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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Composition by Arthur Dow
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: Composition
+
+Author: Arthur Dow
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2014 [Ebook #45410]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPOSITION***
+
+
+
+
+
+                               Composition
+
+    A series of exercises in art structure for the use of students and
+                                teachers
+
+
+
+
+                          By Arthur Wesley Dow
+ Professor of Fine Arts in Teachers College, Columbia University New York
+                                  City
+            Formerly Instructor in Art at the Pratt Institute
+  Author of Theory and Practice of Teaching Art and The Ipswich Prints
+
+
+NINTH EDITION--REVISED AND ENLARGED WITH NEW ILLUSTRATIONS AND COLOR PLATES
+                               [Synthesis]
+Garden City, New York
+DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
+
+1914
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+BEGINNINGS
+THE THREE ELEMENTS
+   I. LINE--NOTAN--COLOR
+LINE DRAWING
+   II.--JAPANESE MATERIALS AND BRUSH PRACTICE
+PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
+   III.--WAYS OF CREATING HARMONY
+LINE
+   IV.--COMPOSITION IN SQUARES AND CIRCLES
+   V.--COMPOSITION IN RECTANGLES--VARIATION
+   VI.--LANDSCAPE COMPOSITION
+   VII.--COMPOSITION IN REPRESENTATION
+NOTAN
+   VIII.--HARMONY-BUILDING WITH DARK-AND-LIGHT
+   IX.--TWO VALUES--VARIATIONS--DESIGN
+   X.--TWO VALUES--LANDSCAPE AND PICTURES
+   XI.--TWO VALUES--GOTHIC SCULPTURE JAPANESE DESIGN BOOKS. APPLICATIONS OF
+   TWO VALUES
+   XII.--THREE VALUES
+   XIII.--MORE THAN THREE VALUES
+COLOR
+   XIV.--COLOR THEORY
+   XV.--COLOR DERIVED FROM NOTAN
+   XVI.--COLOR SCHEMES FROM JAPANESE PRINTS AND FROM TEXTILES
+COMPOSITION
+   XVII.--IN DESIGN AND PAINTING
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+
+
+
+ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
+
+
+Note.--The author gratefully acknowledges the courtesy of those named below
+in according him permission to use photographs of certain paintings and
+objects of art as illustrations for this book.
+
+      Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
+      Metropolitan Museum, New York
+      The National Gallery, London
+      Musee de Cluny. Paris (J. Leroy, photographer)
+      Musee de Sculpture Comparee. Paris
+      Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow, Boston (permission to photograph
+      Japanese paintings)
+      Mr. Frederick W. Gookin (use of photographs from Kenzan and Kano
+      Gyokuraku, made specially for Mr. Gookin, Boston M. F. A.
+      Giacomo Brogi, Florence
+      Fratelli Alinari. Florence
+      D. Anderson, Rome
+      W. A. Mansell & Co., London
+      F. Rothier, Reims, France, and
+      Kaltenbacher, Amiens, France (the Ruskin photographer)
+
+License to use photographs was also obtained from the Autotype Fine Art
+Company, Limited, London (the Michelangelo drawing, page 51), and from
+Baldwin Coolidge, Boston.
+
+
+
+
+
+                       [Landscape After Titlepage]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BEGINNINGS
+
+
+In writing this book my main purpose is to set forth a way of thinking
+about art. The most that such a book can do is to direct the thoughts,
+awaken a sense of power and point to ways of controlling it.
+
+The principles of art teaching here outlined might be illustrated in other
+ways and with better examples. I hope the reader will see how each chapter
+can be developed into many sets of lessons. The progressions can be
+varied, materials changed, lessons amplified and different designs chosen,
+providing there is no sacrifice of essentials. The book is based upon my
+experience in painting and teaching for more than twenty years. The first
+edition of Composition was published in 1899. In this revision I have made
+many additions and used new illustrations without departing from theory or
+principles. Composition was chosen as a title because that word expresses
+the idea upon which the method here presented is founded--the "putting
+together" of lines, masses and colors to make a harmony. Design,
+understood in its broad sense, is a better word, but popular usage has
+restricted it to decoration.
+
+Composition, building up of harmony, is the fundamental process in all the
+fine arts. I hold that art should be approached through composition rather
+than through imitative drawing. The many different acts and processes
+combined in a work of art may be attacked and mastered one by one, and
+thereby a power gained to handle them unconsciously when they must be used
+together. If a few elements can be united harmoniously, a step has been
+taken toward further creation. Only through the appreciations does the
+composer recognize a harmony. Hence the effort to find art-structure
+resolves itself into a development of appreciation. This faculty is a
+common human possession but may remain inactive. A way must be found to
+lay hold upon it and cause it to grow. A natural method is that of
+exercises in progressive order, first building up very simple harmonies,
+then proceeding on to the highest forms of composition. Such a method of
+study includes all kinds of drawing, design and painting. It offers a
+means of training for the creative artist, for the teacher or for one who
+studies art for the sake of culture.
+
+This approach to art through Structure is absolutely opposed to the time-
+honored approach through Imitation. For a great while we have been
+teaching art through imitation--of nature and the "historic styles"--leaving
+structure to take care of itself; gathering knowledge of facts but
+acquiring little power to use them. This is why so much modern painting is
+but picture-writing; only story-telling, not art; and so much architecture
+and decoration only dead copies of conventional motives. Good drawing
+results from trained judgment, not from the making of fac-similes or maps.
+Train the judgment, and ability to draw grows naturally. Schools that
+follow the imitative or academic way regard drawing as a preparation for
+design, whereas the very opposite is the logical order--design a
+preparation for drawing.
+
+Soon after the time of Leonardo da Vinci art education was classified into
+Representative (imitative), and Decorative, with separate schools for
+each--a serious mistake which has resulted in loss of public appreciation.
+Painting, which is essentially a rhythmic harmony of colored spaces,
+became sculptural, an imitation of modelling. Decoration became trivial, a
+lifeless copying of styles. The true relation between design and
+representation was lost.
+
+This error is long-lived. An infinite amount of time is wasted in
+misdirected effort because tradition has a strong hold, and because
+artists who have never made a study of education keep to old ruts when
+they teach.
+
+This academic system of art-study ignores fundamental structure, hence the
+young pupil understands but few phases of art. Confronted with a Japanese
+ink painting, a fresco by Giotto or a Gothic statue he is unable to
+recognize their art value. Indeed he may prefer modern clever nature-
+imitation to imaginative work of any period.
+
+Study of composition of Line, Mass and Color leads to appreciation of all
+forms of art and of the beauty of nature. Drawing of natural objects then
+becomes a language of expression. They are drawn because they are
+beautiful or because they are to be used in some art work. Facility in
+drawing will come more quickly in this way than by a dull routine of
+imitation with no definite end in view.
+
+The history of this structural system of art teaching may be stated in a
+few words; and here I am given the opportunity to express my indebtedness
+to one whose voice is now silent. An experience of five years in the
+French schools left me thoroughly dissatisfied with academic theory. In a
+search for something more vital I began a comparative study of the art of
+all nations and epochs. While pursuing an investigation of Oriental
+painting and design at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts I met the late
+Professor Ernest F. Fenollosa. He was then in charge of the Japanese
+collections, a considerable portion of which had been gathered by him in
+Japan. He was a philosopher and logician gifted with a brilliant mind of
+great analytical power. This, with rare appreciation, gave him an insight
+into the nature of fine art such as few ever attain.
+
+As imperial art commissioner for the Japanese government he had
+exceptional opportunities for a critical knowledge of both Eastern and
+Western art. He at once gave me his cordial support in my quest, for he
+also felt the inadequacy of modern art teaching. He vigorously advocated a
+radically different idea, based as in music, upon synthetic principles. He
+believed music to be, in a sense, the key to the other fine arts, since
+its essence is pure beauty; that space art may be called "visual music",
+and may be studied and criticised from this point of view. Convinced that
+this new conception was a more reasonable approach to art, I gave much
+time to preparing with Professor Fenollosa a progressive series of
+synthetic exercises. My first experiment in applying these in teaching was
+made in 1889 in my Boston classes, with Professor Fenollosa as lecturer on
+the philosophy and history of art. The results of the work thus begun
+attracted the attention of some educators, notably Mr. Frederic B. Pratt,
+of that great institution where a father's vision has been given form by
+the sons. Through his personal interest and confidence in these structural
+principles, a larger opportunity was offered in the art department of
+Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. Here during various periods, I had charge of
+classes in life drawing, painting, design and normal art; also of a course
+for Kindergarten teachers. Professor Fenollosa continued his lectures
+during the first year.
+
+The growth of the work and its influence upon art teaching are now well
+known.
+
+In 1900 I established the Summer School at Ipswich, Massachusetts, for the
+purpose of obtaining a better knowledge of the relation of art to
+handicraft and manual training. Composition of line, mass and color was
+applied to design, landscape and very simple hand work in metal, wood-
+block printing and textiles. Parts of 1903 and '04 were spent in Japan,
+India and Egypt observing the native crafts and gathering illustrative
+material.
+
+In 1904 I became director of fine arts in Teachers College, Columbia
+University, New York. The art courses are now arranged in progressive
+series of synthetic exercises in line, dark-and-light and color.
+Composition is made the basis of all work in drawing, painting, designing
+and modelling--of house decoration and industrial arts--of normal courses
+and of art training for children, After twenty years' experience in
+teaching I find that the principles hold good under varying conditions,
+and produce results justifying full confidence. They bring to the student,
+whether designer, craftsman, sculptor or painter an increase of creative
+power; to the teacher, all this and an educational theory capable of the
+widest application. To all whose loyal support has given impetus and
+advancement to this work--to the pupils and friends who have so generously
+furnished examples for illustration--I offer most grateful acknowledgments.
+
+                                                         ARTHUR WESLEY DOW
+New York, 1912
+
+
+
+
+
+THE THREE ELEMENTS
+
+
+
+
+I. LINE--NOTAN--COLOR
+
+
+Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music and Poetry are the principal fine
+arts. Of these the first three are called Space arts, and take the various
+forms of arranging, building, constructing, designing, modelling and
+picture-painting. In the space arts there are three structural elements
+with which harmonies may be built up:
+
+   1. LINE. The chief element of beauty in architecture, sculpture, metal
+      work, etching, line design and line drawings. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 23,
+      38.
+   2. NOTAN. The chief element in illustration, charcoal drawing,
+      mezzotint, Oriental ink painting and architectural light and shade.
+      Nos. 5, 59, 60, 61.
+   3. COLOR. The chief element in painting, Japanese prints, textile
+      design, stained glass, embroidery, enamelling and pottery
+      decoration. Nos. 8, 9, and Chap. XIV.
+
+                     [No. 1. LINE. Iron, XV Century]
+           [No. 2. LINE--Flying Buttresses, Chartres Cathedral]
+
+The term LINE refers to boundaries of shapes and the interrelations of
+lines and spaces. Line-beauty means harmony of combined lines or the
+peculiar quality imparted by special treatment. The term NOTAN, a Japanese
+word meaning "dark, light", refers to the quantity of light reflected, or
+the massing of tones of different values. Notan-beauty means the harmony
+resulting from the combination of dark and light spaces--whether colored or
+not--whether in buildings, in pictures, or in nature.
+
+ [No. 3 LINE. Harmony of rhythmic curves. From book of prints by Okumura
+                    Masanobu, Japanese, 18th century.]
+
+  No. 3 LINE. Harmony of rhythmic curves. From book of prints by Okumura
+                    Masanobu, Japanese, 18th century.
+
+
+Careful distinction should be made between NOTAN, an element of universal
+beauty, and LIGHT AND SHADOW, a single fact of external nature. The term
+COLOR refers to quality of light.
+
+These three structural elements are intimately related. Good color is
+dependent upon good notan, and that in turn is dependent upon good
+spacing. It seems reasonable then that a study of art should begin with
+line. One should learn to think in terms of line, and be somewhat familiar
+with simple spacing before attempting notan or color. There is danger,
+however, of losing interest by dwelling upon one subject too long. Dark-
+and-light massing will reveal the mistakes in spacing and stimulate to
+renewed effort. Color will reveal the weakness of dark-and-light. Very
+young pupils should begin with color but the instructor will take pains to
+include spacing and notan in each lesson. In general, however, the best
+plan is to take up exercises in each element in turn; then go back to them
+separately and make more detailed studies; then combine them, proceeding
+toward advanced compositions. Whatever be the choice of progression, there
+must be a thorough grounding in the elementary relations of space cutting
+and simple massings of dark-and-light. This is essential to successful
+work in designing, drawing, modelling, painting, architecture and the
+crafts.
+
+              [No. 4. LINE. Priest, from Rheims Cathedral.]
+  [No. 5. Venetian Lace 2 values. Three values.  Peruvian, Four values.]
+  [No. 6. Examples of Line Harmony. Greek Sculpture, Aphrodite.  Gothic
+                            Sculpture, Mary.]
+
+   No. 6. Examples of Line Harmony. Greek Sculpture, Aphrodite.  Gothic
+                             Sculpture, Mary.
+
+
+  [No. 7. Examples of Line and Notan Harmony. Michelangelo.  Botticelli.
+                      Gothic Finial. Rhodian Ware.]
+   [No. 8. Examples of Color Harmony. HIROSHIGE. "Taki no gawa at Oji"]
+
+    No. 8. Examples of Color Harmony. HIROSHIGE. "Taki no gawa at Oji"
+
+
+       [No. 9. Examples of Color Harmony. Persian Woolen, ancient]
+
+        No. 9. Examples of Color Harmony. Persian Woolen, ancient
+
+
+
+
+
+LINE DRAWING
+
+
+
+
+II.--JAPANESE MATERIALS AND BRUSH PRACTICE
+
+
+Japanese brushes, ink and paper are to be preferred for exercises  in line
+drawing, tracing, notan massing and washes in grays. Long brushes are best
+for long continuous lines, short brushes for sharp corners and broken
+lines.   For lettering, clip the point of a long line-brush, (see p. 55)
+
+                            [Japanese Brushes]
+
+Japanese paper for artists' use is made of the bark of the mulberry tree,
+and is prepared with a sizing of glue and alum. Unprinted wall paper
+(lining paper) is serviceable for practice work. "Bogus" paper and cover
+papers can also be used for line or mass.
+
+Japanese ink must be ground upon the ink-stone, a slab of slate. Intense
+blackness can be secured immediately by using only a few drops of water.
+Dry the ink stick, and wrap in paper; never leave it soaking. Ink of good
+quality, and a clean stone are essential. Tools perfected by ages of
+practice in line drawing and brush work, afford the best training for hand
+and eye. Painting with the Japanese brush leads directly to oil painting.
+If Japanese materials are not to be obtained or are not desired, the
+exercises can be carried on with pencil, charcoal, water colors, crayons,
+and even oil paint.
+
+                      [Japanese ink and ink-stone.]
+
+For line drawing the brush is held in a perpendicular position, that it
+may move freely in all directions, much like the etcher's needle. The
+brush should be well charged with ink, then pressed firmly down upon the
+paper till it spreads to the width desired for the line. Draw with the
+whole hand and arm in one sweep, not with the fingers. Steady the hand if
+necessary by resting the wrist or end of the little finger on the paper.
+Draw very slowly. Expressive line is not made by mere momentum, but by
+force of will controlling the hand. By drawing slowly the line can be
+watched and guided as it grows under the brush point. Slight waverings are
+not objectionable; in fact they often give character to the line.
+
+                      [Manner of Holding the Brush.]
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Begin with straight lines, remembering that straightness of direction is
+the essential thing, not mere geometric straightness. After some practice
+with straight lines, try curves; then irregular lines. Copy brush drawings
+from Japanese books, for a study of control of the hand and quality of
+touch, No. 11, p. 19. This practice work can be done upon ordinary paper.
+The aim of such an exercise is to put the hand under control of the will,
+but too much time should not be given to mere practice, apart from design.
+Quality and power of line are illustrated in the drawings of masters, No.
+10 and p. 18. These may be copied later on, for a study of advanced
+drawing.
+
+               [Practice-lines drawn with Japanese Brush.]
+
+                Practice-lines drawn with Japanese Brush.
+
+
+
+
+
+ [LINE DRAWING II. LINES BY MASTERS. SOGA SHUBUN. RHODIAN PLATES. KENZAN.
+                               REMBRANDT.]
+[LINE DRAWING II. LINES BY MASTERS. Leonardo da Vinci. Michelangelo. Kano
+                          Tanyu. Kano Naonobu.]
+          [LINE DRAWING II. Brush drawings from Japanese Books.]
+                             [Brush Drawing]
+
+
+
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
+
+
+
+
+III.--WAYS OF CREATING HARMONY
+
+
+Fine art, by its very name, implies fine relations. Art study is the
+attempt to perceive and to create fine relations of line, mass and color.
+This is done by original effort stimulated by the influence of good
+examples. As fine relations (that is, harmony, beauty) can be understood
+only through the appreciations, the whole fabric of art education should
+be based upon a training in appreciation. This power cannot the imparted
+like information. Artistic skill cannot be given by dictation or acquired
+by reading. It does not come by merely learning to draw, by imitating
+nature, or by any process of storing the mind with facts.
+
+The power is within--the question is how to reach it and use it.
+
+Increase of power always comes with exercise. If one uses a little of his
+appreciative faculty in simple ways, proceeding on gradually to the more
+difficult problems, he is in the line of natural growth. To put together a
+few straight lines, creating a harmony of movement and spacing, calls for
+exercise of good judgment and appreciation. Even in this seemingly limited
+field great things are possible; the proportions of the Parthenon and
+Giotto's Tower can be reduced to a few straight lines finely related and
+spaced.
+
+Effective progress in composition depends upon working with an organized
+and definite series of exercises, building one experience upon another,
+calling for cultivated judgment to discern and decide upon finer and finer
+relations. Little can be expressed until lines are arranged in a Space.
+Spacing is the very groundwork of Design. Ways of arranging and spacing I
+shall call
+
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
+
+
+In my experience these five have been sufficient:
+
+   1. OPPOSITION
+   2. TRANSITION
+   3. SUBORDINATION
+   4. REPETITION
+   5. SYMMETRY
+
+These names are given to five ways of creating harmony, all being
+dependent upon a great general principle, PROPORTION or GOOD SPACING.
+
+1. OPPOSITION. Two lines meeting form a simple and severe harmony.
+Examples will be found in Greek door-ways, Egyptian temples and early
+Renaissance architecture; in plaid design; also in landscape where
+vertical lines cut the horizon (see pp. 21, 45, 46.) This principle is
+used in the straight line work in squares and rectangles, pp. 32, 33, 39,
+and in combination with other principles, pp. 25, 29.
+
+                           [No 12. Opposition]
+                           [No 13. Opposition]
+
+2. TRANSITION. The arrangement thus designated involves a step beyond
+Opposition. Two straight lines meeting in opposing directions give an
+impression of abruptness, severity, or even violence; the difference of
+movement being emphasized. If a third line is added, as in the sketches
+below, the opposition is softened and an effect of unity and completeness
+produced.
+
+This combination typifies beauty itself which has been defined as
+consisting of elements of difference harmonized by elements of unity.
+
+A very common example of Transition is the bracket, No. 15. The straight
+line is modified into curves and may be elaborated with great complexity
+of modelling.
+
+                           [No 14. Transition]
+                           [No 15. Transition]
+
+Instead of a drawn line of transition there may be only a suggestion of
+one, but the effect is the same; a softening of the corner angle, No. 14
+and pp. 58,60. In pictorial art the vignette, in architecture the capital,
+are examples of the transition principle. In design an effect of
+Transition may be produced by radiation. (Illustrations below.) Accidental
+transitions occur in nature in the branching of old trees, where the
+rhythmic lines are thus unified.
+
+For convenience the suggestions for class work are grouped together in the
+following
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Opposition. Copy the sketches and illustrations, enlarged. Design
+straight-line arrangements of mouldings, plaids and rectangular
+panellings, Nos. 13, 18, 24. Find examples in nature, and draw in line,
+with brush, pen or pencil without a border.
+
+Transition. Copy the sketches, as before. Draw a bracket in straight line,
+modifying into curved. Design corner ornaments for panels and book covers;
+metal work for cabinet. No. 18. Find examples in nature and draw in line.
+No. 18.
+
+It is important in all such work to make a number of sketches from which
+the best may be chosen.
+
+3. SUBORDINATION. Neither of the foregoing principles is often found alone
+as the basis of a single work. Transition in particular, usually serves to
+harmonize the parts of a composition. The principle Subordination is a
+great constructive idea not only in the space arts but in all the fine
+arts:
+
+To form a complete group the parts are attached or related to a single
+dominating element which determines the character of the whole. A tree
+trunk with its branches is a good type of this kind of harmony; unity
+secured through the relation of principal and subordinate, even down to
+the veinings of leaves--a multitude of parts organized into a simple whole.
+This way of creating beauty is conspicuous in the perfect spacing and
+line-rhythm of Salisbury cathedral, St. Maclou of Rouen and the Taj Mahal;
+in Piero della Francesca's "Resurrection" and Millet's "Goose-girl"; in
+some Byzantine design and Persian rugs (see pp. 58, 65, 98.)
+
+                      [No 16. Subordination by Size]
+
+It governs the distribution of masses in Dark-and-Light composition, and
+of hues in Color schemes. It appears in poetry (the Odyssey for example)
+in the subordination of all parts to the main idea of the subject. It is
+used constructively in musical composition. Whenever unity is to be
+evolved from complexity, confusion reduced to order, power felt--through
+concentration, organization, leadership--then will be applied the creative
+principle called here Subordination.
+
+In Line Composition the arrangement by principal and subordinate may be
+made in three ways, No. 16:
+
+   1. By grouping about an axis, as leaf relates to stem, branches to
+      trunk.
+   2. By radiation, as in flowers, the rosette, vault ribs, the anthemion.
+   3. By size, as in a group of mountain peaks, a cathedral with its spire
+      and pinnacles, tree clusters, or Oriental rug with centre and
+      border; p. 65.
+
+Art-interest in any of these lies in the fineness of relation. A throwing
+together of large and small; mere geometric radiation; or conventional
+branching can never be other than commonplace. A work of fine art
+constructed upon the principle of Subordination has all its parts related
+by delicate adjustments and balance of proportions, tone and color. A
+change in one member changes the whole. No. 22.
+
+To discover the meaning and the possibility of expression in this form of
+corn-position the student may work out a series of problems as suggested
+in this
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+The instructor draws flower or fruit with stem and leaves. The pupil
+arranges this motif in various rectangular spaces (page 25), combining the
+1st and 3rd forms of subordination, and using his critical judgment in a
+way that is of great value to the beginner in composition. The pupil now
+draws the same or similar subjects from nature, acquainting himself with
+their form and character; then composes them in decorative or pictorial
+panels--an art-use of representative drawing as well as exercise in
+appreciation. Copy the examples of the 2nd kind of Subordination, and
+design original rosettes, anthemions, palmettes, thinking chiefly of the
+spacing and rhythm. Find examples in nature; chimneys and roofs, boats
+with masts and sails, or tree groups. Draw and arrange in spaces. Nos. 16,
+18, 26, 28, 37, 61.
+
+After choosing the best out of many trial sketches, draw in line with the
+Japanese brush. Then, for further improvement in arrangement, and
+refinement of line-quality, trace with brush and ink upon thin Japanese
+paper.
+
+4. REPETITION. This name is give to the opposite of Subordination--the
+production of beauty by repeating the same lines in rhythmical order. The
+intervals may be equal, as in pattern, or unequal, as in landscape, see
+below and No. 20.
+
+                           [No 17. Repetition]
+ [No 18. Opposition, Transition, Opposition and Symmetry, Subordination]
+
+Of all ways of creating harmony this is the most common, being probably
+the oldest form of design. It seems almost instinctive, perhaps derived
+from the rhythms of breathing and walking, or the movement of ripples and
+rolling waves. Marching is but orderly walking, and the dance, in its
+primitive form, is a development of marching. Children make rows and
+patterns of sticks or bits of colored paper, thinking of them as in
+animated motion. In early forms of art the figures march or dance around
+the vases, pots and baskets.
+
+                       [No. 19  Peruvian Tapestry]
+
+This principle of Repetition is the basis of all music and poetry. The
+sacred dance of the savage is associated with the drum and other primitive
+instruments for marking rhythm; with the chant and mystic song. From such
+rude beginnings, from the tomtoms, trumpets and Pan-pipes of old, music
+has developed to the masterpieces of modern times through the building of
+harmony upon harmony,--composition.
+
+From the crude rhythm of the savage, like the Australian song "Eat; eat;
+eat," from the battle cries and folk poems of barbaric peoples, there has
+been refinement upon refinement of word-music ever moving towards the
+supreme. This gave the world the verse of Sappho which Swinburne thought
+the most beautiful sounds ever produced in language. From the rude
+patterns marked with sticks on Indian bowls and pots, or painted in earth
+colors on wigwam and belt, or woven on blanket, this form of space art has
+grown, through the complexities of Egyptian and Peruvian textile design to
+the splendor of Byzantine mosaic, the jewel patterns of the Moguls, and
+Gothic sculpture; from rock-cut pillars of cave temples to the colonnade
+of the Parthenon. (For examples of primitive design see the works of
+William H. Holmes.)
+
+Repetition, be it remembered, is only a way of putting lines and spaces
+together, and does not in itself produce beauty. A mere row of things has
+no art-value. Railroads, fences, blocks of buildings, and all bad
+patterns, are, like doggerel rhyme, examples of repetition without art.
+
+Repetition in fine spacing, with the intention of creating a harmony,
+becomes a builder of art fabric.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Borders. Divide a long space by vertical or oblique lines at regular
+intervals. By connecting the ends of these with straight lines, develope
+many series of meanders, frets and zigzags. Waves and scrolls are evolved
+from these by changing straight to curved line, No. 20a, and p. 56. 26
+
+2. Surface pattern. Subdivide a space (freehand) into squares, diamonds or
+triangles, determining the size of the unit desired. This will give a
+general plan for the distribution of figures. In one of these spaces
+compose a simple group in straight lines, line and dot, or straight and
+curved, if only geometric pattern be desired; or a floral form for a sprig
+pattern. In the composition of this unit the principle of Subordination
+will be remembered.
+
+As soon as the unit is repeated a new set of relations will be created,
+dependent upon the spacing. A secondary pattern forms itself out of the
+background spaces. Hence the designer must decide whether the unit is to
+fill the skeleton square completely, have a wide margin, or overrun the
+square. Repeating the figure in these various ways will determine the best
+size. The main effort should be given to producing a fine relation between
+one unit and its neighbors and between pattern and background. All the
+best work in Repetition has this refined harmony of spacing. No. 20b below
+and pp. 13, 65, 66, 85. Copy the illustrations of Repetition in this book,
+and make original variations of them. Copy, in line, the units of early
+Italian textiles, Oriental rugs or any of the best examples to be found in
+museums or in illustrated art-books. See "Egg and Dart" from the
+Parthenon, p. 30, also pp. 67, 121. For anatomy and planning of pattern,
+see the works of Lewis F. Day.
+
+                         [No 20. Surface Pattern]
+
+SYMMETRY. The most common and obvious way of satisfying the desire for
+order is to place two equal lines or shapes in exact balance, as in a
+gable, windows each side of a door, or objects on a shelf. The term
+Symmetry applies to three-and four-part groups, or others where even
+balance is made, but here it refers mainly to a two-part arrangement.
+
+Sometimes construction produces Symmetry, as in the human body; ships;
+Greek and Rennaissance architecture; furniture; pottery; books. Partly
+from this cause and partly through imitation, Symmetry, like Repetition,
+has come to be used in cheap and mean design where no regard is paid to
+beauty of form. Japanese art, when influenced by Zen philosophy, as
+Okakura Kakuzo tells us in "The Book of Tea", avoids symmetry as
+uninteresting. In Gothic art, the product of richly inventive and
+imaginative minds, symmetry was never used in a commonplace way.
+
+This Principle of Composition--when united to fine spacing,--produces, in
+architecture an effect of repose and completeness; in design a type of
+severely beautiful form, as seen in a Greek vase or the treasures of the
+Sho-so-in at Nara where so much of the older Japanese art has been
+preserved.
+
+              [No 21. Symmetry.  Gemini, Amiens Cathedral.]
+
+A few examples of Symmetry are given here; the student will readily find
+others. Exercises can be easily devised, following the steps suggested
+under other principles. See opposite, and Nos. 42, 43.
+
+PROPORTION or GOOD SPACING. Principles of Composition, I must repeat, are
+only ways of arranging lines and shapes; art is not produced by them
+unless they are used in combination with this general principle,--Good
+Spacing. They are by no means recipes for art, and their names are of
+little consequence. Appreciation of fineness of relations must always
+govern the method and form of composition. It is possible to use all the
+principles here discussed, and to complete all the exercises, without
+gaining much, if any, art experience. The main thing is the striving for
+the best, the most harmonious, result that can be obtained. One way to
+accomplish this is to compare and choose continually--making many designs
+under one subject and selecting the best. The great general principle of
+Proportion needs no special illustration or exercise, because it is so
+intimate a part of all other principles and exercises. It may be studied
+in every example of supreme art. It is the foundation of all the finest
+work in line and mass. The mystery of Spacing will be revealed to the mind
+that has developed Appreciation.
+
+[No. 22. Subordination, Symmetry, Subordination and Repetition, Opposiion
+      and Subordination, Repetition, Repetition and Subordination.]
+
+SYMMETRY. The most common and obvious way of satisfying the desire for
+order is to place two equal lines or shapes in exact balance, as in a
+gable, windows each side of a door, or objects on a shelf. The term
+Symmetry applies to three-and four-part groups, or others where even
+balance is made, but here it refers mainly to a two-part arrangement.
+Sometimes construction produces Symmetry, as in the human body; ships;
+Greek and Rennaissance architecture; furniture; pottery; books. Partly
+from this cause and partly through imitation, Symmetry, like Repetition,
+has come to be used in cheap and mean design where no regard is paid to
+beauty of form. Japanese art, when influenced by Zen philosophy, as
+Okakura Kakuzo tells us in "The Book of Tea", avoids symmetry as
+uninteresting. In Gothic art, the product of richly inventive and
+imaginative minds, symmetry was never used in a commonplace way.
+
+                                 [No. 23]
+                         [Geometric, Variations.]
+
+
+
+
+
+LINE
+
+
+
+
+IV.--COMPOSITION IN SQUARES AND CIRCLES
+
+
+After working with the principles long enough to understand their nature,
+and to see what can be done with them, the student is ready for problems
+in composition. Practice in line arrangement is a preparation for all
+kinds of art work, be it design, painting, sculpture or architecture.
+Choose an enclosed area of definite and regular shape, and break it up
+into a harmonious group of smaller areas by drawing lines. For these
+elementary exercises in composition the square and circle are best because
+their boundaries are unchangeable, and attention must be fixed upon
+interior lines. Take first the square, using straight lines of equal
+thickness drawn with the brush as suggested in chapter II. The result
+should be a harmony of well-cut space, a little musical theme in straight
+lines and grouped areas. Make many trial arrangements, sketching lightly
+with charcoal on "bogus" or lining paper. Select the best, correct them,
+and draw with brush and ink over the charcoal lines. From these choose the
+most satisfactory, place thin Japanese paper over them and trace in firm
+black lines, freehand, with the Japanese brush. Avoid hard wiry lines and
+all that savors of rule and compass or laborious pains-taking. Use no
+measure of any kind; sizes, shapes and directions must be decided upon
+without mechanical aids.
+
+              [No. 24. Composition in Squares and Circles.]
+              [No. 25. Compositions in Squares and Circles]
+
+Never try to erase an ink line,--if a mistake occurs begin again. Tracing,
+for the art-purpose of improving proportions and acquiring an expressive
+brush-touch, is a most valuable help to the production of good work.
+Architects use tracing-paper for changes in plans. Japanese artists trace
+again and again until satisfied with the quality of touch and strength of
+drawing. Straight line is chosen for elementary practice because of its
+simplicity, and because it prepares for work with curves. The finest curve
+is measured by a series of straight lines in harmonic relations of rhythm
+and proportion (p. 42). After some experience with straight line, cut
+areas with curved,--geometric, flower, fruit, landscape or figure.
+
+Equal thickness of line is advisable now, to fix attention upon direction,
+touch and spacing. Variation in width will come later in notan of line
+(page 54) and in representative drawing (page 51) where texture and
+modelling are to be indicated. The main purpose of this and all exercises
+in this book is the creation of harmony, hence if the result has but a
+slight degree of line-beauty it can be considered a first step in Art.
+
+The examples are chosen from students' work, from Japanese books, from
+design, craft and architecture. They illustrate various ways of treating
+squares and circles according to principles of composition.
+
+   1. Copy these enlarged, with brush.
+   2. Select one, as a theme, and make many variations.
+   3. Originate new line-schemes in squares and circles.
+
+              [No. 26. Compositions in Squares and Circles.]
+ [No. 27.  Units for wood-block printing, stencilling and hand-coloring.]
+
+
+
+APPLICATIONS
+
+
+   1. Ginghams, plaids, embroidery, stencil.
+   2. Panelling, window sashes, leading for glass, inlaid wood, mosaic,
+      enamel on metal.
+   3. Incised lines in wood, clay or metal, low relief modelling.
+
+Study of the principle precedes application in all cases. It is true that
+the limitations of material must be recognized in making designs for
+special purposes. The substance or surface for which the design is
+intended will itself suggest the handling; but material teaches us nothing
+about the finer relationships. First study the art of design; develop
+capacity by exercise of the inventive and appreciative faculties; then
+consider the applications in craft or profession.
+
+                           [No. 28. Japanese.]
+
+
+
+
+V.--COMPOSITION IN RECTANGLES--VARIATION
+
+
+
+In the search for finer relations there must be every opportunity for
+choice; the better the choice, the finer the art. The square and circle
+allow choice only as to interior divisions, but the rectangle is capable
+of infinite variation in its boundary lines.
+
+The scientific mind has sought, by analysis of many masterpieces, to
+discover a set of perfect proportions, and to reduce them to mathematical
+form, for example, 3:5, or 4:7. The secret of spacing in Greek art has
+been looked for in the "golden mean", viz: height is to length as length
+is to the sum of height and length. Doubtless such formulae were useful
+for ordinary work, but the finest things were certainly the product of
+feeling and trained judgment, not of mathematics. Art resists everything
+that interferes with free choice and personal decision; art knows no
+limits.
+
+Poverty of ideas is no characteristic of the artist; his mind is ever
+striving to express itself in new ways.
+
+The personal choice of proportions, tones and colors stamps the work with
+individuality. A master in art is always intensely individual, and what he
+does is an expression of his own peculiar choices.
+
+The beauty of proportion in your rectangle is measured by your feeling for
+fine relations, not by any formula what ever. No work has art-value unless
+it reflects the personality of its author, What everybody can do easily,
+or by rule, cannot be art.
+
+The study of Variation tends to lead the mind away from the conventional
+and humdrum, toward original and individual expression. Variation has no
+place in academic courses of art teaching, but in composition it is a most
+important element.
+
+The masters of music have shown that infinite possibilities of
+variation--the same theme appearing again and again with new beauty,
+different quality and complex accompaniment. Even so can lines, masses and
+colors be wrought into musical harmonies and endlessly varied. The
+Japanese color print exemplifies this, each copy of the same subject being
+varied in shade or hue or disposition of masses to suit the restless
+inventive energy of its author. In old Italian textiles the same pattern
+appears repeatedly, but varied in size, proportion, dark-and-light and
+color. In times when art is decadent, the designers and painters lack
+inventive power and merely imitate nature or the creations of others. Then
+comes Realism, conventionality, and the death of art.
+
+Some experience in choice of proportions and the cutting of rectangular
+spaces may be gained from the following
+
+                [No. 29. Examples of Rectangular Design.]
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+   1. Design some simple theme in vertical and horizontal lines and
+      arrange it in several rectangles of the same size, varying the
+      spacing in each, No. 29a.
+   2. Compose a straight-line theme in several rectangles of different
+      proportions, No. 29b.
+   3. Choose the best and trace with brush and ink.
+
+In the first case there is variation of interior lines only; in the second
+all lines are changed. This exercise admits of great expansion, according
+to age of pupils and limits of time.
+
+
+
+EXAMPLES OF RECTANGULAR DESIGN.
+
+
+Contact with the best works of art is an essential part of art education,
+for from them comes power and the stimulus to create. The student hears
+and reads much that passes for art criticism but is only talk about the
+subject of a picture, the derivation and meaning of a design, or the
+accuracy of a drawing. These minor points have their place in discussing
+the literary and scientific sides of a masterpiece; they relate to art
+only superficially, and give no key to the perception of fine quality.
+
+The most important fact about a great creative work is that it is
+beautiful; and the best way to see this is to study the art-structure of
+it,--the way it is built up as Line, Notan, Color,--the principle of
+composition which it exemplifies. See what a master has done with the very
+problem you are trying to work out.
+
+This method of approach will involve a new classification of the world's
+art, cutting across the historical, topical and geographical lines of
+development. The instructor in composition will illustrate each step with
+many examples differing as to time, locality, material and subject, but
+alike in art-structure.
+
+Museum collections might be used for a series of progressive studies based
+upon composition; taking up one principle at a time and seeking
+illustrations in a group of wide range,--a picture, sculpture,
+architecture, Gothic carving, metal work, old textile, bit of pottery,
+Japanese print.
+
+The beauty of simple spacing is found in things great and small, from a
+cathedral tower to a cupboard shelf.
+
+The campanile of the Duomo of Florence (No. 30) designed by that master of
+architecture and painting, Giotto, is a rectangular composition of
+exceeding beauty. Its charm lies chiefly in its delicately harmonized
+proportions on a straight-line scheme. It is visual music in terms of line
+and space. The areas are largest at the top, growing gradually smaller in
+each of the stories downward. The graceful mouldings, the window tracery,
+the many colors of marble and porphyry are but enrichments of the splendid
+main lines.
+
+           [No. 30. Giotto's Tower (traced from a photograph).]
+
+The Ca' d'Oro of Venice (No. 31, A) presents this rectangular beauty in an
+entirely different way. First, a vertical line divides the facade into two
+unequal but balanced proportions; each of these is again divided by
+horizontal lines and by windows and balconies into smaller spaces, the
+whole making a perfect harmony--each part related to, and affected by every
+other part.
+
+The tokonoma of a Japanese room (No. 31, B) is arranged in a similar
+rectangular scheme. A vertical line, as in the Venetian palace facade,
+divides the whole space into two; one of these is divided again into
+recesses with shelves or sliding doors; the other is for pictures
+(kakemono), not more than three of which a hung at a time. No. 31, C shows
+three of these sets of shelves. The Japanese publish books with hundreds
+of designs for this little recess. The fertility of invention combined
+with feeling for good spacing, even in such a simple bit of craft, is
+characteristic of the Japanese. Their design books, from which I have
+copied many examples for this volume, are very useful to the student of
+art.
+
+Style, in furniture, is a matter of good spacing, rather than of period or
+person. The best designs are very simple, finely balanced compositions of
+a few straight lines (No. 31, D).
+
+Book covers with their lettering and decorations, and book pages with or
+without illustrations are examples of space cutting,--good or commonplace
+according to the designer's feeling for line-beauty, In the early days of
+printing the two pages of an open book were consider together as a single
+rectangular space. Into this the type was to be set with the utmost care
+as to proportion and margin.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+The few examples given here show how varied are the applications of a
+single principle. The study of these will suggest a field for research. If
+possible the student should work from the objects themselves or from large
+ photographs; and from the original Japanese design books. These [No. 31.
+                       Compositions in Rectangles.]
+tracings are given for purposes of comparison.
+
+   1. Copy the examples, without measuring. An attempt to copy brings the
+      pupil's mind into contact with that of a superior, and lets him see
+      how difficult it is to reach the master's perfection. Copying as a
+      means of improving one's style is the opposite of copying as a
+      substitute for original work.
+   2. After making the best possible copies, invent original variations of
+      these themes,--keeping the same general plan but changing the sizes.
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF POTTERY FORMS. Makers of modern commercial ware usually
+leave beauty of line out of account, thinking only of utility,--of the
+piece of pottery as a feeding-dish, or as a costly and showy object. The
+glaring white glaze, harsh colors and clumsy shapes of common table-ware
+must be endured until there is sufficient public appreciation to demand
+something better; yet even this is less offensive than the kind that
+pretends to be art,--bad in line and glittering with false decoration.
+
+Pottery, like other craft-products, is truly useful when it represents the
+best workmanship, combined with feeling for shape, tone, texture and
+color,--in a word, fine art.
+
+Such quality is found, to mention only a few cases, in some of the
+"peasant wares"; in the best Japanese pottery, ancient and modern; in
+Chinese, especially of the Sung period (A. D. 960-1280) in Moorish,
+Persian, Rhodian and Greek. When each maker tried to improve up older
+models, and had the taste and inventive genius to do it, the art grew to
+supreme excellence; even fragments such handicraft are now precious. The
+difference between the contours a really great piece of pottery and
+ordinary one may seem very slight, but in just this little difference lies
+the art.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+One good way to stimulate invention in composing pottery shapes is to
+evolve them from rectangles. In the straight line there is strength; a
+curve is measured by a series of straight lines connected in rhythm. No.
+32a. This principle is recognized in blocking out a freehand drawing,--a
+process often misunderstood and exaggerated.
+
+Curved profiles are only variations of rectangular forms, for example the
+bowl in No. 32b.
+
+                         [No. 32. Pottery Forms.]
+
+Change the height and a series of new shapes will result. As the top and
+bottom lines remain the same we have to compare the curved sides only.
+Another effect (c) comes from varying the width; and still another (d) by
+changing both height and width. In No. 33 are students' drawings of
+pottery profiles evolved from rectangles. For brushwork, in this exercise,
+it is well to indicate the lines of the rectangle in pale red, the pottery
+in black. Make many sketches, select the best profiles, improve them by
+tracing in ink, and compare with historic pieces. Drawing from the finest
+examples of pottery, and making original variations of the forms, will aid
+in drawing from the cast or the nude, because of the intimate study of the
+character of curves.
+
+             [No 33. Pottery Forms Derived from Rectangles.]
+
+
+
+FLOWERS and other forms as LINE-MOTIVES. The rectangular space may be
+subdivided, as was the square, by a simple line-motif,--flower, fruit,
+still life, animal or figure,--following some Principle of Composition. In
+chapter III, under Subordination, an exercise was suggested and
+illustrated; it could be taken up again at this point, with new subjects,
+for a study of Variation. As rectangular compositions will be found under
+Notan and Color, it is not necessary to consider them further here as pure
+line, except in the case of Landscape, to which a special chapter is
+given.
+
+
+
+
+VI.--LANDSCAPE COMPOSITION
+
+
+The modern arbitrary division of Painting into Representative and
+Decorative has put composition into the background and brought forward
+nature-imitation as a substitute. The picture-painter is led to think of
+likeness to nature as to the most desirable quality for his work, and the
+designer talks of "conventionalizing"; both judging their art by a
+standard of Realism rather than of Beauty.
+
+In the world's art epochs there was no such division. Every work of space-
+art was regarded as primarily an arrangement, with Beauty as its raison
+d'etre. Even a portrait was first of all a composition, with the facts and
+the truth subordinate to the greater idea of aesthetic structure. Training
+in the fundamental principles of Composition gave the artists a wide
+field--they were at once architects, sculptors, decorators and picture-
+painters.
+
+Following this thought of the oneness of art, we find that the picture,
+the plan, and the pattern are alike in the sense that each is a group of
+synthetically related spaces. Abstract design is, as it were, the primer
+of painting, in which principles of Composition appear in a clear and
+definite form. In the picture they are not so obvious, being found in
+complex interrelations and concealed under detail.
+
+The designer and picture-painter start in the same way. Each has before
+him a blank space on which he sketches out the main lines of his
+composition. This may be called his Line-idea, and on it hinges the
+excellence of the whole, for no delicacy of tone, or harmony of color can
+remedy a bad proportion. A picture, then, may be said to be in its
+beginning actually a pattern of lines. Could the art student have this
+fact in view at the outset, it would save him much time and anxiety.
+Nature will not teach him composition. The sphinx is not more silent than
+she on this point. He must learn the secret as Giotto and della Francesca
+and Kanawoka and Turner learned it, by the study of art itself in the
+works of the masters, and by continual creative effort. If students could
+have a thorough training in the elements of their profession they would
+not fall into the error of supposing that such a universal idea as Beauty
+of Line could be compressed into a few cases like the "triangle," "bird's-
+wing," "line of beauty," or "scroll ornament," nor would they take these
+notions as a kind of receipt for composing the lines of pictures.
+
+Insistence upon the placing of Composition above Representation must not
+be considered as any undervaluation of the latter. The art student must
+learn to represent nature's forms, colors and effects; must know the
+properties of pigments and how to handle brushes and materials. He may
+have to study the sciences of perspective and anatomy. More or less of
+this knowledge and skill will be required in his career, but they are only
+helps to art, not substitutes for it, and I believe that if he begins with
+Composition, that is, with a study of art itself, he will acquire these
+naturally, as he feels the need of them.
+
+Returning now to the thought that the picture and the abstract design are
+much alike in structure, let us see how some of the simple spacings may be
+illustrated by landscape.
+
+Looking out from a grove we notice that the trees, vertical straight
+lines, cut horizontal lines,--an arrangement in Opposition and Repetition
+making a pattern in rectangular spaces. Compare the gingham and landscape
+on page 22. This is a common effect in nature, to be translated into terms
+of art as suggested in the following exercise.
+
+              [No. 34. Landscape Reduced to its Main Lines.]
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+No. 34 is a landscape reduced to its main lines, all detail being omitted.
+
+Make an enlarged copy of this, or design a similar one. Then, in the
+attempt to find the best proportion and the best way of setting the
+subject upon canvas or paper, arrange this in rectangles of varying shape,
+some nearly square, others tall, others long and narrow horizontally as in
+No. 35. To bring the whole landscape into all these will not, of course,
+be possible, but in each the essential lines must be retained.
+
+           [No. 35. Landscape in Rectangles of Various Shape.]
+
+Draw in ink after preliminary studies with pencil or charcoal, correcting
+errors by tracing.
+
+Then find in nature other similar subjects; sketch and vary in the same
+way.
+
+
+
+                 [No. 36. Pictures on Rectangular Lines.]
+
+The art of landscape painting is a special subject, not to be treated at
+length here, but I believe that the true way to approach it is through
+these or similar exercises.
+
+First study the art, then apply it, whether to landscape or any other kind
+of expression.
+
+
+
+PICTURES COMPOSED ON RECTANGULAR LINES.
+
+
+Great architects and designers were not the only ones to use this simple
+line-idea; the masters of pictorial art have based upon it some of their
+best work; (opposite page).
+
+These tracings from a variety of compositions, old and new (No. 36), show
+that this combination was chosen either to express certain qualities and
+emotions,--majesty, solemnity, peace, repose, (Puvis de Chavannes)--or
+because such a space division was suited to tone-effects (Whistler's
+Battersea Bridge), or to color schemes (Hiroshige). These should be copied
+exactly in pencil, then drawn enlarged. Find other examples in museums,
+illustrated books, or photographs, and draw in the same way.
+
+The student must, however, be warned against mistaking a mere geometric
+combination of lines for an aesthetic combination. There is no special
+virtue in a rectangular scheme or any other in itself; it is the treatment
+of it that makes it art or not art. Many a commonplace architect has
+designed a tower similar to Giotto's, and many a dauber of oil paint has
+constructed a wood interior on a line-plan resembling that of Puvis. So
+the mere doing of the work recommended here will be of little value if the
+only thought is to get over the ground, or if the mind is intent upon
+names rather than principles. The doing of it well, with an artistic
+purpose in mind, is the true way to develop the creative faculties.
+
+
+
+LANDSCAPE ARRANGEMENT,--VARIATION.
+
+
+Leaving now the rectangular scheme, take any landscape that has good
+elements, reduce it to a few main lines and strive to present it in the
+most beautiful way--for example one from No. 61, or one drawn by the
+instructor, or even a tracing from a photograph. Remember that the aim is
+not to represent a place, nor to get good drawing now; put those thoughts
+out of the mind and try only to cut a space finely by landscape shapes;
+the various lines in your subject combine to enclose spaces, and the art
+in your composition will lie in placing these spaces in good relations to
+each other. Here must come in the personal influence of the instructor,
+which is, after all, the very core of all art teaching. He can bring the
+pupils up to the height of his own appreciation, and perhaps no farther.
+The best of systems is valueless without this personal artistic guidance.
+
+At this stage of landscape composition, the idea of Grouping
+(Subordination) can be brought in, as a help in arranging sizes and
+shapes. There is a certain beauty in a contrast of large and small. It is
+the opposite of Monotony. For instance, compare a street where there is
+variety in the sizes of buildings and trees, with another of rows of dull
+ugly blocks. Ranges of hills, spires and pinnacles, clumps of large and
+small trees, clusters of haystacks, illustrate this idea in landscape.
+
+               [No. 37.  A Landscape in Three Proportions.]
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+To discover the best arrangement, and to get the utmost experience in line
+and space composition, the landscape should be set into several boundaries
+of differing proportions, as in Chapter V, and as shown in the examples,
+keeping the essential lines of the subject, but varying them to fit the
+boundary. For instance, a tree may be made taller in a high vertical space
+than in a low horizontal space, (No. 37 below). After working out this
+exercise the pupil may draw a landscape from nature and treat it in the
+same way. Let him rigorously exclude detail, drawing only the outlines of
+objects.
+
+
+
+
+VII.--COMPOSITION IN REPRESENTATION
+
+
+In academic art teaching representation is the starting-point. This means
+that one must first of all "learn to draw", as power in art is thought to
+be based upon ability to represent accurately and truthfully either
+nature's facts or historic ornament. I use the word "academic" to define
+all teaching founded upon representation. The theory may be summed up in
+two points:
+
+   1. Store the mind with facts, to be used in creative work later on.
+   2. Technique is best acquired by the practice of object and figure
+      drawing. The first is a purely scientific process, a gathering up of
+      data, with no thought of harmony or originality; hence drawing with
+      such an end in view is not strictly art-work. Nor does the artist
+      need to lumber up his mind; nature is his storehouse of facts. The
+      second point has more reason, but when the aim is for mere accuracy,
+      only a limited amount of skill is acquired and that often hardly
+      more than nice workmanship--not art-skill. The powerful drawing of
+      the masters is largely derived from other masters, not from copying
+      nature. It is an interpretation with the purpose of attaining a high
+      standard. Such drawing aims to express character and quality in an
+      individual way--a thing quite different from fact-statement.
+
+Nature-drawing, wrongly placed and misunderstood, has become a fetich in
+our modern teaching. Our art critics talk of "just" rendering, "true"
+values, "conscientious" painting and the like; terms that belong to
+morals, not art, and could not be applied to Architecture, Music or
+Poetry. These stock-phrases are a part of that tradition of the
+elders--that eighteenth century academism still lingering. Representation
+has but a small place in the art of the world. This is roughly shown in
+the two lists below:
+
+
+
+NON-REPRESENTATIVE
+
+
+      Architecture--Furniture.
+      Wood carving.
+      Pottery.
+      Modelling,--mouldings and pattern.
+      Metal work.
+      Inlay,--mosaic, etc.
+      Geometric design, including Egyptian, Peruvian and Savage.
+      Ginghams, plaids and much textile pattern.
+      Mohammedan art (one great division) etc.
+
+
+
+REPRESENTATIVE
+
+
+      Painting and Sculpture of Figures, Portraits, Animals, Flowers,
+      Still Life, Landscape Painting.
+
+
+
+The nature-imitators hold that accurate representation is a virtue of
+highest order and to be attained in the beginning. It is undeniably
+serviceable, but to start with it is to begin at the wrong end. It is not
+the province of the landscape painter, for example, to represent so much
+topography, but to express an emotion; and this he must do by art. His art
+will be manifest in his composition; in his placing of his trees, hills
+and houses in synthetic relations to each other and to the space-boundary.
+Here is the strength of George Inness; to this he gave his chief effort.
+He omits detail, and rarely does more than indicate forms.
+
+This relation among the parts of a composition is what we call Beauty, and
+it begins to exist with the first few lines drawn. Even the student may
+express a little of it as he feels it, and the attempt to embody it in
+lines on paper will surely lead to a desire to know more fully the
+character and shapes of things, to seek a knowledge of drawing with
+enthusiasm and pleasure.
+
+These things are said, not against nature-drawing--I should advise more
+rather than less--but against putting it in the wrong place.
+
+The main difference between Academic and Structural (Analytic and
+Synthetic) is not in the things done, but in the reason for doing them,
+and the time for them. All processes are good in their proper places.
+
+The relation of representative drawing to a synthetic scheme is this: One
+uses the facts of nature to express an idea or emotion. The figures,
+animals, flowers or objects are chosen for the sake of presenting some
+great historical or religious thought as in della Francesca's Annunciation
+(No. 36), for decoration of an architectural space (Reims capital, No.
+38), because the landscape has special beauty as in Hiroshige's print (No.
+8), or because the objects have form and color suggesting a high order of
+harmony, as in Chinese and Japanese paintings of flowers, or Leonardo's
+drawings of insects and reptiles.
+
+Another reason for drawing is found in the use of the shapes or hues in
+design. Desire to express an idea awakens interest in the means.
+Observation is keen, close application is an easy task, every sense is
+alert to accomplish the undertaking. This is quite different from drawing
+anything and everything for practice only.
+
+Mere accuracy has no art-value whatever. Some of the most pathetic things
+in the world are the pictures or statues whose only virtue is accuracy.
+The bare truth may be a deadly commonplace. Pupils should look for
+character; that includes all truth and all beauty. It leads one to seek
+for the best handling and to value power in expression above success in
+drawing.
+
+Composition is the greatest aid to representation because it cultivates
+judgment as to relations of space and mass. Composition does not invite
+departure from nature's truth, or encourage inaccuracies of any kind--it
+helps one to draw in a finer way.
+
+
+
+
+
+   [No. 38. Notan Plan, Rhythm of Line, Representation Composed into a
+                                 Space.]
+     [No. 39. Notan VIII. Dark and Light Harmonies from the Masters.]
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTAN
+
+
+
+
+VIII.--HARMONY-BUILDING WITH DARK-AND-LIGHT
+
+
+As there is no one word in English to express the idea contained in the
+phrase "dark-and-light," I have adopted the Japanese word "no-tan" (dark,
+light). It seems fitting that we should borrow this art-term from a people
+who have revealed to us so much of this kind of beauty. "Chiaroscuro" has
+a similar but more limited meaning. Still narrower are the ordinary studio
+terms "light-and-shade," "shading," "spotting," "effect" that convey
+little idea of special harmony-building, but refer usually to
+representation.
+
+Notan, while including all that these words connote, has a fuller meaning
+as a name for a great universal manifestation of beauty.
+
+Darks and lights in harmonic relations--this is Notan the second structural
+element of space-art; p. 7.
+
+The Orientals rarely represent shadows; they seem to regard them as of
+slight interest--mere fleeting effects or accidents. They prefer to model
+by line rather than by shading. They recognize notan as a vital and
+distinct element of the art of painting.
+
+The Buddhist priest-painters of the Zen sect discarded color, and for ages
+painted in ink, so mastering tone-relations as to attract the admiration
+and profoundly influence the art of the western world.
+
+Our etching and book illustration have long felt the effect of contact
+with Japanese classic painting, though the influence came indirectly
+through the Ukiyoye color prints and books. Such names as Kakei, Chinese
+of the Sung dynasty (p. 96), Soga Shubun, the Chinese who founded a school
+in Japan in the fifteenth century (p. 17), Sesshu, one of the greatest
+painters of all time (p. 97), Sotan, Soami, Motonobu, Tanyu are now placed
+with Titian, Giorgione (p. 51), Rembrandt, Turner, Corot and Whistler. The
+works of Oriental masters who felt the power and mystery of Notan are
+becoming known through the reproductions that the Japanese are publishing,
+and through precious examples in our own museums and collections. This in
+one of the forces tending to uproot our traditional scientific art
+teaching which does not recognize Dark-and-Light as worthy of special
+attention.
+
+Appreciation of Notan and power to create with it can be gained, as in the
+case of Line, by definite study through progressive exercises. At the
+outset a fundamental fact must be understood, that synthetically related
+masses of dark and light convey an impression of beauty entirely
+independent of meaning,--for example, geometric patterns or blotty ink
+sketches by Dutch and Japanese.
+
+When this occurs accidentally in nature,--say a grove of dark trees on a
+light hillside, or a pile of buildings against the morning sky,--we at once
+feel the charm and call the effect "picturesque." The quality which makes
+the natural scene a good subject for a picture is like musical harmony. It
+is the "visual music" that the Japanese so love in the rough ink paintings
+of their masters where there is but a hint of facts (pp. 97, 99)--a classic
+style which is the outward expression of a fine appreciation, and whose
+origin and practice are admirably set forth in "The Book of Tea."
+Recognition of Notan as an individual element will simplify the
+difficulties of tone-composition and open the way for growth in power.
+
+NOTAN OF LINE. As long as the lines of a design are kept of uniform width,
+the beauty is limited to proportion of areas and quality of touch, but
+widen some of the lines, and at once appears a new grace, Dark-and-Light.
+The textile designers who are restricted to straight lines, have recourse
+to this principle. They widen lines, vary their depth of tone, glorify
+them with color, and show that what seems a narrow field is really one of
+wide range.
+
+                         [No. 40. Notan of Line.]
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Choose some of the previous geometric line patterns, and widen certain of
+the lines, as illustrated in the plate. Incidentally this will give good
+brush practice, as the lines are to be drawn at one stroke. Push the point
+of the brush down to the required width, then draw the line. Try a large
+number of arrangements, set them up in a row and pick out the best. In
+choosing and criticising, remember that every part of a work of art has
+something to say. If one part is made so prominent that the others have no
+reason for being there, the art is gone. So in this case; if one line
+asserts itself to the detriment of the others, there is discord. There may
+be many or few lines, but each must have its part in the whole. In a word,
+wholeness is essential to beauty; it distinguishes Music from Noise.
+
+
+
+LETTERING. When forming part of an artistic composition, in books,
+posters, manuscripts, illuminations, etc., lettering should be classed as
+Notan of Line. Obviously the spacing of masses of letters has first
+consideration, and is usually a simple problem in rectangular composition.
+The effect is a tone or group of tones more or less complicated according
+to sizes of letters, thickness of their lines and width of spaces between
+and around them. I have found the reed-pen and the Japanese brush
+(clipped) the best implements for students' lettering (see below). Having
+suggested that Lettering, including Printing, as an art, is a problem in
+composition of line and notan, it seems hardly worth while to introduce
+special exercises here. Johnston has treated this subject exhaustively;
+the reader is referred to his book "Writing, Illuminating and Lettering,"
+to Walter Crane's and other good books on lettering. Compare fine
+printing, old and new, Japanese, Chinese and Arabic writing, and ancient
+manuscripts and inscriptions--Egyptian, Greek, and Mediaeval.
+
+            [No. 41. Japanese brushes clipped for lettering.]
+
+
+
+
+          [Notan VIII. Repetition and variation in two values.]
+      [Notan VII. Landscape compositions by HOKUSAI, three values.]
+                [Notan IX. Two Values, Historic Examples.]
+
+
+
+
+IX.--TWO VALUES--VARIATIONS--DESIGN
+
+
+
+Dark-and-light has not been considered in school curricula, except in its
+limited application to representation. The study of "light and shade" has
+for its aim, not the creation of a beautiful idea in terms of contrasting
+masses of light and dark, but merely the accurate rendering of certain
+facts of nature,--hence is a scientific rather than an artistic exercise.
+The pupil who begins in this way will be embarrassed in advanced work by
+lack of experience in arranging and differentiating tones. Worse than
+that, it tends to cut him off from the appreciation of one whole class of
+great works of art. As in the case of Line, so again in this is manifest
+the narrowness and weakness of the scheme of nature-imitating as a
+foundation for art education. The Realistic standard always tends to the
+decay of art. The student in an academic school, feeling the necessity for
+a knowledge of Dark-and-Light when he begins to make original
+compositions, has usually but one resource, that of sketching the
+"spotting" as he calls it, of good designs and pictures--an excellent
+practice if followed intelligently. His difficulties may be overcome (1)
+by seeing that Notan is an element distinct from Line or Color; (2) by
+attempting its mastery in progressive stages leading to appreciation.
+
+
+
+METHOD OF STUDY.
+
+
+Line melts into Tone through the clustering of many lines. Direct study of
+tone-intervals begins with composition in two values--the simplest form of
+Notan. There may be several starting-points; one might begin by blotting
+ink or charcoal upon paper, by copying the darks and lights from
+photographs of masterpieces, or by making scales. Experience has shown
+that the straight-line design and the flat black ink wash are most
+satisfactory for earlier exercises in two values. Instead of black and
+white, or black and gray, one might use two grays of different values, or
+two values of one color (say light blue and dark blue) according to need.
+The aim being to understand Notan as something by which harmony may be
+created, it is best to avoid Representation at first. Notan must not be
+confounded with Light and Shade, Modelling or anything that refers to
+imitation of natural objects.
+
+The beginner may imagine that not much can be done with flat black against
+flat white, but let him examine the decorative design of the world. He
+will find the black and white check and patterns derived from it, in old
+velvets of Japan, in the woven and printed textiles of all nations, in
+    marble floors, inlaid boxes and architectural [NOTAN IX. No. 43.]
+ornament. The use of these two simple tones is as universal as Art itself.
+They appear in the black vine on the white marble floor of the Church of
+the Miracoli at Venice; on the wall of the Arabian Mosque, and the frieze
+of the Chinese temple. They have come into favor on book covers and page
+borders. Aubrey Beardsley went scarcely beyond them. R. Anning Bell and
+other artists have boldly carried them into pictorial work in the
+illustration of children's books.
+
+These facts will show the beginner that no terms are too simple for
+artistic genius to use. Moreover a limited field often stimulates to
+greater inventive activity.
+
+                                [No. 44.]
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Choose a simple line-design fine in proportion, and add to it this new
+kind of beauty,--as much of it as can be expressed by the extremes of
+Notan, black against white. It is apparent that we cannot reduce Dark-and-
+Light to simpler terms than these two values. The principle of Variation
+comes into this exercise with special force, for each line-design admits
+of several Notan arrangements. The student should be given at first a
+subject with few lines. Let him use one of his own (chapter V), or draw
+one from the instructor's sketch, but the essential point is to have his
+design as good as possible in space-proportion before adding the ink.
+
+Make several tracings, then darken certain spaces with black. A round
+Japanese brush, short and thick, is best for this work. Nos. 43 and 44.
+Pupils should be warned against mistaking mere inventive action for art.
+The teacher must guide the young mind to perceive the difference between
+creating beautiful patterns, and mere fantastic play.
+
+
+
+Those gifted with little aesthetic perception may go far astray in
+following the two-tone idea. It is very easy and somewhat fascinating to
+darken parts of designs with black ink. The late poster craze showed to
+what depth of vulgarity this can be carried. The pupil must be taught that
+all two-tone arrangements  are not fine, and that the very purpose of this
+exercise is so to develop his appreciation that he may be able to tell the
+difference between the good, the commonplace, and the ugly. His only
+guides must be his own innate taste, and his instructor's experience.
+
+
+
+FLOWER COMPOSITIONS TWO VALUES
+
+
+          [Japanese design for "ramma" (frieze) Fret-saw work.]
+
+Flowers, having great variety of line and proportion, are valuable, as
+well as convenient subjects for elementary composition. Their forms and
+colors have furnished themes for painters and sculptors since the
+beginning of Art, and the treatment has ranged from abstractions to
+extreme realism; from refinements of lotus-derived friezes to poppy and
+rose wall papers of the present time. In the exercise here suggested,
+there is no intention of making a design to apply to anything as
+decoration, hence there need be no question as to the amount of nature's
+truth to be introduced. The flower may be rendered realistically, as in
+some Japanese design, or reduced to an abstraction as in the Greek,
+without in the least affecting the purpose in view, namely, the setting of
+floral lines into a space in a fine way--forming a line-scheme on which may
+be played many notan-variations.
+
+It is essential that the space should be cut by the main lines.
+(Subordination, page 23.) A small spray in the middle of a big oblong, or
+disconnected groups of flowers, cannot be called compositions all the
+lines and areas must be related one to another by connections and
+placings, so as to form a beautiful whole. Not a picture of a flower is
+sought,--that can be left to the botanist--but rather an irregular pattern
+of lines and spaces, something far beyond the mere drawing of of a flower
+from nature, and laying an oblong over it, or vice versa.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+The instructor chooses one of the best flower compositions done under
+Line, or draws a flower in large firm outlines on the blackboard, avoiding
+confusing detail, and giving the character as simply as possible. The
+pupil first copies the instructor's drawing, then he decides upon the
+shape into which to compose this subject--a square or rectangle will be
+best for the beginner. He makes several trial arrangements roughly, with
+pencil or charcoal. Having chosen the best of these, he improves and
+refines them, first on his trial paper, and later by tracing with brush
+and ink on thin Japanese paper. Effort must be concentrated on the
+arrangement, not on botanical correctness.
+
+                          [Flower Compositions.]
+
+Many line compositions can be derived from one flower subject, but each of
+these can in turn be made the source of a great variety of designs by
+carrying the exercise farther, into the field of Dark-and-Light. Paint
+certain of the areas black, and at once a whole new series suggests
+itself, from a single line design. To the beauty of the line is added the
+beauty of opposing and intermingling masses of black and white; see below
+and p. 64.
+
+In this part of the exercise the arrangement of shapes of light with
+shapes of dark, occupies the attention, rather than shading, or the
+rendering of shadows. Hence the flowers and leaves and stems, or parts of
+them, may be black or white, according to the feeling of the student. Let
+him choose out of his several drawings those which he considers best. The
+instructor can then criticise, pointing out the best and the worst, and
+explaining why they are so. A mere aimless or mechanical blackening of
+paper, without effort to arrange, will result in nothing of importance.
+
+The examples show the variety of effects produced by flowers of different
+shapes, and the beauty resulting from schemes of Dark-and-Light in two
+values.
+
+                          [Flower Compositions.]
+   [Notan variations on lines of fine old textiles.  Rug designs in two
+                                 values.]
+                               [NOTAN IX.]
+
+
+
+TEXTILE PATTERNS AND RUGS TWO VALUES
+
+
+A line-scheme underlies every notan composition, and a notan-scheme
+underlies every color composition. The three elements have the closest
+relation one to another. For purposes of study, however, it is necessary
+to isolate each element, and even the separate principles of each.
+
+In the present instance, Notan can be separated from Line by taking a
+line-design of acknowledged excellence and making many Notan variations of
+it; being sure of beauty of line, the only problem is to create beauty of
+tone. As this brings in historic art, let me note that the works of the
+past are best used, in teaching, as illustrations of composition, (p. 40).
+
+While the knowledge of a "style" may have a commercial value, it has no
+art-value unless the designer can make original and fine variations of it,
+not imitations.
+
+The first essential is to appreciate the quality of historic examples,
+hence the student should work from the objects themselves, from
+photographic copies, from tracings, or from casts. The commonplace
+lithographic plates and rude wood cuts in some books of design are useless
+for our purpose. They give no hint of the original. If the actual painting
+on an Egyptian mummy case is compared with a page of one of these books,
+the poor quality of the latter is instantly apparent. Chinese and Japanese
+"ornament" in most of such books is of a flamboyant and decadent sort. The
+facsimile copies of Greek vases usually belong in this same category.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Choose a textile of the best period, say Italian of the XVth or XVIth
+century; copy or trace the line and play upon this several notan-schemes
+of two values. You will at once discover how superb the spacing is in
+these designs, but your main thought is the creation of new dark-and-light
+ideas upon the fine old pattern; p. 65.
+
+The Oriental rug affords an excellent line-scheme for practice in notan.
+As composition it is a combination of two principles: Subordination and
+Repetition. Copying a part or the whole of some good rug--in line and
+color--is the best way to become aquainted with the spacing, motives and
+quality. Then design a rug with border and centre, the shapes to be pure
+inventions or symbols. Border and centre must differ, and there are many
+ways of doing this even in two values, for instance: Border: Black figures
+on white ground. Centre: White figures on black ground. Border: White
+figures on black ground. Centre: Black figures on white ground. Border:
+Small figures. Centre: One large figure. The illustrations, pp. 65, 66,
+give some idea of the possibilities of tone-composition in textiles and
+rugs. The exercise points to one good way of using museum collections and
+art books.
+
+
+
+
+                                [No. 47.]
+
+
+
+
+X.--TWO VALUES--LANDSCAPE AND PICTURES
+
+
+
+Landscape is a good subject for notan-composition, to be treated at first
+as a design, afterward as a picture. Its irregular spacings contrast well
+with the symmetries of pattern, and when tones are played over them the
+effects are new and strange, stimulating to further research into the
+mysteries of tone. Such an exercise leads to the appreciation of landscape
+pictures, and is an introduction to pencil and charcoal sketching from
+nature, to monotypes and etching.
+
+Notan in landscape, a harmony of tone-relations, must not be mistaken for
+light-and-shadow which is only one effect or accident. Like all other
+facts of external nature, light-and-shadow must be expressed in art-form.
+The student under the spell of the academic dictum "Paint what you see and
+as you see it" feels that he must put down every accidental shadow "just
+as it is in nature" or be false to himself and false to art. He finds
+later that accurate record is good and right in studies or sketches but
+may be wrong in a picture or illustration. No accidents enter into
+pictures, but every line, light, and dark must be part of a deliberate
+design.
+
+Light-and-shade is a term referring to modelling or imitation of solidity;
+the study of it by drawing white casts and still life tends to put
+attention upon facts rather than upon experience in structure. It does not
+help one to appreciate tone-values in pictures. Such drawing is worth
+while as pure representation and the discipline of it contributes to
+mastery of technique, but it is absurd to prescribe this or life drawing
+as a training for the landscape painter. Its influence is only indirect,
+for modeling is of secondary importance in Painting, the art of two
+dimensions.
+
+When a painter works for roundness and solidity he enters the province of
+his brother the sculptor. In typical paintings, like Giotto's frescoes at
+Assisi, Masaccio's "Tribute Money," Piero della Francesca's work at
+Arezzo, the compositions of the Vivarini, the Bellini and Titian, and even
+the Strozzi portrait by Raphael, the modelling is subordinate to the
+greater elements of proportion and dark-and-light.
+
+In a mural painting extreme roundness is a fatal defect, as illustrated in
+the Pantheon at Paris, where Puvis de Chavannes and his contemporaries
+have put pictorial designs upon the walls. Puvis created a mosaic of
+colored spaces intended to beautify the wall; charm of color and tone,
+poetry and illusion of landscape possess the beholder long before he even
+thinks of the special subjects. The other painters made their figures
+stand out in solid modelling, replacing composition with sculpturesque
+realities. From these you turn away unsatisfied. I am not arguing for the
+entire omission of shadows and modelling--they have their place--but am
+insisting that flat relations of tone and color are of first importance;
+they are the structural frame, while gradation and shading are the finish.
+To begin with rounding up forms in light and shade, especially in
+landscape, is to reverse the natural order, ignore structure, and confuse
+the mind. The academic system has adopted the word "decorate" for flat
+tone relations and non-sculpturesque effects, as if everything not
+standing out in full relief must belong to decoration. This use of the
+word is misleading to the student; we do not speak of music and poetry as
+"decorative". Lines, tones and colors may be used to decorate something,
+but they may be simply beautiful in themselves, in which case they are no
+more decorative than music. This word should be dropped from the art
+vocabulary.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Choose a landscape with a variety of large and small spaces.
+
+1. Compose this within a border (see Chap. VI.) and when the spacing is
+good trace with the brush on several sheets of Japanese paper.
+
+Next try the effect of painting certain spaces black, or dark gray, or
+some dark color like blue. The other spaces may be left white, or painted
+light gray or with light color. Landscapes are capable of a great many
+two-value arrangements but not all such will be fine. Strive for harmony
+rather than number, variety or strangeness. Compare your set and select
+the best.
+
+2. Compose the landscape into borders of different proportions; then vary
+each of these in two values. The illustrations, No. 47, make clear these
+two ways of working. The student may use the examples given here, then
+sketch his own subjects from nature.
+
+
+
+SPOTTING,--NOTAN OF PICTURES.
+
+
+When the art student sketches the masses of dark-and-light in pictures,
+the "Spotting" as he calls it, he is studying Notan of two values, but in
+an aimless way. He is hunting for some rule or secret scheme of
+shading,--an "ornament," "bird's wing," a "line;" vain search, for no two
+works can have the same plan, each has its own individual line and tone.
+
+On the other hand much can be learned by studying the masters' plans of
+composition,--not to imitate but to appreciate the harmony. One good way to
+accomplish this is to sketch in the massing, in two values. Choose a
+number of masterpieces, ancient and modern, and blot in the darks in broad
+flat tones. This will reveal the general notan-scheme of each picture (pp.
+71, 72).
+
+
+
+ORIGINAL PICTORIAL COMPOSITION IN TWO VALUES.
+
+
+ The student is now ready for original [NOTAN X. Compositions by various
+               masters, reduced to two tones. "Spotting."]
+work with landscape, still life or figures. Sketching from nature with
+brush and ink is a means of interpreting subjects in a very broad way,
+obliging one to select and reject, to keep only the essentials. It
+cultivates appreciation of texture and character and brings out the power
+of doing much with little,--of making a few vigorous strokes convey
+impressions of form and complexity. It leads to oil painting where the
+brush-touch must be charged with meaning; it is of direct practical value
+in illustration as such sketches are effective and easily reproduced. It
+is almost the only method for painting on pottery, as the absorbent glaze
+admits of no gradation, emendation or erasure; the touch must be decisive
+and characterful. Examples of brush-sketching from nature are given in No.
+48 on opposite page.
+
+        [Massing in two values, from Corot, Daubigny and Hokusai.]
+              [No. 48. Sketches from nature in two values.]
+[Notan, two values, variations of a motif.  Subordination and Repetition.]
+
+
+
+
+XI.--TWO VALUES--GOTHIC SCULPTURE JAPANESE DESIGN BOOKS. APPLICATIONS OF TWO
+VALUES
+
+
+
+Sculpture, a line-art, when designed to enrich architectural spaces, may
+have the aid of notan in the form of relief and shadow. The range of tone
+is narrow and the field seems limited, but the masters have shown that the
+creative imagination knows no bounds. They have expressed every emotion-
+divine calm, serenity, excitement, fury, horror; and effects of light,
+atmosphere, distance.
+
+The pediment and metopes of the Greek temple owed as much to notan as to
+line; we can infer from the restorations what the original scheme was.
+Greek architecture, however, did not admit of extensive enrichment with
+sculpture; there were few spaces to fill, and those not advantageous as to
+position, shape or lighting. As the temple evolved into the Christian
+church, the new forms of building and the new story to tell called for
+sculpture. Through Byzantine and Romanesque it took a fresh start, pushing
+upward and outward until it flowered abundantly in Gothic. Although the
+church selected the themes, the sculptor might interpret form and facial
+expression as his imagination directed, and compose his groups as he
+chose. Old conventions were abandoned; the artist might now seek motifs in
+his own mind or in nature. The result of this liberation of individual
+creative power was great art. The Gothic designer used notan with dramatic
+invention and magical strangeness. The French cathedrals of the best
+period (XI to XIV century) notably Paris, Chartres, Amiens and Reims, show
+how sculptural traditions were boldly broken and the most daring effects
+accomplished without forgetting the character of stone or the
+architectural requirements. The stone-cutter was an artist as long as his
+restraint was self-imposed--as long as he held to unity of the whole
+composition and kept details in their own place--as long as he carved
+harmonies, not mere stories; pp. 8, 11, 29, 51, 52.
+
+The masterpieces of Gothic sculpture may be studied from photographs and
+from reproductions published by the Musee de Sculpture Comparee, Paris.
+Sketch in the masses with brush and ink in two values. Draw freely, at
+arm's length, on gray or low-toned paper, observing the character of
+shapes of dark; No. 49, opposite. New avenues of tone-thought will now
+open, through appreciation of the power and beauty of the stone cutter's
+art of the middle-ages.
+
+
+                          JAPANESE DESIGN BOOKS
+
+
+                     [Japanese Ramma, Fret-saw work.]
+
+If time had preserved for us the sketches of Pheidias, of the architect of
+St. Mark's, of the great designers of the early ages, we should know how
+these creators planned the line and mass, the simple structural schemes of
+their immortal works. In later days when paper was common, artists'
+drawings were in a less perishable form and many can now be seen in our
+museums. Some have been published and are fairly within reach, though
+often in costly editions. But Japanese art comes to the aid of the student
+of composition with abundant material--sketch books, design books, drawings
+and color prints. The learner should seek for genuine works of the best
+periods, avoiding modern bad reproductions, imitations, carelessly re-cut
+blocks, crude colors, and all the hasty and commonplace stuff prepared by
+dealers for the foreign market.
+
+The Japanese knew no division into Representative and Decorative; they
+thought of painting as the art of two dimensions, the art of rhythm and
+harmony, in which modelling and nature-imitation are subordinate. As in
+pre-Renaissance times in Europe, the education of the Japanese artist was
+founded upon composition. Thorough grounding in fundamental principles of
+spacing, rhythm and notan, gave him the utmost freedom in design. He loved
+nature and went to her for his subjects, not to imitate. The winding brook
+with wild iris (above) the wave and spray, the landscape, No. 51, were to
+him themes for art to be translated into terms of line or dark-and-light
+or color. They are so much material out of which may be fashioned a
+harmonious line-system or a sparkling web of black and white.
+
+
+
+The Japanese books of most value to the student of composition are those
+with collections of designs for lacquer, wood, metal and pottery, the
+Ukiyo-ye books of figures, birds, flowers and landscape, and the books by
+Kano artists, with brush-sketches of compositions by masters. It was a
+common practice with the Japanese to divide a page into sections of equal
+size and place a different design in each section, p. 55. This is of great
+importance to the student for it illustrates at once the principles of
+space-filling and notan, and gives an idea of the infinite possibilities
+of artistic invention. I have reproduced examples from the three classes
+of books mentioned above, selected in this case for their brilliancy of
+notan. Let the student copy them enlarged, then make original designs of
+similar motives. Good reproductions of many Japanese design books can now
+be obtained at low prices. They are very stimulating, for they point to
+the best way of studying nature and of translating her beauty into the
+language of art; pp. 57, 62, 64, 76--79.
+
+  [No. 50. Japanese Ramma Fret-saw Work. Japanese design for embroidered
+                                 kimono.]
+      [No. 51. Japanese landscape compositions for color printing.]
+[No. 52. Japanese botanical work.  Each page a composition in two values.]
+
+
+
+APPLICATIONS of NOTAN of TWO VALUES
+
+
+The Structural method of art study places principle before application.
+Much appreciation of notan could be gained from any one of the subjects
+just considered,--for example, textiles,--but the tendency would be to think
+of tone as belonging specially to textiles. The same can be said of Line
+as it appears in casts, the human form, or historic ornament. Attention is
+centred upon the particular case, and the larger view is lost. It is
+better to gain a knowledge of line, mass and color as the material out of
+which to create; and to become acquainted with principles of harmony-
+building, before undertaking definite applications. This gives fuller
+control, and enhances the worker's powers of invention. Applications of
+two values are numberless; I will mention a few of them to give the
+student some clues for original research and experiment.
+
+PRINTING. Florets, seals, initial letters, page ornaments, illustrations,
+posters, end papers,--drawn in black, gray or one color.
+
+TEXTILES. Blue and white towels, quilts, etc., woven or printed, lace,
+embroidery, rugs,--pages 9, 65, 66.
+
+KERAMICS. One color on a ground of different value, as blue and white, No.
+54; or black on gray.
+
+METAL. Perforated sheet metal; metal for corners, fixtures, etc., pp. 25,
+58.
+
+WOOD. Fret saw work, inlay; pp. 62, 76, 77.
+
+Examples of applications are given below, No. 53, and on opposite page.
+
+                                [No. 53.]
+                                [No. 54.]
+
+
+
+
+XII.--THREE VALUES
+
+
+
+Clear black against clear white is a strong contrast; even the best of
+such work has some harshness, despite a sparkling brilliancy. A tone of
+gray, midway between these two extremes, changes their relations and opens
+up a whole new field for creative activity. Now we must think of different
+degrees of Notan,--the "value" of one tone against another. This simple set
+of three notes is the basis of the mezzotint, aquatint, charcoal sketch
+and wash drawing. The old masters drew on gray paper with black and white.
+
+From three, it is an easy step to many values, and in these refinements of
+Notan lies the true meaning of the word "values." That property of painted
+shapes, whereby they "take their places" one beyond another in a picture,
+is aerial perspective, not values. It is a desirable quality of
+Representation, and often becomes a kind of deception most agreeable to
+the mind unappreciative of art. Those who have little perception of
+harmonies of tone and color, wish to see objects "stand out" in the
+picture "as if they were real."
+
+Whistler protested against this, holding that the portrait painter is not
+an artist unless he can give the opposite effect; that a portrait that
+stands out beyond its frame is bad.
+
+The word "values" refers to harmony of tone-structure; the value of a mass
+is its degree of light or dark in relation to its neighbors.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+The student comes now to a new exercise of judgment in determining the
+middle value between black and white, or between light and dark gray. He
+has to mix this tone, and decide when it is of the right depth; here, for
+the first time, he begins to paint.
+
+For this painting-exercise will be needed white dishes in which to mix the
+ink tones, and flat Japanese (ha-ke) brushes. The best paper is Japanese,
+well sized. The thin coating of glue keeps the edge of the wash from
+drying before the brush can take it up.
+
+The first difficulty is the laying of a flat wash; this requires dexterity
+and much practice. Paper must be stretched or thumb-tacked perfectly
+smooth; ink-stone, dishes and brushes must be clean. For a beginning take
+a simple line pattern; decide which parts shall be white; then wash a
+middle tone of gray over the rest. When dry, paint in the black spaces.
+
+The reason for keeping a tone flat is that the value of a whole space can
+be judged better; if it is sloppy and uneven it loses force and interest.
+In beginners' work, and in design, flatness is necessary, but in picture-
+painting purely flat tones would rarely be used.
+
+
+
+THREE GRAYS, A SCALE
+
+
+The next step is to mix three values, light, medium and dark, in three
+white dishes. The intervals can be tested by painting the spaces of a
+simple scale. This need not have an outline, as three brush-strokes will
+suffice. Apply these tones to a design; make several arrangements, for the
+effect, and to discover the possibilities in three values. The subjects
+might be the same as in notan of two values, pages 63--68. The examples
+below illustrate the method and results. See scale, p. 88, also p. 9. In
+addition to original composition, the student should copy from
+masterpieces of design and pictorial art, translating them into three
+values.
+
+                      [White. Middle Gray.  Black.]
+
+
+
+LANDSCAPE AND PICTURES
+
+
+For three-value studies one may use ink, charcoal or oil paint. The two
+latter are particularly suitable for landscape designs and illustrative
+work. Charcoal should be used lightly and very freely. It gives effects of
+vibration, atmosphere, envelope and light, but the handling requires
+special study and much practice.
+
+The first few exercises in charcoal landscape may be in flat tones (see
+No. 55, page 85), and the student may find it well to make a scale of
+three values in this medium; he must learn however to feel outlines
+without drawing them, and to handle charcoal firmly but loosely.
+
+Cover the paper with a very sketchy tone of soft charcoal; pass over it
+lightly with a paper stump or piece of cotton cloth. Be careful not to
+grind the black into the paper, making an opaque smoky tone. Charcoal
+paper is made rough, to let the warm white shine between the little
+particles of black that lie upon the points of the surface.
+
+                             [Flower design.]
+
+When a luminous middle-gray is obtained, sketch in the darks with soft
+charcoal and take out the lights with bread or rubber; this effect is like
+a mezzotint, Nos. 55, 57, and p. 57. After the principle of three values
+has been demonstrated, and the student can appreciate definite intervals
+of tone, the instructor should allow great freedom in execution, not even
+limiting to three notes but adding one or two others if necessary to good
+expression.
+
+For oil painting, mix the three tones in quantity sufficient to paint
+several studies. Ivory Black and Burnt Sienna will give a good neutral
+gray. For the color of blue china or the Abruzzi towels, use Prussian
+Blue, Black and White. Opinions differ as to the use of diluting mediums,
+and sizes of brushes, for oil painting. I should advise thinning the color
+with linseed oil and turpentine (half and half), and using large flat
+bristle brushes. Canvas should be fairly rough in texture. If the surface
+to be painted on is smooth,--either wood, pasteboard, or canvas,--prepare a
+ground with thick paint, leaving brush-marks.
+
+
+
+APPLICATIONS, THREE VALUES
+
+
+Use of the principle of three values in out-door sketching and in
+illustration, has been explained above. There is one application, among
+others, that should be made by the student at this point--composition of a
+book-page.
+
+The usual illustrated page is an arrangement in three tones,--white paper,
+gray type, dark picture. The value to the publisher depends quite as much
+upon the picturesque effect of the illustration as upon its drawing. Size
+and placing, disposition of type, amount of margin, are matters of Line
+Composition; but choice of type, and the tone of the illustration belong
+to Notan Composition. Hence the student will gain much from designing
+pages, in ink, charcoal or oil, using as pictures the copies from masters,
+or original studies. Picture, title, initial letter, and body of type must
+be so composed that the result will be effective and harmonious, No. 58.
+
+Reference should be made to examples of early printing, to the works of
+William Morris, and to the best modern printing.
+
+               [Japanese drawing, effect of three values.]
+
+
+
+                                 [No 55.]
+ ["The World Afloat" by John Sell Cotman.  "St. John's River" by William
+                              Morris Hunt.]
+                                 [No 55.]
+
+
+
+
+XIII.--MORE THAN THREE VALUES
+
+
+
+Line, Notan, Color--the elements by which the whole visible world is
+apprehended,--may or may not be used as the language of art. Like speech,
+this three-fold language may voice noble emotions in poetic style, or may
+subserve the vulgar and the humdrum. Art-language must be in art-form; a
+number of facts, or an incident, accurately described in paint and color
+may have no more connection with art than a similar set of written
+statements just plain prose. There is no art unless the statements are
+bound together in certain subtle relations which we call beauty. When
+beauty enters, the parts cease to have separate existence, but are melted
+together in a unit.
+
+Advanced composition is only a working out of simple elements into more
+complex and difficult interrelations. If the picture has figures and
+landscape, the lines of each run in such directions, intersect and
+interweave in such ways as to form a musical movement. The tones and
+colors are arranged to enrich one another. A noble subject requires noble
+pictorial style.
+
+Experience of tone-harmony in two and three values brings appreciation of
+no-tan-structure and lays a solid foundation for advanced work.
+
+SCALE. At this point construct a scale introducing more delicate relations
+of tone, and involving finer judgment as to intervals.
+
+A scale of white, black and three grays
+
+  (a) will be best for beginning, to be followed by a scale of seven
+      values
+ (b). See page 88. These may be made with Japanese ink, water color,
+      charcoal or oil; but not with pencil as it has not depth enough.
+
+The values here are only approximate; perfect accuracy cannot be obtained
+by the half-tone process.
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Choose a textile, or any design with a variety of spaces, and try notan-
+effects with tones from the scale. The object is to discover a fine notan-
+scheme of values, and by using the scale one is assured of definite
+intervals. If the notes are mixed in quantity, they may be tried upon a
+half-dozen tracings at once, from which the best should be chosen.
+Remember that the scale-work is only an exercise to help toward clarity of
+tone, and to encourage invention. Harmony of dark-and-light does not
+depend upon fixed intervals, nor will the composer adhere to any scale in
+his original creative work.
+
+Some results of this exercise are shown in No. 58, page 91.
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATION
+
+
+After some experience in handling five or seven tones, the student can
+undertake original composition. For a beginning pure landscape may be
+best, taking some of the subjects previously used.
+
+Follow this with landscape and figures; groups of figures with landscape
+background; figures in interiors; and portrait sketches.
+
+Compose for a book-page, using one light gray value to represent the
+effect of type, as in No. 58, opposite. Paint very freely, without too
+much thought of scales and intervals. Let gradations enter where needed
+for finer effect. Study the work of the best illustrators, noting the
+tone-scheme and the placing upon the page.
+
+
+
+ETCHING
+
+
+Etching, pen drawing and pencil sketching are line-arts. The needle, pen
+and lead pencil are tools for drawing lines, and there is much reason in
+Whistler's contention that tone and shading should not be attempted with
+them. The tool always gives character to work, and the best results are
+obtained when the possibilities of tools and materials are fully
+appreciated. If a sharp point is used in drawing, it will produce pure
+line, whose quality may reach any degree of excellence. Whistler, in his
+etchings, worked for the highest type of line-beauty; shadows and tones
+were felt, but not expressed. On the other hand the artist is not subject
+to restrictions and fixed laws. He cannot allow even a master to interfere
+with his freedom; there is no "thou shalt" and "thou shalt not" in art.
+Admitting the value of all the arguments for restricting the use of the
+needle to line only, the artist observes that clustering of lines
+inevitably produces tone and suggests massing (notan of line, page 54)
+that this effect is developed in rich gradations by wiping the etching-
+plate in the process of printing. Etchers are thus tempted to use tone,
+and many masters, from Rembrandt down, have worked in tone more often than
+in line.
+
+
+
+PEN DRAWING
+
+
+is a dry, hard process but one of great value in modern illustration owing
+to the ease with which it may be reproduced. It need not be as inartistic
+as it usually appears; observation of pen work will show that, aside from
+faults in composition, failure in interest lies largely in the handling.
+Perhaps one pen only is used, and all textures treated alike, whereas
+every texture should have its own characteristic handling; cross hatching
+or any uniform system of shading with the pen is deadly. Study the
+rendering; suggest surface-quality rather than imitate or elaborate; use a
+variety of pens. Johnston has shown with what art the reed pen may be
+employed in lettering and illuminating. In comparison with the Japanese
+brush, the ordinary pen is a clumsy tool, but nevertheless it is capable
+   of much more than is usually gotten with [No 58.  Three, Four, Five
+                                 values.]
+ [Compositions in more than three values.  Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New
+                                  York.]
+  ["The Pirate Ship", Composition in four values, Teachers College, New
+  York. "Harry Mayne's House", from nature, five values, Ipswich Summer
+                              School of Art]
+                                [No. 60.]
+it; and the reed pen closely approaches the brush as a line-implement. The
+brush may be used as a pen, values and massing being obtained by blots and
+clustering of lines. Two examples are given below; see also pp. 7, 9, 19.
+
+    [Old house on Brook St. Ipswich.  Harry Mayne ye Pyrate hys house
+                                Ipswich.]
+
+
+
+PENCIL SKETCHING
+
+
+Much that has been said of etching and pen drawing is equally true of the
+hard lead pencil; but the soft pencil has many of the qualities of
+charcoal. It may even be made to resemble the ink wash. The most
+successful pencil work is that in which line is the main thing, shading
+being only suggested. These darks, whether meant for shadows, local tone,
+or color, will form a "spotting" to which is largely due the interest of
+the sketch.
+
+If shading is attempted, the tones, whether gray or dark, are made by
+laying lines side by side, not by cross-hatching or going over twice. A
+pencil sketch must be off-hand, premier coup, brilliant and characterful.
+Two examples are given as hints for handling, No. 60. It is not possible
+here to discuss pencil, pen or etching, at length; they are only touched
+upon in their relation to composition of line and notan.
+
+
+
+INK PAINTING
+
+
+Supreme excellence in the use of ink was attained by the Chinese and
+Japanese masters. Impressionism is by no means a modern art (except as to
+color-vibrations) for suggestiveness was highly prized in China a thousand
+years ago. The painter expected the beholder to create with him, in a
+sense, therefore he put upon paper the fewest possible lines and tones;
+just enough to cause form, texture and effect to be felt. Every brush-
+touch must be full-charged with meaning, and useless detail eliminated.
+Put together all the good points in such a method, and you have the
+qualities of the highest art; for what more do we require of the master
+than simplicity, unity, powerful handling, and that mysterious force that
+lays hold upon the imagination. Why the Buddhist priests of the Zen sect
+became painters, and why they chose monochrome are questions involving a
+knowledge of the doctrines of Buddhism and of the Zen philosophy. It is
+sufficient to say here that contemplation of the powers and existences of
+external nature, with a spiritual interpretation of them, was the main
+occupation of Zen thought. Nature's lessons could be learned by bringing
+the soul to her, and letting it behold itself as in a mirror; the teaching
+could be passed on to others by means of art--mainly the art of landscape
+painting. Religious emotion was the spring of art-power in the East, as it
+was in the West. Landscape painting as religious art, has its parallel in
+Greek and Gothic sculpture, in Italian painting of the world-story, of the
+Nativity, the Passion, and the joys of heaven. Some of these priest-
+artists of the Zen, Mokkei, Kakei, Bayen in China; Shubun, Sesshu in
+Japan, rank with the great painters of all time. They, and such pupils as
+Sesson, Soami, Motonobu and Tanyu, were classic leaders who have given us
+the purest types of the art of ink-painting. To them we look for the truly
+artistic interpretation of nature; for dramatic, mysterious, elusive tone-
+harmony; for supreme skill in brush-work.
+
+     [Japanese sketch of the massing in a painting by an old master]
+
+Ink-painting is both an art and a craft; it has refinements and
+possibilities that can be realized only by working with a Japanese artist.
+He starts with a paper of low tone--it may be its natural state, or he may
+  wash it over with thin ink [No. 61. Painting and detail of painting by
+                                 SESSHU.]
+                        [No 62. An Ipswich Hill.]
+and color. Into this atmospheric undertone he plays gradations, sharp-
+edged strokes, drops of black, and vibrating washes,--only touching upon
+forms, but clearly marking planes of aerial perspective. No. 61.
+
+               [Sketch from a XVIIth century Japanese book]
+
+For experiments in ink-painting I recommend the Japanese paper called
+"toshi."
+
+If this is not within reach, a good substitute may be made by sizing
+manila paper with a thin solution of alum. Japanese paper should be wet,
+and pasted, by the edges, upon a board. Manila paper, after wetting, may
+be tacked upon a stretcher. Japanese ink and ink-stone, (Chapter II) round
+and flat brushes, soft charcoal, and a set of white dishes will be needed.
+Sketch in the subject lightly with the charcoal, dust it off and draw the
+main lines with pale thin vermilion water color. Wash in the broad masses,
+relying upon strengthening by many overtones. Put in the darks last, being
+very careful that they are not too sharp-edged. No. 62.
+
+It is not possible for us to attain perfect mastery of Japanese materials
+and methods, but the study will train in appreciation of tone-composition,
+and in better handling of our own water color and oil. Good photogravures
+may now be obtained; in some cases the student may copy from originals in
+our museums.
+
+               [Sketch from a XVIIth century Japanese book]
+
+
+
+
+
+COLOR
+
+
+
+
+XIV.--COLOR THEORY
+
+
+
+Color, with its infinity of relations, is baffling; its finer harmonies,
+like those of music, can be grasped by the appreciations only, not by
+reasoning or analysis. Color, in art, is a subject not well understood as
+yet, and there are violent differences of opinion among artists, teachers
+and critics, as to what constitutes good color-instruction. The most that
+I can do here is to outline a simple method of study. The usual advice of
+the academic painter to "keep trying," is discouraging to the beginner and
+increases his confusion; it is not in accord with good sense either, for
+the other arts are not attacked through timid and aimless experiment. An
+artist may say that a certain group of colors is a harmony; the pupil
+cannot see it, but he takes the master's word for it. The artist is not
+teaching successfully unless he points the way to appreciation, however
+hard or long it may be.
+
+A systematic study of line and tone is very profitable, as we have seen; I
+believe that color may be approached in like manner, and I shall attempt
+now to relate the treatment of the color-element (chapter I) to that of
+the other two, and to give some results of personal experience.
+
+Those who have but little time for work in color, can spend it best in
+copying, under guidance, examples of acknowledged excellence, like
+Japanese prints, Oriental rugs, and reproductions of masterpieces. Contact
+with these, even looking at them (if the pupil is taught what to look
+for), will strengthen the powers of color perception. In schools where the
+art periods are short and few, this may be the only method possible. (See
+p. 13 and chap. XVI.) For those who intend to use color in creative work a
+certain amount of theory is indispensable, as it simplifies the subject
+and opens up a few definite lines of research. The word "theory" has
+become a kind of academic bugbear, yet Leonardo da Vinci said that the
+painter who works without a theory is like the sailor who goes to sea
+without a compass. Well-ordered thought is as necessary in art as in any
+other field. Theory is a help to clear thinking and gives direction and
+purpose to practice. Color, however complicated, may be reduced to three
+simple elements:
+
+      HUE,--as yellow, blue-green,
+      NOTAN (or Value),--as dark red, light red,
+      INTENSITY (or Bright-to-gray-ness)--as intense blue, dull blue.
+
+Color harmony depends upon adjustments in this three-fold nature. If a
+color-scheme is discordant, the fault may be discovered in,--wrong
+selection of hues or weak values, or ill-matched intensities, or all
+three. This simple classification reduces the perplexities that beset the
+student, by showing him where to look for the cause of failure. The words
+"Value" and "Chroma" are used in this connection by Albert H. Munsell, to
+whose book "A Color Notation" the reader is referred for a very convincing
+exposition of color theory.
+
+Mr. Munsell has invented a photometer to measure values of light and
+color, and has prepared scales, spheres, charts and pigments for school
+use. My own experiments in making circles of hues and scales of notan and
+intensities, were based upon the old theory--Red, Blue and Yellow as
+primaries, Green, Orange and Violet as secondaries, etc. At that time
+(1890) the progression from bright to gray was not recognized as a
+distinct element of color, but in art-educational works difference of
+intensity was confused with dark-and-light; spectra for school use
+contained hues in violent contrast as to brilliancy and value.
+
+Science determined long since that the fundamental color impressions are
+not red, blue and yellow, but Red, Green and Violet-blue. Mr. Munsell
+adopts these and two secondaries, Yellow and Purple--five hues in all--as
+the basis of all color expression in art. This seems very simple and quite
+sufficient for working out all problems in color scheming. Note.
+Experiments as outlined below, are intended only to set the student
+thinking, in an orderly way, about the three dimensions of color.
+
+                          [Dimensions of Color]
+
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+HUE. To judge of the effect of one hue upon another, arrange the whole
+five, Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple, in a circle making them equal in
+value and equal in degree of brightness, thus eliminating notan and
+intensity. In the centre of the circle (N) paint a note of middle value,
+chosen from the scale, p. 88. Then paint the other divisions R, Y, G, B, P
+with the five hues. When this is well done if the circle were photographed
+upon a color-blind plate, the result would be a flat tone of middle gray.
+No pigment is of the exact quality needed; red that is neither yellow-red
+nor purple-red can be mixed from Vermilion and Crimson; Prussian Blue is
+greenish, New Blue is reddish; some pigments are too light, others too
+dark. This exercise requires study of great importance to the painter,
+giving him a better acquaintance with his materials.
+
+Next, make a circle of intermediates, No. 63, by mixing adjoining hues;
+this gives five more notes--yellow-red, green-yellow, blue-green, purple-
+blue, red-purple. Bear in mind that these circles are only statements of
+relations, of the same use as a scale. The question now is of the art-use
+of them, of composing a harmony with them.
+
+APPLICATION. Choose a line-design, and paint the spaces with colors from
+the second circle. The effect will be peculiar because there are no
+differences of dark-and-light or intensity; the only harmony possible
+comes from interplay of hues, a kind of iridescence and vibration; see
+opposite page.
+
+Colors that stand opposite in circle--as blue, yellow-red; or red, blue-
+green--will, if placed side by side, increase each other's power and
+produce violent contrast. Opposition of Color is analogous to Opposition
+of Line (page 21) and Opposition of Notan (black and white). To unite
+these extremes of difference, bring in a third hue related to each, for
+example,--red, green-yellow, blue-green; yellow, yellow-red, purple-blue.
+This is the principle of Transition (page 22); see also page 82, three
+values.
+
+Practice in composing with few and simple elements, of deciding when
+contrasting colors are of equal value, or equal intensity, is of direct
+use in art. The landscape painter opposes the whole sky to the whole
+ground; he wants a vibration of color in each, without disturbing the
+values; the designer in stained glass sometimes desires to fill a space
+with iridescent color, perhaps as a background for figures.
+
+The student may, if he likes, use black with these colors, producing a
+very brilliant effect like a Cairo window; but here the hues are measured
+against black, rather than against each other. In No. 63 are shown two
+experiments in composing with HUE.
+
+NOTAN of COLOR. Draw in outline six scales, as shown in the diagram. Paint
+N in white, black and three grays (see page 88). In the spaces marked (a)
+paint each of the five hues--red, yellow, green, blue and purple, middle
+value and equal intensity.
+
+                             [Notan of Color]
+
+Next, paint a lighter value (b) and a darker (c) making a notan-scale of
+each hue,--light red, middle red, dark red, etc. Observe that intensity
+diminishes toward light and dark. If the intermediates, yellow-red, green-
+yellow and the rest, are also arranged in this way from light to dark, you
+will have a set of notes for application in composition.
+
+APPLICATION. A line design may now be colored from one of the scales, say
+Blue. Hue and Intensity being eliminated, the whole effort is centred upon
+notan of color. This is an exercise in three values (page 83) using color
+instead of neutral gray. No. 64, p. 105.
+
+                       [No. 63. Color Theory, HUE.]
+                 [No. 64. Color Theory, NOTAN of Color.]
+         [No. 64. Color Theory, INTENSITY, scales and exercises.]
+
+More applications can be made than in the case of Hue; historic art is
+full of them. Dutch tiles, Japanese prints and blue towels, Abruzzi
+towels, American blue quilts, etc., are examples of harmony built up with
+several values of one hue. With two hues innumerable variations are
+possible. Japanese prints of the "red and green" period are compositions
+in light yellow-red, middle green, black, and white. Other examples can be
+easily found in the world's art. The student should apply the scale-notes
+to his own designs, not using, at this stage, more than two hues, with
+perhaps black and white.
+
+INTENSITY. Color varies not only in hue and value, but in
+intensity,--ranging from bright to gray. Every painter knows that a
+brilliant bit of color, set in grayer tones of the same or neighboring
+hues, will illuminate the whole group,--a distinguished and elusive
+harmony. The fire opal has a single point of intense scarlet, melting into
+pearl; the clear evening sky is like this when from the sunken sun the
+red-orange light grades away through yellow and green to steel-gray.
+
+This rarely beautiful quality of color can be better understood by
+isolating it and testing it in designs (as has been done with each
+principle, from Line onward; see page 21).
+
+Paint a scale with one hue, say Vermilion, keeping each space of the same
+value, but grading the intensity down to neutral gray.
+
+APPLICATION. Arrange these notes in a line design. As Hue and Notan are
+eliminated, the only harmony will be that of bright points floating in
+grayish tones (No.65). Other hues may be scaled and tested in like manner.
+Combine two hues in one design, all values equal,--adding contrast of hue
+to contrast of intensity. Examples abound in painting. To cite a few: the
+element of intensity gives breadth and tonal harmonies in stained glass,
+Persian rugs, Cazin's foregrounds, the prints of Harunobu, Kiyonaga and
+Shunsho.
+
+COMPOSITIONS in HUE, NOTAN, INTENSITY. In all color-schemes these three
+will be found in combination. Analysis of a few compositions will be worth
+while; for example, the print, No. 69, p. 124, and the print and textile,
+page 13. Note (1) the number of hues; (2) the number of values of each
+hue, whether dark, light or medium; (3) the degrees of intensity of each
+hue, whether very bright, bright, medium or dull; (4) the quantity of each
+color and its distribution in the design; (5) the amount and effect of
+black, white and neutral gray. For a simple exercise in composition the
+student might color a line design in several ways, using three hues,
+varying the dark-and-light distribution and the quantity of bright and
+gray tones. Follow this with other designs in color.--flower panels,
+repeating patterns, figures in costume, and landscape. A little of this
+kind of work will cultivate good judgment as to color relations, and will
+stimulate invention. Color Theory does not ensure harmony but is a help
+toward it, as it shows where balance and adjustment are needed.
+
+Note. It is next to impossible to reproduce colors with perfect accuracy,
+and even if the hues, values and intensities could be exactly copied, it
+is doubtful if the inks would remain absolutely unchanged for a great
+length of time. The plates of Color Theory here shown are intended only as
+statements of the fundamental color-relations. They are not scientifically
+accurate, nor do they need to be,-they are to be used in art, not in
+science. Their purpose is to show the pupil how to study color, how to
+make scales and apply them in art, rather than to furnish a standard to be
+copied.
+
+                 ["The Gundalow", study in three values.]
+                   [No. 66. Color derived from NOTAN.]
+
+
+
+
+XV.--COLOR DERIVED FROM NOTAN
+
+
+
+One approach to Color may be through Notan, either before or after
+studying color theory. By clustering lines tone is produced (page 54); by
+tingeing neutral grays Color is produced. In monochrome itself fine
+relations of notan will suggest color. Japanese ink painters enhance the
+harmonies of tone-composition by mingling slight quantities of hue with
+the ink. Faint washes of yellow in foregrounds, of green in foliage, of
+blue in sea and sky, of red and other colors in buildings and costumes,
+convey impressions of full color-keys.
+
+Etchers and lithographers often add a few touches of color not only as a
+contrast to the grays, but to cause the beholder to imagine the whole
+color-scheme. The effect of modifying neutrals with hue may be observed in
+the following
+
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Prepare a set of three gray washes, light, medium, and dark (page 83) in
+three white dishes. Japanese ink will not mix with our water colors; use
+Ivory Black with a touch of Burnt Sienna to bring it to neutrality.
+
+Having settled upon a color arrangement for some simple design, mix a
+small quantity of color into each dish. Suppose the subject to be a tulip
+panel in three values:
+
+   1. Leaves--middle yellow-green
+   2. Flower--middle red-yellow
+   3. Background--light yellow
+
+Add to 1st dish a yellow green (Prussian Blue and Gamboge); to the 2nd
+Vermilion and Gamboge; to the 3rd Raw Sienna. Paint these notes upon the
+design. (See opposite page.) Make a half dozen tracings of the same
+design. As each one is painted add more color to the washes until the last
+one has a very small quantity of gray. The result is a series in which
+color grows gradually from neutrals. No. 66. Next, use bright and gray
+tones of the same hue, an effect like faded rugs and age-stained Japanese
+prints. Dulling colors with gray may not harmonize them. One who
+appreciates fine quality is not deceived by those who "antique" rugs or
+prints with coffee and chemicals. A design poor in proportion, weak in
+notan and harsh in color cannot be saved by toning--the faults are only a
+little less apparent.
+
+
+
+ONE HUE and NEUTRALS. Another approach to color, from notan, is through
+substitution of hues for grays. This might (in a short course) follow
+exercises in five or more values (page 89.) Referring now to the scales of
+five and seven values, for application to a design, substitute a hue for
+one of these grays, carefully keeping the value. If the subject be a
+variation of a Coptic textile, a warm red or yellow-green may be chosen;
+for a flower panel, bright yellow, yellow-red or emerald green. Excellence
+in result will depend upon distribution of the one hue among neutral
+tones.
+
+Examples are many; two kinds only need be mentioned now,--American Indian
+pottery, and landscapes in black, gray and vermilion red from Hokusai's
+"Mangwa," (p. 57.)
+
+ONE HUE in TWO and THREE VALUES. The next step would be to replace two
+grays with two values of one hue, making scales like these:
+
+      White White
+      Light green
+      Middle green
+      Dark gray
+      Black
+
+      White
+      Light purple
+      Middle gray
+      Dark purple
+      Black
+
+Follow by eliminating all the grays, and the scale might be like this:
+
+      White
+      Light blue-green
+      Middle blue-green
+      Dark blue-green
+      Black
+
+Choice of color will depend upon the nature of the design. The medium may
+be crayon, wash, opaque water color or oil paint.
+
+TWO and THREE HUES. If two hues are introduced the complexity will be
+greater, but there will be more chances for invention and variation. With
+at least ten hues to choose from--R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, RP--each
+one of which might have perhaps four degrees of intensity (from very
+bright to dull) the student has material to compose in any key. Two
+typical scales are given below:
+
+Two hues--
+
+      White
+      Light yellow
+      Middle gray
+      Dark green
+      Black
+
+Three hues--
+
+      White
+      Light yellow
+      Middle gray-green
+      Dark gray-purple
+      Black
+
+
+
+HARMONY
+
+
+Will the exercises in the foregoing chapters ensure a harmony? No, they
+are only helps to a better understanding of color. Harmony depends upon
+(a) good line design, (b) choice of hues, (c) quantity of each, (d) a
+dominating color, (e) notan values, (f) fine relations of intensity, (g)
+quality of surface, (h) handling. All these in perfect synthesis will be
+found in the works of the greatest masters. It is also true that simple
+harmonies are not difficult to realize, as is witnessed by primitive art
+and the best work of students.
+
+With practice in the ways suggested here, two other things are
+necessary,--advice from an experienced and appreciative instructor, and
+acquaintance with fine examples of color.
+
+  [No. 67.  Color schemes from Japanese prints--Applications to Design.]
+
+
+
+
+XVI.--COLOR SCHEMES FROM JAPANESE PRINTS AND FROM TEXTILES
+
+
+
+In the quest for harmony, what better course could be taken than to copy
+harmonies? Nothing so sharpens color perception as contact with the best
+examples. The attempt to reach a master's style, peculiar color-feeling,
+refinements of tone and methods of handling, brings both knowledge and
+appreciation. For ordinary use Japanese prints are most convenient and
+inspiring color-models.
+
+COPYING JAPANESE PRINTS. In the best of these the color has a peculiar
+bloom due to the process of printing from wood blocks. The paper is
+pressed upon forms cut on the flat side of a board; the grain of the wood,
+the rough surface of the "baren" with which the paper is rubbed down, and
+the fibrous texture of the paper combine to make a luminous vibrating
+tone. Particles of color lie upon the tops of silken filaments, allowing
+the undertone of the paper to shine through,--precisely the quality sought
+by painters in using a rough canvas and thin washes, or thick color put on
+with small brushes. In the print the vibration is not obvious, but the
+effect is that of color over which floats a thin golden envelope.
+
+Ordinary charcoal paper is good for copies, as it has a roughness that
+aids in producing atmospheric tones. Rub a slight quantity of charcoal
+over the surface, very lightly; wipe it off with chamois or cotton rag,
+leaving little points of black in the hollows of the paper.
+
+Isolate the desired color-passage, by cutting an opening in a sheet of
+white paper and laying it upon the face of the print. Copy with washes of
+water color. If the print is age-stained, tone your charcoal paper with
+Raw Sienna and Ivory Black.
+
+AUTHORS. Good color-schemes can be found anywhere in the range of Japanese
+color-printing, from Okumura Masanobu in the middle of the XVIIIth century
+to modern days, but the rarity and great value of early prints puts them
+out of reach of those who have not access to museum collections. I can
+mention here but a few names, with which the student is most likely to
+meet:
+
+Torii Kiyonobu and his fellows of the "red-and-green period" (first half
+of the XVIIIth century); Harunobu, Koriusai, Kiyonaga and Shunsho, who
+worked in sunny yellows and reds, pearly greens and pale purples, often
+most cleverly opposed with transparent black and cool silvery grays; then
+Utamaro and Toyokuni I., strong but less fine.
+
+Among XLXth century men Hiroshige (page 13) and Hokusai are preeminent as
+colorists. Both have strongly influenced Occidental painters. Hiroshige
+designed series after series of prints,--scenes famous for their beauty or
+historic interest; stations on the two great highways, the Tokaido and the
+Kisokaido; effects of wind, rain, snow and twilight; flowers, birds, and a
+few figures. He would recompose the same series again and again in
+different size and color-scheme. His design is full of delightful
+surprises; his artistic power and inventiveness are astonishing. A
+prodigious amount of work is signed by his name; some critics hold that
+there was a second, and even a third Hiroshige, but Fenollosa believed in
+one only, whose manner naturally varied during a long life (1790--1858).
+
+Hokusai's color is strange and imaginative; sometimes delicate almost to
+neutrality, sometimes startling and daring. His pupils Hokkei, Hokuju and
+the rest are more gentle.
+
+The figure prints most commonly seen are by Kunisada (Toyokuni II),
+Kuniyoshi and other pupils of Toyokuni I., and Keisai Yeisen. Here, as in
+most Japanese figure prints, color effects are produced by skilful
+combinations of patterns upon costumes. Every kind of color-key is
+possible, by this means, with infinite variations;--impressionist painting
+with wood blocks. The student is warned that poor prints
+abound,--impressions from worn-out blocks, cheap modern reprints, and
+imitations. Bright, fresh color, however, need not be taken to mean
+imitation; some of the early editions have been kept in albums in store
+houses, and the color has not changed. Experience and appreciation are
+after all the only safeguards.
+
+APPLICATION. Having made the copy of the color-scheme, apply the same
+colors to several tracings of one design, (No. 67). One of the things
+taught by this exercise is that distribution and proportion of color
+affect harmonic relations. Colors that harmonize as they stand in the
+print may seem discordant when used in different quantities; they will
+surely be so if the design is badly spaced. With a good design, and
+correct judgment as to hue, notan and intensity, the chances are that each
+variation will be satisfactory.
+
+Copies from Hiroshige are of special value to the landscape painter. These
+may be made in oil as a study of quality and vibration. The procedure is a
+little different from the preceding. It is better, in oil painting, to
+copy whole prints. Over the surface of a large rough canvas scrub a thin
+gray, of the color of the paper of the print. Draw the design in a few
+vigorous lines, omitting all details. Paint in, at arm's length, the
+principal color notes, not covering the whole surface or filling in
+outlines. Mix colors beforehand, taking time to copy each hue and value
+exactly. The painting, with each color ready upon the palette, should be
+swift and vigorous. Place the print above the canvas; stand while
+painting; make comparisons at a distance.
+
+Copying Japanese prints is recommended for practice in color; it does not
+replace nature-painting or original design, though it will be a help to
+both.
+
+COPYING COLOR from TEXTILES. The exercises described above may be taken
+with textiles. Beauty of color in the finest of these is due to good
+composition, the softening of dust and age-stain, and the atmospheric
+envelope caused by reflection of light from the minute points of the web.
+For some kinds of textile the charcoal paper, as above, may be useful; for
+others, gray paper and wax crayons.
+
+The latter are excellent for copying rugs and can be used in original
+designs for rugs.
+
+As to models, work from originals in museums,--Persian carpets and rugs,
+Coptic and Peruvian tapestries, mediaeval tapestries, Italian, Spanish and
+French textiles XIIIth to XVIIIth centuries, etc. In the "rag-fairs" of
+Europe, and in antique shops, one may find scraps of the woven and printed
+stuffs of the best periods. The South Kensington Museum has published
+colored reproductions of textiles. Art libraries will have Fischbach's,
+Mumford's, the Kelekian Collection and others in full color.
+
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION
+
+
+
+
+XVII.--IN DESIGN AND PAINTING
+
+
+
+The test of any system of art-study lies in what you can do with it.
+Harmony-building has been the theme of the foregoing pages, with
+progressive exercises in structural line, dark-and-light and color. The
+product should be power,--power to appreciate, power to do something worth
+while. Practice in simple harmonies gives control of the more complex
+relations, and enables one to create with freedom in any field of art.
+Such training is the best foundation for work in design, architecture, the
+crafts, painting, sculpture and teaching. After this should come special
+training; for the designer, architect, craftsman, study of historic
+styles, severe drill in drawing (freehand and mechanical), knowledge of
+materials; for the painter and sculptor, long practice in drawing and
+modelling, acquirement of technique; for the teacher, drill in drawing,
+painting, designing and modelling, study of educational principles,
+knowledge of school conditions and public needs, practice teaching. In a
+word, first cultivate the mind, set the thoughts in order, utilize the
+power within; then the eye and the hand can be trained effectively, with a
+definite end in view. The usual way, in our systems of art-instruction, is
+to put drill first, leaving thought and appreciation out of account.
+
+Applications of structural principles are many; I can mention and
+illustrate but a few:
+
+
+
+WOOD BLOCK PRINTING
+
+
+FOR STUDY OF PATTERN AND COLOR. The art of wood block printing has been
+practised for ages in Oriental countries. Our word "calico" is from the
+name of an Indian town, Calicut, whence printed patterns were brought to
+England. The older Indian designs, now very rare, had great beauty of line
+and color. These ancient cotton prints are used by the Japanese for outer
+coverings of pieces of precious pottery,--first a silk brocade bag, then
+one of Indian calico enveloping a wooden box in which is the bowl wrapped
+in plain cotton cloth. The process of wood block printing is very simple,
+and in my opinion of special educational value. After observation of the
+craft in India in 1904 I determined to introduce it into art courses--both
+for adults and children. The method is outlined below:
+
+   1. Design the pattern in pencil or ink.
+   2. Draw the unit, with attention to its shape and proportions and the
+      effect when repeated.
+   3. Paste this face down upon a wood block; pine, gum wood, or a hard
+      wood of close grain.
+             [No. 68. COMPOSITION XVII--Wood Block Printing.]
+      [No. 69. The Marsh Creek.  Wood block print by Arthur W. Dow.]
+   4. Cut away the white spaces, clearing with a gouge. As the block is to
+      be used as a stamp, the corners and all outside the design, must be
+      removed.
+   5. Printing. Lay a piece of felt upon a slate, or upon a glass, pour a
+      few drops of mucilage upon the felt, and mix with it either common
+      water color, or dry color. Distribute this evenly with a flat
+      bristle brush. Make a large pad, say 22 x 28 or 14 x 20, by tacking
+      cambric upon a drawing board. Under the cambric should be one
+      thickness of felt.
+
+PRINTING on PAPER. A slightly rough absorbent surface prints well.
+Wrapping paper can be found in many colors, tones and textures, and is
+inexpensive. Damp paper will give clear-cut impressions.
+
+Lay the paper upon the large pad; charge the block upon the small pad, and
+stamp the pattern. If the impression is poor, the cause may be:--(a) Face
+of block is not level; rub it upon a sheet of fine sand-paper; (b) large
+pad is uneven; (c) paper is wrinkled or is too glossy; (d) color is too
+thick or too wet. Practice will overcome these small difficulties.
+
+PRINTING on CLOTH. The best effects are obtained with dyes, but their
+manipulation is not easy, and their permanence is doubtful unless one has
+expert knowledge of the processes of dyeing. The most convenient medium
+for the student is oil color thinned with turpentine (to which may be
+added a very little acetic acid and oil of wintergreen). This, when dry,
+is permanent and can be washed,--but not with hot water or strong soap.
+
+With the design in fixed form upon the block, effort can be concentrated
+upon the make-up of the pattern, and the color-harmony. By cutting a block
+for each color the designer may vary the schemes almost to infinity. Where
+choices are many and corrections easy, invention can have free play.
+
+Examples of students' printing on paper are given on page 121.
+
+PICTURE PRINTING is a more difficult, but fascinating form of this art-
+craft. Here must be gradation, transparent and vibrating color,
+atmospheric over-tone binding all together. For these qualities the
+Japanese process is best, with its perfected tools and methods. In theory
+it is very simple: The outline is drawn in ink upon thin paper, and the
+sheet pasted face down upon the flat side of a board; the block is then
+engraved with a knife and gouges, the drawing being left in relief; the
+paper is removed from the lines with a damp cloth, and the block charged
+with ink. Dry black mixed with mucilage and water, or any black water
+color will answer. For charging, the Japanese use a thick short brush,--a
+round bristle brush will serve the purpose. When ink is scrubbed evenly
+over the whole surface, the block is ready for printing. A sheet of
+Japanese paper, slightly dampened, is laid upon the block and rubbed
+gently with a circular pad called a "baren." This wonderful instrument
+draws the ink up into the paper, giving a clear rich soft line. The baren
+is made of a leaf of bamboo stretched over a saucer-like disk of
+pasteboard, within which is coiled a braided fibre-mat.
+
+If the block has been properly cleared, and the baren is moved in level
+sweeps, the paper will not be soiled by ink between the lines. After
+printing a number of outlines the colors are painted upon them and color-
+blocks engraved. It is possible to have several colors upon the same
+board, if widely separated. Accurate registry is obtained by two marks at
+the top of the board and one at the side. The paper must be kept of the
+same degree of moisture, otherwise it will shrink and the last impressions
+will be out of register.
+
+Dry colors mixed with water and a little mucilage, or better still, common
+water colors, may be used. No. 69 is a reproduction of a print made in the
+Japanese way. (In 1895 I exhibited at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts a
+collection of my wood block prints. Professor Fenollosa wrote the
+introduction to the catalogue, discussing the possibilities, for color and
+design, of this method, then new to America. In "Modern Art" for July,
+1896, I described the process in full, with illustrations, one in color.)
+
+STENCILLING, like wood block printing, invites variation of rhythm and
+color combination. Stencilling is often done without sufficient knowledge
+of the craft. The student should understand that a stencil is simply a
+piece of perforated water proof paper or metal to be laid upon paper or
+cloth and scrubbed over with a thick brush charged with color; long
+openings must be bridged with "ties," and all openings must be so shaped
+that their edges will remain flat when the brush passes over them.
+
+                           [Japanese Stencil.]
+
+Stencil units are usually large, offering good opportunities for
+Subordination (page 23), Symmetry, and Proportion (page 28). A unit must
+not only be complete in itself but must harmonize with itself in
+Repetition (pp. 36, 66). Stencils may be cut upon thick manila paper which
+is then coated with shellac; or upon oiled paper. If stencil brushes
+cannot be obtained one may use a common, round, house-painter's brush,
+wound with string to within an inch of the end.
+
+Colors may be,--oil thinned with turpentine; dyes; or dry colors ground on
+a slab with water and mucilage. Charge the brush with thin, thoroughly
+mixed pigment; if there is too much it will scrape off under the edges of
+the stencil and spoil the print. Unprinted wall paper ("lining paper") is
+cheap and very satisfactory for stencilling. It should be tinted with a
+thin solution of color to which a little mucilage has been added. Use a
+large flat brush about four inches wide, applying the color with rapid
+vertical and horizontal strokes.
+
+COLORED CHARCOAL. This is a further development of the method described in
+Chapter XIII (see also page 113). Lay in the picture in light values of
+charcoal, remembering that the colorwashes will darken every tone. Too
+much rubbing with the stump gives muddiness, too little charcoal may
+weaken the values and you will have a "washout." When the notan-scheme is
+right, the drawing may be fixed. It can be colored without fixing if the
+stump has been used.
+
+Color is applied in thin washes allowing the charcoal texture to shine
+through. Notan plays the larger part, furnishing the structure of the
+composition and giving a harmonic basis for the color. If the hues are
+well-chosen, the result should be a harmony of atmospheric depth, with
+soft but glowing colors.
+
+PAINTING in FULL COLOR. In a book devoted to the study of art-structure
+not much space can be given to comparison of mediums, or to professional
+problems of technique in advanced painting. They will be mentioned to show
+the unity of the progressive series, to suggest to the student some lines
+of research and experiment, and to help him in choosing his field of art-
+work.
+
+WATER COLOR. This medium is used in many different ways: as a thin
+transparent stain, like the work of David Cox, Cotman, De Wint; as a
+combination of opaque color and wash, with which J. M. W. Turner painted
+air, distance, infinity, the play of light over the world; as flat wash
+filling in outlines, like the drawings of Millet and Boutet de Monvel; as
+the modern Dutch use it, in opaque pastel-like strokes on gray paper, or
+scrubbed in with a bristle brush; as premier coup painting with no outline
+(both drawing and painting) like much Japanese work.
+
+In all these, line is the basis, whether actually drawn, as by Millet and
+Rembrandt, or felt, as by the Japanese and Turner. The best painting has
+form and character in every brush-touch.
+
+OIL COLOR. Instruction in oil painting is usually limited to what might be
+called drawing in paint. Of course the student must know his pigments, how
+to obtain hues and values by mixing, how to use brushes, how to sketch in,
+and all the elementary details,--but this is but a beginning. Expression of
+an idea or emotion depends upon appreciation of art structure; the point
+is not so much how to paint, as how to paint well. Artists often say that
+it matters not how you get an effect, if you only get it. This is
+misleading; it does matter,--the greatest painters get their effects in a
+fine way.
+
+Methods of handling oil color may be reduced to two general classes: (a)
+the paint is used thin, as a wash, on a prepared canvas, or (b) it is put
+on in thick opaque touches. In either case the aim is the same--to paint
+for depth, vibration, illusion of light and color. If brush strokes are to
+be left intact, each of them must have shape and meaning,--that is, line;
+if color is put on in a thin wash, then its value, gradation, hue and
+texture are the main points,--and these belong to structural harmony. Mural
+painting is the highest form of the art, demanding perfect mastery of
+Composition. The subject takes visible form in terms of Line; then is
+added the mystery, the dramatic counter-play of Notan, and the
+illumination of Color. The creative spirit moves onward absorbing in its
+march all drawing, perspective, anatomy, principles of design, color
+theory--everything contributing to Power.
+
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+I have not attempted to overthrow old systems, but have pointed out their
+faults while trying to present a consistent scheme of art study. The
+intention has been to reveal the sources of power; to show the student how
+to look within for the greatest help; to teach him not to depend on
+externals, not to lean too much on anything or anybody. Each subject has
+been treated suggestively rather than exhaustively, pointing out ways of
+enlargement and wide application. If some subjects have seemed to receive
+rather scant attention it is not because I am indifferent to them, but
+because I did not wish to depart from the special theme of the book; some
+of these will be considered in future writings. The book will have
+accomplished its purpose if I have made clear the character and meaning of
+art structure--if the student can see that out of a harmony of two lines
+may grow a Parthenon pediment or a Sorbonne hemicycle; out of the rude
+dish of the Zuni a Sung tea-bowl, out of the totem-pole a Michelangelo's
+"Moses"; that anything in art is possible when freedom is given to the
+divine gift APPRECIATION.
+
+
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPOSITION***
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