the key to the explanation of + the Messianic consciousness of Jesus lies in the self-designation + <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of Man.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We are most certainly justified,”</span> he says, with + almost prophetic insight, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Problem of + the Gospels,”</span> published in 1856, <span class="tei tei-q">“in + regarding the question, what sense the Divine Saviour desired to + attach to this predicate?—what, in fact, He intended to make known + about Himself by using the title Son of Man—as an essential question + for the right understanding of His teaching, and not of His teaching + only, but also of the very heart and inmost essence of His + personality.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But at this point + Weisse lets in the cloven hoof of that fatal method of + interpretation, by the aid of which the defenders of the Marcan + hypothesis who succeeded him were to wage war, with a kind of dull + and dogged determination, against eschatology, in the interests of an + original and <span class="tei tei-q">“spiritual”</span> conception of + the Messiahship supposed to be held by Jesus. Under the obsession of + the fixed idea that it was their mission to defend the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“originality”</span> of Jesus by ascribing to Him a + modernising transformation and spiritualisation of the eschatological + system of ideas, the defenders of the Marcan hypothesis have impeded + the historical study of the Life of Jesus to an almost unbelievable + extent.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The explanation of + the name Son of Man had, Weisse explains, hitherto oscillated between + two extremes. Some had held the expression to be, even in the mouth + of Jesus, equivalent to <span class="tei tei-q">“man”</span> in + general, an interpretation which cannot be carried through; others + had connected it with the Son of Man in Daniel, and supposed that in + using the term Jesus was employing a Messianic title understood by + and current among the Jews. But how came He to employ only this + unusual periphrastic name for the Messiah? Further, if this name were + really a Messianic title, how could He <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> repeatedly have refused Messianic salutations, + and not until the triumphal entry suffered the people to hail Him as + Messiah?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The questions are + rightly asked; it is therefore the more pity that they are wrongly + answered. It follows, Weisse says, from the above considerations that + Jesus did not assume an acquaintance on the part of His hearers with + the Old Testament Messianic significance of the expression. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It was therefore incontestably the intention + of Jesus—and any one who considers it unworthy betrays thereby his + own want of insight—that the designation should have something + mysterious about it, something which would compel His hearers to + reflect upon His meaning.”</span> The expression Son of Man was + calculated to lead them on to higher conceptions of His nature and + origin, and therefore sums up in itself the whole spiritualisation of + the Messiahship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weisse, therefore, + passionately rejects any suggestion, however modest, that Jesus' + self-designation, Son of Man, implies any measure of acceptance of + the Jewish apocalyptic system of ideas. Ewald had furnished forth his + Life of Jesus<a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href= + "#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> with a + wealth of Old Testament learning, and had made some half-hearted + attempts to show the connexion of Jesus' system of thought with that + of post-canonical Judaism, but without taking the matter seriously + and without having any suspicion of the real character of the + eschatology of Jesus. But even these parade-ground tactics excite + Weisse's indignation; in his book, published in 1856, he reproaches + Ewald with failing to understand his task.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The real duty of + criticism is, according to Weisse, to show that Jesus had no part in + those fantastic errors which are falsely attributed to Him when a + literal Jewish interpretation is given to His great sayings about the + future of the Son of Man, and to remove all the obstacles which seem + to have prevented hitherto the recognition of the novel character and + special significance of the expression, Son of Man, in the mouth of + Him who, of His own free choice, applied this name to Himself. + <span class="tei tei-q">“How long will it be,”</span> he cries, + <span class="tei tei-q">“before theology at last becomes aware of the + deep importance of its task? Historical criticism, exercised with all + the thoroughness and impartiality which alone can produce a genuine + conviction, must free the Master's own teaching from the imputation + that lies upon it—the imputation of sharing the errors and false + expectations in which, as we cannot deny, owing to imperfect or + mistaken understanding of the suggestions of the Master, the + Apostles, and with them the whole early Christian Church, became + involved.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This fundamental + position determines the remainder of Weisse's views. Jesus cannot + have shared the Jewish particularism. He <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> did not hold the Law to be binding. It was for + this reason that He did not go up to the Feasts. He distinctly and + repeatedly expressed the conviction that His doctrine was destined + for the whole world. In speaking of the parousia of the Son of Man He + was using a figure—a figure which includes in a mysterious fashion + all His predictions of the future. He did not speak to His disciples + of His resurrection, His ascension, and His parousia as three + distinct acts, since the event to which He looked forward is not + identical with any of the three, but is composed of them all. The + resurrection is, at the same time, the ascension and parousia, and in + the parousia the resurrection and the ascension are also included. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The one conclusion to which we believe we + can point with certainty is that Jesus spoke of the future of His + work and His teaching in a way that implied the consciousness of an + influence to be continued after His death, whether unbrokenly or + intermittently, and the consciousness that by this influence His work + and teaching would be preserved from destruction and the final + victory assured to it.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The personal + presence of Jesus which the disciples experienced after His death was + in their view only a partial fulfilment of that general promise. The + parousia appeared to them as still awaiting fulfilment. Thought of + thus, as an isolated event, they could only conceive it from the + Jewish apocalyptic standpoint, and they finally came to suppose that + they had derived these fantastic ideas from the Master Himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his determined + opposition to the recognition of eschatology in Strauss's first Life + of Jesus, Weisse here lays down the lines which were to be followed + by the <span class="tei tei-q">“liberal”</span> Lives of Jesus of the + 'sixties and following years, which only differ from him, not always + to their advantage, in their more elaborate interpretation of the + detail of Mark. The only work, therefore, which was a conscious + continuation of Strauss's, takes, in spite of its just appreciation + of the character of the sources, a wrong path, led astray by the + mistaken idea of the <span class="tei tei-q">“originality”</span> of + Jesus, which it exalts into a canon of historical criticism. Only + after long and devious wanderings did the study of the subject find + the right road again. The whole struggle over eschatology is nothing + else than a gradual elimination of Weisse's ideas. It was only with + Johannes Weiss that theology escaped from the influence of Christian + Hermann Weisse.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name= + "Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XI. Bruno Bauer. The First Sceptical + Life Of Jesus</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes. + (Criticism of the Gospel History of John.) Bremen, 1840. 435 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte der + Synoptiker. (Criticism of the Gospel History of the Synoptics.) 3 + vols., Leipzig, 1841-1842; vol. i. 416 pp.; vol. ii. 392 pp.; vol. + iii. 341 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Kritik der Evangelien. (Criticism of the Gospels.) + 2 vols., 1850-1851, Berlin.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Kritik der Apostelgeschichte. (Criticism of Acts.) + 1850.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Kritik der Paulinischen Briefe. Berlin, 1850-1852. + In three parts.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Philo, Strauss, Renan und das Urchristentum. (P., + S., R., and Primitive Christianity.) Berlin, 1874. 155 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Christus und die Cäsaren. Der Ursprung des + Christentums aus dem römischen Griechentum. (The Origin of + Christianity from Graeco-Roman Civilisation.) Berlin, 1877. 387 + pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bruno Bauer was + born in 1809 at Eisenberg, in the duchy of Sachsen-Altenburg. In + philosophy, he was at first associated entirely with the Hegelian + <span class="tei tei-q">“right.”</span> Like Strauss, he received a + strong impulse from Vatke. At this stage of his development he + reviewed, in 1835 and 1836, Strauss's Life of Jesus in the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jahrbücher + für wissenschaftliche Kritik</span></span>, and wrote in 1838 a + <span class="tei tei-q">“Criticism of the History of + Revelation.”</span><a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href= + "#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In 1834 he had + become Privat-Docent in Berlin, but in 1839 he removed to Bonn. He + was then in the midst of that intellectual crisis of which the + evidence appeared in his critical works on John and the Synoptics. In + August 1841 the Minister, Eichhorn, requested the Faculties of the + Prussian Universities to report on the question whether Bauer should + be allowed to retain the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">venia docendi</span></span>. Most of them + returned an evasive answer, Königsberg replied in the affirmative, + and Bonn in the negative. In March 1842 Bauer was obliged to cease + lecturing, and retired to Rixdorf near Berlin. In the first heat of + his furious indignation over this treatment he wrote a work with the + title <span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Exposed,”</span><a id="noteref_90" name= + "noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> which, + however, was cancelled before publication at Zurich in 1843.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He then turned his + attention to secular history and wrote on the French Revolution, on + Napoleon, on the Illuminism of the Eighteenth Century, and on the + party struggles in Germany during the years 1842-1846. At the + beginning of the 'fifties he returned to theological subjects, but + failed to exercise any influence. His work was simply ignored.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Radical though he + was in spirit, Bauer found himself fighting, at the end of the + 'fifties and beginning of the 'sixties, in the ranks of the Prussian + Conservatives—we are reminded how Strauss in the Würtemberg Chamber + was similarly forced to side with the reactionaries. He died in 1882. + His was a pure, modest, and lofty character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the time of his + removal from Berlin to Bonn he was just at the end of the twenties, + that critical age when pupils often surprise their teachers, when men + begin to find themselves and show what they are, not merely what they + have been taught.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In approaching the + investigation of the Gospel history, Bauer saw, as he himself tells + us, two ways open to him. He might take as his starting-point the + Jewish Messianic conception, and endeavour to answer the question how + the intuitive prophetic idea of the Messiah became a fixed reflective + conception. That was the historical method; he chose, however, the + other, the literary method. This starts from the opposite side of the + question, from the end instead of the beginning of the Gospel + history. Taking first the Gospel of John, in which it is obvious that + reflective thought has fitted the life of the Jewish Messiah into the + frame of the Logos conception, he then, starting as it were from the + embouchure of the stream, works his way upwards to the high ground in + which the Gospel tradition takes its rise. The decision in favour of + the latter view determined the character of Bauer's life-work; it was + his task to follow out, to its ultimate consequences, the literary + solution of the problem of the life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How far this path + would lead him he did not at first suspect. But he did suspect how + strong was the influence upon the formation of history of a dominant + idea which moulds and shapes it with a definite artistic purpose. His + interest was especially arrested by Philo, who, without knowing or + intending it, contributed to the fulfilment of a higher task than + that with which he was immediately engaged. Bauer's view is that a + speculative principle such as Philo's, when it begins to take + possession of men's minds, influences them in the first glow of + enthusiasm which it evokes <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg + 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + with such overmastering power that the just claims of that which is + actual and historical cannot always secure the attention which is + their due. In Philo's pupil, John, we must look, not for history, but + for art.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Fourth Gospel + is in fact a work of art. This was now for the first time appreciated + by one who was himself an artist. Schleiermacher, indeed, had at an + earlier period taken up the aesthetic standpoint in considering this + Gospel. But he had used it as an apologist, proceeding to exalt the + artistic truth which he rightly recognised into historic reality, and + his critical sense failed him, precisely because he was an aesthete + and an apologist, when he came to deal with the Fourth Gospel. Now, + however, there comes forward a true artist, who shows that the depth + of religious and intellectual insight which Tholuck and Neander, in + opposing Strauss, had urged on behalf of the Fourth Gospel, + is—Christian art.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Bauer, however, + the aesthete is at the same time a critic. Although much in the + Fourth Gospel is finely <span class="tei tei-q">“felt,”</span> like + the opening scenes referring to the Baptist and to Jesus, which Bauer + groups together under the heading <span class="tei tei-q">“The Circle + of the Expectant,”</span> yet his art is by no means always perfect. + The author who conceived those discourses, of which the movement + consists in a kind of tautological return upon itself, and who makes + the parables trail out into dragging allegories, is no perfect + artist. <span class="tei tei-q">“The parable of the Good + Shepherd,”</span> says Bauer, <span class="tei tei-q">“is neither + simple, nor natural, nor a true parable, but a metaphor, which is, + nevertheless, much too elaborate for a metaphor, is not clearly + conceived, and, finally, in places shows much too clearly the + skeleton of reflection over which it is stretched.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bauer treats, in + his work of 1840,<a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href= + "#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> the + Fourth Gospel only. The Synoptics he deals with only in a quite + incidental fashion, <span class="tei tei-q">“as opposing armies make + demonstrations in order to provoke the enemy to a decisive + conflict.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He breaks off at + the beginning of the story of the passion, because here it would be + necessary to bring in the Synoptic parallels. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“From the distant heights on which the Synoptic forces + have taken up a menacing position, we must now draw them down into + the plain; now comes the pitched battle between them and the Fourth + Gospel, and the question regarding the historical character of that + which we have found to be the ultimate basis of the last Gospel, can + now at length be decided.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, in the Gospel + of John, no smallest particle could be found which was unaffected by + the creative reflection of the author, how will it stand with the + Synoptists?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Bauer broke + off his work upon John in this abrupt way—for <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> he had not originally intended to + conclude it at this point—how far did he still retain a belief in the + historical character of the Synoptics? It looks as if he had intended + to treat then as the solid foundation, in contrast with the fantastic + structure raised upon it by the Fourth Gospel. But when he began to + use his pick upon the rock, it crumbled away. Instead of a difference + of kind he found only a difference of degree. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Criticism of the Gospel History of the + Synoptists”</span> of 1841 is built on the site which Strauss had + levelled. <span class="tei tei-q">“The abiding influence of + Strauss,”</span> says Bauer, <span class="tei tei-q">“consists in the + fact that he has removed from the path of subsequent criticism the + danger and trouble of a collision with the earlier orthodox + system.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bauer finds his + material laid ready to his hand by Weisse and Wilke. Weisse had + divined in Mark the source from which criticism—becoming barren in + the work of Strauss—might draw a new spring of vigorous life; and + Wilke, whom Bauer places above Weisse, had raised this happy + conjecture to the level of a scientifically assured result. The + Marcan hypothesis was no longer on its trial.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But its bearing + upon the history of Jesus had still to be determined. What position + do Weisse and Wilke take up towards the hypothesis of a tradition + lying behind the Gospel of Mark? If it be once admitted that the + whole Gospel tradition, so far as concerns its plan, goes back to a + single writer, who has created the connexion between the different + events—for neither Weisse nor Wilke regards the connexion of the + sections as historical—does not the possibility naturally suggest + itself that the narrative of the events themselves, not merely the + connexion in which they appear in Mark, is to be set down to the + account of the author of the Gospel? Weisse and Wilke had not + suspected how great a danger arises when, of the three witnesses who + represent the tradition, only one is allowed to stand, and the + tradition is recognised and allowed to exist in this one written form + only. The triple embankment held; will a single one bear the + strain?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following + considerations have to be taken into account. The criticism of the + Fourth Gospel compels us to recognise that a Gospel <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">may</span></em> have + a purely literary origin. This discovery dawned upon Bauer at a time + when he was still disinclined to accept Wilke's conclusions regarding + Mark. But when he had recognised the truth of the latter he felt + compelled by the combination of the two to accept the idea that Mark + also might be of purely literary origin. For Weisse and Wilke the + Marcan hypothesis had not implied this result, because they continued + to combine with it the wider hypothesis of a general tradition, + holding that Matthew and Luke used the collection of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Logia,”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg + 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + also owed part of their supplementary matter to a free use of + floating tradition, so that Mark, it might almost be said, merely + supplied them with the formative principle by means of which they + might order their material.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what if + Papias's statement about the collection of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Logia”</span> were worthless, and could be shown to be + so by the literary data? In that case Matthew and Luke would be + purely literary expansions of Mark, and like him, purely literary + inventions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this connexion + Bauer attaches decisive importance to the phenomena of the + birth-stories. If these had been derived from tradition they could + not differ from each other as they do. If it is suggested that + tradition had produced a large number of independent, though mutually + consistent, stories of the childhood, out of which the Evangelists + composed their opening narratives, this also is found to be + untenable, for these narratives are not composite structures. The + separate stories of which each of these two histories of the + childhood consists could not have been formed independently of one + another; none of them existed by itself; each points to the others + and is informed by a view which implies the whole. The histories of + the childhood are therefore not literary versions of a tradition, but + literary inventions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we go on to + examine the discourse and narrative material, additional to that of + Mark, which is found in Matthew and Luke, a similar result appears. + The same standpoint is regulative throughout, showing that the + additions do not consist of oral or written traditional material + which has been worked into the Marcan plan, but of a literary + development of certain fundamental ideas and suggestions found in the + first author. These developments, as is shown by the accounts of the + Sermon on the Mount and the charge to the Twelve, are not carried as + far in Luke as in Matthew. The additional material in the latter + seems indeed to be worked up from suggestions in the former. Luke + thus forms the transition stage between Mark and Matthew. The Marcan + hypothesis, accordingly, now takes on the following form. Our + knowledge of the Gospel history does not rest upon any basis of + tradition, but only upon three literary works. Two of these are not + independent, being merely expansions of the first, and the third, + Matthew, is also dependent upon the second. Consequently there is no + tradition of the Gospel history, but only a single <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">literary + source</span></em>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, if so, who is + to assure us that this Gospel history, with its assertion of the + Messiahship of Jesus, was already a matter of common knowledge before + it was fixed in writing, and did not first become known in a literary + form? In the latter case, one man would have created out of general + ideas the definite historical tradition in which these ideas are + embodied. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg + 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The + only thing that could be set against this literary possibility, as a + historical counter-possibility, would be a proof that at the period + when the Gospel history is supposed to take place a Messianic + expectation really existed among the Jews, so that a man who claimed + to be the Messiah and was recognised as such, as Mark represents + Jesus to have been, would be historically conceivable. This + presupposition had hitherto been unanimously accepted by all writers, + no matter how much opposed in other respects. They were all satisfied + <span class="tei tei-q">“that before the appearance of Jesus the + expectation of a Messiah prevailed among the Jews”</span>; and were + even able to explain its precise character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But where—apart + from the Gospels—did they get their information from? Where is the + documentary evidence of the Jewish Messianic doctrine on which that + of the Gospels is supposed to be based? Daniel was the last of the + prophets. Everything tends to suggest that the mysterious content of + his work remained without influence in the subsequent period. Jewish + literature ends with the Wisdom writings, in which there is no + mention of a Messiah. In the LXX there is no attempt to translate in + accordance with a preconceived picture of the Messiah. In the + Apocalypses, which are of small importance, there is reference to a + Messianic Kingdom; the Messiah Himself, however, plays a quite + subordinate part, and is, indeed, scarcely mentioned. For Philo He + has no existence; the Alexandrian does not dream of connecting Him + with his Logos speculation. There remain, therefore, as witnesses for + the Jewish Messianic expectations in the time of Tiberius, only Mark + and his imitators. This evidence, however, is of such a character + that in certain points it contradicts itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place, if at the time when the Christian community was forming its + view of history and the religious ideas which we find in the Gospels, + the Jews had already possessed a doctrine of the Messiah, there would + have been already a fixed type of interpretation of the Messianic + passages in the Old Testament, and it would have been impossible for + the same passages to be interpreted in a totally different way, as + referring to Jesus and His work, as we find them interpreted in the + New Testament. Next, consider the representation of the Baptist's + work. We should have expected him to connect his baptism with the + preaching of <span class="tei tei-q">“Him who was to come”</span>—if + this were really the Messiah—by baptizing in the name of this + <span class="tei tei-q">“Coming One.”</span> He, however, keeps them + separate, baptizing in preparation for the Kingdom, though referring + in his discourses to <span class="tei tei-q">“Him who was to + come.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The earliest + Evangelist did not venture openly to carry back into the history the + idea that Jesus had claimed to be the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Messiah, because he was aware that in the time + of Jesus no general expectation of the Messiah had prevailed among + the people. When the disciples in Mark viii. 28 report the opinions + of the people concerning Jesus they cannot mention any who hold Him + to be the Messiah. Peter is the first to attain to the recognition of + His Messiahship. But as soon as the confession is made the Evangelist + makes Jesus forbid His disciples to tell the people who He is. Why is + the attribution of the Messiahship to Jesus made in this + surreptitious and inconsistent way? It is because the writer who gave + the history its form well knew that no one had ever come forward + publicly on Palestinian soil to claim the Messiahship, or had been + recognised by the people as Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reflective conception of the Messiah”</span> was not, + therefore, taken over ready-made from Judaism; that dogma first arose + along with the Christian community, or rather the moment in which it + arose was the same in which the Christian community had its + birth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Moreover, how + unhistorical, even on a priori grounds, is the mechanical way in + which Jesus at this first appearance at once sets Himself up as the + Messiah and says, <span class="tei tei-q">“Behold I am He whom ye + have expected.”</span> In essence, Bauer thinks, there is not so much + difference between Strauss and Hengstenberg. For Hengstenberg the + whole life of Jesus is the living embodiment of the Old Testament + picture of the Messiah; Strauss, a less reverent counterpart of + Hengstenberg, made the image of the Messiah into a mask which Jesus + Himself was obliged to assume, and which legend afterwards + substituted for His real features.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“We save the honour of Jesus,”</span> says Bauer, + <span class="tei tei-q">“when we restore His Person to life from the + state of inanition to which the apologists have reduced it, and give + it once more a living relation to history, which it certainly + possessed—that can no longer be denied. If a conception was to become + dominant which should unite heaven and earth, God and man, nothing + more and nothing less was necessary as a preliminary condition, than + that a Man should appear, the very essence of whose consciousness + should be the reconciliation of these antitheses, and who should + manifest this consciousness to the world, and lead the religious mind + to the sole point from which its difficulties can be solved. Jesus + accomplished this mighty work, but not by prematurely pointing to His + own Person. Instead He gradually made known to the people the + thoughts which filled and entered into the very essence of His mind. + It was only in this indirect way that His Person—which He freely + offered up in the cause of His historical vocation and of the idea + for which He lived—continued to live on in so far as this idea was + accepted. When, in the belief of His followers, He rose again and + lived on in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg + 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Christian community, it was as the Son of God who had overcome and + reconciled the great antithesis. He was that in which alone the + religious consciousness found rest and peace, apart from which there + was nothing firm, trustworthy, and enduring.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It was only now that the vague, ill-defined, prophetic + representations were focused into a point; were not only fulfilled, + but were also united together by a common bond which strengthened and + gave greater value to each of them. With His appearance and the rise + of belief in Him, a clear conception, a definite mental picture of + the Messiah became possible; and thus it was that a Christology<a id= + "noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> first + arose.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While, therefore, + at the close of Bauer's first work it might have seemed that it was + only the Gospel of John which he held to be a literary creation, here + the same thing is said of the original Gospel. The only difference is + that we find more primitive reflection in the Synoptics, and later + work in the representation given by the Fourth Evangelist; the former + is of a more practical character, the latter more dogmatic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless it is + false to assert that according to Bauer the earliest Evangelist + invented the Gospel history and the personality of Jesus. That is to + carry back the ideas of a later period and a further stage of + development into the original form of his view. At the moment when, + having disposed of preliminaries, he enters on his investigation, he + still assumes that a great, a unique Personality, who so impressed + men by His character that it lived on among them in an ideal form, + had awakened into life the Messianic idea; and that what the original + Evangelist really did was to portray the life of this Jesus—the + Christ of the community which He founded—in accordance with the + Messianic view of Him, just as the Fourth Evangelist portrayed it in + accordance with the presupposition that Jesus was the revealer of the + Logos. It was only in the course of his investigations that Bauer's + opinion became more radical. As he goes on, his writing becomes + ill-tempered, and takes the form of controversial dialogues with + <span class="tei tei-q">“the theologians,”</span> whom he + apostrophises in a biting and injurious fashion, and whom he + continually reproaches with not daring, owing to their apologetic + prejudices, to see things as they really are, and with declining to + face the ultimate results of criticism from fear that the tradition + might suffer more loss of historic value than religion could bear. In + spite of this hatred of the theologians, which is pathological in + character, like his meaningless punctuation, his critical analyses + are always exceedingly acute. One has the impression of walking + alongside a man who is reasoning quite intelligently, but who talks + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" + id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to himself as though possessed + by a fixed idea. What if the whole thing should turn out to be + nothing but a literary invention—not only the incidents and + discourses, but even the Personality which is assumed as the + starting-point of the whole movement? What if the Gospel history were + only a late imaginary embodiment of a set of exalted ideas, and these + were the only historical reality from first to last? This is the idea + which obsesses his mind more and more completely, and moves him to + contemptuous laughter. What, he mocks, will these apologists, who are + so sure of everything, do then with the shreds and tatters which will + be all that is left to them?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But at the outset + of his investigations Bauer was far from holding such views. His + purpose was really only to continue the work of Strauss. The + conception of myth and legend of which the latter made use is, Bauer + thinks, much too vague to explain this deliberate <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transformation”</span> of a personality. In the place of + myth Bauer therefore sets <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reflection.”</span> The life which pulses in the Gospel + history is too vigorous to be explained as created by legend; it is + real <span class="tei tei-q">“experience,”</span> only not the + experience of Jesus, but of the Church. The representation of this + experience of the Church in the Life of a Person is not the work of a + number of persons, but of a single author. It is in this twofold + aspect—as the composition of one man, embodying the experience of + many—that the Gospel history is to be regarded. As religious art it + has a profound truth. When it is regarded from this point of view the + difficulties which are encountered in the endeavour to conceive it as + real immediately disappear.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must take as + our point of departure the belief in the sacrificial death and the + resurrection of Jesus. Everything else attaches itself to this as to + its centre. When the need arose to fix definitely the beginning of + the manifestation of Jesus as the Saviour—to determine the point of + time at which the Lord issued forth from obscurity—it was natural to + connect this with the work of the Baptist; and Jesus comes to his + baptism. While this is sufficient for the earliest Evangelist, + Matthew and Luke feel it to be necessary, in view of the important + consequences involved in the connexion of Jesus with the Baptist, to + bring them into relation once more by means of the question addressed + by the Baptist to Jesus, although this addition is quite inconsistent + with the assumptions of the earliest Evangelist. If he had conceived + the story of the baptism with the idea of introducing the Baptist + again on a later occasion, and this time, moreover, as a doubter, he + would have given it a different form. This is a just observation of + Bauer's; the story of the baptism with the miracle which took place + at it, and the Baptist's question, understood as implying a doubt of + the Messiahship of Jesus, mutually exclude one + another.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg + 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of the + temptation embodies an experience of the early Church. This narrative + represents her inner conflicts under the form of a conflict of the + Redeemer. On her march through the wilderness of this world she has + to fight with temptations of the devil, and in the story composed by + Mark and Luke, and artistically finished by Matthew, she records a + vow to build only on the inner strength of her constitutive + principle. In the sermon on the mount also, Matthew has carried out + with greater completeness that which was more vaguely conceived by + Luke. It is only when we understand the words of Jesus as embodying + experiences of the early Church that their deeper sense becomes clear + and what would otherwise seem offensive disappears. The saying, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Let the dead bury their dead,”</span> would + not have been fitting for Jesus to speak, and had He been a real man, + it could never have entered into His mind to create so unreal and + cruel a collision of duties; for no command, Divine or human, could + have sufficed to make it right for a man to contravene the ethical + obligations of family life. So here again, the obvious conclusion is + that the saying originated in the early Church, and was intended to + inculcate renunciation of a world which was felt to belong to the + kingdom of the dead, and to illustrate this by an extreme + example.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The mission of the + Twelve, too, is, as an historical occurrence, simply inconceivable. + It would have been different if Jesus had given them a definite + teaching, or form of belief, or positive conception of any kind, to + take with them as their message. But how ill the charge to the Twelve + fulfils its purpose as a discourse of instruction! What the disciples + needed to learn, namely, what and how they were to teach, they are + not told; and the discourse which Matthew has composed, working on + the basis of Luke, implies quite a different set of circumstances. It + is concerned with the struggles of the Church with the world and the + sufferings which it must endure. This is the explanation of the + references to suffering which constantly recur in the discourses of + Jesus, in spite of the fact that His disciples were not enduring any + sufferings, and that the Evangelist cannot even make it conceivable + as a possibility that those before whose eyes Jesus holds up the way + of the Cross could ever come into such a position. The Twelve, at any + rate, had no sufferings to encounter during their mission, and if + they were merely being sent by Jesus into the surrounding districts + they were not very likely to meet with kings and rulers there.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That it is a case + of invented history is also shown by the fact that nothing is said + about the doings of the disciples, and they seem to come back again + immediately, though the earliest Evangelist, it is true, to prevent + this from being too apparent, inserts at this point the story of the + execution of the Baptist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this is just + and acute criticism. The charge to the Twelve <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is not a discourse of instruction. What + Jesus there sets before the disciples they could not at that time + have understood, and the promises which He makes to them are not + appropriate to their circumstances.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many of the + discourses are mere bundles of heterogeneous sayings, though this is + not so much the case in Mark as in the others. He has not forgotten + that effective polemic consists of short, pointed, incisive + arguments. The others, as advanced theologians, are of opinion that + it is fitting to indulge in arguments which have nothing to do with + the matter in hand, or only the most distant connexion with it. They + form the transition to the discourses of the Fourth Gospel, which + usually degenerate into an aimless wrangle. In the same connexion it + is rightly observed that the discourses of Jesus do not advance from + point to point by the logical development of an idea, the thoughts + are merely strung together one after another, the only connexion, if + connexion there is, being due to a kind of conventional mould in + which the discourse is cast.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The parables, + Bauer continues, present difficulties no less great. It is an + ineptitude on the part of the apologists to suggest that the parables + are intended to make things clear. Jesus Himself contradicts this + view by saying bluntly and unambiguously to His disciples that to + them it was given to know the mysteries of the Kingdom of God, but to + the people all His teaching must be spoken as parables, that + <span class="tei tei-q">“seeing they might see and not perceive, and + hearing they might hear and not understand.”</span> The parables were + therefore intended only to exercise the intelligence of the + disciples; and so far from being understood by the people, mystified + and repelled them; as if it would not have been much better to + exercise the minds of the disciples in this way when He was alone + with them. The disciples, however, do not even understand the simple + parable of the Sower, but need to have it interpreted to them, so + that the Evangelist once more stultifies his own theory.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bruno Bauer is + right in his observation that the parables offer a serious problem, + seeing that they were intended to conceal and not to make plain, and + that Jesus nevertheless taught only in parables. The character of the + difficulty, however, is such that even literary criticism has no + explanation ready. Bruno Bauer admits that he does not know what was + in the mind of the Evangelist when he composed these parables, and + thinks that he had no very definite purpose, or at least that the + suggestions which were floating in his mind were not worked up into a + clearly ordered whole.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, therefore, + Bauer's method broke down. He did not, however, allow this to shake + his confidence in his reading of the facts, and he continued to + maintain it in the face of a new difficulty <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which he himself brought clearly to light. + Mark, according to him, is an artistic unity, the offspring of a + single mind. How then is it to be explained that in addition to other + less important doublets it contains two accounts of the feeding of + the multitude? Here Bauer has recourse to the aid of Wilke, who + distinguishes our Mark from an Ur-Markus,<a id="noteref_93" name= + "noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> and + ascribes these doublets to later interpolation. Later on he became + more and more doubtful about the artistic unity of Mark, despite the + fact that this was the fundamental assumption of his theory, and in + the second edition of his <span class="tei tei-q">“Criticism of the + Gospels,”</span> of 1851, he carried through the distinction between + the canonical Mark and the Ur-Markus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even supposing + the assumption of a redaction were justified, how could the redactor + have conceived the idea of adding to the first account of the feeding + of the multitude a second which is identical with it almost to the + very wording? In any case, on what principle can Mark be + distinguished from Ur-Markus? There are no fundamental differences to + afford a ready criterion. The distinction is purely one of subjective + feeling, that is to say, it is arbitrary. As soon as Bauer admits + that the artistic unity of Mark, on which he lays so much stress, has + been tampered with, he cannot maintain his position except by + shutting his eyes to the fact that it can only be a question of the + weaving in of fragments of tradition, not of the inventions of an + imitator. But if he once admits the presence of traditional + materials, his whole theory of the earliest Evangelist's having + created the Gospel falls to the ground.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the moment he + succeeds in laying the spectre again, and continues to think of Mark + as a work of art, in which the interpolation alters nothing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bauer discusses + with great thoroughness those sayings of Jesus in which He forbids + those whom He had healed to noise abroad their cure. In the form in + which they appear these cannot, he argues, be historical, for Jesus + imposes this prohibition in some cases where it is quite meaningless, + since the healing had taken place in the presence of a multitude. It + must therefore be derived from the Evangelist. Only when it is + recognised as a free creation can its meaning be discerned. It finds + its explanation in the inconsistent views regarding miracle which + were held side by side in the early Church. No doubt was felt that + Jesus had performed miracles, and by these miracles had given + evidence of His Divine mission. On the other hand, by the + introduction of the Christian principle, the Jewish demand for a sign + had been so far limited, and the other, the spiritual line of + evidence, had become so important, or at least so indispensable, that + it was no longer possible to build on the miracles only, or to regard + Jesus merely as a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg + 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + wonder-worker; so in some way or other the importance ascribed to + miracle must be reduced. In the graphic symbolism of the Gospel + history this antithesis takes the form that Jesus did miracles—there + was no getting away from that—but on the other hand Himself declared + that He did not wish to lay any stress upon such acts. As there are + times when miracles must hide their light under a bushel, Jesus, on + occasion, forbids that they should be made known. The other + Synoptists no longer understood this theory of the first Evangelist, + and introduced the prohibition in passages where it was absurd.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The way in which + Jesus makes known His Messiahship is based on another theory of the + original Evangelist. The order of Mark can give us no information + regarding the chronology of the life of Jesus, since this Gospel is + anything rather than a chronicle. We cannot even assert that there is + a deliberate logic in the way in which the sections are connected. + But there is one fundamental principle of arrangement which comes + quite clearly to light, viz. that it was only at Caesarea Philippi, + in the closing period of His life, that Jesus made Himself known as + the Messiah, and that, therefore, He was not previously held to be so + either by His disciples or by the people. This is clearly shown in + the answers of the disciples when Jesus asked them whom men took Him + to be. The implied course of events, however, is determined by art, + not history—as history it would be inconceivable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Could there indeed + be a more absurd impossibility? <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jesus,”</span> says Bauer, <span class="tei tei-q">“must + perform these innumerable, these astounding miracles because, + according to the view which the Gospels represent, He is the Messiah; + He must perform them in order to prove Himself to be the Messiah—and + yet no one recognises Him as the Messiah! That is the greatest + miracle of all, that the people had not long ago recognised the + Messiah in this wonder-worker. Jesus could only be held to be the + Messiah in consequence of doing miracles; but He only began to do + miracles when, in the faith of the early Church, He rose from the + dead as Messiah, and the facts that He rose as Messiah and that He + did miracles, are one and the same fact.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mark, however, + represents a Jesus who does miracles and who nevertheless does not + thereby reveal Himself to be the Messiah. He was obliged so to + represent Him, because he was conscious that Jesus was not recognised + and acknowledged as Messiah by the people, nor even by His immediate + followers, in the unhesitating fashion in which those of later times + imagined Him to have been recognised. Mark's conception and + representation of the matter carried back into the past the later + developments by which there finally arose a Christian community for + which Jesus had become the Messiah. <span class="tei tei-q">“Mark is + also influenced by an artistic instinct which <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> leads him to develop the main interest, + the origin of the faith, gradually. It is only after the ministry of + Jesus has extended over a considerable period, and is, indeed, + drawing towards its close, that faith arises in the circle of the + disciples; and it is only later still, when, in the person of the + blind man at Jericho, a prototype of the great company of believers + that was to be has hailed the Lord with a Messianic salutation, that, + at the triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the faith of the people + suddenly ripens and finds expression.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true, this + artistic design is completely marred when Jesus does miracles which + must have made Him known to every child as the Messiah. We cannot, + therefore, blame Matthew very much if, while he retains this plan in + its external outlines in a kind of mechanical way, he contradicts it + somewhat awkwardly by making Jesus at an earlier point clearly + designate Himself as Messiah and many recognise Him as such. And the + Fourth Evangelist cannot be said to be destroying any very wonderful + work of art when he gives the impression that from the very first any + one who wished could recognise Jesus as the Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mark himself does + not keep strictly to his own plan. He makes Jesus forbid His + disciples to make known His Messiahship; how then does the multitude + at Jerusalem recognise it so suddenly, after a single miracle which + they had not even witnessed, and which was in no way different from + others which He had done before? If that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“chance multitude”</span> in Jerusalem was capable of + such sudden enlightenment it must have fallen from heaven!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following + remarks of Bauer, too, are nothing less than classical. The incident + at Caesarea Philippi is the central fact of the Gospel history; it + gives us a fixed point from which to group and criticise the other + statements of the Gospel. At the same time it introduces a + complication into the plan of the life of Jesus, because it + necessitates the carrying through of the theory—often in the face of + the text—that previously Jesus had never been regarded as the + Messiah; and lays upon us the necessity of showing not only how Peter + had come to recognise His Messiahship, but also how He subsequently + became Messiah for the multitude—if indeed He ever did become Messiah + for them. But the very fact that it does introduce this complication + is in itself a proof that in this scene at Caesarea Philippi we have + the one ray of light which history sheds upon the life of Jesus. It + is impossible to explain how any one could come to reject the simple + and natural idea that Jesus claimed from the first to be the Messiah, + if that had been the fact, and accept this complicated representation + in its place. The latter, therefore, must be the original version. In + pointing this out, Bauer gave for the first time the real proof, from + internal evidence, of the priority of Mark.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The difficulty + involved in the conception of miracle as a proof of the Messiahship + of Jesus is another discovery of Bauer's. Only here, instead of + probing the question to the bottom, he stops half-way. How do we + know, he should have gone on to ask, that the Messiah was expected to + appear as an earthly wonder-worker? There is nothing to that effect + in Jewish writings. And do not the Gospels themselves prove that any + one might do miracles without suggesting to a single person the idea + that he might be the Messiah? Accordingly the only inference to be + drawn from the Marcan representation is that miracles were not among + the characteristic marks of the Messiah, and that it was only later, + in the Christian community, which made Jesus the miracle-worker into + Jesus the Messiah, that this connexion between miracles and + Messiahship was established. In dealing with the question of the + triumphal entry, too, Bauer halts half-way. Where do we read that + Jesus was hailed as Messiah upon that occasion? If He had been taken + by the people to be the Messiah, the controversy in Jerusalem must + have turned on this personal question; but it did not even touch upon + it, and the Sanhedrin never thinks of setting up witnesses to Jesus' + claim to be the Messiah. When once Bauer had exposed the historical + and literary impossibility of Jesus' being hailed by the people as + Messiah, he ought to have gone on to draw the conclusion that Jesus + did not, according to Mark, make a Messianic entry into + Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was, however, a + remarkable achievement on Bauer's part to have thus set forth clearly + the historical difficulties of the life of Jesus. One might suppose + that between the work of Strauss and that of Bauer there lay not + five, but fifty years—the critical work of a whole generation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The stereotyped + character of the thrice-repeated prediction of the passion, which, + according to Bauer, betrays a certain poverty and feebleness of + imagination on the part of the earliest Evangelist, shows clearly, he + thinks, the unhistorical character of the utterance recorded. The + fact that the prediction occurs three times, its definiteness + increasing upon each occasion, proves its literary origin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is the same + with the transfiguration. The group in which the heroic + representatives of the Law and the Prophets stand as supporters of + the Saviour, was modelled by the earliest Evangelist. In order to + place it in the proper light and to give becoming splendour to its + great subject, he has introduced a number of traits taken from the + story of Moses.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bauer pitilessly + exposes the difficulties of the journey of Jesus from Galilee to + Jerusalem, and exults over the perplexities of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“apologists.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The + theologian,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“must not boggle + at this journey, he must just believe it. He must in faith follow the + footsteps of his Lord! Through the midst of Galilee and Samaria—and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" + id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> at the same time, for Matthew + also claims a hearing, through Judaea on the farther side of Jordan! + I wish him <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bon voyage</span></span>!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The eschatological + discourses are not history, but are merely an expansion of those + explanations of the sufferings of the Church of which we have had a + previous example in the charge to the Twelve. An Evangelist who wrote + before the destruction of Jerusalem would have referred to the + Temple, to Jerusalem, and to the Jewish people, in a very different + way.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of + Lazarus deserves special attention. Did not Spinoza say that he would + break his system in pieces if he could be convinced of the reality of + this event? This is the decisive point for the question of the + relation between the Synoptists and John. Vain are all the efforts of + the apologists to explain why the Synoptists do not mention this + miracle. The reason they ignore it is that it originated after their + time in the mind of the Fourth Evangelist, and they were unacquainted + with his Gospel. And yet it is the most valuable of all, because it + shows clearly the concentric circles of progressive intensification + by which the development of the Gospel history proceeds. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Fourth Gospel,”</span> remarks Bauer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“represents a dead man as having been restored to life + after having been four days under the power of death, and having + consequently become a prey to corruption; Luke represents the young + man at Nain as being restored to life when his body was being carried + to the grave; Mark, the earliest Evangelist, can only tell us of the + restoration of a dead person who had the moment before succumbed to + an illness. The theologians have a great deal to say about the + contrast between the canonical and the apocryphal writings, but they + might have found a similar contrast even within the four Gospels, if + the light had not been so directly in their eyes.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The treachery of + Judas, as described in the Gospels, is inexplicable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Lord's Supper, + considered as an historic scene, is revolting and inconceivable. + Jesus can no more have instituted it than He can have uttered the + saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let the dead bury their + dead.”</span> In both cases the objectionableness arises from the + fact that a tenet of the early Church has been cast into the form of + an historical saying of Jesus. A man who was present in person, + corporeally present, could not entertain the idea of offering others + his flesh and blood to eat. To demand from others that they should, + while he was actually present, imagine the bread and wine which they + were eating to be his body and blood, would be for an actual man + wholly impossible. It was only when Jesus' actual bodily presence had + been removed, and only when the Christian community had existed for + some time, that such a conception as is expressed in that formula + could have arisen. A point which clearly betrays the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> later composition of the narrative is + that the Lord does not turn to the disciples sitting with Him at + table and say, <span class="tei tei-q">“This is my blood which is + shed for you,”</span> but, since the words were invented by the early + Church, speaks of the <span class="tei tei-q">“many”</span> for whom + He gives Himself. The only historical fact is that the Jewish + Passover was gradually transformed by the Christian community into a + feast which had reference to Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + scene in Gethsemane, Mark, according to Bauer, held it necessary that + in the moment when the last conflict and final catastrophe were + coming upon Jesus, He should show clearly by His actions that He met + this fate of His own free will. The reality of His choice could only + be made clear by showing Him first engaged in an inner struggle + against the acceptance of His vocation, before showing how He freely + submitted to His fate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last words + ascribed to Jesus by Mark, <span class="tei tei-q">“My God, my God, + why hast Thou forsaken me?”</span> were written without thinking of + the inferences that might be drawn from them, merely with the purpose + of showing that even to the last moment of His passion Jesus + fulfilled the rôle of the Messiah, the picture of whose sufferings + had been revealed to the Psalmist so long beforehand by the Holy + Spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is scarcely + necessary now, Bauer thinks, to go into the contradictions in the + story of the resurrection, for <span class="tei tei-q">“the doughty + Reimarus, with his thorough-going honesty, has already fully exposed + them, and no one has refuted him.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The results of + Bauer's analysis may be summed up as follows:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Fourth + Evangelist has betrayed the secret of the original Gospel, namely, + that it too can be explained on purely literary grounds. Mark has + <span class="tei tei-q">“loosed us from the theological lie.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Thanks to the kindly fate,”</span> cries + Bauer, <span class="tei tei-q">“which has preserved to us this + writing of Mark by which we have been delivered from the web of + deceit of this hellish pseudo-science!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to tear + this web of falsehood the critic and historian must, despite his + repugnance, once more take up the pretended arguments of the + theologians in favour of the historicity of the Gospel narratives and + set them on their feet, only to knock them down again. In the end + Bauer's only feeling towards the theologians was one of contempt. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The expression of his contempt,”</span> he + declares, <span class="tei tei-q">“is the last weapon which the + critic, after refuting the arguments of the theologians, has at his + disposal for their discomfiture; it is his right to use it; that puts + the finishing touch upon his task and points forward to the happy + time when the arguments of the theologians shall no more be heard + of.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These outbreaks of + bitterness are to be explained by the feeling of repulsion which + German apologetic theology inspired in every genuinely honest and + thoughtful man by the methods which it adopted in opposing Strauss. + Hence the fiendish joy with which <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> he snatches away the crutches of this + pseudo-science, hurls them to a distance, and makes merry over its + helplessness. A furious hatred, a fierce desire to strip the + theologians absolutely bare, carried Bauer much farther than his + critical acumen would have led him in cold blood.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bauer hated the + theologians for still holding fast to the barbarous conception that a + great man had forced himself into a stereotyped and unspiritual + system, and in that way had set in motion great ideas, whereas he + held that that would have signified the death of both the personality + and the ideas; but this hatred is only the surface symptom of another + hatred, which goes deeper than theology, going down, indeed, to the + very depths of the Christian conception of the world. Bruno Bauer + hates not only the theologians, but Christianity, and hates it + because it expresses a truth in a wrong way. It is a religion which + has become petrified in a transitional form. A religion which ought + to have led on to the true religion has usurped the place of the true + religion, and in this petrified form it holds prisoner all the real + forces of religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Religion is the + victory over the world of the self-conscious ego. It is only when the + ego grasps itself in its antithesis to the world as a whole, and is + no longer content to play the part of a mere <span class= + "tei tei-q">“walking gentleman”</span> in the world-drama, but faces + the world with independence and reserve, that the necessary + conditions of universal religion are present. These conditions came + into being with the rise of the Roman Empire, in which the individual + suddenly found himself helpless and unarmed in face of a world in + which he could no longer find free play for his activities, but must + stand prepared at any moment to be ground to powder by it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The self-conscious + ego, recognising this position, found itself faced by the necessity + of breaking loose from the world and standing alone, in order in this + way to overcome the world. Victory over the world by alienation from + the world—these were the ideas out of which Christianity was born. + But it was not the true victory over the world; Christianity remained + at the stage of violent opposition to the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Miracle, to which + the Christian religion has always appealed, and to which it gives a + quite fundamental importance, is the appropriate symbol of this false + victory over the world. There are some wonderfully deep thoughts + scattered through Bauer's critical investigations. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Man's realisation of his personality,”</span> he says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is the death of Nature, but in the sense + that he can only bring about this death by the knowledge of Nature + and its laws, that is to say from within, being himself essentially + the annihilation and negation of Nature.... Spirit honours and + recognises the worth of the very thing which it negates.... Spirit + does not fume and bluster, and rage and rave against Nature, as it is + supposed to do <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg + 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + miracle, for that would be the denial of its inner law, but quietly + works its way through the antithesis. In short the death of Nature + implied in the conscious realisation of personality is the + resurrection of Nature in a nobler form, not the maltreatment, + mockery, and insult to which it would be exposed by miracle.”</span> + Not only miracle, however, but the portrait of Jesus Christ as drawn + in the Gospels, is a stereotyping of that false idea of victory over + the world. The Christ of the Gospel history, thought of as a really + historic figure, would be a figure at which humanity would shudder, a + figure which could only inspire dismay and horror. The historical + Jesus, if He really existed, can only have been One who reconciled in + His own consciousness the antithesis which obsessed the Jewish mind, + namely the separation between God and Man; He cannot in the process + of removing this antithesis have called into existence a new + principle of religious division and alienation; nor can He have shown + the way of escape, by the principle of inwardness, from the bondage + of the Law only to impose a new set of legal fetters.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Christ of the + Gospel history, on the other hand, is Man exalted by the religious + consciousness to heaven, who, even if He comes down to earth to do + miracles, to teach, and to suffer, is no longer true man. The Son of + Man of religion, even though His mission be to reconcile, is man as + alienated from himself. This Christ of the Gospel history, the ego + exalted to heaven and become God, overthrew antiquity, and conquered + the world in the sense that He exhausted it of all its vitality. This + magnified ego would have fulfilled its historical vocation if, by + means of the terrible disorganisation into which it threw the real + spirit of mankind, it had compelled the latter to come to a knowledge + of itself, to become self-conscious with a thoroughness and + decisiveness which had not been possible to the simple spirit of + antiquity. It was disastrous that the figure which stood for the + first emancipation of the ego, remained alive. That transformation of + the human spirit which was brought about by the encounter of the + world-power of Rome with philosophy was represented by the Gospels, + under the influence of the Old Testament, as realised in a single + historic Personality; and the strength of the spirit of mankind was + swallowed up by the omnipotence of the pure absolute ego, an ego + which was alien from actual humanity. The self-consciousness of + humanity finds itself reflected in the Gospels, a self, indeed, in + alienation from itself, and therefore a grotesque parody of itself, + but, after all, in some sense, itself; hence the magical charm which + attracted mankind and enchained it, and, so long as it had not truly + found itself, urged it to sacrifice everything to grasp the image of + itself, to prefer it to all other and all else, counting all, as the + apostle says, but <span class="tei tei-q">“dung”</span> in comparison + with it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even when the + Roman world was no more, and a new world <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> had come into being, the Christ so created did + not die. The magic of His enchantment became only more terrible, and + as new strength came flooding into the old world, the time arrived + when it was to accomplish its greatest work of destruction. Spirit, + in its abstraction, became a vampire, the destroyer of the world. Sap + and strength, blood and life, it sucked, to the last drop, out of + humanity. Nature and art, family, nation, state, all were destroyed + by it; and in the ruins of the fallen world the ego, exhausted by its + efforts, remained the only surviving power.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having made a + desert all about it, the ego could not immediately create anew, out + of the depths of its inner consciousness, nature and art, nation and + state; the awful process which now went on, the only activity of + which it was now capable, was the absorption into itself of all that + had hitherto had life in the world. The ego was now everything; and + yet it was a void. It had become the universal power, and yet as it + brooded over the ruins of the world it was filled with horror at + itself and with despair at all that it had lost. The ego which had + devoured all things and was still a void now shuddered at itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under the + oppression of this awful power the education of mankind has been + going on; under this grim task-master it has been preparing for true + freedom, preparing to rouse itself from the depths of its distress, + to escape from its opposition to itself and cast out that alien ego + which is wasting its substance. Odysseus has now returned to his + home, not by favour of the gods, not laid on the shore in sleep, but + awake, by his own thought and his own strength. Perchance, as of + yore, he will have need to fight with the suitors who have devoured + his substance and sought to rob him of all he holds most dear. + Odysseus must string the bow once more.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The baleful charm + of the self-alienated ego is broken the moment any one proves to the + religious sense of mankind that the Jesus Christ of the Gospels is + its creation and ceases to exist as soon as this is recognised. The + formation of the Church and the arising of the idea that the Jesus of + the Gospels is the Messiah are not two different things, they are one + and the same thing, they coincide and synchronise; but the idea was + only the imaginative conception of the Church, the first movement of + its life, the religious expression of its experience.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question which + has so much exercised the minds of men—whether Jesus was the historic + Christ (= Messiah)—is answered in the sense that everything that the + historical Christ is, everything that is said of Him, everything that + is known of Him, belongs to the world of imagination, that is, of the + imagination of the Christian community, and therefore has nothing to + do with any man who belongs to the real world.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The world is now + free, and ripe for a higher religion in which the ego will overcome + nature, not by self-alienation, but by penetrating it and ennobling + it. To the theologian we may fling as a gift the shreds of his former + science, when we have torn it to pieces; that will be something to + occupy himself with, that time may not hang heavy upon his hands in + the new world whose advent is steadily drawing nearer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the task + which Bauer had set himself at the beginning of his criticism of the + Gospel history, turned, before he had finished, into something + different. When he began, he thought to save the honour of Jesus and + to restore His Person from the state of inanition to which the + apologists had reduced it, and hoped by furnishing a proof that the + historical Jesus could not have been the Jesus Christ of the Gospels, + to bring Him into a living relation with history. This task, however, + was given up in favour of the larger one of freeing the world from + the domination of the Judaeo-Roman idol, Jesus the Messiah, and in + carrying out this endeavour the thesis that Jesus Christ is a product + of the imagination of the early Church is formulated in such a way + that the existence of a historic Jesus becomes problematical, or, at + any rate, quite indifferent.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the end of his + study of the Gospels, Bauer is inclined to make the decision of the + question whether there ever was a historic Jesus depend on the result + of a further investigation which he proposed to make into the Pauline + Epistles. It was not until ten years later (1850-1851) that he + accomplished this task,<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href= + "#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> and + applied the result in his new edition of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Criticism of the Gospel History.”</span><a id= + "noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> The + result is negative: there never was any historical Jesus. While + criticising the four great Pauline Epistles, which the Tübingen + school fondly imagined to be beyond the reach of criticism, Bauer + shows, however, his inability to lay a positive historic foundation + for his view of the origin of Christianity. The transference of the + Epistles to the second century is effected in so arbitrary a fashion + that it refutes itself. However, this work professes to be only a + preliminary study for a larger one in which the new theory was to be + fully worked out. This did not appear until 1877; it was entitled + <span class="tei tei-q">“Christ and the Caesars; How Christianity + originated from Graeco-Roman Civilisation.”</span><a id="noteref_96" + name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> The + historical basis for his theory, which he here offers, is even more + unsatisfactory than that suggested in the preliminary work on the + Pauline Epistles. There is no longer any pretence of following + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" + id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> an historical method, the + whole thing works out into an imaginary picture of the life of + Seneca. Nero's tutor had, Bauer thinks, already in his inmost + consciousness fully attained to inner opposition to the world. There + are expressions in his works which, in their mystical emancipation + from the world, prelude the utterances of Paul. The same thoughts, + since they belong not to Seneca only, but to his time, are found also + in the works of the three poets of the Neronian period, Persius, + Lucan, and Petronius. Though they had but a feeble breath of the + divine afflatus, they are interesting witnesses to the spiritual + condition of the time. They, too, contributed to the making of + Christianity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Seneca, in + spite of his inner alienation from the world, remained in active + relations with the world. He desired to found a kingdom of virtue + upon earth. At the courts of Claudius and Nero he used the arts of + intrigue to further his ends, and even quietly approved deeds of + violence which he thought likely to serve his cause. Finally, he + grasped at the supreme power; and paid the supreme penalty. Stoicism + had made an attempt to reform the world, and had failed. The great + thinkers began to despair of exercising any influence upon history, + the Senate was powerless, all public bodies were deprived of their + rights. Then a spirit of resignation came over the world. The + alienation from the world, which in Seneca had still been only half + serious, was come in earnest. The time of Nero and Domitian was a + great epoch in that hidden spiritual history which goes silently + forward side by side with the noisy outward history of the world. + When Stoicism, in this development, had been deepened by the + introduction of neo-Platonic ideas, it was on its way to become the + Gospel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But by itself it + would not have given birth to that new thing. It attached itself as a + formative principle to Judaism, which was then just breaking loose + from the limitations of nationality. Bauer points to Josephus as a + type of this new Roman Judaism. This <span class= + "tei tei-q">“neo-Roman”</span> lived in the conviction that his God, + who had withdrawn from His Temple, would take possession of the + world, and make the Roman Empire submit to His law. Josephus realised + in his life that for which the way had been spiritually prepared by + Philo. The latter did not merely effect a fusion of Jewish ideas with + Greek speculations; he took advantage of the universal dominion + established by the Romans to found upon it his spiritual world. Bauer + had already pictured him in this rôle in his work <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Philo, Strauss, and Renan, and Primitive + Christianity.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus was the new + religion formed. The spirit of it came from the west, the outward + frame was furnished by Judaism. The new movement had two foci, Rome + and Alexandria. Philo's <span class="tei tei-q">“Therapeutae”</span> + were real people; they were the forerunners of Christianity. Under + Trajan the new religion began to be known. <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Pliny's letter asking for instructions as to + how to deal with the new movement is its certificate of birth—the + original form of the letter, it must be understood, not the present + form, which has undergone editing at the hands of Christians.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The literary + process by which the origin of the movement was thrown back to an + earlier date in history lasted about fifty years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When this latest + work of Bauer's appeared he had long been regarded by theologians as + an extinct force; nay, more, had been forgotten. And he had not even + kept his promise. He had not succeeded in showing what that higher + form of victory over the world was, which he declared superior to + Christianity; and in place of the personality of Jesus he had finally + set up a hybrid thing, laboriously compounded out of two + personalities of so little substance as those of Seneca and Josephus. + That was the end of his great undertaking.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was a + mistake to bury, along with the Bauer of the second period, also the + Bauer of the first period, the critic—for the latter was not dead. It + was, indeed, nothing less than a misfortune that Strauss and Bauer + appeared within so short a time of one another. Bauer passed + practically unnoticed, because every one was preoccupied with + Strauss. Another unfortunate thing was that Bauer overthrew with his + powerful criticism the hypothesis which attributed real historical + value to Mark, so that it lay for a long time disregarded, and there + ensued a barren period of twenty years in the critical study of the + Life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only critic + with whom Bauer can be compared is Reimarus. Each exercised a + terrifying and disabling influence upon his time. No one else had + been so keenly conscious as they of the extreme complexity of the + problem offered by the life of Jesus. In view of this complexity they + found themselves compelled to seek a solution outside the confines of + verifiable history. Reimarus, by finding the basis of the story of + Jesus in a deliberate imposture on the part of the disciples; Bauer, + by postulating an original Evangelist who invented the history. On + this ground it was just that they should lose their case. But in + dismissing the solutions which they offered, their contemporaries + also dismissed the problems which had necessitated such solutions; + they dismissed them because they were as little able to grasp as to + remove these difficulties.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the time is + past for pronouncing judgment upon Lives of Christ on the ground of + the solutions which they offer. For us the great men are not those + who solved the problems, but those who discovered them. Bauer's + <span class="tei tei-q">“Criticism of the Gospel History”</span> is + worth a good dozen Lives of Jesus, because his work, as we are only + now coming to recognise, after half a century, is the ablest and most + complete collection of the difficulties of the Life of Jesus which is + anywhere to be found.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg + 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Unfortunately, by + the independent, the too loftily independent way in which he + developed his ideas, he destroyed the possibility of their + influencing contemporary theology. The shaft which he had driven into + the mountain broke down behind him, so that it needed the work of a + whole generation to lay bare once more the veins of ore which he had + struck. His contemporaries could not suspect that the abnormality of + his solutions was due to the intensity with which he grasped the + problems as problems, and that he had become blind to history by + examining it too microscopically. Thus for his contemporaries he was + a mere eccentric.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But his + eccentricity concealed a penetrating insight. No one else had as yet + grasped with the same completeness the idea that primitive + Christianity and early Christianity were not merely the direct + outcome of the preaching of Jesus, not merely a teaching put into + practice, but more, much more, since to the experience of which Jesus + was the subject there allied itself the experience of the world-soul + at a time when its body—humanity under the Roman Empire—lay in the + throes of death. Since Paul, no one had apprehended so powerfully the + mystic idea of the super-sensible σῶμα Χριστοῦ. Bauer transferred it + to the historical plane and found the <span class="tei tei-q">“body + of Christ”</span> in the Roman Empire.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name= + "Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XII. Further Imaginative Lives Of + Jesus</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Charles + Christian Hennell.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Untersuchungen über den Ursprung des Christentums. + (An Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity.) 1840. With a + preface by David Friedrich Strauss. English edition, 1838.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Wichtige Enthüllungen über die wirkliche Todesart + Jesu. Nach einem alten zu Alexandria gefundenen Manuskripte von + einem Zeitgenossen Jesu aus dem heiligen Orden der Essäer. + (Important Disclosures concerning the Manner of Jesus' Death. From + an ancient MS. found at Alexandria, written by a contemporary of + Jesus belonging to the sacred Order of the Essenes.) 1849. 5th ed., + Leipzig. (Anonymous.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Historische Enthüllungen über die wirklichen + Ereignisse der Geburt und Jugend Jesu. Als Fortsetzung der zu + Alexandria aufgefundenen alten Urkunden aus dem Essäerorden. + (Historical Disclosures concerning the real circumstances of the + Birth and Youth of Jesus. A Continuation of the ancient Essene MS. + discovered at Alexandria.) 1849. 2nd ed., Leipzig.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">August Friedrich + Gfrörer.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Kritische + Geschichte des Urchristentums. (Critical History of Primitive + Christianity.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Vol. i. 1st ed., 1831; 2nd, 1835. Part i. 543 pp.; + Part ii. 406 pp. Vol. ii. 1838. Part i. 452 pp.; Part ii. 417 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Richard von der + Alm.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(Pseudonym + of</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Friedrich Wilhelm + Ghillany</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.) Theologische + Briefe an die Gebildeten der deutschen Nation, 1863. (Theological + Letters to the Cultured Classes of the German People, 1863.) Vol. + i. 929 pp.; Vol. ii. 656 pp.; Vol. iii. 802 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ludwig Noack.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Die Geschichte Jesu auf Grund freier + geschichtlicher Untersuchungen über das Evangelium und die + Evangelien. (The History of Jesus on the Basis of a free Historical + Inquiry regarding the Gospel and the Gospels.) 2nd ed., 1876, + Mannheim. Book i. 251 pp.; Book ii. 187 pp.; Book iii. 386 pp.; + Book iv. 285 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss can hardly + be said to have done himself honour by contributing a preface to the + translation of Hennell's work, which is nothing more than Venturini's + <span class="tei tei-q">“Non-miraculous History of the Great Prophet + of Nazareth”</span> tricked out with a fantastic paraphernalia of + learning.<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href= + "#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The two series of + <span class="tei tei-q">“Important Disclosures”</span> also are + really <span class="tei tei-q">“conveyed”</span> with no particular + ability from that classic romance of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the Life of Jesus, but that did not prevent + their making something of a sensation at the time when they + appeared.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href= + "#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> Jesus, + according to his narrative, was the son of a member of the Essene + Order. The child was watched over by the Order and prepared for His + future mission. He entered on His public ministry as a tool of the + Essenes, who after the crucifixion took Him down from the cross and + resuscitated Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Disclosures”</span> only preserve the more external + features of Venturini's representation. His Life of Jesus had been + more than a mere romance, it had been an imaginative solution of + problems which he had intuitively perceived. It may be regarded as + the Forerunner of rationalistic criticism. The problems which + Venturini had intuitively perceived were not solved either by the + rationalists, or by Strauss, or by Weisse. These writers had not + succeeded in providing that of which Venturini had dreamed—a living + purposeful connexion between the events of the life of Jesus—or in + explaining His Person and Work as having a relation, either positive + or negative, to the circumstances of Late Judaism. Venturini's plan, + however fantastic, connects the life of Jesus with Jewish history and + contemporary thought much more closely than any other Life of Jesus, + for that connexion is of course vital to the plot of the romance. In + Weisse's <span class="tei tei-q">“Gospel History”</span> criticism + had deliberately renounced the attempt to explain Jesus directly from + Judaism, finding itself unable to establish any connexion between His + teachings and contemporary Jewish ideas. The way was therefore once + more open to the imagination. Accordingly several imaginative Lives + preluded a new era in the study of the subject, in so far as they + endeavoured to understand Jesus on the basis of purely Jewish ideas, + in some cases as affirming these, in others as opposing them in + favour of a more spiritual conception. In Gfrörer, Richard von der + Alm, and Noack, begins the skirmishing preparatory to the future + battle over eschatology.<a id="noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href= + "#note_99"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">August Friedrich + Gfrörer, born in 1803 at Calw, was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Repetent”</span> at the Tübingen theological seminary at + the time when Strauss was studying there. After being curate at the + principal church in Stuttgart for a year he gave up, in 1830, the + clerical profession in order to devote himself wholly to his clerical + studies.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By that time he + had abandoned Christianity. In the preface to the first edition of + the first volume of his work, he describes Christianity as a system + which now only maintains itself by the force of custom, after having + commended itself to antiquity <span class="tei tei-q">“by the hope of + the mystic Kingdom of the future world and having ruled the middle + ages by the fear of the same future.”</span> By enunciating this view + he has made an end, he thinks, of all high-flying Hegelian ideas, and + being thus freed from all speculative prejudices he feels himself in + a position to approach his task from a purely historical standpoint, + with a view to showing how much of Christianity is the creation of + one exceptional Personality, and how much belongs to the time in + which it arose. In the first volume he describes how the + transformation of Jewish theology in Alexandria reacted upon + Palestinian theology, and how it came to its climax in Philo. The + great Alexandrian anticipated, according to Gfrörer, the ideas of + Paul. His <span class="tei tei-q">“Therapeutae”</span> are identical + with the Essenes. At the same period Judaea was kept in a ferment by + a series of risings, to all of which the incentive was found in + Messianic expectations. Then Jesus appeared. The three points to be + investigated in His history are: what end He had in view; why He + died; and what modifications His work underwent at the hands of the + Apostles.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second volume, + entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“The Sacred Legend,”</span> does + not, however, carry out this plan. The works of Strauss and Weisse + necessitated a new method of treatment. The fame of Strauss's + achievement stirred Gfrörer to emulation, and Weisse, with his + priority of Mark and rejection of John, must be refuted. The work is + therefore almost a polemic against Weisse for his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“want of historic sense,”</span> and ends in setting up + views which had not entered into Gfrörer's mind at the time when he + wrote his first volume.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The statements of + Papias regarding the Synoptists, which Weisse followed, are not + deserving of credence. For a whole generation and more the tradition + about Jesus had passed from mouth to mouth, and it had absorbed much + that was legendary. Luke was the first—as his preface shows—who + checked that process, and undertook to separate what was genuine from + what was not. He is the most trustworthy of the Evangelists, for he + keeps closely to his sources and adds nothing of his own, in contrast + with Matthew who, writing at a later date, used sources of less value + and invented matter of his own, which Gfrörer finds especially in the + story of the passion in this Gospel. The lateness of Matthew is also + evident <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name= + "Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from his tendency to + carry over the Old Testament into the New. In Luke, on the other + hand, the sources are so conscientiously treated that Gfrörer finds + no difficulty in analysing the narrative into its component parts, + especially as he always has a purely instinctive feeling <span class= + "tei tei-q">“whenever a different wind begins to blow.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Both Gospels, + however, were written long after the destruction of the holy city, + since they do not draw their material from the Jerusalem tradition, + but <span class="tei tei-q">“from the Christian legends which had + grown up in the neighbourhood of the Sea of Tiberias,”</span> and in + consequence <span class="tei tei-q">“mistakenly transferred the scene + of Jesus' ministry to Galilee.”</span> For this reason it is not + surprising <span class="tei tei-q">“that even down into the second + century many Christians had doubts about the truth of the Synoptics + and ventured to express their doubts.”</span> Such doubts only ceased + when the Church became firmly established and began to use its + authority to suppress the objections of individuals. Mark is the + earliest witness to doubts within the primitive Christian community + regarding the credibility of his predecessors. Luke and Matthew are + for him not yet sacred books; he desires to reconcile their + inconsistencies, and at the same time to produce <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a Gospel composed of materials of which the authenticity + could be maintained even against the doubters.”</span> For this + reason he omits most of the discourses, ignores the birth-story, and + of the miracles retains only those which were most deeply embedded in + the tradition. His Gospel was probably produced between 110 and 120. + The <span class="tei tei-q">“non-genuine”</span> conclusion was a + later addition, but by the Evangelist himself. Thus Mark proves that + the Synoptists contain legendary matter even though they are + separated from the events which they relate only by a generation and + a half, or at most two generations. To show that there is nothing + strange in this, Gfrörer gives a long catalogue of miracles found in + historians who were contemporaries of the events which they describe, + and in some cases were concerned in them—in this connexion Cortez + affords him a rich storehouse of material. On the other hand, all + objections against the genuineness of the Fourth Gospel collapse + miserably. It is true that, like the others, it offers no + historically accurate report of the discourses of Jesus. It pictures + Him as the Logos-Christ and makes Him speak in this character; which + Jesus certainly did not do. Inadvertently the author makes John the + Baptist speak in the same way. That does not matter, however, for the + historical conditions are rightly represented; rightly, because + Jerusalem was the scene of the greater part of the ministry, and the + five Johannine miracles are to be retained. The healing of the + nobleman's son, that of the lame man at the pool of Bethesda, and + that of the man blind from birth happened just as they are told. The + story of the miracle at Cana rests on a misunderstanding, for the + wine which Jesus provided was really the wedding-gift which He had + brought <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name= + "Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> with Him. In the + raising of Lazarus a real case of apparent death is combined with a + polemical exaggeration of it, the restoration to life becoming, in + the course of controversy with the Jews, an actual resurrection. + Having thus won free, dragging John along with him, from the toils of + the Hegelian denial of miracle—only, it is true, by the aid of + Venturini—and being prepared to explain the feeding of the multitude + on the most commonplace rationalistic lines, he may well boast that + he has <span class="tei tei-q">“driven the doubt concerning the + Fourth Gospel into a very small corner.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The miserable era of negation,”</span> cries Gfrörer, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is now at an end; affirmation begins. We are + ascending the eastern mountains from which the pure airs of heaven + breathe upon the spirit. Our guide shall be historical mathematics, a + science which is as yet known to few, and has not been applied by any + one to the New Testament.”</span> This <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mathematic”</span> of Gfrörer's consists in developing + his whole argument out of a single postulate. Let it be granted to + him that all other claimants of the Messiahship—Gfrörer, in defiance + of the evidence of Josephus, makes all the leaders of revolt in + Palestine claimants of the Messiahship—were put to death by the + Romans, whereas Jesus was crucified by His own people: it follows + that the Messiahship of Jesus was not political, but spiritual. He + had declared Himself to be in a certain sense the longed-for Messiah, + but in another sense He was not so. His preaching moved in the sphere + of Philonian ideas; although He did not as yet explicitly apply the + Logos doctrine, it was implicit in His thought, so that the + discourses of the Fourth Gospel have an essential truth. All + Messianic conceptions, the Kingdom of God, the judgment, the future + world, are sublimated into the spiritual region. The resurrection of + the dead becomes a present eternal life. The saying in John v. 24, + <span class="tei tei-q">“He that heareth my word, and believeth on + Him that sent me, hath eternal life and cometh not into judgment; but + is passed from death into life,”</span> is the only authentic part of + that discourse. The reference which follows to the coming judgment + and the resurrection of the dead is a Jewish interpolation. Jesus did + not believe that He Himself was to rise from the dead. Nevertheless, + the <span class="tei tei-q">“resurrection”</span> is historic; Joseph + of Arimathea, a member of the Essene Order, whose tool Jesus + unconsciously was, had bribed the Romans to make the crucifixion of + Jesus only a pretence, and to crucify two others with Him in order to + distract attention from Him. After He was taken down from the cross, + Joseph removed Him to a tomb of his own which had been hewn out for + the purpose in the neighbourhood of the cross, and succeeded in + resuscitating Him. The Christian Church grew out of the Essene Order + by giving a further development to its ideas, and it is impossible to + explain the organisation of the Church without taking account of the + regulations of the Order. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg + 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The + work closes with a rhapsody on the Church and its development into + the Papal system.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Gfrörer thus works + into Venturini's plan a quantity of material drawn from Philo. His + first volume would have led one to expect a more original and + scientific result. But the author is one of those <span class= + "tei tei-q">“epileptics of criticism”</span> for whom criticism is + not a natural and healthy means of arriving at a result, but who, in + consequence of the fits of criticism to which they are subject, and + which they even endeavour to intensify, fall into a condition of + exhaustion, in which the need for some fixed point becomes so + imperative that they create it for themselves by self-suggestion—as + they previously did their criticism—and then flatter themselves that + they have really found it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This need for a + fixed point carried the former rival of Strauss into Catholicism, for + which his <span class="tei tei-q">“General History of the + Church”</span> (1841-1846) already shows a strong admiration. After + the appearance of this work Gfrörer became Professor of History in + the University of Freiburg. In 1848 he was active in the German + Parliament in endeavouring to promote a reunion of the Protestants + with the Catholics. In 1853 he went over to the Roman Church. His + family had already gone over, at Strassburg, during the revolutionary + period. In the conflict of the church with the Baden Government he + vehemently supported the claims of the Pope. He died in 1861.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Incomparably + better and more thorough is the attempt to write a Life of Jesus + embodied in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Theological Letters to the + Cultured Classes of the German Nation.”</span> Their writer takes + Gfrörer's studies as his starting-point, but instead of + spiritualising unjustifiably he ventures to conceive the Jewish world + of thought in which Jesus lived in its simple realism. He was the + first to place the eschatology recognised by Strauss and Reimarus in + an historical setting—that of Venturini's plan—and to write a Life of + Jesus entirely governed by the idea of eschatology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The author, + Friedrich Wilhelm Ghillany, was born in 1807 at Erlangen. His first + studies were in theology. His rationalistic views, however, compelled + him to abandon the clerical profession. He became librarian at + Nuremberg in 1841 and engaged in controversial writing of an + anti-orthodox character, but distinguished himself also by historical + work of outstanding merit. A year after the publication of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Theological Letters,”</span> which he issued + under the pseudonym of Richard von der Alm, he published a collection + of <span class="tei tei-q">“The Opinions of Heathen and Christian + Writers of the first Christian Centuries about Jesus Christ”</span> + (1864), a work which gives evidence of a remarkable range of reading. + In 1855 he removed to Munich in the hope of obtaining a post in the + diplomatic <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg + 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + service, but in spite of his solid acquirements he did not succeed. + No one would venture to appoint a man of such outspoken + anti-ecclesiastical views. He died in 1876.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + question of the sources, Ghillany occupies very nearly the Tübingen + standpoint, except that he holds Matthew to be later than Luke, and + Mark to be extracted, not from these Gospels in their present form, + but from their sources. John is not authentic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The worship + offered to Jesus after His death by the Christian community is, + according to Ghillany, not derived from pure Judaism, but from a + Judaism influenced by oriental religions. The influence of the cult + of Mithra, for example, is unmistakable. In it, as in Christianity, + we find the virgin-birth, the star, the wise men, the cross, and the + resurrection. Were it not for the human sacrifice of the Mithra cult, + the idea which is operative in the Supper, of eating and drinking the + flesh and blood of the Son of Man, would be inexplicable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole Eastern + world was at that time impregnated with Gnostic ideas, which centred + in the revelation of the Divine in the human. In this way there + arose, for example, a Samaritan Gnosis, independent of the Christian. + Christianity itself is a species of Gnosis. In any case the + metaphysical conception of the Divine Sonship of Jesus is of + secondary origin. If He was in any sense the Son of God for the + disciples, they can only have thought of this sonship in a Gnostic + fashion, and supposed that the <span class="tei tei-q">“highest + angel,”</span> the Son of God, had taken up His abode in Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John the Baptist + had probably come forth from among the Essenes, and he preached a + spiritualised Kingdom of Heaven. He held himself to be Elias. Jesus' + aims were originally similar; He came forward <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in the cause of sound religious teaching for the + people.”</span> He made no claim to Davidic descent; that is to be + credited to dogmatic theology. Similarly Papias is wrong in ascribing + to Jesus the crude eschatological expectations implied in the saying + about the miraculous vine in the Messianic Kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is certain, + however, that Jesus held Himself to be Messiah and expected the early + coming of the Kingdom. His teaching is Rabbinic; all His ideas have + their source in contemporary Judaism, whose world of thought we can + reconstruct from the Rabbinic writings; for even if these only became + fixed at a later period, the thoughts on which they are based were + already current in the time of Jesus. Another source of great + importance is Justin's <span class="tei tei-q">“Dialogue with the Jew + Trypho.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The starting-point + in interpreting the teaching of Jesus is the idea of repentance. In + the tractate <span class="tei tei-q">“Sanhedrin”</span> we find: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The set time of the Messiah is already here; + His coming depends now upon repentance and good works. Rabbi Eleazer + says, <span class="tei tei-q">‘When the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Jews repent they shall be + redeemed.’</span> ”</span> The Targum of Jonathan observes, on Zech. + x. 3, 4,<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href= + "#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Messiah is already born, but remains in + concealment because of the sins of the Hebrews.”</span> We find the + same thoughts put into the mouth of Trypho in Justin. In the same + Targum of Jonathan, Isa. liii. is interpreted with reference to the + sufferings of the Messiah. Judaism, therefore, was not unacquainted + with the idea of a suffering Messiah. He was not identified, however, + with the heavenly Messiah of Daniel. The Rabbis distinguished two + Messiahs, one of Israel and one of Judah. First the Messiah of the + Kingdom of Israel, denominated the Son of Joseph, was to come from + Galilee to suffer death at the hands of the Gentiles in order to make + atonement for the sins of the Hebrew nation. Only after that would + the Messiah predicted by Daniel, the son of David, of the tribe of + Judah, appear in glory upon the clouds of heaven. Finally, He also, + after two-and-sixty weeks of years, should be taken away, since the + Messianic Kingdom, even as conceived by Paul, was only a temporary + supernatural condition of the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Messianic + expectation, being directed to supernatural events, had no political + character, and one who knew Himself to be the Messiah could never + dream of using earthly means for the attainment of His ends; He would + expect all things to be brought about by the Divine intervention. In + this respect Ghillany grasps clearly the character of the eschatology + of Jesus—more clearly than any one had ever done before.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rôle of the + Messiah, who prior to His supernatural manifestation remains in + concealment upon earth, is therefore passive. He who is conscious of + a Messianic vocation does not seek to found a Kingdom among men. He + waits with confidence. He issues forth from His passivity with the + sole purpose of making atonement, by vicarious suffering, for the + sins of the people, in order that it may be possible for God to bring + about the new condition of things. If, in spite of the repentance of + the people and the occurrence of the signs which pointed to its being + at hand, the coming of the Kingdom should be delayed, the man who is + conscious of a Messianic vocation must, by His death, compel the + intervention of God. His vocation in this world is to die.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Brought within the + lines of these reflections the Life of Jesus shapes itself as + follows.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus was the tool + of a mystical sect allied to the Essenes, the head of which was + doubtless that Joseph of Arimathea who makes so sudden and striking + an appearance in the Gospel narrative. This party desired to bring + about the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven by mystical means, whereas + the mass of the people, led astray by the Pharisees, thought to force + on its coming by means <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg + 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + a rising. In the preacher of a spiritual Kingdom of Heaven, who was + resolved to go to death for His cause, the mystical party discovered + Messiah the son of Joseph, and they recognised that His death was + necessary to make possible the coming of the heavenly Messiah + predicted by Daniel. That Jesus Himself was the Messiah of Daniel, + that He would immediately rise again in order to ascend to His + heavenly throne, and would come thence with the hosts of heaven to + establish the Kingdom of Heaven, these people did not themselves + believe. But they encouraged Him in this belief, thinking that He + would hardly commit Himself to a sacrificial death from which there + was to be no resurrection. It was left uncertain to His mind whether + Jehovah would be content with the repentance of the people, in so far + as it had taken place, as realising the necessary condition for the + bringing in of the Kingdom of Heaven, or whether an atonement by + blood, offered by the death of Messiah the son of Joseph, would be + needful. It had been explained to Him that when the calculated year + of grace arrived, He must go up to Jerusalem and endeavour to rouse + the Jews to Messianic enthusiasm in order to compel Jehovah to come + to their aid with His heavenly hosts. From the action of Jehovah it + could then be discovered whether the preaching of repentance and + baptism would suffice to make atonement for the people before God or + not. If Jehovah did not appear, a deeper atonement must be made; + Jesus must pay the penalty of death for the sins of the Jews, but on + the third day would rise again from the dead and ascend to the throne + of God and come again thence to found the Kingdom of Heaven. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Any one can see,”</span> concludes Ghillany, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that our view affords a very natural + explanation of the anxiety of the disciples, the suspense of Jesus + Himself, and the prayer, <span class="tei tei-q">‘If it be possible + let this cup pass from me.’</span> ”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It was apparently only towards the close of His life + that Jesus revealed to the disciples the possibility that the Son of + Man might have to suffer and die before He could found the Messianic + Kingdom.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this + possibility before Him, He came to Jerusalem and there awaited the + Divine intervention. Meanwhile Joseph of Arimathea lent his aid + towards securing His condemnation in the Sanhedrin. He must die on + the day of the Passover; on the day of the Preparation He must be at + hand and ready in Jerusalem. He held, with His disciples, a + love-feast after the Essene custom, not a Paschal meal, and in doing + so associated thoughts of His death with the breaking of bread and + the pouring out of the wine. <span class="tei tei-q">“He did not lay + upon His disciples any injunction to continue the celebration of a + feast of this kind until the time of His return, because He thought + of His resurrection and His heavenly glory as about to take place + after three days. But when His return was <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> delayed the early Christians attached these + sayings of His about the bread and wine to their Essene love-feast, + and explained this common meal of the community as a commemoration of + the Last Supper of Jesus and His disciples, a memorial Feast in + honour of their Saviour, the celebration of which must be continued + until His coming.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the armed + band came to arrest Him, Jesus surrendered to His fate. Pilate almost + set Him free, holding Him to be a mere enthusiast who placed His + hopes only in the Divine intervention. Joseph of Arimathea, however, + succeeded in averting this danger. <span class="tei tei-q">“Even on + the cross Jesus seems to have continued to hope for the Divine + intervention, as is evidenced by the cry, <span class="tei tei-q">‘My + God! My God! why hast thou forsaken me?’</span> ”</span> Joseph of + Arimathea provided for His burial.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The belief in His + resurrection rests upon the visions of the disciples, which are to be + explained by their intense desire for the Parousia, of which He had + given them the promise. After setting their affairs in order in + Galilee they returned at the Feast of Pentecost to Jerusalem, which + they had left in alarm, in order there to await the Parousia in + company with other Galilaean believers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The confession of + faith of the primitive Christian community was the simplest + conceivable: Jesus the Messiah had come, not as a temporal conqueror, + but as the Son of Man foretold by Daniel, and had died for the sins + of the people. In other respects they were strict Jews, kept the Law, + and were constantly in the Temple. Only the community of goods and + the brotherhood-meal are of an Essene character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Christianity of the original community in Jerusalem + was thus a mixture of Zealotism and Mysticism which did not include + any wholly new element, and even in its conception of the Messiah had + nothing peculiar to itself except the belief that the Son of Man + predicted by Daniel had already come in the person of Jesus of + Nazareth ... that He was now enthroned at the right hand of God, and + would again appear as the expected Son of Man upon the clouds of + heaven according to Daniel's prophecy.”</span> Jesus, therefore, had + triumphed over the mystical party who desired to make use of Him in + the character of Messiah the son of Joseph—their Messiah, the + heavenly Son of Man, had not come. Jesus, in virtue of what He had + done, had taken His place both in heaven and in earth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How much of + Venturini's plan is here retained? Only the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mystical part”</span> which serves the purpose of + setting the action of the drama in motion. All the rest of it, the + rationalistic part, has been transmuted into an historical + conception. Miracle and trickery, along with the stage-play + resurrection, have been purged <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> away in the fires of Strauss's criticism. There + remains only a fundamental conception which has a certain greatness—a + brotherhood which looks for the coming of the Kingdom of Heaven + appoints one of its members to undergo as Messiah an atoning death, + that the coming of the Kingdom, for which the time is at hand, may + not be delayed. This brotherhood is the only fictitious element in + the whole construction—much as in the primitive steam-engine the + valves were still worked by hand while the rest of the machinery was + actuated by its own motive-power. So in this Life of Jesus the + motive-power is drawn entirely from historical sources, and the want + of an automatic starting arrangement is a mere anachronism. Strike + out the superfluous rôle of Joseph of Arimathea, and the distinction + of the two Messiahs, which is not clear even in the Rabbis, and + substitute the simple hypothesis that Jesus, in the course of His + Messianic vocation, when He thinks the time for the coming of the + Kingdom has arrived, goes freely to Jerusalem, and, as it were, + compels the secular power to put Him to death, in order by this act + of atonement to win for the world the immediate coming of the + Kingdom, and for Himself the glory of the Son of Man—make these + changes, and you have a life of Jesus in which the motive-power is a + purely historical force. It is impossible to indicate briefly all the + parts of which the seemingly complicated, but in reality impressively + simple, mechanism of this Life of Jesus is composed. The conduct of + Jesus, alike in its resolution and in its hesitation, becomes clear, + and not less so that of the disciples. All far-fetched historical + ingenuity is dispensed with. Jesus acts <span class= + "tei tei-q">“because His hour is come.”</span> This decisive placing + of the Life of Jesus in the <span class="tei tei-q">“last + time”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">cf.</span></span> 1 Peter i. 20 φανερωθέντος δὲ + ἐπ᾽ ἐσχάτων τῶν χρόνων δἰ ὑμᾶς) is an historical achievement without + parallel. Not less so is the placing of the thought of the passion in + its proper eschatological setting as an act of atonement. Where had + the character and origin of the primitive community ever been brought + into such clear connexion with the death of Jesus? Who had ever + before so earnestly considered the problem why the Christian + community arose in Jerusalem and not in Galilee? <span class= + "tei tei-q">“But the solution is too simple, and, moreover, is not + founded on a severely scientific chain of reasoning, but on + historical intuition and experiment, the simple experiment of + introducing the Life of Jesus into the Jewish eschatological world of + thought”</span>—so the theologians replied, or so, at least, they + might have replied if they had taken this curious work seriously, if, + indeed, they had read it at all. But how were they to suspect that in + a book which seemed to aim at founding a new Deistic Church, and + which went out with the Wolfenbüttel Fragmentist into the desert of + the most barren natural religion, a valuable historical conception + might be found? It is true that <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> no one suspected at that time that in the + forgotten work of Reimarus there lay a dangerous historical + discovery, a kind of explosive material such as can only be collected + by those who stand free from every responsibility towards historical + Christianity, who have abandoned every prejudice, in the good sense + as well as in the bad—and whose one desire in regard to the Gospel + history is to be <span class="tei tei-q">“spirits that constantly + deny.”</span><a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href= + "#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> Such + thinkers, if they have historical gifts, destroy artificial history + in the cause of true history and, willing evil, do good—if it be + admitted that the discovery of truth is good. If this negative work + is a good thing, the author of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Letters + to the German People”</span> performed a distinguished service, for + his negation is radical. The new Church which was to be founded on + this historic overcoming of historic Christianity was to combine + <span class="tei tei-q">“only what was according to reason in Judaism + and Christianity.”</span> From Judaism it was to take the belief in + one sole, spiritual, perfect God; from Christianity the requirement + of brotherly love to all men. On the other hand, it was to eliminate + what was contrary to reason in each: from Judaism the ritual system + and the sacrifices; from Christianity the deification of Jesus and + the teaching of redemption through His blood. How comes so completely + unhistorical a temperament to be combined with so historical an + intellect? His Jesus, after all, has no individuality; He is a mere + eschatological machine.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In accordance with + the confession of faith of the new Church of which Ghillany dreamed, + the calendar of the Feasts is to be transformed as follows:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. Feast of the + Deity, the first and second of January.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. Feast of the + Dignity of Man and Brotherly Love, first and second of April.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. Feast of the + Divine Blessing in Nature, first and second of July.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">4. Feast of + Immortality, first and second of October.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Apart from these + eight Feast days, and the Sundays, all the other days of the year are + working days.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the order of + divine service we may note the following: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The sermon, which should begin with instruction and + exhortation and close with consolation and encouragement, must not + last longer than half an hour.”</span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The series of + Lives of Jesus which combine criticism with fiction is closed by + Noack's Story of Jesus. A freethinker like Ghillany, but lacking the + financial independence which a kindly fate had conferred upon the + latter, Noack led a life which may properly be described as a + constant martyrdom, lightened only by his intense love of theological + studies, which nevertheless were <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> responsible for all his troubles. Born in 1819, + of a clerical family in Hesse, he became in 1842 Pastor's assistant + and teacher of religion at Worms in the Hessian Palatinate. The + Darmstadt reactionaries drove him out of this position in 1844 + without his having given any ground of offence. In 1849 he became + <span class="tei tei-q">“Repetent”</span> in Philosophy at the + University of Giessen at a salary of four hundred gulden. In 1855 he + was promoted to be Professor Extraordinary without having his salary + raised. In 1870, at the age of 51, he was appointed assistant at the + University Library and received at the same time the title of + Ordinary Professor. He died in 1885. He was an extremely prolific + writer, always ingenious, and possessed of wide knowledge, but he + never did anything of real permanent value either in philosophy or + theology. He was not without critical acumen, but there was too much + of the poet in him; a critical discovery was an incitement to an + imaginative reconstruction of the history. In 1870-1871 he published, + after many preliminary studies, his chief work, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“From the Jordan Uplands to Golgotha; four books on the + Gospel and the Gospels.”</span><a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" + href="#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> It + passed unnoticed. Attributing its failure to the excitement aroused + by the war, which ousted all other interests, he issued a revised + edition in 1876 under the title <span class="tei tei-q">“The History + of Jesus, on the Basis of Free Historical Inquiry concerning the + Gospel and the Gospels,”</span><a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" + href="#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> but + with hardly greater success.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet the + fundamental critical ideas which can be detected beneath this + narrative, in spite of its having the form of fiction, give this work + a significance such as the contemporary Lives of Jesus which won the + applause of theologians did not possess. It is the only Life of Jesus + hitherto produced which is written consistently from the Johannine + point of view from beginning to end. Strauss had not, after all, in + Noack's opinion, conclusively shown the absolute incompatibility of + the Synoptics with the Fourth Gospel; neither he nor any other critic + had felt the full difficulty of the question why the Fourth + Evangelist should be at pains to invent the numerous journeys to the + Feasts, seeing that the development of the Logos Christology did not + necessarily involve any alteration of the scene of the ministry; on + the contrary, it would, one might think, have been the first care of + the Evangelist to inweave his novel theory with the familiar + tradition in order to avoid discrediting his narrative in advance by + his innovations. Noack's conclusion is that the inconsistency is not + due to a single author; it is the result of a long process of + redaction in which various divergent tendencies have been at work. + But as the Fourth Gospel is not the logical terminus of the process + of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name= + "Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> alteration, the only + alternative is to place it at the beginning. What we have to seek in + it is the original Gospel from which the process of transforming the + tradition started.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is also + another line of argument based on the contradictions in the Gospel + tradition which leads to the hypothesis that we have to do with + redactions of the Gospels. Either Jesus was the Jewish Messiah of the + Synoptics, or a Son of God in the Greek, spiritual sense, whose + self-consciousness must be interpreted by means of the Logos + doctrine: He cannot have been both at the same time. But it is + inconceivable that a Jewish claimant of the Messiahship would have + been left unmolested up to the last, and have had virtually to force + the authorities to put him to death. On the other hand, if He were a + simple enthusiast claiming to be a Son of God, a man who lived only + for his own <span class="tei tei-q">“self-consciousness,”</span> He + might from the beginning have taken up this attitude without being in + any way molested, except by the scorn of men. In this respect also, + therefore, the primitive Gospel which we can recover from John has + the advantage. It was only later that this <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Son of God”</span> became the Jewish Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We arrive at the + primitive Johannine writing when we cancel in the Fourth Gospel all + Jewish doctrine and all miracles.<a id="noteref_104" name= + "noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> Its + date is the year 60 and it was composed by—Judas, the beloved + disciple. This primitive Gospel received little modification and + still shows clearly <span class="tei tei-q">“the wonderful reality of + its history.”</span> It aims only at giving a section of Jesus' + history, a representation of His attitude of mind and spirit. With + <span class="tei tei-q">“simple ingenuousness”</span> it gives, + <span class="tei tei-q">“along with the kernel of the historical + material of the Gospel, Jesus' thoughts about His own Person in the + mysterious oracular sayings and deeply thoughtful and moving + discourses by which the Nazarene stirred rather than enlightened the + world.”</span> Events of a striking character were, however, absent + from it. The feeding of the multitude was represented in it as + effected by natural means. It was a philanthropic feeding of a + multitude which certainly did not number thousands, the numbers are a + later insertion; Jesus fed them with bread and fish which He + purchased from a <span class="tei tei-q">“sutler-lad.”</span> The + healing of the lame man at the pool of Bethesda was the unmasking of + a malingerer, whom the Lord exposed and ordered to depart. As He had + bidden him carry his bed, and it was on the Sabbath, this brought Him + into conflict with the authorities. His only <span class= + "tei tei-q">“acts”</span> were acts of self-revelation—mystical + sayings which He threw out to the people. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The problem which meets us in His history is in truth a + psychological problem, how, namely, His exalted view of Himself came + to be accepted as the purest and highest truth—in His lifetime, it is + true, only by a limited circle of disciples, but after His departure + by a constantly growing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg + 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + multitude of believing followers.”</span> The gospel of the beloved + disciple Judas made its way quietly into the world, understood by + few, even as Jesus Himself had been understood by a few only.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">About ten years + later, according to Noack, appeared the original form of Luke, which + we can reconstruct from what is known of Marcion's Luke.<a id= + "noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> This + Evangelist is under Pauline influence, and writes with an apologetic + purpose. He desires to refute the calumny that Jesus was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“possessed of a devil,”</span> and he does this by making + Him cast out devils. It was in this way that miracle forced itself + into the Gospel history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this primitive + Luke, as Noack reconstructs it by combining the statements of the + Fathers regarding Marcion's Gospel, knows nothing of Jesus' journey + to Jerusalem to die. This circumstance is of capital importance to + Noack, because in the course of his attempt to bring the topography + of the Fourth Gospel into harmony with that of the Synoptics he had + arrived at the remarkable result that the Johannine Christ worked in + Galilee, not in Judaea. On the basis of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Onomasticon</span></span> of Eusebius—which + Noack, with the aid of topographical traditions derived from the + Crusaders and statements of Mohammedan writers, interprets with a + recklessness which is nothing short of criminal—Cana and Bethany + (Bethabara) were not in the latitude of Jerusalem, but <span class= + "tei tei-q">“near the head-waters of the Jordan in the upper part of + the Jordan valley before it flows into the lake of Huleh. There, in + Coele-Syria, on the southern slope of Hermon, was the scene of John + the Baptist's labours; there Jesus began His ministry; thither He + returned to die.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“It is in the + Galilaean district which forms the scene of the Song of Solomon that + the reader of this book must be prepared to find the Golgotha of the + cross.”</span> That is the sentence with which Noack's account of the + Life of Jesus opens. This alludes to an idea which had already been + worked out in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Studies on the Song of + Solomon,”</span><a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href= + "#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> namely, + that the mountain country surrounding the upper Jordan was the + pre-exilic Judaea, and that the <span class="tei tei-q">“city of + David”</span> was situated there. The Jews on their return from exile + had at first endeavoured to rebuild that Coele-Syrian city of David + with the ruins of Solomon's Temple, but had been driven away from it + and had then taken the desperate resolution to build the temple of + Zerubbabel upon the high plateau lying far to the south of ancient + Israel. Ezra the Scribe interpolated the forgery on the ground of + which this site began to be accepted as the former city of David. + Under the Syrian oppression all remembrance of the ancient city of + David entirely disappeared.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This fantastic + edifice, in the construction of which the wildest <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> etymologies play a part, is founded on + the just recognition that a reconciliation of John with the + Synoptists can only be effected by transferring some of the Johannine + localities to the North; but this involves not only finding Bethany, + Arimathea and the other places, but even the scene of Jesus' death in + this district. The brook Kedron conveniently becomes the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“brook of Cedars.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For fifty years + the two earliest Evangelists, in spite of their poverty of incident, + sufficed for the needs of the Christians. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fire of Jesus”</span> was fed chiefly by the Pauline + Gospel. The original form of the Gospel of Luke accordingly became + the starting-point of the next stage of development. Thus arose the + Gospel of Mark. Mark was not a native of Palestine, but a man of + Roman extraction living in Decapolis, who had not the slightest + knowledge of the localities in which the life of Jesus was really + passed. He undertook, about the year 130, <span class="tei tei-q">“in + the interest of the new Christian settlement at Jerusalem in + Hadrian's time, deliberately and consciously to transform the + original plan of the Gospel history and to represent the Lord as + crucified at Jerusalem.”</span> The man who from the year 132 onward, + as Mark the Bishop, preached the word of the Crucified to a Gentile + Christian community amid the ruins of the holy city, had previously, + as Mark the Evangelist, taken care that a prophet should not perish + out of Jerusalem. In composing his Gospel he made use, in addition to + Luke, of a traditional source which he found in Decapolis. He + deliberately omitted the frequent journeys to Jerusalem which were + still found in the original Luke, and inserted instead Jesus' journey + to His death. He it was, also, who made the Nazarite into the + Nazarene, laying the scene of Jesus' youth in Nazareth. To the cures + of demoniacs he added magical acts such as the feeding of the + multitude and the resurrection.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Matthew, who + appeared about 135, legend and fiction riot unchecked. In addition, + Jewish parables and sayings are put into the mouth of Jesus, whereas + He really had nothing to do with the Jewish world of ideas. For if + anything is certain, it is that the moral maxims of the latest Gospel + are of a distinctively Jewish origin. About the middle of the second + century the originals of John and Luke underwent redaction. The + redaction of the Logos Gospel was completed by the addition of the + twenty-first chapter; the last redaction of Luke was perhaps carried + out by Justin Martyr, fresh from completing his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dialogue with Trypho”</span>! Thus John and Luke are, in + this final form, which is full of contradictions, the latest Gospels, + and the saying is fulfilled about the first being last, and the last + first.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Arbitrary as these + suggestions are, there is nevertheless something impressive in the + attempt to explain the remarkable inconsistencies which are found + within the Gospel tradition by <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> considerations relating to its origin and + development. Despite all his far-fetched ideas, Noack really stands + higher than some of his contemporaries who showed more prudence in + their theological enterprises, and about that time were earning the + applause of the faculty, and quieting the minds of the laity, by + performing once more the old conjuring trick—assisted by some new + feats of legerdemain—of harmonising John with the Synoptists in such + a way as to produce a Life of Jesus which could be turned to the + service of ecclesiastical theology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The outline of the + public Life of Jesus, as reconstructed by Noack, is as follows. It + lasted from early in the year 35 to the 14th Nisan of the year 37, + and began in the moment when Jesus revealed His consciousness of what + He was. We do not know how long previously He had cherished it in + secret. It is certain that the Baptist helped to bring about this + revelation. This is the only part which he plays in the Gospel of + John. He was neither a preacher of repentance, nor an Elias, nor the + forerunner of Jesus, nor a mere signpost pointing to the Messiah, + such as the secondary tradition makes him out to be.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similarly + everything that is Messianic in the consciousness of Jesus is + secondary. The lines of His thought were guided by the Greek ideas + about sons of God, for the soil of northern Galilee was saturated + with these ideas. Other sources which contributed something were the + personification of the Divine Wisdom in the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Wisdom Literature”</span> and some of Philo's doctrines. + Jesus became the son of God in an ecstatic trance! Had not Philo + recognised ecstasy as the last and highest means of rising to union + with the Divine?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus' + temperament, according to Noack, was pre-disposed to ecstasy, since + He was born out of wedlock. One who had this burden upon His spirit + may well have early taken refuge in His own thoughts, above the + clouds, in the presence of the God of His fathers. Assailed in a + thousand ways by the cruelty of the world, it would seem to Him as + though His Heavenly Father, though unseen, was stretching out to Him + the arms of consolation. Imagination, which ever mercifully lightens + for men the yoke of misery, charmed the fatherless child out of His + earthly sufferings and put into His hand a coloured glass through + which He saw the world and life in a false light. Ecstatic enthusiasm + had carried Him up to the dizzy height of spiritual union with the + Father in Heaven. A hundred times He was cast down out of His dreams + into the hard world of reality, to experience once more His earthly + distresses, but ever anew He won His way by fasting, vigil, and + prayer to the starry heaven of ecstasy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jesus,”</span> Noack explains, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“had in thought projected Himself beyond His earthly + nativity and risen to the conception that His <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ego had been in existence before this + earthly body in which He stood visibly upon the stage of the world. + He felt that His ego had had being and life before He became + incarnate upon earth.... This new conception of Himself, born of His + solitary musings, was incorporated into the very substance of His + natural personal ego. A new ego had superseded the old natural, + corporeally conditioned ego.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ambition, too, + came into play—the high ambition to do God a service by the offering + up of Himself. The passion of self-sacrifice is characteristic of a + consciousness such as this. According to the document which underlies + the Johannine Gospel it was not in consequence of outward events that + Jesus took His resolve to die. <span class="tei tei-q">“It was the + later Gospel tradition which exhibited His fate as an inevitable + consequence of His conflict with a world impervious to spiritual + impression.”</span> In the original Gospel that fate was freely + embraced from the outset as belonging to the vocation of the Son of + God. Only by the constant presence of the thought of death could a + life which for two years walked the razor edge of such dizzy dreams + have been preserved from falling. The conviction, or perhaps rather + the instinctive feeling, that the rôle of a Son of God upon earth was + not one to be maintained for decades was the necessary counterpoise + to the enthusiasm of Jesus' spirit. From the first He was as much at + home with the thought of death as with His Heavenly Father.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This Son of + Man—according to Noack's interpretation the title is equivalent to + Son of Hope—requires of the multitude that they shall take His lofty + dream for solid reality. <span class="tei tei-q">“He revealed His + message from heaven to the world at the Paschal Feast of the year 35, + by throwing out a challenge to the Sadducaean hierarchy in + Jerusalem.”</span> In the time between John's removal from the scene + and John's death, there falls the visit of Jesus to Samaria and a + sojourn in the neighbourhood of His Galilaean home. At the Feast of + Tabernacles in Jerusalem in the autumn of that year, the healing of + the lame man at the pool of Bethesda led to a breach with the + Sabbatic regulations of the Pharisees. Later on, in consequence of + His generous feeding of the multitude in the Gaulonite table-land, + there is an attempt to make Him into a Messianic King; which He, + however, repudiates. At the time of the Passover in Galilee in the + year 36, in the synagogue at Capernaum, He tests the spiritual + insight of those who may, He hopes, be ripe for the higher teaching + concerning the Son of God made flesh, by the touchstone of His + mystical words about the bread of life. At the next Feast of + Tabernacles, in the city of Zion, He makes a last desperate attempt + to move men's hearts by the parable of the Good Shepherd who is ready + to lay down His life for His sheep, the people of + Israel.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg + 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But His + adversaries are remorseless; they wound Him to the very depths of His + spirit by bringing to Him the woman taken in adultery, and asking Him + what they are to do with her. When this question was sprung upon Him, + He saw in a moment the public humiliation designed by His + adversaries. All eyes were turned upon Him, and for a few moments the + embarrassment of One who was usually so self-possessed was patent to + all. He stooped as though He desired to write with His finger upon + the ground. Was it shame at His dishonourable birth that compelled + Him thus to lower His gaze? But the painful silence of expectation + among the spectators did not last long. His adversaries repeated + their question, He raised His head and spoke the undying words: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Let him that is without sin among you cast + the first stone at her.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Incensed by His + constant references to His heavenly Sonship, they endeavour at last + to stone Him. He flees from the Temple and takes refuge in the Jordan + uplands. His purpose is, at the next Passover, that of the year 37, + here in the mountains which were blessed as Joseph's portion, to + offer His atoning death as that of the true paschal lamb, and with + this act to quit the stage of the world's history. He remained in + hiding in order to avoid the risk of assassination by the emissaries + of the Pharisees. In Bethany He receives the mysterious visit of the + Greeks, who doubtless desired to tempt Him to raise the standard of + revolt as a claimant of the Messiahship, but He refuses to be shaken + in His determination to die. The washing of the disciples' feet + signifies their baptism with water, that they might thereafter + receive the baptism of the Holy Spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Judas, the + disciple whom Jesus loved, who was a man of much resource, helped Him + to avoid being arrested as a disturber of the peace by arranging that + the <span class="tei tei-q">“betrayal”</span> should take place on + the evening before the Passover, in order that Jesus might die, as He + desired, on the day of the Passover. For this service of love he was, + in the secondary tradition, torn from the bosom of the Lord and + branded as a traitor.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name= + "Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XIII. Renan</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ernest + Renan.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">La Vie de Jésus. + 1863. Paris, Michel Lévy Frères. 462 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">E. de + Pressensé.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Jésus-Christ, + son temps, sa vie, son œuvre. Paris, 1865. 684 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ernest Renan was + born in 1823 at Tréguier in Brittany. Intended for the priesthood, he + entered the seminary of St. Sulpice in Paris, but there, in + consequence of reading the German critical theology, he began to + doubt the truth of Christianity and of its history. In October 1845, + shortly before the time arrived for him to be ordained a sub-deacon, + he left the seminary and began to work for his living as a private + teacher. In 1849 he received a government grant to enable him to make + a journey to Italy for the prosecution of his studies, the fruits of + which appeared in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Averroès et l'Averroïsme</span></span> (Paris, + 1852); in 1856 he was made a member of the Académie des Inscriptions; + in 1860 he received from Napoléon III. the means to make a journey to + Phoenicia and Syria. After his return in 1862 he obtained the + professorship of Semitic Languages at the Collège de France. But the + widespread indignation aroused by his Life of Jesus, which appeared + in the following year, forced the Government to remove him from his + office. He refused a post as Librarian of the Imperial Library, and + lived in retirement until the Republic of 1871 restored him to his + professorship. In politics, as in religion, his position was somewhat + indefinite. In religion he was no longer a Catholic; avowed + free-thought was too plebeian for his taste, and in Protestantism the + multiplicity of sects repelled him. Similarly in politics, in the + period immediately following the fall of the Empire, he was in turn + Royalist, Republican, and Bonapartist. At bottom he was a sceptic. He + died in 1892, already half-forgotten by the public; until his + imposing funeral and interment in the Panthéon recalled him to its + memory.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Like Strauss, + Renan designed his Life of Jesus to form part of a complete account + of the history and dogma of the early Church. His purpose, however, + was purely historical; it was no part of his <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> project to set up, on the basis of the history, + a new system of dogma, as Strauss had desired to do. This plan was + not only conceived, but carried out. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Apôtres</span></span> appeared in 1866; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. Paul</span></span> + in 1869; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L'Anté-Christ</span></span> in 1873; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Évangiles</span></span> in 1877; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Église + chrétienne</span></span> in 1879; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marc-Aurèle et la fin + du monde antique</span></span> in 1881. Several of these works were + more valuable than the one which opened the series, but for the world + Renan continued to be the author of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vie de + Jésus</span></span>, and of that alone.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He planned the + work at Gaza, and he dedicated it to his sister Henriette, who died + soon after, in Syria, and lies buried at Byblus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the first + Life of Jesus for the Catholic world, which had scarcely been + touched—the Latin peoples least of all—by the two and a half + generations of critical study which had been devoted to the subject. + It is true, Strauss's work had been translated into French,<a id= + "noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> but it + had made only a passing stir, and that only among a little circle of + intellectuals. Now came a writer with the characteristic French + mental accent, who gave to the Latin world in a single book the + result of the whole process of German criticism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Renan's work + marked an epoch, not for the Catholic world only, but for general + literature. He laid the problem which had hitherto occupied only + theologians before the whole cultured world. And not as a problem, + but as a question of which he, by means of his historical science and + aesthetic power of reviving the past, could provide a solution. He + offered his readers a Jesus who was alive, whom he, with his artistic + imagination, had met under the blue heaven of Galilee, and whose + lineaments his inspired pencil had seized. Men's attention was + arrested, and they thought to see Jesus, because Renan had the skill + to make them see blue skies, seas of waving corn, distant mountains, + gleaming lilies, in a landscape with the Lake of Gennesareth for its + centre, and to hear with him in the whispering of the reeds the + eternal melody of the Sermon on the Mount.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet the aesthetic + feeling for nature which gave birth to this Life of Jesus was, it + must be confessed, neither pure nor profound. It is a standing enigma + why French art, which in painting grasps nature with a directness and + vigour, with an objectivity in the best sense of the word, such as is + scarcely to be found in the art of any other nation, has in poetry + treated it in a fashion which scarcely ever goes beyond the lyrical + and sentimental, the artificial, the subjective, in the worst sense + of the word. Renan is no exception to this rule, any more than + Lamartine or Pierre Loti. He looks at the landscape with the eye of a + decorative painter seeking a <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motif</span></span> for a lyrical composition + upon which he is engaged. But that was not noticed by the many, + because they, after all, were accustomed to have <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> nature dressed up for them, and had had + their taste so corrupted by a certain kind of lyricism that they had + lost the power of distinguishing between truth and artificiality. + Even those who might have noticed it were so astonished and delighted + at being shown Jesus in the Galilaean landscape that they were + content to yield to the enchantment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Along with this + artificial feeling for nature a good many other things were accepted + without question. There is scarcely any other work on the subject + which so abounds in lapses of taste—and those of the most distressing + kind—as Renan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vie de Jésus</span></span>. It is Christian art + in the worst sense of the term—the art of the wax image. The gentle + Jesus, the beautiful Mary, the fair Galilaeans who formed the retinue + of the <span class="tei tei-q">“amiable carpenter,”</span> might have + been taken over in a body from the shop-window of an ecclesiastical + art emporium in the Place St. Sulpice. Nevertheless, there is + something magical about the work. It offends and yet it attracts. It + will never be quite forgotten, nor is it ever likely to be surpassed + in its own line, for nature is not prodigal of masters of style, and + rarely is a book so directly born of enthusiasm as that which Renan + planned among the Galilaean hills.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The essay on the + sources of the Life of Jesus with which it opens is itself a literary + masterpiece. With a kind of effortless ease he makes his readers + acquainted with the criticism of Strauss, of Baur, of Reuss, of + Colani. He does not argue, but simply sets the result vividly before + the reader, who finds himself at once at home in the new world of + ideas. He avoids any hard or glaring effects; by means of that + skilful transition from point to point which Wagner in one of his + letters praises as the highest art, everything is surrounded with + atmosphere. But how much trickery and illusion there is in this art! + In a few strokes he indicates the relation of John to the Synoptists; + the dilemma is made clear, it seems as if one horn or the other must + be chosen. Then he begins by artful touches to soften down the + contrast. The discourses of John are not authentic; the historical + Jesus cannot have spoken thus. But what about the statements of fact? + Here Renan declares himself convinced by the graphic presentment of + the passion story. Touches like <span class="tei tei-q">“it was + night,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“they had lighted a fire of + coals,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the coat was without + seam,”</span> cannot have been invented. Therefore the Gospel must in + some way go back to the disciple whom Jesus loved. It is possible, + nay certain, that when as an old man he read the other Gospels, he + was displeased by certain inaccuracies, and perhaps vexed that he was + given so small a place in the history. He began to dictate a number + of things which he had better means of knowing than the others; + partly, too, with the purpose of showing that in many cases where + Peter only had been mentioned he also had played a part, and indeed + the principal part. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg + 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Sometimes his recollection was quite fresh, sometimes it had been + modified by time. When he wrote down the discourses, he had forgotten + the Lake of Gennesareth and the winsome words which he had listened + to upon its shores. He was now living in quite a different world. The + events of the year 70 destroyed his hopes of the return of his + Master. His Jewish prejudices fell away, and as he was still young, + he adapted himself to the syncretistic, philosophic, gnostic + environment amid which he found himself in Ephesus. Thus even Jesus' + world of thought took on a new shape for him; although the discourses + are perhaps rather to be referred to his school than to himself. But, + when all is said, John remains the best biographer. Or, to put it + more accurately, while all the Gospels are biographies, they are + legendary biographies, even though they come down from the first + century. Their texts need interpretation, and the clue to the + interpretation can be supplied by aesthetic feeling. They must be + subjected to a gentle pressure to bring them together, and make them + coalesce into a unity in which all the data are happily combined.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How this is to be + done Renan shows later in his description of the death of Jesus. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Suddenly,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jesus gave a terrible cry in which some thought they + heard <span class="tei tei-q">‘Father, into thy hands I commend my + spirit,’</span> but which others, whose thoughts were running on the + fulfilment of prophecy, reported as <span class="tei tei-q">‘It is + finished.’</span> ”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The authentic + sayings of Jesus are more or less self-evidencing. Coming in contact + with one of them amid the welter of heterogeneous traditions, you + feel a thrill of recognition. They leap forth and take their proper + place, where their vivid power becomes apparent. For one who writes + the life of Jesus on His native soil, the Gospels are not so much + sources of information as incentives to revelation. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I had,”</span> Renan avows, <span class="tei tei-q">“a + fifth Gospel before my eyes, mutilated in parts, but still legible, + and taking it for my guide I saw behind the narratives of Matthew and + Mark, instead of an ideal Being of whom it might be maintained that + He had never existed, a glorious human countenance full of life and + movement.”</span> It is this Jesus of the fifth Gospel that he + desires to portray.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In looking at the + picture, the reader must not allow the vexed question of miracle to + distract him and disturb the proper frame of mind. The author refuses + to assert either the possibility or the impossibility of miracle, but + speaks only as an historian. <span class="tei tei-q">“We do not say + miracle is impossible, we say only that there has never been a + satisfactorily authenticated miracle.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In view of the + method of treatment adopted by Renan there can, of course, be no + question of an historical plan. He brings in each saying at the point + where it seems most appropriate. None of them is passed over, but + none of them appears in its historical setting. He shifts individual + incidents hither and thither in the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> most arbitrary fashion. For example, the coming + of Jesus' mother to seek Him (in the belief that He is beside + Himself) must belong to the later part of Jesus' life, since it is + out of tone with the happy innocence of the earlier period. Certain + scenes are transposed from the later period to the earlier, because + they are not gloomy enough for the later time. Others again are made + the basis of an unwarranted generalisation. It is not enough that + Jesus once rode upon an ass while the disciples in the intoxication + of joy cast their garments in the way; according to Renan, He + constantly rode about, even in Galilee, upon a mule, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that favourite riding-animal of the East, which is so + docile and sure-footed and whose great dark eyes, shaded by long + lashes, are full of gentleness.”</span> Sometimes the disciples + surrounded Him with rustic pomp, using their garments by way of + carpeting. They laid them upon the mule which carried Him, or spread + them before Him on the way.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Scenes of little + significance are sometimes elaborately described by Renan while more + important ones are barely touched on. <span class="tei tei-q">“One + day, indeed,”</span> he remarks in describing the first visit to + Jerusalem, <span class="tei tei-q">“anger seems to have, as the + saying goes, overmastered Him; He struck some of the miserable + chafferers with the scourge, and overthrew their tables.”</span> Such + is the incidental fashion in which the cleansing of the temple was + brought in. In this way it is possible to smuggle in a miracle + without giving any further explanation of it. The miracle at Cana is + brought, by means of the following unobtrusive turn of phrase, into + the account of the period of success in Galilee. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“One of His miracles was done by Jesus for the sole + purpose of increasing the happiness of a wedding-party in a little + country town.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This Life of Jesus + is introduced by a kind of prelude. Jesus had been living in Galilee + before He came to the Baptist; when He heard of the latter's success + He went to him with His little company of followers. They were both + young, and Jesus became the imitator of the Baptist. Fortunately the + latter soon disappeared from the scene, for his influence on Jesus + was in some respects injurious. The Galilaean teacher was on the + verge of losing the sunny religion which He had learned from His only + teacher, the glorious natural scenery which surrounded His home, and + of becoming a gloomy Jewish fanatic. But this influence fell away + from Him again; when He returned to Galilee He became Himself once + more. The only thing which He had gained from John was some knowledge + of the art of preaching. He had learned from him how to influence + masses of men. From that time forward He preached with much more + power and gained greater ascendancy over the people.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With the return to + Galilee begins the first act of the piece. The story of the rise of + Christianity is a pastoral play. Bauer, in <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> his <span class="tei tei-q">“Philo, Strauss, + and Renan,”</span> writes with biting sarcasm: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Renan, who is at once the author of the play, the + stage-manager, and the director of the theatre, gives the signal to + begin, and at a sign from him the electric lights are put on full + power, the Bengal fires flare up, the footlights are turned higher, + and while the flutes and shawms of the orchestra strike up the + overture, the people enter and take their places among the bushes and + by the shore of the Lake.”</span> And how confiding they were, this + gentle and peaceful company of Galilaean fisher folk! And He, the + young carpenter, conjured the Kingdom of Heaven down to earth for a + year, by the spell of the infinite tenderness which radiated from + Him. A company of men and women, all of the same youthful integrity + and simple innocence, became His followers and constantly repeated + <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou art the Messiah.”</span> By the women + He was more beloved than He Himself liked, but from His passion for + the glory of His Father He was content to attract these <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fair creatures”</span> (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">belles créatures</span></span>) and suffered + them to serve Him, and God through Him. Three or four devoted + Galilaean women constantly accompanied Him and strove with one + another for the pleasure (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">le + plaisir</span></span>) of listening to His teaching and attending to + His comfort. Some of them were wealthy and used their means to enable + the <span class="tei tei-q">“amiable”</span> (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">charmant</span></span>) prophet to live without + needing to practise His handicraft. The most devoted of all was Mary + Magdalene, whose disordered mind had been healed by the influence of + the pure and gracious beauty (<span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">par la beauté pure et + douce</span></span>) of the young Rabbi.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus He rode, on + His long-eyelashed gentle mule, from village to village, from town to + town. The sweet theology of love (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">la + délicieuse théologie de l'amour</span></span>) won Him all hearts. + His preaching was gentle and mild (<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">suave et douce</span></span>), full of nature + and the fragrance of the country. Wherever He went the people kept + festival. At marriages He was a welcome guest; to the feasts which He + gave He invited women who were sinners, and publicans like the good + Zacchaeus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Frenchman,”</span> remarks Noack, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“takes the mummied figure of the Galilaean Rabbi, which + criticism has exhumed, endows it with life and energy, and brings Him + upon the stage, first amid the lustre of the earthly happiness which + it was His pleasure to bestow, and then in the moving aspect of one + doomed to suffer.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Jesus goes up + to the Passover at the end of this first year, He comes into conflict + with the Rabbis of the capital. The <span class="tei tei-q">“winsome + teacher, who offered forgiveness to all on the sole condition of + loving Him,”</span> found in the capital people upon whom His charm + had no effect. When He returned to Galilee He had entirely abandoned + His Jewish beliefs, and a revolutionary ardour glowed in His heart. + The second act begins. <span class="tei tei-q">“The action becomes + more serious and gloomy, and the pupil of Strauss turns <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> down the footlights of his + stage.”</span><a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href= + "#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> The + erstwhile <span class="tei tei-q">“winsome moralist”</span> has + become a transcendental revolutionary. Up to this point He had + thought to bring about the triumph of the Kingdom of God by natural + means, by teaching and influencing men. The Jewish eschatology stood + vaguely in the background. Now it becomes prominent. The tension set + up between His purely ethical ideas and these eschatological + expectations gives His words from this time forward a special force. + The period of joyous simplicity is past.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even the character + of the hero loses its simplicity. In the furtherance of His cause He + becomes a wonder-worker. It is true that even before He had sometimes + practised innocent arts such as Joan of Arc made use of later.<a id= + "noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> He had, + for instance, pretended to know the unspoken thoughts of one whom He + desired to win, had reminded him, perhaps, of some experience of + which he cherished the memory. He allowed the people to believe that + He received knowledge of certain matters through a kind of + revelation. Finally, it came to be whispered that He had spoken with + Moses and Elias upon the mountains. But He now finds Himself + compelled to adopt in earnest the rôle which He had formerly taken, + as it were, in play. Against His will He is compelled to found His + work upon miracle. He must face the alternative of either renouncing + His mission or becoming a thaumaturge. He consented, therefore, to + play an active part in many miracles. In this astute friends gave Him + their aid. At Bethany something happened which could be regarded as a + raising of the dead. Perhaps this miracle was arranged by Lazarus + himself. When very ill he had allowed himself to be wrapped in the + cerements of the dead and laid in the grave. His sisters sent for + Jesus and brought Him to the tomb. He desired to look once more upon + His friend, and when, overcome with grief, He cried his name aloud, + Lazarus came forth from the grave. Why should the brother and sisters + have hesitated to provide a miracle for the Master, in whose + miracle-working power they, indeed, believed? Where, then, was + Renan's allegiance to his <span class="tei tei-q">“honoured + master”</span> Strauss, when he thus enrolled himself among the + rationalists?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On these lines + Jesus played His part for eighteen months, from the Easter of 31 to + the Feast of Tabernacles of 32. How great is the change from the + gentle teacher of the Sermon on the Mount! His discourse takes on a + certain hardness of tone. In the synagogue at Capernaum He drives + many from Him, offended by the saying about eating and drinking His + flesh and blood. The <span class="tei tei-q">“extreme materialism of + the expression,”</span> which in Him had always been the natural + counterpoise to the <span class="tei tei-q">“extreme idealism of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" + id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> thought,”</span> becomes more + and more pronounced. His <span class="tei tei-q">“Kingdom of + God”</span> was indeed still essentially the kingdom of the poor, the + kingdom of the soul, the great spiritual kingdom; but He now preached + it as the kingdom of the apocalyptic writings. And yet in the very + moment when He seems to be staking everything upon a supernatural + fulfilment of His hopes, He provides with remarkable prescience the + basis of a permanent Church. He appoints the Twelve Apostles and + institutes the fellowship-meal. It is certain, Renan thinks, that the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Supper”</span> was not first instituted on + that last evening; even in the second Galilaean period He must have + practised with His followers the mystic rite of the Breaking of + Bread, which in some way symbolised His death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the end of this + period He had cast off all earthly ambitions. Nothing of earth + existed for Him any more. A strange longing for persecution and + martyrdom had taken possession of Him. It was not, however, the + resolve to offer an atonement for the sins of His people which + familiarised Him with the thought of death; it was forced upon Him by + the knowledge that He had entered upon a path in which it was + impossible for Him to sustain His rôle for more than a few months, or + perhaps even weeks. So He sets out for Jerusalem, outwardly a hero, + inwardly half in despair because He has turned aside from His true + path. The gentle, faithful, long-eyelashed mule bears Him, amid the + acclamations of the multitude, through the gate of the capital.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third act + begins: the stage is dark and becomes constantly darker, until at + last, through the darkness of the scene, there is faintly visible + only the figure of a woman—of her who in her deep grief beside the + grave was by her vision to call to life again Him whom she loved. + There was darkness, too, in the souls of the disciples, and in that + of the Master. The bitter jealousy between Judas and John made one of + them a traitor. As for Jesus, He had His hour of gloom to fight + through in Gethsemane. For a moment His human nature awakened in Him; + all that He thought He had slain and put behind Him for ever rose up + and confronted Him as He knelt there upon the ground. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Did He remember the clear brooks of Galilee at which He + might have slaked His thirst—the vine and the fig-tree beneath which + He might have rested—the maidens who would perhaps have been willing + to love Him? Did He regret His too exalted nature? Did He, a martyr + to His own greatness, weep that He had not remained the simple + carpenter of Nazareth? We do not know!”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He is dead. Renan, + as though he stood in Père Lachaise, commissioned to pronounce the + final allocution over a member of the Academy, apostrophises Him + thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Rest now, amid Thy glory, noble + pioneer. Thou conqueror of death, take the sceptre of Thy Kingdom, + into which so many centuries of Thy <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> worshippers shall follow Thee, by the highway + which Thou hast opened up.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The bell rings; + the curtain begins to fall; the swing-seats tilt. The epilogue is + scarcely heard: <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus will never have a + rival. His religion will again and again renew itself; His story will + call forth endless tears: His sufferings will soften the hearts of + the best; every successive century will proclaim that among the sons + of men there hath not arisen a greater than Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The book passed + through eight editions in three months. The writings of those who + opposed it had an equal vogue. That of Freppel had reached its + twelfth edition in 1864.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href= + "#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> Their + name was legion. Whatever wore a soutane and could wield a pen + charged against Renan, the bishops leading the van. The tone of these + attacks was not always very elevated, nor their logic very profound. + In most cases the writers were only concerned to defend the Deity of + Christ,<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href= + "#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> and the + miracles, and are satisfied that they have done so when they have + pointed out some of the glaring inconsistencies in Renan's work. Here + and there, however, among these refutations we catch the tone of a + loftier ethical spirit which has recognised the fundamental weakness + of the work, the lack of any definite ethical principles in the + writer's outlook upon life.<a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" + href="#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> There + were some indeed who were not content with a refutation; they would + gladly have seen active measures taken against Renan. One of his most + embittered adversaries, Amadée Nicolas,<a id="noteref_113" name= + "noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> reckons + up in an appendix to his work the maximum penalties authorised by the + existing enactments against free-thought, and would welcome the + application of the law of the 25th of March 1822, according to which + five years' imprisonment could be imposed for the crime of + <span class="tei tei-q">“insulting or making ridiculous a religion + recognised by the state.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Renan was defended + by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Siècle</span></span>, the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Débats</span></span>, + at that time the leading French newspaper, and the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Temps</span></span>, in + which Scherer published five articles upon the book. Even the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des + deux mondes</span></span>, which had formerly raised a warning voice + against Strauss, allowed itself to go with the stream, and published + in its August <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg + 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + number of 1863 a critical analysis by Havet<a id="noteref_114" name= + "noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> who + hailed Renan's work as a great achievement, and criticised only the + inconsistencies by which he had endeavoured to soften down the + radical character of his undertaking. Later on the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue</span></span> + changed its attitude and sided with Renan's opponents. In the + Protestant camp there was an even keener sense of distaste than in + the Catholic for the sentimental gloss which Renan had spread over + his work to make it attractive to the multitude by its iridescent + colours. In four remarkable letters Athanase Coquerel the younger + took the author to task for this.<a id="noteref_115" name= + "noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> From + the standpoint of orthodox scholarship E. de Pressensé condemned + him;<a id="noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href= + "#note_116"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a> and + proceeded without loss of time to refute him in a large-scale Life of + Jesus.<a id="noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href= + "#note_117"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> He was + answered by Albert Réville,<a id="noteref_118" name="noteref_118" + href="#note_118"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> who + claims recognition for Renan's services to criticism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In general, + however, the rising French school of critical theology was + disappointed in Renan. Their spokesman was Colani. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“This is not the Christ of history, the Christ of the + Synoptics,”</span> he writes in 1864 in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue de + théologie</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“but the Christ of + the Fourth Gospel, though without His metaphysical halo, and painted + over with a brush which has been dipped in the melancholy blue of + modern poetry, in the rose of the eighteenth-century idyll, and in + the grey of a moral philosophy which seems to be derived from La + Rochefoucauld.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“In expressing this + opinion,”</span> he adds, <span class="tei tei-q">“I believe I am + speaking in the name of those who belong to what is known as the new + Protestant theology, or the Strassburg school. We opened M. Renan's + book with sympathetic interest; we closed it with deep + disappointment.”</span><a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href= + "#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Strassburg + school had good cause to complain of Renan, for he had trampled their + growing crops. They had just begun to arouse some interest, and + slowly and surely to exercise an influence upon the whole spiritual + life of France. Sainte-Beuve had called attention to the work of + Reuss, Colani, Réville, and Scherer. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Others of the school were Michel Nicolas of + Montauban and Gustave d'Eichthal. Nefftzer, the editor of the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Temps</span></span>, who was at the same time a + prophet of coming political events, defended their cause in the + Parisian literary world. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Revue germanique</span></span> of that period, + the influence of which upon French literature can hardly be + over-estimated, was their sworn ally. Then came Renan and threw + public opinion into a ferment of excitement. Everything in the nature + of criticism, and of progress in religious thought, was associated + with his name, and was thereby discredited. By his untimely and + over-easy popularisation of the ideas of the critical school he + ruined their quiet work. The excitement roused by his book swept away + all that had been done by those noble and lofty spirits, who now + found themselves involved in a struggle with the outraged orthodoxy + of Paris, and were hard put to it to defend themselves. Even down to + the present day Renan's work forms the greatest hindrance to any + serious advance in French religious thought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The excitement + aroused upon the other side of the Rhine was scarcely less than in + Paris. Within a year there appeared five different German + translations, and many of the French criticisms of Renan were also + translated.<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href= + "#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> The + German Catholic press was wildly excited;<a id="noteref_121" name= + "noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> the + Protestant press was more restrained, more inclined to give the + author a fair hearing, and even ventured to express admiration of the + historical merits of his performance. Beyschlag<a id="noteref_122" + name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> saw in + Renan an advance upon Strauss, inasmuch as for him the life of Jesus + as narrated in the Gospels, while not, indeed, in any sense + supernatural, is nevertheless historical. For a certain school of + theology, therefore, Renan was a deliverer from Strauss; they were + especially grateful to him for his defence, sophistical though it + was, of the Fourth Gospel. Weizsäcker expressed his admiration. + Strauss, far from directing his <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of + Jesus for the German People,”</span> with which he was then occupied, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" + id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> against the superficial and + frivolous French treatment of the subject—as has sometimes been + alleged—hailed Renan in his preface as a kindred spirit and ally, and + <span class="tei tei-q">“shook hands with him across the + Rhine.”</span> Luthardt,<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href= + "#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> + however, remained inexorable. <span class="tei tei-q">“What is there + lacking in Renan's work?”</span> he asks. And he replies, + <span class="tei tei-q">“It lacks conscience.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That is a just + judgment. From this lack of conscience, Renan has not been scrupulous + where he ought to have been so. There is a kind of insincerity in the + book from beginning to end. Renan professes to depict the Christ of + the Fourth Gospel, though he does not believe in the authenticity or + the miracles of that Gospel. He professes to write a scientific work, + and is always thinking of the great public and how to interest it. He + has thus fused together two works of disparate character. The + historian finds it hard to forgive him for not going more deeply into + the problem of the development in the thought of Jesus, with which he + was brought face to face by the emphasis which he laid on + eschatology, and for offering in place of a solution the + highly-coloured phrases of the novelist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless, this + work will always retain a certain interest, both for Frenchmen and + for Germans. The German is often so completely fascinated by it as to + lose his power of criticism, because he finds in it German thought in + a novel and piquant form. Conversely the Frenchman discovers in it, + behind the familiar form, which is here handled in such a masterly + fashion, ideas belonging to a world which is foreign to him, ideas + which he can never completely assimilate, but which yet continually + attract him. In this double character of the work lies its + imperishable charm.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg + 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And its weakness? + That it is written by one to whom the New Testament was to the last + something foreign, who had not read it from his youth up in the + mother-tongue, who was not accustomed to breathe freely in its simple + and pure world, but must perfume it with sentimentality in order to + feel himself at home in it.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name= + "Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> + <a name="Chapter_XIV" id="Chapter_XIV" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XIV. The</span> <span class="tei tei-q" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 173%">Liberal</span><span style= + "font-size: 173%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 173%">Lives + Of Jesus</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">David + Friedrich Strauss.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Leben Jesu für das deutsche Volk bearbeitet. (A Life of Jesus for the + German People.) Leipzig, 1864. 631 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Der Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus der + Geschichte. Eine Kritik des Schleiermacher'schen Lebens Jesu. (The + Christ of Faith and the Jesus of History, a Criticism of + Schleiermacher's Life of Jesus.) Berlin, 1865. 223 pp. Appendix, + pp. 224-240.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Der Schenkel'sche Handel in Baden. (The Schenkel + Affair in Baden.) A corrected reprint from No. 441 of the</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">National-Zeitung</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, + of the 21st September 1864.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Die Halben und die Ganzen. (The Half-way-ers and + the Whole-way-ers.) 1865.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Daniel Schenkel.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Charakterbild Jesu. (The Portrait + of Jesus.) Wiesbaden, 1864 (ed. 1 and 2). 405 pp. Fourth edition, + with a preface opposing Strauss's</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Der alte und der neue Glaube</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(The + Old Faith and the New), 1873.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Karl + Heinrich Weizsäcker.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Untersuchungen über die evangelische Geschichte, + ihre Quellen und den Gang ihrer Entwicklung. (Studies in the Gospel + History, its Sources and the Progress of its Development.) Gotha, + 1864. 580 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Heinrich Julius + Holtzmann.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die + synoptischen Evangelien. Ihr Ursprung und geschichtlicher + Charakter. (The Synoptic Gospels. Their Origin and Historical + Character.) Leipzig, 1863. 514 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Theodor Keim.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Die Geschichte Jesu von Nazara. (The + History of Jesus of Nazara.) 3 vols., Zurich; vol. i., 1867, 446 + pp.; vol. ii., 1871, 616 pp.; vol. iii., 1872, 667 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Die Geschichte Jesu. Zurich, 1872. 398 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Karl + Hase.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Geschichte Jesu. + Nach akademischen Vorlesungen. (The History of Jesus. Academic + Lectures, revised.) Leipzig, 1876. 612 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Willibald + Beyschlag.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Leben + Jesu. First Part: Preliminary Investigations, 1885, 450 pp. Second + Part: Narrative, 1886, 495 pp.; 2nd ed., 1887-1888.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Bernhard Weiss.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Leben Jesu. 1st ed., 2 vols., + 1882; 2nd ed., 1884. First vol., down to the Baptist's question, + 556 pp. Second vol., 617 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“My hope is,”</span> writes Strauss in concluding the + preface of his new Life of Jesus, <span class="tei tei-q">“that I + have written a book as thoroughly well adapted for Germans as Renan's + is for Frenchmen.”</span> He was mistaken; in spite of its title the + book was not a book for the people. It had nothing new to offer, and + what it did offer was not in a form calculated to become popular. It + is true Strauss, like Renan, was an artist, but he did not write, + like an imaginative novelist, with a constant eye to effect. His art + was unpretentious, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg + 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + even austere, appealing to the few, not to the many. The people + demand a complete and vivid picture. Renan had given them a figure + which was theatrical no doubt, but full of life and movement, and + they had been grateful to him for it. Strauss could not do that.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even the + arrangement of the work is thoroughly unfortunate. In the first part, + which bears the title <span class="tei tei-q">“The Life of + Jesus,”</span> he attempts to combine into a harmonious portrait such + of the historical data as have some claim to be considered + historical; in the second part he traces the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Origin and Growth of the Mythical History of + Jesus.”</span> First, therefore, he tears down from the tree the ivy + and the rich growth of creepers, laying bare the worn and corroded + bark; then he fastens the faded growths to the stem again, and + describes the nature, origin, and characteristics of each distinct + species.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How vastly + different, how much more full of life, had been the work of 1835! + There Strauss had not divided the creepers from the stem. The + straining strength which upheld this wealth of creepers was but + vaguely suspected. Behind the billowy mists of legend we caught from + time to time a momentary glimpse of the gigantic figure of Jesus, as + though lit up by a lightning-flash. It was no complete and harmonious + picture, but it was full of suggestions, rich in thoughts thrown out + carelessly, rich in contradictions even, out of which the imagination + could create a portrait of Jesus. It is just this wealth of + suggestion that is lacking in the second picture. Strauss is trying + now to give a definite portrait. In the inevitable process of + harmonising and modelling to scale he is obliged to reject the finest + thoughts of the previous work because they will not fit in exactly; + some of them are altered out of recognition, some are filed away.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is wanting, + too, that perfect freshness as of the spring which is only found when + thoughts have but newly come into flower. The writing is no longer + spontaneous; one feels that Strauss is setting forth thoughts which + have ripened with his mind and grown old with it, and now along with + their definiteness of form have taken on a certain stiffness. There + are now no hinted possibilities, full of promise, to dance gaily + through the movement of his dialectic; all is sober reason—a thought + too sober. Renan had one advantage over Strauss in that he wrote when + the material was fresh to him—one might almost say strange to him—and + was capable of calling up in him the response of vivid feeling.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For a popular + book, too, it lacks that living interplay of reflection with + narration without which the ordinary reader fails to get a grip of + the history. The first Life of Jesus had been rich in this respect, + since it had been steeped in the Hegelian theory regarding the + realisation of the Idea. In the meantime Strauss <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had seen the Hegelian philosophy fall + from its high estate, and himself had found no way of reconciling + history and idea, so that his present Life of Jesus was a mere + objective presentment of the history. It was, therefore, not adapted + to make any impression upon the popular mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In reality it is + merely an exposition, in more or less popular form, of the writer's + estimate of what had been done in the study of the subject during the + past thirty years, and shows what he had learnt and what he had + failed to learn.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + Synoptic question he had learnt nothing. In his opinion the criticism + of the Gospels has <span class="tei tei-q">“run to seed.”</span> He + treats with a pitying contempt both the earlier and the more recent + defenders of the Marcan hypothesis. Weisse is a dilettante; Wilke had + failed to make any impression on him; Holtzmann's work was as yet + unknown to him. But in the following year he discharged the vials of + his wrath upon the man who had both strengthened the foundations and + put on the coping-stone of the new hypothesis. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Our lions of St. Mark, older and younger,”</span> he + says in the appendix to his criticism of Schleiermacher's Life of + Jesus, <span class="tei tei-q">“may roar as loud as they like, so + long as there are six solid reasons against the priority of Mark to + set against every one of their flimsy arguments in its favour—and + they themselves supply us with a store of counter-arguments in the + shape of admissions of later editing and so forth. The whole theory + appears to me a temporary aberration, like the 'music of the future' + or the anti-vaccination movement; and I seriously believe that it is + the same order of mind which, in different circumstances, falls a + victim to the one delusion or the other.”</span> But he must not be + supposed, he says, to take the critical mole-hills thrown up by + Holtzmann for veritable mountains.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Against such + opponents he does not scruple to seek aid from Schleiermacher, whose + unbiased but decided opinion had ascribed a tertiary character to + Mark. Even Gfrörer's view that Mark adapted his Gospel to the needs + of the Church by leaving out everything which was open to objection + in Matthew and Luke, is good enough to be brought to bear against the + bat-eyed partisans of Mark. F. C. Baur is reproached for having given + too much weight to the <span class="tei tei-q">“tendency”</span> + theory in his criticism of the Gospels; and also for having taken + suggestions of Strauss's and worked them out, supposing that he was + offering something new when he was really only amplifying. In the end + he had only given a criticism of the Gospels, not of the Gospel + history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this + irritation against his old teacher is immediately allayed when he + comes to speak of the Fourth Gospel. Here the teacher has carried to + a successful issue the campaign which the pupil had begun. Strauss + feels compelled to <span class="tei tei-q">“express his gratitude for + the work done by the Tübingen school on the Johannine + question.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg + 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> He + himself had only been able to deal with the negative side of the + question—to show that the Fourth Gospel was not an historical source, + but a theological invention; they had dealt with it positively, and + had assigned the document to its proper place in the evolution of + Christian thought. There is only one point with which he quarrels. + Baur had made the Fourth Gospel too completely spiritual, + <span class="tei tei-q">“whereas the fact is,”</span> says Strauss, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that it is the most material of all.”</span> + It is true, Strauss explains, that the Evangelist starts out to + interpret miracle and eschatology symbolically; but he halts half-way + and falls back upon the miraculous, enhancing the professed fact in + proportion as he makes it spiritually more significant. Beside the + spiritual return of Jesus in the Paraclete he places His return in a + material body, bearing the marks of the wounds; beside the inward + present judgment, a future outward judgment; and the fact that he + sees the one in the other, finds the one present and visible in the + other, is just what constitutes the mystical character of his Gospel. + This mysticism attracts the modern world. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Johannine Christ, who in His descriptions of Himself + seems to be always out-doing Himself, is the counterpart of the + modern believer, who in order to remain a believer must continually + out-do himself; the Johannine miracles which are always being + interpreted spiritually, and at the same time raised to a higher + pitch of the miraculous, which are counted and documented in every + possible way, and yet must not be considered the true ground of + faith, are at once miracles and no miracles. We must believe them, + and yet can believe without them; in short they exactly meet the + taste of the present day, which delights to involve itself in + contradictions and is too lethargic and wanting in courage for any + clear insight or decided opinion on religious matters.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strictly speaking, + however, the Strauss of the second Life of Jesus has no right to + criticise the Fourth Gospel for sublimating the history, for he + himself gives what is nothing else than a spiritualisation of the + Jesus of the Synoptics. And he does it in such an arbitrary fashion + that one is compelled to ask how far he does it with a good + conscience. A typical case is the exposition of Jesus' answer to the + Baptist's message. <span class="tei tei-q">“Is it possible,”</span> + Jesus means, <span class="tei tei-q">“that you fail to find in Me the + miracles which you expect from the Messiah? And yet I daily open the + eyes of the spiritually blind and the ears of the spiritually deaf, + make the lame walk erect and vigorous, and even give new life to + those who are morally dead. Any one who understands how much greater + these spiritual miracles are, will not be offended at the absence of + bodily miracles; only such an one can receive, and is worthy of, the + salvation which I am bringing to mankind.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here the + fundamental weakness of his method is clearly shown. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The vaunted apparatus for the evaporation + of the mythical does not work quite satisfactorily. The ultimate + product of this process was expected to be a Jesus who should be + essential man; the actual product, however, is Jesus the historical + man, a being whose looks and sayings are strange and unfamiliar. + Strauss is too purely a critic, too little of the creative historian, + to recognise this strange being. That Jesus really lived in a world + of Jewish ideas and held Himself to be Messiah in the Jewish sense is + for the writer of the Life of Jesus an impossibility. The deposit + which resists the chemical process for the elimination of myth, he + must therefore break up with the hammer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How different from + the Strauss of 1835! He had then recognised eschatology as the most + important element in Jesus' world of thought, and in some incidental + remarks had made striking applications of it. He had, for example, + proposed to regard the Last Supper not as the institution of a feast + for coming generations, but as a Paschal meal, at which Jesus + declared that He would next partake of the Paschal bread and Paschal + wine along with His disciples in the heavenly kingdom. In the second + Life of Jesus this view is given up; Jesus did found a feast. + <span class="tei tei-q">“In order to give a living centre of unity to + the society which it was His purpose to found, Jesus desired to + institute this distribution of bread and wine as a feast to be + constantly repeated.”</span> One might be reading Renan. This change + of attitude is typical of much else.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss is not in + the least disquieted by finding himself at one with Schleiermacher in + these attempts to spiritualise. On the contrary, he appeals to him. + He shares, he says, Schleiermacher's conviction <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that the unique self-consciousness of Jesus did not + develop as a consequence of His conviction that He was the Messiah; + on the contrary, it was a consequence of His self-consciousness that + He arrived at the view that the Messianic prophecies could point to + no one but Himself.”</span> The moment eschatology entered into the + consciousness of Jesus it came in contact with a higher principle + which over-mastered it and gradually dissolved it. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Had Jesus applied the Messianic idea to Himself before + He had had a profound religious consciousness to which to relate it, + doubtless it would have taken possession of Him so powerfully that He + could never have escaped from its influence.”</span> We must suppose + the ideality, the concentration upon that which was inward, the + determination to separate religion, on the one hand, from politics, + and on the other, from ritual, the serene consciousness of being able + to attain to peace with God and with Himself by purely spiritual + means—all this we must suppose to have reached a certain ripeness, a + certain security, in the mind of Jesus, before He permitted Himself + to entertain the thought of His Messiahship, and this we may believe + is the reason why He grasped <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> it in so independent and individual a fashion. + In this, therefore, Strauss has become the pupil of Weisse.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in the Old + Testament prophecies, he explains, we find two conceptions, a more + ideal and a more practical. Jesus holds consistently to the first, He + describes Himself as the Son of Man because this designation + <span class="tei tei-q">“contains the suggestion of humility and + lowliness, of the human and natural.”</span> At Jerusalem, Jesus, in + giving His interpretation of Psalm cx., <span class="tei tei-q">“made + merry over the Davidic descent of the Messiah.”</span> He desired + <span class="tei tei-q">“to be Messiah in the sense of a patient + teacher exercising a quiet influence.”</span> As the opposition of + the people grew more intense, He took up some of the features of + Isaiah liii. into His conception of the Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of His + resurrection, Jesus can only have spoken in a metaphorical sense. It + is hardly credible that one who was pure man could have arrogated to + himself the position of judge of the world. Strauss would like best + to ascribe all the eschatology to the distorting medium of early + Christianity, but he does not venture to carry this through with + logical consistency. He takes it as certain, however, that Jesus, + even though it sometimes seems as if He did not expect the Kingdom to + be realised in the present, but in a future, world-era, and to be + brought about by God in a supernatural fashion, nevertheless sets + about the establishment of the Kingdom by purely spiritual + influence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this end in + view He leaves Galilee, when He judges the time to be ripe, in order + to work on a larger scale. <span class="tei tei-q">“In case of an + unfavourable issue, He reckons on the influence which a martyr-death + has never failed to exercise in giving momentum to a lofty + idea.”</span> How far He had advanced, when He entered on the fateful + journey to Jerusalem, in shaping His plan, and especially in + organising the company of adherents who had gathered about Him, it is + impossible to determine with any exactness. He permitted the + triumphal entry because He did not desire to decline the role of the + Messiah in every aspect of it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Owing to this + arbitrary spiritualisation of the Synoptic Jesus, Strauss's picture + is in essence much more unhistorical than Renan's. The latter had not + needed to deny that Jesus had done miracles, and he had been able to + suggest an explanation of how Jesus came in the end to fall back upon + the eschatological system of ideas. But at what a price! By + portraying Jesus as at variance with Himself, a hero broken in + spirit. This price is too high for Strauss. Arbitrary as his + treatment of history is, he never loses the intuitive feeling that in + Jesus' self-consciousness there is a unique absence of struggle; that + He does not bear the scars which are found in those natures which win + their way to freedom and purity through strife and conflict, that in + Him there is no trace of the hardness, harshness, and gloom which + cleave to such natures <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg + 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + throughout life, but that He <span class="tei tei-q">“is manifestly a + beautiful nature from the first.”</span> Thus, for all Strauss's + awkward, arbitrary handling of the history he is greater than the + rival<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" href= + "#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> who + could manufacture history with such skill.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless, from + the point of view of theological science, this work marks a + standstill. That was the net result of the thirty years of critical + study of the life of Jesus for the man who had inaugurated it so + impressively. This was the only fruit which followed those blossoms + so full of promise of the first Life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is significant + that in the same year there appeared Schleiermacher's lectures on the + Life of Jesus, which had not seen the light for forty years, because, + as Strauss himself remarked in his criticism of the resurrected work, + it had neither anodyne nor dressing for the wounds which his first + Life of Jesus had made.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href= + "#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> The + wounds, however, had cicatrised in the meantime. It is true Strauss + is a just judge, and makes ample acknowledgment of the greatness of + Schleiermacher's achievement.<a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126" + href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> He + blames Schleiermacher for setting up his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“presuppositions in regard to Christ”</span> as an + historical canon, and considering it a proof that a statement is + unhistorical if it does not square with those presuppositions. But + does not the purely human, but to a certain extent unhistorical, man, + who is to be the ultimate product of the process of eliminating myth, + serve Strauss as his <span class="tei tei-q">“theoretic + Christ”</span> who determines the presentment of his historical + Jesus? Does he not share with Schleiermacher the erroneous, + artificial, <span class="tei tei-q">“double”</span> construction of + the consciousness of Jesus? And what about their views of Mark? What + fundamental difference is there, when all is said, between + Schleiermacher's de-rationalised Life of Jesus and Strauss's? + Certainly this second Life of Jesus would not have frightened + Schleiermacher's away into hiding for thirty years.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So + Schleiermacher's Life of Jesus might now safely venture <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> forth into the light. There was no reason + why it should feel itself a stranger at this period, and it had no + need to be ashamed of itself. Its rationalistic birth-marks were + concealed by its brilliant dialectic.<a id="noteref_127" name= + "noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> And the + only real advance in the meantime was the general recognition that + the Life of Jesus was not to be interpreted on rationalistic, but on + historical lines. All other, more definite, historical results had + proved more or less illusory; there is no vitality in them. The works + of Renan, Strauss, Schenkel, Weizsäcker, and Keim are in essence only + different ways of carrying out a single ground-plan. To read them one + after another is to be simply appalled at the stereotyped uniformity + of the world of thought in which they move. You feel that you have + read exactly the same thing in the others, almost in identical + phrases. To obtain the works of Schenkel and Weizsäcker you only need + to weaken down in Strauss the sharp discrimination between John and + the Synoptists so far as to allow of the Fourth Gospel being used to + some extent as an historical source <span class="tei tei-q">“in the + higher sense,”</span> and to put the hypothesis of the priority of + Mark in place of the Tübingen view adopted by Strauss. The latter is + an external operation and does not essentially modify the view of the + Life of Jesus, since by admitting the Johannine scheme the Marcan + plan is again disturbed, and Strauss's arbitrary spiritualisation of + the Synoptics comes to something not very different from the + acceptance of that <span class="tei tei-q">“in a higher sense + historical Gospel”</span> alongside of them. The whole discussion + regarding the sources is only loosely connected with the process of + arriving at the portrait of Jesus, since this portrait is fixed from + the first, being determined by the mental atmosphere and religious + horizon of the 'sixties. They all portray the Jesus of liberal + theology; the only difference is that one is a little more + conscientious in his colouring than another, and one perhaps has a + little more taste than another, or is less concerned about the + consequences.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The desire to + escape in some way from the alternative between the Synoptists and + John was native to the Marcan hypothesis. Weisse had endeavoured to + effect this by distinguishing between the sources in the Fourth + Gospel.<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href= + "#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> + Schenkel and Weizsäcker are <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg + 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + more modest. They do not feel the need of any clear literary view of + the Fourth Gospel, of any critical discrimination between original + and secondary elements in it; they are content to use as historical + whatever their instinct leads them to accept. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Apart from the fourth Gospel,”</span> says Schenkel, + <span class="tei tei-q">“we should miss in the portrait of the + Redeemer the unfathomable depths and the inaccessible + heights.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus,”</span> to quote his + aphorism, <span class="tei tei-q">“was not always thus in reality, + but He was so in truth.”</span> Since when have historians had the + right to distinguish between reality and truth? That was one of the + bad habits which the author of this characterisation of Jesus brought + with him from his earlier dogmatic training.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weizsäcker<a id= + "noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> + expresses himself with more circumspection. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We possess,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“in + the Fourth Gospel genuine apostolic reminiscences as much as in any + part of the first three Gospels; but between the facts on which the + reminiscences are based and their reproduction in literary form there + lies the development of their possessor into a great mystic, and the + influence of a philosophy which here for the first time united itself + in this way with the Gospel; they need, therefore, to be critically + examined; and the historical truth of this gospel, great as it is, + must not be measured with a painful literality.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One wonders why + both these writers appeal to Holtzmann, seeing that they practically + abandon the Marcan plan which he had worked out at the end of his + very thorough examination of this Gospel. They do not accept as + sufficient the controversy regarding the ceremonial regulations in + Mark vii. which, with the rejection at Nazareth, constitute, in + Holtzmann's view, the turning-point of the Galilaean ministry, but + find the cause of the change of attitude on the part of the people + rather in the Johannine discourse about eating and drinking the flesh + and blood of the Son of Man. The section Mark x.-xv., which has a + certain unity, they interpret in the light of the Johannine + tradition, finding in it traces of a previous ministry of Jesus in + Jerusalem and interweaving with it the Johannine story of the + Passion. According to Schenkel the last visit to Jerusalem must have + been of considerable duration. When confronted with John, the + admission may be wrung from the Synoptists that Jesus did not travel + straight through Jericho to the capital, but worked first for a + considerable time in Judaea. Strauss <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> tartly observes that he cannot see what the + author of the <span class="tei tei-q">“characterisation”</span> stood + to gain by underwriting Holtzmann's Marcan hypothesis.<a id= + "noteref_130" name="noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weizsäcker is + still bolder in making interpolations from the Johannine tradition. + He places the cleansing of the Temple, in contradiction to Mark, in + the early period of Jesus' ministry, on the ground that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“it bears the character of a first appearance, a bold + deed with which to open His career.”</span> He fails to observe, + however, that if this act really took place at this point of time, + the whole development of the life of Jesus which Holtzmann had so + ingeniously traced in Mark, is at once thrown into confusion. In + describing the last visit to Jerusalem, Weizsäcker is not content to + insert the Marcan stones into the Johannine cement; he goes farther + and expressly states that the great farewell discourses of Jesus to + His disciples agree with the Synoptic discourses to the disciples + spoken during the last days, however completely they of all others + bear the peculiar stamp of the Johannine diction.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus in the second + period of the Marcan hypothesis the same spectacle meets us as in the + earlier. The hypothesis has a literary existence, indeed it is + carried by Holtzmann to such a degree of demonstration that it can no + longer be called a mere hypothesis, but it does not succeed in + winning an assured position in the critical study of the Life of + Jesus. It is common-land not yet taken into cultivation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That is due in no + small measure to the fact that Holtzmann did not work out the + hypothesis from the historical side, but rather on literary lines, + recalling Wilke—as a kind of problem in Synoptic arithmetic—and in + his preface expresses dissent from the Tübingen school, who desired + to leave no alternative between John on the one side and the + Synoptics on the other, whereas he approves the attempt to evade the + dilemma in some way or other, and thinks he can find in the didactic + narrative of the Fourth Gospel the traces of a development of Jesus + similar to that portrayed in the Synoptics, and has therefore no + fundamental objection to the use of John alongside of the Synoptics. + In taking up this position, however, he does not desire to be + understood as meaning that <span class="tei tei-q">“it would be to + the interests of science to throw Synoptic and Johannine passages + together indiscriminately and thus construct a life of Jesus out of + them.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“It would be much better first + to reconstruct separately the Synoptic and Johannine pictures of + Christ, composing each of its own distinctive material. It is only + when this has been done that it is possible to make a fruitful + comparison of the two.”</span> Exactly the same position had been + taken up sixty-seven years <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg + 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + before by Herder. In Holtzmann's case, however, the principle was + stated with so many qualifications that the adherents of his view + read into it the permission to combine, in a picture treated + <span class="tei tei-q">“in the grand style,”</span> Synoptic with + Johannine passages.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In addition to + this, the plan which Holtzmann finally evolved out of Mark was much + too fine-drawn to bear the weight of the remainder of the Synoptic + material. He distinguishes seven stages in the Galilaean + ministry,<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href= + "#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a> of + which the really decisive one is the sixth, in which Jesus leaves + Galilee and goes northward, so that Schenkel and Weizsäcker are + justified in distinguishing practically only two great Galilaean + periods, the first of which—down to the controversy about ceremonial + purity—they distinguish as the period of success, the second—down to + the departure from Judaea—as the period of decline. What attracted + these writers to the Marcan hypothesis was not so much the + authentification which it gave to the detail of Mark, though they + were willing enough to accept that, but the way in which this Gospel + lent itself to the a priori view of the course of the life of Jesus + which they unconsciously brought with them. They appealed to + Holtzmann because he showed such wonderful skill in extracting from + the Marcan narrative the view which commended itself to the spirit of + the age as manifested in the 'sixties.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Holtzmann read + into this Gospel that Jesus had endeavoured in Galilee to found the + Kingdom of God in an ideal sense; that He concealed His consciousness + of being the Messiah, which was constantly growing more assured, + until His followers should have attained by inner enlightenment to a + higher view of the Kingdom of God and of the Messiah; that almost at + the end of His Galilaean ministry He declared Himself to them as the + Messiah at Caesarea Philippi; that on the same occasion He at once + began to picture to them a suffering Messiah, whose lineaments + gradually became more and more distinct in His mind amid the growing + opposition which He encountered, until finally, He communicated to + His disciples His decision to put the Messianic cause to the test in + the capital, and that they followed Him thither and saw how His fate + fulfilled itself. It was this fundamental view which made the success + of the hypothesis. Holtzmann, not less than his followers, believed + that he had discovered it in the Gospel itself, although Strauss, the + passionate opponent of the Marcan hypothesis, took essentially the + same view of the development of Jesus' thought. But the way in which + Holtzmann exhibited this characteristic view of the 'sixties as + arising naturally out of the detail of Mark, was so perfect, so + artistically charming, that this view appeared henceforward to be + inseparably bound up with the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Marcan tradition. Scarcely ever has a + description of the life of Jesus exercised so irresistible an + influence as that short outline—it embraces scarcely twenty + pages—with which Holtzmann closes his examination of the Synoptic + Gospels. This chapter became the creed and catechism of all who + handled the subject during the following decades. The treatment of + the life of Jesus had to follow the lines here laid down until the + Marcan hypothesis was delivered from its bondage to that a priori + view of the development of Jesus. Until then any one might appeal to + the Marcan hypothesis, meaning thereby only that general view of the + inward and outward course of development in the life of Jesus, and + might treat the remainder of the Synoptic material how he chose, + combining with it, at his pleasure, material drawn from John. The + victory, therefore, belonged, not to the Marcan hypothesis pure and + simple, but to the Marcan hypothesis as psychologically interpreted + by a liberal theology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The points of + distinction between the Weissian and the new interpretation are as + follows:—Weisse is sceptical as regards the detail; the new Marcan + hypothesis ventures to base conclusions even upon incidental remarks + in the text. According to Weisse there were not distinct periods of + success and failure in the ministry of Jesus; the new Marcan + hypothesis confidently affirms this distinction, and goes so far as + to place the sojourn of Jesus in the parts beyond Galilee under the + heading <span class="tei tei-q">“Flights and + Retirements.”</span><a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href= + "#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> The + earlier Marcan hypothesis expressly denies that outward circumstances + influenced the resolve of Jesus to die; according to the later, it + was the opposition of the people, and the impossibility of carrying + out His mission on other lines which forced Him to enter on the path + of suffering.<a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href= + "#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> The + Jesus of Weisse's view has <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg + 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + completed His development at the time of His appearance; the Jesus of + the new interpretation of Mark continues to develop in the course of + His public ministry.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is complete + agreement, however, in the rejection of eschatology. For Holtzmann, + Schenkel, and Weizsäcker, as for Weisse, Jesus desires <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to found an inward kingdom of repentance.”</span><a id= + "noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> It was + Israel's duty, according to Schenkel, to believe in the presence of + the Kingdom which Jesus proclaimed. John the Baptist was unable to + believe in it, and it was for this reason that Jesus censured him—for + it is in this sense that Schenkel understands the saying about the + greatest among those born of women who is nevertheless the least in + the Kingdom of Heaven. <span class="tei tei-q">“So near the light and + yet shutting his eyes to its beams—is there not some blame here, an + undeniable lack of spiritual and moral receptivity?”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus makes + Messianic claims only in a spiritual sense. He does not grasp at + super-human glory; it is His purpose to bear the sin of the whole + people, and He undergoes baptism <span class="tei tei-q">“as a humble + member of the national community.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His whole teaching + consists, when once He Himself has attained to clear consciousness of + His vocation, in a constant struggle to root out from the hearts of + His disciples their theocratic hopes and to effect a transformation + of their traditional Messianic ideas. When, on Simon's hailing Him as + the Messiah, He declares that flesh and blood has not revealed it to + him, He means, according to Schenkel, <span class="tei tei-q">“that + Simon has at this moment overcome the false Messianic ideas, and has + recognised in Him the ethical and spiritual deliverer of + Israel.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“That Jesus predicted a personal, bodily, Second Coming, + in the brightness of His heavenly splendour and surrounded by the + heavenly hosts, to establish an earthly kingdom, is not only not + proved, it is absolutely impossible.”</span> His purpose is to + establish a community of which His disciples are to be the + foundation, and by means of this community to bring about the coming + of the Kingdom of God. He can, therefore, only have spoken of His + return as an impersonal return in the Spirit. The later exponents of + the Marcan view were no doubt generally inclined to regard the return + as personal and corporeal. For Schenkel, however, it is historically + certain that the real meaning of the eschatological <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> discourses is more faithfully preserved + in the Fourth Gospel than in the Synoptics.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his anxiety to + eliminate any enthusiastic elements from the representation of Jesus, + he ends by drawing a bourgeois Messiah whom he might have extracted + from the old-fashioned rationalistic work of the worthy Reinhard. He + feels bound to save the credit of Jesus by showing that the entry + into Jerusalem was not intended as a provocation to the government. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is only by making this + supposition,”</span> he explains, <span class="tei tei-q">“that we + avoid casting a slur upon the character of Jesus. It was certainly a + constant trait in His character that He never unnecessarily exposed + Himself to danger, and never, except for the most pressing reasons, + did He give any support to the suspicions which were arising against + Him; He avoided provoking His opponents to drastic measures by any + overt act directed against them.”</span> Even the cleansing of the + Temple was not an act of violence but merely an attempt at + reform.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Schenkel is able + to give these explanations because he knows the most secret thoughts + of Jesus and is therefore no longer bound to the text. He knows, for + example, that immediately after His baptism He attained to the + knowledge <span class="tei tei-q">“that the way of the Law was no + longer the way of salvation for His people.”</span> Jesus cannot + therefore have uttered the saying about the permanence of the Law in + Mark v. 18. In the controversies about the Sabbath <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He proclaims freedom of worship.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As time went on, + He began to take the heathen world into the scope of His purpose. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The hard saying addressed to the Canaanite + woman represents rather the proud and exclusive spirit of Pharisaism + than the spirit of Jesus.”</span> It was a test of faith, the success + of which had a decisive influence upon Jesus' attitude towards the + heathen. Henceforth it is obvious that He is favourably disposed + towards them. He travels through Samaria and establishes a community + there. In Jerusalem He openly calls the heathen to Him. At certain + feasts which they had arranged for that purpose, some of the leaders + of the people set a trap for Him, and betrayed Him into liberal + sayings in regard to the Gentiles which sealed His fate.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the + course of development of the Master, who, according to Schenkel, + <span class="tei tei-q">“saw with a clear eye into the future history + of the world,”</span> and knew that the fall of Jerusalem must take + place in order to close the theocratic era and give the Gentiles free + access to the universal community of Christians which He was to + found. <span class="tei tei-q">“This period He described as the + period of His coming, as in a sense His Second Advent upon + earth.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same general + procedure is followed by Weizsäcker in his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Gospel History,”</span> though his work is of a much + higher quality <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg + 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + than Schenkel's. His account of the sources is one of the clearest + that has ever been written. In the description of the life of Jesus, + however, the unhesitating combination of material from the Fourth + Gospel with that of the Synoptics rather confuses the picture. And + whereas Renan only offers the results of the completed process, + Weizsäcker works out his, it might almost be said, under the eyes of + the reader, which makes the arbitrary character of the proceeding + only the more obvious. But in his attitude towards the sources + Weizsäcker is wholly free from the irresponsible caprice in which + Schenkel indulges. From time to time, too, he gives a hint of + unsolved problems in the background. For example, in treating of the + declaration of Jesus to His judges that He would come as the Son of + Man upon the clouds of heaven, he remarks how surprising it is that + Jesus could so often have used the designation Son of Man on earlier + occasions without being accused of claiming the Messiahship. It is + true that this is a mere scraping of the keel upon a sandbank, by + which the steersman does not allow himself to be turned from his + course, for Weizsäcker concludes that the name Son of Man, in spite + of its use in Daniel, <span class="tei tei-q">“had not become a + generally current or really popular designation of the + Messiah.”</span> But even this faint suspicion of the difficulty is a + welcome sign. Much emphasis, in fact, in practice rather too much + emphasis, is laid on the principle that in the great discourses of + Jesus the structure is not historical; they are only collections of + sayings formed to meet the needs of the Christian community in later + times. In this Weizsäcker is sometimes not less arbitrary than + Schenkel, who represents the Lord's Prayer as given by Jesus to the + disciples only in the last days at Jerusalem. It was an axiom of the + school that Jesus could not have delivered discourses such as the + Evangelists record.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Schenkel's + picture of Jesus' character attracted much more attention than + Weizsäcker's work, that is mainly due to the art of lively popular + presentation by which it is distinguished. The writer knows well how + to keep the reader's interest awake by the use of exciting headlines. + Catchwords abound, and arrest the ear, for they are the catchwords + about which the religious controversies of the time revolved. There + is never far to look for the moral of the history, and the Jesus here + portrayed can be imagined plunging into the midst of the debates in + any ministerial conference. The moralising, it must be admitted, + sometimes becomes the occasion of the feeblest ineptitudes. Jesus + sent out His disciples two and two; this is for Schenkel a marvellous + exhibition of wisdom. The Lord designed, thereby, to show that in His + opinion <span class="tei tei-q">“nothing is more inimical to the + interests of the Kingdom of God than individualism, self-will, + self-pleasing.”</span> Schenkel entirely fails to recognise the + superb irony of the saying that in this life all that a <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> man gives up for the sake of the Kingdom + of God is repaid a hundredfold in persecutions, in order that in the + Coming Age he may receive eternal life as his reward. He interpreted + it as meaning that the sufferer shall be compensated by love; his + fellow-Christians will endeavour to make it up to him, and will offer + him their own possessions so freely that, in consequence of this + brotherly love, he will soon have, for the house which he has lost, a + hundred houses, for the lost sisters, brothers, and so forth, a + hundred sisters, a hundred brothers, a hundred fathers, a hundred + mothers, a hundred farms. Schenkel forgets to add that, if this is to + be the interpretation of the saying, the persecuted man must also + receive through this compensating love, a hundred wives.<a id= + "noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href="#note_135"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This want of + insight into the largeness, the startling originality, the + self-contradictoriness, and the terrible irony in the thought of + Jesus, is not a peculiarity of Schenkel's; it is characteristic of + all the liberal Lives of Jesus from Strauss's down to Oskar + Holtzmann's.<a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href= + "#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> How + could it be otherwise? They had to transpose a way of envisaging the + world which belonged to a hero and a dreamer to the plane of thought + of a rational bourgeois religion. But in Schenkel's representation, + with its popular appeal, this banality is particularly obtrusive.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end, + however, what made the success of the book was not its popular + characteristics, whether good or bad, but the enmity which it drew + down upon the author. The Basle Privat-Docent who, in his work of + 1839, had congratulated the Zurichers on having rejected Strauss, + now, as Professor and Director of the Seminary at Heidelberg, came + very near being adjudged worthy of the martyr's crown himself. He had + been at Heidelberg since 1851, after holding for a short time De + Wette's chair at Basle. At his first coming a mildly reactionary + theology might have claimed him as its own. He gave it a right to do + so by the way in which he worked against the philosopher, Kuno + Fischer, in the Higher Consistory. But in the struggles over the + constitution of the Church he changed his position. As a defender of + the rights of the laity he ranged himself on the more liberal side. + After his great victory in the General Synod of 1861, in which the + new constitution of the Church was established, he called a German + Protestant assembly at Frankfort, in order to set on foot a general + movement for Church reform. This assembly met in 1863, and led to the + formation of the Protestant Association.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Charakterbild Jesu</span></span> appeared, + friend and foe were alike surprised at the thoroughness with which + Schenkel advocated the more liberal views. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Schenkel's book,”</span> complained Luthardt, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" + id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in a lecture at Leipzig,<a id= + "noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href="#note_137"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“has aroused a painful interest. We had + learnt to know him in many aspects; we were not prepared for such an + apostasy from his own past. How long is it since he brought about the + dismissal of Kuno Fischer from Heidelberg because he saw in the + pantheism of this philosopher a danger to Church and State? It is + still fresh in our memory that it was he who in the year 1852 drew up + the report of the Theological Faculty of Heidelberg upon the + ecclesiastical controversy raised by Pastor Dülon at Bremen, in which + he denied Dülon's Christianity on the ground that he had assailed the + doctrines of original sin, of justification by faith, of a living and + personal God, of the eternal Divine Sonship of Christ, of the Kingdom + of God, and of the credibility of the holy Scriptures.”</span> And + now this same Schenkel was misusing the Life of Jesus as a weapon in + <span class="tei tei-q">“party polemics”</span>!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The agitation + against him was engineered from Berlin, where his successful attack + upon the illiberal constitution of the Church had not been forgiven. + One hundred and seventeen Baden clerics signed a protest declaring + the author unfitted to hold office as a theological teacher in the + Baden Church. Throughout the whole of Germany the pastors agitated + against him. It was especially demanded that he should be immediately + removed from his post as Director of the Seminary. A counter-protest + was issued by the Durlach Conference in the July of 1864, in which + Bluntschli and Holtzmann vigorously defended him. The Ecclesiastical + Council supported him, and the storm gradually died away, especially + when Schenkel in two <span class="tei tei-q">“Defences”</span> + skilfully softened down the impression made by his work, and + endeavoured to quiet the public mind by pointing out that he had only + attempted to set forth one side of the truth.<a id="noteref_138" + name="noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The position of + the prospective martyr was not rendered any more easy by Strauss. In + an appendix to his criticism of Schleiermacher's Life of Jesus he + settled accounts with his old antagonist.<a id="noteref_139" name= + "noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> He + recognises no scientific value whatever in the work. None of the + ideas developed in it are new. One might <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> fairly say, he thinks, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that the conclusions which have given offence had been + carried down the Neckar from Tübingen to Heidelberg, and had there + been salvaged by Herr Schenkel—in a somewhat sodden and deteriorated + condition, it must be admitted—and incorporated into the edifice + which he was constructing.”</span> Further, Strauss censures the book + for its want of frankness, its half-and-half character, which + manifests itself especially in the way in which the author clings to + orthodox phraseology. <span class="tei tei-q">“Over and over again he + gives criticism with one hand all that it can possibly ask, and then + takes back with the other whatever the interests of faith seem to + demand; with the constant result that what is taken back is far too + much for criticism and not nearly enough for faith.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“In the future,”</span> he concludes, + <span class="tei tei-q">“it will be said of the seven hundred + Durlachers that they fought like paladins to prevent the enemy from + capturing a standard which was really nothing but a patched + dish-clout.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Schenkel died in + 1885 after severe sufferings. As a critic he lacked independence, and + was, therefore, always inclined to compromises; in controversy he was + vehement. Though he did nothing remarkable in theology, German + Protestantism owes him a vast debt for acting as its tribune in the + 'sixties.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That was the last + time that any popular excitement was aroused in connexion with the + critical study of the life of Jesus; and it was a mere storm in a + tea-cup. Moreover, it was the man and not his work that aroused the + excitement. Henceforth public opinion was almost entirely indifferent + to anything which appeared in this department. The great fundamental + question whether historical criticism was to be applied to the life + of Jesus had been decided in connexion with Strauss's first work on + the subject. If here and there indignation aroused by a Life of Jesus + brought inconveniences to the author and profit to the publisher, + that was connected in every case with purely external and incidental + circumstances. Public opinion was not disquieted for a moment by + Volkmar and Wrede, although they are much more extreme than + Schenkel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Most of the Lives + of Jesus which followed had, it is true, nothing very exciting about + them. They were mere variants of the type established during the + 'sixties, variants of which the minute differences were only + discernible by theologians, and which were otherwise exactly alike in + arrangement and result. As a contribution to criticism, Keim's<a id= + "noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“History of Jesus of Nazara”</span> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" + id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was the most important Life of + Jesus which appeared in a long period.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not of much + consequence that he believes in the priority of Matthew, since his + presentment of the history follows the general lines of the Marcan + plan, which is preserved also in Matthew. He gives it as his opinion + that the life of Jesus is to be reconstructed from the Synoptics, + whether Matthew has the first place or Mark. He sketches the + development of Jesus in bold lines. As early as his inaugural address + at Zurich, delivered on the 17th of December 1860, which, short as it + was, made a powerful impression upon Holtzmann as well as upon + others, he had set up the thesis that the Synoptics <span class= + "tei tei-q">“artlessly, almost against their will, show us + unconsciously in incidental, unobtrusive traits the progressive + development of Jesus as youth and man.”</span><a id="noteref_141" + name="noteref_141" href="#note_141"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> His + later works are the development of this sketch.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His grandiose + style gave the keynote for the artistic treatment of the portrait of + Jesus in the 'sixties. His phrases and expressions became classical. + Every one follows him in speaking of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Galilaean spring-tide”</span> in the ministry of + Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the Johannine + question he takes up a clearly defined position, denying the + possibility of using the Fourth Gospel side by side with the + Synoptics as an historical source. He goes very far in finding + special significance in the details of the Synoptists, especially + when he is anxious to discover traces of want of success in the + second period of Jesus' ministry, since the plan of his Life of Jesus + depends on the sharp antithesis between the periods of success and + failure. The whole of the second half of the Galilaean period + consists for him in <span class="tei tei-q">“flights and + retirements.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Beset by constantly + renewed alarms and hindrances, Jesus left the scene of His earlier + work, left His dwelling-place at Capernaum, and accompanied only by a + few faithful followers, in the end only by the Twelve, sought in all + directions for places of refuge for longer or shorter periods, in + order to avoid and elude His enemies.”</span> Keim frankly admits, + indeed, that there is not a syllable in the Gospels to suggest that + these journeys are the journeys of a fugitive. But instead of + allowing that to shake his conviction, he abuses the narrators and + suggests that they desired to conceal the truth. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“These flights,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“were no doubt inconvenient to the Evangelists. Matthew + is here the frankest, but in order to restore the impression of + Jesus' greatness he transfers to this <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> period the greatest miracles. The later + Evangelists are almost completely silent about these retirements, and + leave us to suppose that Jesus made His journeys to Caesarea Philippi + and the neighbourhood of Tyre and Sidon in the middle of winter from + mere pleasure in travel, or for the extension of the Gospel, and that + He made His last journey to Jerusalem without any external necessity, + entirely in consequence of His free decision, even though the + expectation of death which they ascribe to Him goes far to counteract + the impression of complete freedom.”</span> Why do they thus correct + the history? <span class="tei tei-q">“The motive was the same + difficulty which draws from us also the question, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Is it possible that Jesus should flee?’</span> ”</span> + Keim answers <span class="tei tei-q">“Yes.”</span> Here the liberal + psychology comes clearly to light. <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus + fled,”</span> he explains, <span class="tei tei-q">“because He + desired to preserve Himself for God and man, to secure the + continuance of His ministry to Israel, to defeat as long as possible + the dark designs of His enemies, to carry His cause to Jerusalem, and + there, while acting, as it was His duty to do, with prudence and + foresight in his relations with men, to recognise clearly, by the + Divine silence or the Divine action, what the Divine purpose really + was, which could not be recognised in a moment. He acts like a man + who knows the duty both of examination and action, who knows His own + worth and what is due to Him and His obligations towards God and + man.”</span><a id="noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href= + "#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In regard to the + question of eschatology, however, Keim does justice to the + texts.<a id="noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href= + "#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> He + admits that eschatology, <span class="tei tei-q">“a Kingdom of God + clothed with material splendours,”</span> forms an integral part of + the preaching of Jesus from the first; <span class="tei tei-q">“that + He never rejected it, and therefore never by a so-called advance + transformed the sensuous Messianic idea into a purely spiritual + one.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus does not uproot from the + minds of the sons of Zebedee their belief in the thrones on His right + hand and His left; He does not hesitate to make His entry into + Jerusalem in the character of the Messiah; He acknowledges His + Messiahship before the Council without making any careful + reservations; upon the cross His title is The King of the Jews; He + consoles Himself and His followers with the thought of His return as + an earthly ruler, and leaves with His disciples, without making any + attempt to check it, the belief, which long survived, in a future + establishment or restoration of the Kingdom in an Israel delivered + from bondage.”</span> Keim remarks with much justice <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that Strauss had been wrong in rejecting his own earlier + and more correct formula,”</span> which combined the eschatological + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" + id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and spiritual elements as + operating side by side in the plan of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Keim, however, + himself in the end allows the spiritual elements practically to + cancel the eschatological. He admits, it is true, that the expression + Son of Man which Jesus uses designated the Messiah in the sense of + Daniel's prophecy, but he thinks that these pictorial representations + in Daniel did not repel Jesus because He interpreted them + spiritually, and <span class="tei tei-q">“intended to describe + Himself as belonging to mankind even in His Messianic office.”</span> + To solve the difficulty Keim assumes a development. Jesus' + consciousness of His vocation had been strengthened both by success + and by disappointment. As time went on He preached the Kingdom not as + a future Kingdom, as at first, but as one which was present in Him + and with Him, and He declares His Messiahship more and more openly + before the world. He thinks of the Kingdom as undergoing development, + but not with an unlimited, infinite horizon as the moderns suppose; + the horizon is bounded by the eschatology. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“For however easy it may be to read modern ideas into the + parables of the draught of fishes, the mustard seed and the leaven, + which, taken by themselves, seem to suggest the duration contemplated + by the modern view, it is nevertheless indubitable that Jesus, like + Paul, by no means looks forward to so protracted an earthly + development; on the contrary, nothing appears more clearly from the + sources than that He thought of its term as rapidly approaching, and + of His victory as nigh at hand; and looked to the last decisive + events, even to the day of judgment, as about to occur during the + lifetime of the existing generation, including Himself and His + apostles.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“It was the overmastering + pressure of circumstances which held Him prisoner within the + limitations of this obsolete belief.”</span> When His confidence in + the development of His Kingdom came into collision with barriers + which He could not pass, when His belief in the presence of the + Kingdom of God grew dim, the purely eschatological ideas won the + upper hand, <span class="tei tei-q">“and if we may suppose that it + was precisely this thought of the imminent decisive action of God, + taking possession of His mind with renewed force at this point, which + steeled His human courage, and roused Him to a passion of + self-sacrifice with the hope of saving from the judgment whatever + might still be saved, we may welcome His adoption of these narrower + ideas as in accordance with the goodwill of God, which could only by + this means maintain the failing strength of its human instrument and + secure the spoils of the Divine warfare—the souls of men subdued and + conquered by Him.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thought which + had hovered before the mind of Renan, but which in his hands had + become only the motive of a romance—<span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">une + ficelle dé roman</span></span> as the French express it—was realised + by <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name= + "Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Keim. Nothing deeper + or more beautiful has since been written about the development of + Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Less critical in + character is Hase's <span class="tei tei-q">“History of + Jesus,”</span><a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href= + "#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> which + superseded in 1876 the various editions of the Handbook on the Life + of Jesus which had first appeared in 1829.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question of + the use of John's Gospel side by side with the Synoptics he leaves in + suspense, and speaks his last word on the subject in the form of a + parable. <span class="tei tei-q">“If I may be allowed to use an + avowedly parabolic form of speech, the relation of Jesus to the two + streams of Gospel tradition may be illustrated as follows. Once there + appeared upon earth a heavenly Being. According to His first three + biographers He goes about more or less incognito, in the long garment + of a Rabbi, a forceful popular figure, somewhat Judaic in speech, + only occasionally, almost unmarked by His biographers, pointing with + a smile beyond this brief interlude to His home. In the description + left by His favourite disciple, He has thrown off the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">talar</span></span> of the Rabbi, and stands + before us in His native character, but in bitter and angry strife + with those who took offence at His magnificent simplicity, and then + later—it must be confessed, more attractively—in deep emotion at + parting with those whom, during His pilgrimage on earth, He had made + His friends, though they did not rightly understand His strange, + unearthly speech.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is Hase's + way, always to avoid a final decision. The fifty years of critical + study of the subject which he had witnessed and taken part in had + made him circumspect, sometimes almost sceptical. But his notes of + interrogation do not represent a covert supernaturalism like those in + the Life of Jesus of 1829. Hase had been penetrated by the influence + of Strauss and had adopted from him the belief that the true life of + Jesus lies beyond the reach of criticism. <span class="tei tei-q">“It + is not my business,”</span> he says to his students in an + introductory lecture, <span class="tei tei-q">“to recoil in horror + from this or that thought, or to express it with embarrassment as + being dangerous; I would not forbid even the enthusiasm of doubt and + destruction which makes Strauss so strong and Renan so + seductive.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is left + uncertain whether Jesus' consciousness of His Messiahship reaches + back to the days of His childhood, or whether it arose in the ethical + development of His ripening manhood. The concealment of His Messianic + claims is ascribed, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg + 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as + by Schenkel and others, to paedagogic motives; it was necessary that + Jesus should first educate the people and the disciples up to a + higher ethical view of His office. In the stress which he lays upon + the eschatology Hase has points of affinity with Keim, for whom he + had prepared the way in his Life of Jesus of 1829, in which he had + been the first to assert a development in Jesus in the course of + which He at first fully shared the Jewish eschatological views, but + later advanced to a more spiritual conception. In his Life of Jesus + of 1876 he is prepared to make the eschatology the dominant feature + in the last period also, and does not hesitate to represent Jesus as + dying in the enthusiastic expectation of returning upon the clouds of + heaven. He feels himself driven to this by the eschatological ideas + in the last discourses. <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus' clear and + definite sayings,”</span> he declares, <span class="tei tei-q">“with + the whole context of the circumstances in which they were spoken and + understood, have been forcing me to this conclusion for years + past.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“That lofty Messianic dream must therefore continue to + hold its place, since Jesus, influenced as much by the idea of the + Messianic glories taken over from the beliefs of His people as by His + own religious exaltation, could not think of the victory of His + Kingdom except as closely connected with His own personal action. But + that was only a misunderstanding due to the unconscious poesy of a + high-ranging religious imagination, the ethical meaning of which + could only be realised by a long historical development. Christ + certainly came again as the greatest power on earth, and His power, + along with His word, is constantly judging the world. He faced the + sufferings which lay immediately before Him with His eyes fixed upon + this great future.”</span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The chief + excellence of Beyschlag's Life of Jesus consists in its + arrangement.<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href= + "#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> He + first, in the volume of preliminary investigations, discusses the + problems, so that the narrative is disencumbered of all explanations, + and by virtue of the author's admirable style becomes a pure work of + art, which rivets the interest of the reader and almost causes the + want of a consistent historical conception to be overlooked. The fact + is, however, that in regard to the two decisive questions Beyschlag + is deliberately inconsistent. Although he recognises that the Gospel + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" + id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of John has not the character + of an essentially historical source, <span class="tei tei-q">“being, + rather, a brilliant subjective portrait,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a didactic, quite as much as an historical work,”</span> + he produces his Life of Jesus by <span class="tei tei-q">“combining + and mortising together Synoptic and Johannine elements.”</span> The + same uncertainty prevails in regard to the recognition of the + definitely eschatological character of Jesus' system of ideas. + Beyschlag gives a very large place to eschatology, so that in order + to combine the spiritual with the eschatological view his Jesus has + to pass through three stages of development. In the first He preaches + the Kingdom as something future, a supernatural event which was to be + looked forward to, much as the Baptist preached it. Then the response + which was called forth on all hands by His preaching led Him to + believe that the Kingdom was in some sense already present, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that the Father, while He delays the outward + manifestation of the Kingdom, is causing it to come even now in quiet + and unnoticed ways by a humble gradual growth, and the great thought + of His parables, which dominates the whole middle period of His + public life, the resemblance of the Kingdom to mustard seed or + leaven, comes to birth in His mind.”</span> As His failure becomes + more and more certain, <span class="tei tei-q">“the centre of gravity + of His thought is shifted to the world beyond the grave, and the + picture of a glorious return to conquer and to judge the world rises + before Him.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The peculiar + interweaving of Synoptic and Johannine ideas leads to the result + that, between the two, Beyschlag in the end forms no clear conception + of the eschatology, and makes Jesus think in a half-Johannine, + half-Synoptic fashion. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is a consequence + of Jesus' profound conception of the Kingdom of God as something + essentially growing that He regards its final perfection not as a + state of rest, but rather as a living movement, as a process of + becoming, and since He regards this process as a cosmic and + supernatural process in which history finds its consummation, and yet + as arising entirely out of the ethical and historical process, He + combines elements from each into the same prophetic + conception.”</span> An eschatology of this kind is not matter for + history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the acceptance + of the <span class="tei tei-q">“miracles”</span> Beyschlag goes to + the utmost limits allowed by criticism; in considering the + possibility of one or another of the recorded raisings from the dead + he even finds himself within the borders of rationalist + territory.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether Bernhard + Weiss's<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href= + "#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> is to + be numbered with the liberal <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Lives of Jesus is a question to which we may + answer <span class="tei tei-q">“Yes; but along with the faults of + these it has some others in addition.”</span> Weiss shares with the + authors of the liberal <span class="tei tei-q">“Lives”</span> the + assumption that Mark designed to set forth a definite <span class= + "tei tei-q">“view of the course of development of the public ministry + of Jesus,”</span> and on the strength of that believes himself + justified in giving a very far-reaching significance to the details + offered by this Evangelist. The arbitrariness with which he carries + out this theory is quite as unbounded as Schenkel's, and in his + fondness for the <span class="tei tei-q">“argument from + silence”</span> he even surpasses him. Although Mark never allows a + single word to escape him about the motives of the northern journeys, + Weiss is so clever at reading between the lines that the motives are + <span class="tei tei-q">“quite sufficiently”</span> clear to him. The + object of these journeys was, according to his explanation, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that the people might have an opportunity, + undistracted by the immediate impression of His words and actions, to + make up their minds in regard to the questions which they had put to + Him so pressingly and inescapably in the last days of His public + ministry; they must themselves draw their own conclusions alike from + the declarations and from the conduct of Jesus. Only by Jesus' + removing Himself for a time from their midst could they come to a + clear decision as to their attitude to Jesus.”</span> This modern + psychologising, however, is closely combined with a dialectic which + seeks to show that there is no irreconcilable opposition between the + belief in the Son of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg + 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> God + and Son of Man which the Church of Christ has always confessed, and a + critical investigation of the question how far the details of His + life have been accurately preserved by tradition, and how they are to + be historically interpreted. That means that Weiss is going to cover + up the difficulties and stumbling-blocks with the mantle of Christian + charity which he has woven out of the most plausible of the + traditional sophistries. As a dialectical performance on these lines + his Life of Jesus rivals in importance any except Schleiermacher's. + On points of detail there are many interesting historical + observations. When all is said, one can only regret that so much + knowledge and so much ability have been expended in the service of so + hopeless a cause.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What was the net + result of these liberal Lives of Jesus? In the first place the + clearing up of the relation between John and the Synoptics. That + seems surprising, since the chief representatives of this school, + Holtzmann, Schenkel, Weizsäcker, and Hase, took up a mediating + position on this question, not to speak of Beyschlag and Weiss, for + whom the possibility of reconciliation between the two lines of + tradition is an accepted datum for ecclesiastical and apologetic + reasons. But the very attempt to hold the position made clear its + inherent untenability. The defence of the combination of the two + traditions exhausted itself in the efforts of these its critical + champions, just as the acceptance of the supernatural in history + exhausted itself in the—to judge from the approval of the + many—victorious struggle against Strauss. In the course of time + Weizsäcker, like Holtzmann,<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" + href="#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> + advanced to the rejection of any possibility of reconciliation, and + gave up the Fourth Gospel as an historical source. The second demand + of Strauss's first Life of Jesus was now—at last—conceded by + scientific criticism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That does not + mean, of course, that no further attempts at reconciliation appeared + thenceforward. Was ever a street so closed by a cordon that one or + two isolated individuals did not get through? And to dodge through + needs, after all, no special <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> intelligence, or special courage. Must we never + speak of a victory so long as a single enemy remains alive? + Individual attempts to combine John with the Synoptics which appeared + after this decisive point are in some cases deserving of special + attention, as for example, Wendt's<a id="noteref_148" name= + "noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> acute + study of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Teaching of Jesus,”</span> + which has all the importance of a full treatment of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life.”</span> But the very way in which Wendt grapples + with his task shows that the main issue is already decided. All he + can do is to fight a skilful and determined rearguard action. It is + not the Fourth Gospel as it stands, but only a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ground-document”</span> on which it is based, which he, + in common with Weiss, Alexander Schweizer, and Renan, would have to + be recognised <span class="tei tei-q">“alongside of the Gospel of + Mark and the Logia of Matthew as an historically trustworthy + tradition regarding the teaching of Jesus,”</span> and which may be + used along with those two writings in forming a picture of the Life + of Jesus. For Wendt there is no longer any question of an + interweaving and working up together of the individual sections of + John and the Synoptists. He takes up much the same standpoint as + Holtzmann occupied in 1863, but he provides a much more comprehensive + and well-tested basis for it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end there + is no such very great difference between Wendt and the writers who + had advanced to the conviction of the irreconcilability of the two + traditions. Wendt refuses to give up the Fourth Gospel altogether; + they, on their part, won only a half victory because they did not as + a matter of fact escape from the Johannine interpretation of the + Synoptics. By means of their psychological interpretation of the + first three Gospels they make for themselves an ideal Fourth Gospel, + in the interests of which they reject the existing Fourth Gospel. + They will hear nothing of the spiritualised Johannine Christ, and + refuse to acknowledge even to themselves that they have only deposed + Him in order to put in His place a spiritualised Synoptic Jesus + Christ, that is, a man who claimed to be the Messiah, but in a + spiritual sense. All the development which they discover in Jesus is + in the last analysis only an evidence of the tension between the + Synoptics, in their natural literal sense, and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fourth Gospel”</span> which is extracted from them by an + artificial interpretation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact is, the + separation between the Synoptics and the Fourth Gospel is only the + first step to a larger result which <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> necessarily follows from it—the complete + recognition of the fundamentally eschatological character of the + teaching and influence of the Marcan and Matthaean Jesus. Inasmuch as + they suppressed this consequence, Holtzmann, Schenkel, Hase, and + Weizsäcker, even after their critical conversion, still lay under the + spell of the Fourth Gospel, of a modern, ideal Fourth Gospel. It is + only when the eschatological question is decided that the problem of + the relation of John to the Synoptics is finally laid to rest. The + liberal Lives of Jesus grasped their incompatibility only from a + literary point of view, not in its full historical significance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is another + result in the acceptance of which the critical school had stopped + half-way. If the Marcan plan be accepted, it follows that, setting + aside the references to the Son of Man in Mark ii. 10 and 28, Jesus + had never, previous to the incident at Caesarea Philippi, given + Himself out to be the Messiah or been recognised as such. The + perception of this fact marks one of the greatest advances in the + study of the subject. This result, once accepted, ought necessarily + to have suggested two questions: in the first place, why Jesus down + to that moment had made a secret of His Messiahship even to His + disciples; in the second place, whether at any time, and, if so, when + and how, the people were made acquainted with His Messianic claims. + As a fact, however, by the application of that ill-starred + psychologising both questions were smothered; that is to say, a sham + answer was given to them. It was regarded as self-evident that Jesus + had concealed His Messiahship from His disciples for so long in order + in the meantime to bring them, without their being aware of it, to a + higher spiritual conception of the Messiah; it was regarded as + equally self-evident that in the last weeks the Messianic claims of + Jesus could no longer be hidden from the people, but that He did not + openly avow them, but merely allowed them to be divined, in order to + lead up the multitude to the recognition of the higher spiritual + character of the office which He claimed for Himself. These ingenious + psychologists never seemed to perceive that there is not a word of + all this in Mark; but that they had read it all into some of the most + contradictory and inexplicable facts in the Gospels, and had thus + created a Messiah who both wished to be Messiah and did not wish it, + and who in the end, so far as the people were concerned, both was and + was not the Messiah. Thus these writers had only recognised the + importance of the scene at Caesarea Philippi, they had not ventured + to attack the general problem of Jesus' attitude in regard to the + Messiahship, and had not reflected further on the mutually + contradictory facts that Jesus purposed to be the Messiah and yet did + not come forward publicly in that character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus they had + side-tracked the study of the subject, and based all their hopes of + progress on an intensive exegesis of the detail of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Mark. They thought they had nothing to do + but to occupy a conquered territory, and never suspected that along + the whole line they had only won a half victory, never having thought + out to the end either the eschatological question or the fundamental + historical question of the attitude of Jesus to the Messiahship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They were not + disquieted by the obstinate persistence of the discussion on the + eschatological question. They thought it was merely a skirmish with a + few unorganised guerrillas; in reality it was the advance-guard of + the army with which Reimarus was threatening their flank, and which + under the leadership of Johannes Weiss was to bring them to so + dangerous a pass. And while they were endeavouring to avoid this + turning movement they fell into the ambush which Bruno Bauer had laid + in their rear: Wrede held up the Marcan hypothesis and demanded the + pass-word for the theory of the Messianic consciousness and claims of + Jesus to which it was acting as convoy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The eschatological + and the literary school, finding themselves thus opposed to a common + enemy, naturally formed an alliance. The object of their combined + attack was not the Marcan outline of the life of Jesus, which, in + fact, they both accept, but the modern <span class= + "tei tei-q">“psychological”</span> method of reading between the + lines of the Marcan narrative. Under the cross fire of these allies + that idea of development which had been the strongest entrenchment of + the liberal critical Lives of Jesus, and which they had been + desperately endeavouring to strengthen down to the very last, was + finally blown to atoms.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the striking + thing about these liberal critical Lives of Jesus was that they + unconsciously prepared the way for a deeper historical view which + could not have been reached apart from them. A deeper understanding + of a subject is only brought to pass when a theory is carried to its + utmost limit and finally proves its own inadequacy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is this in + common between rationalism and the liberal critical method, that each + had followed out a theory to its ultimate consequences. The liberal + critical school had carried to its limit the explanation of the + connexion of the actions of Jesus, and of the events of His life, by + a <span class="tei tei-q">“natural”</span> psychology; and the + conclusions to which they had been driven had prepared the way for + the recognition that the natural psychology is not here the + historical psychology, but that the latter must be deduced from + certain historical data. Thus through the meritorious and + magnificently sincere work of the liberal critical school the a + priori <span class="tei tei-q">“natural”</span> psychology gave way + to the eschatological. That is the net result, from the historical + point of view, of the study of the life of Jesus in the + post-Straussian period.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name= + "Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XV. The Eschatological + Question</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Timothée Colani.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Jésus-Christ et les croyances + messianiques de son temps. Strassburg, 1864. 255 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gustav Volkmar.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Jesus Nazarenus und die erste + christliche Zeit, mit den beiden ersten Erzählern. (Jesus the + Nazarene and the Beginnings of Christianity, with the two earliest + narrators of His life.) Zurich, 1882. 403 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wilhelm + Weiffenbach.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Der + Wiederkunftsgedanke Jesu. (Jesus' Conception of His Second Coming.) + 1873. 424 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Baldensperger.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der messianischen Hoffnungen + seiner Zeit. (The Self-consciousness of Jesus in the Light of the + Messianic Hopes of His time.) Strassburg, 1888. 2nd ed., 1892, 282 + pp.; 3rd ed. pt. i. 240 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Johannes Weiss.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes. + (The Preaching of Jesus concerning the Kingdom of God.) 1892. + Göttingen. 67 pp. Second revised and enlarged edition, 1900, 210 + pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So long as it was + merely a question of establishing the distinctive character of the + thought of Jesus as compared with the ancient prophetic and Danielic + conceptions, and so long as the only available storehouse of Rabbinic + and Late-Jewish ideas was Lightfoot's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Horae Hebraicae et + Talmudicae in quatuor Evangelistas</span></span>,<a id="noteref_149" + name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> it was + still possible to cherish the belief that the preaching of Jesus + could be conceived as something which was, in the last analysis, + independent of all contemporary ideas. But after the studies of + Hilgenfeld and Dillmann<a id="noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href= + "#note_150"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> had + made known the Jewish apocalyptic in its fundamental characteristics, + and the Jewish pseudepigrapha were no longer looked on as + <span class="tei tei-q">“forgeries,”</span> but as representative + documents of the last stage of Jewish thought, the necessity of + taking account of them in interpreting the thought of Jesus became + more and more emphatic. Almost two decades <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> were to pass, however, before the full + significance of this material was realised.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It might almost + have seemed as if it was to meet this attack by anticipation that + Colani wrote in 1864 his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jésus-Christ et les croyances messianiques de + son temps</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Timothée Colani + was born in 1824 at Lemé (Aisne), studied in Strassburg and became + pastor there in 1851. In the year 1864 he was appointed Professor of + Pastoral Theology in Strassburg in spite of some attempted opposition + to the appointment on the part of the orthodox party in Paris, which + was then growing in strength. The events of the year 1870 left him + without a post. As he had no prospect of being called to a pastorate + in France, he became a merchant. In consequence of some unfortunate + business operations he lost all his property. In 1875 he obtained a + post as librarian at the Sorbonne. He died in 1888.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How far was Jesus + a Jew? That was the starting-point of Colani's study. According to + him there was a complete lack of homogeneity in the Messianic hopes + cherished by the Jewish people in the time of Jesus, since the + prophetic conception, according to which the Kingdom of the Messiah + belonged to the present world-order, and the apocalyptic, which + transferred it to the future age, had not yet been brought into any + kind of unity. The general expectation was focused rather upon the + Forerunner than upon the Messiah. Jesus Himself in the first period + of His public ministry, up to Mark viii., had never designated + Himself as the Messiah, for the expression Son of Man carried no + Messianic associations for the multitude. His fundamental thought was + that of perfect communion with God; only little by little, as the + success of the preaching of the Kingdom more and more impressed His + mind, did His consciousness take on a Messianic colouring. In face of + the undisciplined expectations of the people He constantly repeats in + His parables of the growth of the Kingdom, the word <span class= + "tei tei-q">“patience.”</span> By revealing Himself as the Lord of + this spiritual kingdom He makes an end of the oscillation between the + sensuous and the spiritual in the current expectations of the future + blessedness. He points to mankind as a whole, not merely to the + chosen people, as the people of the Kingdom, and substitutes for the + apocalyptic catastrophe an organic development. By His interpretation + of Psalm cx., in Mark xii. 35-37, He makes known that the Messiah has + nothing whatever to do with the Davidic kingship. It was only with + difficulty that He came to resolve to accept the title of Messiah; He + knew what a weight of national prejudices and national hopes hung + upon it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But He is + <span class="tei tei-q">“Messiah the Son of Man”</span>; He created + this expression in order thereby to make known His lowliness. In the + moment in which He accepted the office He registered the resolve + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" + id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to suffer. His purpose is, to + be the suffering, not the triumphant, Messiah. It is to the influence + which His Passion exercises upon the souls of men that He looks for + the firm establishment of His Kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This spiritual + conception of the Kingdom cannot possibly be combined with the + thought of a glorious Second Coming, for if Jesus had held this + latter view He must necessarily have thought of the present life as + only a kind of prologue to that second existence. Neither the Jewish, + nor the Jewish-Christian eschatology as represented in the + eschatological discourses in the Gospels, can, therefore, in Colani's + opinion, belong to the preaching of Jesus. That He should sometimes + have made use of the imagery associated with the Jewish expectations + of the future is, of course, only natural. But the eschatology + occupies far too important a place in the tradition of the preaching + of Jesus to be explained as a mere symbolical mode of expression. It + forms a substantial element of that preaching. A spiritualisation of + it will not meet the case. Therefore, if the conviction has been + arrived at on other grounds that Jesus' preaching did not follow the + lines of Jewish eschatology, there is only one possible way of + dealing with it, and that is by excising it from the text on critical + grounds.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only element + in the preaching of Jesus which can, in Colani's opinion, be called + in any sense <span class="tei tei-q">“eschatological”</span> was the + conviction that there would be a wide extension of the Gospel even + within the existing generation, that Gentiles should be admitted to + the Kingdom, and that in consequence of the general want of + receptivity towards the message of salvation, judgment should come + upon the nations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These views of + Colani furnish him with a basis upon which to decide on the + genuineness or otherwise of the eschatological discourses. Among the + sayings put into the mouth of Jesus which must be rejected as + impossible are: the promise, in the discourse at the sending forth of + the Twelve, of the imminent coming of the Son of Man, Matt. x. 23; + the promise to the disciples that they should sit upon twelve thrones + judging the tribes of Israel, Matt. xix. 28; the saying about His + return in Matt. xxiii. 39; the final eschatological saying at the + Last Supper, Matt. xxvi. 29, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Papias-like + Chiliasm of which is unworthy of Jesus”</span>; and the prediction of + His coming on the clouds of heaven with which He closes His Messianic + confession before the Council. The apocalyptic discourses in Mark + xiii., Matt. xxiv., and Luke xxi. are interpolated. A + Jewish-Christian apocalypse of the first century, probably composed + before the destruction of Jerusalem, has been interwoven with a short + exhortation which Jesus gave on the occasion when He predicted the + destruction of the temple.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Colani, therefore, Jesus did not expect to come <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> again from Heaven to complete His work. + It was completed by His death, and the purpose of the coming of the + Spirit was to make manifest its completion. Strauss and Renan had + entered upon the path of explaining Jesus' preaching from the history + of the time by the assumption of an intermixture in it of Jewish + ideas, but it was now recognised <span class="tei tei-q">“that this + path is a cul-de-sac, and that criticism must turn round and get out + of it as quickly as possible.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new feature of + Colani's view was not so much the uncompromising rejection of + eschatology as the clear recognition that its rejection was not a + matter to be disposed of in a phrase or two, but necessitated a + critical analysis of the text.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The systematic + investigation of the Synoptic apocalypse was a contribution to + criticism of the utmost importance.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the year 1882 + Volkmar took up this attempt afresh, at least in its main + features.<a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href= + "#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> His + construction rests upon two main points of support; upon his view of + the sources and his conception of the eschatology of the time of + Jesus. In his view the sole source for the Life of Jesus is the + Gospel of Mark, which was <span class="tei tei-q">“probably written + exactly in the year 73,”</span> five years after the Johannine + apocalypse.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The other two of + the first three Gospels belong to the second century, and can only be + used by way of supplement. Luke dates from the beginning of the first + decade of the century; while Matthew is regarded by Volkmar, as by + Wilke, as being a combination of Mark and Luke, and is relegated to + the end of this first decade. The work is in his opinion a revision + of the Gospel tradition <span class="tei tei-q">“in the spirit of + that primitive Christianity which, while constantly opposing the + tendency of the apostle of the Gentiles to make light of the Law, was + nevertheless so far universalistic that, starting from the old legal + ground, it made the first steps towards a catholic unity.”</span> + Once Matthew has been set aside in this way, the literary elimination + of the eschatology follows as a matter of course; the much smaller + element of discourse in Mark can offer no serious resistance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + Messianic expectations of the time, they were, in Volkmar's opinion, + such that Jesus could not possibly have come <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> forward with Messianic claims. The Messianic + Son of Man, whose aim was to found a super-earthly Kingdom, only + arose in Judaism under the influence of Christian dogma. The + contemporaries of Jesus knew only the political ideal of the + Messianic King. And woe to any one who conjured up these hopes! The + Baptist had done so by his too fervent preaching about repentance and + the Kingdom, and had been promptly put out of the way by the + Tetrarch. The version found even in Mark, which represents that it + was on Herodias' account, and at her daughter's petition, that John + was beheaded, is a later interpretation which, according to Volkmar, + is evidently false on chronological grounds, since the Baptist was + dead before Herod took Herodias as his wife. Had Jesus desired the + Messiahship, He could only have claimed it in this political sense. + The alternative is to suppose that He did not desire it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Volkmar's + contribution to the subject consists in the formulating of this + clean-cut alternative. Colani had indeed recognised the alternative, + but had not taken up a consistent attitude in regard to it. Here, + that way of escape from the difficulty is barred, which suggests that + Jesus set Himself up as Messiah, but in another than the popular + sense. What may be called Jesus' Messianic consciousness consisted + solely <span class="tei tei-q">“in knowing Himself to be first-born + among many brethren, the Son of God after the Spirit, and + consequently feeling Himself enabled and impelled to bring about that + regeneration of His people which alone could make it worthy of + deliverance.”</span> It is in any case clearly evident from Paul, + from the Apocalypse, and from Mark, <span class="tei tei-q">“the + three documentary witnesses emanating from the circle of the + followers of Jesus during the first century, that it was only after + His crucifixion that Jesus was hailed as the Christ; never during His + earthly life.”</span> The elimination of the eschatology thus leads + also to the elimination of the Messiahship of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we are told in + Mark viii. 29 that Simon Peter was the first among men to hail Jesus + as the Messiah, it is to be noticed, Volkmar points out, that the + Evangelist places this confession at a time when Jesus' work was over + and the thought of His Passion first appears; and if we desire fully + to understand the author's purpose we must fix our attention on the + Lord's command not to make known His Messiahship until after His + resurrection (Mark viii. 30, ix. 9 and 10), which is a hint that we + are to date Jesus' Messiahship from His death. For Mark is no mere + naïve chronicler, but a conscious artist interpreting the history; + sometimes, indeed, a powerful epic writer in whose work the + historical and the poetic are intermingled.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + conclusion is that Mark, in agreement with Paul, represents Jesus as + becoming the Messiah only as a consequence of His resurrection. He + really appeared, and His first appearance <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was to Peter. When Peter on that night of + terror fled from Jerusalem to take refuge in Galilee, Jesus, + according to the mystic prediction of Mark xiv. 28 and xvi. 7, went + before him. <span class="tei tei-q">“He was constantly present to his + spirit, until on the third day He manifested Himself before his eyes, + in the heavenly appearance which was also vouchsafed to the last of + the apostles 'as he was in the way'—and Peter, enraptured, gave + expression to the clear conviction with which the whole life of Jesus + had inspired him in the cry 'Thou art the Christ.'”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The historical + Jesus therefore founded a community of followers without advancing + any claims to the Messiahship. He desired only to be a reformer, the + spiritual deliverer of the people of God, to realise upon earth the + Kingdom of God which they were all seeking in the beyond, and to + extend the reign of God over all nations. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Kingdom of God is doubtless to win its final and + decisive victory by the almighty aid of God; our duty is to see to + its beginnings”</span>—that is, according to Volkmar, the lesson + which Jesus teaches us in the parable of the Sower. The ethic of this + Kingdom was not yet confused by any eschatological ideas. It was only + when, as the years went on, the expectation of the Parousia rose to a + high pitch of intensity that <span class="tei tei-q">“marriage and + the bringing up of children came to be regarded as superfluous, and + were consequently thought of as signs of an absorption in earthly + interests which was out of harmony with the near approach to the goal + of these hopes.”</span> Jesus had renewed the foundations on which + <span class="tei tei-q">“the family”</span> was based and had made + it, in turn, a corner stone of the Kingdom of God, even as He had + consecrated the common meal by making it a love feast.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In most things + Jesus was conservative. The ritual worship of the God of Israel + remained for Him always a sacred thing. But in spite of that He + withdrew more and more from the synagogue, the scene of His earliest + preaching, and taught in the houses of His disciples. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He had learned to fulfil the law as implicit in one + highest commandment and supreme principle, therefore 'in spirit and + in truth'; but He never, as appears from all the evidence, declared + it to be abolished.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“We may be + equally certain, however, that Jesus, while He asserted the abiding + validity of the Ten Commandments, never explicitly declared that of + the Mosaic Law as a whole. The absence of any such saying from the + tradition regarding Jesus made it possible for Paul to take his + decisive step forward.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As regards the + Gospel discourses about the Parousia, it is easy to recognise that, + even in Mark, these <span class="tei tei-q">“are one and all the work + of the narrator, whose purpose is edification. He connects his work + as closely as possible with the Apocalypse, which had appeared some + five years earlier, in order to emphasise, in contrast to it, the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" + id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> higher truth.”</span> Jesus' + own hope, in all its clearness and complete originality, is recorded + in the parables of the seed growing secretly and the grain of mustard + seed, and in the saying about the immortality of His words. Nothing + beyond this is in any way certain, however remarkable the saying in + Mark ix. 1 may be, that the looked-for consummation is to take place + during the lifetime of the existing generation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is only the fact that Mark is preceded by 'the book + of the Birth (and History) of Christ according to Matthew'—not only + in the Scriptures, but also in men's minds, which were dominated by + it as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘first Gospel’</span>—which has + caused it to be taken as self-evident that Jesus, knowing Himself + from the first to be the Messiah, expected His Parousia solely from + heaven, and therefore with, or in, the clouds of heaven.... But since + He who was thought of as by birth the Son of God, is now thought of + as the Son of Man, born an Israelite, and becoming the Son of God + after the spirit only at His baptism, the hope that looks to the + clouds of heaven cannot be, or at least ought not to be, any longer + explained otherwise than as an enthusiastic dream.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, even at the + beginning of the 'eighties, a so extreme theory on the other side + could, without opposition, occupy all the points of vantage, it is + evident that the theory which gave eschatology its due place was + making but slow progress. It was not that any one had been disputing + the ground with it, but that all its operations were characterised by + a nervous timidity. And these hesitations are not to be laid to the + account of those who did not perceive the approach of the decisive + conflict, or refused to accept battle, like the followers of Reuss, + for instance, who were satisfied with the hypothesis that thoughts + about the Last Judgment had forced their way into the authentic + discourses of Jesus about the destruction of the city;<a id= + "noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> even + those who like Weiffenbach are fully convinced that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the eschatological question, and in particular the + question of the Second Coming, which in many quarters has up to the + present been treated as a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">noli me tangere</span></span>, must sooner or + later become the battle-ground of the greatest and most decisive of + theological controversies”</span>—even those who shared this + conviction stopped half-way on the road on which they had + entered.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + Weiffenbach's<a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href= + "#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> work, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus' Conception of His Second + Coming,”</span> published in 1873, sums up the results of the + previous discussions of the subject. He names as among those who + ascribe the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg + 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + expectation of the Parousia, in the sensuous form in which it meets + us in the documents, to a misunderstanding of the teaching of Jesus + on the part of the disciples and the writers who were dependent upon + them—Schleiermacher, Bleek, Holtzmann, Schenkel, Colani, Baur, Hase, + and Meyer. Among those who maintained that the Parousia formed an + integral part of Jesus' teaching, he cites Keim, Weizsäcker, Strauss, + and Renan. He considers that the readiest way to advance the + discussion will be by undertaking a critical review of the attempt to + analyse the great Synoptic discourse about the future in which Colani + had led the way.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question of + the Parousia is like, Weiffenbach suggests, a vessel which has become + firmly wedged between rocks. Any attempt to get it afloat again will + be useless until a new channel is found for it. His detailed + discussions are devoted to endeavouring to discover the relation + between the declarations regarding the Second Coming and the + predictions of the Passion. In the course of his analysis of the + great prophetic discourse he rejects the suggestion made by Weisse in + his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Evangelienfrage</span></span> of 1856, that the + eschatological character of the discourse results from the way in + which it is put together; that while the sayings in their present + mosaic-like combination certainly have a reference to the last + things, each of them individually in its original context might well + bear a natural sense. In Colani's hypothesis of conflation the + suggestion was to be rejected that it was not <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus,”</span> but the author of the Synoptic + apocalypse who was responsible for the working in of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Little Apocalypse.”</span><a id="noteref_154" name= + "noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> It was + an unsatisfactory feature of Weizsäcker's position<a id="noteref_155" + name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> that he + insisted on regarding the <span class="tei tei-q">“Little + Apocalypse”</span> as Jewish, not Jewish-Christian; Pfleiderer had + distinguished sharply what belongs to the Evangelist from the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Little Apocalypse,”</span> and had sought to + prove that the purpose of the Evangelist in thus breaking up the + latter and working it into a discourse of Jesus was to tone down the + eschatological hopes expressed in the discourse, because they had + remained unfulfilled even at the fall of Jerusalem, and to retard the + rapid development of the apocalyptic process by inserting between its + successive phases passages from a different discourse.<a id= + "noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> + Weiffenbach carries this series of tentative suggestions to its + logical conclusion, advancing the view that the link of connexion + between <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name= + "Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Jewish-Christian + Apocalypse and the Gospel material in which it is embedded is the + thought of the Second Coming. This was the thought which gave the + impulse from without towards the transmutation of Jewish into + Jewish-Christian eschatology. Jesus must have given expression to the + thought of His near return; and Jewish-Christianity subsequently + painted it over with the colours of Jewish eschatology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In developing this + theory, Weiffenbach thought that he had succeeded in solving the + problem which had been first critically formulated by Keim, who is + constantly emphasising the idea that the eschatological hopes of the + disciples could not be explained merely from their Judaic + pre-suppositions, but that some incentive to the formation of these + hopes must be sought in the preaching of Jesus; otherwise primitive + Christianity and the life of Jesus would stand side by side + unconnected and unexplained, and in that case we must give up all + hope <span class="tei tei-q">“of distinguishing the sure word of the + Lord from Israel's restless speculations about the + future.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the + Jewish-Christian Apocalypse has been eliminated, we arrive at a + discourse, spoken on the Mount of Olives, in which Jesus exhorted His + disciples to watchfulness, in view of the near, but nevertheless + undefined, hour of the return of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Master + of the House.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this discourse, + therefore, we have a standard by which criticism may test all the + eschatological sayings and discourses. Weiffenbach has the merit of + having gathered together all the eschatological material of the + Synoptics and examined it in the light of a definite principle. In + Colani the material was incomplete, and instead of a critical + principle he offered only an arbitrary exegesis which permitted him, + for example, to conceive the watchfulness on which the eschatological + parables constantly insist as only a vivid expression for the sense + of responsibility <span class="tei tei-q">“which weighs upon the life + of man.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet the + outcome of this attempt of Weiffenbach's, which begins with so much + real promise, is in the end wholly unsatisfactory. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“authentic thought of the return”</span> which he takes + as his standard has for its sole content the expectation of a visible + personal return in the near future <span class="tei tei-q">“free from + all more or less fantastic apocalyptic and Jewish-Christian + speculations about the future.”</span> That is to say, the whole of + the eschatological discourses of Jesus are to be judged by the + standard of a colourless, unreal figment of theology. Whatever cannot + be squared with that is to be declared spurious and cut away! + Accordingly the eschatological closing saying at the Last Supper is + stigmatised as a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Chiliastic-Capernaitic”</span><a id="noteref_157" name= + "noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> + distortion of a <span class="tei tei-q">“normal”</span> promise of + the Second Coming; the idea of the παλιγγενεσία, Matt. xix. 28, is + said to be <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg + 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + wholly foreign to Jesus' world of thought; it is impossible, too, + that Jesus can have thought of Himself as the Judge of the world, for + the Jewish and Jewish-Christian eschatology does not ascribe the + conduct of the Last Judgment to the Messiah; that is first done by + Gentile Christians, and especially by Paul. It was, therefore, the + later eschatology which set the Son of Man on the throne of His glory + and prepared <span class="tei tei-q">“the twelve thrones of judgment + for the disciples.”</span> The historian ought only to admit such of + the sayings about bearing rule in the Messianic Kingdom as can be + interpreted in a spiritual, non-sensuous fashion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end + Weiffenbach's critical principle proves to be merely a bludgeon with + which he goes seal-hunting and clubs the defenceless Synoptic sayings + right and left. When his work is done you see before you a desert + island strewn with quivering corpses. Nevertheless the slaughter was + not aimless, or at least it was not without result.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place, it did really appear, as a by-product of the critical + processes, that Jesus' discourses about the future had nothing to do + with an historical prevision of the destruction of Jerusalem, whereas + the supposition that they had, had hitherto been taken as + self-evident, the prediction of the destruction of Jerusalem being + regarded as the historic nucleus of Jesus' discourses regarding the + future, to which the idea of the Last Judgment had subsequently + attached itself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, then, we + have the introduction of the converse opinion, which was subsequently + established as correct; namely, that Jesus foresaw, indeed, the Last + Judgment, but not the historical destruction of Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the next place, + in the course of his critical examination of the eschatological + material, Weiffenbach stumbles upon the discourse at the sending + forth of the Twelve in Matt. x., and finds himself face to face with + the fact that the discourse which he was expected to regard as a + discourse of instruction was really nothing of the kind, but a + collection of eschatological sayings. As he had taken over along with + the Marcan hypothesis the closely connected view of the composite + character of the Synoptic discourses, he does not allow himself to be + misled, but regards this inappropriate charge to the Twelve as + nothing else than an impossible anticipation and a bold anachronism. + He knows that he is at one in this with Holtzmann, Colani, Bleek, + Scholten, Meyer, and Keim, who also made the discourse of instruction + end at the point beyond which they find it impossible to explain it, + and regard the predictions of persecution as only possible in the + later period of the life of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“For these + predictions,”</span> to express Weiffenbach's view in the words of + Keim, <span class="tei tei-q">“are too much at variance with the + essentially gracious and happy mood which suggested the sending + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" + id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> forth of the disciples, and + reflect instead the lurid gloom of the fierce conflicts of the later + period and the sadness of the farewell discourses.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a good + thing that Bruno Bauer did not hear this chorus. If he had, he would + have asked Weiffenbach and his allies whether the poor fragment that + remained after the critical dissection of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“charge to the Twelve”</span> was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a discourse of instruction,”</span> and if in view of + these difficulties they could not realise why he had refused, thirty + years before, to believe in the <span class="tei tei-q">“discourse of + instruction.”</span> But Bruno Bauer heard nothing: and so their + blissful unconsciousness lasted for nearly a generation longer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The expectation of + His Second Coming, repeatedly expressed by Jesus towards the close of + His life, is on this hypothesis authentic; it was painted over by the + primitive Christian community with the colours of its own + eschatology, in consequence of the delay of the Parousia; and in view + of the mission to the Gentiles a more cautious conception of the + nearness of the time commended itself; nay, when Jerusalem had fallen + and the <span class="tei tei-q">“signs of the end”</span> which had + been supposed to be discovered in the horrors of the years 68 and 69 + had passed without result, the return of Jesus was relegated to a + distant future by the aid of the doctrine that the Gospel must first + be preached to all the heathen. Thus the Parousia, which according to + the Jewish-Christian eschatology belonged to the present age, was + transferred to the future. <span class="tei tei-q">“With this + combination and making coincident—they were not so at the first—of + the Second Coming, the end of the world, and the final Judgment, the + idea of the Second Coming reached the last and highest stage of its + development.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weiffenbach's + view, as we have seen, empties Jesus' expectation of His return of + almost all its content, and to that is due the fact that his + investigation did not prove so useful as it might have done. His + purpose is, following suggestions thrown out by Schleiermacher and + Weisse, to prove the identity of the predictions of the Second Coming + and of the Resurrection, and he takes as his starting-point the + observation that the conduct of the disciples after the death of + Jesus forbids us to suppose that the Resurrection had been predicted + in clear and unambiguous sayings, and that, on the other hand, the + announcement of the Second Coming coincides in point of time with the + predictions of the Resurrection, and the predictions both of the + Second Coming and of the Resurrection stand in organic connexion with + the announcement of His approaching death. The two are therefore + identical.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was only after + the death of their Master that the disciples differentiated the + thought of the Resurrection from that of the Second Coming. The + Resurrection did not bring them that which the Second Coming had + promised; but it produced the result that the eschatological hopes, + which Jesus had with difficulty succeeded <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in damping, flamed up again in the hearts of + His disciples. The spiritual presence of the Deliverer who had + manifested Himself to them did not seem to them to be the fulfilment + of the promise of the Second Coming; but the expectation of the + latter, being brought into contact with the flame of eschatological + hope with which their hearts were a-fire, was fused, and cast into a + form quite different from that in which it had been derived from the + words of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That is all finely + observed. For the first time it had dawned upon historical criticism + that the great question is that concerning the identity or difference + of the Parousia and the Resurrection. But the man who had been the + first to grasp that thought, and who had undertaken his whole study + with the special purpose of working it out, was too much under the + influence of the spiritualised eschatology of Schleiermacher and + Weisse to be able to assign the right values in the solution of his + equation. And, withal, he is too much inclined to play the apologist + as a subsidiary rôle. He is not content merely to render the history + intelligible; he is, by his own confession, urged on by the hope that + perhaps a way may be found of causing that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“error”</span> of Jesus to disappear and proving it to be + an illusion due to the want of a sufficiently close study of His + discourses. But the historian simply must not be an apologist; he + must leave that to those who come after him and he may do so with a + quiet mind, for the apologists, as we learn from the history of the + Lives of Jesus, can get the better of any historical result whatever. + It is, therefore, quite unnecessary that the historian should allow + himself to be led astray by following an apologetic + will-o'-the-wisp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Technically + regarded, the mistake on which Weiffenbach's investigation made + shipwreck was the failure to bring the Jewish apocalyptic material + into relation with the Synoptic data. If he had done this, it would + have been impossible for him to extract an absolutely unreal and + unhistorical conception of the Second Coming out of the discourses of + Jesus.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The task which + Weiffenbach had neglected remained undone—to the detriment of + theology—until Baldensperger<a id="noteref_158" name="noteref_158" + href="#note_158"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> + repaired the omission. His book, <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Self-consciousness of Jesus in the Light of the Messianic Hopes of + His Time,”</span><a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href= + "#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> + published in 1888, made its impression by reason of the fullness of + its material. Whereas Colani and Volkmar had still been able to deny + the existence of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg + 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + fully formed Messianic expectation in the time of Jesus, the genesis + of the expectation was now fully traced out, and it was shown that + the world of thought which meets us in Daniel had won the victory, + that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of Man”</span> Messiah of the + Similitudes of Enoch was the last product of the Messianic hope prior + to the time of Jesus; and that therefore the fully developed Danielic + scheme with its unbridgeable chasm between the present and the future + world furnished the outline within which all further and more + detailed traits were inserted. The honour of having effectively + pioneered the way for this discovery belongs to Schürer.<a id= + "noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href="#note_160"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> + Baldensperger adopts his ideas, but sets them forth in a much more + direct way, because he, in contrast with Schürer, gives no <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">system</span></em> of + Messianic expectation—and there never in reality was a system—but is + content to picture its many-sided growth.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He does not, it is + true, escape some minor inconsistencies. For example, the idea of a + <span class="tei tei-q">“political Messiahship,”</span> which is + really set aside by his historical treatment, crops up here and + there, as though the author had not entirely got rid of it himself. + But the impression made by the book as a whole was overpowering.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless this + book does not exactly fulfil the promise of its title, any more than + Weiffenbach's. The reader expects that now at last Jesus' sayings + about Himself will be consistently explained in the light of the + Jewish Messianic ideas, but that is not done. For Baldensperger, + instead of tracing down and working out the conception of the Kingdom + of God held by Jesus as a product of the Jewish eschatology, at least + by way of trying whether that method would suffice, takes it over + direct from modern historical theology. He assumes as self-evident + that Jesus' conception of the Kingdom of God had a double character, + that the eschatological and spiritual elements were equally + represented in it and mutually conditioned one another, and that + Jesus therefore began, in pursuance of this conception, to found a + spiritual invisible Kingdom, although He expected its fulfilment to + be effected by supernatural means. Consequently there must also have + been a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name= + "Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> duality in His + religious consciousness, in which these two conceptions had to be + combined. Jesus' Messianic consciousness sprang, according to + Baldensperger, <span class="tei tei-q">“from a religious + root”</span>; that is to say, the Messianic consciousness was a + special modification of a self-consciousness in which a pure, + spiritual, unique relation to God was the fundamental element; and + from this arises the possibility of a spiritual transformation of the + Jewish-Messianic self-consciousness. In making these assumptions, + Baldensperger does not ask himself whether it is not possible that + for Jesus the purely Jewish consciousness of a transcendental + Messiahship may itself have been religious, nay even spiritual, just + as well as the Messiahship resting on a vague, indefinite, colourless + sense of union with God which modern theologians arbitrarily + attribute to Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, instead of + arriving at the two conceptions, Kingdom of God and Messianic + consciousness, purely empirically, by an unbiased comparison of the + Synoptic passages with the Late-Jewish conceptions, Baldensperger, in + this following Holtzmann, brings them into his theory in the dual + form in which contemporary theology, now becoming faintly tinged with + eschatology, offered them to him. Consequently, everything has to be + adapted to this duality. Jesus, for example, in applying to Himself + the title Son of Man, thinks not only of the transcendental + significance which it has in the Jewish apocalyptic, but gives it at + the same time an ethico-religious colouring.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finally, the + duality is explained by an application of the genetic method, in + which the <span class="tei tei-q">“course of the development of the + self-consciousness of Jesus”</span> is traced out. The historical + psychology of the Marcan hypothesis here shows its power of adapting + itself to eschatology. From the first, to follow the course of + Baldensperger's exposition, the eschatological view influenced Jesus' + expectation of the Kingdom and His Messianic consciousness. In the + wilderness, after the dawn of His Messianic consciousness at His + baptism, He had rejected the ideal of the Messianic king of David's + line and put away all warlike thoughts. Then He began to found the + Kingdom of God by preaching. For a time the spiritualised idea of the + Kingdom was dominant in His mind, the Messianic eschatological idea + falling rather into the background.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But His silence + regarding His Messianic office was partly due to paedagogic reasons, + <span class="tei tei-q">“since He desired to lead His hearers to a + more spiritual conception of the Kingdom and so to obviate a possible + political movement on their part and the consequent intervention of + the Roman government.”</span> In addition to this He had also + personal reasons for not revealing Himself which only disappeared in + the moment when His death and Second Coming became part of His plan; + previous to that He did not know how and when the Kingdom was to + come. Prior to the confession at <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Caesarea Philippi, the disciples <span class= + "tei tei-q">“had only a faint and vague suspicion of the Messianic + dignity of their Master.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was + <span class="tei tei-q">“rather the preparatory stage of His + Messianic work.”</span> Objectively, it may be described <span class= + "tei tei-q">“as the period of growing emphasis upon the spiritual + characteristics of the Kingdom, and of resigned waiting and watching + for its outward manifestation in glory; subjectively, from the point + of view of the self-consciousness of Jesus, it may be characterised + as the period of the struggle between His religious conviction of His + Messiahship and the traditional rationalistic Messianic + belief.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This first period + opens out into a second in which He had attained to perfect clearness + of vision and complete inner harmony. By the acceptance of the idea + of suffering, Jesus' inner peace is enhanced to the highest degree + conceivable. <span class="tei tei-q">“By throwing Himself upon the + thought of death He escaped the lingering uncertainty as to when and + how God would fulfil His promise....”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The coming of the Kingdom was fixed down to the Second + Coming of the Messiah. Now He ventured to regard Himself as the Son + of Man who was to be the future Judge of the world, for the suffering + and dying Son of Man was closely associated with the Son of Man + surrounded by the host of heaven. Would the people accept Him as + Messiah? He now, in Jerusalem, put the question to them in all its + sharpness and burning actuality; and the people were moved to + enthusiasm. But so soon as they saw that He whom they had hailed with + such acclamation was neither able nor willing to fulfil their + ambitious dreams, a reaction set in.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, according to + Baldensperger, there was an interaction between the historical and + the psychological events. And that is right!—if only the machinery + were not so complicated, and a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“development”</span> had not to be ground out of it at + whatever cost. But this, and the whole manner of treatment in the + second part, encumbered as it is with parenthetic qualifications, was + rendered inevitable by the adoption of the two aforesaid not purely + historical conceptions. Sometimes, too, one gets the impression that + the author felt that he owed it to the school to which he belonged to + advance no assertion without adding the limitations which + scientifically secure it against attack. Thus on every page he digs + himself into an entrenched position, with palisades of footnotes—in + fact the book actually ends with a footnote. But the conception which + underlay the whole was so full of vigour that in spite of the + thoughts not being always completely worked out, it produced a + powerful impression. Baldensperger had persuaded theology at least to + admit the hypothesis—whether it took up a positive or negative + position in regard to it—that Jesus possessed a fully-developed + eschatology. He thus provided a new basis for discussion and gave an + impulse to the study of the subject such as it had not received + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" + id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> since the 'sixties, at least + not in the same degree of energy. Perhaps the very limitations of the + work, due as they were to its introduction of modern ideas, rendered + it better adapted to the spirit of the age, and consequently more + influential, than if it had been characterised by that rigorous + maintenance of a single point of view which was abstractly requisite + for the proper treatment of the subject. It was precisely the + rejection of this rigorous consistency which enabled it to gain + ground for the cause of eschatology.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the consistent + treatment from a single point of view was bound to come; and it came + four years later. In passing from Weiffenbach and Baldensperger to + Johannes Weiss<a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href= + "#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> the + reader feels like an explorer who after weary wanderings through + billowy seas of reed-grass at length reaches a wooded tract, and + instead of swamp feels firm ground beneath his feet, instead of + yielding rushes sees around him the steadfast trees. At last there is + an end of <span class="tei tei-q">“qualifying clause”</span> + theology, of the <span class="tei tei-q">“and yet,”</span> the + <span class="tei tei-q">“on the other hand,”</span> the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“notwithstanding”</span>! The reader had to follow the + others step by step, making his way over every footbridge and + gang-plank which they laid down, following all the meanderings in + which they indulged, and must never let go their hands if he wished + to come safely through the labyrinth of spiritual and eschatological + ideas which they supposed to be found in the thought of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Weiss there are + none of these devious paths: <span class="tei tei-q">“behold the land + lies before thee.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Preaching of Jesus concerning the Kingdom of + God,”</span><a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href= + "#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> + published in 1892, has, on its own lines, an importance equal to that + of Strauss's first Life of Jesus. He lays down the third great + alternative which the study of the life of Jesus had to meet. The + first was laid down by Strauss: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">either</span></em> purely historical <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">or</span></em> purely + supernatural. The second had been worked out by the Tübingen school + and Holtzmann: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">either</span></em> Synoptic <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">or</span></em> + Johannine. Now came the third: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">either</span></em> eschatological <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">or</span></em> + non-eschatological!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Progress always + consists in taking one or other of two alternatives, in abandoning + the attempt to combine them. The pioneers of progress have therefore + always to reckon with the law of mental inertia which manifests + itself in the majority—who always go on believing that it is possible + to combine that which can no longer be combined, and in fact claim it + as a special merit that they, in contrast with the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“one-sided”</span> writers, can do justice to the other + side of the question. One must just let them be, till their time is + over, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name= + "Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and resign oneself not + to see the end of it, since it is found by experience that the + complete victory of one of two historical alternatives is a matter of + two full theological generations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This remark is + made in order to explain why the work of Johannes Weiss did not + immediately make an end of the mediating views. Another reason + perhaps was that, according to the usual canons of theological + authorship, the book was much too short—only sixty-seven pages—and + too simple to allow its full significance to be realised. And yet it + is precisely this simplicity which makes it one of the most important + works in historical theology. It seems to break a spell. It closes + one epoch and begins another.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weiffenbach had + failed to solve the problem of the Second Coming, Baldensperger that + of the Messianic consciousness of Jesus, because both of them allowed + a false conception of the Kingdom of God to keep its place among the + data. The general conception of the Kingdom was first rightly grasped + by Johannes Weiss. All modern ideas, he insists, even in their + subtlest forms, must be eliminated from it; when this is done, we + arrive at a Kingdom of God which is wholly future; as is indeed + implied by the petition in the Lord's prayer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thy Kingdom come.”</span> Being still to come, it is at + present purely supra-mundane. It is present only as a cloud may be + said to be present which throws its shadow upon the earth; its + nearness, that is to say, is recognised by the paralysis of the + Kingdom of Satan. In the fact that Jesus casts out the demons, the + Pharisees are bidden to recognise, according to Matt. xii. 25-28, + that the Kingdom of God is already come upon them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the only + sense in which Jesus thinks of the Kingdom as present. He does not + <span class="tei tei-q">“establish it,”</span> He only proclaims its + coming. He exercises no <span class="tei tei-q">“Messianic + functions,”</span> but waits, like others, for God to bring about the + coming of the Kingdom by supernatural means. He does not even know + the day and hour when this shall come to pass. The missionary journey + of the disciples was not designed for the extension of the Kingdom of + God, but only as a means of rapidly and widely making known its + nearness. But it was not so near as Jesus thought. The impenitence + and hardness of heart of a great part of the people, and the + implacable enmity of His opponents, at length convinced Him that the + establishment of the Kingdom of God could not yet take place, that + such penitence as had been shown hitherto was not sufficient, and + that a mighty obstacle, the guilt of the people, must first be put + away. It becomes clear to Him that His own death must be the + ransom-price. He dies, not for the community of His followers only, + but for the nation; that is why He always speaks of His atoning death + as <span class="tei tei-q">“for many,”</span> not <span class= + "tei tei-q">“for you.”</span> After His death He would come again in + all the splendour and glory with which, since the days of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" + id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Daniel, men's imaginations had + surrounded the Messiah, and He was to come, moreover, within the + lifetime of the generation to which He had proclaimed the nearness of + the Kingdom of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The setting up of + the Kingdom was to be preceded by the Day of Judgment. In describing + the Messianic glory Jesus makes use of the traditional picture, but + He does so with modesty, restraint, and sobriety. Therein consists + His greatness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With political + expectations this Kingdom has nothing whatever to do. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“To hope for the Kingdom of God in the transcendental + sense which Jesus attaches to it, and to raise a revolution, are two + things as different as fire and water.”</span> The transcendental + character of the expectation consists precisely in this, that the + State and all earthly institutions, conditions, and benefits, as + belonging to the present age, shall either not exist at all in the + coming Kingdom, or shall exist only in a sublimated form. Hence Jesus + cannot preach to men a special ethic of the Kingdom of God, but only + an ethic which in this world makes men free from the world and + prepared to enter unimpeded into the Kingdom. That is why His ethic + is of so completely negative a character; it is, in fact, not so much + an ethic as a penitential discipline.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ministry of + Jesus is therefore not in principle different from that of John the + Baptist: there can be no question of a founding and development of + the Kingdom within the hearts of men. What distinguishes the work of + Jesus from that of the Baptist is only His consciousness of being the + Messiah. He awoke to this consciousness at His baptism. But the + Messiahship which He claims is not a present office; its exercise + belongs to the future. On earth He is only a man, a prophet, as in + the view implied in the speeches in the Acts of the Apostles. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of Man”</span> is therefore, in the + passages where it is authentic, a purely eschatological designation + of the Messiah, though we cannot tell whether His hearers understood + Him as speaking of Himself in His future rank and dignity, or whether + they thought of the Son of Man as a being quite distinct from + Himself, whose coming He was only proclaiming in advance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The sole object of this argument is to prove that the + Messianic self-consciousness of Jesus, as expressed in the title + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Son of Man,’</span> shares in the + transcendental apocalyptic character of Jesus' idea of the Kingdom of + God, and cannot be separated from that idea.”</span> The only + partially correct evaluation of the factors in the problem of the + Life of Jesus which Baldensperger had taken over from contemporary + theology, and which had hitherto prevented historical science from + obtaining a solution of that problem, had now been corrected from the + history itself, and it was now only necessary to insert the corrected + data into the calculation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here is the point + at which it is fitting to recall Reimarus. He <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was the first, and indeed, before + Johannes Weiss, the only writer who recognised and pointed out that + the preaching of Jesus was purely eschatological. It is true that his + conception of the eschatology was primitive, and that he applied it + not as a constructive, but as a destructive principle of criticism. + But read his statement of the problem <span class="tei tei-q">“with + the signs changed,”</span> and with the necessary deduction for the + primitive character of the eschatology, and you have the view of + Weiss.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ghillany, too, has + a claim to be remembered. When Weiss asserts that the part played by + Jesus was not the active rôle of establishing the Kingdom, but the + passive rôle of waiting for the coming of the Kingdom; and that it + was, in a sense, only by the acceptance of His sufferings that He + emerged from that passivity; he is only asserting what Ghillany had + maintained thirty years before with the same arguments and with the + same decisiveness. But Weiss places the assertion on a scientifically + unassailable basis.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name= + "Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XVI. The Struggle Against + Eschatology</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wilhelm + Bousset.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Jesu Predigt in + ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum. Ein religionsgeschichtlicher Vergleich. + (The Antithesis between Jesus' Preaching and Judaism. A + Religious-Historical Comparison.) Göttingen, 1892. 130 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Erich + Haupt.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die + eschatologischen Aussagen Jesu in den synoptischen Evangelien. (The + Eschatological Sayings of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels.) 1895. 167 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paul + Wernle.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die Anfänge + unserer Religion. Tübingen-Leipzig, 1901; 2nd ed., 1904, 410 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Emil + Schürer.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + messianische Selbstbewusstsein Jesu-Christi. 1903. Akademische + Festrede. (The Messianic Self-consciousness of Jesus Christ.) 24 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wilhelm Brandt.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Die evangelische Geschichte und der + Ursprung des Christentums auf Grund einer Kritik der Berichte über + das Leiden und die Auferstehung Jesu. (The Gospel History and the + Origin of Christianity. Based upon a Critical Study of the + Narratives of the Sufferings and Resurrection of Jesus.) Leipzig, + 1893. 591 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Adolf + Jülicher.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die + Gleichnisreden Jesu. (The Parables of Jesus.) Vol. i., 1888, 291 + pp.; vol. ii., 1899, 643 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this period the + important books are short. The sixty-seven pages of Johannes Weiss + are answered by Bousset<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href= + "#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a> in a + bare hundred and thirty. People began to see that the elaborate Lives + of Jesus which had hitherto held the field, and enjoyed an + immortality of revised editions, only masked the fact that the study + of the subject was at a standstill; and that the tedious re-handling + of problems which had been solved so far as they were capable of + solution only served as an excuse for not grappling with those which + still remained unsolved.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This conviction is + expressed by Bousset at the beginning of his work. The criticism of + the sources, he says, is finished, and its results may be regarded, + so far as the Life of Jesus is concerned, as provisionally complete. + The separation between John and the Synoptists has been secured. For + the Synoptists, the two-document hypothesis has been established, + according to which the sources are a primitive form of Mark, and a + collection of <span class="tei tei-q">“logia.”</span> A certain + interest might still attach to the attempt to arrive at the primitive + kernel of Mark; but the attempt has a priori so little <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> prospect of success that it was almost a + waste of time to continue to work at it. It would be a much more + important thing to get rid of the feeling of uncertainty and + artificiality in the Lives of Jesus. What is now chiefly wanted, + Bousset thinks, is <span class="tei tei-q">“a firmly-drawn and + life-like portrait which, with a few bold strokes, should bring out + clearly the originality, the force, the personality of + Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is evident that + the centre of the problem has now been reached. That is why the + writing becomes so terse. The masses of thought can only be manœuvred + here in a close formation such as Weiss gives them. The loose order + of discursive exegetical discussions of separate passages is now no + longer in place. The first step towards further progress was the + simple one of marshalling the passages in such a way as to gain a + single consistent impression from them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + instance Bousset is as ready as Johannes Weiss to admit the + importance for the mind of Jesus of the eschatological <span class= + "tei tei-q">“then”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“now.”</span> + The realistic school, he thinks, are perfectly right in endeavouring + to relate Jesus, without apologetic or theological inconsistencies, + to the background of contemporary ideas. Later, in 1901, he was to + make it a reproach against Harnack's <span class="tei tei-q">“What is + Christianity?”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Wesen des Christentums</span></span>) that + it did not give sufficient importance to the background of + contemporary thought in its account of the preaching of Jesus.<a id= + "noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He goes on to ask, + however, whether the first enthusiasm over the discovery of this + genuinely historical way of looking at things should not be followed + by some <span class="tei tei-q">“second thoughts”</span> of a deeper + character. Accepting the position laid down by Johannes Weiss, we + must ask, he thinks, whether this purely historical criticism, by the + exclusive emphasis which it has laid upon eschatology, has not + allowed the <span class="tei tei-q">“essential originality and power + of the personality of Jesus to slip through its fingers,”</span> and + closed its grasp instead upon contemporary conceptions and + imaginations which are often of a quite special character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Late-Jewish + eschatology was, according to Bousset, by no means a homogeneous + system of thought. Realistic and transcendental elements stand side + by side in it, unreconciled. The genuine popular belief of Late + Judaism still clung quite naively to the earthly realistic hopes of + former times, and had never been able to rise to the purely + transcendental regions which are the characteristic habitat of + apocalyptic. The rejection of the world is never carried out + consistently; something of the Jewish national ideal always remains. + And for this reason Late Judaism made no progress towards the + overcoming of particularism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Probably, Bousset + holds, this Apocalyptic thought is not even genuinely Jewish; as he + ably argued in another work, there <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was a considerable strain of Persian influence + in it.<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href= + "#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> The + dualism, the transference to the transcendental region of the future + hope, the conception of the world which appears in Jewish + apocalyptic, are of Iranian rather than Jewish origin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two thoughts are + especially characteristic of Bousset's position; first, that this + transcendentalising of the future implied a spiritualisation of it; + secondly, that in post-exilic Judaism there was always an + undercurrent of a purer and more spontaneous piety, the presence of + which is especially to be traced in the Psalms.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Into a dead world, + where a kind of incubus seems to stifle all naturalness and + spontaneity, there comes a living Man. According to the formulae of + His preaching and the designations which He applies to Himself, He + seems at first sight to identify Himself with this world rather than + to oppose it. But these conceptions and titles, especially the + Kingdom of God and the Son of Man, must be provisionally left in the + background, since they, as being conceptions taken over from the + past, conceal rather than reveal what is most essential in His + personality. The primary need is to discover, behind the phenomenal, + the real character of the personality and preaching of Jesus. The + starting-point must therefore be the simple fact that Jesus came as a + living Man into a dead world. He is living, because in contrast with + His contemporaries He has a living idea of God. His faith in the + Fatherhood of God is Jesus' most essential act. It signifies a breach + with the transcendental Jewish idea of God, and an unconscious inner + negation of the Jewish eschatology. Jesus, therefore, walks through a + world which denies His own eschatology like a man who has firm ground + under his feet.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That which on a + superficial view appears to be eschatological preaching turns out to + be essentially a renewal of the old prophetic preaching with its + positive ethical emphasis. Jesus is a manifestation of that ancient + spontaneous piety of which Bousset had shown the existence in Late + Judaism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most + characteristic thing in the character of Jesus, according to Bousset, + is His joy in life. It is true that if, in endeavouring to understand + Him, we take primitive Christianity as our starting-point, we might + conceive of this joy in life as the complement of the eschatological + mood, as the extreme expression of indifference to the world, which + can as well enjoy the world as flee it. But the purely eschatological + attitude, though it reappears <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in early Christianity, does not give the right + clue for the interpretation of the character of Jesus as a whole. His + joy in the world was real, a genuine outcome of His new type of + piety. It prevented the eudaemonistic eschatological idea of reward, + which some think they find in Jesus' preaching, from ever really + becoming an element in it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus is best + understood by contrasting Him with the Baptist. John was a preacher + of repentance whose eyes were fixed upon the future. Jesus did not + allow the thought of the nearness of the end to rob Him of His + simplicity and spontaneity, and was not crippled by the reflection + that everything was transitory, preparatory, a mere means to an end. + His preaching of repentance was not gloomy and forbidding; it was the + proclamation of a new righteousness, of which the watchword was, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ye shall be perfect as your Father in Heaven + is perfect.”</span> He desires to communicate this personal piety by + personal influence. In contrast with the Baptist He never aims at + influencing masses of men, but rather avoids it. His work was + accomplished mainly among little groups and individuals. He left the + task of carrying the Gospel far and wide as a legacy to the community + of His followers. The mission of the Twelve, conceived as a mission + for the rapid and widespread extension of the Gospel, is not to be + used to explain Jesus' methods of teaching; the narrative of it rests + on an <span class="tei tei-q">“obscure and unintelligible + tradition.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This genuine joy + in life was not unnoticed by the contemporaries of Jesus who + contrasted Him as <span class="tei tei-q">“a gluttonous man and a + wine-bibber,”</span> with the Baptist. They were vaguely conscious + that the whole life of Jesus was <span class="tei tei-q">“sustained + by the feeling of an absolute antithesis between Himself and His + times.”</span> He lived not in anxious expectation, but in cheerful + gladness, because by the native strength of His piety He had brought + present and future into one. Free from all extravagant Jewish + delusions about the future, He was not paralysed by the conditions + which must be fulfilled to make this future present. He has a + peculiar conviction of its coming which gives Him courage to + <span class="tei tei-q">“marry”</span> the present with the future. + The present as contrasted with the beyond is for Him no mere shadow, + but truth and reality; life is not for Him a mere illusion, but is + charged with a real and valuable meaning. His own time is the + Messianic time, as His answer to the Baptist's question shows. + <span class="tei tei-q">“And it is among the most certain things in + the Gospel that Jesus in His earthly life acknowledged Himself as + Messiah both to His disciples and to the High-Priest, and made His + entry into Jerusalem as such.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He can, therefore, + fully recognise the worth of the present. It is not true that He + taught that this world's goods were in themselves bad; what He said + was only that they must not be put first. <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Indeed He gives a new value to life by teaching + that man cannot be righteous in isolation, but only in the fellowship + of love. And as, moreover, the righteousness which He preaches is one + of the goods of the Kingdom of God, He cannot have thought of the + Kingdom as wholly transcendental. The Reign of God begins for Him in + the present era. His consciousness of being able to cast out demons + in the spirit of God because Satan's kingdom on earth is at an end is + only the supernaturalistic expression for something of which He also + possesses an ethical consciousness, namely, that in the new social + righteousness the Kingdom of God is already present.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This presence of + the Kingdom was not, however, clearly explained by Jesus, but was set + forth in paradoxes and parables, especially in the parables of Mark + iv. When we find the Evangelist, in immediate connexion with these + parables, asserting that the aim of the parables was to mystify and + conceal, we may conclude that the basis of this theory is the fact + that these parables concerning the presence of the Kingdom of God + were not understood.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In effecting this + tacit transformation Jesus is acting in accordance with a tendency of + the time. Apocalyptic is itself a spiritualisation of the ancient + Israelitish hopes of the future, and Jesus only carries this process + to its completion. He raises Late Judaism above the limitations in + which it was involved, separates out the remnant of national, + political, and sensuous ideas which still clung to the expectation of + the future in spite of its having been spiritualised by apocalyptic, + and breaks with the Jewish particularism, though without providing a + theoretical basis for this step.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, in spite of, + nay even because of, His opposition to it, Jesus was the fulfiller of + Judaism. In Him were united the ancient and vigorous prophetic + religion and the impulse which Judaism itself had begun to feel + towards the spiritualisation of the future hope. The transcendental + and the actual meet in a unity which is full of life and strength, + creative not reflective, and therefore not needing to set aside the + ancient traditional ideas by didactic explanations, but overcoming + them almost unconsciously by the truth which lies in this paradoxical + union. The historical formula embodied in Bousset's closing sentence + runs thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Gospel develops some of the + deeper-lying <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motifs</span></span> of the Old Testament, but + it protests against the prevailing tendency of Judaism.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such of the + underlying assumptions of this construction as invite challenge lie + open to inspection, and do not need to be painfully disentangled from + a web of exegesis; that is one of the merits of the book. The chief + points to be queried are as follows:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is it the case + that the apocalypses mark the introduction of a process of + spiritualisation applied to the ancient Israelitish hopes? + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" + id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> A picture of the future is not + spiritualised simply by being projected upon the clouds. This + elevation to the transcendental region signifies, on the contrary, + the transference to a place of safety of the eudaemonistic + aspirations which have not been fulfilled in the present, and which + are expected, by way of compensation, from the other world. The + apocalyptic conception is so far from being a spiritualisation of the + future expectations, that it represents on the contrary the last + desperate effort of a strongly eudaemonistic popular religion to + raise to heaven the earthly goods from which it cannot make up its + mind to part.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Next we must ask: + Is it really necessary to assume the existence of so wide reaching a + Persian influence in Jewish eschatology? The Jewish dualism and the + sublimation of its hope have become historical just because, owing to + the fate of the nation, the religious life of the present and the + fair future which was logically bound up with it became more and more + widely separated, temporally and locally, until at last only its + dualism and the sublimation of its hope enabled the nation to survive + its disappointment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, is it + historically permissible to treat the leading ideas of the preaching + of Jesus, which bear so clearly the marks of the contemporary mould + of thought, as of secondary importance for the investigation, and to + endeavour to trace Jesus' thoughts from within outwards and not from + without inwards?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Further, is there + really in Judaism no tendency towards the overcoming of + particularism? Has not its eschatology, as shaped by the + deutero-prophetic literature, a universalistic outlook? Did Jesus + overcome particularism in principle otherwise than it is overcome in + Jewish eschatology, that is to say, with reference to the future?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is there to + prove that Jesus' distinctive faith in the Fatherhood of God ever + existed independently, and not as an alternative form of the + historically-conditioned Messianic consciousness? In other words, + what is there to show that the <span class="tei tei-q">“religious + attitude”</span> of Jesus and His Messianic consciousness are + anything else than identical, temporally and conceptually, so that + the first must always be understood as conditioned by the second?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, is the + saying about the gluttonous man and wine-bibber a sufficient basis + for the contrast between Jesus and the Baptist? Is not Jesus' + preaching of repentance gloomy as well as the Baptist's? Where do we + read that He, in contrast with the Baptist, avoided dealing with + masses of men? Where did He give <span class="tei tei-q">“the + community of His disciples”</span> marching orders to go far and wide + in the sense required by Bousset's argument? Where is there a word to + tell us that He thought of His work among individuals and little + groups of men as the most important feature <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of His ministry? Are we not told the exact + contrary, that He <span class="tei tei-q">“taught”</span> His + disciples as little as He did the people? Is there any justification + for characterising the missionary journey of the Twelve, just because + it directly contradicts this view, as <span class="tei tei-q">“an + obscure and unintelligible tradition?”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is it so certain + that Jesus made a Messianic entry into Jerusalem, and that, + accordingly, He declared Himself to the disciples and to the High + Priest as Messiah in the present, and not in a purely future + sense?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What are the + sayings which justify us in making the attitude of opposition which + He took up towards the Rabbinic legalism into a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“sense of the absolute opposition between Himself and His + people”</span>? The very <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute,”</span> + with its ring of Schleiermacher, is suspicious.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All these, + however, are subsidiary positions. The decisive point is: Can Bousset + make good the assertion that Jesus' joy in life was a more or less + unconscious inner protest against the purely eschatological + world-renouncing religious attitude, the primal expression of that + <span class="tei tei-q">“absolute”</span> antithesis to Judaism? Is + it not the case that His attitude towards earthly goods was wholly + conditioned by eschatology? That is to say, were not earthly goods + emptied of any essential value in such a way that joy in the world + and indifference to the world were simply the final expression of an + ironic attitude which had been sublimated into pure serenity. That is + the question upon the answer to which depends the decision whether + Bousset's position is tenable or not.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not in fact + tenable, for the opposite view has at its disposal inexhaustible + reserves of world-renouncing, world-contemning sayings, and the few + utterances which might possibly be interpreted as expressing a purely + positive joy in the world, desert and go over to the enemy, because + they textually and logically belong to the other set of sayings. + Finally, the promise of earthly happiness as a reward, to which + Bousset had denied a position in the teaching of Jesus, also falls + upon his rear, and that in the very moment when he is seeking to + prove from the saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Seek ye first the + Kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all these things shall be + added unto you,”</span> that for Jesus this world's goods are not in + themselves evil, but are only to be given a secondary place. Here the + eudaemonism is written on the forehead of the saying, since the + receiving of these things—we must remember, too, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“hundredfold”</span> in another passage—is future, not + present, and will only <span class="tei tei-q">“come”</span> at the + same time as the Kingdom of God. All present goods, on the other + hand, serve only to support life and render possible an undistracted + attitude of waiting in pious hope for that future, and therefore are + not thought of as gains, but purely as a gift of God, to be + cheerfully and freely enjoyed as a foretaste <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of those blessings which the elect are to enjoy + in the future Divine dispensation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The loss of this + position decides the further point that if there is any suggestion in + the teaching of Jesus that the future Kingdom of God is in some sense + present, it is not to be understood as implying an + anti-eschatological acceptance of the world, but merely as a + phenomenon indicative of the extreme tension of the eschatological + consciousness, just in the same way as His joy in the world. Bousset + has a kind of indirect recognition of this in his remark that the + presence of the Kingdom of God is only asserted by Jesus as a kind of + paradox. If the assertion of its presence indicated that acceptance + of the world formed part of Jesus' system of thought, it would be at + variance with His eschatology. But the paradoxical character of the + assertion is due precisely to the fact that His acceptance of the + world is but the last expression of the completeness with which He + rejects it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what do + critical cavils matter in the case of a book of which the force, the + influence, the greatness, depends upon its spirit? It is great + because it recognises—what is so rarely recognised in theological + works—the point where the main issue really lies; in the question, + namely, whether Jesus preached and worked as Messiah, or whether, as + follows if a prominent place is given to eschatology, as Colani had + long ago recognised, His career, historically regarded, was only the + career of a prophet with an undercurrent of Messianic + consciousness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a consequence + of grasping the question in its full significance, Bousset rejects + all the little devices by which previous writers had endeavoured to + relate Jesus' ministry to His times, each one prescribing at what + point He was to connect Himself with it, and of course proceeding in + his book to represent Him as connecting Himself with it in precisely + that way. Bousset recognises that the supreme importance of + eschatology in the teaching of Jesus is not to be got rid of by + whittling away a little point here and there, and rubbing it smooth + with critical sandpaper until it is capable of reflecting a different + thought, but only by fully admitting it, while at the same time + counteracting it by asserting a mysterious element of + world-acceptance in the thought of Jesus, and conceiving His whole + teaching as a kind of alternating current between positive and + negative poles.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the last + possible sincere attempt to limit the exclusive importance of + eschatology in the preaching of Jesus, an attempt so gallant, so + brilliant, that its failure is almost tragic; one could have wished + success to the book, to which Carlyle might have stood sponsor. That + it is inspired by the spirit of Carlyle, that it vindicates the + original force of a great Personality against the attempt to dissolve + it into a congeries of contemporary conceptions, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> therein lies at once its greatness and + its weakness. Bousset vindicates Jesus, not for history, but for + Protestantism, by making Him the heroic representative of a deeply + religious acceptance of the goods of life amid an apocalyptic world. + His study is not unhistorical, but supra-historical. The spirit of + Jesus was in fact world-accepting in the sense that through the + experience of centuries it advanced historically to the acceptance of + the world, since nothing can appear phenomenally which is not in some + sense ideally present from the first. But the teaching of the + historical Jesus was purely and exclusively world-renouncing. If, + therefore, the problem which Bousset has put on the blackboard for + the eschatological school to solve is to be successfully solved, the + solution is to be sought on other, more objectively historical, + lines.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That the decision + of the question whether Jesus' preaching of the Kingdom of God is + wholly eschatological or only partly eschatological, is primarily to + be sought in His ethical teaching, is recognised by all the critics + of Baldensperger and Weiss. They differ only in the importance which + they assign to eschatology. But no other writer has grasped the + problem as clearly as Bousset.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Parisian + Ehrhardt emphasises eschatology very strongly in his work + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Fundamental Character of the Preaching + of Jesus in Relation to the Messianic Hopes of His People and His own + Messianic Consciousness.”</span><a id="noteref_166" name= + "noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> + Nevertheless he asserts the presence of a twofold ethic in Jesus' + teaching: eschatology did not attempt to evacuate everything else of + all value, but allowed the natural and ethical goods of this world to + hold their place, as belonging to a world of thought which resisted + its encroachments.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A much more + negative attitude is taken up by Albert Réville in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jésus de + Nazareth</span></span>.<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href= + "#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> + According to him both Apocalyptic and Messianism are foreign bodies + in the teaching of Jesus which have been forced into it by the + pressure of contemporary thought. Jesus would never of His own motion + have taken up the rôle of Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wendt, too, in the + second edition of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lehre Jesu</span></span>, which appeared in + 1903, held in the main to the fundamental idea of the first, the + 1890, edition; namely, that Jesus in view of His purely religious + relation to God could not do otherwise than transform, from within + outwards, the traditional conceptions, even though <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> they seem to be traceable in their actual + contemporary form on the surface of His teaching. He had already, in + 1893, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christliche Welt</span></span> clearly + expounded, and defended against Weiss, his view of the Kingdom of God + as already present for the thought of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The effect which + Baldensperger and Weiss had upon Weiffenbach<a id="noteref_168" name= + "noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> was to + cause him to bring out in full strength the apologetic aspect which + had been somewhat held in check in his work of 1873 by the + thoroughness of his exegesis. The apocalyptic of this younger school, + which was no longer willing to believe that in the mouth of Jesus the + Parousia meant nothing more than an issuing from death clothed with + power, is on all grounds to be rejected. It assumes, since this + expectation was not fulfilled, an error on the part of Jesus. It is + better to rest content with not being able to see quite clearly.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Protected by a + similar armour, the successive editions of Bernhard Weiss's Life of + Jesus went their way unmolested down to 1902.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not with an + apologetic purpose, but on the basis of an original religious view, + Titius, in his work on the New Testament doctrine of blessedness, + develops the teaching of Jesus concerning the Kingdom of God as a + present good.<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169" href= + "#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the same year, + 1895, appeared E. Haupt's work on <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Eschatological Sayings of Jesus in the Synoptic + Gospels.”</span><a id="noteref_170" name="noteref_170" href= + "#note_170"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a> In + contradistinction to Bousset he takes as his starting-point the + eschatological passages, examining each separately and modulating + them back to the Johannine key. It is so delicately and ingeniously + done that the reading of the book is an aesthetic pleasure which + makes one in the end quite forget the apologetic <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motif</span></span> in order to surrender + oneself completely to the author's mystical system of religious + thought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, indeed, not + the least service of the eschatological school that it compels modern + theology, which is so much preoccupied with history, to reveal what + is its own as its own. Eschatology makes it impossible to attribute + modern ideas to Jesus and then by way of <span class="tei tei-q">“New + Testament Theology”</span> take them back from Him as a loan, as even + Ritschl not so long ago did with such <span lang="fr" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style= + "font-style: italic">naïveté</span></span>. Johannes Weiss, in + cutting himself loose, as an historian, from Ritschl, and recognising + that <span class="tei tei-q">“the real roots of Ritschl's ideas + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" + id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> are to be found in Kant and + the illuminist theology,”</span><a id="noteref_171" name= + "noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> + introduced the last decisive phase of the process of separation + between historical and <span class="tei tei-q">“modern”</span> + theology. Before the advent of eschatology, critical theology was, in + the last resort, without a principle of discrimination, since it + possessed no reagent capable of infallibly separating out modern + ideas on the one hand and genuinely ancient New Testament ideas on + the other. The application of the criterion has now begun. What will + be the issue, the future alone can show.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even now we + can recognise that the separation was not only of advantage to + historical theology; for modern theology, the manifestation of the + modern spirit as it really is, was still more important. Only when it + became conscious of its own inmost essence and of its right to exist, + only when it freed itself from its illegitimate historical + justification, which, leaping over the centuries, appealed directly + to an historical exposition of the New Testament, only then could it + unfold its full wealth of ideas, which had been hitherto root-bound + by a false historicity. It was not by chance that in Bousset's reply + a certain affirmation of life, something expressive of the genius of + Protestantism, cries aloud as never before in any theological work of + this generation, or that in Haupt's work German mysticism interweaves + its mysterious harmonies with the Johannine <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motif</span></span>. The contribution of + Protestantism to the interpretation of the world had never been made + so manifest in any work prior to Weiss's. The modern spirit is here + breaking in wreaths of foam upon the sharp cliffs of the rock-bound + eschatological world-view of Jesus. To put it more prosaically, + modern theology is at last about to become sincere. But this is so + far only a prophecy of the future.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we are to speak + of the present it must be fully admitted that even historical + science, when it desires to continue the history of Christianity + beyond the life of Jesus, cannot help protesting against the + one-sidedness of the eschatological world of thought of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Founder.”</span> It finds itself obliged to + distinguish in the thought of Jesus <span class= + "tei tei-q">“permanent elements and transitory elements”</span> + which, being interpreted, means eschatological and not essentially + eschatological materials; otherwise it can get no farther. For if + Jesus' world of thought was wholly and exclusively eschatological, + there can only have arisen out of it, as Reimarus long ago + maintained, an exclusively eschatological primitive Christianity. But + how a community of that kind could give birth to the Greek + non-eschatological theology no Church history and no history of dogma + has so far shown. Instead of that they all—Harnack, with the most + consummate historical ability—lay down from the very first, alongside + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" + id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the main line intended for + <span class="tei tei-q">“contemporary views”</span> traffic, a relief + line for the accommodation of through trains of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“non-temporally limited ideas”</span>; and at the point + where primitive Christian eschatology becomes of less importance they + switch off the train to the relief line, after slipping the carriages + which are not intended to go beyond that station.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This procedure has + now been rendered impossible for them by Weiss, who leaves no place + in the teaching of Jesus for anything but the single-line traffic of + eschatology. If, during the last fifteen years, any one had attempted + to carry out in a work on a large scale the plan of Strauss and + Renan, linking up the history of the life of Jesus with the history + of early Christianity, and New Testament theology with the early + history of dogma, the immense difficulties which Weiss had raised + without suspecting it, in the course of his sixty-seven pages, would + have become clearly apparent. The problem of the Hellenisation of + Christianity took on quite a new aspect when the trestle bridge of + modern ideas connecting the eschatological early Christianity with + Greek theology broke down under the weight of the newly-discovered + material, and it became necessary to seek within the history itself + an explanation of the way in which an exclusively eschatological + system of ideas came to admit Greek influences, and—what is much more + difficult to explain—how Hellenism, on its part, found any point of + contact with an eschatological sect.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The new problem is + as yet hardly recognised, much less grappled with. The few who since + Weiss's time have sought to pass over from the life of Jesus to early + Christianity, have acted like men who find themselves on an ice-floe + which is slowly dividing into two pieces, and who leap from one to + the other before the cleft grows too wide. Harnack, in his + <span class="tei tei-q">“What is Christianity?”</span> almost + entirely ignores the contemporary limitations of Jesus' teaching, and + starts out with a Gospel which carries him down without difficulty to + the year 1899. The anti-historical violence of this procedure is, if + possible, still more pronounced in Wernle. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Beginnings of our Religion”</span><a id="noteref_172" + name="noteref_172" href="#note_172"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> begins + by putting the Jewish eschatology in a convenient posture for the + coming operation by urging that the idea of the Messiah, since there + was no appropriate place for it in connexion with the Kingdom of God + or the new Earth, had become obsolete for the Jews themselves.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The inadequateness + of the Messianic idea for the purposes of Jesus is therefore + self-evident. <span class="tei tei-q">“His whole life long”</span>—as + if we knew any more of it than the few months of His public + ministry!—<span class="tei tei-q">“He laboured to give a new and + higher content to the Messianic title which He had adopted.”</span> + In the course of this endeavour He <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> discarded <span class="tei tei-q">“the Messiah + of the Zealots”</span>—by that is meant the political + non-transcendent Messianic ideal. As if we had any knowledge of the + existence of such an ideal in the time of Jesus! The statements of + Josephus suggest, and the conduct of Pilate at the trial of Jesus + confirms the conclusion, that in none of the risings did a claimant + of the Messiahship come forward, and this should be proof enough that + there did not exist at that time a political eschatology alongside of + the transcendental, and indeed it could not on inner grounds subsist + alongside of it. That was, after all, the thing which Weiss had shown + most clearly!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus, therefore, + had dismissed the Messiah of the Zealots; He had now to turn Himself + into the <span class="tei tei-q">“waiting”</span> Messiah of the + Rabbis. Yet He does not altogether accept this rôle, for He works + actively as Messiah. His struggle with the Messianic conception could + not but end in transforming it. This transformed conception is + introduced by Jesus to the people at His entry into Jerusalem, since + His choice of the ass to bear Him inscribed as a motto, so to speak, + over the demonstration the prophecy of the Messiah who should be a + bringer of peace. A few days later He gives the Scribes to understand + by His enigmatic words with reference to Mark xii. 37, that His + Messiahship has nothing to do with Davidic descent and all that that + implied.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Kingdom of God + was not, of course, for Him, according to Wernle, a purely + eschatological entity; He saw in many events evidence that it had + already dawned. Wernle's only real concession to the eschatological + school is the admission that the Kingdom always remained for Jesus a + supernatural entity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The belief in the + presence of the Kingdom was, it seems, only a phase in the + development of Jesus. When confronted with growing opposition He + abandoned this belief again, and the super-earthly future character + of the Kingdom was all that remained. At the end of His career Jesus + establishes a connexion between the Messianic conception, in its + final transformation, and the Kingdom, which had retained its + eschatological character; He goes to His death for the Messiahship in + its new significance, but He goes on believing in His speedy return + as the Son of Man. This expectation of His Parousia as Son of Man, + which only emerges immediately before His exit from the world—when it + can no longer embarrass the author in his account of the preaching of + Jesus—is the only point in which Jesus does not overcome the + inadequacy of the Messianic idea with which He had to deal. + <span class="tei tei-q">“At this point the fantastic conception of + Late Judaism, the magically transformed world of the ancient popular + belief, thrusts itself incongruously into Jesus' great and simple + consciousness of His vocation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus Wernle takes + with him only so much of Apocalyptic as he can safely carry over into + early Christianity. Once he has got <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> safely across, he drags the rest over after + him. He shows that in and with the titles and expressions borrowed + from apocalyptic thought, Messiah, Son of God, Son of Man, which were + all at bottom so inappropriate to Jesus, early Christianity slipped + in again <span class="tei tei-q">“either the old ideas or new ones + misunderstood.”</span> In pointing this out he cannot refrain from + the customary sigh of regret—these apocalyptic titles and expressions + <span class="tei tei-q">“were from the first a misfortune for the new + religion.”</span> One may well ask how Wernle has discovered in the + preaching of Jesus anything that can be called, historically, a new + religion, and what would have become of this new religion apart from + its apocalyptic hopes and its apocalyptic dogma? We answer: without + its intense eschatological hope the Gospel would have perished from + the earth, crushed by the weight of historic catastrophes. But, as it + was, by the mighty power of evoking faith which lay in it, + eschatology made good in the darkest times Jesus' sayings about the + imperishability of His words, and died as soon as these sayings had + brought forth new life upon a new soil. Why then make such a + complaint against it?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tragedy does + not consist in the modification of primitive Christianity by + eschatology, but in the fate of eschatology itself, which has + preserved for us all that is most precious in Jesus, but must itself + wither, because He died upon the cross with a loud cry, despairing of + bringing in the new heaven and the new earth—that is the real + tragedy. And not a tragedy to be dismissed with a theologian's sigh, + but a liberating and life-giving influence, like every great tragedy. + For in its death-pangs eschatology bore to the Greek genius a + wonder-child, the mystic, sensuous, Early-Christian doctrine of + immortality, and consecrated Christianity as the religion of + immortality to take the place of the slowly dying civilisation of the + ancient world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is not only + those who want to find a way from the preaching of Jesus to early + Christianity who are conscious of the peculiar difficulties raised by + the recognition of its purely Jewish eschatological character, but + also those who wish to reconstruct the connexion backwards from Jesus + to Judaism. For example, Wellhausen and Schürer repudiate the results + arrived at by the eschatological school, which, on its part, bases + itself upon their researches into Late Judaism. Wellhausen, in his + <span class="tei tei-q">“Israelitish and Jewish + History,”</span><a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href= + "#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> gives a + picture of Jesus which lifts Him out of the Jewish frame altogether. + The Kingdom which He desires to found becomes a present spiritual + entity. To the Jewish eschatology <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> His preaching stands in a quite external + relation, for what was in His mind was rather a fellowship of + spiritual men engaged in seeking a higher righteousness. He did not + really desire to be the Messiah, and in His inmost heart had + renounced the hopes of His people. If He called Himself Messiah, it + was in view of a higher Messianic ideal. For the people His + acceptance of the Messiahship denoted the supersession of their own + very differently coloured expectation. The transcendental events + become immanent. In regard to the apocalyptic Judgment of the World, + he retains only the sermon preserved by John about the inward and + constant process of separation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Although not to + the same extent, Schürer also, in his view of the teaching of Jesus, + is strongly influenced by the Fourth Gospel. In an inaugural + discourse of 1903<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href= + "#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> he + declares that in his opinion there is a certain opposition between + Judaism and the preaching of Jesus, since the latter contains + something absolutely new. His Messiahship is only the temporally + limited expression of a unique, generally ethical, consciousness of + being a child of God, which has a certain analogy with the relation + of all God's children to their Heavenly Father. The reason for His + reserve in regard to His Messiahship was, according to Schürer, + Jesus' fear of kindling <span class="tei tei-q">“political + enthusiasm”</span>; from the same motive He repudiates in Mark xii. + 37 all claim to be the Messiah of David's line. The ideas of the + Messiah and the Kingdom of God at least underwent a transformation in + His use of them. If in His earlier preaching He only announces the + Kingdom as something future, in His later preaching He emphasises the + thought that in its beginnings it is already present.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That it is + precisely the representatives of the study of Late Judaism who lift + Jesus out of the Late-Jewish world of thought, is not in itself a + surprising phenomenon. It is only an expression of the fact that here + something new and creative enters into an uncreative age, and of the + clear consciousness that this Personality cannot be resolved into a + complex of contemporary ideas. The problem of which they are + conscious is the same as Bousset's. But the question cannot be + avoided whether the violent separation of Jesus from Late Judaism is + a real solution, or whether the very essence of Jesus' creative power + does not consist, not in taking out one or other of the parts of the + eschatological machinery, but in doing what no one had previously + done, namely, in setting the whole machinery in motion by the + application of an ethico-religious motive power. To perceive the + unsatisfactoriness of the transformation hypothesis it is only + necessary to think of all the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> conditions which would have to be realised in + order to make it possible to trace, even in general outline, the + evidence of such a transformation in the Gospel narrative.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All these + solutions of the eschatological question start from the teaching of + Jesus, and it was, indeed, from this point of view that Johannes + Weiss had stated the problem. The final decision of the question is + not, however, to be found here, but in the examination of the whole + course of Jesus' life. On which of the two presuppositions, the + assumption that His life was completely dominated by eschatology, or + the assumption that He repudiated it, do we find it easiest to + understand the connexion of events in the life of Jesus, His fate, + and the emergence of the expectation of the Parousia in the community + of His disciples?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The works which in + the examination of the connexion of events follow a critical + procedure are few and far between. The average <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus”</span> shows in this respect an + inconceivable stupidity. The first, after Bruno Bauer, to apply + critical methods to this point was Volkmar; between Volkmar and Wrede + the only writer who here showed himself critical, that is sceptical, + was W. Brandt. His work on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Gospel + History”</span><a id="noteref_175" name="noteref_175" href= + "#note_175"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a> + appeared in 1893, a year after Johannes Weiss's work and in the same + year as Bousset's reply. In this book the question of the absolute, + or only partial, dominance of eschatology is answered on the ground + of the general course of Jesus' life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Brandt goes to + work with a truly Cartesian scepticism. He first examines all the + possibilities that the reported event did not happen in the way in + which it is reported before he is satisfied that it really did happen + in that way. Before he can accept the statement that Jesus died with + a loud outcry, he has to satisfy his critical conscience by the + following consideration: <span class="tei tei-q">“The statement + regarding this cry, is, so far as I can see, to be best explained by + supposing that it was really uttered.”</span> The burial of Jesus + owes its acceptance as history to the following reflection. + <span class="tei tei-q">“We hold Joseph of Arimathea to be an + historical person; but the only reason which the narrative has for + preserving his name is that he buried Jesus. Therefore the name + guarantees the fact.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the moment the + slightest possibility presents itself that the event happened in a + different way, Brandt declines to be held by any seductions of the + text, and makes his own <span class="tei tei-q">“probably”</span> + into an <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name= + "Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> historical fact. For + instance, he thinks it unlikely that Peter was the only one to smite + with the sword; so the history is immediately rectified by the phrase + <span class="tei tei-q">“that sword-stroke was doubtless not the only + one, other disciples also must have pressed to the front.”</span> + That Jesus was first condemned by the Sanhedrin at a night-sitting, + and that Pilate in the morning confirmed the sentence, seems to him + on various grounds impossible. It is therefore decided that we have + here to do only with a combination devised by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a Christian from among the Gentiles.”</span> In this way + the <span class="tei tei-q">“must have been's”</span> and + <span class="tei tei-q">“may have been's”</span> exercise a veritable + reign of terror throughout the book.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet that does not + prevent the general contribution of the book to criticism from being + a very remarkable one. Especially in regard to the trial of Jesus, it + brings to light a whole series of previously unsuspected problems. + Brandt is the first writer since Bauer who dares to assert that it is + an historical absurdity to suppose that Pilate, when the people + demanded from him the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">condemnation</span></em> of Jesus, answered: + <span class="tei tei-q">“No, but I will <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">release</span></em> + you another instead of Him.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As his + starting-point he takes the complete contrast between the Johannine + and Synoptic traditions, and the inherent impossibility of the former + is proved in detail. The Synoptic tradition goes back to Mark alone. + His Gospel is, as was also held by Bruno Bauer, and afterwards by + Wrede, a sufficient basis for the whole tradition. But this Gospel is + not a purely historical source, it is also, and in a very much larger + degree, poetic invention. Of the real history of Jesus but little is + preserved in the Gospels. Many of the so-called sayings of the Lord + are certainly to be pronounced spurious, a few are probably to be + recognised as genuine. But the theory of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“poetic invention”</span> of the earliest Evangelist is + not consistently carried out, because Brandt does not take as his + criterion, as Wrede did later, a definite principle on which Mark is + supposed to have constructed his Gospel, but decides each case + separately. Consequently the most important feature of the work lies + in the examination of detail.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus died and was + believed to have risen again: this is the only absolutely certain + information that we have regarding His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life.”</span> And accordingly this is the crucial + instance for testing the worth of the Gospel tradition. It is only on + the basis of an elaborate criticism of the accounts of the suffering + and resurrection of Jesus that Brandt undertakes to give a sketch of + the life of Jesus as it really was.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What was, then, so + far as appears from His life, Jesus' attitude towards eschatology? It + was, according to Brandt, a self-contradictory attitude. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He believed in the near approach of the Kingdom of God, + and yet, as though its time were still far distant, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> He undertakes the training of disciples. + He was a teacher and yet is said to have held Himself to be the + Messiah.”</span> The duality lies not so much in the teaching itself; + it is rather a cleavage between His conviction and consciousness on + the one hand, and His public attitude on the other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To this + observation we have to add a second, namely, that Jesus cannot + possibly during the last few days at Jerusalem have come forward as + Messiah. Critics, with the exception, of course, of Bruno Bauer, had + only cursorily touched on this question. The course of events in the + last few days in Jerusalem does not at all suggest a Messianic claim + on the part of Jesus, indeed it directly contradicts it. Only imagine + what would have happened if Jesus had come before the people with + such claims, or even if such thoughts had been so much as attributed + to Him! On the other side, of course, we have the report of the + Messianic entry, in which Jesus not only accepted the homage offered + to Him as Messiah, but went out of His way to invite it; and the + people must therefore from that point onwards have regarded him as + Messiah. In consequence of this contradiction in the narrative, all + Lives of Jesus slur over the passage, and seem to represent that the + people sometimes suspected Jesus' Messiahship, sometimes did not + suspect it, or they adopt some other similar expedient. Brandt, + however, rigorously drew the logical inference. Since Jesus did not + stand and preach in the temple as Messiah, He cannot have entered + Jerusalem as Messiah. Therefore <span class="tei tei-q">“the + well-known Messianic entry is not historical.”</span> That is also + implied by the manner of His arrest. If Jesus had come forward as a + Messianic claimant, He would not simply have been arrested by the + civil police; Pilate would have had to suppress a revolt by military + force.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This admission + implies the surrender of one of the most cherished prejudices of the + anti-eschatological school, namely, that Jesus raised the thoughts of + the people to a higher conception of His Messiahship, and + consequently to a spiritual view of the Kingdom of God, or at least + tried so to raise them. But we cannot assume this to have been His + intention, since He does not allow the multitude to suspect His + Messiahship. Thus the conception of a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transformation”</span> becomes untenable as a means of + reconciling eschatological and non-eschatological elements. And as a + matter of fact—that is the stroke of critical genius in the + book—Brandt lets the two go forward side by side without any attempt + at reconciliation; for the reconciliation which would be possible if + one had only to deal with the teaching of Jesus becomes impossible + when one has to take in His life as well. For Brandt the life of + Jesus is the life of a Galilaean teacher who, in consequence of the + eschatology with which the period was so fully charged, was for a + time and to a certain extent set at variance with <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Himself and who met His fate for that + reason. This conception is at bottom identical with Renan's. But the + stroke of genius in leaving the gap between eschatological and + non-eschatological elements unbridged sets this work, as regards its + critical foundation and historical presentment, high above the smooth + romance of the latter.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The course of + Jesus' life, according to Brandt, was therefore as follows: Jesus was + a teacher; not only so, but He took disciples in order to train them + to be teachers. <span class="tei tei-q">“This is in itself sufficient + to show there was a period in His life in which His work was not + determined by the thought of the immediate nearness of the decisive + moment. He sought men, therefore, who might become His + fellow-workers. He began to train disciples who, if He did not + Himself live to see the Day of the Lord, would be able after His + death to carry on the work of educating the people along the lines + which He had laid down.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Then there + occurred in Judaea an event of which the rumour spread like wildfire + throughout Palestine. A prophet arose—a thing which had not happened + for centuries—a man who came forward as an envoy of God; and this + prophet proclaimed the immediate coming of the reign of God: + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Repent that ye may escape the wrath of + God.’</span> ”</span> The Baptist's great sermon on repentance falls, + according to Brandt, in the last period of the life of Jesus. We must + assume, he thinks, that before John came forward in this dramatic + fashion he had been a teacher, and at that period of his life had + numbered Jesus among his pupils. Nevertheless his life previous to + his public appearance must have been a rather obscure one. When he + suddenly launched out into this eschatological preaching of + repentance <span class="tei tei-q">“he seemed like an Elijah who had + long ago been rapt away from the earth and now appeared once + more.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this point + onwards Jesus had to concentrate His activity, for the time was + short. If He desired to effect anything and so far as possible to + make the people, before the coming of the end, obedient to the will + of God, He must make Jerusalem the starting-point of His work. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Only from this central position, and only + with the help of an authority which had at its disposal the whole + synagogal system, could He effect within a short time much, perhaps + all, of what was needful. So He determined on journeying to Jerusalem + with this end in view, and with the fixed resolve there to carry into + effect the will of God.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The journey to + Jerusalem was not therefore a pilgrimage of death. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“So long as we are obliged to take the Gospels as a true + reflection of the history of Jesus we must recognise with Weizsäcker + that Jesus did not go to Jerusalem in order to be put to death there, + nor did He go to keep the Feast. Both suppositions are excluded by + the vigour of his action in Jerusalem, and the bright colours of hope + with which the picture of that period was painted <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the recollection of those who had + witnessed it.”</span> We cannot therefore regard the predictions of + the Passion as historical, or <span class="tei tei-q">“at most we + might perhaps suppose that Jesus in the consciousness of His + innocence may have said to His disciples: 'If I should die, may God + for the sake of My blood be merciful to you and to the + people.'”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He went to + Jerusalem, then, to fulfil the will of God. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It was God's will that the preaching by which alone the + people could be inwardly renewed and made into a real people of God + should be recognised and organised by the national and religious + authorities. To effect this through the existing authorities, or to + realise it in some other way, such was the task which Jesus felt + Himself called on to perform.”</span> With his eyes upon this goal, + behind which lay the near approach of the Kingdom of God, He set His + face towards Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“But nothing could be more natural than that out of the + belief that He was engaged in a work which God had willed, there + should arise an ever stronger belief in His personal + vocation.”</span> It was thus that the Messianic consciousness + entered into Jesus' thoughts. His conviction of His vocation had + nothing to do with a political Messiahship, it was only gradually + from the development of events that He was able to draw the inference + that He was destined to the Messianic sovereignty, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“it may have become more and more clear to Him, but it + did not become a matter of absolute certainty.”</span> It was only + amid opposition, in deep dejection, in consequence of a powerful + inner reaction against circumstances, that He came to recognise + Himself with full conviction as the anointed of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When it began to + be bruited about that He was the Messiah, the rulers had Him arrested + and handed Him over to the Procurator. Judas the traitor <span class= + "tei tei-q">“had only been a short time among His followers, and only + in those unquiet days at Jerusalem when the Master had scarcely any + opportunity for private intercourse with him and for learning really + to know him. He had not been with Jesus during the Galilaean days, + and Jesus was consequently nothing more to him than the future ruler + of the Kingdom of God.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After His death + the disciples <span class="tei tei-q">“could not, unless something + occurred to restore their faith, continue to believe in His + Messiahship.”</span> Jesus had taken away with Him in His death the + hopes which they had set upon Him, especially as He had not foretold + His death, much less His resurrection. <span class="tei tei-q">“At + first, therefore, it would be all in favour of His memory if the + disciples remembered that He Himself had never openly and definitely + declared Himself to be the Messiah.”</span> They returned to Galilee. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Simon Peter, and perhaps the son of Zebedee, + who afterwards ranked along with him as a pillar of the Church, + resolved to continue that preparation for their work which + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" + id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had been interrupted by their + journey to Jerusalem. It seemed to them that if they were once more + on Galilaean soil the days which they had spent in the inhospitable + Jerusalem would cease to oppress their spirits with the leaden weight + of sorrowful recollection.... One might almost say that they had to + make up their minds to give up Jesus the author of the attempt to + take Jerusalem by storm; but for Jesus the gracious gentle Galilaean + teacher they kept a warm place in their hearts.”</span> So love + watched over the dead until hope was rekindled by the Old Testament + promises and came to reawaken Him. <span class="tei tei-q">“The first + who, in an enthusiastic vision, saw this wish fulfilled was Simon + Peter.”</span> This <span class="tei tei-q">“resurrection”</span> has + nothing to do with the empty grave, which, like the whole narrative + of the Jerusalem appearances, only came into the tradition later. The + first appearances took place in Galilee. It was there that the Church + was founded.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This attempt to + grasp the connexion of events in the life of Jesus from a purely + historical point of view is one of the most important that have ever + been made in this department of study. If it had been put in a purely + constructive form, this criticism would have made an impression + unequalled by any other Life of Jesus since Renan's. But in that case + it would have lost that free play of ideas which the critical + recognition of the unbridged gap admits. The eschatological question + is not, it is true, decided by this investigation. It shows the + impossibility of the previous attempts to establish a present + Messiahship of Jesus, but it shows, too, that the questions, which + are really historical questions, concerning the public attitude of + Jesus, are far from being solved by asserting the exclusively + eschatological character of His preaching, but that new difficulties + are always presenting themselves.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was perhaps not + so much through these general ethico-religious historical discussions + as in consequence of certain exegetical problems which unexpectedly + came to light that theologians became conscious that the old + conception of the teaching of Jesus was not tenable, or was only + tenable by violent means. On the assumption of the modified + eschatological character of His teaching, Jesus is still a teacher; + that is to say, He speaks in order to be understood, in order to + explain, and has no secrets. But if His teaching is throughout + eschatological, then He is a prophet, who points in mysterious speech + to a coming age, whose words conceal secrets and offer enigmas, and + are not intended to be understood always and by everybody. Attention + was now turned to a number of passages in which the question arises + whether Jesus had any secrets to keep or not.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This question + presents itself in connexion with the very earliest of the parables. + In Mark iv. 11, 12 it is distinctly stated that the parables spoken + in the immediate context embody the mystery of the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Kingdom of God in an obscure and + unintelligible form, in order that those for whom it is not intended + may hear without understanding. But this is not borne out by the + character of the parables themselves, since <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">we</span></em> at + least find in them the thought of the constant and victorious + development of the Kingdom from small beginnings to its perfect + development. After the passage had had to suffer many things from + constantly renewed attempts to weaken down or explain away the + statement, Jülicher, in his work upon the Parables,<a id= + "noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href="#note_176"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> + released it from these tortures, left Jesus the parables in their + natural meaning, and put down this unintelligible saying about the + purpose of the parabolic form of discourse to the account of the + Evangelist. He would rather, to use his own expression, remove a + little stone from the masonry of tradition than a diamond from the + imperishable crown of honour which belongs to Jesus. Yes, but, for + all that, it is an arbitrary assumption which damages the Marcan + hypothesis more than will be readily admitted. What was the reason, + or what was the mistake which led the earliest Evangelist to form so + repellent a theory regarding the purpose of the parables? Is the + progressive exaggeration of the contrast between veiled and open + speech, to which Jülicher often appeals, sufficient to account for + it? How can the Evangelist have invented such a theory, when he + immediately proceeds to invalidate it by the rationalising, rather + commonplace explanation of the parable of the Sower?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bernhard Weiss, + not being so much under the influence of modern theology as to feel + bound to recognise the paedagogic purpose in Jesus, gives the text + its due, and admits that Jesus intended to use the parabolic form of + discourse as a means of separating receptive from unreceptive + hearers. He does not say, however, what kind of secret, intelligible + only to the predestined, was concealed in these parables which seem + clear as daylight.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That was before + Johannes Weiss had stated the eschatological question. Bousset, in + his criticism of the eschatological theory,<a id="noteref_177" name= + "noteref_177" href="#note_177"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> is + obliged to fall back upon Jülicher's method in order to justify the + rationalising modern way of explaining these parables as pointing to + a Kingdom of God actually present. It is true Jülicher's explanation + of the way in which the theory arose does not satisfy him; he prefers + to assume that the basis of this false theory of Mark's is to be + found in the fact that the parables concerning the presence of the + Kingdom remained unintelligible to the contemporaries of Jesus. But + we may fairly ask that he should point out the connecting link + between that failure to understand and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the invention of a saying like this, which + implies so very much more!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If there are no + better grounds than that for calling in question Mark's theory of the + parables, then the parables of Mark iv., the only ones from which it + is possible to extract the admission of a present Kingdom of God, + remain what they were before, namely, mysteries.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second volume + of Jülicher's <span class="tei tei-q">“Parables”</span><a id= + "noteref_178" name="noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a> found + the eschatological question already in possession of the field. And, + as a matter of fact, Jülicher does abandon <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the heretofore current method of modernising the + parables,”</span> which finds in one after another of them only its + own favourite conception of the slow and gradual development of the + Kingdom of God. The Kingdom of Heaven is for Jülicher a completely + supernatural idea; it is to be realised without human help and + independently of the attitude of men, by the sole power of God. The + parables of the mustard seed and the leaven are not intended to teach + the disciples the necessity and wisdom of a development occupying a + considerable time, but are designed to make clear and vivid to them + the idea that the period of perfecting and fulfilment will follow + with super-earthly necessity upon that of imperfection.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in general the + new problem plays no very special part in Jülicher's exposition. He + takes up, it might almost be said, in relation to the parables, too + independent a position as a religious thinker to care to understand + them against the background of a wholly different world-view, and + does not hesitate to exclude from the authentic discourses of Jesus + whatever does not suit him. This is the fate, for instance, of the + parable of the wicked husbandmen in Mark xii. He finds in it traits + which read like <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">vaticinia ex + eventu</span></span>, and sees therefore in the whole thing only a + prophetically expressed <span class="tei tei-q">“view of the history + as it presented itself to an average man who had been present at the + crucifixion of Jesus and nevertheless believed in Him as the Son of + God.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this absolute + method of explanation, independent of any traditional order of time + or events, makes it impossible for the author to draw from the + parables any general system of teaching. He makes no distinction + between the Galilaean mystical parables and the polemical, menacing + Jerusalem parables. For instance, he supposes the parable of the + Sower, which according to Mark was the very first of Jesus' parabolic + discourses, to have been spoken as the result of a melancholy review + of a preceding period <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg + 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + work, and as expressing the conviction, stamped upon His mind by the + facts, <span class="tei tei-q">“that it was in accordance with higher + laws that the word of God should have to reckon with defeats as well + as victories.”</span> Accordingly he adopts in the main the + explanation which the Evangelist gives in Mark iv. 13-20. The parable + of the seed growing secretly is turned to account in favour of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“present”</span> Kingdom of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jülicher has an + incomparable power of striking fire out of every one of the parables, + but the flame is of a different colour from that which it showed when + Jesus pronounced the parables before the enchanted multitude. The + problem posed by Johannes Weiss in connexion with the teaching of + Jesus is treated by Jülicher only so far as it has a direct interest + for the creative independence of his own religious thought.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Alongside of the + parabolic discourses of Mark iv. we have now to place, as a newly + discovered problem, the discourse at the sending out of the Twelve in + Matt. x. Up to the time of Johannes Weiss it had been possible to + rest content with transplanting the gloomy sayings regarding + persecutions to the last period of Jesus' life; but now there was the + further difficulty to be met that while so hasty a proclamation of + the Kingdom of God is quite reconcilable with an exclusively + eschatological character of the preaching of the Kingdom, the moment + this is at all minimised it becomes unintelligible, not to mention + the fact that in this case nothing can be made of the saying about + the immediate coming of the Son of Man in Matt. x. 23. As though he + felt the stern eye of old Reimarus upon him, Bousset hastens in a + footnote to throw overboard the whole report of the mission of the + Twelve as an <span class="tei tei-q">“obscure and unintelligible + tradition.”</span> Not content with that, he adds: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Perhaps the whole narrative is merely an expansion of + some direction about missionising given by Jesus to the disciples in + view of a later time.”</span> Before, it was only the discourse which + was unhistorical; now it is the whole account of the mission—at least + if we may assume that here, as is usual with theologians of all + times, the author's real opinion is expressed in the footnote, and + his most cherished opinion of all introduced with <span class= + "tei tei-q">“perhaps.”</span> But how much historical material will + remain to modern theologians in the Gospels if they are forced to + abandon it wholesale from their objection to pure eschatology? If all + the pronouncements of this kind to which the representatives of the + Marcan hypothesis have committed themselves were collected together, + they would make a book which would be much more damaging even than + that book of Wrede's which dropped a bomb into their midst.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A third problem is + offered by the saying in Matt. xi. 12, about <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the violent”</span> who, since the time of John the + Baptist, <span class="tei tei-q">“take the Kingdom of Heaven by + force,”</span> which raises fresh difficulties for the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> exegetical art. It is true that if art + sufficed, we should not have long to wait for the solution in this + case. We should be asked to content ourselves with one or other of + the artificial solutions with which exegetes have been accustomed + from of old to find a way round this difficulty. Usually the saying + is claimed as supporting the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“presence”</span> of the Kingdom. This is the line taken + by Wendt, Wernle, and Arnold Meyer.<a id="noteref_179" name= + "noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> + According to the last named it means: <span class="tei tei-q">“From + the days of John the Baptist it has been possible to get possession + of the Kingdom of God; yea, the righteous are every day earning it + for their own.”</span> But no explanation has heretofore succeeded in + making it in any degree intelligible how Jesus could date the + presence of the Kingdom from the Baptist, whom in the same breath He + places outside of the Kingdom, or why, in order to express so simple + an idea, He uses such entirely unnatural and inappropriate + expressions as <span class="tei tei-q">“rape”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“wrest to themselves.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The full + difficulties of the passage are first exhibited by Johannes + Weiss.<a id="noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href= + "#note_180"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> He + restores it to its natural sense, according to which it means that + since that time the Kingdom suffers, or is subjected to, violence, + and in order to be able to understand it literally he has to take it + in a condemnatory sense. Following Alexander Schweizer,<a id= + "noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href="#note_181"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> he sums + up his interpretation in the following sentence: Jesus describes, and + in the form of the description shows His condemnation of, a violent + Zealotistic Messianic movement which has been in progress since the + days of the Baptist.<a id="noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href= + "#note_182"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> But + this explanation again makes Jesus express a very simple meaning in a + very obscure phrase. And what indication is there that the sense is + condemnatory? Where do we hear anything more about a Zealotic + Messianic movement, of which the Baptist formed the starting-point? + His preaching certainly offered no incentive to such a movement, and + Jesus' attitude towards the Baptist is elsewhere, even in Jerusalem, + entirely one of approval. Moreover, a condemnatory saying of this + kind would not have been closed with the distinctive formula: + <span class="tei tei-q">“He that hath ears to hear let him + hear”</span> (Matt. xi. 15), which elsewhere, cf. Mark iv. 9, + indicates a mystery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must, + therefore, accept the conclusion that we really do not understand the + saying, that we <span class="tei tei-q">“have not ears to hear + it,”</span> that we do not know sufficiently well the essential + character of the Kingdom of God, to understand why Jesus describes + the coming of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg + 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Kingdom as a doing-violence-to-it, which has been in progress since + the days of the Baptist, especially as the hearers themselves do not + seem to have cared, or been able, to understand what was the + connexion of the coming with the violence; nor do we know why He + expects them to understand how the Baptist is identical with + Elias.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the problem + which became most prominent of all the new problems raised by + eschatology, was the question concerning the Son of Man. It had + become a dogma of theology that Jesus used the term Son of Man to + veil His Messiahship; that is to say, every theologian found in this + term whatever meaning he attached to the Messiahship of Jesus, the + human, humble, ethical, unpolitical, unapocalyptic, or whatever other + character was held to be appropriate to the orthodox <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transformed”</span> Messiahship. The Danielic Son of Man + entered into the conception only so far as it could do so without + endangering the other characteristics. Confronted with the + Similitudes of Enoch, theologians fell back upon the expedient of + assuming them to be spurious, or at least worked-over in a Christian + sense in the Son of Man passages, just as the older history of dogma + got rid of the Ignatian letters, of which it could make nothing, by + denying their genuineness. But once the Jewish eschatology was + seriously applied to the explanation of the Son of Man conception, + all was changed. A new dilemma presented itself; either Jesus used + the expression, and used it in a purely Jewish apocalyptic sense, or + He did not use it at all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Although + Baldensperger did not state the dilemma in its full trenchancy, + Hilgenfeld thought it necessary to defend Jesus against the suspicion + of having borrowed His system of thought and His self-designation + from Jewish Apocalypses.<a id="noteref_183" name="noteref_183" href= + "#note_183"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> Orello + Cone, too, will not admit that the expression Son of Man has only + apocalyptic suggestion in the mouth of Jesus, but will have it + interpreted according to Mark ii. 10 and 28, where His pure humanity + is the idea which is emphasised.<a id="noteref_184" name= + "noteref_184" href="#note_184"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> Oort + holds, more logically, that Jesus did not use it, but that the + disciples took the expression from <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Gospel”</span> and put it into the mouth of Jesus.<a id="noteref_185" + name="noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Johannes Weiss + formulated the problem clearly, and proposed that, with the exception + of the two passages where Son of Man means man in general, only those + should be recognised in which the significance attached to the term + in Daniel and the Apocalypses is demanded by the context. By so doing + he set theology a problem calculated to keep it occupied for many + years. Not many indeed at first recognised the problem. Charles, + however, meets it <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg + 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + a bold fashion, proposing to regard the Son of Man, in Jesus' usage + of the title, as a conception in which the Messiah of the Book of + Enoch and the Servant of the Lord in Isaiah are united into + one.<a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href= + "#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> Most + writers, however, did not free themselves from inconsistencies. They + wanted at one and the same time to make the apocalyptic element + dominant in the expression, and to hold that Jesus could not have + taken the conception over unaltered, but must have transformed it in + some way. These inconsistencies necessarily result from the + assumption of Weiss's opponents that Jesus intended to designate + Himself as Messiah in the actual present. For since the expression + Son of Man has in itself only an apocalyptic sense referring to the + future, they had to invent another sense applicable to the present, + which Jesus might have inserted into it. In all these learned + discussions of the title Son of Man this operation is assumed to have + been performed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Bousset, Jesus created, and embodied in this term, a new form of the + Messianic ideal which united the super-earthly with the human and + lowly. In any case, he thinks, the term has a meaning applicable in + this present world. Jesus uses it at once to conceal and to suggest + His Messianic dignity. How conscious Bousset, nevertheless, is of the + difficulty is evident from the fact that in discussing the meaning of + the title he remarks that the Messianic significance must have been + of subordinate importance in the estimation of Jesus, and cannot have + formed the basis of His actions, otherwise He would have laid more + stress upon it in His preaching. As if the term Son of Man had not + meant for His contemporaries all He needed to say!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bousset's essay on + Jewish Apocalyptic,<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" href= + "#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a> + published in 1903, seeks the solution in a rather different + direction, by postponing, namely, to the very last possible moment + the adoption of this self-designation. <span class="tei tei-q">“In + all probability Jesus in a few isolated sayings towards the close of + His life hit upon this title Son of Man as a means of expressing, in + the face of the thought of defeat and death, which forced itself upon + Him, His confidence in the abiding victory of His person and His + cause.”</span> If this is so, the emphasis must be principally on the + triumphant apocalyptic aspects of the title.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even this belated + adoption of the title Son of Man is more <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> than Brandt is willing to admit, and he holds + it to be improbable that Jesus used the expression at all. It would + be more natural, he thinks, to suppose that the Evangelist Mark + introduced this self-designation, as he introduced so much else, into + the Gospel on the ground of the figurative apocalyptic discourses in + the Gospel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Just when + ingenuity appeared to have exhausted itself in attempts to solve the + most difficult of the problems raised by the eschatological school, + the historical discussion suddenly seemed about to be rendered + objectless. Philology entered a <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">caveat</span></span>. In 1896 appeared + Lietzmann's essay upon <span class="tei tei-q">“The Son of + Man,”</span> which consisted of an investigation of the linguistic + basis of the enigmatic self-designation.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name= + "Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XVII. Questions Regarding The Aramaic + Language, Rabbinic Parallels, And Buddhistic Influence</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Arnold + Meyer.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Jesu Muttersprache. + (The Mother Tongue of Jesus.) Leipzig, 1896. 166 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hans + Lietzmann.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Der + Menschensohn. Ein Beitrag zur neutestamentlichen Theologie. (The + Son of Man. A Contribution to New Testament Theology.) Freiburg, + 1896. 95 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">J. + Wellhausen.</span></span> <span style= + "font-size: 90%">Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte. (History of + Israel and the Jews.) 3rd ed., 1897; 4th ed., 1901. 394 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gustaf Dalman.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Grammatik des + jüdisch-palästinensischen Aramäisch. (Grammar of Jewish-Palestinian + Aramaic.) Leipzig, 1894. Die Worte Jesu. Mit Berücksichtigung des + nachkanonischen jüdischen Schrifttums und der aramäischen Sprache. + (The Sayings of Jesus considered in connexion with the + post-canonical Jewish writings and the Aramaic Language.) I. + Introduction and certain leading conceptions: with an appendix on + Messianic texts. Leipzig, 1898. 309 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">A. + Wünsche.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Neue Beiträge + zur Erläuterung der Evangelien aus Talmud und Midrasch. (New + Contributions to the Explanation of the Gospels, from Talmud and + Midrash.) Göttingen, 1878. 566 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ferdinand Weber.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">System der altsynagogalen + palästinensischen Theologie. (System of Theology of the Ancient + Palestinian Synagogue.) Leipzig, 1880. 399 pp. 2nd ed., + 1897.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rudolf Seydel.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Evangelium Jesu in seinen + Verhältnissen zur Buddha-Sage und Buddha-Lehre. (The Gospel of + Jesus in its relations to the Buddha-Legend and the Teaching of + Buddha.) Leipzig, 1882. 337 pp. Die Buddha-Legende und das Leben + Jesu nach den Evangelien. Erneute Prüfung ihres gegenseitigen + Verhältnisses. (The Buddha-Legend and the Life of Jesus in the + Gospels. A New Examination of their Mutual Relations.) 2nd ed., + 1897. 129 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Only since the + appearance of Dalman's Grammar of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic in 1894 + have we really known what was the dialect in which the Beatitudes of + the Sermon on the Mount were spoken. This work closes a discussion + which had been proceeding for centuries on a line parallel to that of + theology proper, and which, according to the clear description of + Arnold Meyer, ran its course somewhat as follows.<a id="noteref_188" + name="noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The question + regarding the language spoken by Jesus had been vigorously discussed + in the sixteenth century. Up till that time no one had known what to + make of the tradition recorded by Eusebius that the speech of the + apostles had been <span class="tei tei-q">“Syrian”</span> since the + distinction between Syrian, Hebrew, and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Chaldee”</span> was not understood and all three + designations were used indiscriminately. Light was first thrown upon + the question by Joseph Justus Scaliger († 1609). In the year 1555, + Joh. Alb. Widmanstadt, Chancellor of Ferdinand I., had published the + Syriac translation of the Bible in fulfilment of the wishes of an old + scholar of Bologna, Theseus Ambrosius, who had left him the + manuscript as a sacred legacy. He himself and his contemporaries + believed that in this they had the Gospel in the mother-tongue of + Jesus, until Scaliger, in one of his letters, gave a clear sketch of + the Syrian dialects, distinguished Syriac from Chaldee, and further + drew a distinction between the Babylonian Chaldee and Jewish Chaldee + of the Targums, and in the language of the Targums itself + distinguished an earlier from a later stratum. The apostles spoke, + according to Scaliger, a Galilaean dialect of Chaldaic, or according + to the more correct nomenclature introduced later, following a + suggestion of Scaliger's, a dialect of Aramaic, and, in addition to + that, the Syriac of Antioch. Next, Hugo Grotius put in a strong plea + for a distinction between Jewish and Antiochian Syriac. Into the + confusion caused at that time by the use of the term <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hebrew”</span> some order was introduced by the Leyden + Calvinistic professor Claude Saumaise, who, writing in French, + emphasised the point that the New Testament, and the Early Fathers, + when they speak of Hebrew, mean Syriac, since Hebrew had become + completely unknown to the Jews of that period. Brian Walton, the + editor of the London polyglot, which was completed in 1657, supposed + that the dialect of Onkelos and Jonathan was the language of Jesus, + being under the impression that both these Targums were written in + the time of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The growing + knowledge of the distinction between Hebrew and Aramaic did not + prevent the Vienna Jesuit Inchofer († 1648) from maintaining that + Jesus spoke—Latin! The Lord cannot have used any other language upon + earth, since this is the language of the saints in heaven. On the + Protestant side, Vossius, opposing Richard Simon, endeavoured to + establish the thesis that Greek was the language of Jesus, being + partly inspired by the apologetic purpose of preventing the + authenticity of the discourses and sayings of Jesus from being + weakened by supposing them to have been translated from Aramaic into + Greek, but also rightly recognising the importance which the Greek + language must have assumed at that time in northern Palestine, + through which there passed such important trade routes.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This view was + brought up again by the Neapolitan legal scholar, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Dominicus Diodati, in his book + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Christo + Graece loquente</span></span>, 1767, who added some interesting + material concerning the importance of the Greek language at the + period and in the native district of Jesus. But five years later, in + 1772, this view was thoroughly refuted by Giambernardo de + Rossi,<a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href= + "#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> who + argued convincingly that among a people so separate and so + conservative as the Jews the native language cannot possibly have + been wholly driven out. The apostles wrote Greek for the sake of + foreign readers. In the year 1792, Johann Adrian Bolten, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“first collegiate pastor at the principal church in + Altona”</span> († 1807), made the first attempt to re-translate the + sayings of Jesus into the original tongue.<a id="noteref_190" name= + "noteref_190" href="#note_190"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The certainly + original Greek of the Epistles and the Johannine literature was a + strong argument against the attempt to recognise no language save + Aramaic as known to Jesus and His disciples. Paulus the rationalist, + therefore, sought a middle path, and explained that while the Aramaic + dialect was indeed the native language of Jesus, Greek had become so + generally current among the population of Galilee, and still more of + Jerusalem, that the founders of Christianity could use this language + when they found it needful to do so. His Catholic contemporary, Hug, + came to a similar conclusion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the course of + the nineteenth century Aramaic—known down to the time of Michaelis as + <span class="tei tei-q">“Chaldee”</span><a id="noteref_191" name= + "noteref_191" href="#note_191"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a>—was + more thoroughly studied. The various branches of this language and + the history of its progress became more or less clearly recognisable. + Kautzsch's grammar of Biblical Aramaic<a id="noteref_192" name= + "noteref_192" href="#note_192"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a> (1884) + and Dalman's<a id="noteref_193" name="noteref_193" href= + "#note_193"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> work + embody the result of these studies. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + Aramaic language,”</span> explains Meyer, <span class="tei tei-q">“is + a branch of the North Semitic, the linguistic stock to which also + belong the Assyrio-Babylonian language in the East, and the + Canaanitish languages, including Hebrew, in the West, while the South + Semitic languages—the Arabic and Aethiopic—form a group by + themselves.”</span> The users of these languages, the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Aramaeans, were seated in historic times + between the Babylonians and Canaanites, the area of their + distribution extending from the foot of Lebanon and Hermon in a + north-easterly direction as far as Mesopotamia, where <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Aram of the two rivers”</span> forms their easternmost + province. Their immigration into these regions forms the third epoch + of the Semitic migrations, which probably lasted from 1600 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> down to 600.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Aramaic states + had no great stability. The most important of them was the kingdom of + Damascus, which at a certain period was so dangerous an enemy to + northern Israel. In the end, however, the Aramaean dynasties were + crushed, like the two Israelitish kingdoms, between the upper and + nether millstones of Babylon and Egypt. In the time of the successors + of Alexander, there arose in these regions the Syrian kingdom; which + in turn gave place to the Roman power.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But linguistically + the Aramaeans conquered the whole of Western Asia. In the course of + the first millennium <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> Aramaic became the + language of commerce and diplomacy, as Babylonian had been during the + second. It was only the rise of Greek as a universal language which + put a term to these conquests of the Aramaic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the year 701 + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> Aramaic had not yet + penetrated to Judaea. When the <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">rabshakeh</span></span> (officer) sent by + Sennacherib addressed the envoys of Hezekiah in Hebrew, they begged + him to speak Aramaic in order that the men upon the wall might not + understand.<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href= + "#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> For the + post-exilic period the Aramaic edicts in the Book of Ezra and + inscriptions on Persian coins show that throughout wide districts of + the new empire Aramaic had made good its position as the language of + common intercourse. Its domain extended from the Euxine southwards as + far as Egypt, and even into Egypt itself. Samaria and the Hauran + adopted it. Only the Greek towns and Phoenicia resisted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The influence of + Aramaic upon Jewish literature begins to be noticeable about the year + 600. Jeremiah and Ezekiel, writing in a foreign land in an Aramaic + environment, are the first witnesses to its supremacy. In the + northern part of the country, owing to the immigration of foreign + colonists after the destruction of the northern kingdom, it had + already gained a hold upon the common people. In the Book of Daniel, + written in the year 167 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, the Hebrew and Aramaic + languages alternate. Perhaps, indeed, we ought to assume an Aramaic + ground-document as the basis of this work.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At what time + Aramaic became the common popular speech in the post-exilic community + we cannot exactly discover. Under Nehemiah <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Judaean,”</span> that is to say, Hebrew, was still + spoken in Jerusalem; in the time of the Maccabees Aramaic seems to + have <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name= + "Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> wholly driven out the + ancient national language. Evidence for this is to be found in the + occurrence of Aramaic passages in the Talmud, from which it is + evident that the Rabbis used this language in the religious + instruction of the people. The provision that the text, after being + read in Hebrew, should be interpreted to the people, may quite well + reach back into the time of Jesus. The first evidence for the + practice is in the Mishna, about <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> + 150.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the time of + Jesus three languages met in Galilee—Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. In + what relation they stood to each other we do not know, since + Josephus, the only writer who could have told us, fails us in this + point, as he so often does elsewhere. He informs us that when acting + as an envoy of Titus he spoke to the people of Jerusalem in the + ancestral language, and the word he uses is ἑβραΐζων. But the very + thing we should like to know—whether, namely, this language was + Aramaic or Hebrew, he does not tell us. We are left in the same + uncertainty by the passage in Acts (xxii. 2) which says that Paul + spoke to the people Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ, thereby gaining their + attention, for there is no indication whether the language was + Aramaic or Hebrew. For the writers of that period <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hebrew”</span> simply means Jewish.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We cannot, + therefore, be sure in what relation the ancient Hebrew sacred + language and the Aramaic of ordinary intercourse stood to one another + as regards religious writings and religious instruction. Did the + ordinary man merely learn by heart a few verses, prayers, and psalms? + Or was Hebrew, as the language of the cultus, also current in wider + circles?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dalman gives a + number of examples of works written in Hebrew in the century which + witnessed the birth of Christ: <span class="tei tei-q">“A Hebrew + original,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“must be assumed + in the case of the main part of the Aethiopic book of Enoch, the + Assumption of Moses, the Apocalypse of Baruch, Fourth Ezra, the Book + of Jubilees, and for the Jewish ground-document of the Testament of + the Twelve Patriarchs, of which M. Gaster has discovered a Hebrew + manuscript.”</span> The first Book of Maccabees, too, seems to him to + go back to a Hebrew original. Nevertheless, he holds it to be + impossible that synagogue discourses intended for the people can have + been delivered in Hebrew, or that Jesus taught otherwise than in + Aramaic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Franz Delitzsch's + view, on the other hand, is that Jesus and the disciples taught in + Hebrew; and that is the opinion of Resch also. Adolf Neubauer,<a id= + "noteref_195" name="noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> Reader + in Rabbinical Hebrew at Oxford, attempted a compromise. It was + certainly the case, he thought, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that in the time of Jesus Aramaic was spoken + throughout Palestine; but whereas in Galilee this language had an + exclusive dominance, and the knowledge of Hebrew was confined to + texts learned by heart, in Jerusalem Hebrew had renewed itself by the + adoption of Aramaic elements, and a kind of Neo-Hebraic language had + arisen. This solution at least testifies to the difficulty of the + question. The fact is that from the language of the New Testament it + is often difficult to make out whether the underlying words are + Hebrew or Aramaic. Thus, for instance, Dalman remarks—with reference + to the question whether the statement of Papias refers to a Hebrew or + an Aramaic <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive Matthew”</span>—that it + is difficult <span class="tei tei-q">“to produce proof of an Aramaic + as distinct from a Hebrew source, because it is often the case in + Biblical Hebrew, and still more often in the idiom of the Mishna, + that the same expressions and forms of phrase are possible as in + Aramaic.”</span> Delitzsch's<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" + href="#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“retranslation”</span> of the New Testament + into Hebrew is therefore historically justified.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the question + about the language of Jesus must not be confused with the problem of + the original language of the primitive form of Matthew's Gospel. In + reference to the latter, Dalman thinks that the tradition of the + Early Church regarding an earlier Aramaic form of the Gospel must be + considered as lacking confirmation. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is + only in the case of Jesus' own words that an Aramaic original form is + undeniable, and it is only for these that Early Church tradition + asserted the existence of a Semitic documentary source. It is, + therefore, the right and duty of Biblical scholarship to investigate + the form which the sayings of Jesus must have taken in the original + and the sense which in this form they must have conveyed to Jewish + hearers.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That Jesus spoke + Aramaic, Meyer has shown by collecting all the Aramaic expressions + which occur in His preaching.<a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" + href="#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> He + considers the <span class="tei tei-q">“Abba”</span> in Gethsemane + decisive, for this means that Jesus prayed in Aramaic in His hour of + bitterest need. Again the cry from the cross was, according to Mark + xv. 34, also Aramaic: Ἑλωΐ, ἑλωΐ, λαμὰ σαβαχθανεὶ. The Old Testament + was therefore most familiar to Him in an Aramaic translation, + otherwise this form of the Psalm passage would not have come to His + lips at the moment of death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is a quite + independent question whether Jesus could speak, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or at least understand, Greek. According + to Josephus the knowledge of Greek in Palestine at that time, even + among educated Jews, can only have been of a quite elementary + character. He himself had to learn it laboriously in order to be able + to write in it. His <span class="tei tei-q">“Jewish War”</span> was + first written in Aramaic for his fellow-countrymen; the Greek edition + was, by his own avowal, not intended for them. In another passage, it + is true, he seems to imply a knowledge of, and interest in, foreign + languages even among people in humble life.<a id="noteref_198" name= + "noteref_198" href="#note_198"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An analogy, which + is in many respects very close, to the linguistic conditions in + Palestine was offered by Alsace under French rule in the 'sixties of + the nineteenth century. Here, too, three languages met in the same + district. The High-German of Luther's translation of the Bible was + the language of the Church, the Alemannic dialect was the usual + speech of the people, while French was the language of culture and of + government administration. This remarkable analogy would be rather in + favour—if analogy can be admitted to have any weight in the + question—of Delitzsch and Resch, since the Biblical High-German, + although never spoken in social intercourse, strongly influenced the + Alemannic dialect—although this was, on the other hand, quite + uninfluenced by Modern High-German—but did not allow it to penetrate + into Church or school, there maintaining for itself an undivided + sway. French made some progress, but only in certain circles, and + remained entirely excluded from the religious sphere. The Alsatians + of the poorer classes who could at that time have repeated the Lord's + Prayer or the Beatitudes in French would not have been difficult to + count. The Lutheran translation still holds its own to some extent + against the French translation with the older generation of the + Alsatian community in Paris, which has in other respects become + completely French—so strong is the influence of a former + ecclesiastical language even among those who have left their native + home. There is one factor, however, which is not represented in the + analogy; the influence of the Greek-speaking Jews of the Diaspora, + who gathered to the Feasts at Jerusalem, upon the extension of the + Greek language in the mother-country.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus, then, spoke + Galilaean Aramaic, which is known to us as a separate dialect from + writings of the fourth to the seventh century. For the Judaean + dialect we have more and earlier evidence. We have literary monuments + in it from the first to the third century. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is very probable,”</span> Dalman thinks, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“that the popular dialect of Northern Palestine, after + the final fall of the Judaean centre of the Aramaic-Jewish culture, + which followed on the Bar-Cochba rising, spread over almost the whole + of Palestine.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The retranslations + into Aramaic are therefore justified. After <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> J. A. Bolten's attempt had remained for nearly + a hundred years the only one of its kind, the experiment has been + renewed in our own time by J. T. Marshall, E. Nestle, J. Wellhausen, + Arnold Meyer, and Gustaf Dalman; in the case of Marshall and Nestle + with the subsidiary purpose of endeavouring to prove the existence of + an Aramaic documentary source. These retranslations first attracted + their due meed of attention from theologians in connexion with the + Son-of-Man question. Rarely, if ever, have theologians experienced + such a surprise as was sprung upon them by Hans Lietzmann's essay in + 1896.<a id="noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href= + "#note_199"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> Jesus + had never, so ran the thesis of the Bonn candidate in theology, + applied to Himself the title Son of Man, because in the Aramaic the + title did not exist, and on linguistic grounds could not have + existed. In the language which He used, בן אנש was merely a + periphrasis for <span class="tei tei-q">“a man.”</span> That Jesus + meant Himself when He spoke of the Son of Man, none of His hearers + could have suspected.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lietzmann had not + been without predecessors.<a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" + href="#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> Gilbert + Génébrard, who died Archbishop of Aix as long ago as 1597, had + emphasised the point that the term Son of Man should not be + interpreted with reference solely to Christ, but to the race of + mankind. Hugo Grotius maintained the same position even more + emphatically. With a quite modern one-sidedness, Paulus the + rationalist maintained in his commentaries and in his Life of Jesus + that according to Ezek. ii. 1 <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Barnash”</span> meant man in general. Jesus, he thought, + whenever He used the expression the Son of Man, pointed to Himself + and thus gave it the sense of <span class="tei tei-q">“this + man.”</span> In taking this line he gives up the general reference to + mankind as a whole for which Mark ii. 28 is generally cited as the + classical passage. The suggestion that the term Son of Man in its + apocalyptic signification was first attributed to Jesus at a later + time and that the passages where it occurs in this sense are + therefore suspicious, was first put forward by Fr. Aug. Fritzsche. He + hoped in this way to get rid of Matt. x. 23. De Lagarde, like Paulus, + emphatically asserted that Son of Man only meant man. But instead of + the clumsy explanation of the rationalist he gave another and a more + pleasing one, namely, that Jesus by choosing this title designed to + ennoble mankind. Wellhausen, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“History + of Israel and of the Jews”</span> (1894), remarked on it as strange + that Jesus should have called Himself <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Man.”</span> B. D. Eerdmans, taking the apocalyptic significance of + the term as his starting-point, attempted to carry out consistently + the theory of the later interpolation of this title into the sayings + of Jesus.<a id="noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href= + "#note_201"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus Lietzmann had + predecessors; but they were not so in any real sense. They had either + started out from the Marcan passage where the Son of Man is described + as the Lord of the Sabbath, and endeavoured arbitrarily to interpret + all the Son-of-Man passages in the same sense; or they assumed + without sufficient grounds that the title Son of Man was a later + interpolation. The new idea consisted in combining the two attempts, + and declaring the passages about the Son of Man to be linguistically + and historically impossible, seeing that, on linguistic grounds, + <span class="tei tei-q">“son of man”</span> means <span class= + "tei tei-q">“man.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Arnold Meyer and + Wellhausen expressed themselves in the same sense as Lietzmann. The + passages where Jesus uses the expression in an unmistakably Messianic + sense are, according to them, to be put down to the account of Early + Christian theology. The only passages which in their opinion are + historically tenable are the two or three in which the expression + denotes man in general, or is equivalent to the simple <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I.”</span> These latter were felt to be a difficulty by + the Church when it came to think in Greek, since this way of speaking + of oneself was strange to them; consequently the expression appeared + to them deliberately enigmatic and only capable of being interpreted + in the sense which it bears in Daniel. The Son-of-Man conception, + argued Lietzmann, when he again approached the question two years + later, had arisen in a Hellenistic environment,<a id="noteref_202" + name="noteref_202" href="#note_202"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> on the + basis of Dan. vii. 13; N. Schmidt,<a id="noteref_203" name= + "noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> too, + saw in the apocalyptic Bar-Nasha passages which follow the revelation + of the Messiahship at Caesarea Philippi an interpolation from the + later apocalyptic theology. On the other hand, P. Schmiedel still + wished to make it a Messianic designation, and to take it as being + historical in this sense even in passages in which the term man + <span class="tei tei-q">“gave a possible sense.”</span><a id= + "noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href="#note_204"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> H. + Gunkel thought that it was possible to translate Bar-Nasha simply by + <span class="tei tei-q">“man,”</span> and nevertheless hold to the + historicity of the expression as a self-designation of Jesus. Jesus, + he suggests, had borrowed this enigmatic term, which goes back to + Dan. vii. 13, from the mystical apocalyptic literature, meaning + thereby to indicate that He was the Man of God in contrast to the Man + of Sin.<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href= + "#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Holtzmann felt a + kind of relief in handing over to the philologists the obstinate + problem which since the time of Baldensperger and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Weiss had caused so much trouble to + theologians, and wanted to postpone the historical discussion until + the Aramaic experts had settled the linguistic question. That + happened sooner than was expected. In 1898 Dalman declared in his + epoch-making work (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Worte Jesu</span></span>) that he could not + admit the linguistic objections to the use of the expression Son of + Man by Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“Biblical Aramaic,”</span> he + says, <span class="tei tei-q">“does not differ in this respect from + Hebrew. The simple אנש and not בן אנש is the term for man.”</span>... + It was only later that the Jewish-Galilaean dialect, like the + Palestinian-Christian dialect, used בן אנש for man, though in both + idioms the simple אנש occurs in the sense of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“some one.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“In view of + the whole facts of the case,”</span> he continues, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“what has to be said is that Jewish-Palestinian Aramaic + of the earlier period used אנש for <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘man,’</span> and occasionally to designate a plurality + of men makes use of the expression בני אנשא. The singular בן אנש was + not current, and was only used in imitation of the Hebrew text of the + Bible, where בן אדם belongs to the poetic diction, and is, moreover, + not of very frequent occurrence.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“It + is,”</span> he says elsewhere, <span class="tei tei-q">“by no means a + sign of a sound historical method, instead of working patiently at + the solution of the problem, to hasten like Oort and Lietzmann to the + conclusion that the absence of the expression in the New Testament + Epistles is a proof that Jesus did not use it either, but that there + was somewhere or other a Hellenistic community in the Early Church + which had a predilection for this name, and often made Jesus speak of + Himself in the Gospel narrative in the third person, in order to find + an opportunity of bringing it in.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So the oxen turned + back with the ark into the land of the Philistines. It was a case of + returning to the starting-point and deciding on historical grounds in + what sense Jesus had used the expression.<a id="noteref_206" name= + "noteref_206" href="#note_206"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> But the + possibilities were reduced by the way in which Lietzmann had posed + the problem, since the interpretations according to which Jesus had + used it in a veiled ethical Messianic sense, to indicate the ethical + and spiritual transformation of all the eschatological conceptions, + were now manifestly incapable of offering any convincing argument + against the radical denial of the use of the expression. + Baldensperger rightly remarked in a review of the whole discussion + that the question which was ultimately at stake in <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the combat over the title Son of Man was + the question whether Jesus was the Messiah or no, and that Dalman, by + his proof of its linguistic possibility, had saved the Messiahship of + Jesus.<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href= + "#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what kind of + Messiahship? Is it any other kind than the future Messiahship of the + apocalyptic Son of Man which Johannes Weiss had asserted? Did Jesus + mean anything different by the Son of Man from that which was meant + by the apocalyptic writers? To put it otherwise: behind the + Son-of-Man problem there lies the general question whether Jesus can + have described Himself as a present Messiah; for the fundamental + difficulty is that He, a man upon earth, should give Himself out to + be the Son of Man, and at the same time apparently give to that title + a quite different sense from that which it previously possessed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The champion of + the linguistic possibility of this self-designation made the last + serious attempt to render the transformation of the conception + historically conceivable. He argues that Jesus cannot have used it as + a mere meaningless expression, a periphrasis for the simple I.<a id= + "noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> On the + other hand, the term cannot have been understood by the disciples as + an exalted title, or at least only in the sense that the title + indicative of exaltation is paradoxically connected with the title + indicative of humility. <span class="tei tei-q">“We shall be + justified in saying, that, for the Synoptic Evangelists, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Man's Son’</span> was no title of honour for the + Messiah, but—as it must necessarily appear to a Hellenist—a veiling + of His Messiahship under a name which emphasises the humanity of its + bearer.”</span> For them it was not the references to the sufferings + of <span class="tei tei-q">“Man's Son”</span> that were paradoxical, + but the references to His exaltation: that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Man's Son”</span> should be put to death is not + wonderful; what is wonderful is His <span class="tei tei-q">“coming + again upon the clouds of heaven.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Jesus called + Himself the Son of Man, the only conclusion which could be drawn by + those that heard Him was, <span class="tei tei-q">“that for some + reason or other He desired to describe Himself as a Man <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">par + excellence</span></span>.”</span> There is no reason to think of the + Heavenly Son of Man of the Similitudes of Enoch and Fourth Ezra; that + conception could hardly be present to the minds of His + auditors.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg + 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“How was one who was now walking upon earth, to come from + heaven? He would have needed first to be translated thither. One who + had died or been rapt away from earth might be brought back to earth + again in this way, or a being who had never before been upon earth, + might be conceived as descending thither.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if, on the one + hand, the title Son of Man was not to be understood apart from the + reference to the passage in Daniel, while on the other Jesus so + designated Himself as a man actually present upon earth, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“what was really implied was that He was the man in whom + Daniel's vision of <span class="tei tei-q">‘one like unto a Son of + Man’</span> was being fulfilled.”</span> He could not certainly + expect from His hearers a complete understanding of the + self-designation. <span class="tei tei-q">“We are doubtless justified + in saying that in using it, He intentionally offered them an enigma + which challenged further reflection upon His Person.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Peter's confession the name was intelligible to the disciples as + coming from Dan. vii. 13, and obviously indicating Him who was + destined to the sovereignty of the world. Jesus calls Himself the Son + of Man, <span class="tei tei-q">“not as meaning the lowly one, but as + a scion of the human race with its human weakness, whom nevertheless + God will make Lord of the world; and it is very probable that Jesus + found the Son of Man of Dan. vii. in Ps. viii. 5 ff. also.”</span> + Sayings regarding humiliation and suffering could be attached to the + title just as well as references to exaltation. For since the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Child of Man”</span> has placed Himself upon + the throne of God, He is in reality no longer a mere man, but ruler + over heaven and earth, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Lord.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This attempt of + Dalman's has the same significance in regard to the question of the + Messiahship as Bousset's had for the ethical question. Just as in + Bousset's view the Kingdom of God was, in a paradoxical way, after + all proclaimed as present, so here the self-designation <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Son of Man”</span> is retained by a paradox as conveying + the sense of a present Messiahship. But the documents do not give any + support to this assumption; on the contrary they contradict it at + every point. According to Dalman it was not the predictions of the + passion of the Son of Man which sounded paradoxical to the disciples, + but the predictions of His exaltation. But we are distinctly told + that when He spoke of His passion they did not understand the saying. + The predictions of His exaltation, however, they understood so well + that without troubling themselves further about the predictions of + the sufferings, they began to dispute who should be greatest in the + Kingdom of Heaven, and who should have his throne closest to the Son + of Man. And if it is once admitted that Jesus took the designation + from Daniel, what ground is there for asserting that the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> purely eschatological transcendental + significance which the term had taken on in the Similitudes of Enoch + and retains in Fourth Ezra had no existence for Jesus? Thus, by a + long round-about, criticism has come back to Johannes Weiss.<a id= + "noteref_209" name="noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> His + eschatological solution of the Son-of-Man question—the elements of + which are to be found in Strauss's first Life of Jesus—is the only + possible one. Dalman expresses the same idea in the form of a + question. <span class="tei tei-q">“How could one who was actually + walking the earth come down from heaven? He would have needed first + to be translated thither. One who had died or been rapt away from + earth might possibly be brought back to earth in this way.”</span> + Having reached this point we have only to observe further that Jesus, + from the <span class="tei tei-q">“confession of Peter”</span> + onwards, always speaks of the Son of Man in connexion with death and + resurrection. That is to say, that once the disciples know in what + relation He stands to the Son of Man, He uses this title to suggest + the manner of His return: as the sequel to His death and resurrection + He will return to the world again as a superhuman Personality. Thus + the purely transcendental use of the term suggested by Dalman as a + possibility turns out to be the historical reality.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Broadly speaking, + therefore, the Son-of-Man problem is both historically solvable and + has been solved. The authentic passages are those in which the + expression is used in that apocalyptic sense which goes back to + Daniel. But we have to distinguish two different uses of the term + according to the degree of knowledge assumed in the hearers. If the + secret of Jesus is unknown to them, then in that case they understand + simply that Jesus is speaking of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of + Man”</span> and His coming without having any suspicion that He and + the Son of Man have any connexion. It would be thus, for instance, + when in sending out the disciples in Matt. x. 23, He announced the + imminence of the appearing of the Son of Man; or when He pictured the + judgment which the Son of Man would hold (Matt. xxv. 31-46), if we + may imagine <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg + 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> it + to have been spoken to the people at Jerusalem. Or, on the other + hand, the secret is known to the hearers. In that case they + understand that the term Son of Man points to the position to which + He Himself is to be exalted when the present era passes into the age + to come. It was thus, no doubt, in the case of the disciples at + Caesarea Philippi, and of the High Priest to whom Jesus, after + answering his demand with the simple <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Yea”</span> (Mark xiv. 62), goes on immediately to speak + of the exaltation of the Son of Man to the right hand of God, and of + His coming upon the clouds of heaven.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus did not, + therefore, veil His Messiahship by using the expression Son of Man, + much less did He transform it, but He used the expression to refer, + in the only possible way, to His Messianic office as destined to be + realised at His <span class="tei tei-q">“coming,”</span> and did so + in such a manner that only the initiated understood that He was + speaking of His own coming, while others understood Him as referring + to the coming of a Son of Man who was other than Himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The passages where + the title has not this apocalyptic reference, or where, previous to + the incident at Caesarea Philippi, Jesus in speaking to the disciples + equates the Son of Man with His own <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ego,”</span> are to be explained as of literary origin. + This set of secondary occurrences of the title has nothing to do with + <span class="tei tei-q">“Early Church theology”</span>; it is merely + a question of phenomena of translation and tradition. In the saying + about the Sabbath in Mark ii. 28, and perhaps also in the saying + about the right to forgive sins in Mark ii. 10, Son of Man doubtless + stood in the original in the general sense of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“man,”</span> but was later, certainly by our + Evangelists, understood as referring to Jesus as the Son of Man. In + other passages tradition, following the analogy of those passages in + which the title is authentic, put in place of the simple I—expressed + in the Aramaic by <span class="tei tei-q">“the man”</span>—the + self-designation <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of Man,”</span> as we + can clearly show by comparing Matt. xvi. 13, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Who do men say that the Son of Man is?”</span> with Mark + viii. 27, <span class="tei tei-q">“Who do men say that I + am?”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Three passages + call for special discussion. In the statement that a man may be + forgiven for blasphemy against the Son of Man, but not for blasphemy + against the Holy Spirit, in Matt. xii. 32, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Son of Man”</span> may be authentic. But of course it + would not, even in that case, give any hint that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Son of Man designates the Messiah in His + humiliation”</span> as Dalman wished to infer from the passage, but + would mean that Jesus was speaking of the Son of Man, here as + elsewhere, in the third person without reference to Himself, and was + thinking of a contemptuous denial of the Parousia such as might have + been uttered by a Sadducee. But if we take into account the parallel + in Mark iii. 28 and 29, where blasphemy against the Holy Ghost is + spoken of without any mention of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> blasphemy against the Son of Man, it seems more + natural to take the mention of the Son of Man as a secondary + interpolation, derived from the same line of tradition, perhaps from + the same hand, as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of Man”</span> in + the question to the disciples at Caesarea Philippi.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The two other + sayings, the one about the Son of Man <span class="tei tei-q">“who + hath not where to lay His head,”</span> Matt. viii. 20, and that + about the Son of Man who must submit to the reproach of being a + glutton and a wine-bibber, Matt. xi. 19, belong together. If we + assume it to be possible, in conformity with the saying about the + purpose of the parables in Mark iv. 11 and 12, that Jesus sometimes + spoke words which He did not intend to be understood, we may—if we + are unwilling to accept the supposition of a later periphrasis for + the ego, which would certainly be the most natural + explanation—recognise in these sayings two obscure declarations + regarding the Son of Man. They would then be supposed to have meant + in the original form, which is no longer clearly recognisable, that + the Son of Man would in some way justify the conduct of Jesus of + Nazareth. But the way in which this idea is expressed was not such as + to make it easy for His hearers to identify Him with the Son of Man. + Moreover, it was for them a conception impossible to realise, since + Jesus was a natural, and the Son of Man a supernatural, being; and + the eschatological scheme of things had not provided for a man who at + the end of the existing era should hint to others that at the great + transformation of all things He would be manifested as the Son of + Man. This case presented itself only in the course of history, and it + created a preparatory stage of eschatology which does not answer to + any traditional scheme.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That act of the + self-consciousness of Jesus by which He recognised Himself in His + earthly existence as the future Messiah is the act in which + eschatology supremely affirms itself. At the same time, since it + brings, spiritually, that which is to come, into the unaltered + present, into the existing era, it is the end of eschatology. For it + is its <span class="tei tei-q">“spiritualisation,”</span> a + spiritualisation of which the ultimate consequence was to be that all + its <span class="tei tei-q">“supersensuous”</span> elements were to + be realised only spiritually in the present earthly conditions, and + all that is affirmed as supersensuous in the transcendental sense was + to be regarded as only the ruined remains of an eschatological + world-view. The Messianic secret of Jesus is the basis of + Christianity, since it involves the de-nationalising and the + spiritualisation of Jewish eschatology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet more. It is + the primal fact, the starting-point, of a process which manifests + itself, indeed, in Christianity, but cannot fully work itself out + even here, of a movement in the direction of inwardness which brings + all religious magnitudes into the one indivisible spiritual present, + and which Christian dogmatic has not <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> ventured to carry to its completion. The + Messianic consciousness of the uniquely great Man of Nazareth sets up + a struggle between the present and the beyond, and introduces that + resolute absorption of the beyond by the present, which in looking + back we recognise as the history of Christianity, and of which we are + conscious in ourselves as the essence of religious progress and + experience—a process of which the end is not yet in sight.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this sense + Jesus did <span class="tei tei-q">“accept the world”</span> and did + stand in conflict with Judaism. Protestantism was a step—a step on + which hung weighty consequences—in the progress of that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“acceptance of the world”</span> which was constantly + developing itself from within. By a mighty revolution which was in + harmony with the spirit of that great primal act of the consciousness + of Jesus, though in opposition to some of the most certain of His + sayings, ethics became world-accepting. But it will be a mightier + revolution still when the last remaining ruins of the supersensuous + other-worldly system of thought are swept away in order to clear the + site for a new spiritual, purely real and present world. All the + inconsistent compromises and constructions of modern theology are + merely an attempt to stave off the final expulsion of eschatology + from religion, an inevitable but a hopeless attempt. That proleptic + Messianic consciousness of Jesus, which was in reality the only + possible actualisation of the Messianic idea, carries these + consequences with it inexorably and unfailingly. At that last cry + upon the cross the whole eschatological supersensuous world fell in + upon itself in ruins, and there remained as a spiritual reality only + that present spiritual world, bound as it is to sense, which Jesus by + His all-powerful word had called into being within the world which He + contemned. That last cry, with its despairing abandonment of the + eschatological future, is His real acceptance of the world. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of Man”</span> was buried in the ruins + of the falling eschatological world; there remained alive only Jesus + <span class="tei tei-q">“the Man.”</span> Thus these two Aramaic + synonyms include in themselves, as in a symbol of reality, all that + was to come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If theology has + found it so hard a task to arrive at an historical comprehension of + the secret of this self-designation, this is due to the fact that the + question is not a purely historical one. In this word there lies the + transformation of a whole system of thought, the inexorable + consequence of the elimination of eschatology from religion. It was + only in this future form, not as actual, that Jesus spoke of His + Messiahship. Modern theology keeps on endeavouring to discover in the + title of Son of Man, which is bound up with the future, a humanised + present Messiahship. It does so in the conviction that the + recognition of a purely future reference in the Messianic + consciousness of Jesus would lead in the last result to a + modification of the historic basis of our faith, which has itself + become <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name= + "Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> historical, and + therefore true and self-justifying. The recognition of the claims of + eschatology signifies for our dogmatic a burning of the boats by + which it felt itself able to return at any moment from the time of + Jesus direct to the present.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One point that is + worthy of notice in this connexion is the trustworthiness of the + tradition. The Evangelists, writing in Greek, and the Greek-speaking + Early Church, can hardly have retained an understanding of the purely + eschatological character of that self-designation of Jesus. It had + become for them merely an indirect method of self-designation. And + nevertheless the Evangelists, especially Mark, record the sayings of + Jesus in such a way that the original significance and application of + the designation in His mouth is still clearly recognisable, and we + are able to determine with certainty the isolated cases in which this + self-designation in His discourses is of a secondary origin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the use of + the term Son of Man—which, if we admitted the sweeping proposal of + Lietzmann and Wellhausen to cancel it everywhere as an interpolation + of Greek Early Church theology, would throw doubt on the whole of the + Gospel tradition—becomes a proof of the certainty and trustworthiness + of that tradition. We may, in fact, say that the progressive + recognition of the eschatological character of the teaching and + action of Jesus carries with it a progressive justification of the + Gospel tradition. A series of passages and discourses which had been + endangered because from the modern theological point of view which + had been made the criterion of the tradition they appeared to be + without meaning, are now secured. The stone which the critics + rejected has become the corner-stone of the tradition.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Aramaic + scholarship appears in regard to the Son-of-Man question among the + opponents of the thorough-going eschatological view, it takes no + other position in connexion with the retranslations and in the + application of illustrative parallels from the Rabbinic + literature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In looking at the + earlier works in this department, one is struck with the smallness of + the result in proportion to the labour expended. The names that call + for mention here are those of John Lightfoot, Christian Schöttgen, + Joh. Gerh. Meuschen, J. Jak. Wettstein, F. Nork, Franz Delitzsch, + Carl Siegfried, and A. Wünsche.<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" + href="#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> But + even a work like F. Weber's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">System der altsynagogalen</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style= + "font-style: italic">palästinensischen Theologie</span></span>,<a id= + "noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> which + does not confine itself to single sayings and thoughts, but aims at + exhibiting the Rabbinic system of thought as a whole, throws, in the + main, but little light on the thoughts of Jesus. The Rabbinic + parables supply, according to Jülicher, but little of value for the + explanation of the parables of Jesus.<a id="noteref_212" name= + "noteref_212" href="#note_212"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> In this + method of discourse, Jesus is so pre-eminently original, that any + other productions of the Jewish parabolic literature are like stunted + undergrowth beside a great tree; though that has not prevented His + originality from being challenged in this very department, both in + earlier times and at the present. As early as 1648, Robert + Sheringham, of Cambridge,<a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213" href= + "#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> + suggested that the parables in Matt. xx. 1 ff., xxv. 1 ff., and Luke + xvi., were derived from Talmudic sources, an opinion against which J. + B. Carpzov, the younger, raised a protest; in 1839, F. Nork asserted, + in his work on <span class="tei tei-q">“Rabbinic Sources and + Parallels for the New Testament Writings,”</span> that the best + thoughts in the discourses of Jesus are to be attributed to His + Jewish teachers; in 1880 the Dutch Rabbi, T. Tal, maintained the + thesis that the parables of the New Testament are all borrowed from + the Talmud.<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214" href= + "#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> + Theories of this kind cannot be refuted, because they lack the + foundation necessary to any theory which is to be capable of being + rationally discussed—that of plain common sense.<a id="noteref_215" + name="noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We possess, + however, really scientific attempts to define more closely the + thoughts of Jesus by the aid of the Rabbinic language and Rabbinic + ideas in the works of Arnold Meyer and Dalman. It cannot indeed be + said that the obscure sayings which form the problem of present-day + exegesis are in all cases made clearer by them, much as we may admire + the comprehensive knowledge of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> these scholars. Sometimes, indeed, they become + more obscure than before. According to Meyer, for instance, the + question of Jesus whether His disciples can drink of His cup, and be + baptized with His baptism means, if put back into Aramaic, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Can you drink as bitter a drink as I; can + you eat as sharply salted meat as I?”</span><a id="noteref_216" name= + "noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> Nor + does Dalman's Aramaic retranslation help us much with the saying + about the violent who take the Kingdom of Heaven by force. According + to him, it is not spoken of the faithful, but of the rulers of this + world, and refers to the epoch of the Divine rule which has been + introduced by the imprisonment of the Baptist. No one can violently + possess himself of the Divine reign, and Jesus can therefore only + mean that violence is done to it in the person of its subjects.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On this it must be + remarked, that if the saying really means this, it is about as + appropriate to its setting as a rock in the sky. Jesus is not + speaking of the imprisonment of the Baptist. By the days of John the + Baptist He means the time of his public ministry.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is equally open + to question whether in putting that crucial question regarding the + Messiah in Mark xii. 37 He really intended to show, as Dalman thinks, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that physical descent from David was not of + decisive importance—it did not belong to the essence of the + Messiahship.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But a point in + regard to which Dalman's remarks are of great value for the + reconstruction of the life of Jesus is the entry into Jerusalem. + Dalman thinks that the simple <span class="tei tei-q">“Hosanna, + blessed be he that cometh in the name of the Lord”</span> (Mark xi. + 9) was what the people really shouted in acclamation, and that the + additional words in Mark and Matthew are simply an interpretative + expansion. This acclamation did not itself contain any Messianic + reference. This explains <span class="tei tei-q">“why the entry into + Jerusalem was not made a count in the charge urged against Him before + Pilate.”</span> The events of <span class="tei tei-q">“Palm + Sunday”</span> only received their distinctively Messianic colour + later. It was not the Messiah, but the prophet and wonder-worker of + Galilee whom the people hailed with rejoicing and accompanied with + invocations of blessing.<a id="noteref_217" name="noteref_217" href= + "#note_217"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Generally + speaking, the value of Dalman's work lies less in the solutions which + it offers than in the problems which it raises. By its very thorough + discussions it challenges historical theology to test its most + cherished assumptions regarding the teaching of Jesus, and make sure + whether they are really so certain and self-evident. Thus, in + opposition to Schürer, he denies that the thought of the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> pre-existence in heaven of all the good + things belonging to the Kingdom of God was at all generally current + in the Late-Jewish world of ideas, and thinks that the occasional + references<a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href= + "#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> to a + pre-existing Jerusalem, which shall finally be brought down to the + earth, do not suffice to establish the theory. Similarly, he thinks + it doubtful whether Jesus used the terms <span class= + "tei tei-q">“this world (age),”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the + world (age) to come”</span> in the eschatological sense which is + generally attached to them, and doubts, on linguistic grounds, + whether they can have been used at all. Even the use of עלם or עולם + for <span class="tei tei-q">“world”</span> cannot be proved. In the + pre-Christian period there is much reason to doubt its occurrence, + though in later Jewish literature it is frequent. The expression ἐν + τῇ παλιγγενεσίᾳ in Matt. xix. 28, is specifically Greek and cannot be + reproduced in either Hebrew or Aramaic. It is very strange that the + use which Jesus makes of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Amen</span></span> is unknown in the whole of + Jewish literature. According to the proper idiom of the language + <span class="tei tei-q">“אמן is never used to emphasise one's own + speech, but always with reference to the speech, prayer, benediction, + oath, or curse of another.”</span> Jesus, therefore, if He used the + expression in this sense, must have given it a new meaning as a + formula of asseveration, in place of the oath which He forbade.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All these acute + observations are marked by the general tendency which was observable + in the interpretation of the term Son of Man, that is, by the + endeavour so to weaken down the eschatological conceptions of the + Kingdom and the Messiah, that the hypothesis of a making-present and + spiritualising of these conceptions in the teaching of Jesus might + appear inherently and linguistically possible and natural. The + polemic against the pre-existent realities of the Kingdom of God is + intended to show that for Jesus the Reign of God is a present + benefit, which can be sought after, given, possessed, and taken. Even + before the time of Jesus, according to Dalman, a tendency had shown + itself to lay less emphasis, in connexion with the hope of the + future, upon the national Jewish element. Jesus forced this element + still farther into the background, and gave a more decided prominence + to the purely religious element. <span class="tei tei-q">“For Him the + reign of God was the Divine power, which from this time onward was + steadily to carry forward the renewal of the world, and also the + renewed world, into which men shall one day enter, which even now + offers itself, and therefore can be grasped and received as a present + good.”</span> The supernatural coming of the Kingdom is only the + final stage of the coming which is now being inwardly spiritually + brought about by the preaching of Jesus. Though He may perhaps have + spoken of <span class="tei tei-q">“this”</span> world and the + <span class="tei tei-q">“world to come,”</span> these expressions had + in His use of them no very special importance. It is for Him less a + question of an antithesis between <span class= + "tei tei-q">“then”</span> and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“now,”</span> than of + establishing a connexion between them by which the transition from + one to the other is to be effected.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is the same in + regard to Jesus' consciousness of His Messiahship. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“In Jesus' view,”</span> says Dalman, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the period before the commencement of the Reign of God + was organically connected with the actual period of His + Reign.”</span> He was the Messiah because He knew Himself to stand in + a unique ethico-religious relation to God. His Messiahship was not + something wholly incomprehensible to those about Him. If redemption + was regarded as being close at hand, the Messiah must be assumed to + be in some sense already present. Therefore Jesus is both directly + and indirectly spoken of as Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the most + important work in the department of Aramaic scholarship shows clearly + the anti-eschatological tendency which characterised it from the + beginning. The work of Lietzmann, Meyer, Wellhausen, and Dalman, + forms a distinct episode in the general resistance to eschatology. + That Aramaic scholarship should have taken up a hostile attitude + towards the eschatological system of thought of Jesus lies in the + nature of things. The thoughts which it takes as its standard of + comparison were only reduced to writing long after the period of + Jesus, and, moreover, in a lifeless and distorted form, at a time + when the apocalyptic temper no longer existed as the living + counterpoise to the legal righteousness, and this legal righteousness + had allowed only so much of Apocalyptic to survive as could be + brought into direct connexion with it. In fact, the distance between + Jesus' world of thought and this form of Judaism is as great as that + which separates it from modern ideas. Thus in Dalman modernising + tendencies and Aramaic scholarship were able to combine in conducting + a criticism of the eschatology in the teaching of Jesus in which the + modern man thought the thoughts and the expert in Aramaic formulated + and supported them, yet without being able in the end to make any + impression upon the well-rounded whole formed by Jesus' + eschatological preaching of the Kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether Aramaic + scholarship will contribute to the investigation of the life and + teaching of Jesus along other lines and in a direct and positive + fashion, only the future can show. But certainly if theologians will + give heed to the question-marks so acutely placed by Dalman, and + recognise it as one of their first duties to test carefully whether a + thought or a connexion of thought is linguistically or inherently + Greek, and only Greek, in character, they will derive a notable + advantage from what has already been done in the department of + Aramaic study.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the service + rendered by Aramaic studies has been hitherto mainly indirect, no + success whatever has attended, or seems likely <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to attend, the attempt to apply Buddhist + ideas to the explanation of the thoughts of Jesus. It could only + indeed appear to have some prospect of success if we could make up + our minds to follow the example of the author of one of the most + recent of fictitious lives of Christ in putting Jesus to school to + the Buddhist priests; in which case the six years which Monsieur + Nicolas Notowitsch allots to this purpose, would certainly be none + too much for the completion of the course.<a id="noteref_219" name= + "noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> If + imagination boggles at this, there remains no possibility of showing + that Buddhist ideas exercised any direct influence upon Jesus. That + Buddhism may have had some kind of influence upon Late Judaism and + thus indirectly upon Jesus is not inherently impossible, if we are + prepared to recognise Buddhistic influence on the Babylonian and + Persian civilisations. But it is unproved, unprovable, and + unthinkable, that Jesus derived the suggestion of the new and + creative ideas which emerge in His teaching from Buddhism. The most + that can be done in this direction is to point to certain analogies. + For the parables of Jesus, Buddhist parallels were suggested by Renan + and Havet.<a id="noteref_220" name="noteref_220" href= + "#note_220"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How little these + analogies mean in the eyes of a cautious observer is evident from the + attitude which Max Müller took up towards the question. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“That there are startling coincidences between Buddhism + and Christianity,”</span> he remarks in one passage,<a id= + "noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“cannot be denied; and it must likewise be + admitted that Buddhism existed at least four hundred years before + Christianity. I go even further and say that I should be extremely + grateful if anybody would point out to me the historical channels + through which Buddhism had influenced early Christianity. I have been + looking for such channels all my life, but hitherto I have found + none. What I have found is that for some of the most startling + coincidences there are historical antecedents on both sides; and if + we once know these antecedents the coincidences become far less + startling.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A year before Max + Müller formulated his impression in these terms, Rudolf Seydel<a id= + "noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href="#note_222"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> had + endeavoured to explain the analogies <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> which had been noticed by supposing + Christianity to have been influenced by Buddhism. He distinguishes + three distinct classes of analogies:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. Those of which + the points of resemblance can without difficulty be explained as due + to the influence of similar sources and motives in the two cases.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. Those which + show a so special and unexpected agreement that it appears artificial + to explain it from the action of similar causes, and the dependence + of one upon the other commends itself as the most natural + explanation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">3. Those in which + there exists a reason for the occurrence of the idea only within the + sphere of one of the two religions, or in which at least it can very + much more easily be conceived as originating within the one than + within the other, so that the inexplicability of the phenomenon + within the one domain gives ground for seeking its source within the + other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This last class + demands a literary explanation of the analogy. Seydel therefore + postulates, alongside of primitive forms of Matthew and Luke, a third + source, <span class="tei tei-q">“a poetic-apocalyptic Gospel of very + early date which fitted its Christian material into the frame of a + Buddhist type of Gospel, transforming, purifying, and ennobling the + material taken from the foreign but related literature by a kind of + rebirth inspired by the Christian Spirit.”</span> Matthew and Luke, + especially Luke, follow this poetic Gospel up to the point where + historic sources become more abundant, and the primitive form of Mark + begins to dominate their narrative. But even in later parts the + influence of this poetical source, which as an independent document + was subsequently lost, continued to make itself felt.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The strongest + point of support for this hypothesis, if a mere conjecture can be + described as such, is found by Seydel in the introductory narratives + in Luke. Now it is not inherently impossible that Buddhist legends, + which in one form or another were widely current in the East, may + have contributed more or less to the formation of the mythical + preliminary history. Who knows the laws of the formation of legend? + Who can follow the course of the wind which carries the seed over + land and sea? But in general it may be said that Seydel actually + refutes the hypothesis which he is defending. If the material which + he brings forward is all that there is to suggest a relation between + Buddhism and Christianity, we are justified in waiting until new + discoveries are made in that quarter before asserting the necessity + of a Buddhist primitive Gospel. That will not prevent a succession of + theosophic Lives of Jesus from finding their account in Seydel's + classical work. Seydel indeed delivered himself into their hands, + because he did not <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg + 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + entirely avoid the rash assumption of theosophic <span class= + "tei tei-q">“historical science”</span> that Jewish eschatology can + be equated with Buddhistic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Eduard von + Hartmann, in the second edition of his work, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Christianity of the New Testament,”</span><a id= + "noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> roundly + asserts that there can be no question of any relation of Jesus to + Buddha, nor of any indebtedness either in His teaching or in the + later moulding of the story of His life, but only of a parallel + formation of myth.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name= + "Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> <a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XVIII. The Position Of The Subject At + The Close Of The Nineteenth Century</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Oskar + Holtzmann.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Leben Jesu. + Tübingen, 1901. 417 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Das Messianitätsbewusstsein Jesu und seine neueste + Bestreitung. Vortrag. (The Messianic Consciousness of Jesus and the + most recent denial of it. A Lecture.) 1902. 26 pp. (Against + Wrede.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">War Jesus Ekstatiker? (Was Jesus an ecstatic?) + Tübingen, 1903. 139 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paul + Wilhelm Schmidt.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die + Geschichte Jesu. (The History of Jesus.) Freiburg. 1899. 175 pp. + (4th impression.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Die Geschichte Jesu. Erläutert. Mit drei Karten + von Prof. K. Furrer (Zürich). (The History of Jesus. Preliminary + Discussions. With three maps by Prof. K. Furrer of Zurich.) + Tübingen, 1904. 414 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Otto + Schmiedel.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die + Hauptprobleme der Leben-Jesu-Forschung. (The main Problems in the + Study of the Life of Jesus.) Tübingen, 1902. 71 pp. 2nd ed., + 1906.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Hermann Freiherr von + Soden.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Die wichtigsten + Fragen im Leben Jesu. (The most important Questions about the Life + of Jesus.) Vacation Lectures. Berlin, 1904. 111 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Gustav Frenssen.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Hilligenlei. Berlin, 1905, pp. + 462-593:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Die + Handschrift.</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">(</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The + Manuscript</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">—in + which a Life of Jesus, written by one of the characters of the + story, is given in full.)</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Otto + Pfleiderer.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Urchristentum, seine Schriften und Lehren in geschichtlichem + Zusammenhang beschrieben. (Primitive Christianity. Its Documents + and Doctrines in their Historical Context.) 2nd ed. Berlin, 1902. + Vol. i., 696 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Die Entstehung des Urchristentums. (How Primitive + Christianity arose.) Munich, 1905. 255 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albert Kalthoff.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Das Christus-Problem. Grundlinien zu + einer Sozialtheologie. (The Christ-problem. The Ground-plan of a + Social Theology.) Leipzig, 1902. 87 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Die Entstehung des Christentums. Neue Beiträge zum + Christus-Problem. (How Christianity arose. New contributions to the + Christ-problem.) Leipzig, 1904. 155 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Eduard von + Hartmann.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Christentum des Neuen Testaments. (The Christianity of the New + Testament.) 2nd revised edition of</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">Letters on the Christian + Religion.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Sachsa-in-the-Harz, 1905. 311 + pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">De + Jonge.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Jeschua. Der + klassische jüdische Mann. Zerstörung des kirchlichen, Enthüllung + des jüdischen Jesus-Bildes. Berlin, 1904. 112 pp. (Jeshua. The + Classical Jewish Man. In which the Jewish picture of Jesus is + unveiled, and the ecclesiastical picture + destroyed.)</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg + 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Wolfgang + Kirchbach.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Was lehrte + Jesus? Zwei Urevangelien. (What was the teaching of Jesus? Two + Primitive Gospels.) Berlin, 1897. 248 pp. 2nd revised and greatly + enlarged edition, 1902, 339 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albert Dulk.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu. In + geschichtlicher Auffassung dargestellt. (The Error of the Life of + Jesus. An Historical View.) 1st part, 1884, 395 pp.; 2nd part, + 1885, 302 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Paul + de Régla.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Jesus von + Nazareth. German by A. Just. Leipzig, 1894. 435 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Ernest Bosc.</span></span> + <span style="font-size: 90%">La Vie ésotérique de Jésus de Nazareth + et les origines orientales du christianisme. (The secret Life of + Jesus of Nazareth, and the Oriental Origins of Christianity.) + Paris, 1902.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ideal Life of + Jesus of the close of the nineteenth century is the Life which + Heinrich Julius Holtzmann did not write—but which can be pieced + together from his commentary on the Synoptic Gospels and his New + Testament Theology.<a id="noteref_224" name="noteref_224" href= + "#note_224"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a> It is + ideal because, for one thing, it is unwritten, and arises only in the + idea of the reader by the aid of his own imagination, and, for + another, because it is traced only in the most general outline. What + Holtzmann gives us is a sketch of the public ministry, a critical + examination of details, and a full account of the teaching of Jesus. + He provides, therefore, the plan and the prepared building material, + so that any one can carry out the construction in his own way and on + his own responsibility. The cement and the mortar are not provided by + Holtzmann; every one must decide for himself how he will combine the + teaching and the life, and arrange the details within each.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may recall the + fact that Weisse, too, the other founder of the Marcan hypothesis, + avoided writing a Life of Jesus, because the difficulty of fitting + the details into the ground-plan appeared to him so great, not to say + insuperable. It is just this modesty which constitutes his greatness + and Holtzmann's. Thus the Marcan hypothesis ends, as it had begun, + with a certain historical scepticism.<a id="noteref_225" name= + "noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The subordinates, + it is true, do not allow themselves to be disturbed by the change of + attitude at head-quarters. They keep busily at work. That is their + right, and therein consists their significance. By keeping on trying + to take the positions, and constantly failing, they furnish a + practical proof that the plan of operations worked out by the general + staff is not capable of being carried out, and show why it is so, and + what kind of new tactics will have to be evolved.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The credit of + having written a life of Christ which is strictly scientific, in its + own way very remarkable, and yet foredoomed to failure, belongs to + Oskar Holtzmann.<a id="noteref_226" name="noteref_226" href= + "#note_226"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> He has + complete confidence in the Marcan plan, and makes it his task to fit + all the sayings of Jesus into this framework, to show <span class= + "tei tei-q">“what can belong to each period of the preaching of + Jesus, and what cannot.”</span> His method is to give free play to + the magnetic power of the most important passages in the Marcan text, + making other sayings of similar import detach themselves from their + present connexion and come and group themselves round the main + passages.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg + 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For example, the + controversy with the scribes at Jerusalem regarding the charge of + doing miracles by the help of Satan (Mark iii. 22-30) belongs, + according to Holtzmann, as regards content and chronology, to the + same period as the controversy, in Mark vii., about the ordinances of + men which results in Jesus being <span class="tei tei-q">“obliged to + take to flight”</span>; the woes pronounced upon Chorazin, Bethsaida, + and Capernaum, which now follow on the eulogy upon the Baptist (Matt. + xi. 21-23), and are accordingly represented as having been spoken at + the time of the sending forth of the Twelve, are drawn by the same + kind of magnetic force into the neighbourhood of Mark vii., and + <span class="tei tei-q">“express very clearly the attitude of Jesus + at the time of His withdrawal from the scene of His earlier + ministry.”</span> The saying in Matt. vii. 6 about not giving that + which is holy to the dogs or casting pearls before swine, does not + belong to the Sermon on the Mount, but to the time when Jesus, after + Caesarea Philippi, forbids the disciples to reveal the secret of His + Messiahship to the multitude; Jesus' action in cursing the fig-tree + so that it should henceforth bring no fruit to its owner, who was + perhaps a poor man, is to be brought into relation with the words + spoken on the evening before, with reference to the lavish + expenditure involved in His anointing, <span class="tei tei-q">“The + poor ye have always with you,”</span> the point being that Jesus now, + <span class="tei tei-q">“in the clear consciousness of His + approaching death, feels His own worth,”</span> and dismisses + <span class="tei tei-q">“the contingency of even the poor having to + lose something for His sake”</span> with the words <span class= + "tei tei-q">“it does not matter.”</span><a id="noteref_227" name= + "noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All these + transpositions and new connexions mean, it is clear, a great deal of + internal and external violence to the text.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A further service + rendered by this very thorough work of Oskar Holtzmann's, is that of + showing how much reading between the lines is necessary in order to + construct a Life of Jesus on the basis of the Marcan hypothesis in + its modern interpretation. It is thus, for instance, that the author + must have acquired the knowledge that the controversy about the + ordinances of purification in Mark vii. forced the people + <span class="tei tei-q">“to choose between the old and the new + religion”</span>—in which case it is no wonder that many <span class= + "tei tei-q">“turned back from following Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Where are we told + that there was any question of an old and a new <span class= + "tei tei-q">“religion”</span>? The disciples certainly did not think + of things in this way, as is shown by their conduct at the time of + His death <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg + 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + the discourses of Peter in Acts. Where do we read that the people + turned away from Jesus? In Mark vii. 17 and 24 all that is said is, + that Jesus left the people, and in Mark vii. 33 the same multitude is + still assembled when Jesus returns from the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“banishment”</span> into which Holtzmann relegates + Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oskar Holtzmann + declares that we cannot tell what was the size of the following which + accompanied Jesus in His journey northwards, and is inclined to + assume that others besides the Twelve shared His exile. The + Evangelists, however, say clearly that it was only the μαθηταί, that + is, the Twelve, who were with Him. The value which this special + knowledge, independent of the text, has for the author, becomes + evident a little farther on. After Peter's confession Jesus calls the + <span class="tei tei-q">“multitude”</span> to Him (Mark viii. 34) and + speaks to them of His sufferings and of taking up the cross and + following Him. This <span class="tei tei-q">“multitude”</span> + Holtzmann wants to make <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole company of + Jesus' followers,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“to which belonged, + not only the Twelve whom Jesus had formerly sent out to preach, but + many others also.”</span> The knowledge drawn from outside the text + is therefore required to solve a difficulty in the text.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how did His + companions in exile, the remnant of the previous multitude, + themselves become a multitude, the same multitude as before? Would it + not be better to admit that we do not know how, in a Gentile country, + a multitude could suddenly rise out of the ground as it were, + continue with Him until Mark ix. 30, and then disappear into the + earth as suddenly as they came, leaving Him to pursue His journey + towards Galilee and Jerusalem alone?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another thing + which Oskar Holtzmann knows is that it required a good deal of + courage for Peter to hail Jesus as Messiah, since the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“exile wandering about with his small following in a + Gentile country”</span> answered <span class="tei tei-q">“so badly to + the general picture which people had formed of the coming of the + Messiah.”</span> He knows too, that in the moment of Peter's + confession, <span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity was + complete”</span> in the sense that <span class="tei tei-q">“a + community separate from Judaism and centring about a new ideal, then + arose.”</span> This <span class="tei tei-q">“community”</span> + frequently appears from this point onwards. There is nothing about it + in the narratives, which know only the Twelve and the people.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oskar Holtzmann's + knowledge even extends to dialogues which are not reported in the + Gospels. After the incident at Caesarea Philippi, the minds of the + disciples were, according to him, preoccupied by two questions. + <span class="tei tei-q">“How did Jesus know that He was the + Messiah?”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“What will be the future + fate of this Messiah?”</span> The Lord answered both questions. He + spoke to them of His baptism, and <span class="tei tei-q">“doubtless + in close connexion with that”</span> He told them the story of His + temptation, during which He had laid down the lines which He was + determined to follow as Messiah.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the + transfiguration, Oskar Holtzmann can state with confidence, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that it merely represents the inner + experience of the disciples at the moment of Peter's + confession.”</span> How is it then that Mark expressly dates that + scene, placing it (ix. 2) six days after the discourse of Jesus about + taking up the cross and following Him? The fact is that the + time-indications of the text are treated as non-existent whenever the + Marcan hypothesis requires an order determined by inner connexion. + The statement of Luke that the transfiguration took place eight days + after, is dismissed in the remark <span class="tei tei-q">“the motive + of this indication of time is doubtless to be found in the use of the + Gospel narratives for reading in public worship; the idea was that + the section about the transfiguration should be read on the Sunday + following that on which the confession of Peter formed the + lesson.”</span> Where did Oskar Holtzmann suddenly discover this + information about the order of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sunday + lessons”</span> at the time when Luke's Gospel was written?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was doubtless + from the same private source of information that the author derived + his knowledge regarding the gradual development of the thought of the + Passion in the consciousness of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“After + the confession of Peter at Caesarea Philippi,”</span> he explains, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus' death became for Him only the + necessary point of transition to the glory beyond. In the discourse + of Jesus to which the request of Salome gave occasion, the death of + Jesus already appears as the means of saving many from death, because + His death makes possible the coming of the Kingdom of God. At the + institution of the Supper, Jesus regards His imminent death as the + meritorious deed by which the blessings of the New Covenant, the + forgiveness of sins and victory over sin, are permanently secured to + His <span class="tei tei-q">‘community.’</span> We see Jesus + constantly becoming more and more at home with the idea of His death + and constantly giving it a deeper interpretation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Any one who is + less skilled in reading the thoughts of Jesus, and more simple and + natural in his reading of the text of Mark, cannot fail to observe + that Jesus speaks in Mark x. 45 of His death as an expiation, not as + a means of saving others from death, and that at the Lord's Supper + there was no reference to His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“community,”</span> but only to the inexplicable + <span class="tei tei-q">“many,”</span> which is also the word in Mark + x. 45. We ought to admit freely that we do not know what the thoughts + of Jesus about His death were at the time of the first prediction of + the Passion after Peter's confession; and to be on our guard against + the <span class="tei tei-q">“original sin”</span> of theology, that + of exalting the argument from silence, when it happens to be useful, + to the rank of positive realities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is there not a + certain irony in the fact that the application of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“natural”</span> psychology to the explanation of the + thoughts of Jesus compels the assumption of supra-historical private + information <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg + 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + such as this? Bahrdt and Venturini hardly read more subjective + interpretations into the text than many modern Lives of Jesus; and + the hypothesis of the secret society, which after all did recognise + and do justice to the inexplicability from an external standpoint of + the relation of events and of the conduct of Jesus, was in many + respects more historical than the psychological links of connexion + which our modernising historians discover without having any + foundation for them in the text.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end this + supplementary knowledge destroys the historicity of the simplest + sections. Oskar Holtzmann ventures to conjecture that the healing of + the blind man at Jericho <span class="tei tei-q">“is to be understood + as a symbolical representation of the conversion of + Zacchaeus,”</span> which, of course, is found only in Luke. Here then + the defender of the Marcan hypothesis rejects the incident by which + the Evangelist explains the enthusiasm of the entry into Jerusalem, + not to mention that Luke tells us nothing whatever about a conversion + of Zacchaeus, but only that Jesus was invited to his house and + graciously accepted the invitation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be + something if this almost Alexandrian symbolical exegesis contributed + in some way to the removal of difficulties and to the solution of the + main question, that, namely, of the present or future Messiah, the + present or future Kingdom. Oskar Holtzmann lays great stress upon the + eschatological character of the preaching of Jesus regarding the + Kingdom, and assumes that, at least at the beginning, it would not + have been natural for His hearers to understand that Jesus, the + herald of the Messiah, was Himself the Messiah. Nevertheless, he is + of opinion that, in a certain sense, the presence of Jesus implied + the presence of the Kingdom, that Peter and the rest of the + disciples, advancing beyond the ideas of the multitude, recognised + Him as Messiah, that this recognition ought to have been possible for + the people also, and, in that case, would have been <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the strongest incentive to abandon evil ways,”</span> + and <span class="tei tei-q">“that Jesus at the time of His entry into + Jerusalem seems to have felt that in Isa. lxii. 11<a id="noteref_228" + name="noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> there + was a direct command not to withhold the knowledge of His Messiahship + from the inhabitants of Jerusalem.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if Jesus made + a Messianic entry He must thereafter have given Himself out as + Messiah, and the whole controversy would necessarily have turned upon + this claim. This, however, was not the case. According to Holtzmann, + all that the hearers could make out of that crucial question for the + Messiahship in Mark xii. 35-37 was only <span class="tei tei-q">“that + Jesus clearly showed from the Scriptures that the Messiah was not in + reality the son of David.”</span><a id="noteref_229" name= + "noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how was it + that the Messianic enthusiasm on the part of the people did not lead + to a Messianic controversy, in spite of the fact that Jesus + <span class="tei tei-q">“from the first came forward in Jerusalem as + Messiah”</span>? This difficulty O. Holtzmann seems to be trying to + provide against when he remarks in a footnote: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We have no evidence that Jesus, even during the last + sojourn in Jerusalem, was recognised as Messiah except by those who + belonged to the inner circle of disciples. The repetition by the + children of the acclamations of the disciples (Matt. xxi. 15 and 16) + can hardly be considered of much importance in this + connexion.”</span> According to this, Jesus entered Jerusalem as + Messiah, but except for the disciples and a few children no one + recognised His entry as having a Messianic significance! But Mark + states that many spread their garments upon the way, and others + plucked down branches from the trees and strewed them in the way, and + that those that went before and those that followed after, cried + <span class="tei tei-q">“Hosanna!”</span> The Marcan narrative must + therefore be kept out of sight for the moment in order that the Life + of Jesus as conceived by the modern Marcan hypothesis may not be + endangered.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We should not, + however, regard the evidence of supernatural knowledge and the + self-contradictions of this Life of Jesus as a matter for censure, + but rather as a proof of the merits of O. Holtzmann's work.<a id= + "noteref_230" name="noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> He has + written the last large-scale Life of Jesus, the only one which the + Marcan hypothesis has produced, and aims at providing a scientific + basis for the assumptions which the general lines of that hypothesis + compel him to make; and in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg + 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + this process it becomes clearly apparent that the connexion of events + can only be carried through at the decisive passages by violent + treatment, or even by rejection of the Marcan text in the interests + of the Marcan hypothesis.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These merits do + not belong in the same measure to the other modern Lives of Jesus, + which follow more or less the same lines. They are short sketches, in + some cases based on lectures, and their brevity makes them perhaps + more lively and convincing than Holtzmann's work; but they take for + granted just what he felt it necessary to prove. P. W. + Schmidt's<a id="noteref_231" name="noteref_231" href= + "#note_231"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte + Jesu</span></span> (1899), which as a work of literary art has few + rivals among theological works of recent years, confines itself to + pure narrative. The volume of prolegomena which appeared in 1904, and + is intended to exhibit the foundations of the narrative, treats of + the sources, of the Kingdom of God, of the Son of Man, and of the + Law. It makes the most of the weakening of the eschatological + standpoint which is manifested in the second edition of Johannes + Weiss's <span class="tei tei-q">“Preaching of Jesus,”</span> but it + does not give sufficient prominence to the difficulties of + reconstructing the public ministry of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Neither Otto + Schmiedel's <span class="tei tei-q">“The Principal Problems of the + Study of the Life of Jesus,”</span> nor von Soden's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Vacation Lectures”</span> on <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Principal Questions in the Life of Jesus”</span> + fulfils the promise of its title.<a id="noteref_232" name= + "noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> They + both aim rather at solving new problems proposed by themselves than + at restating the old ones and adding new. They hope to meet the views + of Johannes Weiss by strongly emphasising the eschatology, and think + they can escape the critical scepticism of writers like Volkmar and + Brand by assuming an <span class="tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus.”</span> + Their view is, therefore, that with a few modifications dictated by + the eschatological and sceptical school, the traditional conception + of the Life of Jesus is still tenable, whereas it is just the a + priori presuppositions of this conception, hitherto held to be + self-evident, which constitute the main problems.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is self-evident,”</span> says von Soden in one + passage, <span class="tei tei-q">“in view of the inner connexion in + which the Kingdom of God and the Messiah stood in the thoughts of the + people ... that in all classes the question must have been discussed, + so that Jesus could not permanently have avoided their question, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘What of the Messiah? Art thou not + He?’</span> ”</span> Where, in the Synoptics, is there a word to show + that this is <span class="tei tei-q">“self-evident”</span>? When the + disciples in Mark viii. tell Jesus <span class="tei tei-q">“whom men + held Him to be,”</span> none of them suggests that any one had been + tempted to regard Him as the Messiah. And that was shortly before + Jesus set out for Jerusalem.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the day when + the envoys of the Scribes from Jerusalem first appeared in the north, + the easily influenced Galilaean multitude began, according to von + Soden, <span class="tei tei-q">“to waver.”</span> How does he know + that the Galilaeans were easily influenced? How does he know they + <span class="tei tei-q">“wavered”</span>? The Gospels tell us neither + one nor the other. The demand for a sign was, to quote von Soden + again, a demand for a proof of His Messiahship. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Yet another indication,”</span> adds the author, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that later Christianity, in putting so high + a value on the miracles of Jesus as a proof of His Messiahship, + departed widely from the thoughts of Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before levelling + reproaches of this kind against later Christianity, it would be well + to point to some passage of Mark or Matthew in which there is mention + of a demand for a sign as a proof of His Messiahship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When the + appearance of Jesus in the south—we are still following von + Soden—aroused the Messianic expectations of the people, as they had + formerly been aroused in His native country, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“they once more failed to understand the correction of + them which Jesus had made by the manner of His entry and His conduct + in Jerusalem.”</span> They are unable to understand this <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transvaluation of values,”</span> and as often as the + impression made by His personality suggested the thought that He was + the Messiah, they became doubtful again. Wherein consisted the + correction of the Messianic expectation given at the triumphal entry? + Was it that He rode upon an ass? Would it not be better if modern + historical theology, instead of always making the people <span class= + "tei tei-q">“grow doubtful,”</span> were to grow a little doubtful of + itself, and begin to look for the evidence of that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transvaluation of values”</span> which, according to + them, the contemporaries of Jesus were not able to follow?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Von Soden also + possesses special information about the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“peculiar history of the origin”</span> of the Messianic + consciousness of Jesus. He knows that it was subsidiary to a primary + general religious consciousness of Sonship. The rise of this + Messianic consciousness implies, in its turn, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transformation of the conception of the Kingdom of God, + and explains how in the mind of Jesus this conception was both + present and future.”</span> The greatness <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of Jesus is, he thinks, to be found in the fact + that for Him this Kingdom of God was only a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“limiting conception”</span>—the ultimate goal of a + gradual process of approximation. <span class="tei tei-q">“To the + question whether it was to be realised here or in the beyond Jesus + would have answered, as He answered a similar question, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘That, no man knoweth; no, not the + Son.’</span> ”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As if He had not + answered that question in the petition <span class="tei tei-q">“Thy + Kingdom come”</span>—supposing that such a question could ever have + occurred to a contemporary—in the sense that the Kingdom was to pass + from the beyond into the present!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This modern + historical theology will not allow Jesus to have formed a + <span class="tei tei-q">“theory”</span> to explain His thoughts about + His passion. <span class="tei tei-q">“For Him the certainty was amply + sufficient; <span class="tei tei-q">‘My death will effect what My + life has not been able to accomplish.’</span> ”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is there then no + theory implied in the saying about the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“ransom for many,”</span> and in that about <span class= + "tei tei-q">“My blood which is shed for many for the forgiveness of + sins,”</span> although Jesus does not explain it? How does von Soden + know what was <span class="tei tei-q">“amply sufficient”</span> for + Jesus or what was not?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Otto Schmiedel + goes so far as to deny that Jesus gave distinct expression to an + expectation of suffering; the most He can have done—and this is only + a <span class="tei tei-q">“perhaps”</span>—is to have hinted at it in + His discourses.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In strong contrast + with this confidence in committing themselves to historical + conjectures stands the scepticism with which von Soden and Schmiedel + approach the Gospels. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is at once + evident,”</span> says Schmiedel, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the + great groups of discourses in Matthew, such as the Sermon on the + Mount, the Seven Parables of the Kingdom, and so forth, were not + arranged in this order in the source (the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logia</span></span>), + still less by Jesus Himself. The order is, doubtless, due to the + Evangelist. But what is the answer to the question, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘On what grounds is this <span class="tei tei-q">“at + once”</span> clear?’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_233" name= + "noteref_233" href="#note_233"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Von Soden's + pronouncement is even more radical. <span class="tei tei-q">“In the + composition of the discourses,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“no regard is paid in Matthew, any more than in John, to + the supposed audience, or to the point of time in the life of Jesus + to which they are attributed.”</span> As early as the Sermon on the + Mount we find references to persecutions, and warnings against false + prophets. Similarly, in the charge to the Twelve, there are also + warnings, which undoubtedly <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg + 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + belong to a later time. Intimate sayings, evidently intended for the + inner circle of disciples, have the widest publicity given to + them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But why should + whatever is incomprehensible to us be unhistorical? Would it not be + better simply to admit that we do not understand certain connexions + of ideas and turns of expression in the discourses of Jesus?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But instead even + of making an analytical examination of the apparent connexions, and + stating them as problems, the discourses of Jesus and the sections of + the Gospels are tricked out with ingenious headings which have + nothing to do with them. Thus, for instance, von Soden heads the + Beatitudes (Matt. v. 3-12), <span class="tei tei-q">“What Jesus + brings to men,”</span> the following verses (Matt. v. 13-16), + <span class="tei tei-q">“What He makes of men.”</span> P. W. Schmidt, + in his <span class="tei tei-q">“History of Jesus,”</span> shows + himself a past master in this art. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + rights of the wife”</span> is the title of the dialogue about + divorce, as if the question at stake had been for Jesus the equality + of the sexes, and not simply and solely the sanctity of marriage. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sunshine for the children”</span> is his + heading for the scene where Jesus takes the children in His arms—as + if the purpose of Jesus had been to protest against severity in the + upbringing of children. Again, he brings together the stories of the + man who must first bury his father, of the rich young man, of the + dispute about precedence, of Zacchaeus, and others which have equally + little connexion under the heading <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Discipline for Jesus' followers.”</span> These often + brilliant creations of artificial connexions of thought give a + curious attractiveness to the works of Schmidt and von Soden. The + latter's survey of the Gospels is a really delightful performance. + But this kind of thing is not consistent with pure objective + history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Disposing in this + lofty fashion of the connexion of events, Schmiedel and von Soden do + not find it difficult to distinguish between Mark and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus”</span>; that is, to retain just so much of + the Gospel as will fit in to their construction. Schmiedel feels sure + that Mark was a skilful writer, and that the redactor was + <span class="tei tei-q">“a Christian of Pauline sympathies.”</span> + According to <span class="tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus,”</span> to which + Mark iv. 33 belongs, the Lord speaks in parables in order that the + people may understand Him the better; <span class="tei tei-q">“it was + only by the redactor that the Pauline theory about hardening their + hearts (Rom. ix.-xi.) was interpolated, in Mark iv. 10 ff., and the + meaning of Mark iv. 33 was thus obscured.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is high time + that instead of merely asserting Pauline influences in Mark some + proof of the assertion should be given. What kind of appearance would + Mark have presented if it had really passed through the hands of a + Pauline Christian?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Von Soden's + analysis is no less confident. The three outstanding miracles, the + stilling of the storm, the casting out of the legion of devils, the + overcoming of death (Mark iv. 35-v. 43), the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> romantically told story of the death of the + Baptist (Mark vi. 17-29), the story of the feeding of the multitudes + in the desert, of Jesus' walking on the water, and of the + transfiguration upon an high mountain, and the healing of the lunatic + boy—all these are dashed in with a broad brush, and offer many + analogies to Old Testament stories, and some suggestions of Pauline + conceptions, and reflections of experiences of individual believers + and of the Christian community. <span class="tei tei-q">“All these + passages were, doubtless, first written down by the compiler of our + Gospel.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how can + Schmiedel and von Soden fail to see that they are heading straight + for Bruno Bauer's position? They assert that there is no distinction + of principle between the way in which the Johannine and the Synoptic + discourses are composed: the recognition of this was Bruno Bauer's + starting-point. They propose to find experiences of the Christian + community and Pauline teaching reflected in the Gospel of Mark; Bruno + Bauer asserted the same. The only difference is that he was + consistent, and extended his criticism to those portions of the + Gospel which do not present the stumbling-block of the supernatural. + Why should these not also contain the theology and the experiences of + the community transformed into history? Is it only because they + remain within the limits of the natural?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The real + difficulty consists in the fact that all the passages which von Soden + ascribes to the redactor stand, in spite of their mythical colouring, + in a closely-knit historical connexion; in fact, the historical + connexion is nowhere so close. How can any one cut out the feeding of + the multitudes and the transfiguration as narratives of secondary + origin without destroying the whole of the historical fabric of the + Gospel of Mark? Or was it the redactor who created the plan of the + Gospel of Mark, as von Soden seems to imply?<a id="noteref_234" name= + "noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in that case + how can a modern Life of Jesus be founded on the Marcan plan? How + much of Mark is, in the end, historical? Why should not Peter's + confession at Caesarea Philippi have been derived from the theology + of the primitive Church, just as well as the transfiguration? The + only difference is that the incident at Caesarea Philippi is more + within the limits of the possible, whereas the scene upon the + mountain has a supernatural colouring. But is the incident at + Philippi so entirely natural? Whence does Peter know that Jesus is + the Messiah?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This + semi-scepticism is therefore quite unjustifiable, since in Mark + natural and supernatural both stand in an equally good and close + historical connexion. Either, then, one must be completely sceptical + like Bruno Bauer, and challenge without exception all the facts and + connexions of events asserted by Mark; or, if one means to found an + historical Life of Jesus upon Mark, one must take the Gospel as a + whole because of the plan which runs right through it, accepting it + as historical and then endeavouring to explain why certain + narratives, like the feeding of the multitude and the + transfiguration, are bathed in a supernatural light, and what is the + historical basis which underlies them. A division between the natural + and supernatural in Mark is purely arbitrary, because the + supernatural is an essential part of the history. The mere fact that + he has not adopted the mythical material of the childhood stories and + the post-resurrection scenes ought to have been accepted as evidence + that the supernatural material which he does embody belongs to a + category of its own and cannot be simply rejected as due to the + invention of the primitive Christian community. It must belong in + some way to the original tradition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oskar Holtzmann + realises that to a certain extent. According to him Mark is a writer + <span class="tei tei-q">“who embodied the materials which he received + from the tradition more faithfully than discriminatingly.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“That which was related as a symbol of inner + events, he takes as history—in the case, for example, of the + temptation, the walking on the sea, the transfiguration of + Jesus.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Again in other cases he has + made a remarkable occurrence into a supernatural miracle, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" + id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as in the case of the feeding + of the multitude, where Jesus' courageous love and ready organising + skill overcame a momentary difficulty, whereas the Evangelist + represents it as an amazing miracle of Divine + omnipotence.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Oskar Holtzmann is + thus more cautious than von Soden. He is inclined to see in the + material which he wishes to exclude from the history, not so much + inventions of the Church as mistaken shaping of history by Mark, and + in this way he gets back to genuine old-fashioned rationalism. In the + feeding of the multitude Jesus showed <span class="tei tei-q">“the + confidence of a courageous housewife who knows how to provide + skilfully for a great crowd of children from small resources.”</span> + Perhaps in a future work Oskar Holtzmann will be less reserved, not + for the sake of theology, but of national well-being, and will inform + his contemporaries what kind of domestic economy it was which made it + possible for the Lord to satisfy with five loaves and two fishes + several thousand hungry men.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Modern historical + theology, therefore, with its three-quarters scepticism, is left at + last with only a torn and tattered Gospel of Mark in its hands. One + would naturally suppose that these preliminary operations upon the + source would lead to the production of a Life of Jesus of a similarly + fragmentary character. Nothing of the kind. The outline is still the + same as in Schenkel's day, and the confidence with which the + construction is carried out is not less complete. Only the + catch-words with which the narrative is enlivened have been changed, + being now taken in part from Nietzsche. The liberal Jesus has given + place to the Germanic Jesus. This is a figure which has as little to + do with the Marcan hypothesis as the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“liberal”</span> Jesus had which preceded it; otherwise + it could not so easily have survived the downfall of the Gospel of + Mark as an historical source. It is evident, therefore, that this + professedly historical Jesus is not a purely historical figure, but + one which has been artificially transplanted into history. As + formerly in Renan the romantic spirit created the personality of + Jesus in its own image, so at the present day the Germanic spirit is + making a Jesus after its own likeness. What is admitted as historic + is just what the Spirit of the time can take out of the records in + order to assimilate it to itself and bring out of it a living + form.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Frenssen betrays + the secret of his teachers when in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hilligenlei</span></span> he confidently + superscribes the narrative drawn from the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“latest critical investigations”</span> with the title + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Life of the Saviour portrayed according + to German research as the basis for a spiritual re-birth of the + German nation.”</span><a id="noteref_235" name="noteref_235" href= + "#note_235"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a matter of + fact the Life of Jesus of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Manuscript”</span><a id="noteref_236" name="noteref_236" + href="#note_236"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> is + unsatisfactory both scientifically and artistically, just because it + aims at being at once scientific and artistic. If only Frenssen, with + his strongly life-accepting instinct, which gives to his thinking, at + least in his earliest writings where he reveals himself without + artificiality, such a wonderful simplicity and force, had dared to + read his Jesus boldly from the original records, without following + modern historical theology in all its meanderings! He would have been + able to force his way through the underwood well enough if only he + had been content to break the branches that got in his way, instead + of always waiting until some one went in front to disentwine them for + him. The dependence to which he surrenders himself is really + distressing. In reading almost every paragraph one can tell whether + Kai Jans was looking, as he wrote it, into Oskar Holtzmann or P. W. + Schmidt or von Soden. Frenssen resigns the dramatic scene of the + healing of the blind man at Jericho. Why? Because at this point he + was listening to Holtzmann, who proposes to regard the healing of the + blind man as only a symbolical representation of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“conversion of Zacchaeus.”</span> Frenssen's masters have + robbed him of all creative spontaneity. He does not permit himself to + discover <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motifs</span></span> for himself, but confines + himself to working over and treating in cruder colours those which he + finds in his teachers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And since he + cannot veil his assumptions in the cautious, carefully modulated + language of the theologians, the faults of the modern treatment of + the life of Jesus appear in him exaggerated an hundredfold. The + violent dislocation of narratives from their connexion, and the + forcing upon them of a modern interpretation, becomes a mania with + the writer and a torture to the reader. The range of knowledge not + drawn from the text is infinitely increased. Kai Jans sees Jesus + after the temptation cowering beneath the brow of the hill + <span class="tei tei-q">“a poor lonely man, torn by fearful doubts, a + man in the deepest distress.”</span> He knows too that there was + often great danger that Jesus would <span class="tei tei-q">“betray + the 'Father in heaven' and go back to His village to take up His + handicraft again, but now as a man with a torn and distracted soul + and a conscience tortured by the gnawings of remorse.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The pupil is not + content, as his teachers had been, merely to make the people + sometimes believe in Jesus and sometimes doubt <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Him; he makes the enthusiastic earthly + Messianic belief of the people <span class="tei tei-q">“tug and + tear”</span> at Jesus Himself. Sometimes one is tempted to ask + whether the author in his zeal <span class="tei tei-q">“to use + conscientiously the results of the whole range of scientific + criticism”</span> has not forgotten the main thing, the study of the + Gospels themselves.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And is all this + science supposed to be new?<a id="noteref_237" name="noteref_237" + href="#note_237"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> Is this + picture of Jesus really the outcome of the latest criticism? Has it + not been in existence since the beginning of the 'forties, since + Weisse's criticism of the Gospel history? Is it not in principle the + same as Renan's, only that Germanic lapses of taste here take the + place of Gallic, and <span class="tei tei-q">“German art for German + people,”</span><a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href= + "#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> here + quite out of place, has done its best to remove from the picture + every trace of fidelity?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Kai Jans' + <span class="tei tei-q">“Manuscript”</span> represents the limit of + the process of diminishing the personality of Jesus. Weisse left Him + still some greatness, something unexplained, and did not venture to + apply to everything the petty standards of inquisitive modern + psychology. In the 'sixties psychology became more confident and + Jesus smaller; at the close of the century the confidence of + psychology is at its greatest and the figure of Jesus at its + smallest—so small, that Frenssen ventures to let His life be + projected and written by one who is in the midst of a love + affair!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This human life of + Jesus is to be <span class="tei tei-q">“heart-stirring”</span> from + beginning to end, and <span class="tei tei-q">“in no respect to go + beyond human standards”</span>! And this Jesus who <span class= + "tei tei-q">“racks His brains and shapes His plans”</span> is to + contribute to bring about a re-birth of the German people. How could + He? He is Himself only a phantom created by the Germanic mind in + pursuit of a religious will-o'-the-wisp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is possible, + however, to do injustice to Frenssen's presentation, and to the whole + of the confident, unconsciously modernising criticism of which he + here acts as the mouthpiece. These writers have the great merit of + having brought certain cultured circles nearer to Jesus and made them + more sympathetic towards Him. Their fault lies in their confidence, + which has blinded them to what Jesus is and is not, what He can and + cannot do, so that in the end they fail to understand <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the signs of the times”</span> either as historians or + as men of the present.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg + 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the Jesus who + owes His birth to the Marcan hypothesis and modern psychology were + capable of regenerating the world He would have done it long ago, for + He is nearly sixty years old and his latest portraits are much less + life-like than those drawn by Weisse, Schenkel, and Renan, or by + Keim, the most brilliant painter of them all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the last ten + years modern historical theology has more and more adapted itself to + the needs of the man in the street. More and more, even in the best + class of works, it makes use of attractive head-lines as a means of + presenting its results in a lively form to the masses. Intoxicated + with its own ingenuity in inventing these, it becomes more and more + confident in its cause, and has come to believe that the world's + salvation depends in no small measure upon the spreading of its own + <span class="tei tei-q">“assured results”</span> broad-cast among the + people. It is time that it should begin to doubt itself, to doubt its + <span class="tei tei-q">“historical”</span> Jesus, to doubt the + confidence with which it has looked to its own construction for the + moral and religious regeneration of our time. Its Jesus is not alive, + however Germanic they may make Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was no accident + that the chief priest of <span class="tei tei-q">“German art for + German people”</span> found himself at one with the modern + theologians and offered them his alliance. Since the 'sixties the + critical study of the Life of Jesus in Germany has been unconsciously + under the influence of an imposing modern-religious nationalism in + art. It has been deflected by it as by an underground magnetic + current. It was in vain that a few purely historical investigators + uplifted their voices in protest. The process had to work itself out. + For historical criticism had become, in the hands of most of those + who practised it, a secret struggle to reconcile the Germanic + religious spirit with the Spirit of Jesus of Nazareth.<a id= + "noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href="#note_239"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> It was + concerned for the religious interests of the present. Therefore its + error had a kind of greatness, it was in fact the greatest thing + about it; and the severity with which the pure historian treats it is + in proportion to his respect for its spirit. For this German critical + study of the Life of Jesus is an essential part of German religion. + As of old Jacob wrestled with the angel, so German theology wrestles + with Jesus of Nazareth and will not let Him go until He bless it—that + is, until He will consent to serve it and will suffer Himself to be + drawn by the Germanic spirit into the midst of our time and our + civilisation. But when the day breaks, the wrestler must let Him go. + He will not cross the ford with us. Jesus of Nazareth will not suffer + Himself to be modernised. As an historic figure He refuses to be + detached from His own time. He has no answer <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> for the question, <span class="tei tei-q">“Tell + us Thy name in our speech and for our day!”</span> But He does bless + those who have wrestled with Him, so that, though they cannot take + Him with them, yet, like men who have seen God face to face and + received strength in their souls, they go on their way with renewed + courage, ready to do battle with the world and its powers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the historic + Jesus and the Germanic spirit cannot be brought together except by an + act of historic violence which in the end injures both religion and + history. A time will come when our theology, with its pride in its + historical character, will get rid of its rationalistic bias. This + bias leads it to project back into history what belongs to our own + time, the eager struggle of the modern religious spirit with the + Spirit of Jesus, and seek in history justification and authority for + its beginning. The consequence is that it creates the historical + Jesus in its own image, so that it is not the modern spirit + influenced by the Spirit of Jesus, but the Jesus of Nazareth + constructed by modern historical theology, that is set to work upon + our race.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore both the + theology and its picture of Jesus are poor and weak. Its Jesus, + because He has been measured by the petty standard of the modern man, + at variance with himself, not to say of the modern candidate in + theology who has made shipwreck; the theologians themselves, because + instead of seeking, for themselves and others, how they may best + bring the Spirit of Jesus in living power into our world, they keep + continually forging new portraits of the historical Jesus, and think + they have accomplished something great when they have drawn an Oh! of + astonishment from the multitude, such as the crowds of a great city + emit on catching sight of a new advertisement in coloured lights.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Anyone who, + admiring the force and authority of genuine rationalism, has got rid + of the naïve self-satisfaction of modern theology, which is in + essence only the degenerate offspring of rationalism with a tincture + of history, rejoices in the feebleness and smallness of its + professedly historical Jesus, rejoices in all those who are beginning + to doubt the truth of this portrait, rejoices in the over-severity + with which it is attacked, rejoices to take a share in its + destruction.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those who have + begun to doubt are many, but most of them only make known their + doubts by their silence. There is one, however, who has spoken out, + and one of the greatest—Otto Pfleiderer.<a id="noteref_240" name= + "noteref_240" href="#note_240"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + edition of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Urchristentum</span></span>, published in 1887, + he still shared the current conceptions and constructions, except + that he held the credibility of Mark to be more affected than was + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" + id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> usually supposed by + hypothetical Pauline influences. In the second edition<a id= + "noteref_241" name="noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> his + positive knowledge has been ground down in the struggle with the + sceptics—it is Brandt who has especially affected him—and with the + partisans of eschatology. This is the first advance-guard action of + modern theology coming into touch with the troops of Reimarus and + Bruno Bauer.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pfleiderer accepts + the purely eschatological conception of the Kingdom of God and holds + also that the ethics of Jesus were wholly conditioned by eschatology. + But in regard to the question of the Messiahship of Jesus he takes + his stand with the sceptics. He rejects the hypothesis of a Messiah + who, as being a <span class="tei tei-q">“spiritual Messiah,”</span> + conceals His claim, but on the other hand, he cannot accept the + eschatological Son-of-Man Messiahship having reference to the future, + which the eschatological school finds in the utterances of Jesus, + since it implies prophecies of His suffering, death, and resurrection + which criticism cannot admit. <span class="tei tei-q">“Instead of + finding the explanation of how the Messianic title arose in the + reflections of Jesus about the death which lay before Him,”</span> he + is inclined to find it <span class="tei tei-q">“rather in the + reflection of the Christian community upon the catastrophic death and + exaltation of its Lord after this had actually taken + place.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even the Marcan + narrative is not history. The scepticism in regard to the main + source, with which writers like Oskar Holtzmann, Schmiedel, and von + Soden conduct a kind of intellectual flirtation, is here erected into + a principle. <span class="tei tei-q">“It must be recognised,”</span> + says Pfleiderer, <span class="tei tei-q">“that in respect of the + recasting of the history under theological influences, the whole of + our Gospels stand in principle on the same footing. The distinction + between Mark, the other two Synoptists, and John is only relative—a + distinction of degree corresponding to different stages of + theological reflection and the development of the ecclesiastical + consciousness.”</span> If only Bruno Bauer could have lived to see + this triumph of his opinions!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pfleiderer, + however, is conscious that scepticism, too, has its difficulties. He + wishes, indeed, to reject the confession of Jesus before the + Sanhedrin <span class="tei tei-q">“because its historicity is not + well established (none of the disciples were present to hear it, and + the apocalyptic prophecy which is added, Mark xiv. 62, is certainly + derived from the ideas of the primitive Church)”</span>; on the other + hand, he is inclined to admit as possibilities—though marking them + with a note of interrogation—that Jesus may have accepted the homage + of the Passover pilgrims, and that the controversy with the Scribes + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" + id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> about the Son of David had + some kind of reference to Jesus Himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other hand, + he takes it for granted that Jesus did not prophesy His death, on the + ground that the arrest, trial, and betrayal must have lain outside + all possibility of calculation even for Him. All these, he thinks, + came upon Jesus quite unexpectedly. The only thing that He might have + apprehended was <span class="tei tei-q">“an attack by hired + assassins,”</span> and it is to this that He refers in the saying + about the two swords in Luke xxii. 36 and 38, seeing that two swords + would have sufficed as a protection against such an attack as that, + though hardly for anything further. When, however, he remarks in this + connexion that <span class="tei tei-q">“this has been constantly + overlooked”</span> in the romances dealing with the Life of Jesus, he + does injustice to Bahrdt and Venturini, since according to them the + chief concern of the secret society in the later period of the life + of Jesus was to protect Jesus from the assassination with which He + was menaced, and to secure His formal arrest and trial by the + Sanhedrin. Their view of the historical situation is therefore + identical with Pfleiderer's, viz. that assassination was possible, + but that administrative action was unexpected and is + inexplicable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how is this + Jesus to be connected with primitive Christianity? How did the + primitive Church's belief in the Messiahship of Jesus arise? To that + question Pfleiderer can give no other answer than that of Volkmar and + Brandt, that is to say, none. He laboriously brings together wood, + straw, and stubble, but where he gets the fire from to kindle the + whole into the ardent faith of primitive Christianity he is unable to + make clear.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Albert Kalthoff,<a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href= + "#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a> the + fire lighted itself—Christianity arose—by spontaneous combustion, + when the inflammable material, religious and social, which had + collected together in the Roman Empire, came in contact with the + Jewish Messianic expectations. Jesus of Nazareth never existed; and + even supposing He had been one of the numerous Jewish Messiahs who + were put to death by crucifixion, He certainly did not found + Christianity. The story of Jesus which lies before us in the Gospels + is in reality only the story of the way in which the picture of + Christ arose, that is to say, the story of the growth of the + Christian community. There is therefore no problem of the Life of + Jesus, but only a problem of the Christ.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Kalthoff has not + indeed always been so negative. When in the year 1880 he gave a + series of lectures on the Life of Jesus he felt himself justified + <span class="tei tei-q">“in taking as his basis without further + argument the generally accepted results of modern theology.”</span> + Afterwards he became so completely doubtful about the Christ after + the flesh whom he had at that time depicted before his hearers that + he wished to exclude Him even from the register of theological + literature, and omitted to enter these lectures in the list of his + writings, although they had appeared in print.<a id="noteref_243" + name="noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His quarrel with + the historical Jesus of modern theology was that he could find no + connecting link between the Life of Jesus constructed by the latter + and primitive Christianity. Modern theology, he remarks in one + passage, with great justice, finds itself obliged to assume, at the + point where the history of the Church begins, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“an immediate declension from, and falsification of, a + pure original principle,”</span> and that in so doing <span class= + "tei tei-q">“it is deserting the recognised methods of historical + science.”</span> If then we cannot trace the path from its beginning + onwards, we had better try to work backwards, endeavouring first to + define in the theology of the primitive Church the values which we + shall look to find again in the Life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In that he is + right. Modern historical theology will not have refuted him until it + has explained how Christianity arose out of the life of Jesus without + calling in that theory of an initial <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Fall”</span> of which Harnack, Wernle, and all the rest + make use. Until this modern theology has made it in some measure + intelligible how, under the influence of the Jewish Messiah-sect, in + the twinkling of an eye, in every direction at once, Graeco-Roman + popular Christianity arose; until at least it has described the + popular Christianity of the first three generations, it must concede + to all hypotheses which fairly face this problem and endeavour to + solve it their formal right of existence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The criticism + which Kalthoff directs against the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“positive”</span> accounts of the Life of Jesus is, in + part, very much to the point. <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus,”</span> + he says in one place, <span class="tei tei-q">“has been made the + receptacle into which every theologian pours his own ideas.”</span> + He rightly remarks that if we follow <span class="tei tei-q">“the + Christ”</span> backwards from the Epistles and Gospels of the New + Testament right to the apocalyptic vision of Daniel, we always find + in Him superhuman traits alongside of the human. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Never and nowhere,”</span> he insists, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“is He that which critical theology has endeavoured to + make out of Him, a purely natural man, an indivisible historical + unit.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The title of 'Christ' had been + raised by the Messianic apocalyptic writings so completely into the + sphere of the heroic that it had become impossible to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> apply it to a mere historical + man.”</span> Bruno Bauer had urged the same considerations upon the + theology of his time, declaring it to be unthinkable that a man could + have arisen among the Jews and declared <span class="tei tei-q">“I am + the Messiah.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the + unfortunate thing is that Kalthoff has not worked through Bruno + Bauer's criticism, and does not appear to assume it as a basis, but + remains standing half-way instead of thinking the questions through + to the end as that keen critic did. According to Kalthoff it would + appear that, year in year out, there was a constant succession of + Messianic disturbances among the Jews and of crucified claimants of + the Messiahship. <span class="tei tei-q">“There had been many a + 'Christ,'”</span> he says in one place, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“before there was any question of a Jesus in connexion + with this title.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How does Kalthoff + know that? If he had fairly considered and felt the force of Bruno + Bauer's arguments, he would never have ventured on this assertion; he + would have learned that it is not only historically unproved, but + intrinsically impossible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Kalthoff was + in far too great a hurry to present to his readers a description of + the growth of Christianity, and therewith of the picture of the + Christ, to absorb thoroughly the criticism of his great predecessor. + He soon leads his reader away from the high road of criticism into a + morass of speculation, in order to arrive by a short cut at + Graeco-Roman primitive Christianity. But the trouble is that while + the guide walks lightly and safely, the ordinary man, weighed down by + the pressure of historical considerations, sinks to rise no more.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The conjectural + argument which Kalthoff follows out is in itself acute, and forms a + suitable pendant to Bauer's reconstruction of the course of events. + Bauer proposed to derive Christianity from the Graeco-Roman + philosophy; Kalthoff, recognising that the origin of popular + Christianity constitutes the main question, takes as his + starting-point the social movements of the time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Roman + Empire, so runs his argument, among the oppressed masses of the + slaves and the populace, eruptive forces were concentrated under high + tension. A communistic movement arose, to which the influence of the + Jewish element in the proletariat gave a Messianic-Apocalyptic + colouring. The Jewish synagogue influenced Roman social conditions so + that <span class="tei tei-q">“the crude social ferment at work in the + Roman Empire amalgamated itself with the religious and philosophical + forces of the time to form the new Christian social movement.”</span> + Early Christian writers had learned in the synagogue to construct + <span class="tei tei-q">“personifications.”</span> The whole + Late-Jewish literature rests upon this principle. Thus <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Christ”</span> became the ideal hero of the + Christian community, <span class="tei tei-q">“from the + socio-religious standpoint the figure of Christ is the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sublimated religious expression for the + sum of the social and ethical forces which were at work at a certain + period.”</span> The Lord's Supper was the memorial feast of this + ideal hero.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“As the Christ to whose Parousia the community looks + forward this Hero-god of the community bears within Himself the + capacity for expansion into the God of the universe, into the Christ + of the Church, who is identical in essential nature with God the + Father. Thus the belief in the Christ brought the Messianic hope of + the future into the minds of the masses, who had already a certain + organisation, and by directing their thoughts towards the future it + won all those who were sick of the past and despairing about the + present.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The death and + resurrection of Jesus represent experiences of the community. + <span class="tei tei-q">“For a Jew crucified under Pontius Pilate + there was certainly no resurrection. All that is possible is a vague + hypothesis of a vision lacking all historical reality, or an escape + into the vaguenesses of theological phraseology. But for the + Christian community the resurrection was something real, a matter of + fact. For the community as such was not annihilated in that + persecution: it drew from it, rather, new strength and + life.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what about the + foundations of this imposing structure?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For what he has to + tell us about the condition of the Roman Empire and the social + organisation of the proletariat in the time of Trajan—for it was then + that the Church first came out into the light—we may leave the + responsibility with Kalthoff. But we must inquire more closely how he + brings the Jewish apocalyptic into contact with the Roman + proletariat.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Communism, he + says, was common to both. It was the bond which united the + apocalyptic <span class="tei tei-q">“other-worldliness”</span> with + reality. The only difficulty is that Kalthoff omits to produce any + proof out of the Jewish apocalypses that communism was <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the fundamental economic idea of the apocalyptic + writers.”</span> He operates from the first with a special + preparation of apocalyptic thought, of a socialistic or Hellenistic + character. Messianism is supposed to have taken its rise from the + Deuteronomic reform as <span class="tei tei-q">“a social theory which + strives to realise itself in practice.”</span> The apocalyptic of + Daniel arose, according to him, under Platonic influence. + <span class="tei tei-q">“The figure of the Messiah thus became a + human figure; it lost its specifically Jewish traits.”</span> He is + the heavenly proto-typal ideal man. Along with this thought, and + similarly derived from Plato, the conception of immortality makes its + appearance in apocalyptic.<a id="noteref_244" name="noteref_244" + href="#note_244"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> This + Platonic apocalyptic never had any existence, or at least, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" + id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to speak with the utmost + possible caution, its existence must not be asserted in the absence + of all proof.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, supposing it + were admitted that Jewish apocalyptic had some affinity for the + Hellenic world, that it was Platonic and communistic, how are we to + explain the fact that the Gospels, which describe the genesis of + Christ and Christianity, imply a Galilaean and not a Roman + environment?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a matter of + fact, Kalthoff says, they do imply a Roman environment. The scene of + the Gospel history is laid in Palestine, but it is drawn in Rome. The + agrarian conditions implied in the narratives and parables are Roman. + A vineyard with a wine-press of its own could only be found, + according to Kalthoff, on the large Roman estates. So, too, the legal + conditions. The right of the creditor to sell the debtor, with his + wife and children, is a feature of Roman, not of Jewish law.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Peter everywhere + symbolises the Church at Rome. The confession of Peter had to be + transferred to Caesarea Philippi because this town, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“as the seat of the Roman administration,”</span> + symbolised for Palestine the political presence of Rome.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The woman with the + issue was perhaps Poppaea Sabina, the wife of Nero, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“who in view of her strong leaning towards Judaism might + well be described in the symbolical style of the apocalyptic writings + as the woman who touched the hem of Jesus' garment.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The story of the + unfaithful steward alludes to Pope Callixtus, who, when the slave of + a Christian in high position, was condemned to the mines for the + crime of embezzlement; that of the woman who was a sinner refers to + Marcia, the powerful mistress of Commodus, at whose intercession + Callixtus was released, to be advanced soon afterwards to the + bishopric of Rome. <span class="tei tei-q">“These two narratives, + therefore,”</span> Kalthoff suggests, <span class="tei tei-q">“which + very clearly allude to events well known at that time, and doubtless + much discussed in the Christian community, were admitted into the + Gospel to express the views of the Church regarding the life-story of + a Roman bishop which had run its course under the eyes of the + community, and thereby to give to the events themselves the Church's + sanction and interpretation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Kalthoff does not, + unfortunately, mention whether this is a case of simple, ingenuous, + or of conscious, didactic, Early Christian imagination.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That kind of + criticism is a casting out of Satan by the aid of Beelzebub. If he + was going to invent on this scale, Kalthoff need not have found any + difficulty in accepting the figure of Jesus evolved by modern + theology. One feels annoyed with him because, while his thesis is + ingenious, and, as against <span class="tei tei-q">“modern + theology”</span> has a considerable measure of justification, he has + worked it out in so uninteresting a fashion. He has no one but + himself to blame <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg + 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for + the fact that instead of leading to the right explanation, it only + introduced a wearisome and unproductive controversy.<a id= + "noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the end there + remains scarcely a shade of distinction between Kalthoff and his + opponents. They want to bring their <span class= + "tei tei-q">“historical Jesus”</span> into the midst of our time. He + wants to do the same with his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christ.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“A secularised + Christ,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“as the type of the + self-determined man who amid strife and suffering carries through + victoriously, and fully realises, His own personality in order to + give the infinite fullness of love which He bears within Himself as a + blessing to mankind—a Christ such as that can awaken to new life the + antique Christ-type of the Church. He is no longer the Christ of the + scholar, of the abstract theological thinker with his scholastic + rules and methods. He is the people's Christ, the Christ of the + ordinary man, the figure in which all those powers of the human soul + which are most natural and simple—and therefore most exalted and + divine—find an expression at once sensible and spiritual.”</span> But + that is precisely the description of the Jesus of modern historical + theology; why, then, make this long roundabout through scepticism? + The Christ of Kalthoff is nothing else than the Jesus of those whom + he combats in such a lofty fashion; the only difference is that he + draws his figure of Christ in red ink on blotting-paper, and because + it is red in colour and smudgy in outline, wants to make out that it + is something new.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is on ethical + grounds that Eduard von Hartmann<a id="noteref_246" name= + "noteref_246" href="#note_246"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> refuses + to accept the Jesus of modern theology. He finds fault with it + because in its anxiety to retain a personality which would be of + value to religion it does not sufficiently distinguish between the + authentic and the <span class="tei tei-q">“historical”</span> Jesus. + When criticism has removed the paintings-over and retouchings to + which this authentic portrait of Jesus has been subjected, it + reaches, according to him, an unrecognisable painting below, in which + it is impossible to discover any clear likeness, least of all one of + any religious use and value.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Were it not for + the tenacity and the simple fidelity of the epic tradition, nothing + whatever would have remained of the historic Jesus. What has remained + is merely of historical and psychological interest.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At His first + appearance the historic Jesus was, according to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Eduard von Hartmann, almost <span class= + "tei tei-q">“an impersonal being,”</span> since He regarded Himself + so exclusively as the vehicle of His message that His personality + hardly came into the question. As time went on, however, He developed + a taste for glory and for wonderful deeds, and fell at last into a + condition of <span class="tei tei-q">“abnormal exaltation of + personality.”</span> In the end He declares Himself to His disciples + and before the council as Messiah. <span class="tei tei-q">“When He + felt His death drawing nigh He struck the balance of His life, found + His mission a failure, His person and His cause abandoned by God, and + died with the unanswered question on His lips, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘My God, why hast thou forsaken me?’</span> ”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is significant + that Eduard von Hartmann has not fallen into the mistake of + Schopenhauer and many other philosophers, of identifying the + pessimism of Jesus with the Indian speculative pessimism of Buddha. + The pessimism of Jesus, he says, is not metaphysical, it is + <span class="tei tei-q">“a pessimism of indignation,”</span> born of + the intolerable social and political conditions of the time. Von + Hartmann also clearly recognises the significance of eschatology, but + he does not define its character quite correctly, since he bases his + impressions solely on the Talmud, hardly making any use of the Old + Testament, of Enoch, the Psalms of Solomon, Baruch, or Fourth Ezra. + He has an irritating way of still using the name <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jehovah.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Like Reimarus—von + Hartmann's positions are simply modernised Reimarus—he is anxious to + show that Christian theology has lost the right <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to treat the ideal Kingdom of God as belonging to + itself.”</span> Jesus and His teaching, so far as they have been + preserved, belong to Judaism. His ethic is for us strange and full of + stumbling-blocks. He despises work, property, and the duties of + family life. His gospel is fundamentally plebeian, and completely + excludes the idea of any aristocracy except in so far as it consents + to plebeianise itself, and this is true not only as regards the + aristocracy of rank, property, and fortune, but also the aristocracy + of intellect. Von Hartmann cannot resist the temptation to accuse + Jesus of <span class="tei tei-q">“Semitic harshness,”</span> finding + the evidence of this chiefly in Mark iv. 12, where Jesus declares + that the purpose of His parables was to obscure His teaching and + cause the hearts of the people to be hardened.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His judgment upon + Jesus is: <span class="tei tei-q">“He had no genius, but a certain + talent which, in the complete absence of any sound education, + produced in general only moderate results, and was not sufficient to + preserve Him from numerous weaknesses and serious errors; at heart a + fanatic and a transcendental enthusiast, who in spite of an inborn + kindliness of disposition hates and despises the world and everything + it contains, and holds any interest in it to be injurious to the sole + true, transcendental interest; an amiable and modest youth who, + through a remarkable concatenation of circumstances <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> arrived at the idea, which was at that + time epidemic,<a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" href= + "#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a> that He + was Himself the expected Messiah, and in consequence of this met His + fate.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is to be + regretted that a mind like Eduard von Hartmann's should not have got + beyond the externals of the history, and made an effort to grasp the + simple and impressive greatness of the figure of Jesus in its + eschatological setting; and that he should imagine he has disposed of + the strangeness which he finds in Jesus when he has made it as small + as possible. And yet in another respect there is something + satisfactory about his book. It is the open struggle of the Germanic + spirit with Jesus. In this battle the victory will rest with true + greatness. Others wanted to make peace before the struggle, or + thought that theologians could fight the battle alone, and spare + their contemporaries the doubts about the historical Jesus through + which it was necessary to pass in order to reach the eternal + Jesus—and to this end they kept preaching reconciliation while + fighting the battle. They could only preach it on a basis of + postulates, and postulates make poor preaching! Thus, Jülicher, for + example, in his latest sketches of the Life of Jesus<a id= + "noteref_248" name="noteref_248" href="#note_248"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> + distinguishes between <span class="tei tei-q">“Jewish and + supra-Jewish”</span> in Jesus, and holds that Jesus transferred the + ideal of the Kingdom of God <span class="tei tei-q">“to the solid + ground of the present, bringing it into the course of historical + events,”</span> and further <span class="tei tei-q">“associated with + the Kingdom of God”</span> the idea of development which was utterly + opposed to all Jewish ideas about the Kingdom. Jülicher also desires + to raise <span class="tei tei-q">“the strongest protest against the + poor little definition of His preaching which makes it consist in + nothing further than an announcement of the nearness of the Kingdom, + and an exhortation to the repentance necessary as a condition for + attaining the Kingdom.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But when has a + protest against the pure truth of history ever been of any avail? Why + proclaim peace where there is no peace, and attempt to put back the + clock of time? Is it not enough that Schleiermacher and Ritschl + succeeded again and again in making theology send on earth peace + instead of a sword, and does not the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> weakness of Christian thought as compared with + the general culture of our time result from the fact that it did not + face the battle when it ought to have faced it, but persisted in + appealing to a court of arbitration on which all the sciences were + represented, but which it had successfully bribed in advance?</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now there comes to + join the philosophers a jurist. Herr Doctor jur. De Jonge lends his + aid to Eduard von Hartmann in <span class="tei tei-q">“destroying the + ecclesiastical,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“unveiling the + Jewish picture of Jesus.”</span><a id="noteref_249" name= + "noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">De Jonge is a Jew + by birth, baptized in 1889, who on the 22nd of November 1902 again + separated himself from the Christian communion and was desirous of + being received back <span class="tei tei-q">“with certain evangelical + reservations”</span> into the Jewish community. In spite of his + faithful observance of the Law, this was refused. Now he is waiting + <span class="tei tei-q">“until in the Synagogue of the twentieth + century a freedom of conscience is accorded to him equal to that + which in the first century was enjoyed by John, the beloved disciple + of Jeschua of Nazareth.”</span> In the meantime he beguiles the + period of waiting by describing Jesus and His earliest followers in + the character of pattern Jews, and sets them to work in the interest + of his <span class="tei tei-q">“Jewish views with evangelical + reservations.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is the + colourless, characterless Jesus of the Superintendents and + Konsistorialrats which especially arouses his enmity. With this + figure he contrasts his own Jesus, the man of holy anger, the man of + holy calm, the man of holy melancholy, the master of dialectic, the + imperious ruler, the man of high gifts and practical ability, the man + of inexorable consistency and reforming vigour.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus was, + according to De Jonge, a pupil of Hillel. He demanded voluntary + poverty only in special cases, not as a general principle. In the + case of the rich young man, He knew <span class="tei tei-q">“that the + property which he had inherited was derived in this particular case + from impure sources which must be cut off at once and for + ever.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how does De + Jonge know that Jesus knew this?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A writer who is + attacking the common theological picture of Jesus, and who displays + in the process, as De Jonge does, not only <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> wit and address, but historical intuition, + ought not to fall into the error of the theology with which he is at + feud; he ought to use sober history as his weapon against the + supplementary knowledge which his opponents seem to find between the + lines, instead of meeting it with an esoteric historical knowledge of + his own.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">De Jonge knows + that Jesus possessed property inherited from His father: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“One proof may serve where many might be given—the hasty + flight into Egypt with his whole family to escape from Herod, and the + long sojourn in that country.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">De Jonge knows—he + is here, however, following the Gospel of John, to which he + everywhere gives the preference—that Jesus was between forty and + fifty years old at the time of His first coming forward publicly. The + statement in Luke iii. 23, that He was ὡσεί thirty years old, can + only mislead those who do not remember that Luke was a portrait + painter and only meant that <span class="tei tei-q">“Jeschua, in + consequence of His glorious beauty and His ever-youthful appearance, + looked ten years younger than He really was.”</span></p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">De Jonge knows + also that Jesus, at the time when He first emerged from obscurity, + was a widower and had a little son—the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“lad”</span> of John vi. 9, who had the five barley + loaves and two fishes, was in fact His son. This and many other + things the author finds in <span class="tei tei-q">“the glorious + John.”</span> According to De Jonge too we ought to think of Jesus as + the aristocratic Jew, more accustomed to a dress coat than to a + workman's blouse, something of an expert, as appears from some of the + parables, in matters of the table, and conning the menu with interest + when He dined with <span class= + "tei tei-q">“privy-finance-councillor”</span> Zacchaeus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this is to + modernise more distressingly than even the theologians!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">De Jonge's + one-sided preference for the Fourth Gospel is shared by Kirchbach's + book, <span class="tei tei-q">“What did Jesus teach?”</span><a id= + "noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> but + here everything, instead of being judaised, is spiritualised. + Kirchbach does not seem to have been acquainted with Noack's + <span class="tei tei-q">“History of Jesus,”</span> otherwise he would + hardly have ventured to repeat the same experiment without the + latter's touch of genius and with much less skill and knowledge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The teaching of + Jesus is interpreted on the lines of the Kantian philosophy. The + saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“No man hath seen God at any + time,”</span> is to be understood as if it were derived from the same + system of thought as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Critique of Pure + Reason.”</span> Jesus always used the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> words <span class="tei tei-q">“death”</span> + and <span class="tei tei-q">“life”</span> in a purely metaphorical + sense. Eternal life is for Him not a life in another world, but in + the present. He speaks of Himself as the Son of God, not as the + Jewish Messiah. Son of Man is only the ethical explanation of Son of + God. The only reason why a Son-of-Man problem has arisen, is because + Matthew translated the ancient term Son of Man in the original + collection of Logia <span class="tei tei-q">“with extreme + literality.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great + discourse of Matt. xxiii. with its warnings and threatenings is, + according to Kirchbach, merely <span class="tei tei-q">“a patriotic + oration in which Jesus gives expression in moving words to His + opposition to the Pharisees and His inborn love of His native + land.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The teaching of + Jesus is not ascetic, it closely resembles the real teaching of + Epicurus, <span class="tei tei-q">“that is, the rejection of all + false metaphysics, and the resulting condition of blessedness, of + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">makaria</span></span>.”</span> The only purpose + of the demand addressed to the rich young man was to try him. + <span class="tei tei-q">“If the youth, instead of slinking away + dejectedly because he was called upon to sell all his goods, had + replied, confident in the possession of a rich fund of courage, + energy, ability, and knowledge, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Right + gladly. It will not go to my heart to part with my little bit of + property; if I'm not to have it, why then I can do without + it,’</span> the Rabbi would probably in that case not have taken him + at his word, but would have said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Young man, + I like you. You have a good chance before you, you may do something + in the Kingdom of God, and in any case for My sake you may attach + yourself to Me by way of trial. We can talk about your stocks and + bonds later.’</span> ”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Finally, Kirchbach + succeeds, though only, it must be admitted, by the aid of some rather + awkward phraseology, in spiritualising John vi. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is not the body,”</span> he explains, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“of the long departed thinker, who apparently attached no + importance whatever to the question of personal survival, that we, + who understand Him in the right Greek sense, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘eat’</span>; in the sense which He intended, we eat and + drink, and absorb into ourselves, His teaching, His spirit, His + sublime conception of life, by constantly recalling them in connexion + with the symbol of bread and flesh, the symbol of blood, the symbol + of water.”</span><a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href= + "#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Worthless as + Kirchbach's Life of Jesus is from an historical point of view, it is + quite comprehensible as a phase in the struggle between the modern + view of the world and Jesus. The aim of the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> work is to retain His significance for a + metaphysical and non-ascetic time; and since it is not possible to do + this in the case of the historical Jesus, the author denies His + existence in favour of an apocryphal Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, in fact, + the characteristic feature of the Life-of-Jesus literature on the + threshold of the new century even in the productions of professedly + historical and scientific theology, to subordinate the historical + interest to the interest of the general world-view. And those who + <span class="tei tei-q">“wrest the Kingdom of Heaven”</span> are + beginning to wrest Jesus Himself along with it. Men who have no + qualifications for the task, whose ignorance is nothing less than + criminal, who loftily anathematise scientific theology instead of + making themselves in some measure acquainted with the researches + which it has carried out, feel impelled to write a Life of Jesus, in + order to set forth their general religious view in a portrait of + Jesus which has not the faintest claim to be historical, and the most + far-fetched of these find favour, and are eagerly absorbed by the + multitude.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be + something to be thankful for if all these Lives of Jesus were based + on as definite an idea and as acute historical observation as we find + in Albert Dulk's <span class="tei tei-q">“The Error of the Life of + Jesus.”</span><a id="noteref_252" name="noteref_252" href= + "#note_252"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> In Dulk + the story of the fate of Jesus is also the story of the fate of + religion. The Galilaean teacher, whose true character was marked by + deep religious inwardness, was doomed to destruction from the moment + when He set Himself upon the dizzy heights of the divine sonship and + the eschatological expectation. He died in despair, having vainly + expected, down to the very last, a <span class="tei tei-q">“telegram + from heaven.”</span> Religion as a whole can only avoid the same fate + by renouncing all transcendental elements.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The vast numbers + of imaginative Lives of Jesus shrink into remarkably small compass on + a close examination. When one knows two or three of them, one knows + them all. They have scarcely altered since Venturini's time, except + that some of the cures performed by Jesus are handled in the modern + Lives from the point of view of the recent investigations in + hypnotism and suggestion.<a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href= + "#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to Paul + de Régla<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href= + "#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> Jesus + was born out of wedlock. Joseph, however, gave shelter and protection + to the mother. De Régla dwells on the beauty of the child. + <span class="tei tei-q">“His eyes were not exceptionally large, but + were well-opened, and were shaded by long, silky, dark-brown + eyelashes, and rather deep-set. They were of a blue-grey colour, + which changed with changing emotions, taking on various shades, + especially blue and brownish-grey.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He and His + disciples were Essenes, as was also the Baptist. That implies that He + was no longer a Jew in the strict sense. His preaching dealt with the + rights of man, and put forward socialistic and communistic demands: + His religion in the pure consciousness of communion with God. With + eschatology He had nothing whatever to do, it was first interpolated + into His teaching by Matthew.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The miracles are + all to be explained by suggestion and hypnotism. At the marriage at + Cana, Jesus noticed that the guests were taking too much, and + therefore secretly bade the servants pour out water instead of wine + while He Himself said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Drink, this is better + wine.”</span> In this way He succeeded in suggesting to a part of the + company that they were really drinking wine. The feeding of the + multitude is explained by striking out a couple of noughts from the + numbers; the raising of Lazarus by supposing it a case of premature + burial. Jesus Himself when taken down from the cross was not dead, + and the Essenes succeeded in reanimating Him. His work is inspired + with hatred against Catholicism, but with a real reverence for + Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another mere + variant of the plan of Venturini is the fictitious Life of Jesus of + Pierre Nahor.<a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href= + "#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> The + sentimental descriptions of nature and the long dialogues + characteristic of the Lives of Jesus of a hundred years ago are here + again in full force. After John had already begun to preach in the + neighbourhood of the Dead Sea, Jesus, in company with a distinguished + Brahmin who possessed property at Nazareth and had an influential + following in Jerusalem, made a journey to Egypt and was there + indoctrinated into all kinds of Egyptian, Essene, and Indian + philosophy, thus giving the author, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> or rather the authoress, an opportunity to + develop her ideas on the philosophy of religion in didactic + dialogues. When He soon afterwards begins to work in Galilee the + young teacher is much aided by the fact that, at the instance of His + fellow-traveller, He had acquired from Egyptian mendicants a + practical acquaintance with the secrets of hypnotism. By His skill He + healed Mary of Magdala, a distinguished courtesan of Tiberias. They + had met before at Alexandria. After being cured she left Tiberias and + went to live in a small house, inherited from her mother, at + Magdala.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus Himself + never went to Tiberias, but the social world of that place took an + interest in Him, and often had itself rowed to the beach when He was + preaching. Rich and pious ladies used to inquire of Him where He + thought of preaching to the people on a given day, and sent baskets + of bread and dried fish to the spot which He indicated, that the + multitude might not suffer hunger. This is the explanation of the + stories about the feeding of the multitudes; the people had no idea + whence Jesus suddenly obtained the supplies which He caused His + disciples to distribute.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When he became + aware that the priests had resolved upon His death, He made His + friend Joseph of Arimathea, a leading man among the Essenes, promise + that he would take Him down from the cross as soon as possible and + lay Him in the grave without other witnesses. Only Nicodemus was to + be present. On the cross He put Himself into a cataleptic trance; He + was taken down from the cross seemingly dead, and came to Himself + again in the grave. After appearing several times to His disciples he + set out for Nazareth and dragged His way painfully thither. With a + last effort He reaches the house of His mysterious old Indian + teacher. At the door He falls helpless, just as the morning dawns. + The old slave-woman recognises Him and carries Him into the house, + where He dies. <span class="tei tei-q">“The serene solemn night + withdrew and day broke in blinding splendour behind + Tiberias.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nikolas + Notowitsch<a id="noteref_256" name="noteref_256" href= + "#note_256"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> finds + in Luke i. 80 (<span class="tei tei-q">“And the child grew + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" + id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ... and was in the deserts + until the day of his shewing unto Israel”</span>) a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“gap in the life of Jesus,”</span> in spite of the fact + that this passage refers to the Baptist, and proposes to fill it by + putting Jesus to school with the Brahmins and Buddhists from His + thirteenth to His twenty-ninth year. As evidence for this he refers + to statements about Buddhist worship of a certain Issa which he + professes to have found in the monasteries of Little Thibet. The + whole thing is, as was shown by the experts, a barefaced swindle and + an impudent invention.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the fictitious + Lives of Jesus belong also in the main the theosophical <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Lives,”</span> which equally play fast and loose with + the history, though here with a view to proving that Jesus had + absorbed the Egyptian and Indian theosophy, and had been + indoctrinated with <span class="tei tei-q">“occult science.”</span> + The theosophists, however, have the advantage of escaping the dilemma + between reanimation after a trance and resurrection, since they are + convinced that it was possible for Jesus to reassume His body after + He had really died. But in the touching up and embellishment of the + Gospel narratives they out-do even the romancers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ernest Bosc,<a id= + "noteref_257" name="noteref_257" href="#note_257"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> writing + as a theosophist, makes it the chief aim of his work to describe the + oriental origin of Christianity, and ventures to assert that Jesus + was not a Semite, but an Aryan. The Fourth Gospel is, of course, the + basis of his representation. He does not hesitate, however, to appeal + also to the anonymous <span class="tei tei-q">“Revelations”</span> + published in 1849, which are a mere plagiarism from Venturini.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A work which is + written with some ability and with much out-of-the-way learning is + <span class="tei tei-q">“Did Jesus live 100 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>?”</span><a id= + "noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> The + author compares the Christian tradition with the Jewish, and finds in + the latter a reminiscence of a Jesus who lived in the time of + Alexander Jannaeus (104-76 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>). This person was + transferred by the earliest Evangelist to the later period, the + attempt being facilitated by the fact that during the procuratorship + of Pilate a false prophet had attracted some attention. The author, + however, only professes to offer it as a hypothesis, and apologises + in advance for the offence which it is likely to cause.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name= + "Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> <a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XIX. Thoroughgoing Scepticism And + Thoroughgoing Eschatology</span></h1> + + <div class="block tei tei-quote" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">W. + Wrede.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien. Zugleich ein Beitrag zum + Verständnis des Markusevangeliums. (The Messianic Secret in the + Gospels. Forming a contribution also to the understanding of the + Gospel of Mark.) Göttingen, 1901. 286 pp.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Albert + Schweitzer.</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">Das + Messianitäts- und Leidensgeheimnis. Eine Skizze des Lebens Jesu. + (The Secret of the Messiahship and the Passion. A Sketch of the + Life of Jesus.) Tübingen and Leipzig, 1901. 109 pp.</span></p> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The coincidence + between the work of Wrede<a id="noteref_259" name="noteref_259" href= + "#note_259"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> and the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sketch of the Life of Jesus”</span> is not + more surprising in regard to the time of their appearance than in + regard to the character of their contents. They appeared upon the + self-same day, their titles are almost identical, and their agreement + in the criticism of the modern historical conception of the life of + Jesus extends sometimes to the very phraseology. And yet they are + written from quite different standpoints, one from the point of view + of literary criticism, the other from that of the historical + recognition of eschatology. It seems to be the fate of the Marcan + hypothesis that at the decisive periods its problems should always be + attacked simultaneously and independently from the literary and the + historical sides, and the results declared in two different forms + which corroborate each other. So it was in the case of Weisse and + Wilke; so it is again now, when, retaining the assumption of the + priority of Mark, the historicity of the hitherto accepted view of + the life of Jesus, based upon the Marcan narrative, is called in + question.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg + 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The meaning of + that is that the literary and the eschatological view, which have + hitherto been marching parallel, on either flank, to the advance of + modern theology, have now united their forces, brought theology to a + halt, surrounded it, and compelled it to give battle.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That in the last + three or four years so much has been written in which this enveloping + movement has been ignored does not alter the real position of modern + historical theology in the least. The fact is deserving of notice + that during this period the study of the subject has not made a step + in advance, but has kept moving to and fro upon the old lines with + wearisome iteration, and has thrown itself with excessive zeal into + the work of popularisation, simply because it was incapable of + advancing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And even if it + professes gratitude to Wrede for the very interesting historical + point which he has brought into the discussion, and is also willing + to admit that thoroughgoing eschatology has advanced the solution of + many problems, these are mere demonstrations which are quite + inadequate to raise the blockade of modern theology by the allied + forces. Supposing that only a half—nay, only a third—of the critical + arguments which are common to Wrede and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sketch of the Life of Jesus”</span> are sound, then the + modern historical view of the history is wholly ruined.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader of + Wrede's book cannot help feeling that here no quarter is given; and + any one who goes carefully through the present writer's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sketch”</span> must come to see that between the modern + historical and the eschatological Life of Jesus no compromise is + possible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thoroughgoing + scepticism and thoroughgoing eschatology may, in their union, either + destroy, or be destroyed by modern historical theology; but they + cannot combine with it and enable it to advance, any more than they + can be advanced by it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are confronted + with a decisive issue. As with Strauss's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus,”</span> so with the surprising agreement + in the critical basis of these two schools—we are not here + considering the respective solutions which they offer—there has + entered into the domain of the theology of the day a force with which + it cannot possibly ally itself. Its whole territory is threatened. It + must either reconquer it step by step or else surrender it. It has no + longer the right to advance a single assertion until it has taken up + a definite position in regard to the fundamental questions raised by + the new criticism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Modern historical + theology is no doubt still far from recognising this. It is warned + that the dyke is letting in water and sends a couple of masons to + repair the leak; as if the leak did not mean that the whole masonry + is undermined, and must be rebuilt from the + foundation.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg + 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To vary the + metaphor, theology comes home to find the broker's marks on all the + furniture and goes on as before quite comfortably, ignoring the fact + it will lose everything if it does not pay its debts.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The critical + objections which Wrede and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sketch”</span> agree in bringing against the modern + treatment of the subject are as follows.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to find + in Mark the Life of Jesus of which it is in search, modern theology + is obliged to read between the lines a whole host of things, and + those often the most important, and then to foist them upon the text + by means of psychological conjecture. It is determined to find + evidence in Mark of a development of Jesus, a development of the + disciples, and a development of the outer circumstances; and + professes in so doing to be only reproducing the views and + indications of the Evangelist. In reality, however, there is not a + word of all this in the Evangelist, and when his interpreters are + asked what are the hints and indications on which they base their + assertions they have nothing to offer save <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">argumenta e + silentio</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mark knows nothing + of any development in Jesus; he knows nothing of any paedagogic + considerations which are supposed to have determined the conduct of + Jesus towards the disciples and the people; he knows nothing of any + conflict in the mind of Jesus between a spiritual and a popular, + political Messianic ideal; he does not know, either, that in this + respect there was any difference between the view of Jesus and that + of the people; he knows nothing of the idea that the use of the ass + at the triumphal entry symbolised a non-political Messiahship; he + knows nothing of the idea that the question about the Messiah's being + the Son of David had something to do with this alternative between + political and non-political; he does not know, either, that Jesus + explained the secret of the passion to the disciples, nor that they + had any understanding of it; he only knows that from first to last + they were in all respects equally wanting in understanding; he does + not know that the first period was a period of success and the second + a period of failure; he represents the Pharisees and Herodians as + (from iii. 6 onwards) resolved upon the death of Jesus, while the + people, down to the very last day when He preached in the temple, are + enthusiastically loyal to Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All these things + of which the Evangelist says nothing—and they are the foundations of + the modern view—should first be proved, if proved they can be; they + ought not to be simply read into the text as something self-evident. + For it is just those things which appear so self-evident to the + prevailing critical temper which are in reality the least evident of + all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another hitherto + self-evident point—the <span class="tei tei-q">“historical + kernel”</span> which it has been customary to extract from the + narratives—must <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg + 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be + given up, until it is proved, if it is capable of proof, that we can + and ought to distinguish between the kernel and the husk. We may take + all that is reported as either historical or unhistorical, but, in + respect of the definite predictions of the passion, death, and + resurrection, we ought to give up taking the reference to the passion + as historical and letting the rest go; we may accept the idea of the + atoning death, or we may reject it, but we ought not to ascribe to + Jesus a feeble, anaemic version of this idea, while setting down to + the account of the Pauline theology the interpretation of the passion + which we actually find in Mark.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whatever the + results obtained by the aid of the historical kernel, the method + pursued is the same; <span class="tei tei-q">“it is detached from its + context and transformed into something different.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“It finally comes to this,”</span> says + Wrede, <span class="tei tei-q">“that each critic retains whatever + portion of the traditional sayings can be fitted into his + construction of the facts and his conception of historical + possibility and rejects the rest.”</span> The psychological + explanation of motive, and the psychological connexion of the events + and actions which such critics have proposed to find in Mark, simply + do not exist. That being so, nothing is to be made out of his account + by the application of a priori psychology. A vast quantity of + treasures of scholarship and erudition, of art and artifice, which + the Marcan hypothesis has gathered into its storehouse in the two + generations of its existence to aid it in constructing its life of + Jesus has become worthless, and can be of no further service to true + historical research. Theology has been simplified. What would become + of it if that did not happen every hundred years or so? And the + simplification was badly needed, for no one since Strauss had cleared + away its impedimenta.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thoroughgoing + scepticism and thoroughgoing eschatology, between them, are + compelling theology to read the Marcan text again with simplicity of + mind. The simplicity consists in dispensing with the connecting links + which it has been accustomed to discover between the sections of the + narrative (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">pericopes</span></em>), in looking at each one + separately, and recognising that it is difficult to pass from one to + the other.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The material with + which it has hitherto been usual to solder the sections together into + a life of Jesus will not stand the temperature test. Exposed to the + cold air of critical scepticism it cracks; when the furnace of + eschatology is heated to a certain point the solderings melt. In both + cases the sections all fall apart.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Formerly it was + possible to book through-tickets at the + supplementary-psychological-knowledge office which enabled those + travelling in the interests of Life-of-Jesus construction to use + express trains, thus avoiding the inconvenience of having to stop at + every little station, change, and run the risk of missing their + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" + id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> connexion. This ticket office + is now closed. There is a station at the end of each section of the + narrative, and the connexions are not guaranteed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact is, it is + not simply that there is no very obvious psychological connexion + between the sections; in almost every case there is a positive break + in the connexion. And there is a great deal in the Marcan narrative + which is inexplicable and even self-contradictory.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their statement + of the problems raised by this want of connexion Wrede and the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sketch”</span> are in the most exact + agreement. That these difficulties are not artificially constructed + has been shown by our survey of the history of the attempts to write + the Life of Jesus, in the course of which these problems emerge one + after another, after Bruno Bauer had by anticipation grasped them all + in their complexity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How do the + demoniacs know that Jesus is the Son of God? Why does the blind man + at Jericho address Him as the Son of David, when no one else knows + His Messianic dignity? How was it that these occurrences did not give + a new direction to the thoughts of the people in regard to Jesus? How + did the Messianic entry come about? How was it possible without + provoking the interference of the Roman garrison of occupation? Why + is it as completely ignored in the subsequent controversies as if had + never taken place? Why was it not brought up at the trial of Jesus? + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Messianic acclamation at the entry into + Jerusalem,”</span> says Wrede, <span class="tei tei-q">“is in Mark + quite an isolated incident. It has no sequel, neither is there any + preparation for it beforehand.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why does Jesus in + Mark iv. 10-12 speak of the parabolic form of discourse as designed + to conceal the mystery of the Kingdom of God, whereas the explanation + which He proceeds to give to the disciples has nothing mysterious + about it? What is the mystery of the Kingdom of God? Why does Jesus + forbid His miracles to be made known even in cases where there is no + apparent purpose for the prohibition? Why is His Messiahship a secret + and yet no secret, since it is known, not only to the disciples, but + to the demoniacs, the blind man at Jericho, the multitude at + Jerusalem—which must, as Bruno Bauer expresses it, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“have fallen from heaven”</span>—and to the High + Priest?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why does Jesus + first reveal His Messiahship to the disciples at Caesarea Philippi, + not at the moment when He sends them forth to preach? How does Peter + know without having been told by Jesus that the Messiahship belongs + to his Master? Why must it remain a secret until the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“resurrection”</span>? Why does Jesus indicate His + Messiahship only by the title Son of Man? And why is it that this + title is so far from prominent in primitive Christian + theology?</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg + 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is the + meaning of the statement that Jesus at Jerusalem discovered a + difficulty in the fact that the Messiah was described as at once + David's son and David's Lord? How are we to explain the fact that + Jesus had to open the eyes of the people to the greatness of the + Baptist's office, subsequently to the mission of the Twelve, and to + enlighten the disciples themselves in regard to it during the descent + from the mount of transfiguration? Why should this be described in + Matt. xi. 14 and 15 as a mystery difficult to grasp (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“If ye can receive it”</span> ... <span class= + "tei tei-q">“He that hath ears to hear, let him hear”</span>)? What + is the meaning of the saying that he that is least in the Kingdom of + Heaven is greater than the Baptist? Does the Baptist, then, not enter + into the Kingdom of Heaven? How is the Kingdom of Heaven subjected to + violence since the days of the Baptist? Who are the violent? What is + the Baptist intended to understand from the answer of Jesus?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What importance + was attached to the miracles by Jesus Himself? What office must they + have caused the people to attribute to Him? Why is the discourse at + the sending out of the Twelve filled with predictions of persecutions + which experience had given no reason to anticipate, and which did + not, as a matter of fact, occur? What is the meaning of the saying in + Matt. x. 23 about the imminent coming of the Son of Man, seeing that + the disciples after all returned to Jesus without its being + fulfilled? Why does Jesus leave the people just when His work among + them is most successful, and journey northwards? Why had He, + immediately after the sending forth of the Twelve, manifested a + desire to withdraw Himself from the multitude who were longing for + salvation?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How does the + multitude mentioned in Mark viii. 34 suddenly appear at Caesarea + Philippi? Why is its presence no longer implied in Mark ix. 30? How + could Jesus possibly have travelled unrecognised through Galilee, and + how could He have avoided being thronged in Capernaum although He + stayed at <span class="tei tei-q">“the house”</span>?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How came He so + suddenly to speak to His disciples of His suffering and dying and + rising again, without, moreover, explaining to them either the + natural or the moral <span class="tei tei-q">“wherefore”</span>? + <span class="tei tei-q">“There is no trace of any attempt on the part + of Jesus,”</span> says Wrede, <span class="tei tei-q">“to break this + strange thought gradually to His disciples ... the prediction is + always flung down before the disciples without preparation, it is, in + fact, a characteristic feature of these sayings that all attempt to + aid the understanding of the disciples is lacking.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Did Jesus journey + to Jerusalem with the purpose of working there, or of dying there? + How comes it that in Mark x. 39, He holds out to the sons of Zebedee + the prospect of drinking His <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> cup and being baptized with His baptism? And + how can He, after speaking so decidedly of the necessity of His + death, think it possible in Gethsemane that the cup might yet pass + from Him? Who are the undefined <span class= + "tei tei-q">“many,”</span> for whom, according to Mark x. 45 and xiv. + 24, His death shall serve as a ransom?<a id="noteref_260" name= + "noteref_260" href="#note_260"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How came it that + Jesus alone was arrested? Why were no witnesses called at His trial + to testify that He had given Himself out to be the Messiah? How is it + that on the morning after His arrest the temper of the multitude + seems to be completely changed, so that no one stirs a finger to help + Him?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In what form does + Jesus conceive the resurrection, which He promises to His disciples, + to be combined with the coming on the clouds of heaven, to which He + points His judge? In what relation do these predictions stand to the + prospect held out at the time of the sending forth of the Twelve, but + not realized, of the immediate appearance of the Son of Man?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What is the + meaning of the further prediction on the way to Gethsemane (Mark xiv. + 28) that after His resurrection He will go before the disciples into + Galilee? How is the other version of this saying (Mark xvi. 7) to be + explained, according to which it means, as spoken by the angel, that + the disciples are to journey to Galilee to have their first meeting + with the risen Jesus there, whereas, on the lips of Jesus, it + betokened that, just as now as a sufferer He was going before them + from Galilee to Jerusalem, so, after His resurrection, He would go + before them from Jerusalem to Galilee? And what was to happen + there?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These problems + were covered up by the naturalistic psychology as by a light + snow-drift. The snow has melted, and they now stand out from the + narratives like black points of rock. It is no longer allowable to + avoid these questions, or to solve them, each by itself, by softening + them down and giving them an interpretation by which the reported + facts acquire a quite different significance from that which they + bear for the Evangelist. Either the Marcan text as it stands is + historical, and therefore to be retained, or it is not, and then it + should be given up. What is really unhistorical is any softening down + of the wording, and the meaning which it naturally bears.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sceptical and + eschatological schools, however, go still farther in company. If the + connexion in Mark is really no connexion, it is important to try to + discover whether any principle can be discovered in this want of + connexion. Can any order be brought into the chaos? To this the + answer is in the affirmative.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The complete want + of connexion, with all its self-contradictions, is ultimately due to + the fact that two representations of the life of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Jesus, or, to speak more accurately, of + His public ministry, are here crushed into one; a natural and a + deliberately supernatural representation. A dogmatic element has + intruded itself into the description of this Life—something which has + no concern with the events which form the outward course of that + Life. This dogmatic element is the Messianic secret of Jesus and all + the secrets and concealments which go along with it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hence the + irrational and self-contradictory features of the presentation of + Jesus, out of which a rational psychology can make only something + which is unhistorical and does violence to the text, since it must + necessarily get rid of the constant want of connexion and + self-contradiction which belongs to the essence of the narrative, and + portray a Jesus who was the Messiah, not one who at once was and was + not Messiah, as the Evangelist depicts Him. When rational psychology + conceives Him as one who was Messiah, but not in the sense expected + by the people, that is a concession to the self-contradictions of the + Marcan representation; which, however, does justice neither to the + text nor to the history which it records, since the Gospel does not + contain the faintest hint that the contradiction was of this + nature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Up to this + point—up to the complete reconstruction of the system which runs + through the disconnectedness, and the tracing back of the dogmatic + element to the Messianic secret—there extends a close agreement + between thoroughgoing scepticism and thoroughgoing eschatology. The + critical arguments are identical, the construction is analogous and + based on the same principle. The defenders of the modern + psychological view cannot, therefore, play off one school against the + other, as one of them proposed to do, but must deal with them both at + once. They differ only when they explain whence the system that runs + through the disconnectedness comes. Here the ways divide, as Bauer + saw long ago. The inconsistency between the public life of Jesus and + His Messianic claim lies either in the nature of the Jewish Messianic + conception, or in the representation of the Evangelist. There is, on + the one hand, the eschatological solution, which at one stroke raises + the Marcan account as it stands, with all its disconnectedness and + inconsistencies, into genuine history; and there is, on the other + hand, the literary solution, which regards the incongruous dogmatic + element as interpolated by the earliest Evangelist into the tradition + and therefore strikes out the Messianic claim altogether from the + historical Life of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tertium non datur.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in some + respects it really hardly matters which of the two <span class= + "tei tei-q">“solutions”</span> one adopts. They are both merely + wooden towers erected upon the solid main building of the consentient + critical induction which offers the enigmas detailed above to modern + historical theology. It is interesting in this connexion that Wrede's + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" + id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> scepticism is just as + constructive as the eschatological outline of the Life of Jesus in + the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sketch.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bruno Bauer chose + the literary solution because he thought that we had no evidence for + an eschatological expectation existing in the time of Christ. Wrede, + though he follows Johannes Weiss in assuming the existence of a + Jewish eschatological Messianic expectation, finds in the Gospel only + the Christian conception of the Messiah. <span class="tei tei-q">“If + Jesus,”</span> he thinks, <span class="tei tei-q">“really knew + Himself to be the Messiah and designated Himself as such, the genuine + tradition is so closely interwoven with later accretions that it is + not easy to recognise it.”</span> In any case, Jesus cannot, + according to Wrede, have spoken of His Messianic Coming in the way + which the Synoptists report. The Messiahship of Jesus, as we find it + in the Gospels, is a product of Early Christian theology correcting + history according to its own conceptions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is therefore + necessary to distinguish in Mark between the reported events which + constitute the outward course of the history of Jesus, and the + dogmatic idea which claims to lay down the lines of its inward + course. The principle of division is found in the contradictions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The recorded + events form, according to Wrede, the following picture. Jesus came + forward as a teacher,<a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href= + "#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> first + and principally in Galilee. He was surrounded by a company of + disciples, went about with them, and gave them instruction. To some + of them He accorded a special confidence. A larger multitude + sometimes attached itself to Him, in addition to the disciples. He is + fond of discoursing in parables. Besides the teaching there are the + miracles. These make a stir, and He is thronged by the multitudes. He + gives special attention to the cases of demoniacs. He is in such + close touch with the people that He does not hesitate to associate + even with publicans and sinners. Towards the Law He takes up an + attitude of some freedom. He encounters the opposition of the + Pharisees and the Jewish authorities. They set traps for Him and + endeavour to bring about His fall. Finally they succeed, when He + ventures to show Himself not only on Judaean soil, but in Jerusalem. + He remains passive and is condemned to death. The Roman + administration supports the Jewish authorities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“The texture of the Marcan narrative as we know + it,”</span> continues Wrede, <span class="tei tei-q">“is not complete + until to the warp of these general historical notions there is added + a strong weft of ideas of a dogmatic character,”</span> the substance + of which is that <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus, the bearer of a + special office to which He was appointed by God,”</span> becomes + <span class="tei tei-q">“a higher, superhuman being.”</span> If this + is the case, however, then the motives of His conduct are not derived + from human characteristics, human aims and necessities. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The one <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg + 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + motive which runs throughout is rather a Divine decree which lies + beyond human understanding. This He seeks to fulfil alike in His + actions and His sufferings. The teaching of Jesus is accordingly + supernatural.”</span> On this assumption the want of understanding of + the disciples to whom He communicates, without commentary, + unconnected portions of this supernatural knowledge becomes natural + and explicable. The people are, moreover, essentially <span class= + "tei tei-q">“non-receptive of revelation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“It is these <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motifs</span></span> and not those which are + inherently historical which give movement and direction to the Marcan + narrative. It is they that give the general colour. On them naturally + depends the main interest, it is to them that the thought of the + writer is really directed. The consequence is that the general + picture offered by the Gospel is not an historical representation of + the Life of Jesus. Only some faded remnants of such an impression + have been taken over into a supra-historical religious view. In this + sense the Gospel of Mark belongs to the history of dogma.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The two + conceptions of the Life of Jesus, the natural and the supernatural, + are brought, not without inconsistencies, into a kind of harmony by + means of the idea of intentional secrecy. The Messiahship of Jesus is + concealed in His life as in a closed dark lantern, which, however, is + not quite closed—otherwise one could not see that it was there—and + allows a few bright beams to escape.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The idea of a + secret which must remain a secret until the resurrection of Jesus + could only arise at a time when nothing was known of a Messianic + claim of Jesus during His life upon earth: that is to say, at a time + when the Messiahship of Jesus was thought of as beginning with the + resurrection. But that is a weighty piece of indirect historical + evidence that Jesus did not really profess to be the Messiah at + all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The positive fact + which is to be inferred from this is that the appearances of the + risen Jesus produced a sudden revolution in His disciples' conception + of Him. <span class="tei tei-q">“The resurrection”</span> is for + Wrede the real Messianic event in the Life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Who is + responsible, then, for introducing this singular feature, so + destructive of the real historical connexion, into the life of Jesus, + which was in reality that of a teacher? It is quite impossible, Wrede + argues, that the idea of the Messianic secret is the invention of + Mark. <span class="tei tei-q">“A thing like that is not done by a + single individual. It must, therefore, have been a view which was + current in certain circles, and was held by a considerable number, + though not necessarily perhaps by a very great number of persons. To + say this is not to deny that Mark had a share and perhaps a + considerable share in the creation of the view which he sets forth + ... the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">motifs</span></span> themselves are doubtless + not, in part at least, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg + 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + peculiar to the Evangelist, but the concrete embodiment of them is + certainly his own work; and to this extent we may speak of a special + Marcan point of view which manifests itself here and there. Where the + line is to be drawn between what is traditional and what is + individual cannot always be determined even by a careful examination + directed to this end. We must leave it commingled, as we find + it.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Marcan + narrative has therefore arisen from the impulse to give a Messianic + form to the earthly life of Jesus. This impulse was, however, + restrained by the impression and tradition of the non-Messianic + character of the life of Jesus, which were still strong and vivid, + and it was therefore not able wholly to recast the material, but + could only bore its way into it and force it apart, as the roots of + the bramble disintegrate a rock. In the Gospel literature which arose + on the basis of Mark the Messianic secret becomes gradually of more + subordinate importance and the life of Jesus more Messianic in + character, until in the Fourth Gospel He openly comes before the + people with Messianic claims.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In estimating the + value of this construction we must not attach too much importance to + its a priori assumptions and difficulties. In this respect Wrede's + position is much more precarious than that of his precursor Bruno + Bauer. According to the latter the interpolation of the Messianic + secret is the personal, absolutely original act of the Evangelist. + Wrede thinks of it as a collective act, representing the new + conception as moulded by the tradition before it was fixed by the + Evangelist. That is very much more difficult to carry through. + Tradition alters its materials in a different way from that in which + we find them altered in Mark. Tradition transforms from without. + Mark's way of drawing secret threads of a different material through + the texture of the tradition, without otherwise altering it, is + purely literary, and could only be the work of an individual + person.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A creative + tradition would have carried out the theory of the Messianic secret + in the life of Jesus much more boldly and logically, that is to say, + at once more arbitrarily and more consistently.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only + alternative is to distinguish two stages of tradition in early + Christianity, a naive, freely-working, earlier stage, and a more + artificial later stage confined to a smaller circle of a more + literary character. Wrede does, as a matter of fact, propose to find + in Mark traces of a simpler and bolder transformation which, leaving + aside the Messianic secret, makes Jesus an openly-professed Messiah, + and is therefore of a distinct origin from the conception of the + secret Christ. To this tradition may belong, he thinks, the entry + into Jerusalem and the confession before the High Priest, since these + narratives <span class="tei tei-q">“naively”</span> imply an openly + avowed Messiahship.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg + 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The word + <span class="tei tei-q">“naively”</span> is out of place here; a + really naive tradition which intended to represent the entry of Jesus + as Messianic would have done so in quite a different way from Mark, + and would not have stultified itself so curiously as we find done + even in Matthew, where the Galilaean Passover pilgrims, after the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Messianic entry,”</span> answer the question + of the people of Jerusalem as to who it was whom they were + acclaiming, with the words <span class="tei tei-q">“This is the + Prophet Jesus from Nazareth of Galilee”</span> (Matt. xxi. 11).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The tradition, + too, which makes Jesus acknowledge His Messiahship before His judges + is not <span class="tei tei-q">“naive”</span> in Wrede's sense, for, + if it were, it would not represent the High Priest's knowledge of + Jesus' Messiahship as something so extraordinary and peculiar to + himself that he can cite witnesses only for the saying about the + Temple, not with reference to Jesus' Messianic claim, and bases his + condemnation only on the fact that Jesus in answer to his question + acknowledges Himself as Messiah—and Jesus does so, it should be + remarked, as in other passages, with an appeal to a future + justification of His claim. The confession before the council is + therefore anything but a <span class="tei tei-q">“naive + representation of an openly avowed Messiahship.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Messianic + statements in these two passages present precisely the same + remarkable character as in all the other cases to which Wrede draws + attention. We have not here to do with a different tradition, with a + clear Messianic light streaming in through the window-pane, but, just + as elsewhere, with the rays of a dark lantern. The real point is that + Wrede cannot bring these two passages within the lines of the theory + of secrecy, and practically admits this by assuming the existence of + a second and rather divergent line of tradition. What concerns us is + to note that this theory does not suffice to explain the two facts in + question, the knowledge of Jesus' Messiahship shown by the Galilaean + Passover pilgrims at the time of the entry into Jerusalem, and the + knowledge of the High Priest at His trial.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can only touch + on the question whether any one who wished to date back in some way + or other the Messiahship into the life of Jesus could not have done + it much more simply by making Jesus give His closest followers some + hints regarding it. Why does the re-moulder of the history, instead + of doing that, have recourse to a supernatural knowledge on the part + of the demoniacs and the disciples? For Wrede rightly remarks, as + Bruno Bauer and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sketch”</span> also do, + that the incident of Caesarea Philippi, as represented by Mark, + involves a miracle, since Jesus does not, as is generally supposed, + reveal His Messiahship to Peter; it is Peter who reveals it to Jesus + (Mark viii. 29). This fact, however, makes nonsense of the whole + theory about the disciples' want of understanding. It will not + therefore fit into the concealment theory, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and Wrede, as a matter of fact, feels obliged + to give up that theory as regards this incident. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“This scene,”</span> he remarks, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“can hardly have been created by Mark himself.”</span> It + also, therefore, belongs to another tradition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, then, is a + third Messianic fact which cannot be brought within the lines of + Wrede's <span class="tei tei-q">“literary”</span> theory of the + Messianic secret. And these three facts are precisely the most + important of all: Peter's confession, the Entry into Jerusalem, and + the High Priest's knowledge of Jesus' Messiahship! In each case Wrede + finds himself obliged to refer these to tradition instead of to the + literary conception of Mark.<a id="noteref_262" name="noteref_262" + href="#note_262"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> This + tradition undermines his literary hypothesis, for the conception of a + tradition always involves the possibility of genuine historical + elements.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How greatly this + inescapable intrusion of tradition weakens the theory of the literary + interpolation of the Messiahship into the history, becomes evident + when we consider the story of the passion. The representation that + Jesus was publicly put to death as Messiah because He had publicly + acknowledged Himself to be so, must, like the High Priest's knowledge + of His claim, be referred to the other tradition which has nothing to + do with the Messianic secret, but boldly antedates the Messiahship + without employing any finesse of that kind. But that strongly tends + to confirm the historicity of this tradition, and throws the burden + of proof upon those who deny it. It is wholly independent of the + hypothesis of secrecy, and in fact directly opposed to it. If, on the + other hand, in spite of all the difficulties, the representation that + Jesus was condemned to death on account of His Messianic claims is + dragged by main force into the theory of secrecy, the question + arises: What interest had the persons who set up the literary theory + of secrecy, in representing Jesus as having been openly put to death + as Messiah and in consequence of His Messianic claims? And the answer + is: <span class="tei tei-q">“None whatever: quite the + contrary.”</span> For in doing so the theory of secrecy stultifies + itself. As though one were to develop a photographic plate with + painful care and, just when one had finished, fling open the + shutters, so, on this hypothesis, the natural Messianic light + suddenly shines into the room which ought to be lighted only by the + rays of the dark lantern.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here, therefore, + the theory of secrecy abandoned the method which it had hitherto + followed in regard to the traditional material. For if Jesus was not + condemned and crucified at Jerusalem as <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Messiah, a tradition must have existed which + preserved the truth about the last conflicts, and the motives of the + condemnation. This is supposed to have been here completely set aside + by the theory of the secret Messiahship, which, instead of drawing + its delicate threads through the older tradition, has simply + substituted its own representation of events. But in that case why + not do away with the remainder of the public ministry? Why not at + least get rid of the public appearance at Jerusalem? How can the + crudeness of method shown in the case of the passion be harmonised + with the skilful conservatism towards the non-Messianic tradition + which it is obvious that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Marcan + circle”</span> has scrupulously observed elsewhere?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If according to + the original tradition, of which Wrede admits the existence, Jesus + went to Jerusalem not to die, but to work there, the dogmatic view, + according to which He went to Jerusalem to die, must have struck out + the whole account of His sojourn in Jerusalem and His death, in order + to put something else in its place. What we now read in the Gospels + concerning those last days in Jerusalem cannot be derived from the + original tradition, for one who came to work, and, according to + Wrede, <span class="tei tei-q">“to work with decisive effect,”</span> + would not have cast all His preaching into the form of obscure + parables of judgment and minatory discourses. That is a style of + speech which could be adopted only by one who was determined to force + his adversaries to put him to death. Therefore the narrative of the + last days of Jesus must be, from beginning to end, a creation of the + dogmatic idea. And, as a matter of fact, Wrede, here in agreement + with Weisse, <span class="tei tei-q">“sees grounds for asserting that + the sojourn at Jerusalem is presented to us in the Gospels in a very + much abridged and weakened version.”</span> That is a euphemistic + expression, for if it was really the dogmatic idea which was + responsible for representing Jesus as being condemned as Messiah, it + is not a mere case of <span class="tei tei-q">“abridging and + weakening down,”</span> but of displacing the tradition in favour of + a new one.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if Jesus was + not condemned as Messiah, on what grounds was He condemned? And, + again, what interest had those whose concern was to make the + Messiahship a secret of His earthly life, in making Him die as + Messiah, contrary to the received tradition? And what interest could + the tradition have had in falsifying history in that way? Even + admitting that the prediction of the passion to the disciples is of a + dogmatic character, and is to be regarded as a creation of primitive + Christian theology, the historic fact that He died would have been a + sufficient fulfilment of those sayings. That He was publicly + condemned and crucified as Messiah has nothing to do with the + fulfilment of those predictions, and goes far beyond it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To take a more + general point: what interest had primitive <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> theology in dating back the Messiahship of + Jesus to the time of His earthly ministry? None whatever. Paul shows + us with what complete indifference the earthly life of Jesus was + regarded by primitive Christianity. The discourses in Acts show an + equal indifference, since in them also Jesus first becomes the + Messiah by virtue of His exaltation. To date the Messiahship earlier + was not an undertaking which offered any advantage to primitive + theology, in fact it would only have raised difficulties for it, + since it involved the hypothesis of a dual Messiahship, one of + earthly humiliation and one of future glory. The fact is, if one + reads through the early literature one becomes aware that so long as + theology had an eschatological orientation and was dominated by the + expectation of the Parousia the question of how Jesus of Nazareth + <span class="tei tei-q">“had been”</span> the Messiah not only did + not exist, but was impossible. Primitive theology is simply a + theology of the future, with no interest in history! It was only with + the decline of eschatological interest and the change in the + orientation of Christianity which was connected therewith that an + interest in the life of Jesus and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“historical Messiahship”</span> arose.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That is to say, + the Gnostics, who were the first to assert the Messiahship of the + historical Jesus, and who were obliged to assert it precisely because + they denied the eschatological conceptions, forced this view upon the + theology of the Early Church, and compelled it to create in the Logos + Christology an un-Gnostic mould in which to cast the speculative + conception of the historical Messiahship of Jesus; and that is what + we find in the Fourth Gospel. Prior to the anti-Gnostic controversies + we find in the early Christian literature no conscious dating back of + the Messiahship of Jesus to His earthly life, and no theological + interest at work upon the dogmatic recasting of His history.<a id= + "noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> It is + therefore difficult to suppose that the Messianic secret in Mark, + that is to say, in the very earliest tradition, was derived from + primitive theology. The assertion of the Messiahship of Jesus was + wholly independent of the latter. The instinct which led Bruno Bauer + to explain the Messianic secret as the literary invention of Mark + himself was therefore quite correct. Once suppose that tradition and + primitive theology have anything to do with the matter, and the + theory of the interpolation of the Messiahship into the history + becomes almost impossible to carry through. But Wrede's greatness + consists precisely in the fact that he was compelled by his acute + perception of the significance of the critical data to set aside the + purely literary version of the hypothesis and make Mark, so to speak, + the instrument of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg + 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + literary realisation of the ideas of a definite intellectual circle + within the sphere of primitive theology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The positive + difficulty which confronts the sceptical theory is to explain how the + Messianic beliefs of the first generation arose, if Jesus, throughout + His life, was for all, even for the disciples, merely a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“teacher,”</span> and gave even His intimates no hint of + the dignity which He claimed for Himself. It is difficult to + eliminate the Messiahship from the <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of + Jesus,”</span> especially from the narrative of the passion; it is + more difficult still, as Keim saw long ago, to bring it back again + after its elimination from the <span class="tei tei-q">“Life”</span> + into the theology of the primitive Church. In Wrede's acute and + logical thinking this difficulty seems to leap to light.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Since the + Messianic secret in Mark is always connected with the resurrection, + the date at which the Messianic belief of the disciples arose must be + the resurrection of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“But the idea of + dating the Messiahship from the resurrection is certainly not a + thought of Jesus, but of the primitive Church. It presupposes the + Church's experience of the appearance of the risen Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The psychologist + will say that the <span class="tei tei-q">“resurrection + experiences,”</span> however they may be conceived, are only + intelligible as based upon the expectation of the resurrection, and + this again as based on references of Jesus to the resurrection. But + leaving psychology aside, let us accept the resurrection experiences + of the disciples as a pure psychological miracle. Even so, how can + the appearances of the risen Jesus have suggested to the disciples + the idea that Jesus, the crucified teacher, was the Messiah? Apart + from any expectations, how can this conclusion have resulted for them + from the mere <span class="tei tei-q">“fact of the + resurrection”</span>? The fact of the appearance did not by any means + imply it. In certain circles, indeed, according to Mark vi. 14-16, in + the very highest quarters, the resurrection of the Baptist was + believed in; but that did not make John the Baptist the Messiah. The + inexplicable thing is that, according to Wrede, the disciples began + at once to assert confidently and unanimously that He was the Messiah + and would before long appear in glory.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how did the + appearance of the risen Jesus suddenly become for them a proof of His + Messiahship and the basis of their eschatology? That Wrede fails to + explain, and so makes this <span class="tei tei-q">“event”</span> an + <span class="tei tei-q">“historical”</span> miracle which in reality + is harder to believe than the supernatural event.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Any one who holds + <span class="tei tei-q">“historical”</span> miracles to be just as + impossible as any other kind, even when they occur in a critical and + sceptical work, will be forced to the conclusion that the Messianic + eschatological significance attached to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“resurrection experience”</span> by the disciples implies + some kind of Messianic eschatological references on the part of the + historical Jesus which gave to the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“resurrection”</span> + its Messianic eschatological significance. Here Wrede himself, though + without admitting it, postulates some Messianic hints on the part of + Jesus, since he conceives the judgment of the disciples upon the + resurrection to have been not analytical, but synthetic, inasmuch as + they add something to it, and that, indeed, the main thing, which was + not implied in the conception of the event as such.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here again the + merit of Wrede's contribution to criticism consists in the fact that + he takes the position as it is and does not try to improve it + artificially. Bruno Bauer and others supposed that the belief in the + Messiahship of Jesus had slowly solidified out of a kind of gaseous + state, or had been forced into primitive theology by the literary + invention of Mark. Wrede, however, feels himself obliged to base it + upon an historical fact, and, moreover, the same historical fact + which is pointed to by the sayings in the Synoptics and the Pauline + theology. But in so doing he creates an almost insurmountable + difficulty for his hypothesis.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can only + briefly refer to the question what form the accounts of the + resurrection must have taken if the historic fact which underlay them + was the first surprised apprehension and recognition of the + Messiahship of Jesus on the part of the disciples. The Messianic + teaching would necessarily in that case have been somehow or other + put into the mouth of the risen Jesus. It is, however, completely + absent, because it was already contained in the teaching of Jesus + during His earthly life. The theory of Messianic secrecy must + therefore have re-moulded not merely the story of the passion, but + also that of the resurrection, removing the revelation of the + Messiahship to the disciples from the latter in order to insert it + into the public ministry!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wrede, moreover, + will only take account of the Marcan text as it stands, not of the + historical possibility that the <span class="tei tei-q">“futuristic + Messiahship”</span> which meets us in the mysterious utterances of + Jesus goes back in some form to a sound tradition. Further he does + not take the eschatological character of the teaching of Jesus into + his calculations, but works on the false assumption that he can + analyse the Marcan text in and by itself and so discover the + principle on which it is composed. He carries out experiments on the + law of crystallisation of the narrative material in this Gospel, but + instead of doing so in the natural and historical atmosphere he does + it in an atmosphere artificially neutralised, which contains no trace + of contemporary conceptions.<a id="noteref_264" name="noteref_264" + href="#note_264"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> + Consequently the conclusion <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg + 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + based on the sum of his observations has in it something arbitrary. + Everything which conflicts with the rational construction of the + course of the history is referred directly to the theory of the + concealment of the Messianic secret. But in the carrying out of that + theory a number of self-contradictions, without which it could not + subsist, must be recognised and noted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, for example, + all the prohibitions,<a id="noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href= + "#note_265"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> + whatever they may refer to, even including the command not to make + known His miracles, are referred to the same category as the + injunction not to reveal the Messianic secret. But what justification + is there for that? It presupposes that according to Mark the miracles + could be taken as proofs of the Messiahship, an idea of which there + is no hint whatever in Mark. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + miracles,”</span> Wrede argues, <span class="tei tei-q">“are + certainly used by the earliest Christians as evidence of the nature + and significance of Christ.... I need hardly point to the fact that + Mark, not less than Matthew, Luke, and John, must have held the + opinion that the miracles of Jesus encountered a widespread and + ardent Messianic expectation.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In John this + Messianic significance of the miracles is certainly assumed; but then + the really eschatological view of things has here fallen into the + background. It seems indeed as if genuine eschatology excluded the + Messianic interpretation of the miracles. In Matthew the miracles of + Jesus have nothing whatever to do with the proof of the Messiahship, + but, as is evident from the saying about Chorazin and Bethsaida, + Matt. xi. 20-24, are only an exhibition of mercy intended to awaken + repentance, or, according to Matt. xii. 28, an indication of the + nearness of the Kingdom of God. They have as little to do with the + Messianic office as in the Acts of the Apostles.<a id="noteref_266" + name="noteref_266" href="#note_266"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> In + Mark, from first to last, there is <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> not a single syllable to suggest that the + miracles have a Messianic significance. Even admitting the + possibility that the <span class="tei tei-q">“miracles of Jesus + encountered an ardent Messianic expectation,”</span> that does not + necessarily imply a Messianic significance in them. To justify that + conclusion requires the pre-supposition that the Messiah was expected + to be some kind of an earthly man who should do miracles. This is + presupposed by Wrede, by Bruno Bauer, and by modern theology in + general, but it has not been proved, and it is at variance with + eschatology, which pictured the Messiah to itself as a heavenly being + in a world which was already being transformed into something + supra-mundane.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The assumption + that the clue to the explanation of the command not to make known the + miracles is to be found in the necessity of guarding the secret of + the Messiahship is, therefore, not justified. The miracles are + connected with the Kingdom and the nearness of the Kingdom, not with + the Messiah. But Wrede is obliged to refer everything to the + Messianic secret, because he leaves the preaching of the Kingdom out + of account.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same process + is repeated in the discussion of the veiling of the mystery of the + Kingdom of God in the parables of Mark iv. The mystery of the Kingdom + is for Wrede the secret of Jesus' Messiahship. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We have learned in the meantime,”</span> he says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that one main element in this mystery is + that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God. If Jesus, according to + Mark, conceals his Messiahship, we are justified in interpreting the + μυστήριον τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ in the light of this + fact.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That is one of the + weakest points in Wrede's whole theory. Where is there any hint of + this in these parables? And why should the secret of the Kingdom of + God contain within it as one of its principal features the secret of + the Messiahship of Jesus?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mark's account of Jesus' parabolic teaching,”</span> he + concludes, <span class="tei tei-q">“is completely + unhistorical,”</span> because it is directly opposed to the essential + nature of the parables. The ultimate reason, according to Wrede, why + this whole view of the parables arose, was simply <span class= + "tei tei-q">“because the general opinion was already in existence + that Jesus had revealed Himself to the disciples, but concealed + Himself from the multitude.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Instead of simply + admitting that we are unable to discover what the mystery of the + Kingdom in Mark iv. is, any more than we can understand why it must + be veiled, and numbering it among the unsolved problems of Jesus' + preaching of the Kingdom, Wrede forces this chapter inside the lines + of his theory of the veiled Messiahship.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The desire of + Jesus to be alone, too, and remain unrecognised (Mark vii. 24 and ix. + 30 ff.) is supposed to have some kind of connexion with the veiling + of the Messiahship. He even brings <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the multitude, which in Mark x. 47 ff. rebukes + the blind beggar at Jericho who cried out to Jesus, into the service + of his theory ... on the ground that the beggar had addressed Him as + Son of David. But all the narrative says is that they told him to + hold his peace—to cease making an outcry—not that they did so because + of his addressing Jesus as <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of + David.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In an equally + arbitrary fashion the surprising introduction of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“multitude”</span> in Mark viii. 34, after the incident + of Caesarea Philippi, is dragged into the theory of secrecy.<a id= + "noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> Wrede + does not feel the possibility or impossibility of the sudden + appearance of the multitude in this locality as an historical + problem, any more than he grasps the sudden withdrawal of Jesus from + His public ministry as primarily an historical question. Mark is for + him a writer who is to be judged from a pathological point of view, a + writer who, dominated by the fixed idea of introducing everywhere the + Messianic secret of Jesus, is always creating mysterious and + unintelligible situations, even when these do not directly serve the + interests of his theory, and who in some of his descriptions, writes + in a rather <span class="tei tei-q">“fairy-tale”</span> style. When + all is said, his treatment of the history scarcely differs from that + of the fourth Evangelist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The absence of + historical prepossessions which Wrede skilfully assumes in his + examination of the connexion in Mark is not really complete. He is + bound to refer everything inexplicable to the principle of the + concealment of the Messiahship, which is the only principle that he + recognises in the dogmatic stratum of the narrative, and is + consequently obliged to deny the historicity of such passages, + whereas in reality the veiling of the Messiahship is only involved in + a few places and is there indicated in clear and simple words. He is + unwilling to recognise that there is a second, wider circle of + mystery which has to do, not with Jesus' Messiahship, but with His + preaching of the Kingdom, with the mystery of the Kingdom of God in + the wider sense, and that within this second circle there lie a + number of historical problems, above all the mission of the Twelve + and the inexplicable abandonment of public activity on the part of + Jesus which followed soon afterwards. His mistake consists in + endeavouring by violent methods to subsume the more general, the + mystery of the Kingdom of God, under the more special, the mystery of + the Messiahship, instead of inserting the latter as the smaller + circle, within the wider, the secret of the Kingdom of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As he does not + deal with the teaching of Jesus, he has no occasion to take account + of the secret of the Kingdom of God. That is the more remarkable + because corresponding to one fundamental idea of the Messianic secret + there is a parallel, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg + 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + more general dogmatic conception in Jesus' preaching of the Kingdom. + For if Jesus in Matt. x. gives the disciples nothing to take with + them on their mission but predictions of suffering; if at the very + beginning of His ministry He closes the Beatitudes with a blessing + upon the persecuted; if in Mark viii. 34 ff. He warns the people that + they will have to choose between life and life, between death and + death; if, in short, from the first, He loses no opportunity of + preaching about suffering and following Him in His sufferings; that + is just as much a matter of dogma as His own sufferings and + predictions of sufferings. For in both cases the necessity of + suffering, the necessity of facing death, is not <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a necessity of the historical situation,”</span> not a + necessity which arises out of the circumstances; it is an assertion + put forth without empirical basis, a prophecy of storm while the sky + is blue, since neither Jesus nor the people to whom He spoke were + undergoing any persecution; and when His fate overtook Him not even + the disciples were involved in it. It is distinctly remarkable that, + except for a few meagre references, the enigmatic character of Jesus' + constant predictions of suffering has not been discussed in the + Life-of-Jesus literature.<a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href= + "#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What has now to be + done, therefore, is, in contradistinction to Wrede, to make a + critical examination of the dogmatic element in the life of Jesus on + the assumption that the atmosphere of the time was saturated with + eschatology, that is, to keep in even closer touch with the facts + than Wrede does, and moreover, to proceed, not from the particular to + the general, but from the general to the particular, carefully + considering whether the dogmatic element is not precisely the + historical element. For, after all, why should not Jesus think in + terms of doctrine, and make history in action, just as well as a poor + Evangelist can do it on paper, under the pressure of the theological + interests of the primitive community.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Once again, + however, we must repeat that the critical analysis and the assertion + of a system running through the disorder are the same in the + eschatological as in the sceptical hypothesis, only that in the + eschatological analysis a number of problems come more clearly to + light. The two constructions are related like the bones and cartilage + of the body. The general structure is the same, only that in the case + of the one a solid substance, lime, is distributed even in the + minutest portions, giving it firmness and solidity, while in the + other case this is lacking. This reinforcing substance is the + eschatological world-view.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How is it to be + explained that Wrede, in spite of the eschatological school, in spite + of Johannes Weiss, could, in critically <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> investigating the connecting principle of the + life of Jesus, simply leave eschatology out of account? The blame + rests with the eschatological school itself, for it applied the + eschatological explanation only to the preaching of Jesus, and not + even to the whole of this, but only to the Messianic secret, instead + of using it also to throw light upon the whole public work of Jesus, + the connexion and want of connexion between the events. It + represented Jesus as thinking and speaking eschatologically in some + of the most important passages of His teaching, but for the rest gave + as uneschatological a presentation of His life as modern historical + theology had done. The teaching of Jesus and the history of Jesus + were set in different keys. Instead of destroying the + modern-historical scheme of the life of Jesus, or subjecting it to a + rigorous examination, and thereby undertaking the performance of a + highly valuable service to criticism, the eschatological theory + confined itself within the limits of New Testament Theology, and left + it to Wrede to reveal one after another by a laborious purely + critical method the difficulties which from its point of view it + might have grasped historically at a single glance. It inevitably + follows that Wrede is unjust to Johannes Weiss and Johannes Weiss + towards Wrede.<a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href= + "#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is quite + inexplicable that the eschatological school, with its clear + perception of the eschatological element in the preaching of the + Kingdom of God, did not also hit upon the thought of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“dogmatic”</span> element in the history of Jesus. + Eschatology is simply <span class="tei tei-q">“dogmatic + history”</span>—history as moulded by theological beliefs—which + breaks in upon the natural course of history and abrogates. it. Is it + not even a priori the only conceivable view that the conduct of one + who looked forward to His Messianic <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Parousia”</span> in the near future should be + determined, not by the natural course of events, but by that + expectation? The chaotic confusion of the narratives ought to have + suggested the thought that the events had been thrown into this + confusion by the volcanic force of an incalculable personality, not + by some kind of carelessness or freak of the + tradition.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg + 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A very little + consideration suffices to show that there is something quite + incomprehensible in the public ministry of Jesus taken as a whole. + According to Mark it lasted less than a year, for since he speaks of + only one Passover-journey we may conclude that no other Passover fell + within the period of Jesus' activity as a teacher. If it is proposed + to assume that He allowed a Passover to go by without going up to + Jerusalem, His adversaries, who took Him to task about hand-washings + and about rubbing the ears of corn on the Sabbath, would certainly + have made a most serious matter of this, and we should have to + suppose that the Evangelist for some reason or other thought fit to + suppress the fact. That is to say, the burden of proof lies upon + those who assert a longer duration for the ministry of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Until they have + succeeded in proving it, we may assume something like the following + course of events. Jesus, in going up to a Passover, came in contact + with the movement initiated by John the Baptist in Judaea, and, after + the lapse of a little time—if we bring into the reckoning the forty + days' sojourn in the wilderness mentioned in Mark i. 13, a few weeks + later—appeared in Galilee proclaiming the near approach of the + Kingdom of God. According to Mark He had known Himself since His + baptism to be the Messiah, but from the historical point of view that + does not matter, since history is concerned with the first + announcement of the Messiahship, not with inward psychological + processes.<a id="noteref_270" name="noteref_270" href= + "#note_270"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This work of + preaching the Kingdom was continued until the sending forth of the + Twelve; that is to say, at the most for a few weeks. Perhaps in the + saying <span class="tei tei-q">“the harvest is great but the + labourers are few,”</span> with which Jesus closes His work prior to + sending forth the disciples, there lies an allusion to the actual + state of the natural fields. The flocking of the people to Him after + the Mission of the Twelve, when a great multitude thronged about Him + for several days during His journey along the northern shore of the + lake, can be more naturally explained if the harvest had just been + brought in.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However that may + be, it is certain that Jesus, in the midst of His initial success, + left Galilee, journeyed northwards, and only resumed His work as a + teacher in Judaea on the way to Jerusalem! Of His <span class= + "tei tei-q">“public ministry,”</span> therefore, a large section + falls out, being cancelled by a period of inexplicable concealment; + it dwindles to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg + 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + few weeks of preaching here and there in Galilee and the few days of + His sojourn in Jerusalem.<a id="noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href= + "#note_271"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in that case + the public life of Jesus becomes practically unintelligible. The + explanation that His cause in Galilee was lost, and that He was + obliged to flee, has not the slightest foundation in the text.<a id= + "noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href="#note_272"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a> That + was recognised even by Keim, the inventor of the successful and + unsuccessful periods in the life of Jesus, as is shown by his + suggestion that the Evangelists had intentionally removed the traces + of failure from the decisive period which led up to the northern + journey. The controversy over the washing of hands in Mark vii. 1-23, + to which appeal is always made, is really a defeat for the Pharisees. + The theory of the <span class="tei tei-q">“desertion of the + Galilaeans,”</span> which appears with more or less artistic + variations in all modern Lives of Jesus, owes its existence not to + any other confirmatory fact, but simply to the circumstance that Mark + makes the simple statement: <span class="tei tei-q">“And Jesus + departed and went into the region of Tyre”</span> (vii. 24) without + offering any explanation of this decision.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The only + conclusion which the text warrants is that Mark mentioned no reason + because he knew of none. The decision of Jesus did not rest upon the + recorded facts, since it ignores these, but upon considerations lying + outside the history. His life at this period was dominated by a + <span class="tei tei-q">“dogmatic idea”</span> which rendered Him + indifferent to all else ... even to the happy and successful work as + a teacher which was opening before Him. How could Jesus the + <span class="tei tei-q">“teacher”</span> abandon at that moment a + people so anxious to learn and so eager for salvation? His action + suggests a doubt whether He really felt Himself to be a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“teacher.”</span> If all the controversial discourses and + sayings and answers to questions, which were so to speak wrung from + Him, were subtracted from the sum of His utterances, how much of the + didactic preaching of Jesus would be left over?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even the + supposed didactic preaching is not really that of a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“teacher,”</span> since the purpose of His parables was, + according to Mark iv. 10-12, not to reveal, but to conceal, and of + the Kingdom of God He spoke only in parables (Mark iv. 34).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Perhaps, however, + we are not justified in extending the theory <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of concealment, simply because it is mentioned + in connexion with the first parable, to all the parables which He + ever spoke, for it is never mentioned again. It could hardly indeed + be applied to the parables with a moral, like that, for instance, of + the pearl of great price. It is equally inapplicable to the parables + of coming judgment uttered at Jerusalem, in which He explicitly + exhorts the people to be prepared and watchful in view of the coming + of judgment and of the Kingdom. But here too it is deserving of + notice that Jesus, whenever He desires to make known anything further + concerning the Kingdom of God than just its near approach, seems to + be confined, as it were by a higher law, to the parabolic form of + discourse. It is as though, for reasons which we cannot grasp, His + teaching lay under certain limitations. It appears as a kind of + accessory aspect of His vocation. Thus it was possible for Him to + give up His work as a teacher even at the moment when it promised the + greatest success.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Accordingly the + fact of His always speaking in parables and of His taking this + inexplicable resolution both point back to a mysterious + pre-supposition which greatly reduces the importance of Jesus' work + as a teacher.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One reason for + this limitation is distinctly stated in Mark iv. 10-12, viz. + predestination! Jesus knows that the truth which He offers is + exclusively for those who have been definitely chosen, that the + general and public announcement of His message could only thwart the + plans of God, since the chosen are already winning their salvation + from God. Only the phrase, <span class="tei tei-q">“Repent for the + Kingdom of God is at hand”</span> and its variants belong to the + public preaching. And this, therefore, is the only message which He + commits to His disciples when sending them forth. What this + repentance, supplementary to the law, the special ethic of the + interval before the coming of the Kingdom (<span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Interimsethik</span></span>) is, in its positive + acceptation, He explains in the Sermon on the Mount. But all that + goes beyond that simple phrase must be publicly presented only in + parables, in order that those only, who are shown to possess + predestination by having the initial knowledge which enables them to + understand the parables, may receive a more advanced knowledge, which + is imparted to them in a measure corresponding to their original + degree of knowledge: <span class="tei tei-q">“Unto him that hath + shall be given, and from him that hath not shall be taken away even + that which he hath”</span> (Mark iv. 24-25).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The predestinarian + view goes along with the eschatology. It is pushed to its utmost + consequences in the closing incident of the parable of the marriage + of the King's son (Matt. xxii. 1-14) where the man who, in response + to a publicly issued invitation, sits down at the table of the King, + but is recognised from his appearance as not called, is thrown out + into perdition. <span class="tei tei-q">“Many are called but few are + chosen.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg + 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The + ethical idea of salvation and the predestinarian limitation of + acceptance to the elect are constantly in conflict in the mind of + Jesus. In one case, however, He finds relief in the thought of + predestination. When the rich young man turned away, not having + strength to give up his possessions for the sake of following Jesus + as he had been commanded to do, Jesus and His disciples were forced + to draw the conclusion that he, like other rich men, was lost, and + could not enter into the Kingdom of God. But immediately afterwards + Jesus makes the suggestion, <span class="tei tei-q">“With men it is + impossible, but not with God, for with God all things are + possible”</span> (Mark x. 17-27). That is, He will not give up the + hope that the young man, in spite of appearances, which are against + him, will be found to have belonged to the Kingdom of God, solely in + virtue of the secret all-powerful will of God. Of a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“conversion”</span> of the young man there is no + question.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Beatitudes, + on the other hand, the argument is reversed; the predestination is + inferred from its outward manifestation. It may seem to us + inconceivable, but they are really predestinarian in form. Blessed + are the poor in spirit! Blessed are the meek! Blessed are the + peacemakers!—that does not mean that by virtue of their being poor in + spirit, meek, peace-loving, they deserve the Kingdom. Jesus does not + intend the saying as an injunction or exhortation, but as a simple + statement of fact: in their being poor in spirit, in their meekness, + in their love of peace, it is made manifest that they are predestined + to the Kingdom. By the possession of these qualities they are marked + as belonging to it. In the case of others (Matt. v. 10-12) the + predestination to the Kingdom is made manifest by the persecutions + which befall them in this world. These are the light of the world, + which already shines among men for the glory of God (Matt. v. + 14-15).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The kingdom cannot + be <span class="tei tei-q">“earned”</span>; what happens is that men + are called to it, and show themselves to be called to it. On careful + examination it appears that the idea of reward in the sayings of + Jesus is not really an idea of reward, because it is relieved against + a background of predestination. For the present it is sufficient to + note the fact that the eschatologico-predestinarian view brings a + mysterious element of dogma not merely into the teaching, but also + into the public ministry of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To take another + point, what is the mystery of the Kingdom of God? It must consist of + something more than merely its near approach, and something of + extreme importance; otherwise Jesus would be here indulging in mere + mystery-mongering. The saying about the candle which He puts upon the + stand, in order that what was hidden may be revealed to those who + have ears to hear, implies that He is making a tremendous revelation + to those who understand the parables about the growth of the seed. + The mystery must <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg + 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + therefore contain the explanation why the Kingdom must now come, and + how men are to know how near it is. For the general fact that it is + very near had already been openly proclaimed both by the Baptist and + by Jesus. The mystery, therefore, must consist of something more than + that.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these parables + it is not the idea of development, but of the apparent absence of + causation which occupies the foremost place. The description aims at + suggesting the question, how, and by what power, incomparably great + and glorious results can be infallibly produced by an insignificant + fact without human aid. A man sowed seed. Much of it was lost, but + the little that fell into good ground brought forth a harvest—thirty, + sixty, an hundredfold—which left no trace of the loss in the sowing. + How did that come about?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A man sows seed + and does not trouble any further about it—cannot indeed do anything + to help it, but he knows that after a definite time the glorious + harvest which arises out of the seed will stand before him. By what + power is that effected?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An extremely + minute grain of mustard seed is planted in the earth and there + necessarily arises out of it a great bush, which cannot certainly + have been contained in the grain of seed. How was that?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What the parables + emphasise is, therefore, so to speak, the in itself negative, + inadequate, character of the initial fact, upon which, as by a + miracle, there follows in the appointed time, through the power of + God, some great thing. They lay stress not upon the natural, but upon + the miraculous character of such occurrences.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what is the + initial fact of the parables? It is the sowing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not said + that by the man who sows the seed Jesus means Himself. The man has no + importance. In the parable of the mustard seed he is not even + mentioned. All that is asserted is that the initial fact is already + present, as certainly present as the time of the sowing is past at + the moment when Jesus speaks. That being so, the Kingdom of God must + follow as certainly as harvest follows seed-sowing. As a man believes + in the harvest, without being able to explain it, simply because the + seed has been sown; so with the same absolute confidence he may + believe in the Kingdom of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the initial + fact which is symbolised? Jesus can only mean a fact which was + actually in existence—the movement of repentance evoked by the + Baptist and now intensified by His own preaching. That necessarily + involves the bringing in of the Kingdom by the power of God; as man's + sowing necessitates the giving of the harvest by the same Infinite + Power. Any one who knows this sees with different eyes the corn + growing in the fields <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg + 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + the harvest ripening, for he sees the one fact in the other, and + awaits along with the earthly harvest the heavenly, the revelation of + the Kingdom of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we look into + the thought more closely we see that the coming of the Kingdom of God + is not only symbolically or analogically, but also really and + temporally connected with the harvest. The harvest ripening upon + earth is the last! With it comes also the Kingdom of God which brings + in the new age. When the reapers are sent into the fields, the Lord + in Heaven will cause His harvest to be reaped by the holy angels.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If the three + parables of Mark iv. contain the mystery of the Kingdom of God, and + are therefore capable of being summed up in a single formula, this + can be nothing else than the joyful exhortation: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ye who have eyes to see, read, in the harvest which is + ripening upon earth, what is being prepared in heaven!”</span> The + eager eschatological hope was to regard the natural process as the + last of its kind, and to see in it a special significance in view of + the event of which it was to give the signal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The analogical and + temporal parallelism becomes complete if we assume that the movement + initiated by the Baptist began in the spring, and notice that Jesus, + according to Matt. ix. 37 and 38, before sending out the disciples to + make a speedy proclamation of the nearness of the Kingdom of God, + uttered the remarkable saying about the rich harvest. It seems like a + final expression of the thought contained in the parables about the + seed and its promise, and finds its most natural explanation in the + supposition that the harvest was actually at hand.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whatever may be + thought of this attempt to divine historically the secret of the + Kingdom of God, there is one thing that cannot be got away from, viz. + that the initial fact to which Jesus points, under the figure of the + sowing, is somehow or other connected with the eschatological + preaching of repentance, which had been begun by the Baptist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That may be the + more confidently asserted because Jesus in another mysterious saying + describes the days of the Baptist as a time which makes preparation + for the coming of the Kingdom of God. <span class="tei tei-q">“From + the days of John the Baptist,”</span> He says in Matt. xi. 12, + <span class="tei tei-q">“even until now, the Kingdom of Heaven is + subjected to violence, and the violent wrest it to + themselves.”</span> The saying has nothing to do with the entering of + individuals into the Kingdom; it simply asserts, that since the + coming of the Baptist a certain number of persons are engaged in + forcing on and compelling the coming of the Kingdom. Jesus' + expectation of the Kingdom is an expectation based upon a fact which + exercises an active influence upon the Kingdom of God. It was not He, + and not the Baptist who <span class="tei tei-q">“were working at the + coming of the Kingdom”</span>; it is the host <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of penitents which is wringing it from + God, so that it may now come at any moment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The eschatological + insight of Johannes Weiss made an end of the modern view that Jesus + founded the Kingdom. It did away with all activity, as exercised upon + the Kingdom of God, and made the part of Jesus purely a waiting one. + Now the activity comes back into the preaching of the Kingdom, but + this time eschatologically conditioned. The secret of the Kingdom of + God which Jesus unveils in the parables about confident expectation + in Mark iv., and declares in so many words in the eulogy on the + Baptist (Matt. xi.), amounts to this, that in the movement to which + the Baptist gave the first impulse, and which still continued, there + was an initial fact which was drawing after it the coming of the + Kingdom, in a fashion which was miraculous, unintelligible, but + unfailingly certain, since the sufficient cause for it lay in the + power and purpose of God.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It should be + observed that Jesus in these parables, as well as in the related + saying at the sending forth of the Twelve, uses the formula, + <span class="tei tei-q">“He that hath ears to hear, let him + hear”</span> (Mark iv. 23 and Matt. xi. 15), thereby signifying that + in this utterance there lies concealed a supernatural knowledge + concerning the plans of God, which only those who have ears to + hear—that is, the foreordained—can detect. For others these sayings + are unintelligible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If this genuinely + <span class="tei tei-q">“historical”</span> interpretation of the + mystery of the Kingdom of God is correct, Jesus must have expected + the coming of the Kingdom at harvest time. And that is just what He + did expect. It is for that reason that He sends out His disciples to + make known in Israel, as speedily as may be, what is about to happen. + That in this He is actuated by a dogmatic idea, becomes clear when we + notice that, according to Mark, the mission of the Twelve followed + immediately on the rejection at Nazareth. The unreceptiveness of the + Nazarenes had made no impression upon Him; He was only astonished at + their unbelief (Mark vi. 6). This passage is often interpreted to + mean that He was astonished to find His miracle-working power fail + Him. There is no hint of that in the text. What He is astonished at + is, that in His native town there were so few believers, that is, + elect, knowing as He does that the Kingdom of God may appear at any + moment. But that fact makes no difference whatever to the nearness of + the coming of the Kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Evangelist, + therefore, places the rejection at Nazareth and the mission of the + Twelve side by side, simply because he found them in this temporal + connexion in the tradition. If he had been working by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“association of ideas,”</span> he would not have arrived + at this order. The want of connexion, the impossibility of applying + any natural explanation, is just what is historical, because the + course of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg + 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + history was determined, not by outward events, but by the decisions + of Jesus, and these were determined by dogmatic, eschatological + considerations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To how great an + extent this was the case in regard to the mission of the Twelve is + clearly seen from the <span class="tei tei-q">“charge”</span> which + Jesus gave them. He tells them in plain words (Matt. x. 23), that He + does not expect to see them back in the present age. The Parousia of + the Son of Man, which is logically and temporally identical with the + dawn of the Kingdom, will take place before they shall have completed + a hasty journey through the cities of Israel to announce it. That the + words mean this and nothing else, that they ought not to be in any + way weakened down, should be sufficiently evident. This is the form + in which Jesus reveals to them the secret of the Kingdom of God. A + few days later, He utters the saying about the violent who, since the + days of John the Baptist, are forcing on the coming of the + Kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is equally + clear, and here the dogmatic considerations which guided the + resolutions of Jesus become still more prominent, that this + prediction was not fulfilled. The disciples returned to Him; and the + appearing of the Son of Man had not taken place. The actual history + disavowed the dogmatic history on which the action of Jesus had been + based. An event of supernatural history which must take place, and + must take place at that particular point of time, failed to come + about. That was for Jesus, who lived wholly in the dogmatic history, + the first <span class="tei tei-q">“historical”</span> occurrence, the + central event which closed the former period of His activity and gave + the coming period a new character. To this extent modern theology is + justified when it distinguishes two periods in the Life of Jesus; an + earlier, in which He is surrounded by the people, a later in which He + is <span class="tei tei-q">“deserted”</span> by them, and travels + about with the Twelve only. It is a sound observation that the two + periods are sharply distinguished by the attitude of Jesus. To + explain this difference of attitude, which they thought themselves + bound to account for on natural historical grounds, theologians of + the modern historical school invented the theory of growing + opposition and waning support. Weisse, no doubt, had expressed + himself in direct opposition to this theory.<a id="noteref_273" name= + "noteref_273" href="#note_273"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a> Keim, + who gave it its place in theology, was aware that in setting it up he + was going against the plain sense of the texts. Later writers lost + this consciousness, just as in the first and third Gospel the + significance of the Messianic secret in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page358">[pg 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Mark gradually faded away; they imagined that + they could find the basis of fact for the theory in the texts, and + did not realise that they only believed in the desertion of the + multitude and the <span class="tei tei-q">“flights and + retirements”</span> of Jesus because they could not otherwise explain + historically the alteration in His conduct, His withdrawal from + public work, and His resolve to die.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thoroughgoing + eschatological school makes better work of it. They recognise in the + non-occurrence of the Parousia promised in Matt. x. 23, the + <span class="tei tei-q">“historic fact,”</span> in the estimation of + Jesus, which in some way determined the alteration in His plans, and + His attitude towards the multitude.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole history + of <span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity”</span> down to the present + day, that is to say, the real inner history of it, is based on the + delay of the Parousia, the non-occurrence of the Parousia, the + abandonment of eschatology, the progress and completion of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“de-eschatologising”</span> of religion which + has been connected therewith. It should be noted that the + non-fulfilment of Matt. x. 23 is the first postponement of the + Parousia. We have therefore here the first significant date in the + <span class="tei tei-q">“history of Christianity”</span>; it gives to + the work of Jesus a new direction, otherwise inexplicable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here we recognise + also why the Marcan hypothesis, in constructing its view of the Life + of Jesus, found itself obliged to have recourse more and more to the + help of modern psychology, and thus necessarily became more and more + unhistorical. The fact which alone makes possible an understanding of + the whole, is lacking in this Gospel. Without Matt. x. and xi. + everything remains enigmatic. For this reason Bruno Bauer and Wrede + are in their own way the only consistent representatives of the + Marcan hypothesis from the point of view of historical criticism, + when they arrive at the result that the Marcan account is inherently + unintelligible. Keim, with his strong sense of historical reality, + rightly felt that the plan of the Life of Jesus should not be + constructed exclusively on the basis of Mark.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The recognition + that Mark alone gives an inadequate basis, is more important than any + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus”</span> theories, for which it is + impossible to discover a literary foundation, or find an historical + use. A simple induction from the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“facts”</span> takes us beyond Mark. In the + discourse-material of Matthew, which the modern-historical school + thought they could sift in here and there, wherever there seemed to + be room for it, there lie hidden certain facts—facts which never + happened but are all the more important for that.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why Mark describes + the events and discourses in the neighbourhood of the mission of the + Twelve with such careful authentication is a literary question which + the historical study of the life of Jesus may leave open; the more so + since, even as a literary question, it is insoluble.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The prediction of + the Parousia of the Son of Man is not the only one which remained + unfulfilled. There is the prediction of sufferings which is connected + with it. To put it more accurately, the prediction of the appearing + of the Son of Man in Matt. x. 23 runs up into a prediction of + sufferings, which, working up to a climax, forms the remainder of the + discourse at the sending forth of the disciples. This prediction of + sufferings has as little to do with objective history as the + prediction of the Parousia. Consequently, none of the Lives of Jesus, + which follow the lines of a natural psychology, from Weisse down to + Oskar Holtzmann, can make anything of it.<a id="noteref_274" name= + "noteref_274" href="#note_274"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> They + either strike it out, or transfer it to the last <span class= + "tei tei-q">“gloomy epoch”</span> of the life of Jesus, regard it as + an unintelligible anticipation, or put it down to the account of + <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive theology,”</span> which serves as + a scrap-heap for everything for which they cannot find a place in the + <span class="tei tei-q">“historical life of Jesus.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the texts it is + quite evident that Jesus is not speaking of sufferings after His + death, but of sufferings which will befall them as soon as they have + gone forth from Him. The death of Jesus is not here pre-supposed, but + only the Parousia of the Son of Man, and it is implied that this will + occur just after these sufferings and bring them to a close. If the + theology of the primitive Church had remoulded the tradition, as is + always being asserted, it would have made Jesus give His followers + directions for their conduct after His death. That we do not find + anything of this kind is the best proof that there can be no question + of a remoulding of the Life of Jesus by primitive theology. How easy + it would have been for the Early Church to scatter here and there + through the discourses of Jesus directions which were only to be + applied after His death! But the simple fact is that it did not do + so.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sufferings of + which the prospect is held out at the sending forth are doubly, + trebly, nay four times over, unhistorical. In the first place—and + this is the only point which modern historical theology has + noticed—because there is not a shadow of a suggestion in the outward + circumstances of anything which could form a natural occasion for + such predictions of, and exhortations relating to, sufferings. In the + second place—and this has been overlooked by modern theology because + it had already declared them to be unhistorical in its own + characteristic fashion, viz. by striking them out—because they were + not fulfilled. In the third place—and this has not entered into the + mind of modern theology at all—because these sayings were spoken in + the closest connexion <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg + 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + with the promise of the Parousia and are placed in the closest + connexion with that event. In the fourth place, because the + description of that which is to befall the disciples is quite without + any basis in experience. A time of general dissension will begin, in + which brothers will rise up against brothers, and fathers against + sons and children against their parents to cause them to be put to + death (Matt. x. 21). And the disciples <span class="tei tei-q">“shall + be hated of all men for His name's sake.”</span> Let them strive to + hold out to the <span class="tei tei-q">“end,”</span> that is, to the + coming of the Son of Man, in order that they may be saved (Matt. x. + 22).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But why should + they suddenly be hated and persecuted for the name of Jesus, seeing + that this name played no part whatever in their preaching? That is + simply inconceivable. The relation of Jesus to the Son of Man, the + fact, that is to say, that it is He who is to be manifested as Son of + Man, must therefore in some way or other become known in the + interval; not, however, through the disciples, but by some other + means of revelation. A kind of supernatural illumination will + suddenly make known all that Jesus has been keeping secret regarding + the Kingdom of God and His position in the Kingdom. This illumination + will arise as suddenly and without preparation as the spirit of + strife.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And as a matter of + fact Jesus predicts to the disciples in the same discourse that to + their own surprise a supernatural wisdom will suddenly speak from + their lips, so that it will be not they but the Spirit of God who + will answer the great ones of the earth. As the Spirit is for Jesus + and early Christian theology something concrete which is to descend + upon the elect among mankind only in consequence of a definite + event—the outpouring of the Spirit which, according to the prophecy + of Joel, should precede the day of judgment—Jesus must have + anticipated that this would occur during the absence of the + disciples, in the midst of the time of strife and confusion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To put it + differently; the whole of the discourse at the sending forth of the + Twelve, taken in the clear sense of the words, is a prediction of the + events of the <span class="tei tei-q">“time of the end,”</span> + events which are immediately at hand, in which the supernatural + eschatological course of history will break through into the natural + course. The expectation of sufferings is therefore doctrinal and + unhistorical, as is, precisely in the same way, the expectation of + the pouring forth of the Spirit uttered at the same time. The + Parousia of the Son of Man is to be preceded according to the + Messianic dogma by a time of strife and confusion—as it were, the + birth-throes of the Messiah—and the outpouring of the Spirit. It + should be noticed that according to Joel iii. and iv. the outpouring + of the Spirit, along with the miraculous signs, forms the prelude to + the judgment; and also, that in the same context, Joel iii. 13, the + judgment <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg + 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is + described as the harvest-day of God.<a id="noteref_275" name= + "noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a> Here we + have a remarkable parallel to the saying about the harvest in Matt. + ix. 38, which forms the introduction to the discourse at the sending + forth of the disciples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is only one + point in which the predicted course of eschatological events is + incomplete: the appearance of Elias is not mentioned.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus could not + prophesy to the disciples the Parousia of the Son of Man without + pointing them, at the same time, to the pre-eschatological events + which must first occur. He must open to them a part of the secret of + the Kingdom of God, viz. the nearness of the harvest, that they might + not be taken by surprise and caused to doubt by these events.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus this + discourse is historical as a whole and down to the smallest detail + precisely because, according to the view of modern theology, it must + be judged unhistorical. It is, in fact, full of eschatological dogma. + Jesus had no need to instruct the disciples as to what they were to + teach; for they had only to utter a cry. But concerning the events + which should supervene, it was necessary that He should give them + information. Therefore the discourse does not consist of instruction, + but of predictions of sufferings and of the Parousia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That being so, we + may judge with what right the modern psychological theology dismisses + the great Matthaean discourses off-hand as mere <span class= + "tei tei-q">“composite structures.”</span> Just let any one try to + show how the Evangelist when he was racking his brains over the task + of making a <span class="tei tei-q">“discourse at the sending forth + of the disciples,”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg + 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + half by the method of piecing it together out of traditional sayings + and <span class="tei tei-q">“primitive theology,”</span> and half by + inventing it, lighted on the curious idea of making Jesus speak + entirely of inopportune and unpractical matters; and of then going on + to provide the evidence that they never happened.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foretelling of + the sufferings that belong to the eschatological distress is part and + parcel of the preaching of the approach of the Kingdom of God, it + embodies the secret of the Kingdom. It is for that reason that the + thought of suffering appears at the end of the Beatitudes and in the + closing petition of the Lord's Prayer. For the πειρασμός which is + there in view is not an individual psychological temptation, but the + general eschatological time of tribulation, from which God is + besought to exempt those who pray so earnestly for the coming of the + Kingdom, and not to expose them to that tribulation by way of putting + them to the test.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There followed + neither the sufferings, nor the outpouring of the Spirit, nor the + Parousia of the Son of Man. The disciples returned safe and sound and + full of a proud satisfaction; for one promise had been realised—the + power which had been given them over the demons.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But from the + moment when they rejoined Him, all His thoughts and efforts were + devoted to getting rid of the people in order to be alone with them + (Mark vi. 30-33). Previously, during their absence, He had, almost in + open speech, taught the multitude concerning the Baptist, concerning + that which was to precede the coming of the Kingdom, and concerning + the judgment which should come upon the impenitent, even upon whole + towns of them (Matt. xi. 20-24), because, in spite of the miracles + which they had witnessed, they had not recognised the day of grace + and diligently used it for repentance. At the same time He had + rejoiced before them over all those whom God had enlightened that + they might see what was going forward; and had called them to His + side (Matt. xi. 25-30).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And now suddenly, + the moment the disciples return, His one thought is to get away from + the people. They, however, follow Him and overtake Him on the shores + of the lake. He puts the Jordan between Himself and them by crossing + to Bethsaida. They also come to Bethsaida. He returns to Capernaum. + They do the same. Since in Galilee it is impossible for Him to be + alone, and He absolutely must be alone, He <span class= + "tei tei-q">“slips away”</span> to the north. Once more modern + theology was right: He really does flee; not, however, from hostile + Scribes, but from the people, who dog His footsteps in order to await + in His company the appearing of the Kingdom of God and of the Son of + Man—to await it in vain.<a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276" href= + "#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Strauss's first + Life of Jesus the question is thrown out whether, in view of Matt. x. + 23, Jesus did not think of His Parousia as a transformation which + should take place during His lifetime. Ghillany bases his work on + this possibility as on an established historical fact. Dalman takes + this hypothesis to be the necessary correlative of the interpretation + of the self-designation Son of Man on the basis of Daniel and the + Apocalypses.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If Jesus, he + argues, designated Himself in this futuristic sense as the Son of Man + who comes from Heaven, He must have assumed that He would first be + transported thither. <span class="tei tei-q">“A man who had died or + been rapt away from the earth might perhaps be brought into the world + again in this way, or one who had never been on earth might so + descend thither.”</span> But as this conception of transformation and + removal seems to Dalman untenable in the case of Jesus, he treats it + as a <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">reductio ad + absurdum</span></span> of the eschatological interpretation of the + title.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But why? If Jesus + as a man walking in a natural body upon earth, predicts to His + disciples the Parousia of the Son of Man in the immediate future, + with the secret conviction that He Himself was to be revealed as the + Son of Man, He must have made precisely this assumption that He would + first be supernaturally removed and transformed. He thought of + Himself as any one must who believes in the immediate coming of the + last things, as living in two different conditions: the present, and + the future condition into which He is to be transferred at the coming + of the new supernatural world. We learn later that the disciples on + the way up to Jerusalem were entirely possessed by the thought of + what they should be when this transformation took place. They contend + as to who shall have the highest position (Mark ix. 33); James and + John wish Jesus to promise them in advance the thrones on His right + hand and on His left (Mark x. 35-37).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He, moreover, does + not rebuke them for indulging such thoughts, but only tells them how + much, in the present age, of service, humiliation, and suffering is + necessary to constitute a claim to such places in the future age, and + that it does not in the last resort belong to Him to allot the places + on His left and on His right, but that they shall be given to those + for whom they are prepared; therefore, perhaps not to any of the + disciples (Mark x. 40). At this point, therefore, the knowledge and + will of Jesus are thwarted and limited by the predestinarianism which + is bound up with eschatology.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is quite + mistaken, however, to speak as modern theology does, of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“service”</span> here required as belonging + to the <span class="tei tei-q">“new ethic of the Kingdom of + God.”</span> There is for Jesus no ethic of the Kingdom of God, for + in the Kingdom of God all natural relationships, even, for example, + the distinction of sex (Mark xii. 25 and 26), are abolished. + Temptation and sin no longer exist. All is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“reign,”</span> a <span class="tei tei-q">“reign”</span> + which has gradations—Jesus speaks of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“least in the Kingdom of God”</span>—according as it has + been determined in each individual case from all eternity, and + according as each by his self-humiliation and refusal to rule in the + present age has proved his fitness for bearing rule in the future + Kingdom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the loftier + stations, however, it is necessary to have proved oneself in + persecution and suffering. Accordingly, Jesus asks the sons of + Zebedee whether, since they claim these thrones on His right hand and + on His left, they feel themselves strong enough to drink of His cup + and be baptized with His baptism (Mark x. 38). To serve, to humble + oneself, to incur persecution and death, belong to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the ethic of the interim”</span> just as much as does + penitence. They are indeed only a higher form of penitence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A vivid + eschatological expectation is therefore impossible to conceive apart + from the idea of a metamorphosis. The resurrection is only a special + case of this metamorphosis, the form in which the new condition of + things is realised in the case of those who are already dead. The + resurrection, the metamorphosis, and the Parousia of the Son of Man + take place simultaneously, and are one and the same act.<a id= + "noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href="#note_277"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> It is + therefore quite indifferent whether a man loses his life shortly + before the Parousia in order to <span class="tei tei-q">“find his + life,”</span> if that is what is ordained for him; that signifies + only that he will undergo the eschatological metamorphosis with the + dead instead of with the living.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Pauline + eschatology recognises both conceptions side by side, in such a way, + however, that the resurrection is subordinated to the metamorphosis. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Behold, I shew you a mystery,”</span> he + says in 1 Cor. xv. 51 ff.; <span class="tei tei-q">“we shall not all + sleep, but we shall all be changed. In a moment, in the twinkling of + an eye, at the last trump: for the trumpet shall sound, and the dead + shall be raised incorruptible, and we shall be changed.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The apostle + himself desires to be one of those who live to experience the + metamorphosis and to be clothed with the heavenly mode of existence + (2 Cor. v. 1 ff.). The metamorphosis, however, and the resurrection + are, for those who are <span class="tei tei-q">“in Christ,”</span> + connected <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg + 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + with a being caught up into the clouds of heaven (1 Thess. iv. 15 + ff.). Therefore Paul also makes one and the same event of the + metamorphosis, resurrection, and translation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In seeking clues + to the eschatology of Jesus, scholars have passed over the + eschatology which lies closest to it, that of Paul. But why? Is it + not identical with that of Jesus, at least in so far that both are + <span class="tei tei-q">“Jewish eschatology”</span>? Did not Reimarus + long ago declare that the eschatology of the primitive Christian + community was identical with the Jewish, and only went beyond it in + claiming a definite knowledge on a single point which was unessential + to the nature and course of the expected events, in knowing, that is, + who the Son of Man should be? That Christians drew no distinction + between their own eschatology and the Jewish is evident from the + whole character of the earlier apocalyptic literature, and not least + from the Apocalypse of John! After all, what alteration did the + belief that Jesus was the Son of Man who was to be revealed make in + the general scheme of the course of apocalyptic events?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the Rabbinic + literature little help is to be derived towards the understanding of + the world of thought in which Jesus lived, and His view of His own + Person. The latest researches may be said to have made that clear. A + few moral maxims, a few halting parables—that is all that can be + produced in the way of parallels. Even the conception which is there + suggested of the hidden coming and work of the Messiah is of little + importance. We find the same ideas in the mouth of Trypho in Justin's + dialogue, and that makes their Jewish character doubtful. That Jesus + of Nazareth knew Himself to be the Son of Man who was to be revealed + is for us the great fact of His self-consciousness, which is not to + be further explained, whether there had been any kind of preparation + for it in contemporary theology or not.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + self-consciousness of Jesus cannot in fact be illustrated or + explained; all that can be explained is the eschatological view, in + which the Man who possessed that self-consciousness saw reflected in + advance the coming events, both those of a more general character, + and those which especially related to Himself.<a id="noteref_278" + name="noteref_278" href="#note_278"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The eschatology of + Jesus can therefore only be interpreted by the aid of the curiously + intermittent Jewish apocalyptic literature of the period between + Daniel and the Bar-Cochba rising. What else, indeed, are the Synoptic + Gospels, the Pauline letters, the Christian apocalypses than products + of Jewish apocalyptic, belonging, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> moreover, to its greatest and most flourishing + period? Historically regarded, the Baptist, Jesus, and Paul are + simply the culminating manifestations of Jewish apocalyptic thought. + The usual representation is the exact converse of the truth. Writers + describe Jewish eschatology in order to illustrate the ideas of + Jesus. But what is this <span class="tei tei-q">“Jewish + eschatology”</span> after all? It is an eschatology with a great gap + in it, because the culminating period, with the documents which + relate to it, has been left out. The true historian will describe the + eschatology of the Baptist, of Jesus, and of Paul in order to explain + Jewish eschatology. It is nothing less than a misfortune for the + science of New Testament Theology that no real attempt has hitherto + been made to write the history of Jewish eschatology as it really + was; that is, with the inclusion of the Baptist, of Jesus, and of + Paul.<a id="noteref_279" name="noteref_279" href= + "#note_279"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this has had + to be said in order to justify the apparently self-evident assertion + that Mark, Matthew, and Paul are the best sources for the Jewish + eschatology of the time of Jesus. They represent a phase, which even + in detail is self-explanatory, of that Jewish apocalyptic hope which + manifested itself from time to time. We are, therefore, justified in + first reconstructing the Jewish apocalyptic of the time independently + out of these documents, that is to say, in bringing the details of + the discourses of Jesus into an eschatological system, and then on + the basis of this system endeavouring to explain the apparently + disconnected events in the history of His public life.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The lines of + connection which run backwards towards the Psalms of Solomon, Enoch, + and Daniel, and forwards towards the apocalypses of Baruch and Enoch, + are extremely important for the understanding of certain general + conceptions. On the other hand, it is impossible to over-emphasise + the uniqueness of the point of view from which the eschatology of the + time of the Baptist, of Jesus, and of Paul presents itself to us.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place, men feel themselves so close to the coming events that they + only see what lies nearest to them, the imaginative development of + detail entirely ceases. In the second place, it appears to us as + though seen, so to speak, from within, passed through the medium of + powerful minds like those of the Baptist and Jesus. That is why it is + so great and simple. On the other hand, a certain complication arises + from the fact that it now intersects actual history. All these are + original features of it, which are not found in the Jewish + apocalyptic writings of the preceding and following periods, and that + is why these documents <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg + 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + give us so little help in regard to the characteristic detail of the + eschatology of Jesus and His contemporaries.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A further point to + be noticed is that the eschatology of the time of Jesus shows the + influence of the eschatology of the ancient prophets in a way which + is not paralleled either before or after. Compare the Synoptic + eschatology with that of the Psalms of Solomon. In place of the legal + righteousness, which, since the return from the exile, had formed the + link of connexion between the present and the future, we find the + prophetic ethic, the demand for a general repentance, even in the + case of the Baptist. In the Apocalypses of Baruch and Ezra we see, + especially in the theological character of the latter, the persistent + traces of this ethical deepening of apocalyptic.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even in + individual conceptions the apocalyptic of the Baptist, and of the + period which he introduces, reaches back to the eschatology of the + prophetic writings. The pouring forth of the spirit, and the figure + of Elias, who comes again to earth, play a great rôle in it. The + difficulty is, indeed, consciously felt of combining the two + eschatologies, and bringing the prophetic within the Danielic. How, + it is asked, can the Son of David be at the same time the Danielic + Son-of-Man Messiah, at once David's son and David's Lord?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is inadequate + to speak of a synthesis of the two eschatologies. What has happened + is nothing less than the remoulding, the elevation, of the + Daniel-Enoch apocalyptic by the spirit and conceptions belonging to + the ancient prophetic hope.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A great + simplification and deepening of eschatology begins to show itself + even in the Psalms of Solomon. The conception of righteousness which + the writer applies is, in spite of its legal aspect, of an ethical, + prophetic character. It is an eschatology associated with great + historical events, the eschatology of a Pharisaism which is fighting + for a cause, and has therefore a certain inward greatness.<a id= + "noteref_280" name="noteref_280" href="#note_280"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> Between + the Psalms of Solomon and the appearance of the Baptist there lies + the decadence of Pharisaism. At this point there suddenly appears an + eschatological movement detached from Pharisaism, which was declining + into an external legalism, a movement resting on a basis of its own, + and thoroughly penetrated with the spirit of the ancient + prophets.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ultimate + <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">differentia</span></span> of this eschatology is + that it was not, like the other apocalyptic movements, called into + existence by <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg + 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + historical events. The Apocalypse of Daniel was called forth by the + religious oppression of Antiochus;<a id="noteref_281" name= + "noteref_281" href="#note_281"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> the + Psalms of Solomon by the civil strife at Jerusalem and the first + appearance of the Roman power under Pompey;<a id="noteref_282" name= + "noteref_282" href="#note_282"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> Fourth + Ezra and Baruch by the destruction of Jerusalem.<a id="noteref_283" + name="noteref_283" href="#note_283"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a> The + apocalyptic movement in the time of Jesus is not connected with any + historical event. It cannot be said, as Bruno Bauer rightly + perceived, that we know anything about the Messianic expectations of + the Jewish people at that time.<a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284" + href="#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> On the + contrary, the indifference shown by the Roman administration towards + the movement proves that the Romans knew nothing of a condition of + great and general Messianic excitement among the Jewish people. The + conduct of the Pharisaic party also, and the indifference of the + great mass of the people, show that there can have been no question + at that time of a national movement. What is really remarkable about + this wave of apocalyptic enthusiasm is the fact that it was called + forth not by external events, but solely by the appearance of two + great personalities, and subsides with their disappearance, without + leaving among the people generally any trace, except a feeling of + hatred towards the new sect.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Baptist and + Jesus are not, therefore, borne upon the current of a general + eschatological movement. The period offers no events calculated to + give an impulse to eschatological enthusiasm. They themselves set the + times in motion by acting, by creating eschatological facts. It is + this mighty creative force which constitutes the difficulty in + grasping historically the eschatology of Jesus and the Baptist. + Instead of literary artifice speaking out of a distant imaginary + past, there now enter into the field of eschatology men, living, + acting men. It was the only time when that ever happened in Jewish + eschatology.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is silence + all around. The Baptist appears, and cries: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Repent, for the Kingdom of Heaven is at hand.”</span> + Soon after that comes Jesus, and in the knowledge that He is the + coming <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name= + "Pg369" id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Son of Man lays hold + of the wheel of the world to set it moving on that last revolution + which is to bring all ordinary history to a close. It refuses to + turn, and He throws Himself upon it. Then it does turn; and crushes + Him. Instead of bringing in the eschatological conditions, He has + destroyed them. The wheel rolls onward, and the mangled body of the + one immeasurably great Man, who was strong enough to think of Himself + as the spiritual ruler of mankind and to bend history to His purpose, + is hanging upon it still. That is His victory and His reign.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These + considerations regarding the distinctive character of the Synoptic + eschatology were necessary in order to explain the significance of + the sending forth of the disciples and the discourse which Jesus + uttered upon that occasion. Jesus' purpose is to set in motion the + eschatological development of history, to let loose the final woes, + the confusion and strife, from which shall issue the Parousia, and so + to introduce the supra-mundane phase of the eschatological drama. + That is His task, for which He has authority here below. That is why + He says in the same discourse, <span class="tei tei-q">“Think not + that I am come to send peace on the earth; I am not come to send + peace, but a sword”</span> (Matt. x. 34).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with a view + to this initial movement that He chose His disciples. They are not + His helpers in the work of teaching; we never see them in that + capacity, and He did not prepare them to carry on that work after His + death. The very fact that He chooses just twelve shows that it is a + dogmatic idea which He has in mind. He chooses them as those who are + destined to hurl the firebrand into the world, and are afterwards, as + those who have been the comrades of the unrecognised Messiah, before + He came to His Kingdom, to be His associates in ruling and judging + it.<a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" href= + "#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what was to be + the fate of the future Son of Man during the Messianic woes of the + last times? It appears as if it was appointed for Him to share the + persecution and the suffering. He <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> says that those who shall be saved must take + their cross and follow Him (Matt. x. 38), that His followers must be + willing to lose their lives for His sake, and that only those who in + this time of terror confess their allegiance to Him, shall be + confessed by Him before His heavenly Father (Matt. x. 32). Similarly, + in the last of the Beatitudes, He had pronounced those blessed who + were despised and persecuted for His sake (Matt. v. 11, 12). As the + future bearer of the supreme rule He must go through the deepest + humiliation. There is danger that His followers may doubt Him. + Therefore, the last words of His message to the Baptist, just at the + time when He had sent forth the Twelve, is, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Blessed is he whosoever shall not be offended in + me”</span> (Matt. xi. 6).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If He makes a + point of familiarising others with the thought that in the time of + tribulation they may even lose their lives, He must have recognised + that this possibility was still more strongly present in His own + case. It is possible that in the enigmatic saying about the disciples + fasting <span class="tei tei-q">“when the bridegroom is taken away + from them”</span> (Mark ii. 20), there is a hint of what Jesus + expected. In that case suffering, death, and resurrection must have + been closely united in the Messianic consciousness from the first. So + much, however, is certain, viz. that the thought of suffering formed + part, at the time of the sending forth the disciples, of the mystery + of the Kingdom of God and of the Messiahship of Jesus, and that in + the form that Jesus and all the elect were to be brought low in the + πειρασμός at the time of the death-struggle against the evil + world-power which would arise against them; brought down, it might + be, even to death. It mattered as little in His own case as in that + of others whether at the time of the Parousia He should be one of + those who should be metamorphosed, or one who had died and risen + again. The question arises, however, how this self-consciousness of + Jesus could remain concealed. It is true the miracles had nothing to + do with the Messiahship, since no one expected the Messiah to come as + an earthly miracle-worker in the present age. On the contrary, it + would have been the greatest of miracles if any one had recognised + the Messiah in an earthly miracle-worker. How far the cries of the + demoniacs who addressed Him as Messiah were intelligible by the + people must remain an open question. What is clear is that His + Messiahship did not become known in this way even to His + disciples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet in all His + speech and action the Messianic consciousness shines forth. One + might, indeed, speak of the acts of His Messianic consciousness. The + Beatitudes, nay, the whole of the Sermon on the Mount, with the + authoritative <span class="tei tei-q">“I”</span> for ever breaking + through, bear witness to the high dignity which He ascribed to + Himself. Did not this <span class="tei tei-q">“I”</span> set the + people thinking?</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg + 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What must they + have thought when, at the close of this discourse, He spoke of people + who, at the Day of Judgment, would call upon Him as Lord, and appeal + to the works that they had done in His name, and who yet were + destined to be rejected because He would not recognise them (Matt. + vii. 21-23)?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What must they + have thought of Him when He pronounced those blessed who were + persecuted and despised for His sake (Matt. v. 11, 12)? By what + authority did this man forgive sins (Mark ii. 5 ff.)?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the discourse + at the sending forth of the disciples the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I”</span> is still more prominent. He demands of men + that in the trials to come they shall confess Him, that they shall + love Him more than father or mother, bear their cross after Him, and + follow Him to the death, since it is only for such that He can + entreat His Heavenly Father (Matt. x. 32 ff.). Admitting that the + expression <span class="tei tei-q">“Heavenly Father”</span> contained + no riddle for the listening disciples, since He had taught them to + pray <span class="tei tei-q">“Our Father which art in Heaven,”</span> + we have still to ask who was He whose yea or nay should prevail with + God to determine the fate of men at the Judgment?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet they found + it hard, nay impossible, to think of Him as Messiah. They guessed Him + to be a prophet; some thought of Elias, some of John the Baptist + risen from the dead, as appears clearly from the answer of the + disciples at Caesarea Philippi.<a id="noteref_286" name="noteref_286" + href="#note_286"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a> The + Messiah was a supernatural personality who was to appear in the last + times, and who was not expected upon earth before that.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At this point a + difficulty presents itself. How could Jesus be Elias for the people? + Did they not hold John the Baptist to be Elias? Not in the least! + Jesus was the first and the only person who attributed this office to + him. And, moreover, He declares it to the people as something + mysterious, difficult to understand—<span class="tei tei-q">“If ye + can receive it, this is Elias, which was for to come. He that hath + ears to hear, let him hear”</span> (Matt. xi. 14, 15). In making this + revelation He is communicating to them a piece of supernatural + knowledge, opening up a part of the mystery of the Kingdom of God. + Therefore He uses the same formula of emphasis as when making known + in parables the mystery of the Kingdom of God (Mark iv.).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The disciples were + not with Him at this time, and therefore did not learn what was the + rôle of John the Baptist. When a little later, in descending from the + mount of transfiguration He <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg + 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + predicted to the three who formed the inner circle of His followers + the resurrection of the Son of Man, they came to Him with + difficulties about the rising from the dead—how could this be + possible when, according to the Pharisees and Scribes, Elias must + first come?—whereupon Jesus explains to them that the preacher of + repentance whom Herod had put to death had been Elias (Mark ix. + 11-13).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Why did not the + people take the Baptist to be Elias? In the first place no doubt + because he did not describe himself as such. In the next place + because he did no miracle! He was only a natural man without any + evidence of supernatural power, only a prophet. In the third place, + and that was the decisive point, he had himself pointed forward to + the coming of Elias. He who was to come, he whom he preached, was not + the Messiah, but Elias.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He describes him, + not as a supernatural personality, not as a judge, not as one who + will be manifested at the unveiling of the heavenly world, but as one + who in his work shall resemble himself, only much greater—one who, + like himself, baptizes, though with the Holy Spirit. Had it ever been + represented as the work of the Messiah to baptize?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before the Last + Judgment, so it was inferred from Joel, the great outpouring of the + Spirit was to take place; before the Last Judgment, so taught + Malachi, Elias was to come. Until these events had occurred the + manifestation of the Son of Man was not to be looked for. Men's + thoughts were fixed, therefore, not on the Messiah, but upon Elias + and the outpouring of the Spirit.<a id="noteref_287" name= + "noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a> The + Baptist in his preaching combines both ideas, and predicts the coming + of the Great One who shall <span class="tei tei-q">“baptize with the + Holy Spirit,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> who brings about the + outpouring of the Spirit. His own preaching was only designed to + secure that at His coming that Great One should find a community + sanctified and prepared to receive the Spirit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When he heard in + the prison of one who did great wonders and signs, he desired to + learn with certainty whether this was <span class="tei tei-q">“he who + was to come.”</span> If this question is taken as referring to the + Messiahship the whole narrative loses its meaning, and it upsets the + theory of the Messianic secret, since in this case at least one + person had become aware, independently, of the office which belonged + to Jesus, not to mention all the ineptitudes involved in making the + Baptist here speak in doubt and confusion. Moreover, on this false + interpretation of the question the point of Jesus' discourse is lost, + for in this case it is not clear why He says to the people + afterwards, <span class="tei tei-q">“If ye can receive it, John + himself is Elias.”</span> This revelation presupposes that Jesus and + the people, who had <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg + 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + heard the question which had been addressed to Him, also gave it its + only natural meaning, referring it to Jesus as the bearer of the + office of Elias.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That even the + first Evangelist gives the episode a Messianic setting by introducing + it with the words <span class="tei tei-q">“When John heard in the + prison of the works of the Christ”</span> does not alter the facts of + the body of the narrative. The sequel directly contradicts the + introduction. And this interpretation fully explains the evasive + answer of Jesus, in which exegesis has always recognised a certain + reserve without ever being able to make it intelligible why Jesus did + not simply send him the message, <span class="tei tei-q">“Yes, I am + he”</span>—whereto, however, according to modern theology, He would + have needed to add, <span class="tei tei-q">“but another kind of + Messiah from him whom you expect.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact was, the + Baptist had put Him in an extremely difficult position. He could not + answer that He was Elias if He held Himself to be the Messiah; on the + other hand He could not, and would not, disclose to him, and still + less to the messengers and the listening multitude, the secret of His + Messiahship. Therefore He sends this obscure message, which only + contains a confirmation of the facts which John had already heard and + closes with a warning, come what may, not to be offended in Him. Of + this the Baptist was to make what he could.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It mattered, in + fact, little how John understood the message. The time was much more + advanced than he supposed; the hammer of the world's clock had risen + to strike the last hour. All that he needed to know was that he had + no cause to doubt.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In revealing to + the people the true office of the Baptist, Jesus unveiled to them + almost the whole mystery of the Kingdom of God, and nearly disclosed + the secret of His Messiahship. For if Elias was already present, was + not the coming of the Kingdom close at hand? And if John was Elias, + who was Jesus?... There could only be one answer: the Messiah. But + this seemed impossible, because Messiah was expected as a + supernatural personality. The eulogy on the Baptist is, historically + regarded, identical in content with the prediction of the Parousia in + the discourse at the sending forth of the disciples. For after the + coming of Elias there must follow immediately the judgment and the + other events belonging to the last time. Now we can understand why in + the enumeration of the events of the last time in the discourse to + the Twelve the coming of Elias is not mentioned.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We see here, too, + how, in the thought of Jesus, Messianic doctrine forces its way into + history and simply abolishes the historic aspect of the events. The + Baptist had not held himself to be Elias, the people had not thought + of attributing this office to him; the description of Elias did not + fit him at all, since he had <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page374">[pg 374]</span><a name="Pg374" id="Pg374" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> done none of those things which Elias was to + do: and yet Jesus makes him Elias, simply because He expected His own + manifestation as Son of Man, and before that it was necessary that + Elias must first have come. And even when John was dead Jesus still + told the disciples that in him Elias had come, although the death of + Elias was not contemplated in the eschatological doctrine, and was in + fact unthinkable, But Jesus must somehow drag or force the + eschatological events into the framework of the actual + occurrences.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + conception of the <span class="tei tei-q">“dogmatic element”</span> + in the narrative widens in an unsuspected fashion. And even what + before seemed natural becomes on a closer examination doctrinal. The + Baptist is made into Elias solely by the force of Jesus' Messianic + consciousness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A short time + afterwards, immediately upon the return of the disciples, He spoke + and acted before their eyes in a way which presupposed the Messianic + secret. The people had been dogging his steps; at a lonely spot on + the shores of the lake they surrounded Him, and He <span class= + "tei tei-q">“taught them about many things”</span> (Mark vi. 30-34). + The day was drawing to a close, but they held closely to Him without + troubling about food. In the evening, before sending them away, He + fed them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weisse, long ago, + had constantly emphasised the fact that the feeding of the multitude + was one of the greatest historical problems, because this narrative, + like that of the transfiguration, is very firmly riveted to its + historical setting and, therefore, imperatively demands explanation. + How is the historical element in it to be got at? Certainly not by + seeking to explain the apparently miraculous in it on natural lines, + by representing that at the bidding of Jesus people brought out the + baskets of provisions which they had been concealing, and, thus + importing into the tradition a natural fact which, so far from being + hinted at in the narrative, is actually excluded by it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our solution is + that the whole is historical, except the closing remark that they + were all filled. Jesus distributed the provisions which He and His + disciples had with them among the multitude so that each received a + very little, after He had first offered thanks. The significance lies + in the giving of thanks and in the fact that they had received from + Him consecrated food. Because He is the future Messiah, this meal + becomes without their knowledge the Messianic feast. With the morsel + of bread which He gives His disciples to distribute to the people He + consecrates them as partakers in the coming Messianic feast, and + gives them the guarantee that they, who had shared His table in the + time of His obscurity, would also share it in the time of His glory. + In the prayer He gave thanks not only for the food, but also for the + coming Kingdom and all its blessings. It is the counterpart of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" + id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Lord's prayer, where He so + strangely inserts the petition for daily bread between the petitions + for the coming of the Kingdom and for deliverance from the + πειρασμός.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The feeding of the + multitude was more than a love-feast, a fellowship-meal. It was from + the point of view of Jesus a sacrament of salvation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We never realise + sufficiently that in a period when the judgment and the glory were + expected as close at hand, one thought arising out of this + expectation must have acquired special prominence—how, namely, in the + present time a man could obtain a guarantee of coming scatheless + through the judgment, of being saved and received into the Kingdom, + of being signed and sealed for deliverance amid the coming trial, as + the Chosen People in Egypt had a sign revealed to them from God by + means of which they might be manifest as those who were to be spared. + But once we do realise this, we can understand why the thought of + signing and sealing runs through the whole of the apocalyptic + literature. It is found as early as the ninth chapter of Ezekiel. + There, God is making preparation for judgment. The day of visitation + of the city is at hand. But first the Lord calls unto <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the man clothed with linen who had the writer's ink-horn + by his side”</span> and said unto him, <span class="tei tei-q">“Go + through the midst of the city, through the midst of Jerusalem, and + set a mark upon the foreheads of the men that sigh and that cry for + all the abominations that be done in the midst thereof.”</span> Only + after that does He give command to those who are charged with the + judgment to begin, adding, <span class="tei tei-q">“But come not near + any man upon whom is the mark”</span> (Ezek. ix. 4 and 6).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the fifteenth + of the Psalms of Solomon,<a id="noteref_288" name="noteref_288" href= + "#note_288"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a> the + last eschatological writing before the movement initiated by the + Baptist, it is expressly said in the description of the judgment that + <span class="tei tei-q">“the saints of God bear a sign upon them + which saves them.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Pauline + theology very striking prominence is given to the thought of being + sealed unto salvation. The apostle is conscious of bearing about with + him in his body <span class="tei tei-q">“the marks of Jesus”</span> + (Gal. vi. 17), the <span class="tei tei-q">“dying”</span> of Jesus (2 + Cor. iv. 10). This sign is received in baptism, since it is a baptism + <span class="tei tei-q">“into the death of Christ”</span>; in this + act the recipient is in a certain sense really buried with Him, and + thenceforth walks among men as one who belongs, even here below, to + risen humanity (Rom. vi. 1 ff.). Baptism is the seal, the earnest of + the spirit, the pledge of that which is to come (2 Cor i. 22; Eph. i. + 13, 14, iv. 30).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This conception of + baptism as a <span class="tei tei-q">“salvation”</span> in view of + that which was to come goes down through the whole of ancient + theology. Its preaching might really be summed up in the words, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Keep your baptism holy and without + blemish.”</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg + 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Shepherd of + Hermas even the spirits of the men of the past must receive + <span class="tei tei-q">“the seal, which is the water”</span> in + order that they may <span class="tei tei-q">“bear the name of God + upon them.”</span> That is why the tower is built over the water, and + the stones which are brought up out of the deep are rolled through + the water (Vis. iii. and Sim. ix. 16).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the Apocalypse + of John the thought of the sealing stands prominently in the + foreground. The locusts receive power to hurt those only who have not + the seal of God on their foreheads (Rev. ix. 4, 5). The beast (Rev. + xiii. 16 ff.) compels men to bear his mark; only those who will not + accept it are to reign with Christ (Rev. xx. 4). The chosen hundred + and forty-four thousand bear the name of God and the name of the Lamb + upon their foreheads (Rev. xiv. 1).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Assurance of salvation”</span> in a time of + eschatological expectation demanded some kind of security for the + future of which the earnest could be possessed in the present. And + with this the predestinarian thought of election was in complete + accord. If we find the thought of being sealed unto salvation + previously in the Psalms of Solomon, and subsequently in the same + signification in Paul, in the Apocalypse of John, and down to the + Shepherd of Hermas, it may be assumed in advance that it will be + found in some form or other in the so strongly eschatological + teaching of Jesus and the Baptist.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be said, + indeed, to dominate completely the eschatological preaching of the + Baptist, for this preaching does not confine itself to the + declaration of the nearness of the Kingdom, and the demand for + repentance, but leads up to an act to which it gives a special + reference in relation to the forgiveness of sins and the outpouring + of the spirit. It is a mistake to regard baptism with water as a + <span class="tei tei-q">“symbolic act”</span> in the modern sense, + and make the Baptist decry his own wares by saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I baptize only with water, but the other can baptize + with the Holy Spirit.”</span> He is not contrasting the two baptisms, + but connecting them—he who is baptized by him has the certainty that + he will share in the outpouring of the Spirit which shall precede the + judgment, and at the judgment shall receive forgiveness of sins, as + one who is signed with the mark of repentance. The object of being + baptized by him is to secure baptism with the Spirit later. The + forgiveness of sins associated with baptism is proleptic; it is to be + realised at the judgment. The Baptist himself did not forgive + sin.<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href= + "#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> If he + had done so, how could <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg + 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + such offence have been taken when Jesus claimed for Himself the right + to forgive sins in the present (Mark ii. 10).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The baptism of + John was therefore an eschatological sacrament pointing forward to + the pouring forth of the spirit and to the judgment, a provision for + <span class="tei tei-q">“salvation.”</span> Hence the wrath of the + Baptist when he saw Pharisees and Sadducees crowding to his baptism: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ye generation of vipers, who hath warned you + to flee from the wrath to come? Bring forth now fruits meet for + repentance”</span> (Matt. iii. 7, 8). By the reception of baptism, + that is, they are saved from the judgment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a cleansing + unto salvation it is a divine institution, a revealed means of grace. + That is why the question of Jesus, whether the baptism of John was + from heaven or from men, placed the Scribes at Jerusalem in so + awkward a dilemma (Mark xi. 30).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The authority of + Jesus, however, goes farther than that of the Baptist. As the Messiah + who is to come He can give even here below to those who gather about + Him a right to partake in the Messianic feast, by this distribution + of food to them; only, they do not know what is happening to them and + He cannot solve the riddle for them. The supper at the Lake of + Gennesareth was a veiled eschatological sacrament. Neither the + disciples nor the multitude understood what was happening, since they + did not know who He was who thus made them His guests.<a id= + "noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href="#note_290"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a> This + meal must <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg + 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + have been transformed by tradition into a miracle, a result which may + have been in part due to the references to the wonders of the + Messianic feast which were doubtless contained in the prayers, not to + speak of the eschatological enthusiasm which then prevailed + universally. Did not the disciples believe that on the same evening, + when they had been commanded to take Jesus into their ship at the + mouth of the Jordan, to which point He had walked along the shore—did + they not believe that they saw Him come walking towards them upon the + waves of the sea? The impulse to the introduction of the miraculous + into the narrative came from the unintelligible element with which + the men who surrounded Jesus were at this time confronted.<a id= + "noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href="#note_291"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Last Supper at + Jerusalem had the same sacramental significance as that at the lake. + Towards the end of the meal Jesus, after giving thanks, distributes + the bread and wine. This had as little to do with the satisfaction of + hunger as the distribution to the Galilaean believers. The act of + Jesus is an end in itself, and the significance of the celebration + consists in the fact that it is He Himself who makes the + distribution. In Jerusalem, however, they understood what was meant, + and He explained it to them explicitly by telling them that He would + drink no more of the fruit of the vine until He drank it new in the + Kingdom of God. The mysterious images which He used at the time of + the distribution concerning the atoning significance of His death do + not touch the essence of the celebration, they are only discourses + accompanying it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On this + interpretation, therefore, we may think of Baptism and the Lord's + Supper as from the first eschatological sacraments in the + eschatological movement which later detached itself from Judaism + under the name of Christianity. That explains why we find them both + in Paul and in the earliest theology as sacramental acts, not as + symbolic ceremonies, and find them dominating the whole Christian + doctrine. Apart from the assumption of the eschatological sacraments, + we can only make the history of dogma begin with a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fall”</span> from the earlier purer theology into the + sacramental magical, without being able to adduce a single syllable + in support of the idea that after the death of Jesus Baptism and the + Lord's Supper existed even for an hour as symbolical actions—Paul, + indeed, makes this supposition wholly impossible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In any case the + adoption of the baptism of John in Christian practice cannot be + explained except on the assumption that it was <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the sacrament of the eschatological + community, a revealed means of securing <span class= + "tei tei-q">“salvation”</span> which was not altered in the slightest + by the Messiahship of Jesus. How else could we explain the fact that + baptism, without any commandment of Jesus, and without Jesus' ever + having baptized, was taken over, as a matter of course, into + Christianity, and was given a special reference to the receiving of + the Spirit?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is no use + proposing to explain it as having been instituted as a symbolical + repetition of the baptism of Jesus, thought of as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“an anointing to the Messiahship.”</span> There is not a + single passage in ancient theology to support such a theory. And we + may point also to the fact that Paul never refers to the baptism of + Jesus in explaining the character of Christian baptism, never, in + fact, makes any distinct reference to it. And how could baptism, if + it had been a symbolical repetition of the baptism of Jesus, ever + have acquired this magic-sacramental sense of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“salvation”</span>?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nothing shows more + clearly than the dual character of ancient baptism, which makes it + the guarantee both of the reception of the Spirit and of deliverance + from the judgment, that it is nothing else than the eschatological + baptism of John with a single difference. Baptism with water and + baptism with the Spirit are now connected not only logically, but + also in point of time, seeing that since the day of Pentecost the + period of the outpouring of the Spirit is present. The two portions + of the eschatological sacrament which in the Baptist's preaching were + distinguished in point of time—because he did not expect the + outpouring of the Spirit until some future period—are now brought + together, since one eschatological condition—the baptism with the + Spirit—is now present. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christianising”</span> of baptism consisted in this and + in nothing else; though Paul carried it a stage farther when he + formed the conception of baptism as a mystic partaking in the death + and resurrection of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the + thoroughgoing eschatological interpretation of the Life of Jesus puts + into the hands of those who are reconstructing the history of dogma + in the earliest times an explanation of the conception of the + sacraments, of which they had been able hitherto only to note the + presence as an <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">x</span></span> of which the origin was + undiscoverable, and for which they possessed no equation by which it + could be evaluated. If Christianity as the religion of historically + revealed mysteries was able to lay hold upon Hellenism and overcome + it, the reason of this was that it was already in its purely + eschatological beginnings a religion of sacraments, a religion of + eschatological sacraments, since Jesus had recognised a Divine + institution in the baptism of John, and had Himself performed a + sacramental action in the distribution of food at the Lake of + Gennesareth and at the Last Supper.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This being so, the + feeding of the multitude also belongs to the dogmatic element in the + history. But no one had previously recognised it as what it really + was, an indirect disclosure of the Messianic secret, just as no one + had understood the full significance of Jesus' description of the + Baptist as Elias.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how does Peter + at Caesarea Philippi know the secret of his Master? What he there + declares is not a conviction which had gradually dawned on him, and + slowly grown through various stages of probability and certainty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The real character + of this incident has been interpreted with remarkable penetration by + Wrede. The incident itself, he says, is to be understood in quite as + supernatural a fashion in Mark as in Matthew. But on the other hand + one does not receive the impression that the writer intends to + represent the confession as a merit or a discovery of Peter. + <span class="tei tei-q">“For according to the text of Mark, Jesus + shows no trace of joy or surprise at this confession. His only answer + consists of the command to say nothing about His Messiahship.”</span> + Keim, whom Wrede quotes, had received a similar impression from the + Marcan account, and had supposed that Jesus had actually found the + confession of Peter inopportune.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How is all this to + be explained—the supernatural knowledge of Peter and the rather curt + fashion in which Jesus receives his declaration?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It might be worth + while to put the story of the transfiguration side by side with the + incident at Caesarea Philippi, since there the Divine Sonship of + Jesus is <span class="tei tei-q">“a second time”</span> revealed to + the <span class="tei tei-q">“three,”</span> Peter, James, and John, + and the revelation is made supernaturally by a voice from heaven. It + is rather striking that Mark does not seem to be conscious that he is + reporting something which the disciples knew already. At the + beginning of the actual transfiguration Peter still addresses Jesus + simply as Rabbi (Mark ix. 5). And what does it mean when Jesus, + during the descent from the mountain, forbids them to speak to any + man concerning that which they have seen until after the resurrection + of the Son of Man? That would exclude even the other disciples who + knew only the secret of His Messiahship. But why should they not be + told of the Divine confirmation of that which Peter had declared at + Caesarea Philippi and Jesus had <span class= + "tei tei-q">“admitted”</span>?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What has the + transfiguration to do with the resurrection of the dead? And why are + the thoughts of the disciples suddenly busied, not with what they + have seen, not with the fact that the Son of Man shall rise from the + dead, but simply with the possibility of the rising from the dead, + the difficulty being that Elias was not yet present? Those who see in + the transfiguration a projection backwards of the Pauline theology + into the Gospel history do not realise what are the principal points + and difficulties of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg + 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + narrative. The problem lies in the conversation during the descent. + Against the Messiahship of Jesus, against His rising from the dead, + they have only one objection to suggest: Elias had not yet come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We see here, in + the first place, the importance of the revelation which Jesus had + made to the people in declaring to them the secret that the Baptist + is Elias. From the standpoint of the eschatological expectation no + one could recognise Elias in the Baptist, unless he knew of the + Messiahship of Jesus. And no one could believe in the Messiahship and + <span class="tei tei-q">“resurrection”</span> of Jesus, that is, in + His Parousia, without presupposing that Elias had in some way or + other already come. This was therefore the primary difficulty of the + disciples, the stumbling-block which Jesus must remove for them by + making the same revelation concerning the Baptist to them as to the + people. It is also once more abundantly clear that expectation was + directed at that time primarily to the coming of Elias.<a id= + "noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href="#note_292"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> But + since the whole eschatological movement arose out of the Baptist's + preaching, the natural conclusion is that by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“him who was to come after”</span> and baptize with the + Holy Spirit John meant, not the Messiah, but Elias.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the + non-appearance of Elias was the primary difficulty of the disciples + in connexion with the Messiahship of Jesus and all that it implied, + why does it only strike the <span class="tei tei-q">“three,”</span> + and moreover, all three of them together, now, and not at Caesarea + Philippi?<a id="noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href= + "#note_293"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> How + could Peter there have declared it and here be still labouring with + the rest over the difficulty which stood in the way of his own + declaration? To make the narrative coherent, the transfiguration, as + being a revelation of the Messiahship, ought to precede the incident + at Caesarea Philippi. Now let us look at the connexion in which it + actually occurs. It falls in that inexplicable section Mark viii. + 34-ix. 30 in which the multitude suddenly appears in the company of + Jesus who is sojourning in a Gentile district, only to disappear + again, equally enigmatically, afterwards, when He sets out for + Galilee, instead of accompanying Him back to their own country.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this section + everything points to the situation during the days at Bethsaida after + the return of the disciples from their mission. Jesus is surrounded + by the people, while what He desires is to be alone with His + immediate followers. The disciples make use of the healing powers + which He had bestowed upon them when sending them forth, and have the + experience of finding that they are not in all cases adequate (Mark + ix. 14-29). The <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg + 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + mountain to which He takes the <span class="tei tei-q">“three”</span> + is not a mountain in the north, or as some have suggested, an + imaginary mountain of the Evangelist, but the same to which Jesus + went up to pray and to be alone on the evening of the feeding of the + multitude (Mark vi. 46 and ix. 2). The house to which He goes after + His return from the transfiguration is therefore to be placed at + Bethsaida.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another thing + which points to a sojourn at Bethsaida after the feeding of the + multitude is the story of the healing of the blind man at Bethsaida + (Mark viii. 22-26).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The circumstances, + therefore, which we have to presuppose are that Jesus is surrounded + and thronged by the people at Bethsaida. In order to be alone He once + more puts the Jordan between Himself and the multitude, and goes with + the <span class="tei tei-q">“three”</span> to the mountain where He + had prayed after the feeding of the five thousand. This is the only + way in which we can understand how the people failed to follow Him, + and He was able really to carry out His plan.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how could this + story be torn out of its natural context and its scene removed to + Caesarea Philippi, where it is both on external and internal grounds + impossible? What we need to notice is the Marcan account of the + events which followed the sending forth of the disciples. We have two + stories of the feeding of the multitude with a crossing of the lake + after each (Mark vi. 31-56, Mark viii. 1-22), two stories of Jesus + going away towards the north with the same motive, that of being + alone and unrecognised. The first time, after the controversy about + the washing of hands, His course is directed towards Tyre (Mark vii. + 24-30), the second time, after the demand for a sign, he goes into + the district of Caesarea Philippi (Mark viii. 27). The scene of the + controversy about the washing of hands is some locality in the plain + of Gennesareth (Mark vi. 53 ff); Dalmanutha is named as the place + where the sign was demanded (Mark viii. 10 ff.).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most natural + conclusion is to identify the two cases of feeding the multitude, and + the two journeys northwards. In that case we should have in the + section Mark vi. 31-ix. 30, two sets of narratives worked into one + another, both recounting how Jesus, after the disciples came back to + Him, went with them from Capernaum to the northern shore of the lake, + was there surprised by the multitude, and after the meal which He + gave them, crossed the Jordan by boat to Bethsaida, stayed there for + a while, and then returned again by ship to the country of + Gennesareth, and was there again overtaken and surrounded by the + people; then after some controversial encounters with the Scribes, + who at the report of His miracles had come down from Jerusalem (Mark + vii. 1), left Galilee and again went northwards.<a id="noteref_294" + name="noteref_294" href="#note_294"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The seams at the + joining of the narratives can be recognised in Mark vii. 31, where + Jesus is suddenly transferred from the north to Decapolis, and in the + saying in Mark viii. 14 ff., which makes explicit reference to the + two miracles of feeding the multitude. Whether the Evangelist himself + worked these two sets of narratives together, or whether he found + them already united, cannot be determined, and is not of any direct + historical interest. The disorder is in any case so complete that we + cannot fully reconstruct each of the separate sets of narratives.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The external + reasons why the narratives of Mark viii. 34-ix. 30, of which the + scene is on the northern shore of the lake, are placed in this way + after the incident of Caesarea Philippi are not difficult to grasp. + The section contains an impressive discourse to the people on + following Jesus in His sufferings, crucifixion, and death (Mark viii. + 34-ix. 1). For this reason the whole series of scenes is attached to + the revelation of the secret of the suffering of the Son of Man; and + the redactor did not stop to think how the people could suddenly + appear, and as suddenly disappear again. The statement, too, + <span class="tei tei-q">“He called the people with the + disciples”</span> (Mark viii. 34), helped to mislead him into + inserting the section at this point, although this very remark points + to the circumstances of the time just after the return of the + disciples, when Jesus was sometimes alone with the disciples, and + sometimes calls the eager multitude about Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The whole scene + belongs, therefore, to the days which He spent at Bethsaida, and + originally followed immediately upon the crossing of the lake, after + the feeding of the multitude. It was after Jesus had been six days + surrounded by the people, not six days after the revelation at + Caesarea Philippi, that the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“transfiguration”</span> took place (Mark ix. 2). On this + assumption, all the difficulties of the incident at Caesarea Philippi + are cleared up in a moment; there is no longer anything strange in + the fact that Peter declares to Jesus who He really is, while Jesus + appears neither surprised nor especially rejoiced at the insight of + His disciple. The transfiguration had, in fact, been the revelation + of the secret of the Messiahship to the three who constituted the + inner circle of the disciples.<a id="noteref_295" name="noteref_295" + href="#note_295"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a> And + Jesus had not Himself revealed it to them; what had happened was, + that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg 384]</span><a name= + "Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in a state of rapture + common to them all, in which they had seen the Master in a glorious + transfiguration, they had seen Him talking with Moses and Elias and + had heard a voice from heaven saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“This + is my beloved Son, hear ye Him.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must always + make a fresh effort to realise to ourselves, that Jesus and His + immediate followers were, at that time, in an enthusiastic state of + intense eschatological expectation. We must picture them among the + people, who were filled with penitence for their sins, and with faith + in the Kingdom, hourly expecting the coming of the Kingdom, and the + revelation of Jesus as the Son of Man, seeing in the eager multitude + itself a sign that their reckoning of the time was correct; thus the + psychological conditions were present for a common ecstatic + experience such as is described in the account of the + transfiguration.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this ecstasy + the <span class="tei tei-q">“three”</span> heard the voice from + heaven saying who He was. Therefore, the Matthaean report, according + to which Jesus praises Simon <span class="tei tei-q">“because flesh + and blood have not revealed it to him, but the Father who is in + heaven,”</span> is not really at variance with the briefer Marcan + account, since it rightly indicates the source of Peter's + knowledge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nevertheless Jesus + was astonished. For Peter here disregarded the command given during + the descent from the mount of transfiguration. He had <span class= + "tei tei-q">“betrayed”</span> to the Twelve Jesus' consciousness of + His Messiahship. One receives the impression that Jesus did not put + the question to the disciples in order to reveal Himself to them as + Messiah, and that by the impulsive speech of Peter, upon whose + silence He had counted because of His command, and to whom He had not + specially addressed the question, He was forced to take a different + line of action in regard to the Twelve from what He had intended. It + is probable that He had never had the intention of revealing the + secret of His Messiahship to the disciples. Otherwise He would not + have kept it from them at the time of their mission, when He did not + expect them to return before the Parousia. Even at the + transfiguration the <span class="tei tei-q">“three”</span> do not + learn it from His lips, but in a state of ecstasy, an ecstasy which + He shared with them. At Caesarea Philippi it is not He, but Peter, + who reveals His Messiahship. We may say, therefore, that Jesus did + not voluntarily give up His Messianic secret; it was wrung from Him + by the pressure of events.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However that may + be, from Caesarea Philippi onwards it was known to the other + disciples through Peter; what Jesus Himself revealed to them, was the + secret of his sufferings.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Pfleiderer and + Wrede were quite right in pointing to the clear and definite + predictions of the suffering, death, and resurrection as the + historically inexplicable element in our reports, since the necessity + of Jesus' death, by which modern theology endeavours <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to make His resolve and His predictions + intelligible, is not a necessity which arises out of the historical + course of events. There was not present any natural ground for such a + resolve on the part of Jesus. Had He returned to Galilee, He would + immediately have had the multitudes flocking after Him again.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to make + the historical possibility of the resolve to suffer and the + prediction of the sufferings in some measure intelligible, modern + theology has to ignore the prediction of the resurrection which is + bound up with them, for this is <span class= + "tei tei-q">“dogmatic.”</span> That is, however, not permissible. We + must, as Wrede insists, take the words as they are, and must not even + indulge in ingenious explanations of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“three days.”</span> Therefore, the resolve to suffer and + to die are dogmatic; therefore, according to him, they are + unhistorical, and only to be explained by a literary hypothesis.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the + thoroughgoing eschatological school says they are dogmatic, and + therefore historical; because they find their explanation in + eschatological conceptions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wrede held that + the Messianic conception implied in the Marcan narrative is not the + Jewish Messianic conception, just because of the thought of suffering + and death which it involves. No stress must be laid on the fact that + in Fourth Ezra vii. 29 the Christ dies and rises again, because His + death takes place at the end of the Messianic Kingdom.<a id= + "noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href="#note_296"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a> The + Jewish Messiah is essentially a glorious being who shall appear in + the last time. True, but the case in which the Messiah should be + present, prior to the Parousia, should cause the final tribulations + to come upon the earth, and should Himself undergo them, does not + arise in the Jewish eschatology as described from without. It first + arises with the self-consciousness of Jesus. Therefore, the Jewish + conception of the Messiah has no information to give us upon this + point.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + understand Jesus' resolve to suffer, we must first recognise that the + mystery of this suffering is involved in the mystery of the Kingdom + of God, since the Kingdom cannot come until the πειρασμός has taken + place. This certainty of suffering is quite independent of the + historic circumstances, as the beatitude on the persecuted in the + sermon on the mount, and the predictions in the discourse at the + sending forth of the Twelve, clearly show. Jesus' prediction of His + own sufferings at Caesarea Philippi is precisely as unintelligible, + precisely as dogmatic, and therefore precisely as historical as the + prediction to the disciples at the time of their mission. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“must be”</span> of the sufferings is the + same—the coming of the Kingdom, and of the Parousia, which are + dependent upon the πειρασμός having first taken + place.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg + 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + period Jesus' thoughts concerning His own sufferings were included in + the more general thought of the sufferings which formed part of the + mystery of the Kingdom of God. The exhortations to hold steadfastly + to Him in the time of trial, and not to lose faith in Him, certainly + tended to suggest that He thought of Himself as the central point + amid these conflicts and confusions, and reckoned on the possibility + of His own death as much as on that of others. Upon this point + nothing more definite can be said, since the mystery of Jesus' own + sufferings does not detach itself from the mystery of the sufferings + connected with the Kingdom of God until after the Messianic secret is + made known at Caesarea Philippi. What is certain is that, for Him, + suffering was always associated with the Messianic secret, since He + placed His Parousia at the end of the pre-Messianic tribulations in + which He was to have His part.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The suffering, + death, and resurrection of which the secret was revealed at Caesarea + Philippi are not therefore in themselves new or surprising.<a id= + "noteref_297" name="noteref_297" href="#note_297"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a> The + novelty lies in the form in which they are conceived. The + tribulation, so far as Jesus is concerned, is now connected with an + historic event: He will go to Jerusalem, there to suffer death at the + hands of the authorities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the future, + however, He no longer speaks of the general tribulation which He is + to bring upon the earth, nor of the sufferings which await His + followers, nor of the sufferings in which they must rally round Him. + In the predictions of the passion there is no word of that; at + Jerusalem there is no word of that. This thought disappears once for + all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the secret of + His passion which Jesus reveals to the disciples at Caesarea Philippi + the pre-Messianic tribulation is for others set aside, abolished, + concentrated upon Himself alone, and that in the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> form that they are fulfilled in His own + passion and death at Jerusalem. That was the new conviction that had + dawned upon Him. He must suffer for others ... that the Kingdom might + come.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This change was + due to the non-fulfilment of the promises made in the discourse at + the sending forth of the Twelve. He had thought then to let loose the + final tribulation and so compel the coming of the Kingdom. And the + cataclysm had not occurred. He had expected it also after the return + of the disciples. In Bethsaida, in speaking to the multitude which He + had consecrated by the foretaste of the Messianic feast, as also to + the disciples at the time of their mission, He had turned their + thoughts to things to come and had adjured them to be prepared to + suffer with Him, to give up their lives, not to be ashamed of Him in + His humiliation, since otherwise the Son of Man would be ashamed of + them when He came in glory (Mark viii. 34-ix. 1).<a id="noteref_298" + name="noteref_298" href="#note_298"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In leaving Galilee + He abandoned the hope that the final tribulation would begin of + itself. If it delays, that means that there is still something to be + done, and yet another of the violent must lay violent hands upon the + Kingdom of God. The movement of repentance had not been sufficient. + When, in accordance with His commission, by sending forth the + disciples with their message, he hurled the fire-brand which should + kindle the fiery trials of the Last Time, the flame went out. He had + not succeeded in sending the sword on earth and stirring up the + conflict. And until the time of trial had come, the coming of the + Kingdom and His own manifestation as Son of Man were impossible.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That meant—not + that the Kingdom was not near at hand—but that God had appointed + otherwise in regard to the time of trial. He had heard the Lord's + Prayer in which Jesus and His followers prayed for the coming of the + Kingdom—and at the same time, for deliverance from the πειρασμός. The + time of trial was not come; therefore God in His mercy and + omnipotence had eliminated it from the series of eschatological + events, and appointed to Him whose commission had been to bring it + about, instead to accomplish it in His own person. As He who was to + rule over the members of the Kingdom in the future age, He was + appointed to serve them in the present, to give His life for them, + the many (Mark x. 45 and xiv. 24), and to make in His own blood the + atonement which they would have had to render in the tribulation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Kingdom could + not come until the debt which weighed upon the world was discharged. + Until then, not only the now living believers, but the chosen of all + generations since the beginning <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page388">[pg 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the world wait for their manifestation in + glory—Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob and all the countless unknown who + should come from the East and from the West to sit at tables with + them at the Messianic feast (Matt. viii. 11). The enigmatic πολλοί + for whom Jesus dies are those predestined to the Kingdom, since His + death must at last compel the Coming of the Kingdom.<a id= + "noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href="#note_299"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This thought Jesus + found in the prophecies of Isaiah, which spoke of the suffering + Servant of the Lord. The mysterious description of Him who in His + humiliation was despised and misunderstood, who, nevertheless bears + the guilt of others and afterwards is made manifest in what He has + done for them, points, He feels, to Himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And since He found + it there set down that He must suffer unrecognised, and that those + for whom He suffered should doubt Him, His suffering should, nay + must, remain a mystery. In that case those who doubted Him would not + bring condemnation upon themselves. He no longer needs to adjure them + for their own sakes to be faithful to Him and to stand by Him even + amid reproach and humiliation; He can calmly predict to His disciples + that they shall all be offended in Him and shall flee (Mark xiv. 26, + 27); He can tell Peter, who boasts that he will die with Him, that + before the dawn he shall deny Him thrice (Mark xiv. 29-31); all that + is so set down in the Scripture. They must doubt Him. But now they + shall not lose their blessedness, for He bears all sins and + transgressions. That, too, is buried in the atonement which He + offers.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg + 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Therefore, also, + there is no need for them to understand His secret. He spoke of it to + them without any explanation. It is sufficient that they should know + why He goes up to Jerusalem. They, on their part, are thinking only + of the coming transformation of all things, as their conversation + shows. The prospect which He has opened up to them is clear enough; + the only thing that they do not understand is why He must first die + at Jerusalem. The first time that Peter ventured to speak to Him + about it, He had turned on him with cruel harshness, had almost + cursed him (Mark viii. 32, 33); from that time forward they no longer + dared to ask Him anything about it. The new thought of His own + passion has its basis therefore in the authority with which Jesus was + armed to bring about the beginning of the final tribulation. + Ethically regarded, His taking the suffering upon Himself is an act + of mercy and compassion towards those who would otherwise have had to + bear these tribulations, and perhaps would not have stood the test. + Historically regarded, the thought of His sufferings involves the + same lofty treatment both of history and eschatology as was + manifested in the identification of the Baptist with Elias. For now + He identifies His condemnation and execution, which are to take place + on natural lines, with the predicted pre-Messianic tribulations. This + imperious forcing of eschatology into history is also its + destruction; its assertion and abandonment at the same time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Towards Passover, + therefore, Jesus sets out for Jerusalem, solely in order to die + there.<a id="noteref_300" name="noteref_300" href= + "#note_300"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is,”</span> says Wrede, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“beyond question the opinion of Mark that Jesus went to + Jerusalem because He had decided to die; that is obvious even from + the details of the story.”</span> It is therefore a mistake to speak + of Jesus as <span class="tei tei-q">“teaching”</span> in Jerusalem. + He has no intention of doing so. As a prophet He foretells in veiled + parabolic form the offence which must come (Mark xii. 1-12), exhorts + men to watch for the Parousia, pictures the nature of the judgment + which the Son of Man shall hold, and, for the rest, thinks only how + He can so provoke the Pharisees and the rulers that they will be + compelled to get rid of Him. That is why He violently cleanses the + Temple, and attacks the Pharisees, in the presence of the people, + with passionate invective.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the + revelation at Caesarea Philippi onward, all that belongs to the + history of Jesus, in the strict sense, are the events which lead up + to His death; or, to put it more accurately, the events in which He + Himself is the sole actor. The other things which happen, the + questions which are laid before Him for decision, the episodic + incidents which occur in those days, have nothing to <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> do with the real <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus,”</span> since they contribute nothing to + the decisive issue, but merely form the anecdotic fringes of the real + outward and inward event, the deliberate bringing down of death upon + Himself.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is in truth + surprising that He succeeded in transforming into history this + resolve which had its roots in dogma, and really dying alone. Is it + not almost unintelligible that His disciples were not involved in His + fate? Not even the disciple who smote with the sword was arrested + along with Him (Mark xiv. 47); Peter, recognised in the courtyard of + the High Priest's house as one who had been with Jesus the Nazarene, + is allowed to go free.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For a moment + indeed, Jesus believes that the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“three”</span> are destined to share His fate, not from + any outward necessity, but because they had professed themselves able + to suffer the last extremities with Him. The sons of Zebedee, when He + asked them whether, in order to sit at His right hand and His left, + they are prepared to drink His cup and be baptized with His baptism, + had declared that they were, and thereupon He had predicted that they + should do so (Mark x. 38, 39). Peter again had that very night, in + spite of the warning of Jesus, sworn that he would go even unto death + with Him (Mark xiv. 30, 31). Hence He is conscious of a higher + possibility that these three are to go through the trial with Him. He + takes them with Him to Gethsemane and bids them remain near Him and + watch with Him. And since they do not perceive the danger of the + hour, He adjures them to watch and pray. They are to pray that they + may not have to pass through the trial (ἵνα μὴ ἔλθητε εἰς πειρασμόν) + since, though the spirit is willing, the flesh is weak. Amid His own + sore distress He is anxious about them and their capacity to share + His trial as they had declared their willingness to do.<a id= + "noteref_301" name="noteref_301" href="#note_301"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here also it is + once more made clear that for Jesus the necessity of His death is + grounded in dogma, not in external historical facts. Above the + dogmatic eschatological necessity, however, there stands the + omnipotence of God, which is bound by no limitations. As Jesus in the + Lord's Prayer had taught His followers to pray for deliverance from + the πειρασμός, and as in His fears for the three He bids them pray + for the same thing, so now He Himself prays for deliverance, even in + this last moment when He knows that the armed band which is coming to + arrest Him is already on the way. Literal history does not exist for + Him, only the will of God; and this is exalted even above + eschatological necessity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But how did this + exact agreement between the fate of Jesus and His predictions come + about? Why did the authorities strike at Him only, not at His whole + following, not even at the disciples? <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> He was arrested and condemned on account of His + Messianic claims. But how did the High Priest know that Jesus claimed + to be the Messiah? And why does he put the accusation as a direct + question without calling witnesses in support of it? Why was the + attempt first made to bring up a saying about the Temple which could + be interpreted as blasphemy in order to condemn Him on this ground + (Mark xiv. 57-59)? Before that again, as is evident from Mark's + account, they had brought up a whole crowd of witnesses in the hope + of securing evidence sufficient to justify His condemnation; and the + attempt had not succeeded.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was only after + all these attempts had failed that the High Priest brought his + accusation concerning the Messianic claim, and he did so without + citing the three necessary witnesses. Why so? Because he had not got + them. The condemnation of Jesus depended on His own admission. That + was why they had endeavoured to convict Him upon other charges.<a id= + "noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href="#note_302"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This wholly + unintelligible feature of the trial confirms what is evident also + from the discourses and attitude of Jesus at Jerusalem, viz. that He + had not been held by the multitude to be the Messiah, that the idea + of His making such claims had not for a moment occurred to them—lay + in fact for them quite beyond the range of possibility. Therefore He + cannot have made a Messianic entry.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + Havet, Brandt, Wellhausen, Dalman, and Wrede the ovation at the entry + had no Messianic character whatever. It is wholly mistaken, as Wrede + quite rightly remarks, to represent matters as if the Messianic + ovation was forced upon Jesus—that He accepted it with inner + repugnance and in silent passivity. For that would involve the + supposition that the people had for a moment regarded Him as Messiah + and then afterwards had shown themselves as completely without any + suspicion of His Messiahship as though they had in the interval drunk + of the waters of Lethe. The exact opposite is true: Jesus Himself + made the preparations for the Messianic entry. Its Messianic features + were due to His arrangements. He made a point of riding upon the ass, + not because He was weary, but because He desired that the Messianic + prophecy of Zech. ix. 9 should be secretly fulfilled.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The entry is + therefore a Messianic act on the part of Jesus, an action in which + His consciousness of His office breaks through, as it did at the + sending forth of the disciples, in the explanation that <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Baptist was Elias, and in the feeding + of the multitude. But others can have had no suspicion of the + Messianic significance of that which was going on before their eyes. + The entry into Jerusalem was therefore Messianic for Jesus, but not + Messianic for the people.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what was He + for the people? Here Wrede's theory that He was a teacher again + refutes itself. In the triumphal entry there is more than the ovation + offered to a teacher. The jubilations have reference to <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Him who is to come”</span>; it is to Him that the + acclamations are offered and because of Him that the people rejoice + in the nearness of the Kingdom, as in Mark, the cries of jubilation + show; for here, as Dalman rightly remarks, there is actually no + mention of the Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus therefore + made His entry into Jerusalem as the Prophet, as Elias. That is + confirmed by Matthew (xxi. 11), although Matthew gives a Messianic + colouring to the entry itself by bringing in the acclamation in which + He was designated the Son of David, just as, conversely, he reports + the Baptist's question rightly, and introduces it wrongly, by making + the Baptist hear of the <span class="tei tei-q">“works of the + Christ.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Was Mark + conscious, one wonders, that it was not a Messianic entry that he was + reporting? We do not know. It is not inherently impossible that, as + Wrede asserts, <span class="tei tei-q">“he had no real view + concerning the historical life of Jesus,”</span> did not know whether + Jesus was recognised as Messiah, and took no interest in the question + from an historical point of view. Fortunately for us! For that is why + he simply hands on tradition and does not write a Life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Marcan + hypothesis went astray in conceiving this Gospel as a Life of Jesus + written with either complete or partial historical consciousness, and + interpreting it on these lines, on the sole ground that it only + brings in the name Son of Man twice prior to the incident at Caesarea + Philippi. The Life of Jesus cannot be arrived at by following the + arrangement of a single Gospel, but only on the basis of the + tradition which is preserved more or less faithfully in the earliest + pair of Synoptic Gospels.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Questions of + literary priority, indeed literary questions in general, have in the + last resort, as Keim remarked long ago, nothing to do with the + gaining of a clear idea of the course of events, since the + Evangelists had not themselves a clear idea of it before their minds; + it can only be arrived at hypothetically by an experimental + reconstruction based on the necessary inner connexion of the + incidents.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But who could + possibly have had in early times a clear conception of the Life of + Jesus? Even its most critical moments were totally unintelligible to + the disciples who had themselves shared in the experiences, and who + were the only sources for the tradition.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name="Pg393" id="Pg393" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">They were simply + swept through these events by the momentum of the purpose of Jesus. + That is why the tradition is incoherent. The reality had been + incoherent too, since it was only the secret Messianic + self-consciousness of Jesus which created alike the events and their + connexion. Every Life of Jesus remains therefore a reconstruction on + the basis of a more or less accurate insight into the nature of the + dynamic self-consciousness of Jesus which created the history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The people, + whatever Mark may have thought, did not offer Jesus a Messianic + ovation at all; it was He who, in the conviction that they were + wholly unable to recognise it, played with His Messianic + self-consciousness before their eyes, just as He did at the time + after the sending forth of the disciples, when, as now, He thought + the end at hand. It was in the same way, too, that He closed the + invective against the Pharisees with the words <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I say unto you, ye shall see me no more until ye shall + say, Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord”</span> (Matt. + xxiii. 39). This saying implies His Parousia.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Similarly He is + playing with His secret in that crucial question regarding the + Messiahship in Mark xii. 35-37. There is no question of dissociating + the Davidic Sonship from the Messiahship.<a id="noteref_303" name= + "noteref_303" href="#note_303"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a> He asks + only how can the Christ in virtue of His descent from David be, as + his son, inferior to David, and yet be addressed by David in the + Psalm as his Lord? The answer is; by reason of the metamorphosis and + Parousia in which natural relationships are abolished and the scion + of David's line who is the predestined Son of Man shall take + possession of His unique glory.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Far from rejecting + the Davidic Sonship in this saying, Jesus, on the contrary, + presupposes His possession of it. That raises the question whether He + did not really during His lifetime regard Himself as a descendant of + David and whether He was not regarded as such. Paul, who otherwise + shows no interest in the earthly phase of the existence of the Lord, + certainly implies His descent from David.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The blind man at + Jericho, too, cries out to the Nazarene prophet as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Son of David”</span> (Mark x. 47). But in doing so he + does not mean to address Jesus as Messiah, for afterwards, when he is + brought to Him he simply calls Him <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Rabbi”</span> (Mark x. 51). And the people thought + nothing further about what he had said. When the expectant people bid + him keep silence they do not do so because the expression Son of + David offends them, but because his clamour annoys them. Jesus, + however, was struck by this cry, stood still and caused him, as he + was standing timidly behind the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> eager multitude, to be brought to Him. It is + possible, of course, that this address is a mere mistake in the + tradition, the same tradition which unsuspectingly brought in the + expression Son of Man at the wrong place.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So much, however, + is certain: the people were not made aware of the Messiahship of + Jesus by the cry of the blind man any more than by the outcries of + the demoniacs. The entry into Jerusalem was not a Messianic ovation. + All that history is concerned with is that this fact should be + admitted on all hands. Except Jesus and the disciples, therefore, no + one knew the secret of His Messiahship even in those days at + Jerusalem. But the High Priest suddenly showed himself in possession + of it. How? Through the betrayal of Judas.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For a hundred and + fifty years the question has been historically discussed why Judas + betrayed his Master. That the main question for history was + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">what he + betrayed</span></em> was suspected by few and they touched on it only + in a timid kind of way—indeed the problems of the trial of Jesus may + be said to have been non-existent for criticism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The traitorous act + of Judas cannot have consisted in informing the Sanhedrin where Jesus + was to be found at a suitable place for an arrest. They could have + had that information more cheaply by causing Jesus to be watched by + spies. But Mark expressly says that Judas when he betrayed Jesus did + not yet know of a favourable opportunity for the arrest, but was + seeking such an opportunity. Mark xiv. 10, 11, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“And Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve, went unto the + chief priests, to betray him unto them. And when they heard it, they + were glad, and promised to give him money. And he sought how he might + conveniently betray him.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the betrayal, + therefore, there were two points, a more general and a more special: + the general fact by which he gave Jesus into their power, and the + undertaking to let them know of the next opportunity when they could + arrest Him quietly, without publicity. The betrayal by which he + brought his Master to death, in consequence of which the rulers + decided upon the arrest, knowing that their cause was safe in any + case, was the betrayal of the Messianic secret. Jesus died because + two of His disciples had broken His command of silence: Peter when he + made known the secret of the Messiahship to the Twelve at Caesarea + Philippi; Judas Iscariot by communicating it to the High Priest. But + the difficulty was that Judas was the sole witness. Therefore the + betrayal was useless so far as the actual trial was concerned unless + Jesus admitted the charge. So they first tried to secure His + condemnation on other grounds, and only when these attempts broke + down did the High Priest put, in the form of a question, the charge + in support of which he could have brought no + witnesses.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg + 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id="Pg395" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But Jesus + immediately admitted it, and strengthened the admission by an + allusion to His Parousia in the near future as Son of Man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The betrayal and + the trial can only be rightly understood when it is realised that the + public knew nothing whatever of the secret of the Messiahship.<a id= + "noteref_304" name="noteref_304" href="#note_304"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is the same in + regard to the scene in the presence of Pilate. The people on that + morning knew nothing of the trial of Jesus, but came to Pilate with + the sole object of asking the release of a prisoner, as was the + custom at the feast (Mark xv. 6-8). The idea then occurs to Pilate, + who was just about to hand over, willingly enough, this troublesome + fellow and prophet to the priestly faction, to play off the people + against the priests and work on the multitude to petition for the + release of Jesus. In this way he would have secured himself on both + sides. He would have condemned Jesus to please the priests, and after + condemning Him would have released Him to please the people. The + priests are greatly embarrassed by the presence of the multitude. + They had done everything so quickly and quietly that they might well + have hoped to get Jesus crucified before any one knew what was + happening or had had time to wonder at His non-appearance in the + Temple.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The priests + therefore go among the people and induce them not to agree to the + Procurator's proposal. How? By telling them why He was condemned, by + revealing to them the Messianic secret. That makes Him at once from a + prophet worthy of honour into a deluded enthusiast and blasphemer. + That was the explanation of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“fickleness”</span> of the Jerusalem mob which is always + so eloquently described, without any evidence for it except this + single inexplicable case.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At midday of the + same day—it was the 14th Nisan, and in the evening the Paschal lamb + would be eaten—Jesus cried aloud and expired. He had chosen to remain + fully conscious to the last.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name= + "Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">XX. Results</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Those who are fond + of talking about negative theology can find their account here. There + is nothing more negative than the result of the critical study of the + Life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Jesus of + Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, who preached the + ethic of the Kingdom of God, who founded the Kingdom of Heaven upon + earth, and died to give His work its final consecration, never had + any existence. He is a figure designed by rationalism, endowed with + life by liberalism, and clothed by modern theology in an historical + garb.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This image has not + been destroyed from without, it has fallen to pieces, cleft and + disintegrated by the concrete historical problems which came to the + surface one after another, and in spite of all the artifice, art, + artificiality, and violence which was applied to them, refused to be + planed down to fit the design on which the Jesus of the theology of + the last hundred and thirty years had been constructed, and were no + sooner covered over than they appeared again in a new form. The + thoroughgoing sceptical and the thoroughgoing eschatological school + have only completed the work of destruction by linking the problems + into a system and so making an end of the <span lang="la" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Divide et impera</span></span> of modern + theology, which undertook to solve each of them separately, that is, + in a less difficult form. Henceforth it is no longer permissible to + take one problem out of the series and dispose of it by itself, since + the weight of the whole hangs upon each.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whatever the + ultimate solution may be, the historical Jesus of whom the criticism + of the future, taking as its starting-point the problems which have + been recognised and admitted, will draw the portrait, can never + render modern theology the services which it claimed from its own + half-historical, half-modern, Jesus. He will be a Jesus, who was + Messiah, and lived as such, either on the ground of a literary + fiction of the earliest Evangelist, or on the ground of a purely + eschatological Messianic conception.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In either case, He + will not be a Jesus Christ to whom the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page397">[pg 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> religion of the present can ascribe, according + to its long-cherished custom, its own thoughts and ideas, as it did + with the Jesus of its own making. Nor will He be a figure which can + be made by a popular historical treatment so sympathetic and + universally intelligible to the multitude. The historical Jesus will + be to our time a stranger and an enigma.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The study of the + Life of Jesus has had a curious history. It set out in quest of the + historical Jesus, believing that when it had found Him it could bring + Him straight into our time as a Teacher and Saviour. It loosed the + bands by which He had been riveted for centuries to the stony rocks + of ecclesiastical doctrine, and rejoiced to see life and movement + coming into the figure once more, and the historical Jesus advancing, + as it seemed, to meet it. But He does not stay; He passes by our time + and returns to His own. What surprised and dismayed the theology of + the last forty years was that, despite all forced and arbitrary + interpretations, it could not keep Him in our time, but had to let + Him go. He returned to His own time, not owing to the application of + any historical ingenuity, but by the same inevitable necessity by + which the liberated pendulum returns to its original position.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The historical + foundation of Christianity as built up by rationalistic, by liberal, + and by modern theology no longer exists; but that does not mean that + Christianity has lost its historical foundation. The work which + historical theology thought itself bound to carry out, and which fell + to pieces just as it was nearing completion, was only the brick + facing of the real immovable historical foundation which is + independent of any historical confirmation or justification.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus means + something to our world because a mighty spiritual force streams forth + from Him and flows through our time also. This fact can neither be + shaken nor confirmed by any historical discovery. It is the solid + foundation of Christianity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The mistake was to + suppose that Jesus could come to mean more to our time by entering + into it as a man like ourselves. That is not possible. First because + such a Jesus never existed. Secondly because, although historical + knowledge can no doubt introduce greater clearness into an existing + spiritual life, it cannot call spiritual life into existence. History + can destroy the present; it can reconcile the present with the past; + can even to a certain extent transport the present into the past; but + to contribute to the making of the present is not given unto it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is + impossible to over-estimate the value of what German research upon + the Life of Jesus has accomplished. It is a uniquely great expression + of sincerity, one of the most significant events in the whole mental + and spiritual life of humanity. What has been done for the religious + life of the present and the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg + 398]</span><a name="Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + immediate future by scholars such as P. W. Schmidt, Bousset, + Jülicher, Weinel, Wernle—and their pupil Frenssen—and the others who + have been called to the task of bringing to the knowledge of wider + circles, in a form which is popular without being superficial, the + results of religious-historical study, only becomes evident when one + examines the literature and social culture of the Latin nations, who + have been scarcely if at all touched by the influence of these + thinkers.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet the time + of doubt was bound to come. We modern theologians are too proud of + our historical method, too proud of our historical Jesus, too + confident in our belief in the spiritual gains which our historical + theology can bring to the world. The thought that we could build up + by the increase of historical knowledge a new and vigorous + Christianity and set free new spiritual forces, rules us like a fixed + idea, and prevents us from seeing that the task which we have + grappled with and in some measure discharged is only one of the + intellectual preliminaries of the great religious task. We thought + that it was for us to lead our time by a roundabout way through the + historical Jesus, as we understood Him, in order to bring it to the + Jesus who is a spiritual power in the present. This roundabout way + has now been closed by genuine history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was a danger + of our thrusting ourselves between men and the Gospels, and refusing + to leave the individual man alone with the sayings of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was a danger + that we should offer them a Jesus who was too small, because we had + forced Him into conformity with our human standards and human + psychology. To see that, one need only read the Lives of Jesus + written since the 'sixties, and notice what they have made of the + great imperious sayings of the Lord, how they have weakened down His + imperative world-contemning demands upon individuals, that He might + not come into conflict with our ethical ideals, and might tune His + denial of the world to our acceptance of it. Many of the greatest + sayings are found lying in a corner like explosive shells from which + the charges have been removed. No small portion of elemental + religious power needed to be drawn off from His sayings to prevent + them from conflicting with our system of religious world-acceptance. + We have made Jesus hold another language with our time from that + which He really held.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the process we + ourselves have been enfeebled, and have robbed our own thoughts of + their vigour in order to project them back into history and make them + speak to us out of the past. It is nothing less than a misfortune for + modern theology that it mixes history with everything and ends by + being proud of the skill with which it finds its own thoughts—even to + its beggarly pseudo-metaphysic <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> with which it has banished genuine speculative + metaphysic from the sphere of religion—in Jesus, and represents Him + as expressing them. It had almost deserved the reproach: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“he who putteth his hand to the plough, and looketh back, + is not fit for the Kingdom of God.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was no small + matter, therefore, that in the course of the critical study of the + Life of Jesus, after a resistance lasting for two generations, during + which first one expedient was tried and then another, theology was + forced by genuine history to begin to doubt the artificial history + with which it had thought to give new life to our Christianity, and + to yield to the facts, which, as Wrede strikingly said, are sometimes + the most radical critics of all. History will force it to find a way + to transcend history, and to fight for the lordship and rule of Jesus + over this world with weapons tempered in a different forge.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We are + experiencing what Paul experienced. In the very moment when we were + coming nearer to the historical Jesus than men had ever come before, + and were already stretching out our hands to draw Him into our own + time, we have been obliged to give up the attempt and acknowledge our + failure in that paradoxical saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“If we + have known Christ after the flesh yet henceforth know we Him no + more.”</span> And further we must be prepared to find that the + historical knowledge of the personality and life of Jesus will not be + a help, but perhaps even an offence to religion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the truth is, + it is not Jesus as historically known, but Jesus as spiritually + arisen within men, who is significant for our time and can help it. + Not the historical Jesus, but the spirit which goes forth from Him + and in the spirits of men strives for new influence and rule, is that + which overcomes the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not given to + history to disengage that which is abiding and eternal in the being + of Jesus from the historical forms in which it worked itself out, and + to introduce it into our world as a living influence. It has toiled + in vain at this undertaking. As a water-plant is beautiful so long as + it is growing in the water, but once torn from its roots, withers and + becomes unrecognisable, so it is with the historical Jesus when He is + wrenched loose from the soil of eschatology, and the attempt is made + to conceive Him <span class="tei tei-q">“historically”</span> as a + Being not subject to temporal conditions. The abiding and eternal in + Jesus is absolutely independent of historical knowledge and can only + be understood by contact with His spirit which is still at work in + the world. In proportion as we have the Spirit of Jesus we have the + true knowledge of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus as a + concrete historical personality remains a stranger to our time, but + His spirit, which lies hidden in His words, is known in simplicity, + and its influence is direct. Every saying contains in its own way the + whole Jesus. The very strangeness and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page400">[pg 400]</span><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> unconditionedness in which He stands before us + makes it easier for individuals to find their own personal standpoint + in regard to Him.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Men feared that to + admit the claims of eschatology would abolish the significance of His + words for our time; and hence there was a feverish eagerness to + discover in them any elements that might be considered not + eschatologically conditioned. When any sayings were found of which + the wording did not absolutely imply an eschatological connexion + there was great jubilation—these at least had been saved uninjured + from the coming <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">débâcle</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in reality + that which is eternal in the words of Jesus is due to the very fact + that they are based on an eschatological world-view, and contain the + expression of a mind for which the contemporary world with its + historical and social circumstances no longer had any existence. They + are appropriate, therefore, to any world, for in every world they + raise the man who dares to meet their challenge, and does not turn + and twist them into meaninglessness, above his world and his time, + making him inwardly free, so that he is fitted to be, in his own + world and in his own time, a simple channel of the power of + Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Modern Lives of + Jesus are too general in their scope. They aim at influencing, by + giving a complete impression of the life of Jesus, a whole community. + But the historical Jesus, as He is depicted in the Gospels, + influenced individuals by the individual word. They understood Him so + far as it was necessary for them to understand, without forming any + conception of His life as a whole, since this in its ultimate aims + remained a mystery even for the disciples.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Because it is thus + preoccupied with the general, the universal, modern theology is + determined to find its world-accepting ethic in the teaching of + Jesus. Therein lies its weakness. The world affirms itself + automatically; the modern spirit cannot but affirm it. But why on + that account abolish the conflict between modern life, with the + world-affirming spirit which inspires it as a whole, and the + world-negating spirit of Jesus? Why spare the spirit of the + individual man its appointed task of fighting its way through the + world-negation of Jesus, of contending with Him at every step over + the value of material and intellectual goods—a conflict in which it + may never rest? For the general, for the institutions of society, the + rule is: affirmation of the world, in conscious opposition to the + view of Jesus, on the ground that the world has affirmed itself! This + general affirmation of the world, however, if it is to be Christian, + must in the individual spirit be Christianised and transfigured by + the personal rejection of the world which is preached in the sayings + of Jesus. It is only by means of the tension thus set up that + religious energy can be communicated to our time. There <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was a danger that modern theology, for + the sake of peace, would deny the world-negation in the sayings of + Jesus, with which Protestantism was out of sympathy, and thus + unstring the bow and make Protestantism a mere sociological instead + of a religious force. There was perhaps also a danger of inward + insincerity, in the fact that it refused to admit to itself and + others that it maintained its affirmation of the world in opposition + to the sayings of Jesus, simply because it could not do + otherwise.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For that reason it + is a good thing that the true historical Jesus should overthrow the + modern Jesus, should rise up against the modern spirit and send upon + earth, not peace, but a sword. He was not teacher, not a casuist; He + was an imperious ruler. It was because He was so in His inmost being + that He could think of Himself as the Son of Man. That was only the + temporally conditioned expression of the fact that He was an + authoritative ruler. The names in which men expressed their + recognition of Him as such, Messiah, Son of Man, Son of God, have + become for us historical parables. We can find no designation which + expresses what He is for us.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He comes to us as + One unknown, without a name, as of old, by the lake-side, He came to + those men who knew Him not. He speaks to us the same word: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Follow thou me!”</span> and sets us to the + tasks which He has to fulfil for our time. He commands. And to those + who obey Him, whether they be wise or simple, He will reveal Himself + in the toils, the conflicts, the sufferings which they shall pass + through in His fellowship, and, as an ineffable mystery, they shall + learn in their own experience Who He is.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name= + "Pg403" id="Pg403" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc43" id="toc43"></a> <a name="pdf44" id="pdf44"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Index Of Authors And Works</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(Including + Reference To English Translations)</p> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ammon, Christoph Friedrich von. Fortbildung des Christentums + (Leipzig, 1840); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Geschichte des Lebens Jesu mit steter Rücksicht auf die + vorhandenen Quellen (1842-1847), <a href="#Pg011" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg097" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href= + "#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a> f., + <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">117</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anonymous Works— + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Leben Napoleons kritisch geprüft. Aus dem Englischen (see + under Whateley) nebst einigen Nutzanwendungen auf das Leben-Jesu + von Strauss (1836), <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Did Jesus live 100 <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>? (London and + Benares, Theosophical Publishing Society, 1903), <a href="#Pg327" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Dr. Strauss und die Züricher Kirche (Basle, 1839), <a href= + "#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Wichtige Enthüllungen über die wirkliche Todesart Jesu (5th ed., + Leipzig, 1849); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 4.00em"> + Historische Enthüllungen über die wirklichen Ereignisse der + Geburt und Jugend Jesu (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1849), <a href="#Pg161" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Zwei Gespräche über die Ansicht des Herrn Dr. Strauss von der + evangelischen Geschichte (Jena, 1839), <a href="#Pg100" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baader, Franz. Über das Leben-Jesu von Strauss (Munich, 1836), + <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">100</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bahrdt, Karl Friedrich. Briefe über die Bibel im Volkston (1782); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ausführung des Plans und Zwecks Jesu (1784-1792); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die sämtlichen Reden Jesu aus den Evangelien ausgezogen (1786), + <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg038" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>, <a href="#Pg039" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>, + <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>, <a href="#Pg313" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baldensperger, Wilhelm. Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu im Lichte der + messianischen Hoffnungen seiner Zeit (Strassburg, 1888, 2nd ed. + 1892, 3rd ed. pt. i. 1903), <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233-237</a>, <a href= + "#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, + <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a> f., <a href="#Pg365" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>, <a href="#Pg366" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Barth, Fritz. Die Hauptprobleme des Lebens Jesu (1st ed. 1899, + 2nd ed. 1903), <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">301</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bauer, Bruno. Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes + (Bremen, 1840); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte der Synoptiker (Leipzig, + 1841-1842); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Kritik der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres Ursprungs (Berlin, + 1850-1851); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Kritik der Apostelgeschichte (1850); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Kritik der Paulinischen Briefe (Berlin, 1850-1852); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Philo, Strauss, Renan und das Urchristentum (Berlin, 1874); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Christus und die Cäsaren (Berlin, 1877); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die gute Sache der Freiheit und meine eigene Angelegenheit + (Zurich, 1843), <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg012" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href= + "#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">137-160</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, + <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">256-258</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, + <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">315</a>, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">328</a>, <a href="#Pg332" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a>, <a href="#Pg335" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">335</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, + <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">342</a>, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">346</a>, <a href="#Pg358" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, <a href="#Pg368" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href= + "#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baumer, Friedrich. Schwarz, Strauss, Renan (Leipzig, 1864), + <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baur, Ferdinand Christian. Kritische Untersuchungen über die + kanonischen Evangelien (Tübingen, 1847), <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg058" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href= + "#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>, + <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>, <a href="#Pg182" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href= + "#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, + <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">229</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bergh van Eysinga, Van den. Indische Einflüsse auf evangelische + Erzählungen (Göttingen, 1904), <a href="#Pg290" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bernhard ter Haar (Utrecht). Zehn Vorlesungen über Renans + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Leben-Jesu”</span> (German by H. Doermer, + Gotha, 1864), <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Beyschlag, Willibald. Über das Leben-Jesu von Renan (Berlin, + 1864); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Leben-Jesu (pt. i. 1885, pt. ii. 1886, 2nd ed. 1887-1888), + <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">6</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg215" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Binder, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">69</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bleby, H. W. The Trial of Jesus of Nazareth considered as a + Judicial Act (1880), <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">391</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bleek, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">231</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name= + "Pg404" id="Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Böklen, E. Die Verwandtschaft der jüdisch-christlichen und der + parsischen Eschatologie (1902), <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bolten, Johann Adrian. Der Bericht des Matthäus von Jesu dem + Messias (Altona, 1792), <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">271</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bosc, Ernest. La Vie ésotérique de Jésus de Nazareth et les + origines orientales du christianisme (Paris, 1902), <a href= + "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, + <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bousset, Wilhelm. Jesu Predigt in ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum. + Ein religionsgeschichtlicher Vergleich (Göttingen, 1892); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die jüdische Apokalyptik in ihrer religionsgeschichtlichen + Herkunft und ihrer Bedeutung für das Neue Testament (Berlin, + 1903); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter + (1902); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Was wissen wir von Jesus? Vorträge im Protestantenverein zu + Bremen (Halle, 1904); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Jesus (Religionsgeschichtliche Volksbücher, herausgegeben von + Schiele, Halle, 1904) (English translation, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus</span></span>, by J. P. Trevelyan, + London, 1906), <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241-249</a>, <a href="#Pg255" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, + <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">264</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">267</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg300" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>, <a href= + "#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">359</a>, + <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">398</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brandt, Wilhelm. Die evangelische Geschichte und der Ursprung des + Christentums auf Grund einer Kritik der Berichte über das Leiden + und die Auferstehung Jesu (Leipzig, 1893), <a href="#Pg241" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href= + "#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">256-261</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>, <a href="#Pg301" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href= + "#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>, + <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg391" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bretschneider, Karl Gottlob, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brunner, Sebastian. Der Atheist Renan und sein Evangelium + (Regensburg, 1864), <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bugge, Chr. A. Die Hauptparabeln Jesu. (From the Norwegian) + (Giessen, 1903), <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">263</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias, Ritter von. Das Leben Jesu, vol. + ix. of Bunsen's <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Bibelwerk”</span> (published by Holtzmann, + 1865), <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">200</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cairns, John. Falsche Christi und der wahre Christus, oder + Verteidigung der evangelischen Geschichte gegen Strauss und + Renan. Aus dem Englischen übersetzt (Hamburg, 1864) (<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">False Christ and the True</span></span>, A + sermon delivered before the National Bible Society of Scotland, + Edinburgh, 1864), <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Capitaine, W. Jesus von Nazareth (Regensburg, 1905), <a href= + "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cassel, Paulus. Bericht über Renans Leben-Jesu (Berlin, 1864), + <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Casuar.”</span> + Das Leben Luthers kritisch bearbeitet. Herausgegeben von Jul. + Ferd. Wurm (<span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Mexiko, 2836”</span>), <a href="#Pg112" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chamberlain, H. S. Worte Christi (1901), <a href="#Pg310" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Charles, R. H. <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“The Son of Man”</span> (Expos. Times, 1893), + <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Colani, Timothée. Examen de la vie de Jésus de M. Renan + (Strassburg, 1864); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Jésus-Christ et les croyances messianiques de son temps + (Strassburg, 1864), <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg221" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, + <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">233</a>, <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>, <a href="#Pg372" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cone, Orello. <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Jesus' Self-designation in the Synoptic + Gospels”</span> (The New World, 1893), <a href="#Pg266" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Coquerel, Athanase (jun.), <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Credner, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dalman, Gustaf. Grammatik des jüdisch-palästinensischen Aramäisch + (Leipzig, 1894); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Worte Jesu. Mit Berücksichtigung des nachkanonischen + Schrifttums und der aramäischen Sprache, I. (Leipzig, 1898) + (authorised English translation by D. M. Kay, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Words of Jesus</span></span>, Edinburgh, + 1902), <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">271</a>, <a href="#Pg273" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273-275</a>, <a href= + "#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>, + <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">279-281</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286-289</a>, <a href= + "#Pg363" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a>, + <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">391</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Darboy, Georges. Lettre pastorale de Monseigneur l'Archevêque de + Paris sur la divinité de Jésus-Christ, et mandement pour le + carême de 1864, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">188</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Delff, Hugo. Geschichte des Rabbi Jesus von Nazareth (Leipzig, + 1889), <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">323</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Delitzsch, Franz, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">273</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Deutlinger, Martin. Renan und das Wunder. Ein Beitrag zur + christlichen Apologetik (Munich, 1864), <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Didon, Le Père, de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs. Jésus Christ + (Paris, 1891, 2 vols., German, 1895) (English translation, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus Christ</span></span>, 2 vols., 1891), + <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">295</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dieu, Louis de, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dillmann, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Diodati, Dominicus, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">271</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Döderlein. Fragmente und Antifragmente (Nuremberg, 1778), + <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">25</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dulk, Albert. Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu. In geschichtlicher + Auffassung dargestellt (pt. i. 1884, pt. ii. 1885), <a href= + "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, + <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dupanloup, Félix Antoine Philibert, Évêque d'Orléans. + Avertissement à la jeunesse et aux pères de famille sur les + attaques dirigées contre la religion par quelques écrivains de + nos jours (Paris, 1864), <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">188</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ebrard, August. Wissenschaftliche Kritik der evangelischen + Geschichte (Frankfort, 1842), <a href="#Pg097" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg116" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a> f. + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page405">[pg 405]</span><a name= + "Pg405" id="Pg405" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah + (London, 1st ed. 1883, 3rd ed. 1886, 2 vols.), <a href="#Pg233" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eerdmanns, B. E. <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“De Oorsprong van de uitdrukking 'Zoon des + Menschen' als evangelische Messiastitel”</span> (Theol. + Tijdschr., 1894), <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">276</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ehrhardt. Der Grundcharakter der Ethik Jesu in Verhältnis zu den + messianischen Hoffnungen seines Volkes und zu seinem eigenen + Messiasbewusstsein (Freiburg, 1895); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Le Principe de la morale de Jésus (Paris, 1896), <a href="#Pg249" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eichhorn, Johann Gottfried, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Emmerich, Anna Katharina. Das bittere Leiden unseres Herrn Jesu + Christi. Herausgegeben von Brentano (1858-1860, new ed. 1895) + (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The Dolorous + Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ</span></span>, London, 1862); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Leben Jesu, 3 vols. (1858-1860), <a href="#Pg109" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ewald, Georg Heinrich August. <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Geschichte Christus' und seiner Zeit,”</span> + vol. v. of the <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Geschichte des Volkes Israel”</span> + (Göttingen, 1855, 2nd ed. 1857), English translation of the + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Jesus Christ</span></span>, by + Octavius Glover (London, 1865); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die drei ersten Evangelien (1850), <a href="#Pg097" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg117" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>, <a href= + "#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>, + <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">135</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fiebig, Paul. Der Menschensohn (Tübingen, 1901); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Altjüdische Gleichnisse und die Gleichnisse Jesu (Tübingen, + 1904), <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">286</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Frantzen, Wilhelm. Die <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Leben-Jesu-”</span> Bewegung seit Strauss + (Dorpat, 1898), <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">12</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Frenssen, Gustav. Hilligenlei (Berlin, 1905), pp. 462-593: + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Die + Handschrift”</span> (English translation, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Holy Land</span></span>, by M. A. Hamilton, + London, 1906), <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">307-309</a>, <a href="#Pg398" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">398</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Freppel, Charles Emile. Examen critique de la vie de Jesus de M. + Renan (Paris, 1864) (German by Kollmus, Vienna, 1864), <a href= + "#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, + <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Frick, Otto. Mythus und Evangelium (Heilbronn, 1879), <a href= + "#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Furrer, Konrad. Vorträge über das Leben Jesu Christi (1902), + <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">301</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gabler, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">78</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gardner, P. Exploratio Evangelica. A Brief Examination of the + Basis and Origin of Christian Belief (1899, 2nd ed. 1907), + <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gerlach, Hermann. Gegen Renans Leben-Jesu 1864 (Berlin), <a href= + "#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gfrörer, August Friedrich. Kritische Geschichte des + Urchristentums (vol. i. 1st ed. 1831, 2nd ed. 1835, vol. ii. + 1838), <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">163-166</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ghillany, Friedrich Wilhelm (<span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Richard von der Alm”</span>). Theologische + Briefe an die Gebildeten der deutschen Nation (3 vols. 1863); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Urteile heidnischer und christlicher Schriftsteller der vier + ersten christlichen Jahrhunderte über Jesus (1864), <a href= + "#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, + <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166-172</a>, <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg363" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Godet, F. Das Leben Jesu vor seinem öffentlichen Auftreten + (German by M. Reineck, Hanover, 1897), <a href="#Pg217" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gratz, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Greiling. Das Leben Jesu von Nazareth (1813), <a href="#Pg050" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gressman, Hugo, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">234</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Griesbach, Johann Jakob, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Grimm, Eduard. Die Ethik Jesu (Hamburg, 1903), <a href="#Pg320" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Grimm, Joseph. Das Leben Jesu (Würzburg, 6 vols., 2nd ed. + 1890-1903), <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Grotius, Hugo, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gunkel, Hermann, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hagel, Maurus. Dr. Strauss' Leben-Jesu aus dens Standpunkt des + Katholicismus betrachtet (1839), <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hahn, Werner. Leben-Jesu (Berlin, 1844), <a href="#Pg118" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Haneberg, Daniel Bonifacius. Ernest Renans Leben-Jesu + (Regensburg, 1864), <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hanson, Sir Richard. The Jesus of History (1869), <a href= + "#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Harless, Adolf. Die kritische Bearbeitung des Lebens Jesu von + David Friedrich Strauss nach ihrem wissenschaftlichen Werte + beleuchtet (Erlangen, 1836), <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">98</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Harnack, Adolf, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">242</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg314" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hartmann, Eduard von. Das Christentum des Neuen Testaments, 2nd + ed. of the <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Briefe über die christliche Religion”</span> + (Sachsa-in-the-Harz, 1905), <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">292</a>, <a href="#Pg318" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318-320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hartmann, Julius. Leben Jesu (2 vols., 1837-1839), <a href= + "#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hase, Karl August von. Das Leben Jesu (1st ed. 1829); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Geschichte Jesu (Leipzig, 1876), <a href="#Pg004" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg005" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href= + "#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, + <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg028" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg058" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>, + <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg088" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, <a href="#Pg099" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href= + "#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>, + <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">116</a>, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg193" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href= + "#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a> f., + <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Haupt, Erich. Die eschatologischen Aussagen Jesu in den + synoptischen Evangelien (1895), <a href="#Pg241" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg250" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hausrath, Adolf. Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte (1st ed., + Munich, 1868 ff., 3rd ed., vol. i. 1879) (English translation, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A History of the</span> <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page406">[pg 406]</span><a name="Pg406" id= + "Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor" style= + "text-align: left"></a><span style="font-style: italic">New + Testament Times, The Time of Jesus</span></span>, by C. T. + Poynting and P. Quenzer, London, 1878), <a href="#Pg214" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Havet, Ernest. Jésus dans l'histoire. Examen de la vie de Jésus + par M. Renan. Extrait de la Revue des deux mondes (Paris, 1863); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Le Christianisme et ses origines, 3<span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">me</span></span> p<span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">tie</span></span>, Le Nouveau Testament + (1884), <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg328" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>, <a href="#Pg391" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hegel, Georg Friedrich Wilhelm, <a href="#Pg049" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg068" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a> f., + <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg114" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, + <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">137</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg194" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">106</a> f., <a href="#Pg111" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg115" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, <a href= + "#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hennell, Charles Christian. An Inquiry concerning the Origin of + Christianity (London, 1838) (Untersuchungen über den Ursprung des + Christentums. Vorrede von David Friedrich Strauss, 1840), + <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">161</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Herder, Johann Gottfried. Vom Erlöser der Menschen. Nach unsern + drei ersten Evangelien (1796); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Von Gottes Sohn, der Welt Heiland. Nach Johannes Evangelium + (1797), <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg089" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href= + "#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hess, Johann Jakob. Geschichte der drei letzten Lebensjahre Jesu + (1768 ff.), <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27-31</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hilgenfeld, Adolf, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">124</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg266" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hoekstra. <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“De + Christologie van het canonieke Marcus-Evangelie, vergeleken met + die van de beide andere synoptische Evangelien”</span> (Theol. + Tijdschrift, v., 1871), <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">328</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hoffmann, Wilhelm. Das Leben-Jesu kritisch bearbeitet von Dr. + David Fried. Strauss. Geprüft für Theologen und Nicht-Theologen + (1836), <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">99</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Holtzmann, Heinrich Julius, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg125" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href= + "#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, + <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">202-205</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg218" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href= + "#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, + <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg235" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>, <a href="#Pg237" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href= + "#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>, + <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Holtzmann, Oskar. Das Leben Jesu, (1901) (English translation, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Life of Jesus</span></span>, by J. T. + Bealby and Maurice A. Canney, London, 1904); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Messianitätsbewusstsein Jesu und seine neueste Bestreitung. + Vortrag (1902); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + War Jesus Ekstatiker? (Tübingen, 1903), <a href="#Pg208" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href="#Pg293" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href= + "#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">295-300</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>, + <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">359</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hug, Leonhard. Gutachten über das Leben-Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet + von D. Fr. Strauss (Freiburg, 1840), <a href="#Pg097" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg108" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href= + "#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>, + <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">271</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ingraham, J. H. The Prince of the House of David (London, 1859) + (Der Fürst aus Davids Hause, new ed., 1896, Brunswick), <a href= + "#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Inchofer, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Issel, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jacobi, Johann Adolf. Die Geschichte Jesu für denkende und + gemütvolle Leser (1816), <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jonge, De. Jeschua. Der klassische jüdische Mann. Zerstörung des + kirchlichen, Enthüllung des jüdischen Jesus-Bildes (Berlin, + 1904), <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">321</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jülicher, Adolf. Die Gleichnisreden Jesu (pt. i. 1888, pt. ii. + 1899); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Kultur der Gegenwart (Teubner, Berlin, 1905), pp. <a href= + "#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40-69</a>; + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Jesus,”</span> + <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">262-264</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg290" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href= + "#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>, + <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">398</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kalthoff, Albert. Das Christus-Problem. Grundlinien zu einer + Sozialtheologie (Leipzig, 1902); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Entstehung des Christentums. Neue Beiträge zum + Christus-Problem (Leipzig, 1904) (English translation, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Rise of Christianity</span></span>, by + Joseph M'Cabe, London, 1907); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Leben Jesu. Reden gehalten im prot. Reformverein zu Berlin + (1880); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Was wissen wir von Jesus? Eine Abrechnung mit Professor Bousset + in Göttingen (Berlin, 1904), <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg314" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314-318</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kant, Emmanuel, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg322" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kapp, W. Das Christus-und Christentum-Problem bei Kalthoff + (Strassburg, 1905), <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kautzsch, Emil Friedrich, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">271</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Keim, Theodor. Die Geschichte Jesu von Nazara (3 vols., Zurich, + pt. i. 1867, pt. ii. 1871, pt. iii. 1872); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Geschichte Jesu. Nach den Ergebnissen heutiger Wissenschaft + für weitere Kreise übersichtlich erzählt (Zurich, 1872) (English + translation of the larger work, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The History + of Jesus of Nazara</span></span>, by E. M. Geldart and A. Ransom, + 6 vols., London, 1873-1883), <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg061" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg193" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href= + "#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, + <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">211-214</a>, <a href="#Pg231" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>, + <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">343</a>, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">351</a>, <a href="#Pg357" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, <a href="#Pg380" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, <a href= + "#Pg392" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">392</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kienlen, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">228</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kirchbach, Wolfgang. Was lehrte Jesus? (Berlin, 1897, 2nd ed. + 1902); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Buch Jesus (Berlin, 1897), <a href="#Pg294" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, <a href="#Pg322" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322-324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Koppe, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Köstlin, Karl Reinhold, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">124</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Krabbe. Vorlesungen über das Leben Jesu für Theologen und + Nicht-Theologen (Hamburg, 1839), <a href="#Pg100" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kralik, Richard von. Jesu Leben und Werk (Kempten-Nürnberg, + 1904), <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Krauss, S. Das Leben Jesu nach jüdischen Quellen (1902), <a href= + "#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page407">[pg 407]</span><a name= + "Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Krüger-Velthusen, W. Leben Jesu. (Elberfeld, 1872), <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kuhn, Johannes von. Leben Jesu (Tübingen, 1840), <a href="#Pg108" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kunz, K. Christus medicus (Freiburg, 1905), <a href="#Pg325" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lachmann, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lamy. Renans Leben-Jesu vor dem Richterstuhle der Kritik. + Übersetzt von Aug. Rohling (Münster, 1864), <a href="#Pg190" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lange, Johann Peter. Das Leben Jesu, 5 vols. (1844-1847) (English + translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of + the Lord Jesus Christ</span></span>, by Sophia Taylor, Edinburgh, + 1864), <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">117</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Längin, G. Der Christus der Geschichte und sein Christentum (2 + vols., 1897-1898), <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Langsdorf, Karl von. Wohlgeprüfte Darstellung des Lebens Jesu + (Mannheim, 1831), <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lasserre, Henri. L'Évangile selon Renan (1864, 12 editions, + German, Munich, 1864), <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lehmann. Renan wider Renan (Zwickau, 1864), <a href="#Pg191" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14-16</a>, <a href= + "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Levi, Giuseppe. Parabeln, Legenden und Gedanken aus Talmud und + Midrasch (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1877), <a href="#Pg286" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lichtenstein, Wilhelm Jakob. Leben des Herrn Jesu Christi + (Erlangen, 1856), <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">101</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lietzmann, Hans. Der Menschensohn (Freiburg, 1896); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Zur Menschensohnfrage (1898), <a href="#Pg265" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg276" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, + <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">289</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lightfoot, John. Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae in quatuor + Evangelistas. Herausgegeben von J. B. Carpzov (Leipzig, 1684), + <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lillie, A. The Influence of Buddhism on Primitive Christianity + (London, 1893), <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Littré, M., <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">181</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Loisy, Alfred. Le Quatrième Évangile (Paris, 1903); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Les Évangiles synoptiques, 2 vols. (Paris, 1907); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + L'Évangile et l'Église (Paris, 1903) (translated by C. Home, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Gospel and the Church</span></span>, new + ed. with a preface by G. Tyrrell, 1908), <a href="#Pg295" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lücke, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">106</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Luthardt, Christoph Ernst. Die modernen Darstellungen des Lebens + Jesu. Vortrag (Leipzig, 1864), <a href="#Pg191" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg209" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Luther, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">13</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mack, Joseph. Bericht über des Herrn Dr. Strauss' historische + Bearbeitung des Lebens Jesu (1837), <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manen, van, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">286</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marius, Emmanuel. Die Persönlichkeit Jesu mit besonderer + Rücksicht auf die Mythologien und Mysterien der alten Völker + (Leipzig, 1879), <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Meinhold, J. Jesus und das Alte Testament (1896), <a href= + "#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">255</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Meuschen, Johann Gerhardt, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Meyer, Arnold. Jesu Muttersprache (Leipzig, 1896), <a href= + "#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, + <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">231</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg271" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>, <a href= + "#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">274</a>, + <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">286</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg289" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michaelis, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">271</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Michelis. Renans Roman vom Leben-Jesu (Münster, 1864), <a href= + "#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Müller, A. Jesus ein Arier (Leipzig, 1904), <a href="#Pg327" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Müller, Max, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">290</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mussard, Eugène. Du système mythique appliqué à l'histoire de la + vie de Jésus (1838), <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nahor, Pierre (Émilie Lerou), Jésus. (German by Walther Bloch, + Berlin, 1905), <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">325</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Neander, August Wilhelm. Das Leben Jesu Christi (Hamburg, 1837) + (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of + Jesus Christ</span></span>, by J. M'Clintock and C. E. + Blumenthal, London, 1851); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gutachten über das Buch des Dr. Strauss', Leben-Jesu (1836), + <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101-103</a>, <a href= + "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, + <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">139</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nestle, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">276</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Neubauer, Adolf, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">273</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Neumann, Arno. Jesus wie er geschichtlich war (Freiburg, 1904), + <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicolas, Amadée. Renan et sa vie de Jésus sous les rapports + moral, légal et littéraire (Paris-Marseille, 1864), <a href= + "#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nippold, Friedrich. Der Entwicklungsgang des Lebens Jesu im + Wortlaut der drei ersten Evangelien (Hamburg, 1895); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die psychiatrische Seite der Heilstätigkeit Jesu (1889), <a href= + "#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, + <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Noack, Ludwig. Die Geschichte Jesu (2nd ed., Mannheim, 1876); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Aus der Jordanwiege nach Golgatha (1870-1871), <a href="#Pg161" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">172-179</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg322" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nork, J., <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">286</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Notowitsch, Nicolas. La Vie inconnue de Jésus-Christ (Paris, + 1894) (German, Stuttgart, 1894), <a href="#Pg290" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg326" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oort, H. L. Die Uitdrukking ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου in het Nieuwe + Testament (Leiden, 1893), <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">266</a>, <a href="#Pg278" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg286" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Opitz, Ernst August. Geschichte und Characterzüge Jesu (1812), + <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">27</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">34</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page408">[pg 408]</span><a name= + "Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Osiander, Andreas, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">13</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Osiander, Johann Ernst. Apologie des Lebens Jesu gegenüber dem + neuesten Versuch, es in Mythen aufzulösen (1837), <a href= + "#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Osterzee, J. J. van (Utrecht). Geschichte oder Roman? Das + Leben-Jesu von Ernest Renan vorläufig beleuchtet. (From the + Dutch) (Hamburg, 1864), <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">191</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Otto, Rudolf. Leben und Wirken Jesu nach historisch-kritischer + Auffassung. Vortrag (Göttingen, 1902), <a href="#Pg301" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paul, Ludwig. Die Vorstellung vom Messias und vom Gottesreich bei + den Synoptikern (Bonn, 1895), <a href="#Pg265" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paulus, Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob. Das Leben Jesu als Grundlage + einer reinen Geschichte des Urchristentums (1828), <a href= + "#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, + <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href="#Pg048" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>, + <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">271</a>, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">276</a>, <a href="#Pg303" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pfleiderer, Otto. Das Urchristentum, seine Schriften und Lehren + in geschichtlichem Zusammenhang beschrieben (2nd ed., Berlin, + 1902, 2 vols.) (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Primitive Christianity</span></span>, vols. + i. and ii. (vol. i. of original), London, 1906, 1909); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Entstehung des Urchristentums (Munich, 1905) (English + translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian + Origins</span></span>, by D. A. Huebsch, London, 1905), <a href= + "#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, + <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">309</a>, <a href="#Pg311" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311-313</a>, <a href= + "#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Plank. Geschichte des Christentums (Göttingen, 1818), <a href= + "#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pressel, Theodor. Leben Jesu Christi (1857), <a href="#Pg101" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pressensé, Edmond Dehoult de. Jésus-Christ, son temps, sa vie, + son œuvre (Paris, 1865) (English translation, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus Christ, His Times, His Life, His + Work</span></span>, by A. Harwood, 3rd ed., London, 1869); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + L'École critique et Jésus-Christ, à propos de la vie de Jésus de + M. Renan, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">180</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">189</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Quinet, Edgar, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rauch, C. Jeschua ben Joseph (Deichert, 1899), <a href="#Pg326" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Régla, Paul de. Jesus von Nazareth, (German by A. Just, Leipzig, + 1894), <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">294</a>, <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">325</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reimarus, Hermann Samuel. Von dem Zwecke Jesu und seiner Jünger + (published by Lessing, Brunswick, 1778) (English translation, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Object of Jesus and His disciples, as + seen in the New Testament</span></span>, edited by A. Voysey, + 1879), <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg013" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13-26</a>, <a href= + "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, + <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg120" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg159" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href= + "#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>, + <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">172</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>, <a href="#Pg264" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, <a href= + "#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, + <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">319</a>, <a href="#Pg345" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>, <a href="#Pg365" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reinhard, Franz Volkmar. Versuch über den Plan, welchen der + Stifter der christlichen Religion zum Besten der Menschheit + entwarf (1798), <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">31</a> f., <a href="#Pg048" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg206" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Renan, Ernest. La Vie de Jésus (Paris, 1863), German, 1895 + (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of + Jesus</span></span>, London, 1864; translated with an + introduction by W. G. Hutchison, London, 1898), <a href="#Pg011" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href= + "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, + <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">180-192</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>, + <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg213" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, + <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">225</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg259" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>, <a href= + "#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, + <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">295</a>, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">303</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>, <a href="#Pg310" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Resch, <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">273</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reuss, Eduard, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">124</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg189" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg228" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Réville, Albert. La Vie de Jésus de Renan devant les orthodoxes + et devant la critique (1864), <a href="#Pg125" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg189" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <a href= + "#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ritschl, Albrecht, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">1</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">124</a> f., <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg320" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Robertson, J. M. Christianity and Mythology (London, 1900), + <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">290</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rogers, A. K. The Life and Teachings of Jesus: a critical + analysis, etc. (London and New York, 1894), <a href="#Pg249" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rosegger, Peter. Frohe Botschaft eines armen Sünders (Leipzig, + 1906), <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">326</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rossi, Giambernardo de. Dissertazione della lingua propria di + Christo e degli Ebrei nazionali della Palestina da' tempi de' + Maccabei in disamina del sentimento di un recente scrittore + italiano (Parma, 1772), <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">271</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Salvator. Jésus-Christ et sa doctrine (Paris, 1838, 2 vols.), + <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sanday, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Saumaise, Claude, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scaliger, Justus, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schegg, Peter. Sechs Bücher des Lebens Jesu (Freiburg, + 1874-1875), <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schell, Hermann. Christus (Mainz, 1903), <a href="#Pg294" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schenkel, Daniel. Das Charakterbild Jesu (Wiesbaden, 1st and 2nd + ed. 1864, 4th ed. 1873) (English translation, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A Sketch of the Character of + Jesus</span></span>, London, 1869), <a href="#Pg011" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg103" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href= + "#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>, + <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg203" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>, <a href="#Pg205" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205-210</a>, + <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">215</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg229" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, <a href= + "#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scherer, Edmond, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">191</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scherer, Edmond, und Athanase Coquerel (jun.). Zwei französische + Stimmen über Renans Leben-Jesu (Regensburg, 1864), <a href= + "#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Daniel. Das Leben Jesu (1864), + <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>, + <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg085" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>, <a href= + "#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>, + <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">101</a> f., <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page409">[pg 409]</span><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> <a href="#Pg108" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href= + "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, + <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">127</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">139</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg197" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>, <a href= + "#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, + <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">233</a>, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schmiedel, Otto. Die Hauptprobleme der Leben-Jesu-Forschung + (Tübingen, 1902), <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg301" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href= + "#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, + <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">305</a>, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">312</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schmiedel, P., <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schmidt, N. <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Was + בן נשא a Messianic Title?”</span> (Journal of the Society for + Biblical Literature, xv., 1896), <a href="#Pg277" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schmidt, Paul Wilhelm. Die Geschichte Jesu, i. (Freiburg, 1899), + ii. (Tübingen, 1904), <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg301" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href= + "#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, + <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">308</a>, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">398</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schmoller. Über die Lehre vom Reiche Gottes im Neuen Testament, + <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scholten, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">231</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schöttgen, Christian, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schürer, Emil. Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes ins Zeitalter Jesu + Christi (2nd ed., 2nd pt., 1886) (English translation, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of Jewish People in time of Jesus + Christ</span></span>, Edinburgh, 1885); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das messianische Selbstbewusstsein Jesu Christi (1903), <a href= + "#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>, + <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">254</a> f., <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schwartzkoppf. Die Weissagungen Jesu Christi von seinem Tode, + seiner Auferstehung und Wiederkunft und ihre Erfüllung (1895), + <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schweitzer, Albert. Das Messianitätsund Leidensgeheimnis. Eine + Skizze des Lebens Jesu (Tübingen, 1901), <a href="#Pg281" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>, <a href="#Pg287" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href= + "#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">328-330</a>, <a href="#Pg332" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">332</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a>, + <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">339</a> f., <a href="#Pg351" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>, <a href="#Pg382" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Schweizer, Alexander, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">127</a> f., <a href="#Pg200" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg219" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href= + "#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Semler, Johann Salomo. Beantwortung der Fragmente eines + Ungenannten, insbesondere vom Zweck Jesu und seiner Jünger + (Halle, 1779), <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">15</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sepp, Johann Nepomuk. Das Leben Jesu Christi (Regensburg, 7 + vols., 1st ed. 1843-1846, 2nd ed. 1853-1862), <a href="#Pg108" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href= + "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Seydel, Rudolf. Das Evangelium Jesu in seinen Verhältnissen zur + Buddha-Saga und Buddha-Lehre (Leipzig, 1882); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Buddha-Legende und das Leben Jesu nach den Evangelien (2nd + ed. 1897); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Buddha und Christus (Breslau, 1884), <a href="#Pg269" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg290" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290-292</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Siegfried, Carl, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Simon, Richard, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Soden, Hermann Freiherr von. Die wichtigsten Fragen im Leben Jesu + (Berlin, 1904), <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">293</a>, <a href="#Pg301" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301-308</a>, <a href= + "#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stalker, J. The Life of Jesus Christ (Edinburgh, 1880) (German, + Tübingen, 1898), <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stapfer, E. La Vie de Jésus (pt. i. 1896, pt. ii. 1897, pt. iii. + 1898) (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Jesus Christ + before His Ministry</span></span>, by L. S. Houghton, 1897, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus Christ during His + Ministry</span></span>, by L. S. Houghton, 1897), <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stave, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">243</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Storr, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Strauss, David Friedrich. Der Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus + der Geschichte. Eine Kritik des Schleiermacher'schen Lebens Jesu + (Berlin, 1865); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Leben Jesu (1st ed. 1835 and 1836, 2 vols., 3rd ed., revised, + 1838 and 1839, 4th ed. 1840) (<span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of + Jesus Critically Examined</span></span>, translated from the 4th + German ed. by George Eliot, London, 1846, 3rd ed. with a preface + by Otto Pfleiderer, 1898); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Leben Jesu für das deutsche Volk bearbeitet (Leipzig, 1864, + 8th ed.) (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">A New Life of + Jesus</span></span>, London, 1865), <a href="#Pg004" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg005" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href= + "#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, + <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg024" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>, <a href= + "#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>, + <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">35-37</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg060" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href= + "#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>, + <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">79</a> f., <a href="#Pg097" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68-121</a>, + <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">129</a> f., <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg138" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>, <a href= + "#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>, + <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">145</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href="#Pg153" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>, <a href="#Pg158" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>, <a href= + "#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>, + <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href="#Pg166" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>, <a href= + "#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>, + <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">180</a> f., <a href="#Pg182" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href="#Pg185" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href= + "#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, + <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">193-199</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, <a href="#Pg201" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href= + "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a> f., + <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">214</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg221" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg225" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>, <a href= + "#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, + <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg281" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>, <a href="#Pg294" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>, <a href= + "#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, + <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">309</a>, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">329</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a>, <a href="#Pg363" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stricker. Jesus von Nazareth (1868), <a href="#Pg202" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tal, T., <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">286</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tholuck, August. Die Glaubwürdigkeit der evangelischen + Geschichte, zugleich eine Kritik des Lebens Jesu von Strauss + (Hamburg, 1837) (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Credibility of the Evangelical History, illustrated with + reference to the</span> <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leben-Jesu</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">of Dr. Strauss</span></span>, London, 1844), + <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>, + <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg139" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Titius, Arthur, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">250</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Uhlhorn, Johann Gerhard Wilhelm. Das Leben Jesu in seinen neueren + Darstellungen. Vorträge (1892), <a href="#Pg005" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">5</a>, <a href="#Pg011" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ullmann, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">100</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Usteri, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">78</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Venturini, Karl Heinrich. Natürliche Geschichte des grossen + Propheten von Nazareth (1st ed. 1800-1802, 2nd ed. 1806), + <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">4</a>, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">38</a>, <a href="#Pg044" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg045" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>, <a href= + "#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, + <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg170" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>, <a href= + "#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>, + <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">303</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg325" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>, <a href="#Pg327" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">327</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Veuillot, Louis. La Vie de notre Seigneur Jésus-Christ (Paris, + 1863), (German by Waldener, Köln-Neuss, 1864), <a href="#Pg295" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page410">[pg 410]</span><a name= + "Pg410" id="Pg410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Volkmar, Gustav. Jesus Nazarenus und die erste christliche Zeit, + mit den beiden ersten Erzählern (Zurich, 1882), <a href="#Pg011" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href= + "#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, + <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">225-228</a>, <a href="#Pg233" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>, <a href="#Pg256" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, <a href= + "#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, + <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">309</a>, <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">313</a>, <a href="#Pg328" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Volz, Paul. Die jüdische Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba + (Tübingen, 1903), <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">234</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vossius, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wallon, H. Vie de notre Seigneur Jésus-Christ (Paris, 1865), + <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">295</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Walton, Brian, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weber, Ferdinand. System der altsynagogalen palästinensischen + Theologie (Leipzig, 1880, 2nd ed. 1897), <a href="#Pg269" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href="#Pg285" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weiffenbach, Wilhelm. Der Wiederkunftsgedanke Jesu (1873), + <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">228-233</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg250" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weinel, Heinrich. Jesus im neunzehnten Jahrhundert (1904), + <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">398</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weiss, Bernhard. Das Leben Jesu (1st ed. 2 vols. 1882, 2nd ed. + 1884) (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of + Jesus</span></span>, by J. W. Hope, Edinburgh, 1883), <a href= + "#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, + <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">216-218</a>, <a href="#Pg250" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>, <a href="#Pg262" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weiss, Johannes. Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes (1st ed. + 1892, 2nd ed. 1900), <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg023" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>, <a href= + "#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>, + <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <a href="#Pg221" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>, <a href= + "#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>, + <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237-240</a>, <a href="#Pg249" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>, + <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">265-267</a>, <a href="#Pg278" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>, <a href="#Pg301" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href= + "#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>, + <a href="#Pg336" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">336</a>, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">349</a>, <a href="#Pg383" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>, <a href="#Pg388" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weisse, Christian Hermann. Die evangelische Geschichte kritisch + und philosophisch bearbeitet (2 vols., Leipzig, 1838); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Evangelienfrage in ihrem gegenwärtigen Stadium (Leipzig, + 1856), <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">118</a>, <a href="#Pg120" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121-136</a>, + <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg198" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>, <a href= + "#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>, + <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">204</a> f., <a href="#Pg218" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg229" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, <a href= + "#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a>, + <a href="#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">294</a>, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">309</a>, <a href="#Pg328" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>, <a href="#Pg341" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">341</a>, <a href= + "#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>, + <a href="#Pg374" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">374</a>, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">378</a>, <a href="#Pg389" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weitbrecht, M. G. Das Leben Jesu nach den vier Evangelien (1881), + <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Weizsäcker, Karl Heinrich. Untersuchungen über die evangelische + Geschichte, ihre Quellen und den Gang ihrer Entwicklung (Gotha, + 1864), <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200-202</a>, <a href= + "#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>, + <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg229" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>, <a href="#Pg259" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wellhausen, Julius. Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte (3rd + ed. 1897, 4th ed. 1902); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Evangelium Marci (1903); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Evangelium Matthäi (1904); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Das Evangelium Lucae (1904); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Skizzen und Vorarbeiten (1899), <a href="#Pg254" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>, <a href="#Pg269" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href= + "#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>, + <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">277</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg289" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>, <a href= + "#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wendt, Hans Heinrich. Die Lehre Jesu (Göttingen, pt. i. 1886, pt. + ii. 1890) (English translation, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">The Teaching + of Jesus</span></span>, by J. Wilson, Edinburgh, 1892) (2nd + German ed. 1902, 3rd ed. 1903), <a href="#Pg219" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>, <a href="#Pg249" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>, <a href= + "#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wernle, Paul. Die Anfänge unserer Religion (Tübingen-Leipzig, + 1901, 2nd ed. 1904) (English translation, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Beginnings of + Christianity</span></span>, by G. A. Bienemann, London, 1903); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Die Reichgotteshoffnung in den ältesten christlichen Dokumenten + und bei Jesus (1903), <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">252-254</a>, <a href="#Pg265" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>, <a href="#Pg267" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>, <a href= + "#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>, + <a href="#Pg398" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">398</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wette, Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de, <a href="#Pg072" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>, <a href="#Pg078" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href= + "#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, + <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wettstein, Johann Jakob, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Whateley, Richard. Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon Bonaparte + (London, 1819) (adapted as Das Leben Napoleons kritisch geprüft), + <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">112</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wieseler, Karl Georg. Chronologische Synopse der vier Evangelien + (Hamburg, 1843), <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">117</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wiesinger, Albert. Aphorismen gegen Renans Leben-Jesu (Vienna, + 1864), <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">117</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">190</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Widmanstadt, Joh. Alb., <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wilke, Christian Gottlob. Tradition und Mythe (Leipzig, 1837); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Der Urevangelist (Dresden and Leipzig, 1838), <a href="#Pg097" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href= + "#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">112-114</a>, <a href="#Pg119" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>, <a href="#Pg121" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>, <a href= + "#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>, + <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">140</a> f., <a href="#Pg148" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg195" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>, <a href= + "#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>, + <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">225</a>, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">328</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wittichen, Karl. Leben Jesu (Jena, 1876), <a href="#Pg218" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wrede, Wilhelm. Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien + (Göttingen, 1901), <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">9</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <a href="#Pg131" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>, <a href= + "#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, + <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">256</a>, <a href="#Pg257" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <a href="#Pg264" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">264</a>, <a href= + "#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>, + <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">328-349</a>, <a href="#Pg350" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>, <a href="#Pg358" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, <a href= + "#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>, + <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">384</a> f., <a href="#Pg389" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>, <a href="#Pg391" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a> f., <a href= + "#Pg399" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">399</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wünsche, August. Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der Evangelien aus + Talmud und Midrasch (Göttingen, 1878); + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Jesus in seiner Stellung zu den Frauen (1876), <a href="#Pg269" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">269</a>, <a href= + "#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a> f. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Xavier, Hieronymus. Historia Christi persice conscripta (Lugd. + 1639), <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ziegler, Heinrich. Der geschichtliche Christus (1891), <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ziegler, Theobald, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">69</a> + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc45" id="toc45"></a> <a name="pdf46" id="pdf46"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Quoted by Dr. Inge in the Hibbert Journal for + Jan. 1910, p. 438 (from</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style="font-style: italic">Jesus + or Christ,</span><span style="font-style: italic">”</span></span> + <span style="font-style: italic">p. 32).</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Quest,</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">p. 4.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">An order founded in 1776 by Professor + Adam Weishaupt of Ingolstadt in Bavaria. Its aim was the + furtherance of rational religion as opposed to orthodox dogma; its + organisation was largely modelled on that of the Jesuits. At its + most flourishing period it numbered over 2000 members, including + the rulers of several German States.—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Fr. Strauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gespräche von Ulrich + von Hutten</span></span>. Leipzig, 1860.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Wrede, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Messiasgeheimnis + in den Evangelien</span></span>. (The Messianic Secret in the + Gospels.) Göttingen, 1901, pp. 280-282.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the author's usage <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Marcan hypothesis”</span> means the theory that + the Gospel of Mark is not only the earliest and most valuable + source for the facts, but differs from the other Gospels in + embodying a more or less clear and historically intelligible view + of the connexion of events. See Chaps. <a href="#Chapter_X" class= + "tei tei-ref">X.</a> and <a href="#Chapter_XIV" class= + "tei tei-ref">XIV.</a> below.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Christoph Friedrich von Ammon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fortbildung des Christentums</span></span>, + Leipzig, 1840, vol. iv. p. 156 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hase, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte + Jesu</span></span>, Leipzig, 1876, pp. 110-162. The second edition, + published in 1891, carries the survey no further than the + first.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben Jesu in seinen neueren + Darstellungen</span></span>, 1892, five lectures.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Frantzen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leben-Jesu</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">Bewegung seit Strauss</span></span>, Dorpat, + 1898.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theol. Rundschau</span></span>, ii. 59-67 + (1899); iii. 9-19 (1900).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Von Soden's study, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die wichtigsten + Fragen im Leben Jesu</span></span>, 1904, belongs here only in a + very limited sense, since it does not seek to show how the problems + have gradually emerged in the various Lives of Jesus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hase, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte + Jesu</span></span>, 1876, pp. 112, 113.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Historia Christi persice conscripta simulque + multis modis contaminata a Hieronymo Xavier, lat. reddita et + animadd, notata a Ludovico de Dieu.</span></span> Lugd. 1639.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Johann Jakob Hess, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der drei + letzten Lebensjahre Jesu</span></span>. (History of the Last Three + Years of the Life of Jesus.) 3 vols. 1768 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. F. Strauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hermann Samuel + Reimarus und seine Schutzschrift für die vernünftigen Verehrer + Gottes</span></span>. (Reimarus and his Apology for the Rational + Worshippers of God.) 1862.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The quotations inserted without + special introduction are, of course, from Reimarus. It is Dr. + Schweitzer's method to lead up by a paragraph of exposition to one + of these characteristic phrases.—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Otto Schmiedel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Hauptprobleme der + Leben-Jesu-Forschung</span></span>. Tübingen, 1902.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Döderlein also wrote a defence of + Jesus against the Fragmentist: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fragmente und + Antifragmente</span></span>. Nuremberg, 1778.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is perhaps the place to mention + the account of the life of Jesus which is given in the first part + of Plank's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte des Christentums</span></span>. + Göttingen, 1818.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href= + "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Briefe das Studium der Theologie + betreffend</span></span>, 1st ed., 1780-1781; 2nd ed., 1785-1786; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Werke</span></span>, ed. Suphan, vol. x.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href= + "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A Life of Jesus which is completely + dependent on the Commentaries of Paulus is that of Greiling, + superintendent at Aschersleben, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Leben Jesu von + Nazareth Ein religiöses Handbuch für Geist und Herz der Freunde + Jesu unter den Gebildeten.</span></span> (The Life of Jesus of + Nazareth, a religious Handbook for the Minds and Hearts of the + Friends of Jesus among the Cultured.) Halle, 1813.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href= + "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paulus prided himself on a very exact + acquaintance with the physical and geographical conditions of + Palestine. He had a wide knowledge of the literature of Eastern + travel.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href= + "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This interpretation, it ought to be + remarked, seems to be implied by the ancient reading. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Few things are needful, or one,”</span> given in the + margin of the Revised Version.—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href= + "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Associations of students, at that time + of a political character.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href= + "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ground of the inference is that, + according to this theory, they did not attach much importance to + the keeping of the Feasts at Jerusalem. Dr. Schweitzer reminds us + in a footnote that a certain want of clearness is due to the fact + of this work having been compiled from lecture-notes.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href= + "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See Theobald + Ziegler, <span class="tei tei-q">“Zur Biographie von David + Friedrich Strauss”</span> (Materials for the Biography of D. F. + S.), in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Revue</span></span>, May, June, + July 1905. The hitherto unpublished letters to Binder throw some + light on the development of Strauss during the formative years + before the publication of the Life of Jesus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Binder, later + Director of the Board of Studies at Stuttgart, was the friend who + delivered the funeral allocution at the grave of Strauss. This + last act of friendship exposed him to enmity and calumny of all + kinds. For the text of his short address, see the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deutsche + Revue</span></span>, 1905, p. 107.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href= + "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Revue</span></span>, May 1905, p. + 199.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href= + "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> p. 201.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href= + "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deutsche Revue</span></span>, p. 203.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href= + "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Assistant lecturer.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href= + "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span>, June 1905, p. 343 + ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href= + "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Hase, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben + Jesu</span></span>, 1876, p. 124. The <span class= + "tei tei-q">“text-book”</span> referred to is Hase's first Life of + Jesus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href= + "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He to whom my + plaint is<br /> + Knows I shed no tear;<br /> + She to whom I say this<br /> + Feels I have no fear.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Time has come + for fading,<br /> + Like a glimmering ray,<br /> + Or a sense-evading<br /> + Strain that floats away.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">May, though + fainter, dimmer,<br /> + Only, clear and pure,<br /> + To the last the glimmer<br /> + And the strain endure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The persons + alluded to in the first verse are his son, who, as a physician, + attended him in his illness, and to whom he was deeply attached, + and a very old friend to whom the verses were + addressed.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href= + "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">2 Kings iv. 42-44.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href= + "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Probabilia de evangelii et epistolarum Ioannis + Apostoli indole et origine eruditorum iudiciis modeste subjecit C. + Th. Bretschneider.</span></span> Leipzig, 1820.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href= + "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Fr. Schleiermacher, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Über die Schriften + des Lukas. Ein kritischer Versuch.</span></span> (The Writings of + Luke. A critical essay.) C. Reimer, Berlin, 1817.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href= + "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Koppe, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marcus non epitomator + Matthäi</span></span>, 1782.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href= + "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Storr, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Fontibus + Evangeliorum Mt. et Lc.</span></span>, 1794.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href= + "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gratz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Neuer Versuch, die + Entstehung der drei ersten Evangelien zu erklären</span></span>, + 1812.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href= + "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">V. sup.</span></span> p. 35 f. For the earlier + history of the question see F. C. Baur, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Krit. Untersuch. über + die kanonischen Evangelien</span></span>, Tübingen, 1847, pp. + 1-76.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href= + "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">So called because largely based on the + reference in Luke i. 1, to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“many”</span> who had <span class="tei tei-q">“taken in + hand to draw up a narrative (δεήγησις).”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href= + "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We take the translation of this + striking image from Sanday's <span class="tei tei-q">“Survey of the + Synoptic Question,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Expositor</span></span>, 4th ser. vol. 3, + p. 307.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href= + "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For general title see above. First + part: <span class="tei tei-q">“Herr Dr. Steudel, or the + Self-deception of the Intellectual Supernaturalism of our + Time.”</span> 182 pp. Second part: <span class="tei tei-q">“Die + Herren Eschenmayer und Menzel.”</span> 247 pp. Third part: + <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die evangelische Kirchenzeitung</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">die + Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche Kritik</span></span> und + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + theologischen Studien und Kritiken</span></span> in ihrer Stellung + zu meiner Kritik des Lebens Jesu.”</span> (The attitude taken up by + ... in regard to my critical Life of Jesus.) 179 pp. In the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studien + und Kritiken</span></span> two reviews had appeared: a critical + review by Dr. Ullmann (vol. for 1836, pp. 770-816) and that of + Müller, written from the standpoint of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“common faith”</span> (vol. for 1836, pp. 816-890). In + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Evangelische Kirchenzeitung</span></span> the + articles referred to are the following: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vorwort</span></span> + (Editorial Survey), 1836, pp. 1-6, 9-14, 17-23, 25-31, 33-38, + 41-45; <span class="tei tei-q">“The Future of our Theology”</span> + (1836, pp. 281 ff.); <span class="tei tei-q">“Thoughts suggested by + Dr. Strauss's essay on <span class="tei tei-q">‘The Relation of + Theological Criticism and Speculation to the + Church’</span> ”</span> (1836, pp. 382 ff.); Strauss's essay had + appeared in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Allgemeine Kirchenzeitung</span></span> for + 1836, No. 39. <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die kritische + Bearbeitung des Lebens Jesu von D. F. Strauss nach ihrem + wissenschaftlichen Werte beleuchtet</span></span>”</span> (An + Inquiry into the Scientific Value of D. F. Strauss's Critical Study + of the Life of Jesus.) By Prof. Dr. Harless. Erlangen, 1836.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href= + "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Everything + turns to the advantage of the elect, even to the obscurities of + scripture, for they treat them with reverence because of its + perspicuities; everything turns to the disadvantage of the + reprobate, even to the perspicuities of scripture, for they + blaspheme them because they cannot understand its + obscurities.”</span> For the title of Harless's essay, see end of + previous note.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href= + "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben-Jesu kritisch bearbeitet von Dr. D. + F. Strauss. Geprüft für Theologen und + Nicht-Theologen</span></span>, von Wilhelm Hoffmann. 1836. + (Strauss's Critical Study of the Life of Jesus examined for the + Benefit of Theologians and non-Theologians.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href= + "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apologie des Lebens Jesu gegenüber dem + neuesten Versuch, es in Mythen aufzulösen.</span></span> (Defence + of the Life of Jesus against the latest attempt to resolve it into + myth.) By Joh. Ernst Osiander, Professor at the Evangelical + Seminary at Maulbronn.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href= + "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Über das Leben-Jesu von Strauss</span></span>, + von Franz Baader, 1836. Here may be mentioned also the lectures + which Krabbe (subsequently Professor at Rostock) delivered against + Strauss: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vorlesungen über das Leben-Jesu für Theologen + und Nicht-Theologen</span></span> (Lectures on the Life of Jesus + for Theologians and non-Theologians), Hamburg, 1839. They are more + tolerable to non-theologians than to theologians. The author at a + later period distinguished himself by the fanatical zeal with which + he urged on the deposition of his colleague, Michael Baumgarten, + whose <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte Jesu</span></span>, published in + 1859, though fully accepting the miracles, was weighed in the + balance by Krabbe and found light-weight by the Rostock + standard.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href= + "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the title, see head of chapter. + Tholuck was born in 1799 at Breslau, and became in 1826 Professor + at Halle, where he worked until his death in 1877. With the + possible exception of Neander, he was the most distinguished + representative of the mediating theology. His piety was deep and + his learning was wide, but his judgment went astray in the effort + to steer his freight of pietism safely between the rocks of + rationalism and the shoals of orthodoxy.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href= + "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stud. u. Krit.</span></span>, 1836, p. 777. In + his <span class="tei tei-q">“Open letter to Dr. Ullmann,”</span> + Strauss examines this suggestion in a serious and dignified + fashion, and shows that nothing would be gained by such + expedients.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Streitschriften</span></span>, 3rd pt., p. 129 + ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href= + "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Leben + Jesu-Christi.</span></span> Hamburg, 1837. Aug. Wilhelm Neander + was born in 1789 at Göttingen, of Jewish parents, his real name + being David Mendel. He was baptized in 1806, studied theology, + and in 1813 was appointed to a professorship in Berlin, where he + displayed a many-sided activity and exercised a beneficent + influence. He died in 1850. The best-known of his writings is the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte der Pflanzung und Leitung der + christlichen Kirche durch die Apostel</span></span> (History of + the Propagation and Administration of the Christian Church by the + Apostles), Hamburg, 1832-1833, of which a reprint appeared as + late as 1890. Neander was a man not only of deep piety, but also + of great solidity of character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strauss, in + his Life of Jesus of 1864, passes the following judgment upon + Neander's work: <span class="tei tei-q">“A book such as in these + circumstances Neander's Life of Jesus was bound to be calls forth + our sympathy; the author himself acknowledges in his preface that + it bears upon it only too clearly the marks of the time of + crisis, division, pain, and distress in which it was + produced.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the + innumerable <span class="tei tei-q">“positive”</span> Lives of + Jesus which appeared about the end of the 'thirties we may + mention that of Julius Hartmann (2 vols., 1837-1839). Among the + later Lives of Jesus of the mediating theology may be mentioned + that of Theodore Pressel of Tübingen, which was much read at the + time of its appearance (1857, 592 pp.). It aims primarily at + edification. We may also mention the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben des Herrn + Jesu Christi</span></span> by Wil. Jak. Lichtenstein (Erlangen, + 1856), which reflects the ideas of von Hofmann.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href= + "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For title see head of chapter.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href= + "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aphorismen zur Apologie des Dr. Strauss und + seines Werkes.</span></span> Grimma, 1838.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href= + "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Xame + Xenien</span></span>, p. 259 of Goethe's Works, ed. Hempel.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href= + "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Wissenschaft und die Kirche. Zur + Verständigung über die Straussische Angelegenheit.</span></span> (A + contribution to the adjustment of opinion regarding the Strauss + affair.) By Daniel Schenkel, Licentiate in Theology and + Privat-Docent of the University of Basle, with a dedicatory letter + to Herr Dr. Lücke, Konsistorialrat. Basle, 1839.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href= + "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dr. Strauss und die Züricher Kirche. Eine + Stimme aus Norddeutschland. Mit einer Vorrede von Dr. W. M. L. de + Wette.</span></span> (A voice from North Germany. With an + introduction by Dr. W. M. L. de Wette.) Basle, 1839.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href= + "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Über theologische Lehrfreiheit und Lehrerwahl + für Hochschulen.</span></span> Zurich, 1839.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href= + "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For full title see head of chapter. + Reference may also be made to the same author's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fortbildung des + Christentums zur Weltreligion</span></span>. (Development of + Christianity into a World-religion.) Leipzig, 1833-1835. 4 vols. + Ammon was born in 1766 at Bayreuth; became Professor of theology at + Erlangen in 1790; was Professor in Göttingen from 1794 to 1804, + and, after being back in Erlangen in the meantime, became in 1813 + Senior Court Chaplain and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Oberkonsistorialrat”</span> at Dresden, where he died + in 1850. He was the most distinguished representative of + historico-critical rationalism.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href= + "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He is at one with Strauss in rejecting + the explanation of this miracle on the analogy of an expedited + natural process, to which Hase had pointed, and which was first + suggested by Augustine in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tract viii. in Ioann.</span></span>: + <span class="tei tei-q">“That Christ changed water into wine is + nothing wonderful to those who consider the works of God. What was + there done in the water-pots, God does yearly in the vine.”</span> + [Augustine's words are: Miraculum quidem Domini nostri Jesu + Christi, quo de aqua vinum fecit, non est mirum eis qui noverunt + quia Deus fecit (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> that He who did it was + God). Ipse enim fecit vinum illo die ... in sex hydriis, qui omni + anno facit hoc in vitibus.] Nevertheless the poorest naturalistic + explanation is at least better than the resignation of Lücke, who + is content to wait <span class="tei tei-q">“until it please God + through the further progress of Christian thought and life to bring + about the solution of this riddle in its natural and historical + aspects.”</span> Lücke, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Johannes-Kommentar</span></span>, p. 474 + ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href= + "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg was born in + 1802 at Fröndenberg in the <span class="tei tei-q">“county”</span> + (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grafschaft</span></span>) of Mark, became + Professor of Theology in Berlin in 1826, and died there in 1869. He + founded the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Evangelische Kirchenzeitung</span></span> in + 1827.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href= + "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bericht über des Herrn Dr. Strauss' + historische Bearbeitung des Lebens Jesu.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href= + "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dr. Strauss' Leben-Jesu aus dem Standpunkt des + Catholicismus betrachtet.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href= + "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Johann Leonhard Hug was born in 1765 + at Constance, and had been since 1791 Professor of New Testament + Theology at Freiburg, where he died in 1846. He had a wide + knowledge of his own department of theology, and his Introduction + to the New Testament Writings won him some reputation among + Protestant theologians also.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href= + "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Among the Catholic <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Leben-Jesu,”</span> of which the authors found their + incentive in the desire to oppose Strauss, the first place belongs + to that of Kuhn of Tübingen. Unfortunately only the first volume + appeared (1838, 488 pp.). Here there is a serious and scholarly + attempt to grapple with the problems raised by Strauss. Of less + importance is the work of the same title in seven volumes, by the + Munich Priest and Professor of History, Nepomuk Sepp (1843-1846; + 2nd ed. 1853-1862).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href= + "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Über das Leben-Jesu von Doctor + Strauss.</span></span> By Edgar Quinet. Translated from the French + by Georg Kleine. Published by J. Erdmann and C. C. Müller, 1839. In + 1840 Strauss's book was translated into French by M. Littré. It + failed, however, to exercise any influence upon French theology or + literature. Strauss is one of those German thinkers who always + remain foreign and unintelligible to the French mind. Could Renan + have written his Life of Jesus as he did if he had had even a + partial understanding of Strauss?</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href= + "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Anna Katharina + Emmerich was born in 1774 at Flamske near Coesfeld. Her parents + were peasants. In 1803 she took up her abode with the Augustinian + nuns of the convent of Agnetenberg at Dülmen. After the + dissolution of the convent, she lived in a single room in Dülmen + itself. The <span class="tei tei-q">“stigmata”</span> showed + themselves first in 1812. She died on the 9th of February 1824. + Brentano had been in her neighbourhood since 1819. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das bittere Leiden + unseres Herrn Jesu Christi</span></span> (The Bitter Sufferings + of Our Lord Jesus Christ) was issued by Brentano himself in 1834. + The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Jesus</span></span> was published on + the basis of notes left by him—he died in 1842—in three volumes, + 1858-1860, at Regensburg, under the sanction of the Bishop of + Limberg.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First + volume.—From the death of St. Joseph to the end of the first year + after the Baptism of Jesus in Jordan. Communicated between May 1, + 1821, and October 1, 1822.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Second + volume.—From the beginning of the second year after the Baptism + in Jordan to the close of the second Passover in Jerusalem. + Communicated between October 1, 1822, and April 30, 1823.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Third + volume.—From the close of the second Passover in Jerusalem to the + Mission of the Holy Spirit. Communicated between October 21, + 1823, and January 8, 1824, and from July 29, 1820, to May + 1821.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Both works + have been frequently reissued, the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Bitter Sufferings”</span> as late as 1894.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href= + "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Auszüge aus der Schrift</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben Luthers kritisch + bearbeitet.</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span></span> (Extracts from a work + entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“A Critical Study of the Life of + Luther.”</span>) By Dr. Casuar (<span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cassowary”</span>; Strauss = Ostrich). Mexico, 1836. + Edited by Julius Ferdinand Wurm.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href= + "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben Napoleons kritisch + geprüft.</span></span> (A Critical Examination of the Life of + Napoleon.) From the English, with some pertinent applications to + Strauss's Life of Jesus, 1836. [The English original referred to + seems to have been Whateley's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon + Bonaparte</span></span>, published in 1819, and primarily directed + against Hume's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essay on Miracles</span></span>.—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span>]</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href= + "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Vie de Strauss. Écrite en l'an + 1839.</span></span> Paris, 1839.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href= + "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ch. G. Wilke, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tradition und Mythe</span></span>. A + contribution to the historical criticism of the Gospels in + general, and in particular to the appreciation of the treatment + of myth and idealism in Strauss's <span class="tei tei-q">“Life + of Jesus.”</span> Leipzig, 1837.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Christian + Gottlob Wilke was born in 1786 at Werm, near Zeitz, studied + theology and became pastor of Hermannsdorf in the Erzgebirge. He + resigned this office in 1837 in order to devote himself to his + studies, perhaps also because he had become conscious of an inner + unrest. In 1845 he prepared the way for his conversion to + Catholicism by publishing a work entitled <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Can a Protestant go over to the Roman Church with a + good conscience?”</span> He took the decisive step in August + 1846. Later he removed to Würzburg. Subsequently he recast his + famous <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Clavis Novi Testamenti + Philologica</span></span>—which had appeared in 1840-1841—in the + form of a lexicon for Catholic students of theology. His + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hermeneutik des Neuen + Testaments</span></span>, published in 1843-1844, appeared in + 1853 as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Biblische Hermeneutik nach katholischen + Grundsätzen</span></span> (The Science of Biblical Interpretation + according to Catholic principles). He was engaged in recasting + his Clavis when he died in 1854.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of later works + dealing with the question of myth, we may refer to Emanuel + Marius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Persönlichkeit Jesu mit besonderer + Rücksicht auf die Mythologien und Mysterien der alten + Völker</span></span> (The Personality of Jesus, with special + reference to the Mythologies and Mysteries of Ancient Nations), + Leipzig, 1879, 395 pp.; and Otto Frick, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythus und + Evangelium</span></span> (Myth and Gospel), Heilbronn, 1879, 44 + pp.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href= + "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg089" class= + "tei tei-ref">89</a> above.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href= + "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Streitschriften.</span></span> Drittes Heft, + pp. 55-126: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche + Kritik</span></span>: i. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Allgemeines Verhältnis der Hegel'schen + Philosophie zur theologischen Kritik</span></span>: ii. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hegels + Ansicht über den historischen Wert der evangelischen + Geschichte</span></span> (Hegel's View of the Historical Value of + the Gospel History); iii. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verschiedene Richtungen innerhalb der + Hegel'schen Schule in Betreff der Christologie</span></span> + (Various Tendencies within the Hegelian School in regard to + Christology). 1837.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href= + "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wissenschaftliche + Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte.</span></span> (Scientific + Criticism of the Gospel History.) August Ebrard. Frankfort, 1842; + 3rd ed., 1868.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Johannes + Heinrich Aug. Ebrard was born in 1818 at Erlangen, was, first, + Professor of Reformed Theology at Zurich and Erlangen, afterwards + (1853) went to Speyer as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Konsistorialrat,”</span> but was unable to cope with + the Liberal opposition there, and returned in 1861 to Erlangen, + where he died in 1888.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A + characteristic example of Ebrard's way of treating the subject is + his method of meeting the objection that a fish with a piece of + money in its jaws could not have taken the hook. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The fish might very well,”</span> he explains, + <span class="tei tei-q">“have thrown up the piece of money from + its belly into the opening of the jaws in the moment in which + Peter opened its mouth.”</span> Upon this Strauss remarks: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The inventor of this argument tosses it + down before us as who should say, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I know + very well it is bad, but it is good enough for you, at any rate + so long as the Church has livings to distribute and we + Konsistorialrats have to examine the theological + candidates.’</span> ”</span> Strauss, therefore, characterises + Ebrard's Life of Jesus as <span class="tei tei-q">“Orthodoxy + restored on a basis of impudence.”</span> The pettifogging + character of this work made a bad impression even in Conservative + quarters.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href= + "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chronologische Synopse der vier + Evangelien.</span></span> (Chronological Synopsis of the four + Gospels.) By Karl Georg Wieseler. Hamburg, 1843. Wieseler was born + in 1813 at Altencelle (Hanover), and was Professor successively at + Göttingen, Kiel, and Greifswald. He died in 1883.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href= + "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Johann Peter Lange, Pastor in + Duisburg, afterwards Professor at Zurich in place of Strauss. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Leben + Jesu.</span></span> 5 vols., 1844-1847.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href= + "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Georg Heinrich + August Ewald, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte des Volkes Israel</span></span>. + (History of the People of Israel.) 7 vols. Göttingen, 1843-1859; + 3rd ed., 1864-1870. Fifth vol., <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte + Christus' und seiner Zeit</span></span>. (History of Christ and + His Times.) 1855; 2nd ed., 1857.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ewald was born + in 1803 at Göttingen, where in 1827 he was appointed Professor of + Oriental Languages. Having made a protest against the repeal of + the fundamental law of the Hanoverian Constitution he was removed + from his office and went to Tübingen, first as Professor of + philology; in 1841 he was transferred to the theological faculty. + In 1848 he returned to Göttingen. When, in 1866, he refused to + take the oath of allegiance to the King of Prussia, he was + compulsorily retired, and, in consequence of imprudent + expressions of opinion, was also deprived of the right to + lecture. The town of Hanover chose him as its representative in + the North German and in the German Reichstag, where he sat among + the Guelph opposition, in the middle of the centre party. He died + in 1875 at Göttingen. His contributions to New Testament studies + were much inferior to his Oriental and Old Testament researches. + His Life of Jesus, in particular, is worthless, in spite of the + Old Testament and Oriental learning with which it was furnished + forth. He lays great stress upon making the genitive of + <span class="tei tei-q">“Christus”</span> not <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Christi,”</span> but, according to German + inflection, <span class="tei tei-q">“Christus'.”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href= + "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ammon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Johannem evangelii + auctorem ab editore huius libri fuisse diversum</span></span>, + Erlangen, 1811.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href= + "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">No value whatever can be ascribed to + the Life of Jesus by Werner Hahn, Berlin, 1844, 196 pp. The + <span class="tei tei-q">“didactic presentation of the + history”</span> which the author offers is not designed to meet the + demands of historical criticism. He finds in the Gospels no bare + history, but, above all, the inculcation of the principle of love. + He casts to the winds all attempt to draw the portrait of Jesus as + a true historian, being only concerned with its inner truth and + <span class="tei tei-q">“idealises artistically and + scientifically”</span> the actual course of the outward life of + Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is never the business of a + history,”</span> he explains, <span class="tei tei-q">“to relate + only the bare truth. It belongs to a mere planless and aimless + chronicle to relate everything that happened in such a way that its + words are a mere slavish reflection of the outward course of + events.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href= + "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hase, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte + Jesu</span></span>, 1876, p. 128.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href= + "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philosophische Dogmatik oder Philosophie des + Christentums.</span></span> Leipzig, 1855-1862.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href= + "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">At the end of his preface he makes the + striking remark: <span class="tei tei-q">“I confess I cannot + conceive of any possible way by which Christianity can take on a + form which will make it once more the truth for our time, without + having recourse to the aid of philosophy; and I rejoice to believe + that this opinion is shared by many of the ablest and most + respected of present-day theologians.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href= + "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Vol. ii. pp. 438-543. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophische + Schlussbetrachtung über die religiöse Bedeutung der Persönlichkeit + Christi und der evangelischen Überlieferung.</span></span> + (Concluding Philosophical Estimate of the Significance of the + Person of Christ and of the Gospel Tradition.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href= + "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Christian + Gottlob Wilke, formerly pastor of Hermannsdorf in the Erzgebirge. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Urevangelist, oder eine exegetisch-kritische Untersuchung des + Verwandschaftsverhältnisses der drei ersten + Evangelien.</span></span> (The Earliest Evangelist, a Critical + and Exegetical Inquiry into the Relationship of the First Three + Gospels.) The subsequent course of the discussion of the Marcan + hypothesis was as follows:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In answer to + Wilke there appeared a work signed Philosophotos Aletheias, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Evangelien, ihr Geist, ihre Verfasser, und ihr Verhältnis zu + einander</span></span>. (The Gospels, their Spirit, their + Authors, and their relation to one another.) Leipzig, 1845, 440 + pp. The author sees in Paul the evil genius of early + Christianity, and thinks that the work of scientific criticism + must be directed to detecting and weeding out the Pauline + elements in the Gospels. Luke is in his opinion a party-writing, + biased by Paulinism; in fact Paul had a share in its preparation, + and this is what Paul alludes to when he speaks in Romans ii. 16, + xi. 28, and xvi. 25 of <span class="tei tei-q">“his”</span> + Gospel. His hand is especially recognisable in chapters i.-iii., + vii., ix., xi., xviii., xx., xxi., and xxiv. Mark consists of + extracts from Matthew and Luke; John presupposes the other three. + The Tübingen standpoint was set forth by Baur in his work, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritische Untersuchungen über die + kanonischen Evangelien</span></span>. (A Critical Examination of + the Canonical Gospels.) Tübingen, 1847, 622 pp. According to him + Mark is based on Matthew and Luke. At the same time, however, the + irreconcilability of the Fourth Gospel with the Synoptists is for + the first time fully worked out, and the refutation of its + historical character is carried into detail.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The order + Matthew, Mark, Luke is defended by Adolf Hilgenfeld in his work + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Evangelien</span></span>. Leipzig, 1854, 355 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Karl Reinhold + Köstlin's work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Ursprung und die Komposition der + synoptischen Evangelien</span></span> (Origin and Composition of + the Synoptic Gospels), is rendered nugatory by obscurities and + compromises. Stuttgart, 1853, 400 pp. The priority of Mark is + defended by Edward Reuss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des + Neuen Testaments</span></span> (History of the Sacred Writings of + the New Testament), 1842; H. Ewald, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die drei ersten + Evangelien</span></span>, 1850; A. Ritschl, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Entstehung der + altkatholischen Kirche</span></span> (Origin of the ancient + Catholic Church), 1850; A. Réville, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études critiques + sur l'Évangile selon St. Matthieu</span></span>, 1862. In 1863 + the foundations of the Marcan hypothesis were relaid, more firmly + than before, by Holtzmann's work, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die synoptischen + Evangelien</span></span>. Leipzig, 1863, 514 pp.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href= + "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alexander Schweizer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Evangelium + Johannis nach seinem inneren Werte and seiner Bedeutung für das + Leben Jesu kritisch untersucht</span></span>. 1841. (A Critical + Examination of the Intrinsic Value of the Gospel of John and of its + Importance as a Source for the Life of Jesus.) Alexander Schweizer + was born in 1808 at Murten, was appointed Professor of Pastoral + Theology at Zurich in 1835, and continued to lecture there until + his death in 1888, remaining loyal to the ideas of his teacher + Schleiermacher, though handling them with a certain freedom. His + best-known work is his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Glaubenslehre</span></span> (System of + Doctrine), 2 vols., 1863-1872; 2nd ed., 1877.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href= + "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The German is <span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mirakeln</span></span>, the usual word being + <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Wunder</span></span>, which, though constantly + used in the sense of actual <span class= + "tei tei-q">“miracles,”</span> has, from its obvious derivation, a + certain ambiguity.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href= + "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“And the glory + of the Lord abode upon Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it six + days.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href= + "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We subjoin the + titles of the divisions of this work, which are of some + interest:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Vol. i. Book + i. The Sources of the Gospel History.<br /> + Vol. i. Book ii. The Legends of the Childhood.<br /> + Vol. i. Book iii. General Sketch of the Gospel History.<br /> + Vol. i. Book iv. The Incidents and Discourses according to + Mark.<br /> + Vol. ii. Book v. The Incidents and Discourses according to + Matthew and Luke.<br /> + Vol. ii. Book vi. The Incidents and Discourses according to + John.<br /> + Vol. ii. Book vii. The Resurrection and the Ascension.<br /> + Vol. ii. Book viii. Concluding Philosophical Exposition of the + Significance of the Person of Christ and of the Gospel + Tradition.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href= + "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte Christus' und seiner + Zeit.</span></span> (History of Christ and His Times.) By Heinrich + Ewald, Göttingen, 1855, 450 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href= + "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritik der Geschichte der + Offenbarung.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href= + "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das entdeckte Christentum.</span></span> See + also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + gute Sache der Freiheit und meine eigene + Angelegenheit</span></span>. (The Good Cause of Freedom, in + Connexion with my own Case.) Zurich, 1843.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href= + "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des + Johannes.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href= + "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Here and elsewhere Bauer seems to use + <span class="tei tei-q">“Christologie”</span> in the sense of + Messianic doctrine, rather than in the more general sense which is + usual in theology.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href= + "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We retain the German phrase, which has + naturalised itself in Synoptic criticism as the designation of an + assumed primary gospel lying behind the canonical Mark.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href= + "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritik der Paulinischen Briefe.</span></span> + (Criticism of the Pauline Epistles.) Berlin, 1850-1852.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href= + "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritik der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres + Ursprungs.</span></span> (Criticism of the Gospels and History of + their Origin.) 2 vols., Berlin, 1850-1851.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href= + "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christus und die Cäsaren. Der Ursprung des + Christentums aus dem römischen Griechentum.</span></span> Berlin, + 1877.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href= + "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hennell, a London merchant, withdrew + himself from his business pursuits for two years in order to make + the preparatory studies for this Life of Jesus. [He is best known + as a friend of George Eliot, who was greatly interested and + influenced by the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Inquiry.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span>] To the same + category as Hennell's work belongs the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wohlgeprüfte + Darstellung des Lebens Jesu</span></span> (An Account of the Life + of Jesus based on the closest Examination) of the Heidelberg + mathematician, Karl von Langsdorf, Mannheim, 1831. Supplement, with + preface to a future second edition, 1833.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href= + "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hase seems not to have recognised that + the <span class="tei tei-q">“Disclosures”</span> were merely a + plagiarism from Venturini. He mentions them in connexion with Bruno + Bauer and appears to make him responsible for inspiring them; at + least that is suggested by his formula of transition when he says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“It was primarily to him that the frivolous + apocryphal hypotheses attached themselves.”</span> This is quite + inaccurate. The anonymous epitomist of Venturini had nothing to do + with Bauer, and had probably not read a line of his work. + Venturini, whom he had read, he does not name.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href= + "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One of the + most ingenious of the followers of Venturini was the French Jew + Salvator. In his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jésus-Christ et sa doctrine</span></span> + (Paris, 2 vols., 1838), he seeks to prove that Jesus was the last + representative of a mysticism which, drawing its nutriment from + the other Oriental religions, was to be traced among the Jews + from the time of Solomon onwards. In Jesus this mysticism allied + itself with Messianic enthusiasm. After He had lost consciousness + upon the cross He was succoured by Joseph of Arimathea and + Pilate's wife, contrary to His own expectation and purpose. He + ended His days among the Essenes.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Salvator looks + to a spiritualised mystical Mosaism as destined to be the + successful rival of Christianity.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" + href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The reference should be Micah iv. + 8.—F. C. B.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" + href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Ich bin der + Geist, der stets verneint.”</span>—Mephistopheles in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faust</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" + href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aus der Jordanwiege nach Golgatha; vier Bücher + über das Evangelium und die Evangelien.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" + href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Geschichte Jesu auf Grund freier + geschichtlicher Untersuchungen über das Evangelium and die + Evangelien.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" + href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For Noack's reconstruction of it see + Book iii. pp. 196-225.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" + href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the reconstruction see Book iii. + pp. 326-386.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" + href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tharraqah und Sunamith.</span></span> The Song + of Solomon in its historical and topographical setting. 1869.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" + href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Vie de Jésus de D. Fr. + Strauss.</span></span> Traduite par M. Littré, 1840.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" + href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bruno Bauer in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philo, Strauss, und + Renan</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" + href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan does not hesitate to apply this + tasteless parallel.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" + href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles Émile + Freppel (Abbé), Professeur d'éloquence sacrée à la Sorbonne. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Examen + critique de la vie de Jésus de M. Renan.</span></span> Paris, + 1864. 148 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Henri + Lasserre's pamphlet, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L'Évangile selon Renan</span></span> (The + Gospel according to Renan), reached its four-and-twentieth + edition in the course of the same year.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" + href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lettre pastorale de Monseigneur l'Archevêque + de Paris (Georges Darboy) sur la divinité de Jésus-Christ, et + mandement pour le carême de 1864.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" + href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, for example, Félix Antoine + Philibert Dupanloup, Bishop of Orléans, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Avertissement à la + jeunesse et aux pères de famille sur les attaques dirigées contre + la religion par quelques écrivains de nos jours.</span></span> + (Warning to the Young, and to Fathers of Families, concerning some + Attacks directed against Religion by some Writers of our Time.) + Paris, 1864. 141 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" + href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Amadée Nicolas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Renan et sa vie de + Jésus sous les rapports moral, légal, et littéraire. Appel à la + raison et la conscience du monde civilisé.</span></span> + Paris-Marseille, 1864.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" + href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ernest Havet, Professeur au Collège de + France, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jésus dans l'histoire</span></span>. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Examen de + la vie de Jésus par M. Renan.</span></span> Extrait de la + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue des + deux mondes</span></span>. Paris, 1863. 71 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" + href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zwei französische Stimmen über Renans + Leben-Jesu, von Edmond Scherer und Athanase Coquerel, d.J. Ein + Beitrag zur Kenntnis des französischen + Protestantismus.</span></span> Regensburg, 1864. (Two French + utterances in regard to Renan's Life of Jesus, by Edmond Scherer + and Athanase Coquerel the younger. A contribution to the + understanding of French Protestantism.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" + href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. de Pressensé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'École critique et + Jésus-Christ, à propos de la vie de Jésus de M. + Renan</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" + href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. de Pressensé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jésus-Christ, son + temps, sa vie, son œuvre</span></span>. Paris, 1865. 684 pp. In + general the plan of this work follows Renan's. He divides the Life + of Jesus into three periods: i. The Time of Public Favour; ii. The + Period of Conflict; iii. The Great Week. Death and Victory. By way + of introduction there is a long essay on the supernatural which + sets forth the supernaturalistic views of the author.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" + href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Vie de Jésus de Renan devant les orthodoxes + et devant la critique.</span></span> 1864.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" + href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. Colani, Pasteur, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Examen de la vie de Jésus de M. Renan,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Revue de + théologie</span></span>. Issued separately, Strasbourg-Paris, 1864. + 74 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" + href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Lasserre, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das + Evangelium nach Renan</span></span>. Munich, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Freppel, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kritische Beleuchtung der E. Renan'schen + Schrift</span></span>. Translated by Kallmus. Vienna, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See also Lamy, + Professor of the Theological Faculty of the Catholic University + of Louvain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Renans Leben-Jesu vor dem Richterstuhle der + Kritik</span></span>. (Renan's Life of Jesus before the Judgment + Seat of Criticism.) Translated by August Rohling, Priest. + Münster, 1864.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" + href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Michelis, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Renans + Roman vom Leben Jesu</span></span>. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eine deutsche + Antwort auf eine französische Blasphemie.</span></span> (Renan's + Romance on the Life of Jesus. A German answer to a French + blasphemy.) Münster, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Sebastian + Brunner, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Atheist Renan und sein + Evangelium</span></span>. (The Atheist Renan and his Gospel.) + Regensburg, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Albert + Wiesinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aphorismen gegen Renans + Leben-Jesu</span></span>. Vienna, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Martin + Deutlinger, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Renan und das Wunder</span></span>. (Renan + and Miracle. A contribution to Christian Apologetic.) Munich, + 1864. 159 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Daniel + Bonifacius Haneberg, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ernest Renans Leben-Jesu</span></span>. + Regensburg, 1864.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" + href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Willibald Beyschlag, Doctor and + Professor of Theology, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Über das Leben-Jesu von Renan</span></span>. A + Lecture delivered at Halle, January 13, 1864. Berlin.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" + href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Chr. Ernst + Luthardt, Doctor and Professor of Theology, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die modernen + Darstellungen des Lebens Jesu</span></span>. (Modern + Presentations of the Life of Jesus.) A discussion of the writings + of Strauss, Renan, and Schenkel, and of the essays of Coquerel + the younger, Scherer, Colani, and Keim. A Lecture. Leipzig, + 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the + remaining Protestant polemics we may name:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dr. Hermann + Gerlach, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Gegen Renans Leben-Jesu 1864</span></span>. + Berlin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Br. Lehmann, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Renan + wider Renan</span></span>. (Renan <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">versus</span></span> Renan.) A Lecture + addressed to cultured Germans. Zwickau, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Friedrich + Baumer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Schwarz, Strauss, Renan</span></span>. A + Lecture. Leipzig, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John Cairns, + D. D. (of Berwick). <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Falsche Christi und der wahre Christus, oder + Verteidigung der evangelischen Geschichte gegen Strauss und + Renan.</span></span> (False Christs and the True, a Defence of + the Gospel History against Strauss and Renan.) A Lecture + delivered before the Bible Society. Translated from the English. + Hamburg, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bernhard ter + Haar, Doctor of Theology and Professor at Utrecht, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zehn Vorlesungen + über Renans Leben-Jesu</span></span>. (Ten Lectures on Renan's + Life of Jesus.) Translated by H. Doermer. Gotha, 1864.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Paulus Cassel, + Professor and Licentiate in Theology, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bericht über Renans + Leben-Jesu</span></span>. (A Report upon Renan's Life of + Jesus.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">J. J. van + Oosterzee, Doctor and Professor of Theology at Utrecht, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte oder Roman? Das Leben-Jesu von + Renan vorläufig beleuchtet.</span></span> (History or Fiction? A + Preliminary Examination of Renan's Life of Jesus.) Hamburg, + 1864.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" + href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strauss's second Life of Jesus + appeared in French in 1864.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" + href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“I can now say + without incurring the reproach of self-glorification, and almost + without needing to fear contradiction, that if my Life of Jesus had + not appeared in the year after Schleiermacher's death, his would + not have been withheld for so long. Up to that time it would have + been hailed by the theological world as a deliverer; but for the + wounds which my work inflicted on the theology of the day, it had + neither anodyne nor dressing; nay, it displayed the author as in a + measure responsible for the disaster, for the waters which he had + admitted drop by drop were now, in defiance of his prudent + reservations, pouring in like a flood.”</span>—From the + Introduction to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Christ of Faith and the Jesus of + History</span></span>, 1865.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" + href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Now that + Schleiermacher's Life of Jesus at last lies before us in print, all + parties can gather about it in heartfelt rejoicing. The appearance + of a work by Schleiermacher is always an enrichment to literature. + Any product of a mind like his cannot fail to shed light and life + on the minds of others. And of works of this kind our theological + literature has certainly in these days no superfluity. Where the + living are for the most part as it were dead, it is meet that the + dead should arise and bear witness. These lectures of + Schleiermacher's, when compared with the work of his pupils, show + clearly that the great theologian has let fall upon them only his + mantle and not his spirit.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" + href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The lines of Schleiermacher's work + were followed by Bunsen. His Life of Jesus forms vol. ix. of his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibelwerk</span></span>. (Edited by Holtzmann, + 1865.) He accepts the Fourth Gospel as an historical source and + treats the question of miracle as not yet settled. Christian Karl + Josias von Bunsen, born in 1791 at Korbach in Waldeck, was Prussian + ambassador at Rome, Berne, and London, and settled later in + Heidelberg. He was well read in theology and philology, and + gradually came, in spite of his friendly relations with Friedrich + Wilhelm IV., to entertain more liberal views on religion. The issue + of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibelwerk für die Gemeinde</span></span> was + begun in 1858. He died in 1860. (Best known in England as the + Chevalier Bunsen.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" + href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ch. H. Weisse, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die evangelische + Geschichte</span></span>, Leipzig, 1838. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Evangelienfrage + in ihrem gegenwärtigen Stadium.</span></span> (The Present Position + of the Problem of the Gospels.) Leipzig, 1856. He regarded the + discourses as historical, the narrative portions as of secondary + origin. Alexander Schweizer, again, wished to distinguish a + Jerusalem source and a Galilaean source, the latter being + unreliable. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Evangelium Johannis nach seinem inneren + Werte und seiner Bedeutung für das Leben Jesu</span></span>, 1841. + (The Gospel of John considered in Relation to its Intrinsic Value + and its Importance as a Source for the Life of Jesus.) See p. 127 + f. Renan takes the narrative portions as authentic and the + discourses as secondary.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" + href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Karl Heinrich Weizsäcker was born in + 1822 at Öhringen in Würtemberg. He qualified as Privat-Docent in + 1847 and, after acting in the meantime as Court-Chaplain and + Oberkonsistorialrat at Stuttgart, became in 1861 the successor of + Baur at Tübingen. He died in 1899.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" + href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The works of a Dutch writer named + Stricker, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus von Nazareth</span></span> (1868), and + of the Englishman Sir Richard Hanson, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jesus of + History</span></span> (1869), were based on Mark without any + reference to John.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" + href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">1, Mark i.; 2, Mark ii. 1-iii. 6; 3, + Mark iii. 7-19; 4, Mark iii. 19-iv. 34; 5, Mark iv. 35-vi. 6; 6, + Mark vi. 7-vii. 37; 7, Mark viii. 1-ix. 50.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" + href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Holtzmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kommentar zu den + Synoptikern</span></span>, 1889, p. 184. The form of the expression + (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fluchtwege und Reisen</span></span>) is + derived from Keim.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" + href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Thus the + course of Jesus' life hastened forward to its tragic close, a close + which was foreseen and predicted by Jesus Himself with ever-growing + clearness as the sole possible close, but also that which alone was + worthy of Himself, and which was necessary as being foreseen and + predetermined in the counsel of God. The hatred of the Pharisees + and the indifference of the people left from the first no other + prospect open. That hatred could not but be called forth in the + fullest measure by the ruthless severity with which Jesus exposed + all that it was and implied—a heart in which there was no room for + love, a morality inwardly riddled with decay, an outward show of + virtue, a hypocritical arrogance. Between two such unyielding + opponents—a man who, to all appearance, aimed at using the + Messianic expectations of the people for his own ends, and a + hierarchy as tenacious of its claims and as sensitive to their + infringement as any that has ever existed—it was certain that the + breach must soon become irreparable. It was easy to foresee, too, + that even in Galilee only a minority of the people would dare to + face with Him the danger of such a breach. There was only one thing + that could have averted the death sentence which had been early + determined upon—a series of vigorous, unambiguous demonstrations on + the part of the people. In order to provoke such demonstrations + Jesus would have needed, if only for the moment, to take into His + service the popular, powerful, inflammatory Messianic ideas, or + rather, would have needed to place Himself at their service. His + refusal to enter, by so much as a single step, upon this course, + which from any ordinary point of view of human policy would have + been legitimate, because the only practicable one, was the sole + sufficient and all-explaining cause of His + destruction.”</span>—Holtzmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die synoptischen + Evangelien</span></span>, 1863, pp. 485, 486.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" + href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Ein + innerliches Reich der Sinnesänderung.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sinnesänderung”</span> corresponds more exactly than + <span class="tei tei-q">“repentance”</span> to the Greek μετάνοια + (change of mind, change of attitude), but the <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">phrase</span></em> + is no less elliptical in German than in English. The meaning is + doubtless <span class="tei tei-q">“kingdom based upon repentance, + consisting of those who have fulfilled this condition.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" + href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Omitted in some of the best texts.—F. + C. B.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" + href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Oskar Holtzmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Leben + Jesu</span></span>, 1901.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" + href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die modernen Darstellungen des Lebens + Jesu.</span></span> (Modern Presentments of the Life of Jesus.) A + discussion of the works of Strauss, Renan, and Schenkel, and of the + Essays of Coquerel the younger, Scherer, Colani, and Keim. A + lecture by Chr. Ernest Luthardt, Leipzig. 1st and 2nd editions, + 1864. Luthardt was born in 1823 at Maroldsweisach in Lower + Franconia, became Docent at Erlangen in 1851, was called to Marburg + as Professor Extraordinary in 1854, and to Leipzig as Ordinary + Professor in 1856. He died in 1902.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" + href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zur Orientierung über meine Schrift</span> + <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style="font-style: italic">Das + Charakterbild Jesu.</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span></span> (Explanations intended + to place my work <span class="tei tei-q">“A Picture of the + Character of Jesus”</span> in the proper light.) 1864. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die protestantische + Freiheit in ihrem gegenwärtigen Kampfe mit der kirchlichen + Reaktion.</span></span> (Protestant Freedom in its present Struggle + with Ecclesiastical Reaction.) 1865.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" + href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Schenkel'sche Handel in + Baden.</span></span> (The Schenkel Controversy in Baden.) (A + corrected reprint from number 441 of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">National-Zeitung</span></span> of September + 21, 1864.) An appendix to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus der + Geschichte</span></span>. 1865.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" + href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Theodor Keim, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Geschichte Jesu von Nazara, in ihrer Verhaltung mit dem + Gesamtleben seines Volkes frei untersucht und ausführlich + erzählt</span></span>. (The History of Jesus of Nazara in + Relation to the General Life of His People, freely examined and + fully narrated.) 3 vols. Zurich, 1867-1872. Vol. i. The Day of + Preparation; vol. ii. The Year of Teaching in Galilee; vol. iii. + The Death-Passover (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Todesostern</span></span>) in Jerusalem. A + short account in a more popular form appeared in 1872, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte Jesu nach den Ergebnissen + heutiger Wissenschaft für weitere Kreise übersichtlich + erzählt</span></span>. (The History of Jesus according to the + Results of Present-day Criticism, briefly narrated for the + General Reader.) 2nd ed., 1875.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Karl Theodor + Keim was born in 1825 at Stuttgart, was Repetent at Tübingen from + 1851 to 1855, and after he had been five years in the ministry, + became Professor at Zurich in 1860. In 1873 he accepted a call to + Giessen, where he died in 1878.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" + href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die menschliche Entwicklung Jesu + Christi.</span></span> See Holtzmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die synoptischen + Evangelien</span></span>, 1863, pp. 7-9. This dissertation was + followed by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der geschichtliche Christus</span></span>. 3rd + ed., 1866.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" + href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte Jesu.</span></span> 2nd ed., 1875, + pp. 228 and 229.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" + href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ultimate reason why Keim + deliberately gives such prominence to the eschatology is that he + holds to Matthew, and is therefore more under the direct impression + of the masses of discourse in this Gospel, charged, as they are, + with eschatological ideas, than those writers who find their + primary authority in Mark, where these discourses are lacking.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" + href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte Jesu. + Nach akademischen Vorlesungen von Dr. Karl Hase.</span></span> + 1876. Special mention ought also to be made of the fine sketch of + the Life of Jesus in A. Hausrath's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Neutestamentliche + Zeitgeschichte</span></span> (History of New Testament Times), + 1st ed., Munich, 1868 ff.; 3rd ed., 1 vol., 1879, pp. 325-515; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + zeitgeschichtlichen Beziehungen des Lebens Jesu</span></span> + (The Relations of the Life of Jesus to the History of His + time).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Adolf Hausrath + was born at Karlsruhe. He was appointed Professor of Theology at + Heidelberg in 1867, and died in 1909.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" + href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben Jesu</span></span>, von Willibald + Beyschlag: Pt. i. Preliminary Investigations, 1885, 450 pp.; pt. + ii. Narrative, 1886, 495 pp. Joh. Heinr. Christoph Willibald + Beyschlag was born in 1823 at Frankfort-on-Main, and went to Halle + as Professor in 1860. His splendid eloquence made him one of the + chief spokesmen of German Protestantism. As a teacher he exercised + a remarkable and salutary influence, although his scientific works + are too much under the dominance of an apologetic of the heart. He + died in 1900.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" + href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Bernhard + Weiss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben Jesu</span></span>. 2 vols. + Berlin, 1882. See also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Markusevangelium</span></span>, 1872; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das + Matthäusevangelium</span></span>, 1876; and the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch der + neutestamentlichen Theologie</span></span>, 5th ed., 1888. + Bernhard Weiss was born in 1827 at Königsberg, where he qualified + as Privat-Docent in 1852. In 1863 he went as Ordinary Professor + to Kiel, and was called to Berlin in the same capacity in + 1877.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + distinctly liberal Lives of Jesus of an earlier date, that of W. + Krüger-Velthusen (Elberfeld, 1872, 271 pp.) might be mentioned if + it were not so entirely uncritical. Although the author does not + hold the Fourth Gospel to be apostolic he has no hesitation in + making use of it as an historical source.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is more + sentiment than science, too, in the work of M. G. Weitbrecht, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das + Leben Jesu nach den vier Evangelien</span></span>, 1881.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A weakness in + the treatment of the Johannine question and a want of clearness + on some other points disfigures the three-volume Life of Jesus of + the Paris professor, E. Stapfer, which is otherwise marked by + much acumen and real depth of feeling. Vol. i. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jésus-Christ avant + son ministère</span></span> (Fischbacher, Paris, 1896); vol. ii. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jésus-Christ pendant son + ministère</span></span> (1897); vol. iii. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Mort et la + résurrection de Jésus-Christ</span></span> (1898).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">F. Godet + writes of <span class="tei tei-q">“The Life of Jesus before His + Public Appearance”</span> (German translation by M. Reineck, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben + Jesu vor seinem öffentlichen Auftreten</span></span>. Hanover, + 1897).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">G. Längin + founds his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Christus der Geschichte und sein + Christentum</span></span> (The Christ of History and His + Christianity) on a purely Synoptic basis. 2 vols., 1897-1898.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The English + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + Jesus Christ</span></span>, by James Stalker, D. D. (now + Professor of Church History in the United Free Church College, + Aberdeen), passed through numberless editions (German, 1898; + Tübingen, 4th ed., 1901).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Very pithy and + interesting is Dr. Percy Gardner's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exploratio + Evangelica</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A Brief Examination of the Basis and Origin + of Christian Belief.</span></span> 1899; 2nd ed., 1907.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A work which + is free from all compromise is H. Ziegler's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der geschichtliche + Christus</span></span> (The Historical Christ). 1891. For this + reason the five lectures, delivered in Liegnitz, out of which it + is composed, attracted such unfavourable attention that the + Ecclesiastical Council took proceedings against the author. (See + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christliche Welt</span></span>, 1891, pp. + 563-568, 874-877.)</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" + href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Holtzmann, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Neutestamentliche Einleitung</span></span>, + 2nd ed., 1886. Weizsäcker declares himself in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theologische + Literaturzeitung</span></span> for 1882, No. 23, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das apostolische + Zeitalter</span></span>, 2nd ed., 1890.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hase and + Schenkel accepted this position in principle, but were careful to + keep open a line of retreat.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Towards the + end of the 'seventies the rejection of the Fourth Gospel as an + historical source was almost universally recognised in the + critical camp. It is taken for granted in the Life of Jesus by + Karl Wittichen (Jena, 1876, 397 pp.), which might be reckoned one + of the most clearly conceived works of this kind based on the + Marcan hypothesis if its arrangement were not so bad. It is + partly in the form of a commentary, inasmuch as the presentment + of the life takes the form of a discussion of sixty-seven + sections. The detail is very interesting. It makes an impression + of <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "fr"><span style="font-style: italic">naïveté</span></span> when + we find a series of sections grouped under the title, + <span class="tei tei-q">“The establishment of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christianity</span></em> in Galilee.”</span> + No stress is laid on the significance of Jesus' journey to the + north. Wittichen, also, misled by Luke, asserts, just as Weisse + had done, that Jesus had worked in Judaea for some time prior to + the triumphal entry.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" + href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. H. Wendt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Lehre + Jesu</span></span>, vol. i. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die evangelischen Quellenberichte über die + Lehre Jesu.</span></span> (The Record of the Teaching of Jesus in + the Gospel Sources.) 354 pp. Göttingen, 1886; vol. ii., 1890; Eng. + trans., 1892. Second German edition in one vol., 626 pp., 1901. See + also the same writer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Johannesevangelium</span></span>. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Untersuchung seiner Entstehung und seines + geschichtlichen Wertes</span></span>, 1900. (The Gospel of John: an + Investigation of its Origin and Historical Value.) Hans Heinrich + Wendt was born in 1853 at Hamburg, qualified as Privat-Docent in + 1877 at Göttingen, was subsequently Extraordinary Professor at Kiel + and Heidelberg, and now works at Jena.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" + href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Johannis Lightfooti, Doctoris Angli et + Collegii S. Catharinae in Cantabrigiensi Academia Praefecti, Horae + Hebraicae et Talmudicae in Quatuor Evangelistas ... nunc secundum + in Germania junctim cum Indicibus locorum Scripturae rerumque ac + verborum necessariis editae e Museo Io. Benedicti Carpzovii. + Lipsiae. Anno MDCLXXXIV.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" + href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The pioneer works in the study of + apocalyptic were Dillmann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Henoch</span></span>, 1851; and Hilgenfeld's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jüdische + Apokalyptik</span></span>, 1857.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" + href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus Nazarenus und die erste christliche + Zeit, mit den beiden ersten Erzählern</span></span>, von Gustav + Volkmar, Zurich, 1882. To which must be added: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Markus und die + Synopse der Evangelien, nach dem urkundlichen Text; und das + Geschichtliche vom Leben Jesu</span></span>. (Mark and Synoptic + Material in the Gospels, according to the original text; and the + historical elements in the Life of Jesus.) Zurich, 1869; 2nd + edition, 1876, 738 pp. Volkmar was born in 1809, and was living at + Fulda as a Gymnasium (High School) teacher, when in 1852 he was + arrested by the Hessian Government on account of his political + views, and subsequently deprived of his post. In 1853 he went to + Zurich, where a new prospect opened to him as a Docent in theology. + He died in 1893.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" + href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kienlen, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die + eschatologische Rede Jesu Matt. xxiv. cum Parall.”</span> (The + Eschatological Discourse of Jesus in Matt. xxiv. with the parallel + passages), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jahrbuch für die Theologie</span></span>, + 1869, pp. 706-709. Analysis of other attempts directed to the same + end in Weiffenbach, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Wiederkunftsgedanke</span></span>, p. 31 + ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" + href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wilhelm Weiffenbach, Director of the + Seminary for Theological Students at Friedberg, was born in 1842 at + Bornheim in Rhenish Hesse.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" + href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The English reader will find a + constructive analysis of what is known as the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Little Apocalypse”</span> in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Encyclopaedia + Biblica</span></span>, art. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Gospels,”</span> col. 1857. It consists of the verses + Matt. xxiv. 6-8, 15-22, 29-31, 34, corresponding to Mark xiii. + 7-9<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">a</span></span>, 14-20, 24-27, 30. According + to the theory first sketched by Colani these verses formed an + independent Apocalypse which was embedded in the Gospel by the + Evangelist.—F. C. B.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" + href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Untersuchungen über die evangelische + Geschichte</span></span>, 1864, pp. 121-126.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" + href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Über die + Komposition der eschatologischen Rede Matt. xxiv. 4 ff.”</span> + (The Composition of the Eschatological Discourse in Matt. xxiv. 4 + ff.), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jahrbuch f. d. Theol.</span></span> vol. + xiii., 1868, pp. 134-149.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" + href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Capernaitic”</span> Weiffenbach apparently means + literalistic; cf. John vi. 52 f.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" + href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wilhelm Baldensperger, at present + Professor at Giessen, was born in 1856 at Mülhausen in Alsace.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" + href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A new edition + appeared in 1891. There is no fundamental alteration, but in + consequence of the polemic against opponents who had arisen in + the meantime it is fuller. The first part of a third edition + appeared in 1903 under the title <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + messianisch-apokalyptischen Hoffnungen des + Judentums</span></span>.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See also the + interesting use made of Late-Jewish and Rabbinic ideas in Alfred + Edersheim's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Life and Times of Jesus the + Messiah</span></span>, 2nd ed., London, 1884, 2 vols.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" + href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Emil Schürer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter + Jesu Christi</span></span>. (History of the Jewish People in the + Time of Christ.) 2nd ed., part second, 1886, pp. 417 ff. Here is + to be found also a bibliography of the older literature of the + subject. 3rd ed., 1889, vol. ii. pp. 498 ff.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Emil Schürer + was born at Augsburg in 1844, and from 1873 onwards was + successively Professor at Leipzig, Giessen, and Kiel, and is now + (1909) at Göttingen.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The latest + presentment of Jewish apocalyptic is <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die jüdische + Eschatologie von Daniel bis Akiba</span></span>, by Paul Volz, + Pastor in Leonberg. Tübingen, 1903. 412 pp. The material is very + completely given. Unfortunately the author has chosen the + systematic method of treating his subject, instead of tracing the + history of its development, the only right way. As a consequence + Jesus and Paul occupy far too little space in this survey of + Jewish apocalyptic. For a treatment of the origin of Jewish + eschatology from the point of view of the history of religion see + Hugo Gressmann, now Professor at Berlin, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Ursprung der + israelitisch-jüdischen Eschatologie</span></span> (The Origin of + the Israelitish and Jewish Eschatology), Göttingen, 1905. 377 + pp.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" + href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Johannes Weiss, now Professor at + Marburg, was born at Kiel in 1863.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" + href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It may be mentioned that this work had + been preceded (in 1891) by two Leiden prize dissertations, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Über die + Lehre vom Reich Gottes im Neuen Testament</span></span> (Concerning + the Kingdom of God in the New Testament), one of them by Issel, the + other, which lays especially strong emphasis upon the eschatology, + by Schmoller.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" + href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wilhelm Bousset, now Professor in + Göttingen, born 1865 at Lübeck</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" + href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theol. Rundschau</span></span> (1901), 4, pp. + 89-103.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" + href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Bousset, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die jüdische + Apokalyptik in ihrer religionsgeschichtlichen Herkunft und ihrer + Bedeutung für das Neue Testament</span></span>. (The Origin of + Apocalyptic as indicated by Comparative Religion, and its + significance for the understanding of the New Testament.) Berlin, + 1903. 67 pp. See also W. Bousset, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Religion des + Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter</span></span>, 512 pp., + 1902. For the assertion of Parsic influences see also Stave, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Einfluss des Parsismus auf das Judentum</span></span>. Haarlem, + 1898.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" + href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Grundcharakter + der Ethik Jesu im Verhältnis zu den messianischen Hoffnungen + seines Volkes und zu seinem eigenen + Messiasbewusstsein.</span></span> Freiburg, 1895, 119 pp. See + also his inaugural dissertation of 1896, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Principe de la + morale de Jésus</span></span>. Paris, 1896.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A. K. Rogers, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Life and Teachings of Jesus; a Critical Analysis, + etc.</span></span> (London and New York, 1894), regards Jesus' + teaching as purely ethical, refusing to admit any eschatology at + all.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" + href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Paris, 2 vols., 500 and 512 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" + href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Weiffenbach, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Frage der + Wiederkunst Jesu</span></span>. (The Question concerning the Second + Coming of Jesus.) Friedberg, 1901.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" + href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Titius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die neutestamentliche + Lehre von der Seligkeit und ihre Bedeutung für die + Gegenwart</span></span>. I. Teil: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jesu Lehre vom Reich + Gottes</span></span>. (The New Testament Doctrine of Blessedness + and its Significance for the Present. Pt. I., Jesus' Doctrine of + the Kingdom of God.) Arthur Titius, now Professor at Kiel, was born + in 1864 at Sensburg.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" + href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die eschatologischen Aussagen Jesu in den + synoptischen Evangelien</span></span>, 167 pp. Erich Haupt, now + Professor in Halle, was born in 1841 at Stralsund.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" + href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. the preface to the 2nd ed. of Joh. + Weiss's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche + Gottes</span></span>. Göttingen, 1900.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" + href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tübingen-Leipzig, 1901, 410 pp.; 2nd + ed., 1904. Paul Wernle, now Professor of Church History at Basle, + was born in Zurich, 1872.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" + href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Israelitische und + jüdische Geschichte</span></span>, 1st ed., 1894, pp. 163-168; + 2nd ed., 1895, pp. 198-204; 3rd ed., 1897; 4th ed., 1901, pp. + 380-394. See also his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Skizzen</span></span> (Sketches), pp. 6, 187 + ff.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See also J. + Wellhausen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Evangelium Marci</span></span>, 1903, + 2nd ed., 1909; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Evangelium Matthäi</span></span>, 1904; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das + Evangelium Lucae</span></span>, 1904.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Julius + Wellhausen, now Professor at Göttingen, was born in 1844 at + Hameln.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" + href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Emil Schürer, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das + messianische Selbstbewusstsein Jesu Christi</span></span>. (The + Messianic Self-consciousness of Jesus Christ.) 1903, 24 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + J. Meinhold, too, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus und das alte Testament</span></span> + (Jesus and the Old Testament), 1896, Jesus did not purpose to be + the Messiah of Israel.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" + href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die evangelische + Geschichte und der Ursprung des Christentums auf Grund einer + Kritik der Berichte über das Leiden und die Auferstehung + Jesu.</span></span> (The Gospel History and the Origin of + Christianity considered in the light of a critical investigation + of the Reports of the Suffering and Resurrection of Jesus.) By + Dr. W. Brandt, Leipzig, 1893, 588 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wilhelm Brandt + was born in 1855 of German parents in Amsterdam and became a + pastor of the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1891 he resigned this + office and studied in Strassburg and Berlin. In 1893 he was + appointed to lecture in General History of Religion as a member + of the theological faculty of Amsterdam.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" + href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ad. Jülicher, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Gleichnisreden Jesu</span></span>. Vol. i., 1888. The substance + of it had already been published in a different form. Freiburg, + 1886.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Adolf + Jülicher, at present Professor in Marburg, was born in 1857 at + Falkenberg.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" + href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. Bousset, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jesu Predigt in ihrem + Gegensatz zum Judentum</span></span>. Göttingen, 1892.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" + href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ad. Jülicher, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Gleichnisreden Jesu</span></span>, 2nd pt. (Exposition of the + Parables in the first three Gospels.) Freiburg, 1899, 641 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Chr. A. Bugge, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Hauptparabeln Jesu</span></span> (The most important Parables of + Jesus), German, from the Norwegian, Giessen, 1903, rightly + remarks on the obscure and inexplicable character of some of the + parables, but makes no attempt to deal with it from the + historical point of view.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" + href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Arnold Meyer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jesu + Muttersprache</span></span>, 1896. P. W. Schmidt, too, in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Geschichte Jesu</span></span> (Freiburg, + 1899), defends the same interpretation, and seeks to explain this + obscure saying by the other about the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“strait gate.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" + href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche + Gottes</span></span>, 2nd ed., 1900, p. 192 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" + href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stud. Krit.</span></span>, 1836, pp. + 90-122.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" + href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See also <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Vorstellungen vom + Messias und vom Gottesreich bei den Synoptikern</span></span>. (The + Conceptions of the Messiah and the Kingdom of God in the Synoptic + Gospels.) By Ludwig Paul. Bonn, 1895. 130 pp. This comprehensive + study discusses all the problems which are referred to below. Matt. + xi. 12-14 is discussed under the heading <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Hinderers of the Kingdom of God.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" + href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A. Hilgenfeld, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeitschr. f. wiss. + Theol.</span></span>, 1888, pp. 488-498; 1892, pp. 445-464.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" + href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Orello Cone, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jesus' Self-designation in the Synoptic + Gospels,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The New World</span></span>, 1893, pp. + 492-518.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" + href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. L. Oort, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die uitdrukking ὁ + υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου in het Nieuwe Testament</span></span>. (The + Expression Son of Man in the New Testament.) Leyden, 1893.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" + href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. H. Charles, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The Son of Man,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Expos. + Times</span></span>, 1893.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" + href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die jüdische + Apokalyptik in ihrer religionsgeschichtlichen Herkunft und ihrer + Bedeutung für das Neue Testament.</span></span> (Jewish + Apocalyptic in its religious-historical origin and in its + significance for the New Testament.) 1903.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the + eschatology of Jesus see also Schwartzkoppf, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Weissagungen + Jesu Christi von seinen Tode, seiner Auferstehung und Wiederkunft + und ihre Erfüllung</span></span>. (The Predictions of Jesus + Christ concerning His Death, His Resurrection, and Second Coming, + and their Fulfilment.) 1895.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">P. Wernle, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Reichgotteshofnung in den ältesten christlichen Dokumenten und + bei Jesus</span></span>. (The Hope of the Kingdom of God in the + most ancient Christian Documents and as held by Jesus.)</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" + href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Arnold Meyer, now Professor of New + Testament Theology and Pastoral Theology at Zurich, and formerly at + Bonn, was born at Wesel in 1861.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" + href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Giambern. de Rossi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dissertazione della + lingua propria di Christo e degli Ebrei nazionali della Palestina + da' Tempi de' Maccabei in disamina del sentimento di un recente + scrittore Italiano</span></span>. Parma, 1772.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" + href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Bericht des Matthäus von Jesu dem + Messias.</span></span> (Matthew's account of Jesus the Messiah.) + Altona, 1792. According to Meyer, p. 105 ff., this was a very + striking performance.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" + href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name Chaldee was due to the + mistaken belief that the language in which parts of Daniel and Ezra + were written was really the vernacular of Babylonia. That + vernacular, now known to us from cuneiform tablets and + inscriptions, is a Semitic language, but quite different from + Aramaic.—F. C. B.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" + href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Emil Friedrich Kautzsch was born in + 1841 at Plauen in Saxony, and studied in Leipzig, where he became + Privat-Docent in 1869. In 1872 he was called as Professor to Basle, + in 1880 to Tübingen, in 1888 to Halle.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" + href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gustaf Dalman, Professor at Leipzig, + was born in 1865 at Niesky. In addition to the works of his named + above, see also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der leidende und der sterbende + Messias</span></span> (The Suffering and Dying Messiah), 1888; and + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Was sagt + der Talmud über Jesum?</span></span> (What does the Talmud say + about Jesus?), 1891.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" + href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">2 Kings xviii. 26 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" + href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Studia Biblica</span></span> I. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays in Biblical + Archæology and Criticism and Kindred Subjects by Members of the + University of Oxford</span></span>. Clarendon Press, 1885, pp. + 39-74. See Meyer, p. 29 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" + href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Franz + Delitzsch, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Bücher des Neuen Testaments aus dem + Griechischen ins Hebräische übersetzt</span></span>. 1877. (The + Books of the N.T. translated from Greek into Hebrew.) This work + has been circulated by thousands among Jews throughout the whole + world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Delitzsch was + born in 1813 at Leipzig and became Privat-Docent there in 1842, + went to Rostock as Professor in 1846, to Erlangen in 1850, and + returned in 1867 to Leipzig. By conviction he was a strict + Lutheran in theology. He was one of the leading experts in + Late-Jewish and Talmudic literature. He died in 1890.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" + href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Meyer, p. 47 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" + href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Meyer, p. 61 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" + href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hans Lietzmann, now Professor in Jena, + was born in 1875 at Düsseldorf. Until his call to Jena he worked as + a Privat-Docent at Bonn. He has done some very meritorious work in + the publication of Early Christian writings.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" + href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Meyer, p. 141 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" + href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“De Oorsprong + van de uitdrukking 'Zoon des Menschen' als evangelische + Messiastitel,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theol. Tijdschr.</span></span>, 1894. (The + Origin of the Expression <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of + Man”</span> as a Title of the Messiah in the Gospels.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" + href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Lietzmann, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Zur Menschensohnfrage”</span> (The Son-of-Man + Problem), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theol. Arb. des Rhein. wissenschaftl. + Predigervereins</span></span>, 1898.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" + href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">N. Schmidt, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Was בן נשא a Messianic title?”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Journal of the + Society for Biblical Literature</span></span>, xv., 1896.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" + href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. Schmiedel, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Der Name Menschensohn und das Messiasbewusstsein + Jesu”</span> (The Designation Son of Man and the Messianic + Consciousness of Jesus), 1898, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prot. + Monatsh.</span></span> 2, pp. 252-267.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" + href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">H. Gunkel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Z. w. + Th.</span></span>, 1899, 42, pp. 581-611.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" + href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the last + phase of the discussion we may name:</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wellhausen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Skizzen + und Vorarbeiten</span></span> (Sketches and Studies), 1899, pp. + 187-215, where he throws further light on Dalman's philological + objections; and goes on to deny Jesus' use of the expression.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">W. + Baldensperger, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die neueste Forschung + über den Menschensohn,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theol. + Rundschau</span></span>, 1900, 3, pp. 201-210, 243-255.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">P. Fiebig, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der + Menschensohn</span></span>. Tübingen, 1901.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">P. W. + Schmiedel, <span class="tei tei-q">“Die neueste Auffassung des + Namens Menschensohn,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prot. + Monatsh.</span></span> 5, pp. 333-351, 1901. (The Latest View of + the Designation Son of Man.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">P. W. Schmidt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Geschichte Jesu</span></span>, ii. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Erläuterungen</span></span>—Explanations). + Tübingen, 1904, p. 157 ff.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" + href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dalman's reputation as an authority + upon Jewish Aramaic is so deservedly high, that it is necessary to + point out that his solution did not, as Dr. Schweitzer seems to + say, entirely dispose of the linguistic difficulties raised by + Lietzmann as to the meaning and use of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">barnâsh</span></span> and <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">barnâshâ</span></span> in Aramaic. The English + reader will find the linguistic facts well put in sections 4 and 32 + of N. Schmidt's article <span class="tei tei-q">“Son of Man”</span> + in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encyclopædia Biblica</span></span> (cols. + 4708, 4723), or he may consult Prof. Bevan's review of Dalman's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Worte + Jesu</span></span> in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Critical Review</span></span> for 1899, p. 148 + ff. The main point is that ὁ ἄνθρωπος and ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου are + equally legitimate translations of <span class= + "tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">barnâshâ</span></span>. Thus the contrast in + the Greek between ὁ ἄνθρωπος and ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου in Mark ii. 27 + and 28, or again in Mark viii. 36 and 38, disappears on + retranslation into the dialect spoken by Jesus. Whether this + linguistic fact makes the sayings in which ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου + occurs unhistorical is a further question, upon which scholars can + take, and have taken, opposite opinions.—F. C. B.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" + href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Worte + Jesu</span></span>, 1898, p. 191 ff. (= E. T. p. 234 ff.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" + href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See the + classical discussion in J. Weiss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Predigt Jesus + vom Reiche Gottes</span></span>, 1892, 1st ed., p. 52 ff.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the second + edition, of 1900, p. 160 ff., he allows himself to be led astray + by the <span class="tei tei-q">“chiefest apostles”</span> of + modern theology to indulge in the subtleties of fine-spun + psychology, and explain Jesus' way of speaking of Himself in the + third person as the Son of Man as due to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“extreme modesty of Jesus,”</span> a modesty which + did not forsake Him in the presence of His judges. This recent + access of psychologising exegesis has not conduced to clearness + of presentation, and the preference for the Lucan narrative does + not so much contribute to throw light on the facts as to discover + in the thoughts of Jesus subtleties of which the historical Jesus + never dreamt. If the Lord always used the term Son of Man when + speaking of His Messiahship, the reason was that this was the + only way in which He could speak of it at all, since the + Messiahship was not yet realised, but was only to be so at the + appearing of the Son of Man. For a consistent, purely historical, + non-psychological exposition of the Son-of-Man passages see + Albert Schweitzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Messianitäts- und + Leidensgeheimnis</span></span>. (The Secret of the Messiahship + and the Passion.) A sketch of the Life of Jesus. Tübingen, + 1901.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" + href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See Dalman, p. + 60 ff.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">John + Lightfoot, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae in quatuor + Evangelistas</span></span>. Edited by J. B. Carpzov. Leipzig, + 1684.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Christian + Schöttgen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae in universum + Novum Testamentum</span></span>. Dresden-Leipzig, 1733.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Joh. Gerh. + Meuschen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Novum Testamentum ex Talmude et + antiquitatibus Hebraeorum illustratum</span></span>. Leipzig, + 1736.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">J. Jakob. + Wettstein, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Novum Testamentum Graecum</span></span>. + Amsterdam, 1751 and 1752.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">F. Nork, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Rabbinische Quellen und Parallelen zu + neutestamentlichen Schriftstellen</span></span>, Leipzig, + 1839.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Franz + Delitzsch, <span class="tei tei-q">“Horae Hebraicae et + Talmudicae,”</span> in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Luth. Zeitsch.</span></span>, 1876-1878.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Carl + Siegfried, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Analecta Rabbinica</span></span>, 1875; + <span class="tei tei-q">“Rabbin. Analekten,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jahrb. f. prot. + Theol.</span></span>, 1876.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A. Wünsche, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Neue + Beiträge zur Erläuterung der Evangelien aus Talmud und + Midrasch</span></span>. (Contributions to the Exposition of the + Gospels from Talmud and Midrash.) Göttingen, 1878.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" + href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leipzig, 1880; 2nd ed., 1897.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" + href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. for what follows, Jülicher, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Gleichnisreden Jesu</span></span>, i., 1888, p. 164 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" + href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Robert Sheringham of Caius College, + Cambridge, a royalist divine, published an edition of the Talmudic + tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Yoma</span></span>. London, 1648.—F. C. + B.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" + href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. Tal, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Professor Oort und + der Talmud</span></span>, 1880. See upon this Van Manen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jahrb. f. + prot. Theol.</span></span>, 1884, p. 569. The best collection of + Talmudic parables is, according to Jülicher, that of Prof. Guis. + Levi, translated by L. Seligman as <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Parabeln, Legenden + und Gedanken aus Talmud und Midrasch</span></span>. Leipzig, 2nd + ed., 1877.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" + href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The question may be said to have been + provisionally settled by Paul Fiebig's work, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Altjüdische + Gleichnisse und die Gleichnisse Jesu</span></span> (Ancient Jewish + Parables and the Parables of Jesus), Tübingen, 1904, in which he + gives some fifty Late-Jewish parables, and compares them with those + of Jesus, the final result being to show more clearly than ever the + uniqueness and absoluteness of His creations.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" + href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the explanation by means of the + Aramaic of a selection of the sayings of Jesus in Meyer, pp. 72-90. + A Judaism more under Parsee influence is assumed as explaining the + origin of Christianity by E. Böklen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Verwandschaft der + jüdisch-christlichen mit der parsischen Eschatologie</span></span> + (The Relation of Jewish-Christian to Persian Eschatology), 1902, + 510 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" + href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The same view is expressed by + Wellhausen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Israelitische und jüdische + Geschichte</span></span>, 3rd ed., p. 381, note 2; and by Albert + Schweitzer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Messianitäts- und + Leidensgeheimnis</span></span>, 1901.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" + href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Apocalypse of Baruch, and + Fourth Ezra.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" + href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Vie inconnue de Jésus-Christ</span></span>, + par Nicolas Notowitsch. Paris, 1894.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" + href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Jülicher, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gleichnisreden + Jesu</span></span>, i., 1888, p. 172 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" + href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Max Müller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">India, What can it + teach us?</span></span> London, 1883, p. 279.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" + href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Rudolf Seydel, + Professor in the University of Leipzig, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Evangelium von + Jesu in seinen Verhältnissen zu Buddha-Sage und Buddha-Lehre mit + fortlaufender Rücksicht auf andere Religionskreise</span></span>. + (The Gospel of Jesus in its relation to the Buddha Legend and the + Teaching of Buddha, with constant reference to other religious + groups.) Leipzig, 1882, p. 337.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other works by + the same author are <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Buddha und Christus</span></span>. Deutsche + Bücherei No. 33, Breslau, Schottländer, 1884.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Buddha-Legende + und das Leben Jesu nach den Evangelien.</span></span> 2nd ed. + Weimar, 1897. (Edited by the son of the late author.) 129 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See also on + this question Van den Bergh van Eysinga, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indische Einflüsse + auf evangelische Erzählungen</span></span>. Göttingen, 1904. 104 + pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">According to + J. M. Robertson, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christianity and Mythology</span></span> + (London, 1900), the Christ-Myth is merely a form of the + Krishna-Myth. The whole Gospel tradition is to be symbolically + interpreted.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" + href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Christentum des Neuen + Testaments</span></span>, 1905.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" + href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Heinrich Julius Holtzmann, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Handkommentar</span></span>. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + Synoptiker.</span></span> 1st ed., 1889; 3rd ed., 1901. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lehrbuch + der neutestamentlichen Theologie</span></span>, 1896, vol. i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" + href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the + Catholic Church the study of the Life of Jesus has remained down + to the present day entirely free from scepticism. The reason of + that is, that in principle it has remained at a pre-Straussian + standpoint, and does not venture upon an unreserved application + of historical considerations either to the miracle question or to + the Johannine question, and naturally therefore resigns the + attempt to take account of and explain the great historical + problems.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may name + the following Lives of Jesus produced by German Catholic + writers:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Joh. Nep. + Sepp, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben Jesu Christi</span></span>. + Regensburg, 1843-1846. 7 vols., 2nd ed., 1853-1862.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Peter Schegg, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sechs + Bücher des Lebens Jesu</span></span>. (The Life of Jesus in Six + Books.) Freiburg, 1874-1875. c. 1200 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Joseph Grimm, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das + Leben Jesu</span></span>. Würzburg, 2nd ed., 1890-1903. 6 + vols.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Richard von + Kralik, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesu Leben und Werk</span></span>. + Kempten-Nürnberg, 1904. 481 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">W. Capitaine, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jesus + von Nazareth</span></span>. Regensburg, 1905. 192 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How narrow are + the limits within which the Catholic study of the life of Jesus + moves even when it aims at scientific treatment, is illustrated + by Hermann Schell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Christus</span></span> (Mainz, 1903. 152 + pp.). After reading the forty-two questions with which he + introduces his narrative one might suppose that the author was + well aware of the bearing of all the historical problems of the + life of Jesus, and intended to supply an answer to them. Instead + of doing so, however, he adopts as the work proceeds more and + more the rôle of an apologist, not facing definitely either the + miracle question or the Johannine question, but gliding over the + difficulties by the aid of ingenious headings, so that in the end + his book almost takes the form of an explanatory text to the + eighty-nine illustrations which adorn the book and make it + difficult to read.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In France, + Renan's work gave the incentive to an extensive Catholic + <span class="tei tei-q">“Life-of-Jesus”</span> literature. We may + name the following:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Louis + Veuillot, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Vie de notre Seigneur + Jésus-Christ</span></span>. Paris, 1864. 509 pp. German by + Waldeyer. Köln-Neuss, 1864. 573 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">H. Wallon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vie de + notre Seigneur Jésus-Christ</span></span>. Paris, 1865. 355 + pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A work which + met with a particularly favourable reception was that of Père + Didon, the Dominican, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jésus-Christ</span></span>, Paris, 1891, 2 + vols., vol. i. 483 pp., vol. ii. 469 pp. The German translation + is dated 1895.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the same + year there appeared a new edition of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Bitter Sufferings of Our Lord Jesus Christ”</span> + (see above, p. <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref">109</a> f.) + by Katharina Emmerich; the cheap popular edition of the + translation of Renan's <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of + Jesus”</span>; and the eighth edition of Strauss's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus for the German People.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may quote + from the ecclesiastical <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Approbation</span></span> printed at the + beginning of Didon's Life of Jesus. <span class="tei tei-q">“If + the author sometimes seems to speak the language of his + opponents, it is at once evident that he has aimed at defeating + them on their own ground, and he is particularly successful in + doing so when he confronts their irreligious a priori theories + with the positive arguments of history.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a matter of + fact the work is skilfully written, but without a spark of + understanding of the historical questions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All honour to + Alfred Loisy! (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Quatrième Évangile</span></span>, Paris, + 1903, 960 pp.), who takes a clear view on the Johannine question, + and denies the existence of a Johannine historical tradition. But + what that means for the Catholic camp may be recognised from the + excitement produced by the book and its express condemnation. See + also the same writer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L'Évangile et l'Église</span></span> (German + translation, Munich, 1904, 189 pp.), in which Loisy here and + there makes good historical points against Harnack's <span class= + "tei tei-q">“What is Christianity?”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" + href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Oskar Holtzmann, Professor of Theology + at Giessen, was born in 1859 at Stuttgart.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" + href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This suggestion reminds us + involuntarily of the old rationalistic Lives of Jesus, which are + distressed that Jesus should have injured the good people of the + country of the Gesarenes by sacrificing their swine in healing the + demoniac. A good deal of old rationalistic material crops up in the + very latest Lives of Jesus, as cannot indeed fail to be the case in + view of the arbitrary interpretation of detail which is common to + both. According to Oskar Holtzmann the barren fig-tree has also a + symbolical meaning. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is a pledge given + by God to Jesus that His faith shall not be put to shame in the + great work of His life.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" + href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Isaiah lxii. 11, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Say ye to the daughter of Zion, Behold, thy salvation + cometh.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" + href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“For Jesus + Himself,”</span> Oskar Holtzmann argues, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“this discovery”</span>—he means the antinomy which He + had discovered in Psalm cx.—<span class="tei tei-q">“disposed of a + doubt which had always haunted him. If He had really known Himself + to be descended from the Davidic line, He would certainly not have + publicly suggested a doubt as to the Davidic descent of the + Messiah.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" + href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Oskar Holtzmann's work, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">War Jesus + Ekstatiker?</span></span> (Tübingen, 1903, 139 pp.) is in reality a + new reading of the life of Jesus. By emphasising the ecstatic + element he breaks with the <span class="tei tei-q">“natural”</span> + conception of the life and teaching of Jesus; and, in so far, + approaches the eschatological view. But he gives a very wide + significance to the term ecstatic, subsuming under it, it might + almost be said, all the eschatological thoughts and utterances of + Jesus. He explains, for instance, that <span class="tei tei-q">“the + conviction of the approaching destruction of existing conditions is + ecstatic.”</span> At the same time, the only purpose served by the + hypothesis of ecstasy is to enable the author to attribute to Jesus + <span class="tei tei-q">“The belief that in His own work the + Kingdom of God was already beginning, and the promise of the + Kingdom to individuals; this can only be considered + ecstatic.”</span> The opposites which Bousset brings together by + the conception of paradox are united by Holtzmann by means of the + hypothesis of ecstasy. That is, however, to play fast and loose + with the meaning of <span class="tei tei-q">“ecstasy.”</span> An + ecstasy is, in the usual understanding of the word, an abnormal, + transient condition of excitement in which the subject's natural + capacity for thought and feeling, and therewith all impressions + from without, are suspended, being superseded by an intense mental + excitation and activity. Jesus may possibly have been in an + ecstatic state at His baptism and at the transfiguration. What O. + Holtzmann represents as a kind of permanent ecstatic state is + rather an eschatological fixed idea. With eschatology, ecstasy has + no essential connexion. It is possible to be eschatologically + minded without being an ecstatic, and vice versa. Philo attributes + a great importance to ecstasy in his religious life, but he was + scarcely, if at all, interested in eschatology.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" + href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. W. Schmidt, now Professor in Basle, + was born in Berlin in 1845.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" + href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Otto + Schmiedel, Professor at the Gymnasium at Eisenach, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Hauptprobleme + der Leben-Jesu-Forschung</span></span>. Tübingen, 1902. 71 pp. + Schmiedel was born in 1858.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hermann + Freiherr von Soden, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die wichtigsten Fragen im Leben + Jesu</span></span>. Von Soden, Professor in Berlin, and preacher + at the Jerusalem Kirche, was born in 1852.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may mention + also the following works:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fritz Barth + (born 1856, Professor at Bern), <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Hauptprobleme + des Lebens Jesu</span></span>. 1st ed., 1899; 2nd ed., 1903.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Friedrich + Nippold's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Der Entwicklungsgang des Lebens Jesu im + Wortlaut der drei ersten Evangelien</span></span> (The Course of + the Life of Jesus in the Words of the First Three Evangelists) + (Hamburg, 1895, 213 pp.) is only an arrangement of the + sections.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Konrad + Furrer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vorträge über das Leben Jesu + Christi</span></span> (Lectures on the Life of Jesus Christ) have + a special charm by reason of the author's knowledge of the + country and the locality. Furrer, who was born in 1838, is + Professor at Zurich.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another work + which should not be forgotten is R. Otto's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben und Wirken + Jesu nach historisch-kritischer Auffassung</span></span> (Life + and Work of Jesus from the Point of View of Historical + Criticism). A Lecture. Göttingen, 1902. Rudolf Otto, born in + 1869, is Privat-Docent at Göttingen.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" + href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schmiedel is not altogether right in + making <span class="tei tei-q">“the Heidelberg Professor + Paulus”</span> follow the same lines as Reimarus, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“except that his works, of 1804 and 1828, are less + malignant, but only the more dull for that.”</span> In reality the + deistic Life of Jesus by Reimarus, and the rationalistic Life by + Paulus have nothing in common. Paulus was perhaps influenced by + Venturini, but not by Reimarus. The assertion that Strauss wrote + his <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of Jesus for the German + people”</span> because <span class="tei tei-q">“Renan's fame gave + him no peace”</span> is not justified, either by Strauss's + character or by the circumstances in which the second Life of Jesus + was produced.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" + href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Von Soden + gives on pp. 24 ff. the passages of Mark which he supposes to be + derived from the Petrine tradition in a different order from that + in which they occur in Mark, regrouping them freely. He puts + together, for instance, Mark i. 16-20, iii. 13-19, vi. 7-16, + viii. 27-ix. 1, ix. 33-40, under the title <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The formation and training of the band of + disciples.”</span> He supposes Mark, the pupil of Peter, to have + grouped in this way by a kind of association of ideas + <span class="tei tei-q">“what he had heard Peter relate in his + missionary journeys, when writing it down after Peter's death, + not connectedly, but giving as much as he could remember of + it”</span>; this would be in accordance with the statement of + Papias that Mark wrote <span class="tei tei-q">“not in + order.”</span> Papias's statement, therefore, refers to an + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus,”</span> which he found + lacking in historical order.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what are + we to make of a representative of the early Church thus + approaching the Gospels with the demand for historical + arrangement? And good, simple old Papias, of all people!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if the + Marcan plan was not laid down in <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus,”</span> there is nothing for it—since the + plan was certainly not given in the collection of Logia—but to + ascribe it to the author of our Gospel of Mark, to the man, that + is, who wrote down for the first time these <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Pauline conceptions,”</span> those reflections of + experiences of individual believers and of the community, and + inserted them into the Gospel. It is proposed, then, to retain + the outline which he has given of the life of Jesus, and reject + at the same time what he relates. That is to say, he is to be + believed where it is convenient to believe him, and silenced + where it is inconvenient. No more complete refutation of the + Marcan hypothesis could possibly be given than this analysis, for + it destroys its very foundation, the confident acceptance of the + historicity of the Marcan plan.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If there is to + be an analysis of sources in Mark, then the Marcan plan must be + ascribed to <span class="tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus,”</span> otherwise + the analysis renders the Markan hypothesis historically useless. + But if <span class="tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus”</span> is to be + reconstructed on the basis of assigning to it the Marcan plan, + then we cannot separate the natural from the supernatural, for + the supernatural scenes, like the feeding of the multitude and + the transfiguration, are among the main features of the Marcan + outline.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">No + hypothetical analysis of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus”</span> has escaped this dilemma; what it + can effect by literary methods is historically useless, and what + would be historically useful cannot be attained nor <span class= + "tei tei-q">“presented”</span> by literary methods.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" + href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Von Soden, for + instance, germanises Jesus when he writes, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“and this nature is sound to the core. In spite of + its inwardness there is no trace of an exaggerated + sentimentality. In spite of all the intensity of prayer there is + nothing of ecstasy or vision. No apocalyptic dream-pictures find + a lodging-place in His soul.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Is a man who + teaches a world-renouncing ethic which sometimes soars to the + dizzy heights such as that of Matt. xix. 12, according to our + conceptions <span class="tei tei-q">“sound to the core”</span>? + And does not the life of Jesus present a number of occasions on + which He seems to have been in an ecstasy?</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, von + Soden has not simply read his Jesus out of the texts, but has + added something of his own, and that something is Germanic in + colouring.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" + href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the MS. Life of Jesus + written by Kai Jans, one of the characters of the novel. The way in + which the whole life-experience of this character prepares him for + the writing of the Life is strikingly—if not always + acceptably—worked out.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" + href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Frenssen's Kai Jans professes to have + used the <span class="tei tei-q">“results of the whole range of + critical investigation”</span> in writing his work. Among the books + which he enumerates and recommends in the after-word, we miss the + works of Strauss, Weisse, Keim, Volkmar, and Brandt, and, generally + speaking, the names of those who in the past have done something + really great and original. Of the moderns, Johannes Weiss is + lacking. Wrede is mentioned, but is virtually ignored. Pfleiderer's + remarkable and profound presentation of Jesus in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Urchristentum</span></span> (E. T. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Primitive Christianity,”</span> vol. ii., + 1909) is non-existent so far as he is concerned.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" + href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span lang="de" class= + "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heimatkunst</span></span>, the ideal that + every production of German art should be racy of the soil. It has + its relative justification as a protest against the long + subservience of some departments of German art to French + taste.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Translator.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" + href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Jesus of H. S. Chamberlain's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Worte + Christi</span></span>, 1901, 286 pp., is also modern. But the + modernity is not so obtrusive, because he describes only the + teaching of Jesus, not His life.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" + href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Born in 1839 at Stettin. Studied at + Tübingen, was appointed Professor in 1870 at Jena and in 1875 at + Berlin. (Died 1908.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" + href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Urchristentum, seine Schriften und Lehren + in geschichtlichem Zusammenhang beschrieben.</span></span> 2nd ed. + Berlin, 1902. Vol. i. (696 pp.), 615 ff.: <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Predigt Jesu und + der Glaube der Urgemeinde</span></span> (English Translation, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Primitive Christianity,”</span> chap. + xvi.). Pfleiderer's latest views are set forth in his work, based + on academic lectures, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Entstehung des + Urchristentums</span></span>. (How Christianity arose.) Munich, + 1905. 255 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" + href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Albert + Kalthoff, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Christusproblem</span></span>. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Grundlinien zu einer + Sozialtheologie.</span></span> (The Problem of the Christ: + Ground-plan of a Social Theology.) Leipzig, 1902. 87 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Entstehung des + Christentums. Neue Beiträge zum Christusproblem.</span></span> + (How Christianity arose.) Leipzig, 1904. 155 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Albert + Kalthoff was born in 1850 at Barmen, and is engaged in pastoral + work in Bremen.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" + href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Leben Jesu.</span></span> Lectures + delivered before the Protestant Reform Society at Berlin. Berlin, + 1880. 173 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" + href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">If Kalthoff would only have spoken of + the conception of the resurrection instead of the conception of + immortality! Then his subjective knowledge would have been more or + less tolerable.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" + href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Against + Kalthoff: Wilhelm Bousset, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Was wissen wir von Jesus?</span></span> + (What do we know about Jesus?) Lectures delivered before the + Protestantenverein at Bremen. Halle, 1904. 73 pp. In reply: + Albert Kalthoff, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Was wissen wir von Jesus?</span></span> A + settlement of accounts with Professor Bousset. Berlin, 1904. 43 + pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A sound + historical position is set forth in the clear and trenchant + lecture of W. Kapp, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Christus- und Christentumsproblem bei + Kalthoff</span></span>. (The problem of the Christ and of + Christianity as handled by Kalthoff.) Strassburg, 1905. 23 + pp.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" + href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eduard von Hartmann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Christentum des + Neuen Testaments</span></span>. (The Christianity of the N.T.) 2nd, + revised and altered, edition of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Letters on the Christian Religion.”</span> + Sachsa-in-the-Harz, 1905. 311 pp.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" + href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eduard von Hartmann ought, therefore, + to have given his assistance to the others who have made this + assertion in proving that there really existed Messianic claimants + before and at the time of Jesus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" + href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jesus,”</span> by Jülicher, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Kultur der + Gegenwart</span></span>. (An encyclopaedic publication which is + appearing in parts.) Teubner, Berlin, 1905, pp. 40-69.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See also W. + Bousset, <span class="tei tei-q">“Jesus,”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Religionsgeschichtliche + Volksbücher</span></span>. (A series of religious-historical + monographs.) Published by Schiele, Halle, 1904.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here should be + mentioned also the thoughtful book, following very much the lines + of Jülicher, by Eduard Grimm, entitled <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Ethik + Jesu</span></span>, Hamburg, 1903, 288 pp. The author, born in + 1848, is the chief pastor at the Nicolaikirche in Hamburg.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another work + which deserves mention is Arno Neumann, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jesu wie er + geschichtlich war</span></span> (Jesus as he historically + existed), Freiburg, 1904, 198 pp. (New Paths to the Old God), a + Life of Jesus distinguished by a lofty vein of natural poetry and + based upon solid theological knowledge. Arno Neumann is + headmaster of a school at Apolda.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" + href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jeschua. Der klassische jüdische Mann. + Zerstörung des kirchlichen, Enthüllung des jüdischen + Jesus-Bildes.</span></span> Berlin, 1904, 112 pp. Earlier studies + of the Life of Jesus from the Jewish point of view had been less + ambitious. Dr. Aug. Wünsche had written in 1872 on <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Jesus in His attitude towards women”</span> from the + Talmudic standpoint (146 pp.), and had described Him from the same + standpoint as a Jesus who rejoiced in life, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der lebensfreudige + Jesus der synoptischen Evangelien im Gegensatz zum leidenden + Messias der Kirche</span></span>. Leipzig, 1876, 444 pp. The basis + is so far correct, that the eschatological, world-renouncing ethic + which we find in Jesus was due to temporary conditions and is + therefore transitory, and had nothing whatever to do with Judaism + as such. The spirit of the Law is the opposite of world-renouncing. + But the Talmud, be its traditions never so trustworthy, could teach + us little about Jesus because it has preserved scarcely a trace of + that eschatological phase of Jewish religion and ethics.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" + href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wolfgang Kirchbach, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Was lehrte Jesus? + Zwei Urevangelien</span></span>. Berlin, 1897, 248 pp.; second + greatly enlarged and improved edition, 1902, 339 pp. By the same + author, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das Buch Jesus</span></span>. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Urevangelien. Neu + nachgewiesen, neu übersetzt, geordnet und aus der Ursprache + erklärt</span></span>. (The Book of Jesus. The Primitive Gospels. + Newly traced, translated, arranged, and explained on the basis of + the original.) Berlin, 1897.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" + href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Before him, Hugo Delff, in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History + of the Rabbi Jesus of Nazareth</span></span> (Leipzig, 1889, 428 + pp.), had confined himself to the Fourth Gospel, and even within + that Gospel he drew some critical distinctions. His Jesus at first + conceals His Messiahship from the fear of arousing the political + expectations of the people, and speaks to them of the Son of Man in + the third person. At His second visit to Jerusalem He breaks with + the rulers, is subsequently compelled, in consequence of the + conflict over the Sabbath, to leave Galilee, and then gives up His + own people and turns to the heathen. Delff explains the raising of + Lazarus by supposing him to have been buried in a state of + trance.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" + href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Albert Dulk, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Irrgang des + Lebens Jesu</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">In geschichtlicher Aufassung dargestellt. + Erster Teil: Die historischen Wurzeln und die galiläische + Blüte</span></span>, 1884. 395 pp. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zweiter Teil: Der + Messiaseinzug und die Erhebung ans Kreuz</span></span>, 1885, 302 + pp. (The Error of the Life of Jesus. Historically apprehended and + set forth. Pt. i., The Historical Roots and the Galilaean Blossom. + Pt. ii., The Messianic Entry and the Crucifixion.) The course of + Dulk's own life was somewhat erratic. Born in 1819, he came + prominently forward in the revolution of 1848, as a political + pamphleteer and agitator. Later, though almost without means, he + undertook long journeys, even to Sinai and to Lapland. Finally, he + worked as a social democratic reformer. He died in 1884.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" + href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A scientific treatment of this subject + is supplied by Fr. Nippold, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die psychiatrische Seite der Heilstätigkeit + Jesu</span></span> (The Psychiatric Side of Jesus' Works of + Healing), 1889, in which a luminous review of the medical material + is to be found. See also Dr. K. Kunz, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christus + medicus</span></span>, Freiburg in Baden, 1905, 74 pp. The + scientific value of this work is, however, very much reduced by the + fact that the author has no acquaintance with the preliminary + questions belonging to the sphere of history and literature, and + regards all the miracles of healing as actual events, believing + himself able to explain them from the medical point of view. The + tendency of the work is mainly apologetic.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" + href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus von Nazareth. Described from the + Scientific, Historical, and Social Point of View.</span></span> + Translated from the French (into German) by A. Just. Leipzig, 1894. + The author, whose real name is P. A. Desjardin, is a practising + physician. De Régla, too, makes the Fourth Gospel the basis of his + narrative.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" + href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pierre Nahor (Emilie Lerou), + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus</span></span>. Translated from the + French by Walter Bloch. Berlin, 1905. Its motto is: The figure of + Jesus belongs, like all mysterious, heroic, or mythical figures, to + legend and poetry. In the introduction we find the statement, + <span class="tei tei-q">“This book is a confession of + faith.”</span> The narrative is based on the Fourth Gospel.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" + href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Vie inconnue de + Jésus-Christ.</span></span> Paris, 1894. 301 pp. German, under + the title <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Die Lücke im Leben Jesu</span></span> (The + Gap in the Life of Jesus). Stuttgart, 1894. 186 pp. See Holtzmann + in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Theol. Jahresbericht</span></span>, xiv. p. + 140.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a certain + limited sense the work of A. Lillie, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Influence of + Buddhism on Primitive Christianity</span></span> (London, 1893), + is to be numbered among the fictitious works on the life of + Jesus. The fictitious element consists in Jesus being made an + Essene by the writer, and Essenism equated with Buddhism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among + <span class="tei tei-q">“edifying”</span> romances on the life of + Jesus intended for family reading, that of the English writer J. + H. Ingraham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Prince of the House of + David</span></span>, has had a very long lease of life. It + appeared in a German translation as early as 1858, and was + reissued in 1906 (Brunswick).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A fictitious + life of Jesus of wonderful beauty is Peter Rosegger's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">I.N.R.I. Frohe Botschaft eines armen + Sünders</span></span> (The Glad Tidings of a poor Sinner). + Leipzig, 6th-10th thousand, 1906. 293 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A feminine + point of view reveals itself in C. Rauch's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jeschua ben + Joseph</span></span>. Deichert, 1899.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" + href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Vie ésotérique + de Jésu-Christ et les origines orientales du + christianisme.</span></span> Paris, 1902. 445 pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That Jesus was + of Aryan race is argued by A. Müller, who assumes a Gaulish + immigration into Galilee. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Jesus ein Arier.</span></span> Leipzig, + 1904. 74 pp.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" + href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Did Jesus live + 100</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic; font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span><span style="font-style: italic">?</span></span> + London and Benares. Theosophical Publishing Society, 1903. 440 + pp.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A scientific + discussion of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Toledoth + Jeshu,”</span> with citations from the Talmudic tradition + concerning Jesus, is offered by S. Krauss, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Das Leben Jesu nach + jüdischen Quellen</span></span>, 1902. 309 pp. According to him + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Toledoth Jeshu</span></span> was committed + to writing in the fifth century, and he is of opinion that the + Jewish legend is only a modified version of the Christian + tradition.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" + href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">William Wrede, + born in 1859 at Bücken in Hanover, was Professor at Breslau. (He + died in 1907.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Wrede names as + his real predecessors on the same lines Bruno Bauer, Volkmar, and + the Dutch writer Hoekstra (<span class="tei tei-q">“De + Christologie van het canonieke Marcus-Evangelie, vergeleken met + die van de beide andere synoptische Evangelien,”</span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Theol. + Tijdschrift</span></span>, v., 1871).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a certain + limited degree the work of Ernest Havet (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Christianisme et + ses origines</span></span>) has a claim to be classed in the same + category. His scepticism refers principally to the entry into + Jerusalem and the story of the passion.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" + href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These and the following questions are + raised more especially in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sketch of the Life of + Jesus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" + href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It would perhaps be more historical to + say <span class="tei tei-q">“as a prophet.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" + href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The difficulties which the incident at + Caesarea Philippi places in the way of Wrede's construction may be + realised by placing two of his statements side by side. P. 101: + <span class="tei tei-q">“From this it is evident that this incident + contains no element which cannot be easily understood on the basis + of Mark's ideas.”</span> P. 238: <span class="tei tei-q">“But in + another aspect this incident stands in direct contradiction to the + Marcan view of the disciples. It is inconsistent with their general + <span class="tei tei-q">‘want of understanding,’</span> and can + therefore hardly have been created by Mark himself.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" + href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The question of the attitude of + pre-Origenic theology towards the historical Jesus, and of the + influence exercised by dogma upon the evangelical tradition + regarding Jesus in the course of the first two centuries, is + certainly deserving of a detailed examination.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" + href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Certain of the conceptions with which + Wrede operates are simply not in accordance with the text, because + he gives them a different significance from that which they have in + the narrative. Thus, for example, he always takes the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“resurrection,”</span> when it occurs in the mouth of + Jesus, as a reference to that resurrection which as an historical + fact became a matter of apprehended experience to the apostles. But + Jesus speaks without any distinction of His resurrection and of His + Parousia. The conception of the resurrection, therefore, if one is + to arrive at it inductively from the Marcan text, is most closely + bound up with the Parousia. The Evangelist would thus seem to have + made Jesus predict a different kind of resurrection from that which + actually happened. The resurrection, according to the Marcan text, + is an eschatological event, and has no reference whatever to + Wrede's <span class="tei tei-q">“historical resurrection.”</span> + Further, if their resurrection experience was the first and + fundamental point in the Messianic enlightenment of the disciples, + why did they only begin to proclaim it some weeks later? This is a + problem which was long ago recognised by Reimarus, and which is not + solved by merely assuming that the disciples were afraid.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" + href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">P. 33 ff. The prohibitions in Mark i. + 43 and 44, v. 43, vii. 36, and viii. 26 are put on the same footing + with the really Messianic prohibitions in viii. 30 and ix. 9, with + which may be associated also the imposition of silence upon the + demoniacs who recognise his Messiahship in Mark i. 34 and iii. + 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" + href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The narrative in Matt. xiv. 22-33, + according to which the disciples, after seeing Jesus walk upon the + sea, hail Him on His coming into the boat as the Son of God, and + the description of the deeds of Jesus as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“deeds of Christ,”</span> in the introduction to the + Baptist's question in Matt. xi. 2, do not cancel the old theory + even in Matthew, because the Synoptists, differing therein from the + fourth Evangelist, do not represent the demand for a sign as a + demand for a Messianic sign, nor the cures wrought by Jesus as + Messianic proofs of power. The action of the demons in crying out + upon Jesus as the Son of God betokens their recognition of Him; it + has nothing to do with the miracles of healing as such.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" + href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For further examples of the pressing + of the theory to its utmost limits, see Wrede, p. 134 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" + href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is always assumed as self-evident + that Jesus is speaking of the sufferings and persecutions which + would take place after His death, or that the Evangelist, in making + Him speak in this way, is thinking of these later persecutions. + There is no hint of that in the text.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" + href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That the eschatological school showed + a certain timidity in drawing the consequences of its recognition + of the character of the preaching of Jesus and examining the + tradition from the eschatological standpoint can be seen from + Johannes Weiss's work, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Earliest + Gospel”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das älteste Evangelium</span></span>), + Göttingen, 1903, 414 pp. Ingenious and interesting as this work is + in detail, one is surprised to find the author of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Preaching of Jesus”</span> here endeavouring to + distinguish between Mark and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ur-Markus,”</span> to point to examples of Pauline + influence, to exhibit clearly the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“tendencies”</span> which guided, respectively, the + original Evangelist and the redactor—all this as if he did not + possess in his eschatological view of the preaching of Jesus a + dominant conception which gives him a clue to quite a different + psychology from that which he actually applies. Against Wrede he + brings forward many arguments which are worthy of attention, but he + can hardly be said to have refuted him, because it is impossible + for Weiss to treat the question in the exact form in which it was + raised by Wrede.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" + href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wrede certainly goes too far in + asserting that even in Mark's version the experience at the baptism + is conceived as an open miracle, perceptible to others. The way in + which the revelations to the prophets are recounted in the Old + Testament does not make in favour of this. Otherwise we should have + to suppose that the Evangelist described the incident as a miracle + which took place in the presence of a multitude without perceiving + that in this case the Messianic secret was a secret no longer. If + so, the story of the baptism stands on the same footing as the + story of the Messianic entry: it is a revelation of the Messiahship + which has absolutely no results.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" + href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The statement of Mark that Jesus, + coming out of the north, appeared for a moment again in Decapolis + and Capernaum, and then started off to the north once more (Mark + vii. 31-viii. 27), may here provisionally be left out of account + since it stands in relation with the twofold account of the feeding + of the multitude. So too the enigmatic appearance and disappearance + of the people (Mark viii. 34-ix. 30) may here be passed over. These + statements make no difference to the fact that Jesus really broke + off his work in Galilee shortly after the Mission of the Twelve, + since they imply at most a quite transient contact with the + people.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" + href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the theory of the successful and + unsuccessful periods in the work of Jesus see the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sketch,”</span> p. 3 ff., <span class="tei tei-q">“The + four Pre-suppositions of the Modern Historical + Solution.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" + href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Weisse found that there was no hint in + the sources of the desertion of the people, since according to + these, Jesus was opposed only by the Pharisees, not by the people. + The abandonment of the Galilaean work, and the departure to + Jerusalem, must, he thought, have been due to some unrecorded fact + which revealed to Jesus that the time had come to act in this way. + Perhaps, he adds, it was the waning of Jesus' miracle-working power + which caused the change in His attitude, since it is remarkable + that He performed no further miracles during His sojourn at + Jerusalem.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" + href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The most logical attitude in regard to + it is Bousset's, who proposes to treat the mission and everything + connected with it as a <span class="tei tei-q">“confused and + unintelligible”</span> tradition.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" + href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Joel iii. 13, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Put in the sickle for the harvest is + ripe!”</span> In the Apocalypse of John, too, the Last Judgment + is described as the heavenly harvest: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thrust in thy sickle and reap; for the time is come + for thee to reap; for the harvest of the earth is ripe. And he + that sat on the cloud thrust in his sickle on the earth; and the + earth was reaped”</span> (Rev. xiv. 15 and 16).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most + remarkable parallel to the discourse at the sending forth of the + disciples is offered by the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Behold, the days come, when the time of + the world shall be ripe, and the harvest of the sowing of the + good and of the evil shall come, when the Almighty shall bring + upon the earth and upon its inhabitants and upon their rulers + confusion of spirit and terror that makes the heart stand still; + and they shall hate one another and provoke one another to war; + and the despised shall have power over them of reputation, and + the mean shall exalt themselves over them that are highly + esteemed. And the many shall be at the mercy of the few ... and + all who shall be saved and shall escape the before-mentioned + (dangers) ... shall be given into the hands of my servant, the + Messiah.”</span> (Cap. lxx. 2, 3, 9. Following the translation of + E. Kautzsch.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The connexion + between the ideas of harvest and of judgment was therefore one of + the stock features of the apocalyptic writings. And as the + Apocalypse of Baruch dates from the period about <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 70, it may be + assumed that this association of ideas was also current in the + Jewish apocalyptic of the time of Jesus. Here is a basis for + understanding the secret of the Kingdom of God in the parables of + sowing and reaping historically and in accordance with the ideas + of the time. What Jesus did was to make known to those who + understood Him that the coming earthly harvest was the last, and + was also the token of the coming heavenly harvest. The + eschatological interpretation is immensely strengthened by these + parallels.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" + href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">With what right does modern critical + theology tear apart even the discourse in Matt. xi. in order to + make the <span class="tei tei-q">“cry of jubilation”</span> into + the cry with which Jesus saluted the return of His disciples, and + to find lodgment for the woes upon Chorazin and Bethsaida somewhere + else in an appropriately gloomy context? Is not all this apparently + disconnected material held together by an inner bond of + connexion—the secret of the Kingdom of God which is imminently + impending over Jesus and the people? Or, is Jesus expected to + preach like one who has a thesis to maintain and seeks about for + the most logical arrangement? Does not a certain lack of orderly + connexion belong to the very idea of prophetic speech?</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" + href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">If, therefore, Jesus at a later point + predicted to His disciples His resurrection, He means by that, not + a single isolated act, but a complex occurrence consisting of His + metamorphosis, translation to heaven, and Parousia as the Son of + Man. And with this is associated the general eschatological + resurrection of the dead. It is, therefore, one and the same thing + whether He speaks of His resurrection or of His coming on the + clouds of heaven.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" + href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The title of Baldensperger's book, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The + Self-consciousness of Jesus in the Light of the Messianic Hopes of + His Time</span></span>, really contains a promise which is + impossible of fulfilment. The contemporary <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Messianic hopes”</span> can only explain the hopes of + Jesus so far as they corresponded thereto, not His view of His own + Person, in which He is absolutely original.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" + href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Even Baldensperger's book, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die + messianisch-apokalyptischen Hoffnungen des Judentums</span></span> + (1903), passes at a stride from the Psalms of Solomon to Fourth + Ezra. The coming volume is to deal with the eschatology of Jesus. + That is a <span class="tei tei-q">“theological,”</span> but not an + historical division of the material. The second volume should + properly come in the middle of the first.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" + href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The fact that in the Psalms of Solomon + the Messiah is designated by the ancient prophetic name of the Son + of David is significant of the rising influence of the ancient + prophetic literature. This designation has nothing whatever to do + with a political ideal of a kingly Messiah. This Davidic King and + his Kingdom are, in their character and the manner of their coming, + every whit as supernatural as the Son of Man and His coming. The + same historical fact was read into both Daniel and the + prophets.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" + href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Enoch is an offshoot of the Danielic + apocalyptic writings. The earliest portion, the Apocalypse of the + Ten Weeks, is independent of Daniel and of contemporary origin. The + Similitudes (capp. xxxvii.-lxix.), which, with their description of + the Judgment of the Son of Man, are so important in connexion with + the thoughts of Jesus, may be placed in 80-70 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> They do not + presuppose the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" + href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Psalms of Solomon are therefore a + decade later than the Similitudes.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" + href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Apocalypse of Baruch seems to have + been composed not very long after the Fall of Jerusalem. Fourth + Ezra is twenty to thirty years later.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" + href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Psalms of Solomon form the last + document of Jewish eschatology before the coming of the Baptist. + For almost a hundred years, from 60 <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> until <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 30, we have no + information regarding eschatological movements! And do the Psalms + of Solomon really point to a deep eschatological movement at the + time of the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey? Hardly, I think. It is + to be noticed in studying the times of Jesus that the surrounding + circumstances have no eschatological character. The Fall of + Jerusalem marks the next turning-point in the history of the + apocalyptic hope, as Baruch and Fourth Ezra show.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" + href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jesus promises them expressly that at + the appearing of the Son of Man they shall sit upon twelve thrones, + judging the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. xix. 28). It is to their + part in the judgment that belong also the authority to bind and to + loose which He entrusts to them—first to Peter personally (Matt. + xvi. 19) and afterwards to all the Twelve (Matt. xviii. 18)—in such + a way, too, that their present decisions will be somehow or other + binding at the Judgment. Or does the <span class="tei tei-q">“upon + earth”</span> refer only to the fact that the Messianic Last + Judgment will be held on earth? <span class="tei tei-q">“I give + unto thee the Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven, and whatsoever thou + shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatsoever thou + shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven”</span> (Matt. xvi. + 19). Why should these words not be historical? Is it because in the + same context Jesus speaks of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“church”</span> which He will found upon the + Rock-disciple? But if one has once got a clear idea from Paul, a + Clement, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the Shepherd of Hermas, + what the pre-existing <span class="tei tei-q">“church”</span> was + which was to appear in the last times, it will no longer appear + impossible that Jesus might have spoken of the church against which + the gates of hell shall not prevail. Of course, if the passage is + given an uneschatological reference to the Church as we know it, it + loses all real meaning and becomes a treasure-trove to the Roman + Catholic exegete, and a terror to the Protestant.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" + href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That he could be taken for the Baptist + risen from the dead shows how short a time before the death of the + Baptist His ministry had begun. He only became known, as the + Baptist's question shows, at the time of the mission of the + disciples; Herod first heard of Him after the death of the Baptist. + Had he known anything of Jesus beforehand, it would have been + impossible for him suddenly to identify Him with the Baptist risen + from the dead. This elementary consideration has been overlooked in + all calculations of the length of the public ministry of + Jesus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" + href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That had been rightly remarked by + Colani. Later, however, theology lost sight of the fact because it + did not know how to make any historical use of it.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" + href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Psal. Sol. xv. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" + href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That the baptism of John was + essentially an act which gave a claim to something future may be + seen from the fact that Jesus speaks of His sufferings and death as + a special baptism, and asks the sons of Zebedee whether they are + willing, for the sake of gaining the thrones on His right hand and + His left, to undergo this baptism. If the baptism of John had had + no real sacramental significance it would be unintelligible that + Jesus should use this metaphor.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" + href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thought of + the Messianic feast is found in Isaiah lv. 1 ff. and lxv. 12 ff. + It is very strongly marked in Isa. xxv. 6-8, a passage which + perhaps dates from the time of Alexander the Great, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“and Jahweh of Hosts will prepare upon this mountain + for all peoples a feast of fat things, a feast of wine on the + lees, of fat things prepared with marrow, of wine on the lees + well refined. He shall destroy, in this mountain, among all + peoples, the veil which has veiled all peoples and the covering + which has covered all nations. He shall destroy death for ever, + and the Lord Jahweh shall wipe away the tears from off all faces; + and the reproach of His people shall disappear from the + earth.”</span> (The German follows Kautzsch's translation.)</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Enoch xxiv. + and xxv. the conception of the Messianic feast is connected with + that of the tree of life which shall offer its fruits to the + elect upon the mountain of the King. Similarly in the Testament + of Levi, cap. xviii. 11.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The decisive + passage is in Enoch lxii. 14. After the Parousia of the Son of + Man, and after the Judgment, the elect who have been saved + <span class="tei tei-q">“shall eat with the Son of Man, shall sit + down and rise up with Him to all eternity.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jesus' + references to the Messianic feast are therefore not merely + images, but point to a reality. In Matt. viii. 11 and 12 He + prophesies that many shall come from the East and from the West + to sit at meat with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. In Matt. xxii. + 1-14 the Messianic feast is pictured as a royal marriage, in + Matt. xxv. 1-13 as a marriage feast.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Apocalypse + is dominated by the thought of the feast in all its forms. In + Rev. ii. 7 it appears in connexion with the thought of the tree + of life; in ii. 17 it is pictured as a feeding with manna; in + iii. 21 it is the feast which the Lord will celebrate with His + followers; in vii. 16, 17 there is an allusion to the Lamb who + shall feed His own so that they shall no more hunger or thirst; + chapter xix. describes the marriage feast of the Lamb.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Messianic + feast therefore played a dominant part in the conception of + blessedness from Enoch to the Apocalypse of John. From this we + can estimate what sacramental significance a guarantee of taking + part in that feast must have had. The meaning of the celebration + was obvious in itself, and was made manifest in the conduct of + it. The sacramental effect was wholly independent of the + apprehension and comprehension of the recipient. Therefore, in + this also the meal at the lake-side was a true sacrament.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" + href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Weisse rightly remarks that the task + of the historian in dealing with Mark must consist in explaining + how such <span class="tei tei-q">“myths”</span> could be accepted + by a chronicler who stood so relatively near the events as our Mark + does.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" + href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is to be noticed that the cry of + Jesus from the cross, <span class="tei tei-q">“Eli, Eli,”</span> + was immediately interpreted by the bystanders as referring to + Elias.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" + href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">From this difficulty we can see, too, + how impossible it was for any of them to have <span class= + "tei tei-q">“arrived gradually at the knowledge of the Messiahship + of Jesus.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" + href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the hypothesis of the two sets of + narratives which have been worked into one another, see the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sketch of the Life of Jesus,”</span> 1901, + p. 52 ff., <span class="tei tei-q">“After the Mission of the + Disciples. Literary and historical problems.”</span> A theory + resting on the same principle was lately worked out in detail by + Johannes Weiss, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Das älteste Evangelium</span></span> (The + Earliest Gospel), 1903, p. 205 ff.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" + href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is typical of the constant + agreement of the critical conclusions in thoroughgoing scepticism + and thoroughgoing eschatology that Wrede also observes: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The transfiguration and Peter's confession + are closely connected in content”</span> (p. 123). He also clearly + perceives the inconsistency in the fact that Peter at Caesarea + Philippi gives evidence of possessing a knowledge which he and his + fellow-disciples do not show elsewhere (p. 119), but the fact that + it is Peter, not Jesus, who reveals the Messianic secret, + constitutes a very serious difficulty for Wrede's reading of the + facts, since this assumes Jesus to have been the revealer of + it.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" + href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“After these + years shall my Son, the Christ, die, together with all who have the + breath of men. Then shall the Age be changed into the primeval + silence; seven days, as at the first beginning so that no man shall + be left. After seven days shall the Age, which now sleeps, awake, + and perishability shall itself perish.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" + href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Difficult + problems are involved in the prediction of the resurrection in + Mark xiv. 28. Jesus there promises His disciples that He will + <span class="tei tei-q">“go before them”</span> into Galilee. + That cannot mean that He will go alone into Galilee before them, + and that they shall there meet with Him, their risen Master; what + He contemplates is that He shall return <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">with</span></em> + them, at their head, from Jerusalem to Galilee. Was it that the + manifestation of the Son of Man and of the Judgment should take + place there? So much is clear: the saying, far from directing the + disciples to go away to Galilee, chains them to Jerusalem, there + to await Him who should lead them home. It should not therefore + be claimed as supporting the tradition of the Galilaean + appearances.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We find it + <span class="tei tei-q">“corrected”</span> by the saying of the + <span class="tei tei-q">“young man”</span> at the grave, who says + to the women, <span class="tei tei-q">“Go, tell His disciples and + Peter that He goeth before you into Galilee. There shall ye see + Him as He said unto you.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here then the + idea of following in point of time is foisted upon the words + <span class="tei tei-q">“he goeth before you,”</span> whereas in + the original the word has a purely local sense, corresponding to + the καὶ ἦν προάγων αὐτοὺς ὁ Ιησοῦς in Mark x. 32.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the + correction is itself meaningless since the visions took place in + Jerusalem. We have therefore in this passage a more detailed + indication of the way in which Jesus thought of the events + subsequent to His Resurrection. The interpretation of this + unfulfilled saying is, however, wholly impossible for us: it was + not less so for the earliest tradition, as is shown by the + attempt to give it a meaning by the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“correction.”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" + href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Here it is evident also from the form + taken by the prophecy of the sufferings that the section Mark viii. + 34 ff. cannot possibly come after the revelation at Caesarea + Philippi, since in it, it is the thought of the general sufferings + which is implied. For the same reason the predictions of suffering + and tribulation in the Synoptic Apocalypse in Mark xiii. cannot be + derived from Jesus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" + href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weisse and + Bruno Bauer had long ago pointed out how curious it was that + Jesus in the sayings about His sufferings spoke of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“many”</span> instead of speaking of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“His own”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“the + believers.”</span> Weisse found in the words the thought that + Jesus died for the nation as a whole; Bruno Bauer that the + <span class="tei tei-q">“for many”</span> in the words of Jesus + was derived from the view of the later theology of the Christian + community. This explanation is certainly wrong, for so soon as + the words of Jesus come into any kind of contact with early + theology the <span class="tei tei-q">“many”</span> disappear to + give place to the <span class="tei tei-q">“believers.”</span> In + the Pauline words of institution the form is: My body for you (1 + Cor. xi. 24).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Johannes Weiss + follows in the footsteps of Weisse when he interprets the + <span class="tei tei-q">“many”</span> as the nation (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Predigt Jesu + vom Reiche Gottes</span></span>, 2nd ed., 1909, p. 201). He gives + however, quite a false turn to this interpretation by arguing + that the <span class="tei tei-q">“many”</span> cannot include the + disciples, since they <span class="tei tei-q">“who in faith and + penitence have received the tidings of the Kingdom of God no + longer need a special means of deliverance such as this.”</span> + They are the chosen, to them the Kingdom is assured. But a + ransom, a special means of salvation, is needful for the mass of + the people, who in their blindness have incurred the guilt of + rejecting the Messiah. For this grave sin, which is, + nevertheless, to some extent excused as due to ignorance, there + is a unique atoning sacrifice, the death of the Messiah.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This theory is + based on a distinction of which there is no hint in the teaching + of Jesus; and it takes no account of the predestinarianism which + is an integral part of eschatology, and which, in fact, dominated + the thoughts of Jesus. The Lord is conscious that He dies only + for the elect. For others His death can avail nothing, nor even + their own repentance. Moreover, He does not die in order that + this one or that one may come into the Kingdom of God; He + provides the atonement in order that the Kingdom itself may come. + Until the Kingdom comes even the elect cannot possess it.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" + href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">One might use it as a principle of + division by which to classify the lives of Jesus, whether they make + Him go to Jerusalem to work or to die. Here as in so many other + places Weisse's clearness of perception is surprising. Jesus' + journey was according to him a pilgrimage to death, not to the + Passover.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" + href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“That ye enter + not into temptation”</span> is the content of the prayer that they + are to offer while watching with Him.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" + href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As long ago as + 1880, H. W. Bleby (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Trial of Jesus considered as a Judicial + Act</span></span>) had emphasised this circumstance as + significant. The injustice in the trial of Jesus consisted, + according to him, in the fact that He was condemned on His own + admission without any witnesses being called. Dalman, it is true, + will not admit that this technical error was very serious.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the really + important point is not whether the condemnation was legal or not; + it is the significant fact that the High Priest called no + witnesses. Why did he not call any? This question was obscured + for Bleby and Dalman by other problems.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" + href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That would have been to utter a heresy + which would alone have sufficed to secure His condemnation. It + would certainly have been brought up as a charge against Him.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" + href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">When it is assumed that the Messianic + claims of Jesus were generally known during those last days at + Jerusalem there is a temptation to explain the absence of witnesses + in regard to them by supposing that they were too much a matter of + common knowledge to require evidence. But in that case why should + the High Priest not have fulfilled the prescribed formalities? Why + make such efforts first to establish a different charge? Thus the + obscure and unintelligible procedure at the trial of Jesus becomes + in the end the clearest proof that the public knew nothing of the + Messiahship of Jesus.</dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE QUEST OF THE HISTORICAL JESUS*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader47" id="rightpageheader47"></a><a name= + "pgtoc48" id="pgtoc48"></a><a name="pdf49" id="pdf49"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">April 16, + 2014 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI + edition 1</td> + </tr> + + <tr class="tei tei-labelitem"> + <th class="tei tei-label"></th> + + <td class="tei tei-item"><span class= + "tei tei-respStmt"><span class= + "tei tei-name">Produced by Charlene Taylor, Bryan + Ness, David King, and the Online Distributed + Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously made + available by The Internet Archive/America + Libraries.)</span></span></td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader50" id="rightpageheader50"></a><a name= + "pgtoc51" id="pgtoc51"></a><a name="pdf52" id="pdf52"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project + Gutenberg</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file + should be named 45422-h.html or 45422-h.zip.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all + associated files of various formats will be found in: <a href= + "http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/5/4/2/45422/" class= + "block tei tei-xref" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> + <span style= + "font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style= + "font-size: 90%">/dirs/4/5/4/2/45422/</span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated + editions will replace the previous one — the old editions will be + renamed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the + works from public domain print editions means that no one owns a + United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and + you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without + permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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