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      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Our English Towns and Villages,
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<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 45367 ***</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>

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  <img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" width="300" height="400"
   alt="Book cover"/>
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<h1>OUR ENGLISH<br />

TOWNS AND VILLAGES
</h1>


<hr class="chap" />


<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>

<p class="bold-large">OUR ENGLISH<br />

TOWNS AND VILLAGES</p>

<p class="space-above-a">BY<br />

<big><big>H. R. WILTON HALL</big></big></p>

<p class="library">Library Curator, Hertfordshire County Museum; Sub-Librarian
St. Alban's Cathedral, &amp;c. Author of "Hertfordshire: a Reading-Book
of the County", &amp;c.</p>

<div class="poem"><div class="title-poem">
<span class="i0">I do love these ancient ruins,&mdash;</span>
<span class="i0">We never tread upon them but we set</span>
<span class="i0">Our foot upon some reverend history.</span>
</div></div>

<p class="space-above-b">LONDON<br />
BLACKIE &amp; SON, <span class="smcap">Limited</span>, 50 OLD BAILEY, E.C.<br />
GLASGOW AND DUBLIN<br />
1906
</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</a></h2>


<p>Many things connected with the history of our
towns and villages have to be passed over in an
ordinary school history reader. In the following
pages an attempt is made to call attention in simple
language, very broadly and generally, to connecting-links
with the past in our towns and villages.
There are many relics and customs yet remaining
in many places, which, with a little care and attention
to local circumstances, may be made helpful
in teaching history, so that it shall be something
more than a collection of names, dates, battles, and
lists of eminent persons.</p>

<p>The book is intended as a reader, not as a text-book
to be worked up for examination purposes.
Its aim is rather to arouse interest in the "why
and the wherefore" of things which can be seen
by an intelligent and observant boy or girl in the
place in which he or she lives: to do for history,
and the subjects connected with it, what "nature-lessons"
are intended to do in their "sphere of
influence". Attention is being directed to localities,
their special history, physical, political, industrial,
and commercial, as it has never been before in our
Educational history; and all that a special locality
can contribute in the way of illustration and exemplification
is worth knowing, understanding, and
utilising.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>

<p>It is hoped that this book may be of some service
in quickening intelligence in looking out for "things
to see". The observation which is directed to
noting the numbers on the motor cars, the names
of locomotives, and the collection of postage-stamps
and picture post-cards, can also be usefully turned,
say, to noting the styles of architecture which really
mark broadly great periods of our national life and
development; and may help us, perhaps more than
anything else, to arrange our ideas of the days of
old in a proper order and sequence. An old building
may be an excellent date-book.</p>

<p>The chapters are intended to be suggestive, not
exhaustive, and may be expanded by the teacher
in conversational or more formal lessons as his own
predilection, taste, and judgment shall direct.</p>

<p>Local and County Histories, Guide-books and
Hand-books will be found of great service to the
teacher in dealing with special districts. The
general subject embraces a very wide range of
literature, but amongst books readily accessible
may be mentioned <em class="italic">English Towns</em>, by E. H. Freeman;
<em class="italic">English Towns</em> and
<em class="italic">English Villages</em>, by
Rev. P. H. Ditchfield; and the Rev. Dr. Jessopp's
Essays in <em class="italic">The Coming of the Friars</em> and
<em class="italic">Studies
of a Recluse</em>.</p>

<p>In conclusion, the book is designed for older
scholars who already know something of the dry
bones of the history of England, and it is hoped
that it may do something towards covering those
dry bones with flesh, instinct with life and vigour.</p>

<p>
<span class="float-right">H. R. W. H.</span><br />
<span class="smcap">St. Alban's</span>, <em class="italic">December, 1905</em>.<br />
</p>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2>


<table id="toc" summary="Table of Contents">

  <tr>
    <td class="right"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span></td>
    <td></td>
    <td>Page</td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">I.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">II.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Men who lived in Caves and Pits</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">III.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">The Pit-Dwellers</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">IV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Earthworks, Mounds, Barrows, etc.</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">V.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">In Roman Times</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">VI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Early Saxon Times</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">VII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Early Saxon Villages</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">VIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Tuns and Vills</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">IX.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Tythings and Hundreds&mdash;Shires</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">X.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">The Early English Town</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">In Early Christian Times</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Monasteries</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Towns and Villages in the Time of Cnut
      the Dane</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XIV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Churches and Monasteries in Danish and
      Later Saxon Times</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Later Saxon Times</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XVI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">In Norman Times</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XVII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">In Norman Times</span> (<i>continued</i>)</td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XVIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">In Norman Times: The Churches</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XIX.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Castles</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XX.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Castles and Towns</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">In Norman Times: The Monasteries</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Early Houses</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Early Houses</span> (<i>continued</i>)</td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXIV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Early Town Houses</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Life in the Towns of the Middle Ages</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXVI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">The Growing Power of the Towns</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXVII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">The Villages, Manors, Parishes, and Parks</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
    <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXVIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Traces of Early Times in the Churches</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXIX.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Traces of Early Times in the Churches</span>
      (<i>continued</i>)</td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXX.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Clerks</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Fairs</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Markets</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Schools</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXIV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Universities</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Changes brought about by the Black Death</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXVI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Wool</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXVII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">The Poor</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXVIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Changes in Houses and House-building</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XXXIX.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">The Ruins of the Monasteries and the New
      Buildings</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XL.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">The New Houses of the Time of Queen
      Elizabeth</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLI.</td>
    <td> <span class="smcap">Larger Elizabethan and Jacobean Houses</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Churches after the Reformation</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Building after the Restoration: Houses</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLIV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Building after the Restoration: Churches</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLV.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Schools after the Reformation</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLVI.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Apprentices</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLVII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Play</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLVIII.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Government</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
  </tr>

  <tr>
    <td class="right">XLIX.</td>
    <td><span class="smcap">Some Changes</span></td>
    <td class="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
  </tr>
</table>

<hr class="chap" />


<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="OUR_ENGLISH" id="OUR_ENGLISH">OUR ENGLISH
TOWNS AND VILLAGES</a></h2>


<hr class="chap" />

<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />

<small>INTRODUCTION</small></h2>


<p>1. A little boy, who had been born in a log cabin
in the backwoods of Canada, was taken by his
father, when he was about eight years old, to the
nearest settlement, for the first time in his life.
The little fellow had never till then seen any other
house than that in which he had been born, for the
settlement was many miles away. "Father," he
said, "what makes all the houses come together?"</p>

<p>2. Now that sounds a very strange and foolish
question to ask; but it is by no means as foolish a
question as it seems. Here, in England, there are
towns and villages dotted about all over the country.
Some of them are near the sea, on some big bay or
inlet; others stand a little farther inland on the
banks of tidal rivers; others are far away from the
sea, in sheltered valleys or on the sunny slopes of
hills; some stand in the midst of broad fertile
plains, while others are on the verge of bleak
lonely moorlands. What has made all the houses
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
in these towns and villages come together in these
particular spots? There must be a reason in every
case why a particular spot should have been chosen
in the first instance.</p>

<p>3. In trying to find an answer to this question
with reference to any town or village in our country
we have to go back, far back, into the past. We
may have to go back to ages long before there was
any written history. As we go back step by step
into the past we learn much of the people who have
lived before us&mdash;of their ways and their doings,
and of the part they played in the life and work of
the country.</p>

<p>4. The little Canadian boy's question can be
asked about every town and village in the land.
There are no two places exactly alike; each one
has its own history, which, however simple it may
be, is quite worth knowing. The busy manufacturing
town, with its tens and hundreds of thousands
of people, where all is movement and bustle, has
its history; and the lonely country village, where
everybody knows everybody else, has often a history
even more interesting than that of the big
town; if we only knew what to look for, and
where to look for it.</p>

<p>5. One summer day, a few years ago, a party of
tourists was climbing Helvellyn. One of the party
was an elderly gentleman, who was particularly
active, and anxious to get to the top. After several
hours' stiff climbing, the party reached the summit;
and there, spread out before them, was a lovely
view of hills and dales, of mountains and lakes.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
Most of the party gazed upon this fair scene in
quiet enjoyment; but our old gentleman, as soon as
he had recovered his breath, and mopped his red
face with his pocket-handkerchief, gave one look
round, and then said in a grieved tone: "Is that
all? Nothing to see! Wish I hadn't come."</p>

<p>6. He saw nothing interesting because he did
not know what to look for, and he might just as
well have stopped at the bottom. He came to see
nothing, <em class="italic">and he saw it</em>.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;All towns and villages in England have a
history. In every case there is a special reason why that
town or village grew up in that particular place. In trying
to find out how this came about we learn a great deal of the
history of the past, shown in old names, old buildings, old
manners and customs.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />

<small>MEN WHO LIVED IN CAVES AND PITS</small></h2>


<p>1. Man is a very ancient creature. It is a curious
fact that we have learned most of what we know
about the earliest men from the rubbish which they
have left behind them. Even nowadays, in this
twentieth century, without knowing much about a
boy personally, we can tell a good deal about his
habits from the treasures he turns out of his
pockets. Hard-hearted mothers and teachers call
these treasures rubbish, but the contents of a lad's
pockets are a pretty sure indication of the boy's
tastes.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>

<p>2. The earliest traces of the existence of man in
our part of the world are found in beds of gravel,
which in some places now are many feet above
the level of the sea. There, in the gravel, are the
roughly chipped stone tools and weapons which
those early men used; tools which they lost or
threw away. Almost every other trace has quite
disappeared. Remains belonging to the same period
have been noticed in caves in various parts of the
world.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img012.jpg" width="400" height="299"
    alt="Chipped Flint Weapons"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Chipped Flint Weapons
  </div>
</div>

<p>3. Here, in Britain, caves have been found where
these early men have left their stone implements
and remains of their rubbish. Some of the best-known
of such cave-dwellings in Britain are near
Denbigh and St. Asaph in North Wales; at Uphill
in Somersetshire; at King's Car and Victoria Cave
near Settle; at Robin Hood's Cave and Pinhole in
Derbyshire; in Pembrokeshire; in King Arthur's
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
Cave in Monmouthshire; at Durdham Down near
Bristol; near Oban; in the gravels in the valleys
of the Rivers Trent, Nore, and Dove; in the Irish
River Blackwater; near Caithness; and in a good
many other places.</p>

<p>4. So, you see, the remains of these early men
cover a pretty wide area. In the course of ages
rivers and seas have flowed over the places where
these stone tools had been dropped, and year after
year throughout the ages the drift brought down
by the rivers covered them inch by inch and foot
by foot. Great changes have taken place in the
surface of the land, some suddenly, but most of
them very, very slowly. The land has risen, and
sunk again, and long, long ages of sunshine and
storm, of ice and snow, of stormy wind and tempest,
have altered the surface of the country.</p>

<p>5. Those very ancient men, who lived in the
Early Stone Age, are called <em class="bold">Cave-Dwellers</em>, because
they lived apparently in caves, and <em class="bold">River-Drift Men</em>
and <em class="bold">Lake-Dwellers</em>, because the roughly chipped tools
are found in the <em class="italic">drift</em> of various rivers and lakes.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The earliest remains of man are found in
certain beds of gravel and in caves. They consist chiefly of
roughly chipped stone implements. Such <em class="italic">celts</em> are found in
all parts of England, and in caves in North Wales; in Somersetshire
at Uphill; in Yorkshire near Settle; in Derbyshire
at Robin Hood's Cave and Pinhole; in Pembrokeshire and
Monmouthshire; at Durdham Down near Bristol; near Oban;
and in the valleys of the Rivers Trent, Nore, and Dove; in
the Irish River Blackwater; and near Caithness. These men
are known as the River-Drift Men, the Cave-Dwellers, or
the Lake-Dwellers.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />

<small>THE PIT-DWELLERS</small></h2>


<p>1. Other remains not so ancient as these oldest
stone implements, but still very ancient, are found
nearer the surface than the remains of the River-Drift
Men. They are the remains of people who,
like the Drift Men, knew nothing of metals, and
used stone weapons and tools, but better made.
They had learned to shape and finish their tools
by rubbing, grinding, and polishing them, and were,
evidently, a more advanced race of men than the
Cave or Drift Men.</p>

<p>2. For the most part we have to go to somewhat
desolate parts of England to find traces of them
now. In fact, those traces would long ago have
disappeared had they not been in places which were
so wild and difficult to get at, that it was not worth
any man's while to cultivate them. The spade and
the plough would very soon remove all traces of
them. In fact, the plough <em class="italic">has</em> removed many traces
of these ancient men, and most of the specimens of
their tools and weapons, which you can see in
museums, were found by men employed in ploughing
and preparing the land for crops.</p>

<p>3. You must not suppose that we can fix a date
when these men first appeared, as we can fix an
exact date for the landing of Julius Cæsar, or the
sealing of Magna Carta. Neither can we say for
how many centuries they occupied land in what we
now call Britain. It was a long period, at any
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
rate, and during that time their manners and their
customs changed very, very slowly.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img015.jpg" width="400" height="327"
    alt="Polished Implements of Flint, Stone, &amp;c."/>
  <div class="caption">
     Polished Implements of Flint, Stone, &amp;c.<br />
     <span style="font-weight:normal">Polished Flint Wedge; Granite Wedge or Axe;
     Stone Axe; Stone Axe; Bone Comb; Flint Arrow Heads; Harpoon Head of Flint;
     Saw-edged Flint Knife; Circular-edged Flint Knife.</span>
  </div>
</div>

<p>4. The lowest forms of savage life seem very
much alike, all the world over. Savages are
hunters, and do not as a rule cultivate the soil.
Now hunters must follow their prey from place to
place, so that we should expect these early men to
have no settled homes. But even the earliest Pit
Men had advanced beyond this lowest stage, for
they had flocks and herds and dogs. No doubt
they hunted as well; but they were mainly a
pastoral people, and at first did not till the soil.
Races of men who did not till the soil are called
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
<em class="bold">Non-Aryan</em>. They chose for their settlements the
tops of hills, and avoided the narrow valleys and
low-lying lands.</p>

<p>5. The <em class="bold">Pit-Dwellers</em> are so called from the simple
fact that they had their homes in pits&mdash;not, however,
dug anywhere and anyhow. The hole in the
ground is the simplest notion of a house. When in
your summer holiday by the sea you see the little
boys and girls digging deep holes in the sand to
make "houses", they are doing in play what the
early Pit-Dwellers did in real earnest.</p>

<p>6. The pits were usually some six or eight feet
in diameter; and they probably had cone-shaped
roofs, formed by poles tied together, and covered
with peat. In the centre of the hut was the hearth,
which was made of flints carefully placed together.
The hut would hold two or three people, and the
fire on the hearth was its most important feature.
The hut in the centre of the group belonged to the
head of the family, and other huts were ranged
round it.</p>

<p>7. Surrounding the group was an earthen rampart
for further protection; and these earthworks
can still be traced in many parts of the country.
The huts have gone, of course, and all that can be
seen in most cases now is a number of circular
patches in the turf, slightly hollowed. People
living in the neighbourhood will very likely speak
of them as "fairy rings". It is from a careful
examination of these hollows that learned men
have been able to gather much information concerning
the habits of these Pit-Dwellers.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>

<p>8. We English folk speak proudly of "hearth
and home"; they are the centre of our social life,
and the idea has come down to us through all these
long, long ages. The hearth and the fire upon it
was the centre of the life of these men, and the
head of a family was also its priest.</p>

<p>9. Some of the best known of these pit-dwellings
are found near Brighthampton, in Oxfordshire; at
Wortebury, near Weston-super-Mare; and along
the Cotswolds, looking over the Severn Valley; and
at Hurstbourne, in Hampshire.</p>

<p>10. In the course of time this race seems to have
learned something in the way of cultivating the
ground. The hilltops, where they built their huts,
were only suited for their cattle, and in order to
find soil which they could till they had to go outside
their earthwork, and some distance down the
hill-slope. By their way of digging the ground
they gradually, in the course of many years, carved
broad terraces, one below the other, on the hillsides.
There are some very marked traces of such
terraces still to be seen near Hitchin and Luton.<a name="FNanchor_1_1"
id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>

<p>11. In the course of time&mdash;how long ago it is still
quite impossible to say&mdash;a race of men, more advanced
than these early Pit-Dwellers, found their
way to this part of the world. They were more
civilized, and were <em class="bold">Aryans</em>; that is, they were
cultivators of the soil. You may be pretty sure
that fighting took place between the two races.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>

<p>12. The newer race preferred to make their settlements
near running streams. In the middle of each
settlement there would be an open space, or meeting-ground,
usually a small hill or a mound, round
which their huts were built. Beyond this was the
garden-ground, then the ground where the grain
was grown, and beyond that the grazing-lands.
These men began cultivating at the bottom of the
hillsides and valleys, and as they required more
ground they would advance higher up the slopes.</p>

<p>13. Gradually to this race came the knowledge
of metals, and we reach the <em class="bold">Bronze Age</em>, and so,
step by step, we come to the <em class="bold">Iron Age</em>.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The remains of the Pit-Dwellers are found
on desolate heaths and moorlands. These men used stone
weapons, which they smoothed and polished. They had a
greater variety of tools than the Drift Men. They were a
non-Aryan race; that is, they did not till the soil. They
were a pastoral people; that is, they kept cattle. Their
settlements were on the hilltops. Their houses were pits,
covered with a rough kind of roof, and were placed in
clusters. In the centre of each dwelling was a hearth made
of stones. All that can be seen of them now are circular
hollows, often called "fairy rings". The clusters of huts were
usually enclosed by an earthen wall or rampart. In course
of time they learned to cultivate the ground. They worked
<em class="italic">downhill</em>, and carved out many hillsides into broad terraces,
which can still be traced in some places, as between Hitchin
and Luton. An Aryan race also found its way here. These
cultivated the soil, but their settlements were in the <em class="italic">valleys</em>,
near running streams. An Aryan settlement had an <em class="italic">open
space</em> in the centre, or meeting-ground. The huts were built
round this. Then came the garden-ground, and then the
grazing-lands. They began cultivating from the <em class="italic">bottom</em> of
the hills, and worked upwards. In time they learned the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
use of metal&mdash;bronze,&mdash;and gradually also they came to know
the value of iron.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />

<small>EARTHWORKS, MOUNDS, BARROWS, ETC.</small></h2>


<p>1. There are still remaining, in many parts of
the country, curious mounds and stones. We can
say very little about them here; but though learned
men have discovered much, there is still a good
deal to be explained concerning them. Old-world
stories put most of these strange objects down to
the work of witches, fairies, or giants; some ascribe
them to the Romans, or to Oliver Cromwell; others
even to the devil. But most of them really belong
to this period of which we are speaking&mdash;the very
early part of our history, of which there is no
written record.</p>

<p>2. <em class="bold">Earthworks</em> are of many kinds, but the very
earliest are usually found on hilltops. There are
some which enclose considerable spaces of ground,
bounded by an earthen rampart, with a ditch outside.
Sometimes there are two such ramparts.
Frequently they are spoken of as <em class="bold">British Towns</em> or
<em class="bold">British Camps</em>. They appear to have been enclosures
into which the cattle were driven in time of danger,
and in which a whole tribe could take refuge and
hold out against their enemies.</p>

<p>3. Then there are big mounds or heaps, called
<em class="bold">Barrows</em>. Some of these are oval in shape, and are
called <em class="bold">Long Barrows</em>; others are round, and are called
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
<em class="bold">Round Barrows</em>. The Long Barrows are thought to
be the older kind, and were apparently the burial-places
of great leaders. The Round Barrows were
also burial-places; but those who raised them
burned their dead. The great pyramids of Egypt
are barrows, only they are made of stone, not of
earth.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img020.jpg" width="400" height="476"
    alt="Round Barrow; Long Barrow; Twin Barrow"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Round Barrow; Long Barrow; Twin Barrow
  </div>
</div>


<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>

<p>4. The <em class="bold">circles of stones</em> at Stonehenge and Avebury
seem to have been connected with the worship
of these early people. There are many single stones,
especially in Cornwall and Wales, which also seem
to have been connected with religious rites; but of
this we know nothing for certain. In later times
they have served as boundary marks.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img021.jpg" width="400" height="275"
    alt="White Horse Hill"/>
  <div class="caption">
     White Horse Hill
  </div>
</div>

<p>5. In various parts of England there are deep
lanes or cuttings, which have received curious
local names. There are no less than twenty-two
such cuttings in different parts of England all
known as <em class="bold">Grim's Ditch</em>. These, no doubt, formed
boundaries, separating various tribes.</p>

<p>6. The <em class="bold">White Horse</em>, cut out of the slope of
Uffington Hill, and several similar objects in Wiltshire,
as well as the crosses&mdash;also cut in the turf&mdash;at
Whiteleaf and Bledlow, may also belong to this
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
period. Some learned men, however, have thought
that they are of a later date.</p>

<p>7. From these early men then the <em class="bold">Ancient Britons</em>
appear to have descended, and they were settled
here a good many centuries before the coming of
the Romans. Many of the wild tales and legends,
still told in country villages, about giants and fairies,
have come down to us from these early times.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;There are many curious mounds and stones,
about which wild tales are told. <em class="italic">Earthworks</em> are of various
kinds. Those enclosed by an earthen wall or rampart are
often called British towns or camps. They were places of
refuge. There are two kinds of <em class="italic">mounds</em>, called Long Barrows
and Round Barrows. Both were burial-places. The Long
Barrows belonged to the older race. <em class="italic">Stone circles</em>, like those
at Stonehenge and Avebury, had something to do with worship,
and there are many stones in Cornwall and Devon
which most likely were put to the same use. There are
twenty-two old trackway boundaries in England all called
Grim's Ditch. The <em class="italic">White Horse</em> and several other cuttings in
the turf possibly belong to this same period. The old legends
and tales about all these are worth keeping in mind, though
at present we do not understand them.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />

<small>IN ROMAN TIMES</small></h2>


<p>1. Here, then, at the time the Romans first came
to Britain were tribes of Britons who had been
established in the country for centuries, living their
lives according to the customs of their forefathers,
and more or less cultivating the land. The Romans
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
invaded the country, and, in time, subdued the
people. They remained masters here for nearly
four hundred years, but they did not make such a
permanent impression on this country as they did
in some countries which they conquered&mdash;as on
France and Spain, for instance.</p>

<p>2. We are to-day masters of India; but we have
not made India English, nor are we trying to do so.
The natives there go on cultivating the land according
to their custom from time out of mind.
They preserve their own manners, customs, and
religions. In places where they come much in contact
with our fellow-countrymen, they are influenced
to a certain degree; but in India to-day the English
and the natives lead their own lives, each race
quite apart from the others.</p>

<p>3. So it was with the Romans in Britain. They
formed colonies in various places and built towns
all over the land; they had country villas dotted
here and there, some little distance from the chief
towns, and built strong military stations in suitable
districts. These posts were kept in communication
by means of good roads. Many Britons must in
the course of time have adopted Roman ways and
Roman civilization; but the bulk of the Britons,
living away from the Roman centres, kept to their
own customs, and cultivated the ground in the way
their ancestors had done. They prospered, on the
whole, as the Romans kept the various tribes from
fighting with one another.</p>

<p>4. No doubt, in districts such as that which we
now call Hampshire, and along the Thames valley,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
where wealthy Romans had their country villas,
Roman methods of farming were in use. The
Britons would see something of Roman ways of
doing things, and, perhaps, tried to copy them.</p>

<p>5. But the Romans have not left many marks
upon our towns and villages. It is quite true that
a large number of our present towns and cities are
on the <em class="italic">sites</em> of, or near, Roman towns; but, in most
cases, we have to dig down into the earth to find
Roman remains. The most important Roman city,
Verulam, has quite disappeared; and the most complete
remains of a Roman town, Silchester, are near
to what is now a quiet country village. The
present cities of London, Winchester, Gloucester,
Lincoln, Chester, Carlisle, and the towns of Colchester
and Leicester, and several others, can hardly
be said to have sprung from Roman towns, though
they stand on their sites.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img033.jpg" width="500" height="340"
    alt="REMAINS OF A ROMAN HOUSE, EXCAVATED AT SILCHESTER"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. S. Victor White &amp; Co., Reading</span><br />
     REMAINS OF A ROMAN HOUSE, EXCAVATED AT SILCHESTER (page 24)
  </div>
</div>


<p>6. Most of the Roman cities were built in districts
where the Britons had been strong, or where they
were likely to give trouble. Carlisle and Gloucester
were, for instance, <em class="bold">military towns</em>, because they
were on the borders of the Roman territory. London
and Winchester were <em class="bold">trading cities</em>, and they
developed much in Roman times.</p>

<p>7. But, when the Roman power was withdrawn,
there was, in those cities at any rate, a British
population, which had adopted very extensively
Roman customs and ideas. For a time things went
on much as they had done while the Romans were
here; in fact, until the struggles with the Saxons
began.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>

<p>8. As a matter of fact, the coming of the Saxons
began a good while before the Romans actually left.
Various tribes of Saxons attacked different parts
of the coast. Colchester had to keep a sharp look-out
for them on the east coast; and the Romans
built Portchester Castle, in Hampshire, to guard
the south coast.</p>

<p>9. Christianity had found its way to Britain
during Roman times, and that helped in the work
of civilizing the Britons. But we do not know
very much of the early British Church. Christianity
probably made more headway among the population
in and near the Roman towns than in the
wilder districts. The foundations of an early
Christian church have been found at Silchester.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The Romans held Britain much as we hold
India. They did not interfere with the manners and customs,
or the religion, of the Britons. The Romans lived in their
towns and villas, the Britons in their own settlements.
Britons in and near Roman towns gradually adopted Roman
ways. Verulam was the chief Roman city, and there were
others at London, Winchester, Gloucester, Lincoln, Chester,
Carlisle, Colchester, &amp;c. These modern cities, though on
the <em class="italic">sites</em> of these Roman towns, have not sprung from the
Roman cities. The Saxons began to give trouble before the
Romans left. Christianity came in Roman times, and the
remains of a church have been found at Silchester, in Hants.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />

<small>EARLY SAXON TIMES</small></h2>


<p>1. The conquest of Britain by the Saxons took
a long time&mdash;considerably over one hundred and
fifty years. A great many people are born, and
live their lives, and die, in such a period of time as
that. It was only little by little that the various
tribes of Saxons got a footing in England. They
were the stronger and fiercer race, and the Britons
were gradually subdued or driven into the mountainous
regions by them.</p>

<p>2. Those early tribes of Saxons, who came to
Britain, brought with them their own special
manners and customs. As they settled down, the
face of the country was gradually changed by them.
They disliked and suspected everything Roman, and
destroyed the towns and villas. They hated the
idea of walled towns. These, therefore, were left in
ruins; and the great highways, being neglected in
most places, were, in the course of years, overgrown
with brushwood and hidden in thick forests.</p>

<p>3. In some parts of the country the Saxons seem
to have completely swept the Britons away, and
almost all traces of them vanished; but, in other
parts, there certainly were some of them left, because
we have still their marks upon our language.
Although most of the <em class="bold">place-names</em> in use now are
Saxon or Danish, there are still a good many of
British, or partly British, origin.</p>

<p>4. The names of many of our rivers are British
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
or Celtic, such as Axe, Exe, Stour, Ouse, and Yare.
So are many names of hills; and, in some parts of
the country, the names of the villages are partly
British and partly Saxon. Take, for instance, such
a common name as Ashwell. Some learned men
think that it is made up of two words, <em class="bold">Ash</em> and
<em class="bold">Well</em>, both meaning pretty much the same thing,
<em class="italic">ash</em> being British for "water", and
<em class="italic">well</em> being
Saxon for "watering-place". Now, if the Saxons
had quite got rid of the Britons, they would not
have known that a particular place was called
"Ash"&mdash;they learned to call it "Ash" from the
natives, but they did not know what it meant.
They knew that there was a spring of water there,
which they called a "well"; and so, to distinguish
it from other wells in the neighbourhood, they got
into the habit of calling it "Ashwell"&mdash;and the
name has stuck to the place.</p>

<p>5. In some such way as this many other place-names,
partly British and partly Saxon, were
formed; and they teach us this, that Saxons and
Britons must have lived near each other closely
enough for the Saxons to take up and use some
British names.</p>

<p>6. There are some English counties in which you
will hardly find one place-name which is not Saxon.
This shows us that the Britons were either killed
or completely driven away. That is the case in
Hertfordshire. But in Hampshire, while most of
the names are Saxon, there are many partly Saxon
and partly British. This same thing can be noticed
in the county of Gloucester. The Britons, then,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
must have been in these districts long enough for
the Saxons to pick up a good many place-names.
They did not understand the meaning of them, and
so tacked on to them names which they <em class="italic">did</em> understand.</p>

<p>7. The Saxons made their settlements at first
away from the Roman towns and British villages.
In the course of time, in a good many cases, they
made settlements very close to these old sites, and
we know that Saxons lived in such places as Winchester,
Gloucester, and London. We find, especially
in Hampshire and Gloucestershire, that near, or in,
certain villages with Saxon names, Roman remains
have from time to time been dug up.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The Saxon conquest was gradual. At first
the invaders destroyed and avoided the remains of Roman
cities. In some parts of the country the Britons were swept
quite away, and British names forgotten. The old place
names in some places show that the Britons and Saxons must
have lived side by side, as was the case in Hampshire and
Gloucestershire. In others, as in Hertfordshire, the Britons
quite disappeared, as nearly all the place-names are Saxon.
Roman remains have been found in some places with Saxon
names, which seems to show that after a time the Saxons
took to some old Roman sites for their dwelling-places.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />

<small>EARLY SAXON VILLAGES</small></h2>


<p>1. It is with the coming of the Saxons that the
history of our towns and villages really begins.
For, though there are not a few places which show
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
some connection with Romans, Britons, and Pit-Dwellers,
it is mainly from Saxon times that we
can follow the history of the places in which we
live, with any certainty.</p>

<p>2. When the Saxons came to Britain they brought
their own ideas with them, of course. Nowadays,
when English folk go to settle in a distant land,
they take their English notions with them. They
find, however, in the course of time, that they have
to modify or alter them somewhat, according to the
circumstances in which they are placed. They may
find that roast beef and plum-pudding do not at all
suit them in the new climate. If they are wise,
they will see whether the foodstuffs used by the
natives, and by folk who have lived out there for
many years, are not more suitable, even though
they are inclined to despise such food at first.</p>

<p>Now the Saxon tribes who first settled in
England in the fifth century belonged to a race
of people, bold, strong, fierce, and free. But they
could not make their new homes exactly what their
old ones had been in the land from whence they
had come.</p>

<p>3. Like those other Aryan people, who had made
their way to Britain in the Stone Age, they lived
together in families. When the family became too
large, some of the members had to turn out, like
bees from a hive, though not in such great numbers,
and set out on their travels to form new settlements,
or <em class="bold">village communities</em>.</p>

<p>4. This idea of a village community had come
down to them through many generations. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
early Saxon idea of a village community was something
of this sort:&mdash;</p>

<p>5. All the men of the family had equal rights;
though there was one who was the head of the
family, and who took the lead. The affairs of the
family were discussed and settled at open-air meetings,
called <em class="bold">folk-moots</em>. The spot where these were
held was regarded as a sacred place. The tilling
of their land, their marriages, their quarrels, their
joining with other villages to make war or peace,
were all settled at the folk-moot. The question
whether the younger branches of the family should
leave the village and go out and form another
was fixed by the folk-moot also. In the course
of time many such little swarms left the parent
hive, and settled farther away. But they always
looked back upon the old settlement as their
home, and the head of the family as their chief.
They were all of one <em class="italic">kin</em>, and in the course of
time they began to look upon their chief as their
king.</p>

<p>6. Now what was the nature of the old Saxon
village settlement? In its general arrangement it
was very like the old Pit-Dwellers' settlement.
There was the open space where the men of the
village met, the sacred mound where the folk-moot
was held. The houses in which the family dwelt
were placed close together, round the hut of the
head of the family.</p>

<p>Outside these was a paling of some sort, so
that all the houses were within the enclosure, or
"tun", as it was called; and here calves and other
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
young stock were reared near the houses. Beyond
the enclosure, or tun, was the open pasture-ground
and the arable land, or land under cultivation.
Beyond these would be the untouched forest-land,
or open moorland.</p>

<p>7. Each man of the tun had a share in these
lands; not to deal with as he liked, but to use according
to the custom of his family. The arable
land was divided into strips, and shared amongst
the men. However many strips of land a man
might have, he could not have them for all time.
The strips were apparently chosen by lot, and
changed from time to time, so that all had an
equal chance of having the best land. In the same
way the number of cattle a man might turn out
to graze on the pasture-land was regulated. The
folk-moot, or meeting of the people, was a very
important assembly, and through it the little community
was governed.</p>

<p>8. Such was the mode of life to which the
Saxons who came to England had been used; but
they were not nearly as free individually when
they landed here as their ancestors had been.
More and more power had come into the hands of
the chief or king, and to him the people looked for
protection and guidance. In times of war, or when
the tribe was invading new lands, the power of the
king increased. By the time, then, that the Saxon
tribes began their conquest of England, they were
very much under the rule of their chiefs or kings.
The kings had rights and power over their followers,
which had gradually grown up by long custom,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
and none of those followers ventured to dispute
such rights and powers.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The history of our present towns and villages
really begins with the Saxons. The Saxons had been
used to a settlement very like the early Aryan settlement.
All the men had equal rights, and the business of the community
was settled in the <em class="italic">folk-moot</em>. When new settlements
were formed they looked back to the early settlement as
their home: they were all of one <em class="italic">kin</em>. Gradually the chief
man of the first home was looked upon as their chief or <em class="italic">king</em>.
The land was shared amongst the men in strips in the common
field, and the shares changed from time to time.</p>

<p>When the Saxons came to England they were <em class="italic">less free</em>
than they had been; more power was in the hands of the
chief or king, and they looked to him for leadership in battle,
and he had certain rights which had grown up by long
custom.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />

<small>ANGLO-SAXON TUNS AND VILLS</small></h2>


<p>1. A good many Britons no doubt settled down
with the Saxons as slaves, and that probably accounts
for so many of the natural features of the
country&mdash;the rivers and hills&mdash;keeping their old
British names. The British villages must have had
names, but those villages were apparently destroyed,
and the slaves would be settled near the
homesteads which their conquerors set up.</p>

<p>2. In fixing on a place for a "tun" the Saxons
would choose a valley rather than a hill, usually
near a running stream, or a plentiful supply of
water. At the present time nearly all over England
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
we can find villages which have not been
touched by modern improvements and alterations;
and most of these show something even now of
their Saxon origin.</p>

<p>3. For instance, in the county of Rutland there
is a village named Exton, which has for many centuries
kept several features which show its connection
with Saxon days. Its name Ex-ton seems to
be compounded of the British word "ex", which
means "water", and the Saxon "ton" or "tun",
which means the "enclosure"&mdash;"the tun by the
water". There, sure enough, flowing by the village,
is the River Gwash; just such a stream as the
Saxons loved. In the middle of the village is the
triangular open space, or village green. Round it
the houses are thickly clustered together, with
hardly any garden ground at the back or in front,
and most of them with none at all. Outside the
ring of houses are small grass fields or closes, where
calves and cows feed, and poultry run. These little
fields form a kind of ring round the village, and
the hedges enclosing them represent the old fence
of Saxon days, which formed the "tun". Beyond
this are wider pasture-grounds and big plough-lands,
stretching away in several directions up the
gentle slopes.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img034.jpg" width="500" height="321"
    alt="THE VILLAGE GREEN, EXTON, RUTLANDSHIRE"/>
  <div class="caption">
     THE VILLAGE GREEN, EXTON, RUTLANDSHIRE (page 33)
  </div>
</div>

<p>4. You will be able to find a good many villages
which have some resemblance to Exton; they
answer very closely to the Anglo-Saxon <em class="bold">vill</em> and
the Anglo-Saxon town, for town and village were
laid out on the same principle.</p>

<p>5. Now look at some little sleepy country town,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
and you will see much the same arrangement as in
the village. The wide open space in the middle,
where the town pump stands, and where the market
is held, answers to the village green. Though this
is often spoken of as the Market Square, it is
usually more like a triangle in shape than a square.</p>

<p>6. The old houses round the market square are
built very closely one into the other, and with queer
narrow alleys leading to houses behind those in
front; much in the same way as the houses are
clustered round the village green. Round the outskirts
of the town, at the back of the houses, are
small green closes or paddocks. Beyond them are
the larger meadows and pastures; then the wide
corn-lands and woods; and, not far away, the heath
or common.</p>

<p>7. The Saxon settlements, the "tuns" or "vills",
whether they afterwards became what we now
understand as "towns" or "cities", or remained
what we call villages, had all the same chief features.
Just as ordinary school-rooms are all pretty
much alike, because they all have to serve much
the same purpose, so the Saxon settlements were
very similar in their general plan.</p>

<p>8. There was the open place, where people met
and the folk-moot was held, surrounded by the
houses of stone or wood, in which the people lived.
Around these lay the grass yards or common homestead;
and, beyond them, the arable and pasture
lands, with patches of moorland and forest.</p>

<p>9. But outside the actual "tun" there would be
something connected with the Saxon settlement
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
which you would be sure to notice. After you
had passed the boundary to the tun, you would see
no hedgerows, or walls, dividing the land into fields.
The arable land was one huge field. Its position
would depend, of course, upon the nature of the
soil and the lie of the land. You would not expect
to find it down in the water-meadows, through
which the river flowed; it would be higher up, out
of the reach of floods; perhaps on the hillsides.</p>

<p>10. Then, you would see the huge field, ploughed
in long strips, about a furlong in length, that is, a
"furrow long", and one or two perches in breadth.
Between the ploughed strips would be narrow
unploughed strips, on which, in places, brambles
would grow. The heath-lands and moorlands were
uncultivated tracts, where rough timber and underwood
grew, which was cut and lopped by the
people of the vill under certain conditions. There
were no formal spinneys<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>, nor wide stretches of
old timber, such as we nowadays expect to see in a
forest. In places the forests contained old timber,
and were thick with undergrowth, and infested
with wild animals, such as wolves and boars. The
name <em class="bold">forest</em> was often given to an uncultivated district,
not much differing from a rough common, where
sheep, cattle, and swine could pick up a living.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Anglo-Saxons <em class="italic">tuns</em>
and <em class="italic">vills</em> were usually in
a valley near a stream, with a meeting-place or green in the
middle, and the houses built round it. At the back were
small closes, and all was surrounded by a fence. Outside
was the big common field, reaching up the slope, and beyond
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
these the wide pasture-grounds. In many old villages and
towns something of this arrangement can still be seen.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />

<small>TYTHINGS AND HUNDREDS&mdash;SHIRES</small></h2>


<p>1. Though the Saxons, as they settled down in
England, formed "tuns", which at first had very
little to do with one another, that state of things
probably did not last a very long time. In fighting
the Britons they had had to act together; and, for
the sake of protection and help, these separate communities
had to combine. Somewhat in this way
ten families in a district would form a <em class="bold">tything</em>; and
the heads of the villages would, from time to time,
meet together, to consult on various matters in
which they were interested.</p>

<p>2. Then larger areas would need to be covered,
as the country became more settled. Ten tythings
would make a <em class="bold">hundred</em>; and, from time to time,
men from all the places in the hundred would meet
together and hold <em class="bold">hundred courts</em>. Most of the
English counties are still divided into hundreds.
In those days the hundreds were not all of the
same size, because, owing to the nature of the soil,
some tuns were far apart from one another, and a
tything might cover a wide district, and a hundred
a much larger area. If the hundred was small,
that would show that the tuns were pretty close
together, and that the district was populous. If,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
on the other hand, the tythings and hundreds were
large, that would show that the district was thinly
peopled.</p>

<p>3. We have seen that new settlements were
formed by portions of the family leaving the old
home, and making a new tun in the most suitable
place they could find. It would happen, no doubt,
in favourable districts, that new tuns would spring
up not very far from the mother tun; and, in the
course of time, there would be a good many more
tuns in the tything than there were originally.
The fact seems to be, that when once the boundaries
had been roughly agreed upon, they were
not often altered. From being a combination of
families, or tuns, the tything got to be a <em class="bold">district</em>;
and it kept its name of tything long after the
number of tuns in it had increased.</p>

<p>4. It was much the same with the <em class="bold">hundreds</em>. In
time they were represented by certain districts,
whose borders were known to the people living in
them. The hundreds all over the country have
not altered their boundaries to any great extent
until quite recently. In Hampshire to-day there
are thirty-seven hundreds; in Hertfordshire there
are only eight; and Middlesex has now the same
six hundreds which it had twelve centuries ago
when a good part of the county was forest land.</p>

<p>5. As to the time when the hundreds became
grouped into <em class="bold">shires</em> we cannot say much: the
change was brought about gradually, and quite
naturally. It is not at all likely that all the
various kingdoms in England came together on
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
some particular occasion and said: "Now we'll
divide all our kingdoms into shires". But the hundreds
did become grouped into <em class="bold">shires</em>, doubtless
because it was necessary that they might act together
in matters which concerned all.</p>

<p>6. There is nothing like a threatened danger
from without to draw men together. In the tun,
no doubt, the villagers fell out with each other;
however fairly the strips of land were shared
somebody was sure to get what he did not like,
and to grumble about it. Some of his fellow-villagers
would take his side, and say it was a
shame; and others would take the opposite side.
But if the cattle belonging to the tun over the
hills, or on the other side of the marsh, had been
seen on the wrong side of the <em class="bold">mark</em>, or boundary
which separated the lands of the two tuns, the
dispute about the strips in the field would be forgotten,
and away the people would go in a body
towards the offending tun "to see about it".</p>

<p>7. In much the same way, when the boundaries
of a tything or hundred were invaded by another
tything or hundred, the differences between the
tuns would be dropped, in order to preserve the
rights which they had in common.</p>

<p>8. There was strife among the Saxon kingdoms
which lasted for many years, especially between
the three great rivals, Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria.
The lesser kingdoms were under the dominion,
sometimes of one, sometimes of another of
these rivals. All this fighting and settling down
put more and more power into the hands of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
kings. Instead of each village fighting for itself,
and leaving all the others to fight for themselves,
it was found to be a much safer and wiser policy
to join together for common protection. Now if
people join together, whether in peace or war, to
win a football match, or to take a city, somebody
must be in authority to give the necessary orders.
Hence the power of the king, and the officers
acting under him, grew up by custom, until the
overlordship of the king was so firmly established
that no one dared call it in question.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img041.jpg" width="400" height="528"
    alt="Saxon King and Eorlderman"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Saxon King and Eorlderman
  </div>
</div>

<p>9. Apparently from the smaller Saxon kingdoms
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
we get our older <em class="bold">shires</em>. Whether the overlord
happened to be the King of Mercia, or the King of
Wessex, the under-king continued to rule over his
old kingdom, or share. When, at length, in the
ninth century, the King of Wessex was acknowledged
as the overlord or King of England, Wessex
and Mercia, and a part of Northumbria, were gradually
divided into <em class="italic">shares</em>, or shires, over each of which
the King of England appointed a <em class="bold">reeve</em> to look
after his interests&mdash;the shire-reeve or <em class="bold">sheriff</em>. The
King of England still appoints the high sheriff of
each county. An <em class="bold">eorlderman</em>, who, in the case of the
older shires, was at first no doubt a descendant of
the old under-king, looked after the business of the
shire itself.</p>

<p>10. Amongst the older shires we have Kent,
Surrey, Sussex, Essex, Middlesex; while the newer
ones were all named after some important central
town, which in each case gave its name to the
shire; such are Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;In time ten free families or tuns joined
together for protection, formed a <em class="italic">tything</em>. Gradually the
name <em class="italic">tything</em> was given to the
<em class="italic">district</em>, though many more
tuns had grown up upon it. Then the tythings had to join
together, and ten of these formed the <em class="italic">hundred</em>. These,
too, got to be the names of districts, and these are still in
use in most counties. The divisions known as <em class="italic">shires</em>, or
shares, came later. The earliest formed were those which
had been little kingdoms, like Kent, Sussex, Essex, Middlesex,
and Surrey. When the bigger kingdoms were broken
up, they were named after important towns in the district,
like Hertfordshire, Gloucestershire, Northamptonshire, &amp;c.
The king's officer, or reeve, in each county in time was called
the shire-reeve, or <em class="italic">sheriff</em>.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br />

<small>THE EARLY ENGLISH TOWN</small></h2>


<p>1. At first, as we have seen, the Saxons were an
agricultural people, and each village or tun produced
all that it needed for its own support. But
in peaceful times a tun might produce more than it
needed; and, by and by, something like trade and
exchange between one place and another would
begin. There were many places, as for example
London, which in Roman times had been great
places for commerce, to which ships had come bringing
various kinds of goods. In time, as the Saxons
settled down, they began to have new wants, and
some of them began to be attracted towards places
where there were more people than in their native
tuns. Some men found that they could make
certain articles of common use better than their
neighbours could. Thus certain trades took their
rise. Those who worked at them would gradually
give up the agricultural labour in which everybody
else in the tun was employed. We do not
know the causes which led certain of these agricultural
tuns to become trading-places; but it is
quite certain that they did gradually grow to be
what we now call <em class="bold">towns</em>.</p>

<p>2. We find Saxon towns springing up near the
places where some of the Roman towns had been;
in some cases on the actual site of the Roman city.
In Gloucester and Lincoln, for instance, some of
the streets to-day follow the actual lines of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
Roman streets. These towns are, however, really
Saxon towns, not old Roman towns turned into
Saxon towns. The men of these Saxon towns had
lands on the outskirts of the towns, just as the
village men had. Even to-day you will notice that
there are many towns which possess lands called
by such names as the Townlands, Townfield, or
Lammas Land.</p>

<p>3. The men in these towns were, from the very
first, more inclined to hold out against an overlord
than the men in the villages were. In the first
place, their numbers were greater; and then they
had more varieties of occupation than the villagers,
or, as we may say, had wider interests. In the
trading towns, like London and Southampton, they
came in contact with traders from other lands, and
trade brought them more wealth. They, too, had
their <em class="bold">folk-moots</em>, and they had more business to
transact in them than the country villagers had.
They were very particular to keep a tight hold
on their rights, and were always on the look-out
to gain fresh privileges if they possibly could.</p>

<p>4. The fence or wall, which surrounded the town,
was made much stronger than that round the
village; and men saw the use now of the thick
walls of the old Roman cities which their ancestors
had despised, for they had wealth and goods which
needed protection.</p>

<p>5. We have seen that the power of the king
gradually increased; and, as it did so, the king and
the town became more necessary to each other.
The town was wealthy; but it could not stand by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
itself against all the rest of the country. The king
had the power of the country at his back, and
could protect it if he would. The town had to
give something to the king in return for this protection.
But we shall presently see more of the
relations between king and town.</p>


<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img045.jpg" width="400" height="324"
    alt="The Water Tower and Wall, Chester"/>
  <div class="caption">
     The Water Tower and Wall, Chester
  </div>
</div>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Trading towns, like London, gradually
arose: the Saxons took to trades and trading; and towns
sprang up over the land. The townsmen were jealous of
any overlord, and better able to make a stand against him
than the men in the <em class="italic">vills</em>. Their folk-moots were important,
and the men held very tightly to any privileges which
the town had, and were always on the look-out to secure
fresh rights. Gradually they became rich, and needed the
king's protection, and both the king and the town had to
depend a great deal upon each other.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br />

<small>IN EARLY CHRISTIAN TIMES</small></h2>


<p>1. One great and important factor in the making
of Saxon England was Christianity. The first
Saxons who came were heathen, and they wiped
out the British Christianity, where they settled, as
completely as they wiped out Roman civilization.
Towards the end of the sixth century Christian
missionaries were at work in the north and in the
south of what we now call England; and, from that
time onwards, the Church played an important
part in the making of the nation.</p>

<p>2. So, side by side with the development and
political growth of the country, came the spread of
Christianity and the organization of the Church.
We find that the Saxon kingdoms, following the
lead of their kings, became Christian as a matter
of course. Over and over again we find the kings
giving up Christianity and going back to paganism,
and their people following them, also as a matter
of course. The conversion of England took many
years to accomplish, and mixed up with the
Christianity was much paganism, which was not
overcome for many centuries. The Dioceses<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3">
</a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of the
early Saxon bishops were, roughly speaking, of the
same extent as the early kingdoms, and the bishops
and their clergy travelled about as missionaries.</p>

<p>3. As the lords or thanes of the various vills,
following the example of their kings, accepted
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
Christianity, their people followed their example.
In the open places of the tuns and vills, where the
folk-moots were held, Christianity was preached
and the cross set up. That, probably, was the origin
of most of the <em class="bold">village</em> and <em class="bold">market crosses</em>.
Then,
in the course of time, in some cases, a church was
built on a part of the old sacred open spaces. You
cannot help noticing to-day how in many towns
the chief <em class="bold">church</em> is by the market-place, and in the
villages by the village green. In other cases we
find the church and manor-house are outside the
present village. That may be because the thane's
or lord's land was outside the vill or tun, and he
built the church on his own land, not on the
common public land in the middle of the tun. It
may have happened, also, that at the time the
church was first built the houses were there also;
but, owing to changes, many years afterwards, the
people have removed to another spot some distance
away&mdash;possibly to the side of a busy main road.
Then the original village has dwindled away; the
houses, having fallen into ruin, have been pulled
down, and no traces of them left.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img051.jpg" width="361" height="599"
    alt="CROSS AND CHURCH, GEDDINGTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Valentine</span><br />
     CROSS AND CHURCH, GEDDINGTON, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE (page 45)
  </div>
</div>


<p>4. A <em class="bold">priest</em> would be appointed to work in a tun,
and a portion of land would be set apart in the
common fields to maintain him and to aid in carrying
on the services of the church. In course of
time there were certain dues and fees given to him,
the paying of which became a recognized custom.
Somewhat in this way <em class="bold">glebe lands</em> and
<em class="bold">tithes</em> took
their rise, and became a part of the land system of
the Saxon people.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>

<p>5. Along with the growth of churches in the
tuns and vills was the founding of <em class="bold">monasteries</em>.
Small bodies of men bound themselves by simple
rules to live and work and worship together.
Frequently they made their settlements in lonely,
desolate places, which they worked to bring under
cultivation. So there sprang up settlements, or
convents, of these religious people, living under
their own rules. Work and worship went side by
side. It was a new kind of life, different from the
life in the "tun" which the early Saxons were
used to; but, in time, it had a mighty influence in
the land, and played an important part in the
making of England.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;At the end of the sixth century Christian
missionaries were working in the north and in the south of
England, but the progress made was very slow. The early
bishops and their clergy travelled about as missionaries.
In time churches were built in the vills and tuns, and a
priest left in charge, who had his share in the strips of
land, and in the course of time had other <em class="italic">dues</em> paid to him.
Monasteries, too, sprang up. These were bodies of religious
people living together to work and worship.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br />

<small>MONASTERIES</small></h2>


<p>1. The Saxons learned to respect the quiet simple
lives of the early monks. They saw them toiling
hard in their fields, bravely facing many difficulties
and hardships, and turning the wilderness into a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
garden. At first each monk, from the abbot downwards,
had to take his share in the toil, wherever
it was, and the monastery, as well as the vill, had
to produce all that it needed.</p>

<p>2. Men, who were not very good or very religious,
began to respect the lives and works of the monks.
We find thanes and kings not only allowing monks
to settle on some of their unoccupied land, but making
over to them some of their own land, on condition
that they and their children after them might
always have a share in the prayers of these good
men. We see, too, that whole vills came gradually
into the hands of some monasteries; so that the
convent became the lord of the vill, instead of a
thane or a king.</p>

<p>3. Some convents made rapid progress, while
others never prospered, but in the course of time
disappeared. We have seen that the vill and the
"town" grew up in much the same way, and were
formed on the same plan. There are, however, a
good many towns which grew up round monasteries
in the first instance.</p>

<p>4. For example, King Offa II, at the end of the
eighth century, founded the monastery of St. Alban,
giving to it a wide extent of land round the ruins
of the old city of Verulam. The monastery was
built, and much land brought under cultivation.
We find the sixth abbot, Ulsinus, two centuries
later, encouraging people to settle round the walls
of the monastery. That monastery lay near one
of the great roads of England; many people were
coming and going; so houses were built and a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
market was established. Churches, too, were erected
for the use of the people who settled in the town.
The abbot was the lord of this "town", and the
people dwelling in it were his tenants. He, like
any other lord of a "tun", or "vill", was responsible
for the keeping of order and good government
on his land.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img052.jpg" width="500" height="314"
    alt="ST. ALBAN'S CATHEDRAL"/>
  <div class="caption">
     ST. ALBAN'S CATHEDRAL (page 47)
  </div>
</div>

<p>5. St. Edmund's Bury, or Bury St. Edmund's,
grew up round a monastery which had been established
in a lonely place; and there, also, arose in
time a flourishing town, under the rule of the
abbot.</p>

<p>6. A number of towns, which to-day are cathedral
cities, grew up round the churches where the
bishop and his principal clergy had their homes
and chief centres of work.</p>

<p>7. These things only came about very gradually.
The monks who settled first at Bury, or those whom
King Offa settled by the ruins of Verulam, never
dreamed that in the years to come their convents
would be great land-owners, with many hundreds
of tenants. But it was so; and the monasteries at
length formed one of the most important classes of
land-owners in the country; their special rights
and privileges coming to them so gradually, and so
naturally, that no one realized exactly what was
taking place.</p>

<p>8. Those who entered a monastery, or embraced
"the religious life", intended to keep out of the
world, and apart from its cares and worries as
much as they could. But the lands left to them
had to be looked after and cultivated. These did
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
not always lie close round the monastery&mdash;very
frequently they were tracts of land in distant
counties,&mdash;and somebody had to look after them.
New possessions mean new responsibilities; and so
we find that the monasteries had not only to attend
to the daily round of worship and work inside
the walls of the monastery, but had to carry on all
the business belonging to great estates as well.</p>

<p>9. So in time a monastery had to use the services
of many men besides monks; the monks became
great employers of labour one way and another,
and this attracted to their towns a good many
skilled workmen.</p>

<p>10. The times when the Danes ravaged the greater
part of the country were very trying to the life of
English villages and towns. These sea-rovers came,
at first, as plunderers, and the destruction of towns,
churches, and monasteries was very great. Some
monasteries, like Crowland<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>, suffered several times,
and many were never rebuilt. But, gradually, the
invaders settled in England. They did not bring
with them an entirely new land system. As they
settled down to farming and village life, we find
that land was held in almost exactly the same
manner as under Saxon customs.</p>

<p>11. Of course there were some differences, and
those who have studied the subject closely can
indicate a good many points in which the Saxon
and Danish land customs differed from each other.
The dangers to which the Saxons had been exposed
by the attacks of the Danes had put a great deal
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
of power into the hands of the thanes and the king.
Thus, by the time the Danes had settled in England,
every vill and tun had got into the hands of some
lord or thane, or was in the king's hands. In
Danish settlements there seems always to have
been an overlord, who led his people in war and
ruled in time of peace; though there was a class of
<em class="bold">freemen</em> amongst them which had special rights and
privileges.</p>

<p>12. But the Danes were something more than
tillers of the soil; they were traders too, and
"tuns" became in many places more like our
"towns" and trading-places than ever they had
been before. In time we find the largest towns
in the Danish part of England&mdash;Leicester, Lincoln,
Derby, Nottingham, and Stamford&mdash;binding themselves
together to protect their trading interests.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Land was gradually left to monasteries by
kings and nobles on condition that they and their families
should always be prayed for. The monasteries became
holders of lands, often far away from their houses, which
had to be attended to. Towns grew up round many monasteries,
like St. Alban's and Bury St. Edmund's, and the
monastery was their overlord.</p>

<p>The Danes brought no new land system with them to
England, though amongst them there was a class of freemen.
Towns grew to be greater trading-places in Danish times.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br />

<small>TOWNS AND VILLAGES IN THE TIME OF CNUT
THE DANE</small></h2>


<p>1. Now let us see what an ordinary village was
like in the time of King Cnut, when Saxon and
Dane were living pretty comfortably together, side
by side, under good government.</p>

<p>2. We find that each vill or tun had a <em class="bold">lord</em>, an
eorl, or thane, who practically owned the place and
everything in it, though he could not do entirely as
he liked. There was the land which belonged to
him, and which was in his own hands, or occupation,
as we say; that was called his <em class="bold">demesne</em>. The
rest of the land was also his, but it was let out to
people who had lived on the land from time out of
mind&mdash;the <em class="bold">cheorls</em> or <em class="bold">villeins</em>.
The lord's house was
on his demesne. The villeins' houses were all together
in the tun, with the grass yards for the cattle
close to them, and the open fields and pasture-lands
outside the tun, just as they had been in the
olden days.</p>

<p>3. There seem to have been two classes of
villeins&mdash;<em class="bold">geburs</em>
and <em class="bold">cottiers</em>.</p>

<p>4. The geburs were the higher class. They seem
very frequently to have held about 120 acres of
land; they had to work on the lord's home farm
two or three days a week, or pay him certain produce
of the land as a rent; and they had to provide
one or more oxen for the village plough, when there
was ploughing to be done on the lord's farm, or in
the common field.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>

<p>5. In the Danish part of the country there appears
to have been a class of freeholders in some
places, called <em class="bold">socmen</em>, but there were not very many
of them. They, no doubt, had had their rights
granted to them for distinguished service in the
Danish wars.</p>

<p>6. The <em class="bold">cottiers</em> held only about 5 acres of land.
They had to work for the thane or lord on certain
days of the week; but, as
they had no oxen, they had
no ploughing to do for him.</p>

<p>7. Below the geburs and
the cottiers were the <em class="bold">theows</em>,
<em class="bold">thralls</em>, or <em class="bold">slaves</em>, who could
be bought and sold. They
were captives taken in war;
or men who, for their crimes,
had been doomed to slavery.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img056.jpg" width="174" height="250"
    alt="Serf or Theow"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Serf or Theow
  </div>
</div>

<p>8. We must remember that
the overlord might be the
king, or a bishop; a monastery,
or a thane. Their rights over their vills and
tuns were much the same in each case, and their
duties to those vills and tuns were also similar.</p>

<p>9. A very large number of vills and tuns were
under the lordship of the various bishops and
monasteries. It was so with towns like Winchester,
Reading, Bury St. Edmund's, and St. Alban's.
The custom had grown up quite naturally and
in the course of many years.</p>

<p>10. It is pretty clear that the overlord did not
always reside in his vill or tun. The tuns or vills
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
of the bishopric of Winchester, for instance, were
scattered about in various parts of the diocese.
It was the same with other overlords. But we
find in every place a <em class="bold">steward</em>, and in each town the
<em class="bold">king's reeve</em> or the <em class="bold">lord's reeve</em>.
These acted for the
overlord, whoever he was, and saw that the villeins
and cottiers did their proper proportion of work at
the right time; they saw that the lord's tolls at
the markets, fairs, and ferries, were properly enforced.
The steward was a most important officer
in every town and village, and a great deal of
power was in his hands.</p>

<p>11. Then in the ordinary country vill there was
the <em class="bold">faber</em>, or smith; the <em class="bold">mason</em>;
the <em class="bold">pundar</em>, or man
who looked after the fences and hedges and drove
stray cattle into the pound. The simple ordinary
trades were found in the country villages then, as
they are now; but the craftsmen, the most skilled
workmen, had become for the most part dwellers
in the towns. Even in very early times we find
craftsmen in towns formed into trades' unions or
<em class="bold">guilds</em>, to protect their special trades.</p>

<p>12. Now the land was shared amongst the villeins
and cottiers in strips, usually containing an acre or
a half-acre, in the common fields of which we have
heard before. The villein did not have all the
strips belonging to his holding set out side by side&mdash;they
lay in different parts of the great open field.
Crops had to be sown according to the custom of
the vill or tun, and according to a fixed order.
Wheat and rye would be sown one year on a part
of the great field; barley, oats, and beans the next
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
year; and the third year the land must be left
fallow. The lord's land had to be treated in the
same way.</p>

<p>13. On the pasture-land and in the meadows the
villein and cottier had the right to turn out a certain
number of cattle, according to the size of their
holdings. The crops, whether of hay or corn, had
to be cleared from the fields by certain fixed days,
so that cattle might be turned out to graze. You
will still find, in some towns, that certain of the
freeholders, or burgesses, have the right to turn a
certain number of cattle on certain lands for a part
of the year between fixed dates.</p>

<p>14. Then, on the rough commons or heaths, there
were also grazing rights for the lord and his
tenants. The tenants might "top and lop" the
trees growing there at certain times, but they
might not cut the trees down&mdash;that was the lord's
right. There were also rights of cutting turf and
heather, and the turning of hogs into the forest;
all these rights were ruled by "custom", which
bound both the lord and the tenants.</p>

<p>15. The lord, or steward, or reeve, held <em class="bold">courts</em> or
meetings at regular intervals. At first these took
place in the open air, like the old folk-moots; but
in time they came to be held in a court-house. The
court was a meeting, presided over by the lord or his
steward, to see that the customs of the place were
kept up; to call to account those tenants who had
failed to do their share of the work; to put new
tenants into the places of those who had removed
or died; and to punish offenders.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>

<p>16. This last right, of punishing offenders, was
one thought to be of vast importance. In the early
days the men of the tun were bound together to
keep the peace, and to see that it was kept; and
they were strong enough to keep evil-doers in
check. In the trading tuns or towns especially, the
right was valued very highly; but, at the time we
are now treating of, the right to exercise punishment
was in the hands of the overlord, though the
men of the place had still some voice in the government
of their town. The right to have a <em class="bold">gallows</em>
was one eagerly sought for, and held very firmly;
not because people particularly wanted to hang
one another, but because the gallows represented
to them the highest power of government. The
towns had lost most of their rights in this respect,
but they had never forgotten those they had had,
and were always on the alert to get back any lost
right, or to gain a new one, which should help them
to obtain the privilege of self-government.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Each vill had an overlord, who might be
the king, a bishop, a noble, or a monastery. Land held by
the lord was his <em class="italic">demesne</em>. Those who lived on the land
were <em class="italic">villeins</em> or <em class="italic">cheorls</em>.
Villeins were divided into <em class="italic">geburs</em>
and <em class="italic">cottiers</em>. Geburs held about 120 acres each, did so
many days' work on the lord's land, and supplied an ox for
the village plough. Cottiers had only 5 acres. In Danish
districts there were some <em class="italic">socmen</em>, or freemen. The
<em class="italic">thralls</em>,
or serfs, were a lower class still. Each vill and tun had
a steward, who looked after the lord's interests, and courts
were held regularly in each. The right of a gallows was a
sign of right to govern, and so it was much valued, especially
by the trading towns. The faber or smith, mason, and
pundar were the common trades in the vills.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br />

<small>CHURCHES AND MONASTERIES IN DANISH AND
LATER SAXON TIMES</small></h2>


<p>1. In speaking of our towns and villages we are
obliged to make mention frequently of churches
and monasteries. At the time when Cnut was
king, each vill or tun had its church and its priest
to minister in it. There were parts of the land,
in the common fields and pasture, mixed up with
the villeins' strips, set apart for the support of the
services of the Church, the maintenance of the
priest, and the care of the poor. In time various
dues and customs were also paid to the priest for
certain things which he was expected to do.</p>

<p>2. There are very few churches still standing
which have any parts of their structure dating from
before the time of King Cnut. In the early days
churches were very simple buildings, built mainly
of wood, and in the Danish wars most of them were
destroyed.</p>

<p>3. In the tenth century there was a very general
belief that the world was coming to an end at the
end of the thousand years after the establishment
of Christianity; so there was not much actual
church-building going on. But in King Cnut's
time a revival of interest in church-building took
place, and there are in a good many of the old
churches of England little bits of work in the walls,
or very rude carvings over the doorways, which
belong to this time. Unless such work is pointed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
out to you by one who understands something
about these matters, you will not be likely to discover
it for yourself, any more than you are likely
to discover the traces of the pit-dwellings, of which
we spoke in an early chapter.</p>

<p>4. These parish churches and parish priests were
under the control of the bishop, who had his chief
church or <em class="bold">cathedral</em> in some important place in his
diocese. Those cathedrals were generally served
by colleges of clergy, called canons.</p>

<p>5. These were the <em class="bold">public churches</em>. But besides
them there were colleges and monasteries, which
were <em class="bold">private societies</em> of men living together. Some
of the religious houses were in towns, as we have
seen, and others were in wild desolate places. Every
religious house, whether a monastery for men or
a nunnery for women, had its church, which was
the private chapel of the house, and not open to
the public. In the course of years these private
chapels were built as huge churches, much larger
than the parish church. Even now you may see
close to a big college church a much smaller parish
church, as for example St. Margaret's Church,
which stands by the side of Westminster Abbey.
As more land came into the possession of these
religious houses, the monks had more business
with the outside world, for, as landlords, they had
to see that their lands were turned to good account,
and cultivated according to the notions of the day.</p>

<p>6. The monasteries, especially in their early days,
were great centres of good and useful work. Those
who founded them, or gave them lands, did so because
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
they felt they were doing excellent service
for the people, and they wanted to have a share in
the work, and to be remembered in the prayers of
the monks. Founders of religious houses believed
that they were getting something worth having in
return for the lands which they gave.</p>

<p>7. In the wild times of the Danish invasions the
monasteries were looked upon as places of safety
for the weak and helpless. But they were not
always safe places. People sometimes, when the
country was in a disturbed state, would send their
valuables to the nearest monastery. In time the
Danes got to know of this, and many a religious
house was attacked and sacked by them on account
of the tales they had heard of the marvellous wealth
hidden there.</p>

<p>8. A story is told of a worthy person living near
St. Alban's monastery at a time when a visit from
marauding Danes was expected. One market-day
he sent a number of heavy iron-bound chests,
guarded by armed men, through the market to the
monastery. Everybody, of course, turned to look,
and talked about the affair. As a matter of fact
the chests only contained stones; the treasure was
carefully hidden somewhere else, till all danger
was thought to be over. That plan was used to
put the Danes "off the scent", as we should say.</p>

<p>9. All the land that did not go with the tuns
and vills in early days was apparently regarded
as belonging to the people, and was called the <em class="bold">folk-land</em>.
The king came to be regarded as the custodian
or guardian of these folk-lands. Little by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
little they became the <em class="bold">property of the king</em>, until
practically he could do what he pleased with them.
It was from these folk-lands&mdash;which in early times
were probably scraps of land which nobody thought
to be worth very much, since the nearest vills and
tuns had never taken them in&mdash;that kings gave
land to bishoprics and monasteries. By and by
these rough lands became very valuable; but in
most cases it was the labour, the skill, and the
brains of the monks of the early days which
turned the waste lands into fruitful fields.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Each vill had its church, but there are
none of these old churches now standing. Bits of stone-work
belonging to that time are sometimes found built into
old church walls. The early churches were mostly of wood.
The monastery churches were often very large, but they
were not public churches. In times of danger, monasteries
were looked upon as places of safety. The waste lands
which did not belong to any tun or vill in early times were
called <em class="italic">folk-land</em>, and belonged to the people. The king was
regarded as the guardian of these lands, but in time they
were looked upon as his private property. Land given to
monasteries was often very rough, but the care the monks
gave to it in time made it fertile.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br />

<small>LATER SAXON TIMES</small></h2>


<p>1. Every old town and village has got its oldest
house, of course. You will most likely have heard
people trying to be funny about it, and saying they
think it must have been built in the year One.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
There is, we may pretty safely say, no house now standing
exactly as it was in the days of King
Cnut and the later Saxon times. But even yet
there are some buildings standing, and still in use,
which have certain parts which were erected in
those times. These buildings are mostly churches,
and in various parts of the country, indeed in almost
every county, something belonging to this
age can be pointed out.</p>

<p>2. Churches built of
stone in those days had
very thick walls with
very small windows. The
east end of the chancel
was usually semicircular,
forming an <em class="italic">apse</em>. The
wall between the chancel
and the nave was pierced
by a narrow, low, round-headed
arch. Most of the windows had plain, round-headed
arches, and in some of them, dividing the
opening into two parts or "lights", were stone
pillars with bulging stems. Some of the doorways
had triangular heads, others had round heads.
There are some very curious bits of sculpture over
some of these doorways. The meaning of them
was quite plain, no doubt, to the people who carved
them, but they are very difficult for us to understand.
They represent the ideas which the Saxons
had of good and evil, and of the strife going on
between them.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img064.jpg" width="231" height="250"
    alt="Saxon Baluster Window (Monkwearmouth Church, Durham)"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Saxon Baluster Window (Monkwearmouth Church, Durham)
  </div>
</div>


<p>3. King Edward the Confessor had been brought
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
up in Normandy, where church-building was in
advance of anything in England. He encouraged
Norman ideas in building, as well as in other directions,
and so prepared the way for the coming of
the Normans. Some parts of the buildings connected
with Westminster Abbey were built at that
time.</p>

<p>4. We do not know much of Saxon castles,
though the Saxons
had their strongholds
and fortified places.</p>

<p>5. The houses in
which the people lived
were most of them in
those days built of
wood. There was not
much difference, except
in size, between
the house of the
king, the thane, and
the villein. There was
the hearth, on which
was the fire; and the room or hall in which it was
placed was the chief building, close to which, very
gradually, other buildings arose. Apparently the
buildings had a framework of timber, filled in with
wood, wattled together like hurdles. In the more
important buildings, stone gradually came into use.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img065.jpg" width="218" height="249"
    alt="Saxon Doorway (Tower of Earls-Barton Church)"/>
  <div class="caption">
    Saxon Doorway (Tower of Earls-Barton Church)
  </div>
</div>


<p>6. The monasteries and convents each had the
buildings in which the monks lived grouped round
the church. After the Danish wars the buildings
improved, stone taking the place of wood.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>

<p>7. Even in the towns wood was chiefly used for
the ordinary house; though, as we should expect,
stone was used in the more important buildings,
and in the wall round the town.</p>

<p>8. What we understand by comfort in a house
was absent. There was the fire on the hearth in
the middle of the floor; in this room the people of
the house, from the highest to the lowest, had their
meals; and there, on the floor, most of them slept
at night. Cooking was almost entirely done in the
open air.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;In most towns and villages the oldest building
now in use is usually the church. Some churches have
remains of Saxon<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> work in them.
The style was very plain:
the chancel usually had an apse or semicircular end; the
windows were round-headed and sometimes had pillars with
bulging shafts; doorways were round-headed or triangular.
King Edward the Confessor prepared the way for Normans
and Norman ways of building. The Saxons had strongholds,
but they were not castle-builders. Ordinary houses
were usually of wood, and consisted of a room or hall, with
a hearth in the middle; in this room the family slept. Most
of the cooking was done in the open air.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a><br />

<small>IN NORMAN TIMES</small></h2>


<p>1. When Duke William of Normandy became
King of England, the power of the Crown was
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
greater than it had ever been before. All the old
folk-land had become <em class="bold">king's land</em>. Many knights
had followed Duke William from Normandy into
England, and expected to be provided for by their
leader. The lands belonging to King Harold, and
those of the Saxon eorls who had died fighting at
Senlac, King William regarded as his own. These
he granted to his followers, on condition that they
acknowledged him as their overlord, and followed
him in war when required. This was a stricter
condition than had ever before been required in
England. The Normans were used to it, and it
did not seem at all strange to them.</p>

<p>2. Neither was it so very strange to the Saxon
nobles and thanes. Most of them were allowed to
keep their estates if they took the <em class="bold">oath of allegiance</em>
to the king, as the Normans did. Of course
they grumbled: it was only natural that they
should do so; but if they did not acknowledge
the king in this way they were looked upon as
rebels, and lost their lands.</p>

<p>3. King William was very careful, in the grants
which he made, not to put too much power into the
hands of his nobles. The old <em class="bold">vills</em> of Saxon times
were now pretty generally called <em class="bold">manors</em>. When
the king granted land, it was not given in huge
slices&mdash;whole counties, halves, and quarters of
counties&mdash;to this great follower of his or to that
one. Between the old vills, or manors, there were
often wide stretches of the king's own land, the old
folk-land. If he had granted to a Norman knight
a quarter of a county, or so, he would have been
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
giving away much of his own land. Besides that,
the king did not mean his followers to become too
powerful.</p>

<p>4. He granted the land in separate manors. It
is quite true that in every county we can, so to
speak, put our finger on some Norman knight, and
say that he got the lion's share of the manors in
that county. Thus in Hampshire there was Hugh
de Port, and in Hertfordshire Eustace de Boulogne.
But their manors did not all lie side by side, nor
were they conveniently close together. Just as a
villein's holding was spread out in various fields,
so the manors, or fief, which a knight held under
King William were often scattered over various
counties.</p>

<p>5. At the time of the Conquest a very large
number of manors belonged to bishoprics and
monasteries. Now the Normans were a Christian
race. The Norman Conquest was not like the
Saxon or the Danish Conquest&mdash;a rush of heathen,
bent on plunder and bloodshed. Bitter as the strife
was, it was not as bad as those invasions had been.
There was something which the Normans and the
later Saxons both respected, and that was their
<em class="bold">religion</em>. The Normans were a particularly religious
and devout people, stern and cruel as they were.
The lands of the Church and of the monasteries
were not interfered with to any extent. King
William, however, took care that they were in the
hands of people whom he could trust.</p>

<p>6. The story is told that the Abbot Frederick of
St. Alban's, who did not love the Normans, once
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
remarked to King William that he owed his easy
conquest of England to the fact that so many of
the manors were held by monks and clergy, who
could not and would not bring out their men to
fight.</p>

<p>7. The king replied that that must be mended;
for enemies might again invade the land, and he
must have men whom he could depend upon to
meet the foe. At that time a great tract of land
between St. Alban's and London belonged to the
Abbey, and the abbot allowed Saxon outlaws to
infest it, who were a great nuisance to the Normans.
As the land had been given by former
kings, the king at once took half of it back again,
in order to clear out the outlaws. Abbot Frederick
had said too much. He fled away to the Camp
of Refuge at Ely, and King William would only
accept as abbot a Norman and a friend of his&mdash;Paul
de Caen.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;After the Conquest the power of the king
increased. The manors of Saxon nobles who had opposed
King William were granted to his own followers. Other
Saxon nobles kept their lands if they took the oath of
allegiance.</p>

<p>The land was given in manors and groups of manors. Between
many of these there were large stretches of the king's
own lands. The lands of bishoprics and abbeys were not
much interfered with; but the king took care that only
those were accepted as bishops or abbots who would be loyal
to him.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a><br />

<small>IN NORMAN TIMES (<i>Continued</i>)</small></h2>


<p>1. The king, then, granted manors to his followers,
and to such Saxon eorls and thanes as were
willing to hold their lands on the same conditions
as the Normans. If they objected, as from time to
time a good many of them did, they had to go.</p>

<p>2. Now, though every manor had a lord, where
the lord held many manors it was quite impossible
for him to be living in the manor-house of each of
them, and looking after his estate himself. He
could, if he chose, let out some portions of these
manors to a man beneath him in rank, on exactly
the same conditions as the king had granted to
him. The man must swear to be his vassal, and
appear, when required, with his proper number of
men, to fight his lord's battles. He, in his turn,
might let parts of the lands to others under him.</p>

<p>3. By this means the king could command a
pretty large army. He would summon his great
vassals, they would summon their vassals, each of
whom would in turn summon his followers; and so
from every manor men would be called to fight. It
was something like the old nursery tale: "The fire
began to burn the stick; the stick began to beat
the dog; the dog began to worry the pig; and so
the pig began to get over the stile".</p>

<p>4. If the lord was not living in the manor-house
there was someone there to represent him, and to
look after his interests. In scores of manors the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
people never set eyes on their overlord; but they
felt the grip of his power through the <em class="bold">steward of
the manor</em>. Now, though the steward could not go
against the customs of the manor openly, there
were many ways in which he could make himself
very disagreeable to the people under his care. He
was there to grind what he could out of the tenants
for the lord, and he took care to grind for himself
too. It seems to have been quite an understood
thing that he was to get what he could out
of the manor for himself, so that very often villeins
and tenants had anything but an easy pleasant life.</p>

<p>5. The Norman Conquest did not interfere with
the customs of the manors, and the life on an ordinary
manor went on very much the same in King
William's reign as it had done under King Edward
the Confessor. About twenty years after King
William I had come to the throne, that great survey,
recorded in <em class="bold">Domesday Book</em>, was made. Learned
men who have studied the Domesday Book closely
have discovered many things connected with the
life of people in England at this period. We can
even see what parts of the country suffered by
opposing King William, and which districts had
submitted quietly to him.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The great tenants could let out their manors
to others beneath them; and these in turn to others beneath
them. In this way the king could get together a big army.</p>

<p>On the manors the <em class="italic">steward</em> was a most important officer,
and the tenants saw more of him than of their lord. The
customs of the manors were not altered by the Conquest,
and the condition of the people on the land was very little
changed.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>

<p>Domesday Book, drawn up twenty years after King
William came to the crown, gives us much information as
to the state of the country at that time.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a><br />

<small>IN NORMAN TIMES: THE CHURCHES</small></h2>


<p>1. When we speak of Norman times we must
bear in mind that they lasted for over 130 years&mdash;say
from 1066 to 1200. That period covers a
good many years, and consequently a good many
changes took place. Now this period is marked
by a particular style of architecture known as
Norman or Twelfth Century.</p>

<p>2. With the coming of William the Conqueror
to England began a great period of building in this
country. There was what we may almost call a
"great rage" for <em class="bold">founding</em> or establishing
<em class="bold">religious
houses</em> and <em class="bold">churches</em>, and for
<em class="bold">building castles</em>. All
the religious houses have gone, and nearly all the
castles, but in their ruins we can see specimens of
Norman work. In a large number of old churches
we can see very good examples of this style. In
Hampshire especially there is scarcely one old
church, even in the most out-of-the-way village,
which has not some Norman work to show.</p>

<p>3. You will expect to find that the style of
building altered somewhat during that long time.
In the beginning it was very plain, but gradually
it became more ornamental. At first there were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
plain, round-headed arches and heavy stone pillars,
with boldly cut caps to them. But in the time of
King Henry II, and later, we find the mouldings of
the arches, and the caps of the pillars, ornamented
more and more with bold carvings. There is a vast
difference between the plain, almost ugly Norman
work, in St. Alban's Cathedral, which was begun
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
about the year 1077, and the Norman work which
can be seen in Durham Cathedral, or the west door
of Rochester Cathedral. The St. Alban's builders
had no stone at hand to speak of, but any amount
of Roman tiles from the ruins of Verulam. They
could not build anything very ornamental, but they
could and did build something vast and imposing.
In most of the cathedrals there are very fine specimens
of later Norman work.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img075.jpg" width="500" height="613"
    alt="Cushion Capital; Capital&mdash;Chapel in Tower of London;
      Transition Norman Capital, hall of Oakham Castle;
      Transition Norman Capital, Canterbury Cathedral"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Cushion Capital; Capital&mdash; Chapel in Tower of London;
     Transition Norman Capital, hall of Oakham Castle;
     Transition Norman Capital, Canterbury Cathedral
  </div>
</div>


<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img069.jpg" width="500" height="333"
    alt="GALILEE CHAPEL, DURHAM CATHEDRAL"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. S. B. Bolas &amp; Co.</span><br />
     GALILEE CHAPEL, DURHAM CATHEDRAL (page 70)
  </div>
</div>


<p>4. We see, towards the end of the period, from the
way in which the Norman arches were used to intersect
each other, and form two pointed arches within
a round-headed arch, that a change in style was
showing itself. Towards the end of Norman times,
in the reigns of Richard I and John, we reach what
architects call the <em class="bold">Transition Period</em>, when the Norman
style was gradually changing into the <em class="bold">Early
English</em>, or Pointed Style. The choir of Canterbury
Cathedral is one of the best-known specimens of
this Transition Period. Just as changes took place
in the style of the buildings, so, too, the life of the
nation changed. All the changes were not improvements;
some, indeed, were changes for the worse.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img070.jpg" width="500" height="331"
    alt="CHOIR OF CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Valentine</span><br />
     CHOIR OF CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL (page 70)
  </div>
</div>


<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The Norman period lasted for 130 years,
from 1066 to about the year 1200. The round-headed style
of building, called Norman, lasted through this period. It
became more ornamented as the years went on. In the latter
part of the time the style began to change. St. Alban's
Cathedral and Durham Cathedral have examples of plain
and highly ornamental Norman work. The choir of Canterbury
Cathedral gives an example of Transition work at the
end of Norman days.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a><br />

<small>CASTLES</small></h2>


<p>1. The passion for building castles in England
had begun before the Norman Conquest; but during
the Norman period a great many castles (about
1100, it is said) were built in various parts of the
country. They were not all of the same size,
strength, or importance. Some were royal castles,
belonging to the king, who placed each one in
charge of a constable or warden. These were
necessary for the defence of the country. We
should expect to find important castles, for instance,
at such places as Carlisle, Ludlow, Gloucester,
Dover, and London. We can, too, trace
lines of castles along the Scottish and Welsh
borders; and there were no fewer than twenty-five
in the county of Monmouth alone.</p>

<p>2. Many castles were placed on the site of Saxon
strongholds, and of strongholds dating from still
earlier times. Others were built where the overlord
thought they would be of service to him in
protecting his interests and keeping his tenants
in order. So it often came to pass that the castles
were built close to, or in the very heart of, a town
or city. Frequently the castle was at once the
protection and the terror of the neighbourhood.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img078.jpg" width="500" height="591"
    alt="Norman Castle."/>
  <div class="caption">
     Norman Castle.&mdash;From a drawing in Grose's Military Antiquities.&mdash;1,
     The Donjon-keep. 2, Chapel. 3, Stables. 4, Inner Ballium. 5, Outer Ballium.
     6, Barbican. 7, Mount, supposed to be the court-hill, or tribunal, and also
     the place where justice was executed. 8, Soldiers' Lodgings.
  </div>
</div>



<p>3. It is curious to note that some of the greatest
castles-builders of the time were bishops. There
was Bishop Gundulph of Rochester, who built the
Keep of Rochester Castle and the White Tower in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
the Tower of London. There was Bishop Henry
de Blois of Winchester, who built a number of
castles on lands belonging to his bishopric. Strange
as it may seem to us that bishops should be great
rulers and leaders of armies, it did not strike the
people of those days as at all extraordinary or
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
improper. A bishop was as much a ruler as the
king, and had territories to look after and keep in
order. In those days he was quite as able to carry
out these duties as the boldest baron of them all,
and could give and take hard knocks with the best
of them.</p>

<p>4. The great castle-builders had no love for the
traders in towns and cities; indeed they looked
down on that class. But they found them very
useful. Towns attracted traders by land and by
water; and every town, every bridge, and every
ferry belonged to some lord or other. No goods
could be brought into or taken from a town, or
carried across bridge or ferry, without paying toll
and custom to the overlord. But he had certain
duties to perform in return, in protecting the town
and its trade; and the better the protection the
more traders came to pay toll, and the better it
was for everybody concerned.</p>

<p>5. So we find, near many of our ancient towns
and cities, a castle, or its ruins&mdash;or perhaps only
the site is left&mdash;where the lord of the town kept
a number of men to protect the town and district,
even when he was not there himself.</p>

<p>6. If there was no love lost between the lord of
the castle and the townsmen, there was still less
between the latter and the soldiers. The soldiers
were inclined to take liberties, and to be insolent
and oppressive. As they had it in their power to
"make trouble", if not kept in good-humour, the
townsmen put up with much for the sake of peace
and quietness.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The Norman period was a great castle-building
age: 1100 strongholds were then built in England.
Castles were not all of the same size or importance. There
were royal castles, especially on the border-lands, as at Carlisle,
Ludlow, Gloucester, and Dover. Every noble regarded
a castle as a necessity. Castles were built near towns, partly
to protect them, partly to keep them in order. Castles and
towns were necessary for the protection and encouragement
of trade. Townsmen and the men-at-arms in the castles
were very jealous of each other. Some of the bishops were
great castle-builders, because they were great landholders,
not because they were bishops.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a><br />

<small>CASTLES AND TOWNS</small></h2>


<p>1. However useful a castle might be in protecting
the overlord's tenants and property, the
sense of security was always a great temptation to
quarrel with other lords. With strong kings, like
William I and Henry I, the danger of disorder was
not so great, as they knew how to keep their great
barons in check. But in the time of King Stephen,
during the long years of civil war, the barons were
divided into two parties, and each castle became a
centre of strife.</p>

<p>2. The baron in his castle had his men to keep.
These he did not pay in regular wages. He fed,
clothed, and armed them after a fashion; and, to
give them something to do, would rake up some
old grievance with a neighbouring baron, make an
attack upon his property, and let his men plunder,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
burn, and kill to their hearts' content. Then the
other baron would retaliate.</p>

<p>3. It is easy to see that the conditions of life in
England were most unsettled in the reign of King
Stephen. There was no safety in town or village,
and the dwellers on the manors must have suffered
most severely. Their own lord would send and
gather in all their store to victual his castle from
time to time: his enemy would send <em class="italic">his</em> men to
seize what they could. It made very little real
difference to the villeins which side won; <em class="italic">they</em>
suffered, as they were heavily oppressed by both
parties. Their own lord expected his dues just the
same, war or no war, famine or no famine, whether
he or his enemy had carried off the best part of the
corn and cattle or not; and he would take his pick
of the men on his manors to fill the places of his
men-at-arms who had been put out of action.</p>

<p>4. Many of the barons became little better than
monsters of cruelty, and their castles "nests of
devils and dens of thieves". One of the very
worst of these was Geoffrey de Mandeville, who
had large estates in Essex and Hertfordshire. His
castle of Anstey, in Hertfordshire, was a den of
fearful wickedness. He and his men neither
feared God nor regarded man; nothing was sacred
to them&mdash;they spared neither church nor monastery,
town nor village.</p>

<p>5. Dreadful tales are still told of the cruel deeds
done in the deep dungeons of nearly all these old
castles by the "bold bad barons" of the time of
King Stephen.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>

<p>6. When Henry II became king he put a stop
to these disorders, and large numbers of the castles
were pulled down; but the evils they had caused
lived long after, and were the source of much
trouble.</p>

<p>7. It is said that "Everything comes to those
who know how to wait", and the townsmen, under
the rule of a great lord, knew how to wait. Great
as the lord of the town was, whether he was baron,
bishop, or the king himself, he could not do without
the town&mdash;and the town knew it. People were
sometimes short of ready money in those days, just
at the very time when they needed it most urgently.</p>

<p>8. You will remember that the <em class="bold">Crusades</em> began
in the reign of King William I. Now and again
the crusading "fever" took hold of some of these
Norman barons, and many wanted to go to fight
the Turk&mdash;especially when there was not much
fighting going on at home. But crusading was
a costly business, and of course there was a good
deal of rivalry between these crusading knights
as to who could raise the best-furnished troop of
men. The baron would be glad to get together as
much money as he could. So the chance came to
many a town to advance money to their lord.
He, in return, would grant to the town the right
to collect the tolls and customs payable to him for
a term of years; or perhaps on condition that they
allowed him so much every year out of the tolls
collected.</p>

<p>9. Bishops, too, were often in urgent need of
money, for there were many calls upon them.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
The monasteries were, at this period, beginning
to do so much expensive building, that often they,
too, were glad to get money by granting to the
townsmen privileges for which they were willing
to pay.</p>

<p>10. Then there were other towns, not depending
so closely on a baron or bishop or monastery, which
wanted to gain similar privileges of levying toll
and custom. These would petition the king for
the right to be given to them too, to levy dues, in
return for a large sum of money paid down, or for
a yearly payment to the king.</p>

<p>11. The towns were becoming strong, and they
gained considerable rights during this Norman
period. As far back as the time of King Cnut
we find, in some districts, towns banding themselves
together to protect their trade and interests.
This was the case with Leicester, Nottingham,
Derby, Stamford, and Lincoln.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;In the time of King Stephen castles became
dens of robbers, and their owners were nearly always at war
with each other. The Crusades attracted many fighting
barons when there was no war at home. They needed money
to fit out troops to go abroad, and in many cases the towns
found the money on condition that they got certain rights
to levy tolls and customs. Bishops and monasteries in want
of ready-money often let out or parted with their rights to
towns in a similar manner.</p>

<p>Towns began to be very powerful, and sometimes joined
together to protect their interests. This was the case with
the towns of Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, Stamford, and
Lincoln.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a><br />

<small>IN NORMAN TIMES: THE MONASTERIES</small></h2>


<p>1. The hundred years after the Norman Conquest
was a great period of building. It was a time for
establishing or <em class="italic">founding</em> new
<em class="bold">religious houses</em>.
Something like 389 such houses were opened during
this period, so that they played a very important
part in the history of the times. The Normans
were not very much interested in the English religious
houses which they found already established
here. In fact, a good many of them, since the
times of the Danish invasion, 200 years before,
had got into very bad order, and were in need of
reform. Little by little, as Norman bishops and
abbots were appointed over these Saxon religious
houses, reforms did take place, but not always very
easily or quietly.</p>

<p>2. At the time of the Conquest the religious
houses in Normandy were in a far better state
than those in England. Their members lived
better lives, did better work, and set a much better
example of godly living and working. There were
several <em class="bold">new orders</em> or societies of monks, which
had their head-quarters on the continent of Europe.
These interested King William's companions more
than the old English monasteries, because they and
their fathers had helped to establish them.</p>

<p>3. So we find, as the Normans received lands
here in England, and founded religious houses,
most of them were connected with the monasteries
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
across the sea, and were ruled by abbots who lived
across the sea. Such branch houses were generally
called <em class="bold">priories</em>, and the kings and barons who
founded them gave them manors and parts of
manors, sometimes taking them from the older
Saxon monasteries and cathedrals.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>

<p>4. Then, too, there were the old Saxon houses,
like St. Alban's Abbey, Westminster Abbey, and
Glastonbury Abbey: they were reformed and improved,
and to them, too, lands were given in
various parts of the country, often far away from
the mother house. Thus St. Alban's Monastery
had important lands in the neighbourhood of the
River Tyne, and a daughter house was opened
there called <em class="bold">Tynemouth Priory</em>. So, you see, there
were two kinds of priories in England: one class
attached to English religious houses, and the other
to Norman or foreign religious houses. In time the
foreign priories received the name of <em class="bold">alien priories</em>.</p>

<p>5. All these religious houses had some interest
in the land, and all of them, to a greater or less
degree, were landlords. In some cases the lands
given to them were manors which had been managed
and tilled in the same way for hundreds of
years. The only change was that the lord of the
manor might be a society or religious house instead
of a baron. Each of the manors had its steward,
its villeins, and so forth, like any other in the land.
But a good deal of the land given to these new
religious houses had never been occupied before.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>

<p>6. Though some of the monasteries, like St.
Alban's and St. Edmund's Bury, were in towns,
there were others, especially those founded in these
Norman times, far away from towns, in pathless
woods or deep dales, like Rievaulx, in Yorkshire.
Others, like Ramsey and Thorney, were in lonely
fens and marshes. Here the monks themselves
set to work, as in the earlier days, and tilled the
ground, keeping up their regular services in their
little church most carefully&mdash;praying and working.
Gradually their lands improved; other lands came
to them; more labour was needed; and so, little by
little, tenants took holdings on their lands, and
farmed them for the "house", on much the same
conditions as in the older manors.</p>

<p>7. We find that in many of the monasteries
attention was given to other occupations besides
agriculture. Some, especially those in towns, like
St. Alban's, became in this period great seats of
learning. All of them wrote the books they used,
and some of them were particularly famed for their
writing and illuminating. In fact, they were the
<em class="bold">book-producers</em> of the age, and very little of the work
of learned ancient scholars could have come down
to us had it not been for the careful, painstaking
work of simple monks quite unknown to history.</p>

<p>8. Some of the abbeys in the west of England,
like Bath Abbey, had a good deal to do with
opening up the <em class="bold">wool trade</em>, which in the Middle
Ages became the staple trade of the south and west
of England. Flaxley Abbey, in Gloucestershire,
developed <em class="bold">iron-smelting</em>.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>

<p>9. In the monasteries men could quietly think
and work, and use the talents they had, without
being called away to fight or do the unskilled work
of the world. In these early times there were no
other places where men could lead quiet, thoughtful
lives, and "think things out", and then put
them into practice. The men in the monasteries
were not all equally good or religious or clever,
but the work done in and through these old
institutions was most important and most valuable
to the country.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Many new religious houses were
founded<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
in Norman times. The Norman barons were more interested
in establishing branch houses of Norman monasteries
than in those they
found<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> in England. Branch houses of the
various monasteries were called <em class="italic">priories</em>, and those which
belonged to foreign monasteries were called <em class="italic">alien priories</em>.</p>

<p>All the monasteries were landholders. Some of them
took over old manors, others had uncultivated land given
to them which in time became manors.</p>

<p>Some monasteries, like St. Alban's, Westminster, and
Glastonbury, became great centres of learning. Others, in
out-of-the-way places, encouraged various trades&mdash;Bath did
much for the wool trade of the west of England; Flaxley
developed iron-smelting.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a><br />

<small>EARLY HOUSES</small></h2>


<p>1. When we go from a big modern manufacturing
town into an old town or village, we cannot
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
help noticing the old buildings, the ancient churches,
the old town-hall, the alms-houses, and the old houses
with their plastered fronts, tiled roofs, and huge
chimney-stacks.</p>

<p>2. As years go by, the number of these old houses
gets less and less. In the course of time many of
the smaller ones especially, which have been neglected
and allowed to fall into bad repair, become
dangerous to live in. The sanitary inspector and
the medical officer of health condemn them as unfit
for human habitation, and the houses are shut up.
Then, perhaps, they stand empty for some years;
mischievous boys throw stones and break the glass
left in the queer little windows; bill-posters paste
notices of all kinds on the doors, walls, and window-shutters;
holes are knocked in the plaster, bits of
the woodwork are torn away, chalk-marks are
scrawled on the walls, and the buildings very
shortly look disgracefully untidy. Then some
day the "house-breaker" appears on the scene,
and the houses, which have stood for centuries,
are cleared away, and modern buildings take their
places.</p>

<p>3. Thoughtful people, who know something of
the history of the town or village, are always
sorry to see old buildings disappear; because there
is much to be learned from them, and they help us
to recall many things of great value and importance
which we very easily lose sight of.</p>

<p>4. But, old as the houses in our streets and
villages are, there are very few of them which
date back more than three hundred or three hundred
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
and fifty years. Most of them only date
back to the time of Queen Elizabeth&mdash;the latter
part of the sixteenth century.</p>

<p>5. There are, however, a number of fine old
houses which have work in them of the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, and some people
can point out to you traces of work in some old
houses of an earlier date than that. There is at
Lincoln, for instance, a fine old stone house called
"the Jew's House", which was built late in the
twelfth century. But stone houses for ordinary
people, both in towns and villages, were very rare
then&mdash;wood was the common material. Of course
in parts of the country where stone was plentiful
and wood scarce, stone would be very largely used.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
For instance, amongst the Cotswolds stone has always
been the handiest material for building walls,
and for covering roofs.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img091.jpg" width="500" height="398"
    alt="Norman Dwelling.&mdash;The Jew's House, Lincoln"/>
  <div class="caption">
    Norman Dwelling.&mdash;The Jew's House, Lincoln
  </div>
</div>

<p>6. Nowadays, both in town and country, houses
are commonly "bunches of bricks". The Romans
knew how to make bricks or tiles, and in places
near old Roman cities Roman tile is still to be
seen, which has been used up over and over again
in the walls of old buildings. The big tower
of St. Alban's Cathedral is built of Roman tiles
which had been used centuries before in the walls
of Roman houses in Verulamium. That tower has
been standing as it is now for over 800 years.</p>

<p>7. But in Saxon times the <em class="italic">art</em> of brick-making
was lost, and Saxons and Normans, it appears,
were quite ignorant of it. There is an old brick
house&mdash;Little Wenham Hall, in Suffolk&mdash;which is
believed to have been built in the latter part of
the thirteenth century. That is the oldest brick
house in England. In the fifteenth century the
art of brick-making had been rediscovered, and
it seems to have been imported from Flanders.
The old palace at Hatfield is one of the brick
buildings of this period; but brick did not come
much into use until quite a century later. In the
county of Middlesex, where there is found clay
which is very suitable for brick-making, the art
was not used to any great extent till the time of
King James I. After the Great Fire of London, in
the year 1666, there was a great demand for bricks,
and the use of that material has quite changed the
character of the houses in our towns and villages.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img087.jpg" width="500" height="308"
    alt="THE OLD PALACE, HATFIELD"/>
  <div class="caption">
     THE OLD PALACE, HATFIELD (page 84)
  </div>
</div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The oldest buildings in a town are usually
the church, the town-hall, and alms-houses. Most of the
houses with gabled roofs and plastered fronts do not go
back farther than the time of Queen Elizabeth. There are
a very few houses older than this: one at Lincoln, called the
Jew's House, dates back to the twelfth century. Wood
was the common material for house-building; but in <em class="italic">stone
districts</em>, like the Cotswolds, stone took the place of wood.
Brick is now the <em class="italic">ordinary</em> material for house-building. The
Romans made and used tiles, but the art was lost. The
earliest <em class="italic">brick</em> houses, like Little Wenham Hall in Suffolk,
were built of material brought from Holland. The art of
brick-making began to revive in this country in the fifteenth
century, but was not very extensively practised till after the
Great Fire of London, in 1666, in the neighbourhood of the
metropolis.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a><br />

<small>EARLY HOUSES (<i>Continued</i>)</small></h2>


<p>1. For many centuries the houses of the villeins
and cottiers did not alter very much in their
general plan. You will remember that in those
old pit-dwellings the hearth and its fire was the
centre of the home. The room, or space round
the fire, gradually became larger, especially in the
houses of the thanes and eorls, till we get the hall,
with the hearth in the middle, and the hole in the
roof to let out the smoke.</p>

<p>2. All through the later Saxon and Danish times,
and in the Norman period, the hall was the most
important part of the house. As the years went
on, and the style of building altered, the walls, the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
windows, and the roof became more beautiful and
ornamental, becoming most magnificent in the fourteenth
century, or Decorated Period. Gradually
other buildings were added to the hall for comfort
and convenience.</p>

<p>3. So far as we know, the house or hut of the
villein was a very simple affair before the time of
the Norman Conquest. Two pairs of poles were
set up, sloped and joined at the top, and connected
by a ridge pole something after this fashion&mdash;</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img094.jpg" width="300" height="165"
    alt=""/>
</div>

<p>The space between was then filled in by other poles
and wattle-work. This was plastered with clay,
and covered with turf or rough thatch. There
seems to have been a pretty regular length for this
building, which was long enough to take four stalls
for oxen. That required about 16 feet, and was
called a "bay". The villein and his oxen were all
housed under one roof at first. When another bay
was added, the size of the house was doubled, and
so on. In the course of time the houses were improved;
side walls were raised of wood framing, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
the sides were filled in with wattles and covered
with clay.</p>

<p>4. In the course of years these houses or huts
grew out of date, and were replaced by others in
much the same style, but gradually improving in
comfort and workmanship. In the villages there
was not much alteration down to the fourteenth
century. When a house in a manor or village
was pulled down, and was to be rebuilt, the manor
court kept a sharp eye upon the building operations
to see that the new walls did not encroach
upon the highway, or upon the lord's land. No
addition could be made to the house without the
consent of the overlord. Customs in the villages
changed very, very slowly, and so it is that, though
the houses in out-of-the-way villages have been
rebuilt over and over again, there are many lath-and-plaster
houses standing now round village
greens, built between two and three hundred years
ago, on old foundations which date back to Saxon
times.</p>

<p>5. So for many hundreds of years an ordinary
village house was, to our way of thinking, a very
wretched, comfortless place. Even as late as the
time of Queen Elizabeth a countryman's house is
thus described:&mdash;</p>

<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">"Of one bay's breadth, God wot, a silly cote,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Whose thatchèd spars are furred with sluttish soote<br /></span>
<span class="i0">A whole inch thick, shining like blackmoor's brows<br /></span>
<span class="i0">Through smoke that down the headlesse barrel blows.<br /></span>
<span class="i0">At his bed's feete feaden<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9">
</a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> his stallèd teame,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">His swine beneath, his
pullen<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> o'er the beam."<br /></span>
</div></div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The <em class="italic">hearth</em>
was the central feature in the
early pit-dwellings. The space round it gradually became
larger and grew into the hall in Saxon days, and the hall,
or house-place, remained the chief part of the house for centuries.
As architecture improved, so did the appearance of
the halls in important houses. Gradually other rooms were
added.</p>

<p>The hut of the villein was very simple. At first only
like a rough roof, with sloping sides, in time this roof was
raised on side walls. They usually were about 16 feet in
length, and such a length was called a bay. Though built
and rebuilt time after time, the style did not vary much for
centuries for such houses as these.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a><br />

<small>EARLY TOWN HOUSES</small></h2>


<p>1. Houses in towns have been more frequently
rebuilt and altered in various ways than those in
the villages. The chief material used in building
was wood, as it was in the villages, and one of the
great dangers in the Middle Ages was that of fire.
In the towns this danger was greater than in the
villages, and fires happened more frequently.</p>

<p>2. The leading men in a town had more money
to spend, and the increase of business, or a desire
for change, led them to improve their houses. It
was easier for a wealthy townsman to get leave
from the "corporation" or guild to rebuild his
house than it was for the villein in the village to
get the leave of the manor court.</p>

<p>3. The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
all saw a great growth in architecture; they
were the Early English, the Decorated, and the
Perpendicular Periods of architecture. In most of
the old churches, and in many of the old mansions,
we have specimens of all these periods; but not
very many of the town houses founded in the
Middle Ages, and still standing, are much earlier
than the fifteenth century. In that age there was
a great development of wood-work, and there is
hardly one old town which has not some wood-work
of that time in some of its old houses.</p>

<p>4. The rich and prosperous townsman rebuilt his
house according to the fashion of his time; but
through all the three centuries the general arrangements
of the dwelling-house did not alter
very much.</p>

<p>5. In some parts of London, and in many country
towns, you can see that some of the shops in the
main street are reached from the pavement by a
little flight of steps. Below the shop there is a big
light cellar, and the small boy or girl who wants
to look in at the shop window has to "tiptoe"
very much in order to do so. Now, that arrangement
is just a little relic of the old town house of
the Middle Ages.</p>

<p>6. The house was usually quite narrow, and had
a gable facing the street. It was built over a
cellar of stone, often arched and vaulted very
much like a church. There were steps from the
street down to the cellar, and these steps had to
be protected, or accidents were certain to happen
to careless foot-passengers. Then, too, there were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
steps up to the room over the cellar, which formed
the shop and workroom in one. The front of the
shop would be open, like a stall, and there would
probably be a passage through to the back of the
house.</p>

<p>7. Above the shop would be another room or
rooms, over which, in the open space under the
roof, was the great attic running through the
house. This attic was often kept as a store-room,
and goods were hoisted from the street by a crane;
but, in later times, it would be formed most likely
into little sleeping-rooms, very small, very dark,
and very unhealthy.</p>

<p>8. Most of the work would be done in the shop,
where the master, his workmen, and apprentices
all did their share. The apprentices would sleep
in the shop at night, and very probably the workmen
as well. It was quite a usual thing for all the
establishment to work and live and sleep on the
premises. The rooms occupied by the master and
his family at first were few in number; separate
bedrooms only came into use very gradually indeed.</p>

<p>9. The walls of the house above the cellar were
usually of wood, and the front towards the street
was often skilfully and beautifully carved. In
some English counties still there are very fine
specimens of these old town houses; those at
Chester, Shrewsbury, and Ludlow, for instance, are
famed all over the world.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img088.jpg" width="410" height="601"
    alt="IRELAND'S HOUSE, SHREWSBURY"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Catherine Ward</span><br />
     IRELAND'S HOUSE, SHREWSBURY (page 90)
  </div>
</div>


<p>10. We must not suppose that all the houses were
equally splendid, or equally well built; there was
then, no doubt, bad building as well as good. In
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
fact there must have been some very careless building
in early days, and especially so in Norman
times. It is a curious fact that almost every big
Norman church tower tumbled down because it
was badly built, even though Norman work looked
very massive and substantial.</p>

<p>11. Merchants and wealthy tradesmen took great
pride in their houses, and the wood-work and furniture
in them were splendid. Kings and nobles
were no better housed than these wealthy townsmen,
nor did they have more of the comforts of
life.</p>

<p>12. But the poor! There were always the poor
and the outcast in every town; but they did not
exist in the enormous numbers of later years, or of
the present day. Their wretched little hovels were
huddled together in close alleys, and life in them
must have been very cheerless. It was, however,
somebody's business to look after them. The religious
houses, the churches, the colleges, all did their
part in distributing food at their gates daily. Many
wealthy people, both nobles and citizens, did likewise;
and to give <em class="bold">alms to the poor</em> was a work of
charity which no self-respecting citizen thought of
shirking. Then, too, the guild or corporation kept
a sharp look-out upon the poor; strangers were
turned out of the town, and the people punished
who had taken them into their houses.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Town houses were often rebuilt, owing to
the fact that fires were common, and townsmen had more
money to spend on building. They consisted of a cellar of
stone, a shop, a room or rooms above, and a big attic. All
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
the work was done in the shop, and there the men and
apprentices slept at night. The wooden fronts of these
houses were often very handsome, and specimens of those
built in the fifteenth century may be seen at Chester,
Shrewsbury, and Ludlow.</p>

<p>All the building of those days was not equally good, but
some of the best has lasted. Wealthy townsmen were as
well housed as kings and nobles. The poor were not
crowded in the towns. It was a work of mercy to look
after the poor, and the poor were kept very largely by the
places to which they belonged. Strangers were not admitted
into the towns, and so many wanderers were kept
away.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</a><br />

<small>LIFE IN THE TOWNS OF THE MIDDLE AGES</small></h2>


<p>1. Disease was one of the great dangers always
lurking in a town. Plague of some kind or other
was never very far away, and it frequently made
its presence felt. People had not realized the sinfulness
of dirt.</p>

<p>2. The best-drained buildings were the monasteries
and colleges. Near the ruins of every big
monastery, from time to time, underground passages
have been discovered, many of them big
enough for a man to walk along upright, and leading
nobody knows where. When these were found,
people shook their heads and said: "Ah, those old
monks; you don't know what they were up to.
They made these secret passages, going for miles
and miles underground, so that they might get in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
and out of the monastery, and be up to all sorts of
mischief, without anyone being the wiser."</p>

<p>3. Many wonderful tales have been told about
these underground passages; but, as a matter of
fact, most, if not all of them, have turned out to be
<em class="bold">sewers</em>, which the monks made from their monasteries
to some water-course, so that the sewage
might be safely carried away. The monks were
usually in advance of the townsmen of those days
in sanitary matters. No doubt a sanitary engineer
of the present day would be able to point out how
much better the drainage-works could have been
carried out; but the monks set an example in this
matter which, bit by bit, the rest of the nation
began to follow.</p>

<p>4. The chief streets of the town and the market-place
were paved with huge lumps of stone, sloping
towards the middle of the street from the houses
on each side of the way, a gutter or "denter"
running down the middle. When a heavy shower
of rain fell, the water flushed the gutter more or
less. If the street happened to be pretty level, the
gutter, or denter, was just an open sewer all the
year round; and it did its deadly work in poisoning
the worthy citizens, high and low, rich and poor,
though they did not realize it. Those towns were
the best drained which were perched on a steep
slope, so that the contents of the gutter found their
way speedily to the nearest water-course.</p>

<p>5. There were no great manufacturing towns in
those days. Most of the ordinary articles used by
the townsfolk were manufactured in the town itself,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
and much of the work went on in the open air.
The butcher killed his animals in the street, before
his shop, and that added to the horrors of the
gutter. But then all the butchers in a town were
located in one part of it. Even now most old towns
have got a Shambles, or Butchers' Row, or Butchery
Street, or place of similar name, near the market-place.
Other trades had their own parts of the
town, where they made and sold their goods.
Cordwinder Street or Shoemakers' Row are still
common street names. The smith and the armourer
did much of their work out in the open street; the
joiner put together there any big piece of wood-work
which he had in hand; the wheel-wright
"shut" his tyres; the chandler melted fat and
made candles. The streets of the town must have
been very noisy and very "smelly".</p>

<p>6. There were no footways for passengers.
Wagons, drays, and wheel-barrows there were, but
carriages had hardly been invented, and coaches
and light-wheeled vehicles had not been dreamt of.</p>

<p>7. No doubt the tradesmen were expected to clear
up the mess they made in front of their houses,
and the apprentices had to sweep up. But that
usually meant only drawing the rubbish together
to the great refuse-heap close to the house, which
the fowls and the pigs, to say nothing of the
children, speedily managed to scatter. Now and
then these heaps would be carted away to a spot
outside the town; but usually the street was looked
upon as the handiest place into which to fling any
refuse from the houses. However clean the citizens'
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
houses might be inside, and however richly ornamented
the wood-work, plague and pestilence was
always very near.</p>

<p>8. Still, though many persons died, and were
buried close by in the little churchyard, where for
hundreds of years the dead had been buried, people
lived, and throve, and did good work. For one
thing, they lived a great deal in the open air, and
they were not so much afraid of draughts in their
houses as we are.</p>

<p>9. The <em class="bold">water-supply</em> of a town was a very important
matter. Here, again, the monasteries and
colleges frequently led the way, and showed how
water might be brought by pipes from a distant
spring. It was not an uncommon thing for water
to be brought in this way to a "conduit" in the
market-place, whence the people fetched it as they
needed. Many a good wealthy citizen has performed
the pious work of providing his town with
a supply of water. Parts of old water-pipes, some
of wood and some of lead, laid for such a purpose,
have often been discovered in recent years.</p>

<p>10. Usually, however, a town had to depend upon
wells for its water-supply; and with open gutters
running through the town it is very easy to see
that many of these wells supplied water which, at
times, could not have been pure, however bright
and clear it may have looked.</p>

<p>11. In the villages the dangers arising from want
of proper drainage and from impure water were
not quite so great as in the towns. Yet even now,
in this twentieth century, how to drain our villages
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
properly, and provide them with a good water-supply,
are questions needing attention in many
places. We have seen that the houses in the villages
were usually close together, and men had not
realized that dirt is one of the greatest enemies of
mankind. There are a good many people, even in
our time, who see no great harm in having pigsties,
refuse-heaps, and manure-heaps close to their
houses.</p>

<p>12. One of the most loathsome of the diseases
common in the Norman times and later was <em class="bold">leprosy</em>.
The lepers <em class="italic">were</em> kept out of the towns, but at first
very little was done for them. The refuse of the
markets, and the food that was so bad that it had
to be carted outside the town, was thought to be
good enough for them. Gradually, however, we
find <em class="bold">hospitals for lepers</em> established. They were
not what we understand by hospitals, places where
sick folk could be doctored and nursed and cured;
they were religious houses which poor lepers might
enter, and in which they might have safe shelter,
care, and attention for the rest of their sad lives.
They were always built outside the walls of the
towns.</p>

<p>13. <em class="bold">Other hospitals</em> for poor and suffering people
were also established. They were not large buildings,
with wards holding scores of people. They
were little religious houses, each with its chapel
and priests to carry on its services, providing homes
for small numbers&mdash;perhaps half a dozen or a
dozen.</p>

<p>14. Kings, bishops, earls, and citizens all took
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
part in this good work. Every founder expected
that every day "for ever" he and his family should
be prayed for by the inmates. Some hospitals
were "founded" or established as thank-offerings
for escape from some great danger; some to "make
up" for some wrong that had been done and could
never be put right, and to show that the founder
was "really sorry"; some were built for good
reasons, others for selfish reasons. Nowadays we
arrange fêtes and demonstrations for our hospital
funds, and we are asked to buy tickets, because
"it's a good cause". We get some enjoyment for
ourselves and help the hospital; thus, as it were,
doing good and receiving good at the same time.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The monasteries in the Middle Ages were
the best-drained buildings. "Underground passages" often
met with near old monastery ruins were, for the most part,
<em class="italic">sewers</em>. The gutter which ran down the middle of the town
streets formed a kind of sewer. Towns on the slope of a hill
were the best drained. In the Middle Ages there were no
big manufacturing towns. Each town supplied most of its
own wants. Different trades had their own quarters in the
town, which is shown in some old street-names. Refuse
was left lying about the streets, and the dead were buried
in churchyards in the town. In some cases water was brought
from a distance in wooden or leaden pipes to "conduits" in
the town. Most towns depended on wells, which were often
tainted with sewage matter. <em class="italic">Leper hospitals</em> were founded
and placed outside the walls of nearly all the towns. Other
hospitals sprang up in the towns. None of them were large,
or at all like our hospitals. They were alms-houses and
homes, not places where folk went to be healed.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI</a><br />

<small>THE GROWING POWER OF THE TOWNS</small></h2>


<p>1. Back in early Saxon times we find that the
inhabitants of a town were banded together to
keep the peace, thus forming a society pledged
to each other&mdash;the Peace or Frith Guild. It lost
nearly all its <em class="italic">real</em> power in later Saxon and Norman
times. But it did not actually die out, and it
appears that from this Frith Guild what we now
understand by a <em class="bold">corporation</em> took its rise. The
guild was a great power in some of the Saxon
towns; only those belonging to it could trade in
the town, and its members were very slow to admit
outsiders to share in their privileges.</p>

<p>2. We have seen that the free, or nearly free,
<em class="bold">tuns</em> gradually came under the power of an overlord&mdash;the
king, a bishop, a baron, or a monastery,
as the case might be, and very little real power was
left to the guild. The overlord appointed a <em class="bold">reeve</em>
to look after his interests, and the government of
the place was in his hands. Yet the old Frith
Guild seems to have regulated matters connected
with the <em class="italic">customs</em> of the town, which did not interfere
with the lord's rights.</p>

<p>3. When we reach Norman times we have come
to a period during which the towns improved their
position. The Norman Conquest led to increased
trade with the Continent. The great building
operations here attracted skilled workmen and
craftsmen to this country. These men naturally
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
found their way to the towns rather than to the
villages. They were protected and encouraged by
the Norman nobles, who preferred <em class="italic">their</em> work to
that of the Saxons. Although they might be
foreigners, these strangers had ideas of freedom
and liberty which fitted in very well with the
town's ideas of self-government. Then, too, these
craftsmen were bound together in trade societies
or guilds, and that made them strong and worthy
of consideration in the places where they settled.</p>

<p>4. A <em class="bold">charter</em> to a town granted and secured to it
certain privileges, and a town with a charter became
a <em class="bold">borough town</em>. The king granted a good
many charters to towns during the Norman Period.
A town which wished a charter had to pay heavily
for it. But it was quite worth while for the town
to secure the right which a charter gave it&mdash;the
right to manage its own affairs. What a town
most desired was to be free from the authority of
the king's officer, to choose its own port-reeve, who
could preside over the court of the town, so that
the town might not have to appear before the
hundred court. By paying an annual rent to the
king, however heavy the amount might be, the
town hoped to escape from the many extra fees
and taxes which the king's officers put upon it. It
could then settle its own disputes, raise its own
taxes as it needed them, and punish its own evil-doers.</p>

<p>5. In many cases bishops, barons, or religious
houses were the overlords of districts containing
important towns, and those towns managed to get
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
charters from their overlord as other towns had
from the king. By so doing they could get out
of the power of the sheriff or shire-reeve. Charter
or borough towns have most of them been very
particular to preserve their rights and privileges.</p>

<p>6. If you live in a small country borough town,
or city, you will notice that two different benches
of <em class="bold">magistrates</em> sit in the town-hall to hear police
cases; and there are two different <em class="bold">courts of justice</em>,
though held often in the same room. There are
first of all the <em class="bold">Borough Sessions</em>, at which the
<em class="bold">mayor</em> of the borough presides, and which deal
with cases arising in the borough, whether trifling
or serious. Then, on another fixed day in the week,
in the very same building, another body or bench
of magistrates sits. These gentlemen usually come
in from country places outside the town, and the
cases brought before them have to do with the
mischief done in the villages and country parishes.
These magistrates have nothing at all to do with
offences committed within the borough. These are
the <em class="bold">county magistrates</em>, and their court is called
the Petty Sessions, or the <em class="bold">County Sessions</em>.</p>

<p>7. Some offences are too grave for the borough
or county magistrates to settle, and they have to
be tried by a higher court of justice, which has
greater powers than the Court of Petty Sessions,
the Court of <em class="bold">Quarter Sessions</em>. The bench of this
court is made up of magistrates drawn from all
parts of the county, and a jury of twelve men,
householders, from different parts of the county,
has to be sworn to hear the evidence in the cases
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
to be tried. The jury decides whether the man is
proved to be guilty or not, when they have heard
all that can be urged for and against him, and the
magistrates decide what his punishment is to be,
according to law.</p>

<p>8. There are some cases too grave or too complicated
for the Court of Quarter Sessions to decide,
and these have to stand over to the <em class="bold">Assizes</em>.
These Assizes are held three times a year in the
county town of each county, and every prisoner in
the county jail must be accounted for. The court
is presided over by one or more of the <em class="bold">king's judges</em>.
These are trained lawyers, and they attend in the
king's place, and are treated with much pomp and
ceremony.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The Frith or Peace Guild in Norman times
had lost most of its power in the towns, but it did not die
out. Our <em class="italic">corporations</em> have sprung from these. Towns
were always trying to get out of the power of the overlords'
reeve or the shire-reeve, and gradually many of them got
the right of appointing their own reeve. That right was
granted by <em class="italic">charter</em>, usually from the king.
That is the beginning
of our present <em class="italic">borough towns</em>. The mayor in them
is the chief magistrate. In many country towns two different
courts are often held in the same building: the <em class="italic">Borough
Sessions</em>, at which the mayor presides, deal with offences
done in the town; and <em class="italic">County Sessions</em>, at which magistrates
from the country district round deal with offences
outside the borough. <em class="italic">Quarter Sessions</em> deal with graver
matters four times in the year, and about three times a year
one or more of the king's judges comes to the county town,
and <em class="italic">Assizes</em> are held for graver matters still.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII</a><br />

<small>THE VILLAGES, MANORS, PARISHES, AND PARKS</small></h2>


<p>1. We have seen that in Norman times the whole
country was, so to speak, the king's. There were
the great lords who held "fiefs" or possessions
directly from the king, which consisted of manors
in various parts of the country&mdash;sometimes a number
of manors pretty close together,&mdash;often with big
stretches of unoccupied land between them, over
which the king had full control. Out of these
unused districts the king could, and did, often make
new grants of land.</p>

<p>2. As years rolled on, the <em class="bold">manors</em> became more
valuable, and new manors were formed. In the
earlier days the manor and the <em class="bold">parish</em> meant much
the same thing; but in course of time, though the
boundaries of the parish did not alter much, the
number of manors increased in some parishes from
one to two or three, or even more.</p>

<p>3. In many cases the mode of life on these manors
went on unchanged for centuries, the tenants of
these different manors going to the original <em class="bold">parish
church</em>, and the parish priest ministering to the
people in all the manors in his parish. In other
cases daughter churches, or <em class="bold">chapels of ease</em>, were
built in the newer manors, and provision was made
for the support of a priest to minister to them.
These have in some instances been erected in the
course of time into separate parishes; but many
remained as parts of the mother parish, though
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
they might be several miles away from the parish
church.</p>

<p>4. All through the Norman times there was a
tendency to make new manors, and this gave rise
to so many difficulties that the practice was stopped
in the time of King Edward I.</p>

<p>5. In all parts of England to-day we have <em class="bold">parks</em>,
belonging to big mansions; and our big towns and
cities have their <em class="bold">parks</em> too, which are usually recreation-grounds
for the people. A park in Norman
and in Early English times was very different in
appearance from our parks, whether in town or
country. Just as the king had his great forests
for hunting wild beasts, so in the later Norman
times the great lords were anxious to enclose pieces
of waste and forest land for the same purpose.</p>

<p>6. As we have seen, there were in early times
vast tracts of wild, uncultivated, unenclosed land,
partly wooded and partly heath lands, between the
manors, which belonged to the king. The king
alone could give leave to make a park. In the
reign of King Henry III especially we find many
such parks were "empaled". Of course the nobles
had to give something to the king for this privilege.</p>

<p>7. Many of the old parks in England, now celebrated
for their fine timber and beautiful scenery,
date back to this period; but they were at first
much wilder, and the trees then were neither so
many nor so fine as they are now. The deer in
them to-day just serve to remind us of the "wild
beasts" with which they were stocked.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>

<p>8. The laws for preserving the wild beasts and
the game in these parks and forests and chases
were very strict, harsh, and severe. Many of these
new parks took away from the villeins, who lived
in the neighbourhood, certain rights and privileges
which their forefathers had had "time out of mind".</p>

<p>9. Though the land could not be bought and sold
outright, manors became divided and subdivided,
let and underlet, for various terms of years, and in
many curious ways, so that in time the profits, or
the income, of a manor, instead of going straight to
the lord of the manor, might be going to half a
dozen different persons and places. For instance,
the half of a manor might be divided amongst
several people for, say, twenty years, or for the
lives of three or four people; but at the end of the
twenty years, or on the death of the last of those
persons, it must go back to the lord of the manor,
who could keep it in his hands, or let it out in
other ways to quite a different set of people.</p>

<p>10. It is not very difficult to understand that the
management of an estate of many manors, broken
up into many small portions, became very complicated.
<em class="bold">Records</em> of all these various transactions
had to be made in writing and carefully kept, and
copied and re-copied time after time. People who
understood all the "ins and outs" of the laws relating
to the possession of land became very important
and very busy.</p>

<p>11. There are immense numbers of documents,
some of them dating back to Norman and even
earlier times, still in existence. The <em class="bold">Record Office</em>,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
in London, has many thousands of documents connected
with the king's business; the monasteries
each had their own records, but most of them disappeared
in the sixteenth century; every old estate
has such documents; and many of the old manors
have still records going back many centuries. Of
course thousands more of these old documents have
been lost, some destroyed purposely, and others
through carelessness and ignorance. Some have
been burnt in times of danger, when their owner,
knowing that there were documents amongst them
which might get him into trouble, and cost him his
head, set fire to bundles of papers and parchments.
Others have been stored away in dark, damp cellars,
and forgotten for years and years; and rats and
mice have nibbled them away, or mildew and damp
have caused them to rot.</p>

<p>12. Those that we have left can still be read, and
it is surprising to find in many cases how well they
have been preserved all through the centuries. The
letters are very often beautifully formed, and the
whole still clear and distinct. They were written
in Norman French and Latin, the latter being the
language in which law business was carried on for
many centuries.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;New grants of land were constantly being
made by the king out of his own land. Manors were divided
and new manors made down to the time of King Edward I.
Then a single manor would often be let out in different portions
to various tenants for a term of years, but they always
came back to the lord of the manor. He could not sell his
land outright.</p>

<p><em class="italic">Parks</em> for hunting were portions of "forest" taken in by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
leave of the king. They began to be common in the time of
King Henry III. The trees were not as fine as they are
now. Only the deer in them remain to remind us of the
"wild beasts".</p>

<p>The manors being let out in so many portions, there was
much writing to be done relating to them. Many of these
documents are still in existence, and can be read. The Record
Office in London is the place where most of the old records
belonging to the king are kept. All towns have their records,
and a large number of manors have them also. The documents
of that period were always written in Latin or Norman
French.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII</a><br />

<small>TRACES OF EARLY TIMES IN THE CHURCHES</small></h2>


<p>1. In most villages the <em class="bold">church</em> is the chief old
building in the place, and it is a good thing to be
able to tell the time to which its different parts
belong. It will help us to fix in our minds the
different periods, or steps, in the history of our
country. Never be ashamed to ask questions about
an old building. It will be a very strange thing,
indeed, if you cannot find, in every town and village,
<em class="italic">somebody</em> who has a keen interest in old buildings,
and who will delight in pointing them out to you.
Nearly every local newspaper in the country, from
time to time, prints odds and ends connected with
the history of the neighbourhood. If there is
anything about an old building that you want explained,
you can easily write a short letter to the
editor of the paper, and there is sure to be someone
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a><br />
<a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
who will take the trouble to answer your question,
and help you to understand.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img115.jpg" width="375" height="600"
    alt="Architectural Features"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Architectural Features<br />
     <span style="font-weight:normal">Long and Short Work (Saxon);
     Anglo-Saxon Doorway; Anglo-Saxon;
     Double Window; Norman Curving; Norman Doorway; Lancet Windows;
     Doorway, 14th Century; Window, 15th Century</span>
  </div>
</div>


<p>2. An old parish church has a good deal to tell
us about the history of the parish and its people,
and if you know something of the history of the
place in which you live, you will know something
<em class="italic">worth knowing</em> of the history of your country,
which will help you to be a good citizen.</p>

<p>3. There are, as we said in a former chapter,
some few churches which have little bits of Saxon
work left in their walls and windows. In a great
many more we shall see some Norman work, especially
in pillars and arches and doorways. That
Norman Period takes in the reigns of all the kings
from William I to the time of King John, from the
middle of the eleventh century to the end of the
twelfth, down to the time of Magna Carta.</p>

<p>4. When we come to the time of Magna Carta
we are in the thirteenth century, when pointed
arches came into use. Through the reigns of King
Henry III and King Edward I a great deal of
building in that style went on. In almost every
parish some alteration was made in the church in
that century; and probably in the chancel there
are one or two old windows, which will be pointed
out to you as having been first put in during that
century.</p>

<p>5. You may, perhaps, find a very old battered
figure of a man in chain armour, the sort of armour
in which King Edward I went fighting in the
Third Crusade, in Wales, and in Scotland; in which
Simon de Montfort and Wallace and the Bruce
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
fought. Some of these effigies have the legs crossed&mdash;some
at the ankles, some at the knees, and some
at the thighs. It used to be said that these represented
crusaders; but nobody seems really to
know what was the meaning of the cross-legged
effigies.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img117.jpg" width="194" height="501"
    alt="Effigy with Crossed Legs in the Temple Church, London"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Effigy with Crossed Legs in the Temple Church, London
  </div>
</div>


<p>6. Then there are some flat
stones, lying in the pavement,
with inscriptions running round
the edge in strange worn letters,
with perhaps an ornamental cross
also cut the whole length of the
stones. These are the cover-stones
of the graves where some great
baron or land-owner was buried,
and they belong to the thirteenth
century, and some are even of
earlier date. They are called
<em class="bold">incised slabs</em>.</p>

<p>7. In this same century another
kind of cover-stone for a grave
came into use, especially in the
southern and eastern parts of England.
Metal was fixed in the incised
slabs, and the portrait of the
knight and his lady, the merchant or the lawyer,
the bishop or priest was engraved on the metal,
showing the person in the kind of dress he wore
during life. It is said that there are about 4000
of these <em class="bold">brasses</em> still left in England. Some of
them have been sadly damaged and worn. They
do not all belong to the thirteenth century, as this
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
kind of memorial of the dead was used during
several centuries&mdash;in fact, well on into Queen
Elizabeth's reign, at the end of the sixteenth century.
The oldest brass in England, showing a
man in armour, is in Surrey, in Stoke D'Abernon
Church. Brasses are very valuable, as they show
us the kinds of armour and dress worn in particular
centuries.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;There is not much Saxon work left in any
of the old churches, but a good deal of Norman work, in
round-headed arches and doorways. The Norman period
lasted from King William I to King John. Pointed arches
then came in, and in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
there was much church-building and alteration.</p>

<p>Battered <em class="italic">effigies</em> of cross-legged figures in armour belong
to this period. <em class="italic">Incised slabs</em> were originally the cover-stones
of graves. In the thirteenth century <em class="italic">brasses</em> came into
fashion, and they show us changes in costume, as they were
used down to the time of Queen Elizabeth.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX</a><br />

<small>TRACES OF EARLY TIMES IN THE CHURCHES (<i>Cont.</i>)</small></h2>


<p>1. The fourteenth century is covered by the
reigns of King Edward II, King Edward III, and
King Richard II. The architecture became much
more ornamental, and there is a good deal of fine
stone-carving. Many beautiful window-heads and
doorways belong to this period. A good many
aisles were added to the old naves; many of the
old Norman towers were rebuilt, and crowned with
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
graceful spires; but the work is not all equally
good.</p>

<p>2. There are a great many <em class="bold">tombs</em> in the churches
in various parts of the country, and much money
was spent upon them in this and in the next century.
They are raised some two or three feet from
the ground; the sides are divided into panels and
ornamented with rich carvings and shields of arms,
brilliantly coloured and gilded. On the top of the
tombs are to be seen effigies carved in stone of the
man and his wife, lying on their backs, with hands
clasped. The men are usually in armour, and their
wives in the dress of the time, with strange-looking
head-dresses. Many of the effigies are much defaced
and battered, but there are others of them
well preserved still. It was in the latter part of
the fourteenth century that great attention began
to be paid to shields of arms, and heraldry became
an important science.</p>

<p>3. But in the middle of the fourteenth century,
during the reign of King Edward III, there came
a time of great distress. There were the long years
of war with France, years of famine and the <em class="bold">Black
Death</em>. That meant a period of great distress for
the country; all classes suffered, and there was
much discontent and disorder. These bad times left
their mark upon the buildings, especially upon the
churches. In some churches work can be pointed
out to you which was begun before the time of the
Black Death on a grand scale, but finished off in
a much plainer manner&mdash;apparently years after it
was begun. The work had been started, but bad
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
times stopped it, and it had to wait. Those who
had begun it never saw it finished, for the pestilence
carried them away; and, long afterwards, those
who did finish it were not well enough off to carry
out the design as it was at first intended.</p>

<p>4. Still, all through these centuries much was
spent on the churches, not only by the great nobles,
not only in monastery buildings and the cathedral
churches, but on the ordinary town and village
churches as well.</p>

<p>5. The wealthy <em class="bold">wool-merchants</em>, especially in the
fourteenth century, spent much on the building
and decoration of churches. Some of the finest
churches in the eastern and western counties of
England owe much to them. Then, too, it was
quite a common thing for the various <em class="bold">trade guilds</em>
in a town to have a little chapel, or an aisle, or an
altar in the parish church, which the guild undertook
to keep up. One guild tried to outdo the
others in this matter. All the craftsmen of those
days belonged to a trade guild of some sort, and
much good artistic work was done, which found a
place in the churches.</p>

<p>6. People took much interest in their churches,
and we find them leaving money towards their
upkeep, towards making a statue, or doing some
carving, or even keeping a light burning. Whatever
may have been their reasons for so doing, the
fact that they did so is very clear.</p>

<p>7. They used their churches in ways that may
seem strange to us; but they looked upon them
as their own, and were evidently in many cases
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
proud of them. Each parish annually chose its
<em class="bold">churchwardens</em>, who had charge of the buildings
and the furniture, and these were responsible to
the bishop, as well as to the people of the parish.
Every now and then the bishop visited the parish,
or sent someone to do so in his name. Enquiry
was made as to how the priest and the people
carried out their duties towards each other. Complaints
were heard, and attempts made to set matters
right. Some of the reports which were made on
such occasions have come down to us, and show
often much disorder, and at times much that was
evil. But we must not forget that good was also
being done then, which was not talked much about.</p>

<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">"The evil that men do lives after them,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">The good is oft interred with their bones."<br /></span>
</div></div>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The kings of the fourteenth century were
Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II. There was much
ornamental stone-work then done; <em class="italic">aisles</em> were added to the
naves, and towers and spires built. <em class="italic">Altar tombs</em> came much
into use, with effigies, panelled sides, coloured shields of
arms, and rich carving. The <em class="italic">Black Death</em> divided the century
into two parts, and work done after that time was
often much poorer than before, because the country was
poorer. As the century went on, building revived. The
great <em class="italic">wool-merchants</em> of the east and west of England were
great church-builders. <em class="italic">Trade guilds</em> often looked after parts
of churches. People were proud of their churches, and often
left presents to them in their wills. <em class="italic">Churchwardens</em>, who
had charge of the churches, were important officers at that
period.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX</a><br />

<small>CLERKS</small></h2>


<p>1. Changes took place much more slowly in the
Middle Ages than they do now. First of all, the
population was very much smaller, and hundreds
and hundreds of acres, now covered by big manufacturing
towns, were then unoccupied land.</p>

<p>2. At the time of the Norman Conquest the
whole population of England only numbered about
2,000,000 people; and in the time of King Henry
VII it was only 4,000,000; so that, in the course
of 400 years, the population had only doubled
itself.</p>

<p>3. The people were not crowded into the towns.
For instance, in the time of King Edward III,
Colchester was one of the large towns, yet it had
only 350 houses, in which 3000 people lived, all
told. There were only nine larger towns in the
country at that time.</p>

<p>4. The bulk of the people were living in the
villages, in the various manors, not in the towns.
Many things prevented the population from growing
very rapidly&mdash;disease, famine, and war kept
it down. Death was the punishment for a very
large number of offences, so that it is not to be
wondered at that the population did not increase
very fast.</p>

<p>5. The population was divided into two distinct
classes&mdash;those who were <em class="bold">clergy</em>,
or <em class="bold">clerks</em>, and those
who were not. By "clergy" we understand, in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
these days, "ministers of religion"; but the word
had a very different meaning in the Middle Ages.</p>

<p>6. In early Saxon times religion and learning
were very closely related. Colleges and monasteries
were centres of learning, and bishops, abbots,
priests, and monks took the lead in matters in
which a knowledge of reading and writing was required.
Folk who had a leaning towards learning
naturally became connected with colleges or monasteries.
They began as scholars, and then were
admitted, or <em class="bold">ordained</em>, to one of the lower orders of
the ministry&mdash;often when they were still only boys.</p>

<p>7. There are many thousands of boys to-day who
are choir-boys. In early times those admitted to
such an office as that had to be ordained, or set
apart for the purpose, by the bishop. That ordaining
made them <em class="bold">clerks</em> or clergy; and they were
under the authority of the bishop or his officers.
If they did wrong, they were tried and punished
in the <em class="bold">bishop's court</em>.</p>

<p>8. In the course of years there grew up, side by
side, two different sets of courts of justice, the
<em class="bold">Church Courts</em> and the <em class="bold">King's Courts</em>,
which were
guided by different laws. The laws which ruled
the Church Courts were much more merciful than
those which ruled the civil or King's Courts. Death
was the punishment for almost every offence tried
in the King's Courts and in the Manor Courts; but
in the Church Courts the punishments were much
less severe, and the culprit had a much better
chance of "turning over a new leaf".</p>

<p>9. If a man was brought before the King's Court
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
charged with a crime, he could call for a book. If
he could read a few sentences, that was taken to
show that he was a clerk, and he could claim to
be tried by the Church Court. That is, he could
claim "benefit of clergy".</p>

<p>10. You can readily see that such a state of
things, however good it may have been at the first,
was dreadfully abused in the course of time. What
at first had been merciful and just became in time
mischievous and dangerous. The great struggle
between King Henry II and Archbishop Thomas
à Becket had to do with the power of these two
sets of courts, the Church Courts and the King's
Courts&mdash;it had to do with government, <em class="italic">not</em> with
religion and religious matters.</p>

<p>11. Clerks, or the clergy, were drawn from all
classes of society, from the royal family down to
the serfs on the manors. In fact, before the time
of the Black Death, the only way in which a serf
could become a freeman was by buying his freedom
or by becoming a clerk. A serf who wanted his son
to rise to a better position than his own would
try to get him made a clerk; for the moment he
became a clerk he was a <em class="bold">free man</em>.</p>

<p>12. But to attain his purpose the serf must first
have the permission of his master or overlord.
All overlords were not tyrants by any means.
The serf might do his master a good turn&mdash;save
his life, for instance&mdash;and in return his master
would set him free, or allow his son to be taught
by the priest and ordained; or he might let him
join a college or monastery.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>

<p>13. Many and many a priest, clerk, or monk, rose
from being a serf or a villein in this way; so many,
in fact, that a writer in the twelfth century complains
that villeins were attempting "to educate
their ignoble offspring". Later still, Piers Plowman
complains that "bondsmen's bairns could be made
bishops".</p>

<p>14. There was a very sharp line of division
between clerks and those who were not clerks,
and the privileges which clerks had, led to much
squabbling and many disorders.</p>

<p>15. Kings and nobles employed clerks on their
business, for the simple reason that they were able
men. From the clerks, too, were drawn the men
whom we should now call <em class="bold">lawyers</em>. We have seen
that there was a vast deal of writing to be done in
those days in connection with the towns and the
manors. Amongst these clerks were good men and
bad men; some who loved learning for its own
sake; some who found that it paid better than
anything else; and others who misused their privileges,
did much evil, and brought the name of
"clerk" into sad disgrace.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The population of England in the Middle
Ages was small. At the Conquest it numbered 2,000,000,
and in the time of King Henry VII it was only 4,000,000.
It was kept down by famine, wars, and death-punishments,
as well as by disease.</p>

<p>The population was divided into two great divisions, <em class="italic">clerks</em>
and those who were <em class="italic">not clerks</em>. Religion and learning in
early days went together. Clerks were under the rule of
the bishop, other folk under the king's rule. "Benefit of
clergy" in time was misused. Clerks were needed for the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
king's business, and to do all sorts of work where learning
was required. From them sprang the <em class="italic">lawyers</em>. Clerks were
drawn from all classes of society, and they were very popular,
because it was the only way by which the son of a serf might
become a <em class="italic">free man</em>. Many of the greatest clerks rose from
very humble origin. Many of these clerks greatly misused
their privileges, and in time their order, or class, got to be
much disliked.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI</a><br />

<small>FAIRS</small></h2>


<p>1. The word "Fair" calls up to our minds all
sorts of wonderful sights and sounds&mdash;the stalls
with their wonderful "fairings" and "goodies";
the shows and the shooting-galleries; the "flying
horses" and the "conjurors"; the wonderful caravans
and cocoa-nuts; the musical instruments of
all sorts, from the mouth-organ and "squeaker"
to the steam-organ of the roundabout.</p>

<p>2. Many such fairs are still held in every county,
and they connect the present day very closely with
the life of bygone days. It is "all the fun of the
fair" which draws people to them mostly nowadays,
but in some of them there is still important
business done; people are attracted to them for
<em class="bold">trade</em> as well as for <em class="bold">pleasure</em>.</p>

<p>3. Some of these fairs are held in big towns,
such as Lincoln and Carlisle. At Barnet a great
horse fair is held every year in September. But
some big fairs are held away from any large town,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
such as the big sheep fair at Weyhill, in Hampshire.
At Stourbridge, in Cambridgeshire, a fair
is still held; it is quite an ordinary one now, but
in the Middle Ages it was one of the most important
fairs, not only in England, but in Europe&mdash;a
kind of Nijni-Novgorod, where East and West
met.</p>

<p>4. In some places the business part of the fair
has now quite died out, and a few stalls, a roundabout,
a shooting-gallery, and swings are all that
can be seen on a fair-day.</p>

<p>5. The word "fair" comes from an old word
which means a "feast" or festival. There are
many villages which still have their annual <em class="bold">village
feast</em>, more important to the village than Christmas
or a "Bank Holiday". Houses are turned out and
cleaned from top to bottom; everything must be
made fit to be seen "for the feast". It is a great
meeting-time for families, and the boys and girls
who have gone away to work in some big town
try to get back for a few hours to their native village,
to "the old house at home".</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img121.jpg" width="374" height="600"
    alt="STOURBRIDGE FAIR, IN THE MIDDLE AGES"/>
  <div class="caption">
     STOURBRIDGE FAIR, IN THE MIDDLE AGES (page 119)
  </div>
</div>

<p>6. In the beginning the village feast was connected
with the parish church&mdash;it was the festival
of the saint after whom the church was named.
That day was a holiday, and all the people went
to church as a matter of course. The church was
the gathering-place, and, in the porch and the
churchyard, and on the village green, friends,
neighbours, and relatives met and had a time of
rejoicing.</p>

<p>7. So many people coming together attracted
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
pedlars and hawkers, who spread out their goods
on the green, in the churchyard, and in the church
porch itself. People who met but seldom used the
chance of doing a little business with each other.
Little by little, then, the "feast" became a "fair",
and in many cases was a very important business
and trading meeting.</p>

<p>8. Now it did not suit the ideas of people in
those days that outsiders should come into their
village and buy and sell as they chose. You know
how the boys living in one street even nowadays
object to the boys from another street coming to
play in their street&mdash;"You go and play in your
own street". So in very early times the lord of
the manor began to regulate these things. Outsiders
who brought their goods for sale had to
pay a "due" or "toll" to the lord of the manor
to be allowed to trade; and the right of receiving
tolls for fairs became one of an overlord's privileges.</p>

<p>9. The people in the towns, who were more interested
in trade than the people in the villages,
saw how very important and profitable a fair was&mdash;that
it was something "with money in it"&mdash;and
the towns were very anxious to get the right
to hold one or more annual fairs. But the overlord,
the king, had a voice in the matter, because each
stall set up, and each bale of goods, brought in "by
right" an income.</p>

<p>10. The king had the right to grant, almost to
whom he pleased, the privilege of holding a fair;
and the privilege was much sought after. Towns,
as we saw in a former chapter, got <em class="bold">charters</em> from
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
the king, which very often gave to them this right.
But it was quite a common thing for the king to
make a grant of an annual fair to a religious house
which he wanted to benefit, without much cost to
himself, and the profits of the fair went to support
the house. The king's nobles did the same kind of
thing.</p>

<p>11. All the shops in the place where the fair was
held had to be shut while the fair was on, and
nothing could be bought or sold except in the fair.
The tradesmen of the place had to pay their tolls
to the person or public body to whom the fair had
been granted, just as the strangers coming into the
town did.</p>

<p>12. Fairs lasted in some cases for only one day;
in others for two, three, or more days, and sometimes
as long as a fortnight, during which time,
whether the inhabitants liked it or not, all trade
had to be carried on only in the fair. That was
one of the things which caused jealousy between
the trading class and the religious houses, and often
led to much ill-feeling and disorder.</p>

<p>13. Then, too, the king could grant to any person
the right to go to any fair in the country without
paying toll and duty. Of course those persons to
whom the king granted this right had to pay him
very heavily for this privilege, but you can see
that it was quite worth their while. Foreign merchants
and Jews<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> often had such privileges granted
to them, and that partly accounts for the great
dislike there was to these classes of people.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
<p>14. Many of the religious houses had entered
into trade too, and very often the same privilege
of putting their goods on the market was granted
to them. Members of a religious house could often
travel from place to place without having to pay
tolls and duties which other folk had to pay. That
might be quite right and reasonable when they
were on some religious duty or errand of mercy,
but when it was connected with buying and selling
the goods produced or manufactured on the monastery
lands it was "rather hard", as we should say,
on the traders. The grievance grew up gradually,
but it caused very often a bitter feeling between
the towns and the religious houses in them.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Fairs are usually now only for pleasure,
though in many places, like Lincoln, Carlisle, and Barnet,
they are important business meetings. The most important
fair in the Middle Ages in England was at Stourbridge. It
was a kind of Nijni-Novgorod.</p>

<p>The Fair was at first the "feast-day" of the parish
church. It brought people together, and pedlars began to
sell their goods on such occasions. Gradually the overlords
regulated these meetings, and strangers had to pay toll.
Kings granted the right to hold fairs to towns and religious
houses, and the privilege was much sought after.</p>

<p>Freedom from paying tolls was also a privilege which the
king could grant. It led in time to many squabbles between
townsmen and the religious houses.</p></blockquote>

<hr class="chap" />

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXII" id="CHAPTER_XXXII">CHAPTER XXXII</a><br />

<small>MARKETS</small></h2>


<p>1. One of the pleasantest sights, to a Londoner
at any rate, is the market-place of an old-fashioned
country town on a market-day. In many such
towns the weekly market is held, in the open air,
in the same place where it has been held for centuries.
Probably none of the houses round the
market square are as old as the market, but the
buildings, altered and rebuilt as they have been,
take us back several centuries, and speak of days
long gone by.</p>

<p>2. A good many towns have built covered
markets. Some of them are near the <em class="bold">old market-place</em>,
but in other cases the market is now held in
quite another part of the town. Cattle-markets,
which used to be held in the open street in a busy
thoroughfare, are now often held in places more
suitable for that purpose some distance away from
their old quarters.</p>

<p>3. Corn-markets are held in most market-towns,
frequently on the same day as the general market,
and many towns now boast a <em class="bold">corn exchange</em>. Then,
too, in some places there are markets held in connection
with the chief trade of the neighbourhood.</p>

<p>4. The <em class="bold">market-house</em> is often a curious building.
You may almost speak of it as "a big room on
legs". There is a large room standing on stone or
wooden arches. The open space underneath serves
to shelter some of the market stalls, and a staircase
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
leads up from the street to the room above, where
the town council holds its meetings. On the roof
of this building is a turret containing a clock, and
perhaps a fire-bell and a market-bell. There is such
a quaint old market-house still standing at Amersham,
in Buckinghamshire, but so many of these
old buildings have been pulled down to make way
for larger structures, in which the town can carry
on its business, and where the various officers can
have their offices, that the town-hall is mostly now
a smart modern building.</p>

<p>5. The <em class="bold">stalls</em> set up on the market-day are of the
same simple kind as those which have been used
for centuries. It is curious to notice how the
different trades keep to different parts of the
market-place&mdash;butchers in one place, green-grocers
in another, and fishmongers in another. Just as
the trades had their special quarters in town, so
they had in the market. Things have altogether
changed as far as the shops are concerned, but the
setting out of the market is almost exactly the same
to-day as it was five hundred years ago.</p>

<p>6. The <em class="bold">market-cross</em> still remains in some towns,
but the cross itself has in many cases disappeared
long ago. In some places the steps and the lower
part of the cross still remain, but there is a kind of
open shed built round it to form a shelter. Some
of these shelters are very ornamental, like those
at Chichester and Winchester. It is not an uncommon
thing for such a cross as that to be called
the Butter Cross, from the fact that around the
cross was held the butter-market. Some of these
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
shelters are quaint rather than beautiful, and
cover the town pump, which is now carefully
locked up. In some places a drinking-fountain
stands where once the cross stood. At the cross
a good deal of business was done. The mayor or
his officers would read out public notices there on
the market-day, that everybody might hear. Not
far from the cross was the <em class="bold">cage</em>, where folk who
had been "taken up" were set for a time. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
<em class="bold">stocks</em>, the <em class="bold">pillory</em>, and the
<em class="bold">whipping-post</em>, in the
seventeenth century, were usually here in the
market-place, not far from the cross.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img135.jpg" width="426" height="500"
    alt="Market Cross and portion of Shelter, Winchester"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Market Cross and portion of Shelter, Winchester
  </div>
</div>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img122.jpg" width="500" height="330"
    alt="CASTLE AND BUTTER MARKET, DUNSTER, SOMERSETSHIRE"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Valentine</span><br />
     CASTLE AND BUTTER MARKET, DUNSTER, SOMERSETSHIRE (page 124)
  </div>
</div>


<p>7. There is much to see in a market-place on a
market-day. If the market-day is Saturday, you
will find the place thronged with people, especially
at night; and even quite small towns are then so
crowded that you wonder where the people come
from.</p>

<p>8. Fairs, in the Middle Ages, provided for much of
the <em class="bold">wholesale trade</em> of the country, and markets for
the <em class="bold">retail trade</em>. The two were very much alike,
and the rights to hold an annual fair and a weekly
market mostly went together.</p>

<p>9. Some places had, and still have, more than
one market a week. In many places the market
has quite died out now, but in the early days one
of the first steps of a "tun" towards becoming a
"town" was to obtain the right to hold a market.
There are many of our modern towns which have
grown up in manufacturing districts, near great
railway centres, or near docks and railway-stations,
which have no market. Nearly all of our old
towns, however small they may be, have, or at one
time <em class="italic">had</em>, the right of holding markets.</p>

<p>10. Nobody can set up a stall in the market as
he pleases. On the market-day you will see the
<em class="bold">beadle</em> going about from stall to stall taking the
toll from each stall-holder. In many cases he
wears an old-fashioned dress trimmed with gold
lace. Now this reminds us of the time when no
one except a freeman of the town could trade freely.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
The stall-holders were outsiders&mdash;"foreigners"&mdash;and
had to pay to the town a toll, or due, for permission
to sell in the town. In our day you can go and
settle in any town you please, and open a shop just
as you like, but you cannot so easily take a stall
and sell in the market: you must pay the <em class="bold">market
toll</em> even now. Such tolls go towards the expenses
of the town, and help to keep down the rates.</p>

<p>11. In the market the town and the country
meet. In these days, when the produce of the
country can be quickly sent into the heart of the
largest town, the country provision-markets are
not of as much importance as they once were, but
they are very useful and very popular still.</p>

<p>12. There are many places where the market
beadle rings a <em class="bold">bell</em>&mdash;in some towns it is a handbell,
in others a bell in the clock-tower&mdash;to give
notice of the opening and closing of the market.
In former days, if a man dared to sell anything
before the bell was rung in the morning, or after
it had rung in the evening, he was very severely
punished.</p>

<p>13. There were proper town officers appointed
by the mayor and corporation to look after the
markets, and to see that goods were sold at the
proper market price, and that there was no cheating
in weight and measure.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Markets in the open are often held on the
same spots where they have been held for centuries. In
some towns covered markets have been built, and more convenient
cattle-markets. Different kinds of provisions are
sold still in different parts of the market. In some places
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
the Market Cross is called the Butter Cross. Here public
notices were given out, and ill-doers flogged, put in the
<em class="italic">stocks</em>
or <em class="italic">pillory</em>, or in the <em class="italic">cage</em>.
Markets are still very popular,
especially on Saturday nights. Stalls in a market have to
be paid for, and the tolls are usually paid to the market
beadle. Town and country meet in the market, and in olden
times they were the chief means for providing the towns
with food.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXIII">CHAPTER XXXIII</a><br />

<small>SCHOOLS</small></h2>


<p>1. The earliest schools in England were held in
the <em class="bold">monasteries</em>, and were intended for boys and
young men who were to be trained as priests, missionaries,
or monks. There were famous schools at
Canterbury, York, and Jarrow in the seventh and
eighth centuries. In King Alfred's time, at the
end of the ninth century, great attention was paid
to the teaching of both girls and boys. Later still,
in the tenth century, we find the teaching of the
young attracting great attention.</p>

<p>2. Latin was taught in these schools, and
many of the scholars became famous students
and deep thinkers. In the course of time others,
besides those intending to become monks and
priests, were also taught, and became clerks and
found various employments, as we have seen, in
civil business.</p>

<p>3. Gradually <em class="bold">other schools</em> sprang up, outside the
monasteries and cathedrals, which were not meant
for monks or priests, though they were at first
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
connected with monasteries, colleges, and cathedrals.
For instance, in Norman times, not very long after
the Conquest, there were <em class="bold">grammar-schools</em> at Derby,
St. Alban's, and Bury St. Edmund's.</p>

<p>4. When we think of these schools we must not
picture to ourselves great buildings to hold two or
three hundred boys, such as we see now; nor must
we suppose that there was a great rush of pupils
to them. Boys did not go to school from nine till
twelve, and from two till four, with plenty of time
for cricket, football, and sports of all descriptions.
School work was very hard, and was regarded as
a serious business. There was a great deal of
learning by heart to be done. You see, books were
few and costly, and a man's best reference library
was his own well-stored memory. No doubt this
hard work helped to train the memory, and was
good discipline for the scholar.</p>

<p>5. In the monasteries and colleges, where boys
were trained to sing in the <em class="bold">choir</em>, they had to learn
their services by heart. In the ordinary services
there were long psalms and passages of Scripture
attached to them which differed for every day, and
the boys had to know these perfectly in Latin.
For hours and hours every day the little fellows
were drilled in the services till they were word-perfect.
There were something like seven services
to be learned for each of the three hundred and
sixty-five days of the year.</p>

<p>6. We talk of Latin nowadays as a dead language,
but it was anything but a dead language
in the Middle Ages. School was held all day long,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
from quite early in the morning; and during school-hours
woe betide the lads if they talked in any
other language but Latin.</p>

<p>7. Choir-boys had to be taught in the <em class="bold">song-school</em>
as well, how to sing their services, and the
music was just as difficult as the words and had
also to be learned by heart.</p>

<p>8. In the parish churches the priest and the
parish clerk had boys whom they trained to help
in the services. The services were much simpler
and shorter than those in the monasteries; but
they were in Latin, and had to be known by heart.</p>

<p>9. In the grammar and other schools the boys
were drilled in the works of old Latin scholars in
much the same way, and in some cases in Greek
authors as well, with a certain amount of arithmetic
and science.</p>

<p>10. There were no long weeks of holidays to look
forward to at Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and
in the summer; but during the year there were
many holy days kept, which were holiday, on
which neither school-boys nor villeins did their
ordinary work. Thus, no doubt, school-boys
managed to get a fair amount of play, and found
time for getting into mischief.</p>

<p>11. For instance, at St. Alban's we read that in
the year 1310 the boys were forbidden to wander
or run about the streets and roads without reasonable
cause. If a lad did so, he was to be sought
for and punished by the master "in the accustomed
way"; and every boy knows what that was.
Then, too, the scholars must not bear arms, either
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
in school or out of school. That was to prevent
them from fighting with the townspeople. It is
very curious to notice that even nowadays there is
often no love lost between "grammar boys" and
"town boys"; they can get up a quarrel almost as
easily in the twentieth century as they did in the
thirteenth.</p>

<p>12. Boys took part in acting the <em class="bold">earliest plays</em>
that were represented in England. At first the
plays dealt with religious subjects, and were called
"Mysteries" and "Miracles"; and these plays and
shows became very popular in England. Geoffrey
de Gorham, in early Norman days, taught a school
at Dunstable, and wrote one of these plays called
St. Catherine. He borrowed vestments from St.
Alban's Abbey, in which to dress some of his
characters; but on the following night his house
somehow caught fire, and his books and the borrowed
vestments were destroyed in the flames.</p>

<p>13. In the cloisters of some of our old cathedral
churches and colleges, such as Gloucester and
Westminster, on some of the old stone benches,
there are holes and scratches still to be seen where
school-boys of long ago played games with marbles
and stones.</p>

<p>14. By the thirteenth century there seem to have
been schools in all the chief towns. Though they
may not have held very many scholars, they were
not intended for the sons of well-to-do people
only; they were for <em class="bold">poor scholars</em> as well. Thus, at
St. Alban's, provision was made for sixteen poor
scholars, and the same kind of provision was quite
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
common. There was some chance, even in those
days, for a lad with "brains" to get on in the
world. In fact, we know that in those Middle
Ages a good many men rose "from the ranks" to
hold high office in the state. There was, for instance,
Thomas à Becket. He was born in London,
and not ashamed to be known as Thomas of
London. Then there was Thomas Scot, who rose
to be Archbishop of York and Chancellor of
England in the fifteenth century, who was known
as Thomas of Rotherham, after the place where
he was born. William of Wykeham, that great
founder of schools, is still known by the name of
the little out-of-the-way Hampshire village where
he was born&mdash;Wykeham. Winchester College, the
first of our <em class="bold">public schools</em>, was founded by him.
His real surname was Longe, and the motto he
chose, "Manners Makyth Man", is worth putting
up in every school in the land.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img139.jpg" width="500" height="326"
    alt="WINCHESTER COLLEGE"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Valentine</span><br />
     WINCHESTER COLLEGE (page 132)
  </div>
</div>


<p>15. But there were dunces in those days too,
who made little or no use of their opportunities,
and others who turned them to bad purposes.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Schools began in the monasteries, and those
at Canterbury, York, and Jarrow were famous in the seventh
and eighth centuries; and King Alfred was a great promoter
of schools. Soon after the Conquest other schools began at
Derby, St. Alban's, and Bury St. Edmund's. Learning had
to be by heart, as books were few. Latin was the great
language of learning in the Middle Ages. There were frequent
holidays, though they did not last for weeks at a
stretch. Boys took part in the early <em class="italic">Mystery Plays</em>, which
were the origin of our stage plays. By the thirteenth
century there were small schools in most towns, and provision
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
was made for poor scholars. Many great men, like
Thomas à Becket, Thomas of Rotherham, and William of
Wykeham, rose from such schools as these.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXXIV">CHAPTER XXXIV</a><br />

<small>UNIVERSITIES</small></h2>


<p>1. Now, just as the tide flows and ebbs, so in
England did interest in learning rise and fall
during the Middle Ages. Schools of all kinds had
their good times and their bad times. Sometimes
we find the thirst for learning being shown in one
direction; then it almost died away for a time;
revived again, and took another direction.</p>

<p>2. At first we see it going in the direction of
making monks and priests and missionaries; then
in making able men who could take part in the
civil business of the manor, the town, and the
country; and then, in the thirteenth century, it
began again to take a turn towards learning for
learning's sake.</p>

<p>3. As we get near to the thirteenth century, we
find the beginnings of our English <em class="bold">universities</em>. A
university was a corporation or body of learned
men who bound themselves together to teach, and
who got the sole right of appointing teachers in
their districts. A man could only have leave to
teach after his knowledge and ability had been
well tried by them; and when that leave was given
he was said to take his <em class="bold">degree</em>.</p>

<p>4. The opportunity of getting wider knowledge
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
and higher teaching attracted scholars, lads and
young men who had had their early teaching in
the small college and grammar-schools. They were
encouraged and in many ways helped to go to the
university. Gifts were left to their old schools to
help the likely boys to go to the university; many
of the monasteries and colleges sent their pupils
there, and it was looked upon as a pious work and
a work of mercy to help poor scholars in this way.</p>

<p>5. Scholars flocked in hundreds to various universities,
and we find Oxford and Cambridge rising
as university towns. We cannot say exactly when
this began, but we read that in King John's reign,
in the year 1209, there was a great "town and
gown" riot at Oxford. Three of the gownsmen
were hanged as a punishment; so about 3000 of
the rest left Oxford and went to other universities,
and Oxford was deserted for a time. These facts
show that by the beginning of the thirteenth century,
just when the Early English style of architecture
was coming into fashion, universities, with
their "higher education", were very important.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img140.jpg" width="500" height="329"
    alt="CLOISTER QUADRANGLE, MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Taunt &amp; Co., Oxford</span><br />
     CLOISTER QUADRANGLE, MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD (page 136)
  </div>
</div>


<p>6. At first it seems that the scholars at the university
lived in the town, where they chose or
where they could, attending the various lecture-halls.
Then various people seem to have hit upon
the plan of setting up houses in the town, and
letting the rooms to the scholars, so that a number
of them might live together. Thus they were
divided up into different sets. These houses were
called <em class="bold">hostels</em>, and we find them at Cambridge in
the beginning of the thirteenth century.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>

<p>7. Early, too, in this same century a new religious
order found its way to England&mdash;the <em class="bold">Friars</em>.
The Dominican Friars were a very learned teaching
order, and when they settled at Oxford they
greatly strengthened the work of the university
and kept it alive and active.</p>

<p>8. A Surrey man, Walter de Merton, Chancellor
and Bishop of Rochester, was the inventor or
founder of <em class="bold">colleges</em> at the universities as we
know them to-day. In the hostels the scholars
did pretty much as they pleased, chose their own
officers, and made their own rules. There was
much disorder after a while; many quarrels and
fights took place between one hostel and another,
as well as with the townsfolk. Merton spent twelve
years in thinking out his plan, and at last, in the
year 1264, he founded or established the first of the
Oxford Colleges.</p>

<p>9. The old monasteries and colleges in the early
times had been founded to keep up a continual
round of worship, work, and learning; the special
work of these new colleges was to promote learning
and fellowship. In many ways they were like
the older convents; but the work of education was
the chief object of these new foundations, and we
find teachers and taught, governors and pupils,
living under the same roof, under rule and order.</p>

<p>10. Merton's idea was soon afterwards followed at
Cambridge, where Peterhouse College was opened
in the year 1284. During this century, too, we
find a rival university springing up at Stamford;
but, owing to the opposition of Oxford and Cambridge,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
it was snuffed out, though there are still
standing some interesting buildings which were
connected with it. College after college, at both
Oxford and Cambridge, has been founded since
then; each one has its own special laws and government,
which have been altered from time to time,
and for many centuries now they have been cities
of colleges, unlike anything else in the country.</p>

<p>11. Many old customs are kept up still at Oxford
and Cambridge; the scholars and officials of the
colleges and universities go about in their gowns,
as they have done for centuries, and each university
has still rights and privileges in the government
of the town which have naturally come to it
in the course of time. The town and the townsfolk
have their interests and government; so that
there are two authorities, side by side, responsible
for law and order. The gown and the town depend
upon each other; and in days gone by they have,
times without number, misunderstood each other,
and quarrelled, and fought.</p>

<p>12. In the reign of King Edward III Oxford
was the most famous seat of learning in Europe.
Many of its students were foreigners, but, as everyone
could talk Latin as well as he could his native
language, they had no real difficulty in making
themselves understood.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Our <em class="italic">universities</em>
began about the thirteenth
century. A university is a corporation, or body of learned
men banded together to teach. Scholars were attracted to
the universities from the schools, and encouraged and helped
to go to them. <em class="italic">Hostels</em> were gradually started for scholars
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
in the university town. The Dominican Friars were a great
teaching order. Walter de Merton was the founder of the
first Oxford College; by that means the teachers and taught
lived together. The object of these colleges was to promote
learning. Stamford had a university for a time. Many old
customs are still observed in a university city. Oxford in
the reign of King Edward III was the most famous university
in Europe.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXV" id="CHAPTER_XXXV">CHAPTER XXXV</a><br />

<small>CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE BLACK DEATH</small></h2>


<p>1. In the middle of the fourteenth century, in
the reign of King Edward III, came the Black
Death. It carried off half the population of the
country at least, and all classes of society felt its
effects.</p>

<p>2. We have said that in some of the old parish
churches you can see, by some of the work done
just after this time, that the builders were very
much poorer than they had been, and had to finish
off in a very plain fashion work begun on a grand
scale. You must remember, too, that there were
several different kinds of land-owners or overlords&mdash;the
king, the great lords, bishops, colleges, and
monasteries. The manors, of which these estates
were made up, in the course of centuries were
divided and subdivided in many ways as the land
became more valuable. Many people might thus
have an interest in one manor which a couple of
hundred years before had been in the hands of
one person only. That made law business very
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
complicated when these little parcels of land changed
hands.</p>

<p>3. Though manors could not be bought and sold
outright, little by little money was paid to have
bits of manors and the various rights in manors let
out, or <em class="bold">leased</em>, for a term of years. This was especially
the case with property in towns, and with
lands belonging to corporations, like colleges and
monasteries, which were often scattered about in
various parts of the country.</p>

<p>4. On the manors in the country districts the
same thing was going on, though perhaps more
slowly than in the towns. It became much more
convenient for the villeins and cottiers, and other
tenants of a manor, to pay a <em class="bold">rent</em> to the lord instead
of actually working on the lord's land. At first
this rent was paid in the produce of the land&mdash;a
few hens or eggs, a calf or a lamb, or so much
corn, till by and by we find actual payments in
money as rent.</p>

<p>5. Then, too, a class of <em class="bold">labourers</em> had gradually
sprung up on the manors. As the tenants and
villeins began to pay to the lord a quit-rent, instead
of working so many days a week on the land, the
lord of the manor had to employ persons to do the
work on his home-farm. These would naturally
be the cottiers and serfs on the manor&mdash;the "landless
men"&mdash;who thus became what we know as
labourers.</p>

<p>6. All these had to be accounted for in the <em class="bold">manor
court</em>, which was held regularly every few weeks.
If a labourer was missing he was sought for, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
brought back to the manor, which he might not
leave without his lord's permission. It is quite
true that if he could only remain unclaimed in some
borough town for a year and a day he was no
longer bound to the lord of his native manor; but
the towns did not encourage strangers, as we have
seen. If, however, labour happened to be wanted
in the town, no doubt his being there would be
"winked at", and no notice would be taken of his
"harbouring" there.</p>

<p>7. But it was not an easy matter for a labourer
to get away from his native manor. After the
Black Death, labour became very scarce, for on
some of the manors almost every tenant and labourer
died. All over the country land-workers were
wanted badly; and tenants and landlords, when they
were so hard pushed, were glad to employ almost
any man who appeared, and they did not trouble
to ask whose "man he was" or whence he came.</p>

<p>8. The wages of the labourers, of course, went
up; but before very long the landlords saw that
that would not do; it made their farming so much
more expensive, and so their incomes were less and
less. Law after law was passed to get the labourers
back to their native manors, and to keep down the
price of labour.</p>

<p>9. All classes of overlords, and especially the colleges
and monasteries, had much difficulty in working
their lands, and so the custom of letting them
out in <em class="bold">farms</em> increased a good deal after the Black
Death.</p>

<p>10. At first the owners let out these farms with
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
a certain amount of stock on them. They were let
for so many years, or for so many lives. At the
end of the time the farm had to be given up and
the stock replaced as it had been at the first. The
land belonging to the farm was mixed up with the
land of other tenants in the manor, in the big unenclosed
fields, and had to be farmed still according
to the old customs of the manor. Some of the
very oldest farms existing to this day began in this
kind of way, and there are possibly a few of the
very oldest farmhouses which were first built early
in the fifteenth century.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Manors were much broken up and underlet
in various ways, and <em class="italic">rent</em> was gradually being paid in place
of personal service. <em class="italic">Labourers</em> had taken the place of serfs,
but until after the Black Death they were tied to their
native manors.</p>

<p>After the Black Death land began to be <em class="italic">farmed out</em>; that
is the beginning of our oldest farms. The farms were not
compact, but the land lay about in strips in the big common
fields.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXXVI">CHAPTER XXXVI</a><br />

<small>WOOL</small></h2>


<p>1. The two great industries of England in the
Middle Ages were <em class="bold">agriculture</em> and
<em class="bold">wool-raising</em>.
The wool was the finest grown in Europe, and
attracted hither merchants from the Continent.
They travelled through England&mdash;in the Cotswold
and Hampshire districts, for instance&mdash;and bought
wool largely. But in pretty early days England
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
began to <em class="bold">manufacture cloth</em> of various kinds; and
that, too, became an important article of export.
This manufacture was especially strong in the
eastern and western parts of the country.</p>

<p>2. Weavers from Flanders were encouraged to
settle in various parts of England, by several of the
Norman kings, soon after the Conquest. This was
the case in Gloucestershire, for example; but the
manufacture declined in the reigns of King John
and King Henry III. In the reign of King Edward
III it was again introduced.</p>

<p>3. As the country began to recover from the
effects of the Black Death, the cloth trade became
a very flourishing industry, and English <em class="bold">wool-merchants</em>
became a very wealthy and powerful body.
These have left their mark on the churches of the
land pretty plainly. At the end of the fourteenth
century, and in the fifteenth, some of the finest
Decorated and Perpendicular work was done, and
a large number of churches, especially in Suffolk,
Gloucestershire, and Somersetshire, have magnificent
towers, which were built at this period. It
is pretty safe to say that where to-day you find a
little village with a big church&mdash;very much larger
than the place now needs&mdash;with a good deal of
work belonging to the Decorated and early Perpendicular
periods, that those places were once
engaged in some branch or other of the wool and
cloth trades.</p>

<p>4. Many of the fine brasses of which we spoke
in a former chapter cover the graves of merchants
"of the staple", as these great wool and cloth traders
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
were called. Then, too, some of the very finest
timbered houses, with their richly carved fronts, as
in Chester and Shrewsbury, were built at this same
time.</p>

<p>5. We have spoken before of the <em class="bold">trade guilds</em>.
These, too, after the Black Death period, increased
in power and wealth. Each guild looked well after
the interests of its own craft. It regulated the
number of apprentices which a craftsman might
have, the hours of work, the rate of pay; it made
provision for helping its members in sickness and
need; and it saw to burying them decently when
they died. Guilds took a lively interest in their
parish churches, helped sometimes in forming new
schools, hospitals, and alms-houses, and had regular
times for meeting together for business and for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
feasting. They were good to their members, but
very hard on those who were not of their number.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img154.jpg" width="400" height="293"
    alt="Guildhall, London. From an old print in the British Museum"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Guildhall, London. From an old print in the British Museum
  </div>
</div>

<p>6. From the members of these trade guilds in a
town the town guild, or <em class="bold">corporation</em>, was formed to
rule the town according to its ancient customs and
charters, and to obtain for the town as many new
rights and privileges as possible. There is much
in the corporation of a great city like London, with
its many companies, or guilds, which is connected
with city life and work of the Middle Ages.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;<em class="italic">Wool</em> and
<em class="italic">agriculture</em> were the great industries
of the Middle Ages in England. English wool was
an article of export, and English cloth also, in later times.
Norman kings had introduced Flemish <em class="italic">cloth-workers</em> here,
but the trade died down in the time of King Henry III.</p>

<p>After the Black Death it revived greatly, and
<em class="italic">wool-merchants</em>
became a very rich and powerful body. Many of the
fine church towers, in Suffolk, Gloucestershire, and Somersetshire
especially, were built by them. This was a period,
too, when <em class="italic">trade guilds</em> were very strong.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXXVII">CHAPTER XXXVII</a><br />

<small>THE POOR</small></h2>


<p>1. From early Christian times in England to
<em class="bold">relieve the poor</em> was looked upon as a Christian
duty, and every church and religious house took
its part in the work as a matter of course. You
will remember that in early days there was not
much moving about of people from one manor to
another, so that it was not at first difficult to know
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
the sick and the needy in each place, whether in
town or country. Many religious houses or hospitals
were founded for the purposes of relief. They were
not on a large scale, but there were a good many of
them. In the fourteenth century <em class="bold">pilgrimages</em> were
very popular, and many pilgrims were always to
be found on the road.</p>

<p>2. We must remember that there was another
side to a pilgrimage besides the religious one. A
pilgrimage was one way of travelling and seeing
the world. Indeed it was almost the only means
by which a poor man could travel and have change
of scene. Permission was given for that purpose
because it was regarded as a religious act. It is
not at all surprising that folk who wanted to see
the world often took advantage of a pilgrimage
from no very religious motive. Pilgrims could
always find food and lodging at a religious house
on their way, and there were scores of places in
England to which pilgrimages might be made, to
say nothing of a journey to the Holy Land, or to
the shrine of St. James of Compostello, which were
two grand pilgrimages.</p>

<p>3. In time pilgrimages became somewhat of a
nuisance, for many of the people taking part in
them were anything but pious; and, towards the
end of the fourteenth century, strict measures were
taken to prevent beggars and servants from wandering
from one hundred to another on pretence of
going on a pilgrimage. Each had to have a letter,
properly signed by an officer of the hundred, giving
him leave.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img157.jpg" width="400" height="279"
    alt="Canterbury Pilgrims"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Canterbury Pilgrims
  </div>
</div>

<p>4. But beggars and wanderers increased. We find
some towns, in Tudor times, taking steps to put down
<em class="bold">beggars</em>. In the early part of the sixteenth century
vagabonds found in London were to be
"tayled<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
at a cart's tayle", and collections were made for
the poor weekly, and distributed at the church
door. In the year 1536 there were fifteen hospitals
and four lazar-houses in the city of London. At
the dissolution of the religious houses all these
were seized, but the city managed to save St. Mary
Spital, St. Thomas's Hospital, and St. Bartholomew's
Hospital. The city found that it could not get
enough money to keep even one of these going, so
a tax was levied for the purpose. Bishop Ridley
and others tried to draw up a scheme for finding
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
work for the poor, teaching them to make caps,
feather-bed ticks, nails, and iron-work.</p>

<p>5. Other towns tried the same plan, and the king
and Parliament issued many orders about the treatment
of the poor and vagabonds. But it was much
easier to issue these orders than to carry them out,
and the beggars increased in numbers and in impudence
in spite of all. In 1547 it was ordained
that a sturdy beggar might be made a slave for
two years, and if he ran away, then he was to
remain a slave for life. The sons of vagabonds
were to be apprenticed till they were twenty-four
years old, and their daughters till they were twenty
years of age, and if they rebelled, they were sent
to slavery. The idea was to train them to work.</p>

<p>6. In all this the difficulty was, how to find the
money to carry out these schemes. The king had
swept away all the goods and gifts which had been
made to monasteries, churches, and hospitals; the
free-will offerings of many generations had gone
into the pockets of the king; the institutions which
had been founded to help the poor had become the
private property of the king's favourites. It was
not likely that people would be very keen to offer
their money for the relief of the poor, and though
urged to give what they could, they were very
backward in doing so. Later on, in Queen Elizabeth's
reign, the dwellers in each parish were urged
to find work for the labourers in their parish; but
the beggars still wandered and the poor still
abounded.</p>

<p>7. In the year 1572 some very <em class="bold">severe laws</em> were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
made concerning vagabonds. A man who was
convicted a third time of being a vagabond was
to be punished with death. Habitations were to
be found for all the poor belonging to a parish; no
strangers were to be allowed to settle in a parish;
and each parish was to be taxed for the relief of
the poor. At the same time, every parish was to
find something to do for all the poor who were able
to work. Usually a stock of wool, hemp, and flax
was bought, and the poor were supposed to be
taught to spin. Each county was also to provide
a House of Correction, where those who would not
work should be forced to do so.</p>

<p>8. To keep down the number of poor people in
a parish, order was given that only one family
might live in one house, and no new house might
be built in the country unless it had 4 acres of
ground attached to it. In the cities of London
and Westminster, and for three miles round them,
no houses were to be built except for persons worth
a specified amount. Houses might not be divided
into tenements, nor might lodgers be taken in.</p>

<p>9. All this was to keep people as much as possible
in the places where they belonged. The <em class="bold">churchwardens
and overseers</em> had to attend to the relief
of the poor. There are, belonging to a good many
parishes in England, <em class="bold">old account-books</em>, showing
how these officers raised and spent money on the
<em class="bold">relief of the poor</em>. Some of these books go right
back to this time, though most of them begin a
good deal later. These officers had to keep a very
sharp look-out. Of course they did not want the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
poor-rate to be any higher than they could help,
so strangers coming into the parish were quickly
tracked and hindered from gaining a settlement
there. Vagabonds and strolling players were
hurried out of the parish, and in some cases
whipped. The stocks, the whipping-post, and the
cage were set up near the churchyard gate, and
they were in pretty constant use.</p>

<p>10. The officers were very anxious, too, to prevent
any <em class="bold">travellers</em> from falling ill in their parish.
Those who were sick, and could possibly be moved,
they shifted on to the next parish, lest they should
become chargeable to the parish. Some parishes
spent a good deal of money, and the officers much
time, in conveying people out of their bounds.
That led, we may imagine, to many disputes between
parishes, and gave the court of Quarter
Sessions a lot of work to do; for amongst the
many things which Quarter Sessions had to attend
to was the carrying out of the Poor-Laws.</p>

<p>11. Parishes had to look after and to support
their own poor in much the same way right down
to the early part of the nineteenth century, less
than a hundred years ago.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;<em class="italic">Relieving the poor</em>
was, in early times, a
Christian duty. The poor belonging to a place were then
easily known. Wandering from place to place was discouraged.
<em class="italic">Pilgrimages</em> became very popular, as it was the
chief way by which poor people could travel and see the
world. In later times pilgrims were often idle vagabonds.</p>

<p>In the sixteenth century some attempts were made to
restrain vagrants, and to find work for the poor. After the
religious houses had been got rid of, the duty of doing this was
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
thrown on the parishes, and gradually <em class="italic">rates for the relief of
the poor</em> came into being. The officers who specially looked
after the poor were called <em class="italic">overseers</em>. Most parishes have
still the old account-books, which show how the money was
raised and spent for about two hundred years. Our present
poor-law came into being less than 100 years ago.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXVIII">CHAPTER XXXVIII</a><br />

<small>CHANGES IN HOUSES AND HOUSE-BUILDING</small></h2>


<p>1. In the time of King Edward III, that is, in
the fourteenth century, there was a great change
in the arrangement of castles and castle-building.
We cannot say much about it here, it would take
too long; but the changes made show that there
was a desire to make the castle, not merely a strong
defence against an enemy, but also a dwelling-place
for the baron, his family, his servants and men-at-arms.
Many buildings were added for comfort
and convenience. In fact, a castle became a kind
of little town.</p>

<p>2. William of Wykeham, that great master-builder,
was not only a builder of churches and
colleges, but a castle-builder as well. The great
Round Tower at Windsor Castle, and other parts
of that building still in use, are his work. The
general arrangement of the Tower of London will
give us an idea of the sort of habitation a castle
of the fourteenth century was intended to be. In
fact, we may say that every old castle, which is
still inhabited, has considerable indications of work
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
done in this and the following centuries, to fit it
to be a comfortable dwelling-place as well as a
fortress.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img162.jpg" width="400" height="459"
    alt="The Round Tower, Windsor Castle"/>
  <div class="caption">
     The Round Tower, Windsor Castle
  </div>
</div>

<p>3. A good many houses, too, were protected by
walls, and sometimes even called "castles", though
they were not what we usually understand by
the term. Many of these were <em class="bold">moated houses</em>, the
moat forming the first line of protection. Then
came the battlemented wall, within which the
house proper was built.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>

<p>4. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were
stirring war times, and the nobles kept up bands
of armed men, who lived close to, and even in, their
strong houses and castles. In the fifteenth century,
during the long period of the Wars of the Roses,
there was much work for these "men-at-arms to
do". This constant warfare weakened at length
the power of the barons. Sometimes the Yorkist
king, sometimes the Lancastrian king was in power;
and whichever side got the upper hand the king
seized the property of the nobles on the other side.</p>

<p>5. As a matter of fact the nobles killed each
other off, and when Henry Tudor, a Lancastrian,
became king, there was an enormous amount of
power in his hands; and he used it so as to keep
a closer grip of it.</p>

<p>6. The towns and the traders had no liking for
war, and they were quite satisfied to see the government
of the country in the hands of a strong king.
The new nobles, whom King Henry VII made,
had most of them sprung from the merchant and
trading class.</p>

<p>7. These new men, and even the king's own
friends and supporters, were not allowed to keep
bands of armed servants or retainers, able to turn
the scale of a battle against the king. The Earl
of Warwick, the "King-maker", had played that
game several times; and it was through Lord
Stanley bringing his men over from King Richard
III's side to the side of Henry in this way that
he had won the Battle of Bosworth, and placed the
English crown on Henry's head.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>

<p>8. After becoming king, Henry VII determined
that these bands of armed men, who would follow
the whistle of their lord, must be put down. He
therefore set to work cautiously, but he had his
way. The nobles might no longer keep hosts of
servants in livery as they pleased. The king cut
down the numbers, so that he might be in a
position to say to any of his nobles that his good
word he did not want, and his bad word he cared
nothing at all about.</p>

<p>9. You will remember the story of King Henry
VII and the Earl of Oxford. The king went to
pay the earl a visit, and his host, to show him
honour, had two long lines of stout retainers, all
armed and dressed in his livery, drawn up to meet
him. He did all in his power to show honour to
the king. When the visit was over, the king said
to the earl:</p>

<p>"I thank you, my lord, for your good cheer,
but I may not endure to have my laws broken in
my sight; my attorney must speak with you."</p>

<p>10. Then there was "trouble"; and the earl
thought himself very fortunate in getting out of
the "scrape" by paying a small fine of £10,000.
It was very awkward for a man to be a noble in
Tudor times. He never knew exactly where he was.
The king might be making a great fuss with him
one day, clapping him in the Tower a few days
after, and then chopping off his head and ornamenting
London Bridge with it.</p>

<p>11. Well, this did away with the necessity for
big fortified houses which might contain barracks
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
for soldiers, and so we find that the new houses,
built in Tudor times, were less like fortresses than
they had been before. More attention was now
paid to the size and convenience of the rooms.
This sixteenth century was a great time for the
building of large houses; indeed, the new nobles
had better ideas of what a comfortable house was
than the older barons had.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;In the time of King Edward III many
Norman castles were altered so as to be more comfortable
dwelling-places. Most of them could hold bands of men-at-arms.</p>

<p>King Henry VII put down these large bands of retainers,
and the new nobles whom he made were not allowed to keep
up bands of men-at-arms. The need for castle-dwellings
was gone. The new nobles were most of them raised from
the merchant class. They had great ideas of comfort, and
the age of Tudor houses began.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXXIX">CHAPTER XXXIX</a><br />

<small>THE RUINS OF THE MONASTERIES AND THE
NEW BUILDINGS</small></h2>


<p>1. In early Tudor times our towns were much
more picturesque than they are to-day. That was
chiefly owing to the fact that there were in every
town so many religious houses, colleges, and hospitals.
These buildings all had grounds of their own
in the town, some more, some less; but these open
spaces and garden grounds, though they were not
open to the public, all helped to make the town
airy, and to give variety to the view.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>

<p>2. The buildings themselves were all different,
and many of them were hundreds of years old.
Towers, spires, turrets, gables, gateways, and archways
in all styles of architecture abounded. There
were, of course, many things in the towns which
we should not have liked, but they had a pleasant
variety which our modern towns have not. Thousands
of streets in our towns are just rows and
rows of houses, all alike, all ugly, and very dull
and dreary to look at and to live in.</p>

<p>3. In the reign of King Henry VIII all the religious
houses were suppressed, and given up into
the king's hands. The life that had gone on in them
for centuries came to an end. Both in town and
country districts there were many people besides
those who actually lived in them to whom this
made a great difference&mdash;people who, in one way
or another, got their living out of the monasteries.
Shutting up the monasteries threw all these people,
so to speak, out of work. That meant a great deal
of suffering.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img173.jpg" width="500" height="327"
    alt="FOUNTAINS ABBEY, YORKSHIRE, ONE OF THE MONASTERIES RUINED BY HENRY VIII"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Valentine</span><br />
     FOUNTAINS ABBEY, YORKSHIRE, ONE OF THE MONASTERIES RUINED BY HENRY VIII (page 154)
  </div>
</div>

<p>4. Nowadays, if a factory which has employed a
number of people is suddenly closed, it means suffering
for those who have been employed there and
for their families. Now, though the monasteries
did not employ people in the way in which a
factory does, it did affect in many ways those who
lived and worked and depended on them.</p>

<p>5. In these days, if people are thrown out of employment
in one place they are free to go and seek
it in another; but that was not the case in the
reign of King Henry VIII. If they wandered from
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
their native towns and villages they were treated
as vagabonds. It is true that the new persons,
to whom the monastery lands were granted, were
supposed to do for the people on the land&mdash;the
poor and the sick&mdash;what the monasteries had done
for them. But what they were <em class="italic">supposed</em> to do
and what they <em class="italic">did do</em> were very different things.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img167.jpg" width="400" height="348"
    alt="Old Timbered House, at Presleigh, Radnorshire, dated 1616"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Old Timbered House, at Presleigh, Radnorshire, dated 1616
  </div>
</div>

<p>6. It is pretty easy to see how things worked.
A wealthy man managed to get a grant of the
property of several monasteries at a very cheap
rate. He did not want these places to live in; he
wanted to make money out of them. The first
thing that he did was to strip the buildings of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
everything which would fetch any money. The
lead was usually the most valuable part of what
the king had left. The roofs would be stripped,
the graves broken open to get at the leaden coffins,
and the windows smashed for the sake of the lead.
Then the building was left standing a ruin. The
poor people of the district had been used to receive
food daily at the monastery gate, and no doubt had
grumbled at the quality and quantity of the food
often enough. But now it was no use going to the
monastery gate, for the place was a ruin. They
could not go to the new lord's house, for that might
be miles away. Even if they did find him, he might
be the owner of three or four such ruined monasteries.
How could he be quite sure that they were
the poor he was bound to relieve? And so the
poor folk lost the daily food on which they had
depended.</p>

<p>7. Then as regards the land. The new landlord,
perhaps, might farm his fields; in which case the
rents, instead of going to the monastery, went to
him. But he was not always on the spot, and very
frequently the land was let out to tenants; an
agent or steward collected the rents, and the tenants
never saw the landlord. But many of these new
owners found that the management of the estates
caused them a lot of trouble; and, naturally enough,
they wanted to get as much money out of the property
as they could at the least cost to themselves.</p>

<p>8. Now there was in this sixteenth century still
a great demand for wool, and many of these landlords
found it would save trouble to turn these
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
monastery lands into <em class="bold">sheep-runs</em>. A very few men
could look after a great many sheep, and there
would be no bother about keeping up buildings and
barns. If the people were got off the land, there
would be no poor to bother about relieving. So it
came to pass that much land, which had been cultivated
for many centuries, went out of cultivation,
and the people were turned adrift. It was a hard
state of affairs. The rights which they had had to
relief from the religious houses were taken from
them, and the means of getting their living also
taken away; they were robbed of their employment,
and punished for wandering, for not working,
and for begging.</p>

<p>9. There were, of course, many instances in which
the new landlord came and lived near the old monastery.
In some cases the old buildings were altered
and turned into a dwelling-house; in others the
building material was used for building a brand-new
house close by. Where this was the case the
old custom of relieving the poor who came to the
gate did not quickly die out.</p>

<p>10. For instance, at Standon in Hertfordshire,
there was a house belonging to the Knights Hospitallers.
When the house was dissolved, much of
the property at Standon went to Sir Ralph Sadleir,
who had been secretary to Thomas Cromwell, the
"hammer of the monks". He owned Standon
Lordship, and when the poor were no longer relieved
at the Hospitallers' House, in the village,
they trooped from Standon up to Standon Lordship,
about fifty of them, every day. That custom
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
of relieving the poor was kept up there for many
years.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Most of the picturesque buildings belonging
to the religious houses were stripped of all that was valuable
and let go to ruin. The new owners, many of them,
lived away from their property; and, as <em class="italic">wool-farming</em> was
very profitable then, much arable land was turned into sheep-runs.
That threw many out of employment, and increased
the number of <em class="italic">vagrants</em>. The new owners were expected to
do for the people on their lands what the monks had done,
but very few of them did so. The custom of relieving the
poor at the gate of the great house was kept up in some few
cases, as at Standon Lordship, in Hertfordshire.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XL" id="CHAPTER_XL">CHAPTER XL</a><br />

<small>THE NEW HOUSES OF THE TIME OF QUEEN
ELIZABETH</small></h2>


<p>1. There were, in the days of Queen Elizabeth, in
all parts of the country, hundreds of bare, gaunt
ruins where once had been flourishing houses and
centres of life and work. It may seem strange to
us that the materials left were not sold and cleared
away, and the sites made tidy. We must remember,
however, that people could not build houses either
in town or country as they chose. In Queen
Elizabeth's reign the laws against building new
houses were very strict indeed, so that there was
not a very great demand for building material.
Then, too, the quantity of such stone and wood in
all these many buildings, in every town and almost
every village, was enormous, so that the material
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
was not worth much. The ruins were left, a sad
and sorry sight, for many a long year.</p>

<p>2. In the towns some of the buildings were turned
by their new owners into private houses, and the
parts of the monastery were put to strange uses.
Nobody seemed to mind; the spirit of destruction
seemed to be in the air. Then, as years went
on, and buildings needed repair, or roads wanted
mending, the old ruins were the handiest places
from which to get a load of stone; and so, with
leave or without, many loads of stone were carted
away from them.</p>

<p>3. We said just now that there was no encouragement
given to the building of new houses in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, and yet most of the most
picturesque old houses in our towns and villages
still standing were built at that time. These, however,
were not new houses; they were rebuilt on old
sites, <em class="italic">improved</em> according to the ideas of the time.</p>

<p>4. You will notice in country places a great many
houses built somewhat after this style. Many of
them are now cottages, but they were not built for
cottages; they were the ordinary houses in which
yeomen lived in the sixteenth century.</p>

<p>5. There was the hall or house-place&mdash;an oblong
room in the centre,&mdash;on to which other rooms were
built, forming a wing at one end, or often a wing
at each end, with gables towards the street, and
projecting upper stories. A great deal might be
said about this kind of house, but there is only
space for a very short account of it.</p>

<p>6. The house was built upon a foundation of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
stone or brick, so that the wooden sill should be
above the ground-level. Into this wooden sill
strong upright posts of timber, quite rough, some
8 or 9 inches square, were set. The posts at the
angles were larger, often being butts of trees placed
roots upwards, so that the upper story might project.
Then on the main posts beams were laid, the
ends projecting, upon which the framing of the
upper story was set. It was just a timber skeleton,
into which other timbers were set 8 or 9 inches
apart. In later times these timbers were wider
apart, and curved or diagonal braces were often used,
but at first the uprights were pretty closely set.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img172.jpg" width="400" height="309"
    alt="Old English House"/>
  <div class="caption">
     Old English House
  </div>
</div>


<p>7. The spaces between the uprights were then
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
filled in with lath and plaster, flush with the wood-work.
In some parts of the country brick was
used instead, set in a herring-bone fashion. In
later times, when the lath and plaster had decayed,
the spaces were often filled in with brickwork laid
in the ordinary way. Then again, in other cases
the wood-work of the house shrank and left gaps
between the lath and plaster and the wood, so the
whole of the outside has been covered with plaster,
or weather-boarded and painted or tarred, or hung
over with tiles.</p>

<p>8. The windows were small, and sometimes in
the upper story one was built out, forming an
oriel. The roofs were high pitched, in many cases
tiled, but more often thatched. In these old houses
the <em class="bold">chimney-stack</em> is a great feature outside, and
the huge fireplace, with its wide chimney-corners,
takes up half the house-place inside. From most
of these nowadays the old hearth is gone, and a
small chimney-breast has been bricked up to take
a modern range; but the old chimney-corner, with
its funny little window, can usually still be traced.</p>

<p>9. There are quite a large number of <em class="bold">village inns</em>
of this kind. Very often these are the oldest and
most picturesque buildings left in a village, except
the church. It is these old-fashioned houses which
make village scenery so pleasing to the eye after
the dreary rows of bunches of brick, with holes in
them for windows, covered in with slate, which fill
the streets of our towns, all alike and all ugly.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;There were ruins in every town and nearly
every village in the days of Queen Elizabeth. Gradually the
stones were carted away for building purposes and for road-mending.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
There were many restrictions on building new
houses. Most of the quaint old houses, with overhanging
stories and high-pitched roofs, belong to the time of Queen
Elizabeth. They were built on older foundations. The
wood-work in later times has been in some cases filled in
with brickwork, in others covered with boarding or hung
with tiles. In those houses the chimney is usually at one
end of the house, and the queer little window on one side
shows where the chimney-corner once was.</p></blockquote>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img176.jpg" width="400" height="344"
    alt="An Elizabethan Interior"/>
  <div class="caption">
     An Elizabethan Interior
  </div>
</div>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLI" id="CHAPTER_XLI">CHAPTER XLI</a><br />

<small>LARGER ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBEAN HOUSES</small></h2>


<p>1. We have said that the Tudor period was a time
of building of big houses and mansions. Every
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
county in England has some such houses to show.
Many of them were built of <em class="bold">stone</em>, some partly
of <em class="bold">brick and stone</em>. Their style shows that the
English or old fashion of Gothic building was
dying out. Italian ideas and Italian ornament
were coming into favour. No doubt one reason
why so much of the old work was ruthlessly destroyed
was because it was out of fashion. It is
astonishing, even in these days, how much good
work is destroyed just because it has gone out of
date. Among the most famous of these houses we
may mention Burleigh House "by Stamford Town",
Haddon Hall, and Knebworth; and, belonging to a
rather later date, Hatfield House.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img174.jpg" width="500" height="342"
    alt="HADDON HALL, FROM THE STEPS"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Photochrom Co., Ltd.</span><br />
     HADDON HALL, FROM THE STEPS (page 163)
  </div>
</div>


<p>2. For a big house the idea was to build it round
a quadrangle. Smaller houses were in plan very
like the half-timbered houses of the yeomen, only
on a larger scale, and more richly ornamented.
The hall and its wings were extended considerably,
and, with a handsome porch, formed in plan a big
capital <em class="bold">E</em>, thus:&mdash;</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img177.jpg" width="400" height="202"
    alt="Illustration"/>
</div>

<p>Some people have thought that this plan was
chosen in honour of Queen Elizabeth, but the truth
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
is that it was the most convenient form, and fitted
in best with the ideas of the time. It had grown
up quite naturally, in the course of many generations,
from the simple hall with the hearth in the
middle, the beginnings of which we saw in the huts
of the pit-dwellers.</p>

<p>3. Quite early in the fourteenth century <em class="bold">brick</em>
had begun to come into use for building, but the
first bricks were probably imported from Flanders.
Hull, which had been founded by King Edward I,
had many buildings of brick, and by about the
year 1320 it had brick-yards of its own. Flemish
weavers were encouraged to settle in England by
King Edward III, and they used brick in buildings
which they set up. There are a good many houses
in the eastern counties and in Kent still standing,
which show Flemish and Dutch ideas.</p>

<p>4. Cardinal Wolsey's palace at Hampton Court
is a good specimen of the brickwork of his time;
and all through the reign of King Henry VIII the
chief material used was brick,
terra-cotta<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> being
employed for mouldings and ornament. This was
chiefly the work of Italian artists, and they produced
also some very beautiful ceilings in
plaster-work<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a>
<a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
for many of their fine houses.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img191.jpg" width="500" height="333"
    alt="HAMPTON COURT PALACE"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Photochrom Co., Ltd.</span><br />
     HAMPTON COURT PALACE (page 164)
  </div>
</div>



<p>5. After King Henry VIII's quarrel with Rome
fewer Italians were employed, and English artists
were left to work out these new ideas in their own
way. From about the middle of the sixteenth century
the use of terra-cotta dropped out, and moulded
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
and shaped bricks began to be used, though stone
was used for the more ornamental portions.</p>

<p>6. When we reach the reign of King James I,
we find that the leading architect was Inigo Jones.
We do not hear very much of <em class="bold">architects</em> during the
Middle Ages. The man employed to do the actual
work was allowed to select his own materials and
carry out his own ideas pretty much in his own
way. But in the sixteenth century the architect
became a more important person than the craftsman,
and the craftsman had to work according to
the pattern and design provided for him.</p>

<p>7. The <em class="bold">Jacobean<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15">
</a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> houses</em>
show that the old English
styles of building were being left behind, and a
newer type of house, plainer and heavier, was taking
its place. The Civil War was a very bad time for
architects and craftsmen, but after the Restoration
a better time came to them again.</p>

<p>8. The Great Fire of London, which swept away
almost every mediæval building in the city, gave a
great <em class="italic">impetus</em>, or push forward, to building. You
can quite understand that, with so much building
going on, the work would be somewhat hurried
and very much plainer than it had been. So
London became a city of bricks and mortar. Middlesex
has large quantities of good brick-earth; and,
though bricks were made in that county long
before the Great Fire, the Great Fire developed
the industry greatly. There was a worthy old
Royalist knight of Hammersmith, Sir Nicholas
Crispe, who, after the execution of King Charles I,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
went over to Holland, as so many other Royalists
did. There he watched very closely bricks and
brick-making, and when he came back to England
he introduced many improvements in the art of
brick-making along the Thames valley.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Italian ideas gradually were adopted in
place of Gothic. Many of the finest houses, like Burleigh
House and Haddon Hall, belong to this time. The Elizabethan
house often took the form of a letter <em class="bold">E</em>.</p>

<p>Brick has been used in Hull and in other places on the
east coast from the thirteenth century, but the brick at first
was imported from Flanders. It came into fashion about
the time that Cardinal Wolsey built Hampton Court Palace.
Italian artists were much employed at first, and <em class="italic">terra-cotta</em>
and <em class="italic">plaster</em> were much used.</p>

<p>After the Great Fire of London brick became the chief
building material in London, and the houses became much
plainer. Sir Nicholas Crispe, after the Restoration, introduced
many improvements into brick-making along the
Thames valley.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLII" id="CHAPTER_XLII">CHAPTER XLII</a><br />

<small>CHURCHES AFTER THE REFORMATION</small></h2>


<p>1. Not very long after the dissolution of the
monasteries the churches had a very bad time to
go through. It is perfectly marvellous how rapidly
some people, who were in power, discovered that the
valuable ornaments and fittings in them were so
very wicked and superstitious, that the only thing
to do was to seize them for the use of the king
as his private property. No attempt was made
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
to apply the money taken for the benefit of the
parishes; it was shamefully and shamelessly squandered.
The buildings were very badly treated, and
everything in some of them that could be defaced
and destroyed was so treated. The changes made
in religion under the Tudor kings and queens were
so many, and so violent, that ordinary everyday
people could not understand them, and deeply religious
people were driven in opposite directions.
There was bitter persecution for all who did not
fall in with the will of the Tudor sovereign, whether
Catholic or Protestant, and good men had to suffer
and to die on both sides for their faith.</p>

<p>2. All who did not attend their parish church,
and take part in the services which those in
authority considered to be most fitting, were regarded
as bad citizens, and treated as such. We
cannot wonder that the parish churches were
allowed to go to decay. English people had spent
much money on their churches right up to the time
of the Reformation. Then they saw the gifts they
and their forefathers had made abused or stolen.
People were not disposed to do much for their
churches after that. In some cases, especially in
country places, where the leading people were
Catholics or Puritans, it seems as if they purposely
let the parish church, to which they were compelled
to go by law, get so thoroughly out of order
that they might be able to say that there was no
church to go to.</p>

<p>3. Many of the houses built during Tudor times
had <em class="bold">secret chambers</em> and hiding-places, which were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
known only to a very few persons. And such
hiding-places were much used, in the times of Queen
Elizabeth and King James I, by priests, who ministered
in secret to those who clung to the old faith.</p>

<p>4. But though the churches were much out of
repair, in some of them stately and costly <em class="bold">monuments</em>
were erected in the sixteenth and early
part of the seventeenth centuries. They were
different from the monuments set up before the
Reformation, and were usually built against a wall.
They were of various coloured marbles, the effigies
lying under circular-headed canopies, supported by
columns in the Italian style. The effigies of man
and wife were usually represented clad in robes of
state, coloured, their children kneeling round the
tomb in various attitudes.</p>

<p>5. By and by, instead of the effigies being represented
as lying on their backs, with hands clasped,
they were shown lying on one side, supporting
their heads on their hands. There are many such
monuments in Westminster Abbey, and in almost
every old town church one or more can be seen.</p>

<p>6. It became a very common practice for one of
the old <em class="bold">chapels</em>, built on to the parish church, to be
set apart as the private burial-place of a great
land-owner. Many new chapels were built for this
special purpose. In them we may see specimens
of the different fashions in monuments from Tudor
days, or earlier, right down to the present time.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Much was destroyed in the churches during
the violent changes made in the form of worship. In some
cases the churches were let go to decay, so that there might
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
be no church to go to. There were secret chambers built in
many Tudor houses, where those in danger might hide.</p>

<p>It was a great time for setting up splendid monuments
in the Italian style, usually brilliantly coloured and ornamented.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLIII" id="CHAPTER_XLIII">CHAPTER XLIII</a><br />

<small>BUILDING AFTER THE RESTORATION: HOUSES</small></h2>


<p>1. The most notable architect after the Great
Fire of London was Sir Christopher Wren, and his
master-piece is, of course, St. Paul's Cathedral. He
designed, too, most of the city churches. The style
was adopted in various parts of the country by
various noblemen for building great houses. Brick
was regarded as too mean a material for such very
grand houses, and stone was used for facing them.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img192.jpg" width="500" height="333"
    alt="ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON: SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN'S MASTERPIECE"/>
  <div class="caption">
     <span class="credit">Photo. Valentine</span><br />
     ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON: SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN'S MASTERPIECE (page 169)
  </div>
</div>


<p>2. In the houses which Wren built brick was
very largely used. He introduced rubbed bricks,
and had them laid with very close joints. We have
some very fine examples of such brickwork in
gables of various forms in the early part of the
eighteenth century&mdash;the reign of Queen Anne.</p>

<p>3. Designs for houses did not improve in beauty
as the eighteenth century went on. Many of the
houses were very substantially built, and were arranged
with an eye to comfort and convenience.
The hall, which had been the centre of the old
English home, became smaller and smaller; the
kitchens were placed below the ground-level, and
in towns were often reached by a flight of steps
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
down from the street to the <em class="bold">area</em>, which is still so
common in London streets.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img184.jpg" width="400" height="307"
    alt="House in Queen Anne style, South Kensington"/>
  <div class="caption">
     House in Queen Anne style, South Kensington
  </div>
</div>

<p>4. The <em class="bold">front door</em> of the house became the great
ornamental feature of the building, approached by
a flight of steps often protected by very handsome
iron railings. Attached to many of the railings
still are light upright posts for carrying an old-fashioned
oil-lamp. Just a few of these <em class="bold">lamp-carriers</em>
have extinguishers, which were for the
use of the link-boys, when on dark nights they
had safely lighted the master of the house through
the dangers of the streets to his own front door.</p>

<p>5. The brickwork of these houses had become
very plain, and less and less stone was used for
ornament&mdash;a little over the principal windows, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
the boldly cut quoins at the angles of the house.
Most of the windows were merely oblong openings
in the blank wall.</p>

<p>6. The great point aimed at was to get a handsome
<em class="bold">doorway</em>. Sometimes a portico was built out,
supported by stone pillars having richly-carved
capitals. In other cases a canopy, supported by
half-columns, or by brackets, was placed over the
doorway. Stone was sometimes used for these canopies,
but wood was more common. These wooden
canopies and brackets are often very fine pieces of
joinery and wood-carving. The canopy sometimes
takes the form of a kind of big shell, the ornaments
and pattern being finely moulded, and the
cornice being deeply and boldly cut. These canopies
were painted, and the tops covered with lead
to protect them from the weather. As you walk
along the streets of an old town, which has not
been too much modernized, you will be almost sure
to see some specimens of this kind of work.</p>

<p>7. The thick panelled doors of these houses are
often grand pieces of work, which would rejoice
the heart of a joiner who loves his craft. So
many boys now are taught something of joinery
at school that there must be a good many of them
who know enough to see the beauty there is in
a good piece of work, even though it may be quite
plain.</p>

<p>8. Another feature in these doorways is the
window over the door, intended to give light to
the hall. We call it the <em class="bold">fan-light</em> because it was
usually made somewhat in the shape of an open
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
fan, and you will find in fan-lights some very
pretty designs cleverly put together.</p>

<p>9. About the middle of the eighteenth century
<em class="bold">stucco</em> came into fashion. It was easy to handle,
and ornamental patterns could be readily produced.
The ornamental stone and wood-work was imitated
in plaster. Like all mere imitations of good work,
it soon became poor, and showed itself to be a
sham; but it was very fashionable. There was
such a rage for it that the brickwork of a house
was often covered with a smooth coat of it, and the
whole painted white, or cream colour. Some of
the old houses of good sound brick were covered
in this way, and it was often used to cover up very
poor bricks and brickwork. Good plaster-work,
no doubt, often served a purpose in keeping out
damp, but it was very formal, and not very beautiful.</p>

<p>10. In the middle of the same century a fancy
for <em class="bold">Gothic architecture</em> revived, and many brick
buildings were built with pointed arches, doorways,
and windows, with turrets and pinnacles, all covered
with plaster-work and cement, imitating Gothic
mouldings and carvings; but it was only sham
Gothic, and not at all satisfactory.</p>

<p>11. Indeed we may say that, as the century went
on, houses did not become more beautiful. As the
population increased in the town, streets of houses
sprang up, some large, some small, built in rows
and crescents and terraces, in which all the houses
were alike; and very dull and drab and mean-looking
many of them have become. When they
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
were built they were made to look neat, or even
smart, in front, but little care was taken about the
appearance and convenience of their backs. They
were not arranged in such a way that each might
have a proper amount of light, and that a free
current of air could pass through them and around
them.</p>

<p>12. In some respects we have improved our
houses, but we have much to learn yet. We have,
for instance, yet to see that <em class="italic">all</em> houses, however
small, shall have a proper number of bedrooms,
large, light, and airy&mdash;for we spend one-third of
our lives in them. We have also to see that both
beauty and fitness shall be properly considered in
building a house. Too often no care is taken to
provide proper places where food and clothing can
be kept, and where that very necessary but unpleasant
process of washing and drying of clothes
can be carried on without spoiling the comfort and
health of the household. Every house needs a
bath-room as much as a grate, for where dirt is
there is disease, suffering, and death.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Stone was used for facing large brick houses
in the time of Sir Christopher Wren and at the beginning
of the next century (Queen Anne's reign). Wren introduced
<em class="italic">rubbed brick</em>, laid with close joints, and the specimens of
that period are very good. As the eighteenth century went
on, beauty declined. The hall became a mere passage, and
the windows were oblong holes in the brick walls. The
<em class="italic">doorways</em> were often handsome, with porticoes and canopies,
some of stone, some of wood. Many of these remain in old
town and village streets. The <em class="italic">iron-work</em> of that date is often
very good indeed. The doors themselves were usually plain,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
but well made and solid. The windows over the doors,
usually called <em class="italic">fan-lights</em> from their original shape, give
many varieties of shape.</p>

<p><em class="italic">Stucco</em> came into use about the middle of the eighteenth
century, and became very fashionable, carving being imitated
in plaster, and often covering very poor work. Gothic began
to revive, but plaster, not stone, was used, and it was a very
poor imitation. The fashion for building whole streets, rows,
and terraces of houses in the same style came into use.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLIV" id="CHAPTER_XLIV">CHAPTER XLIV</a><br />

<small>BUILDING AFTER THE RESTORATION: CHURCHES</small></h2>


<p>1. After the Reformation the churches, as we
have said, were much neglected for a long time.
They were used in a different way from what they
had been in the Middle Ages&mdash;a great deal more
was thought of preaching and hearing sermons.
People grew to be very particular as to where they
sat in church, and to have a seat in accordance
with their dignity and importance. <em class="bold">Pews</em> became
very important things. Churches were not heated
in those days, though the services were very long,
for sermons often lasted for an hour or two. No
doubt one reason for making pews so high was to
keep off draughts. The great people of the parish
seemed to try to outdo each other in the height of
their pews. Some of the grand pews had canopies
to them, like old-fashioned four-post bedsteads, and
they were hung round with curtains. In later
times they even had fireplaces, with poker, tongs,
and shovel all complete.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>

<p>2. Gradually the whole floor-space got filled up
with pews, some square, some oblong, all shut in
with doors, and with seats like shelves running
round them. The fashion of having pews shut in
with doors lasted for several centuries; indeed you
may see them still in some churches, though they
are not nearly as high as they once were.</p>

<p>3. The churches needed repairs from time to time
in the seventeenth century, and a few, a very few,
new ones were built. But money was not spent
upon them as it had been in the Middle Ages. They
were patched up and mended for the most part
as cheaply as possible. In very few cases was any
attempt made to make them as beautiful as the
houses which were being built at the time.</p>

<p>4. After the Restoration there arose a great interest
in <em class="bold">bells</em> and bell-ringing. At the end of the
seventeenth century a great many rings of bells
were hung in the old steeples and belfries, which
had to be altered to receive them.</p>

<p>5. The <em class="bold">monuments</em> set up in the churches in the
reign of King Charles II were somewhat smaller
than they had been. They were often <em class="bold">tablets</em> on
the walls, ornamented with curious carvings of
skulls and cross-bones, cherubs' heads, curtains, and
festoons of flowers and fruits, often finely carved.
You will not find in churchyards many <em class="bold">grave-stones</em>
or tombs of an earlier date than 1660. The
<em class="bold">head-stones</em> were then very small, and had little on
them except "Here lyeth the body of" so-and-so,
and the date.</p>

<p>6. A great many churches were built in London
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
after the Fire. They were furnished with high
pews, usually all of the same height, and having
doors. The wood-work, especially of the pulpit,
reading-desk, and organ-case, in these churches is
mostly very fine. A celebrated carver of this
period was Grinling Gibbons, and he and his pupils
did a great deal of such work, both in churches and
houses.</p>

<p>7. In other parts of the country Wren's work
was imitated in some of the new churches then
built, and in some of the old ones which were
altered or rearranged. One of the best specimens
of work done at this time is to be seen at Whitchurch,
in Middlesex.</p>

<p>8. Not very many new churches, however, were
built until the beginning of the nineteenth century,
except in some of the towns which had grown up
from country villages. In and round London
most of the villages increased so much in size that
the little old parish church was much too small for
the population. Galleries were put up in them in
all sorts of queer places, to provide more seats.
More room still being wanted, many churches were
pulled down, and larger buildings set up.</p>

<p>9. The new churches of the latter part of the
eighteenth and the early years of the nineteenth
centuries were simply big oblong rooms. The outsides
were often copies of parts of Grecian temples.
They were crowned with towers and spires somewhat
like those on Wren's churches, but not nearly
so handsome.</p>

<p>10. Inside, the church was fitted up with a gallery
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
running along two sides and across one end. In
the end gallery a big organ was placed, and on
either side of it, high up, near the ceiling, were
smaller galleries, one for the charity-school boys,
the other for the charity-school girls of the parish.
The galleries and floor of the church were filled
with high pews. On the floor opposite the organ
were three huge boxes, rising one above the other.
The lowest box was for the parish clerk, the middle
one was the reading-desk, and the highest was the
pulpit, which was often provided with a sounding-board,
not unlike an umbrella. The altar was in
a little niche behind the pulpit. Chapels were
fitted up in much the same way.</p>

<p>11. Under all these churches and chapels were
<em class="bold">vaults</em>, in which people were buried, but not in the
earth. The coffins were placed on shelves, one
above the other, round the vault. On the walls of
the church above were often <em class="bold">tablets</em> to the memory
of people lying in the vaults below. These, by the
nineteenth century, were for the most part simply
slabs of white marble, with black or grey borders.
There was hardly any carving at all on them; only
inscriptions or epitaphs, and texts.</p>

<p>12. The <em class="bold">churchyards</em> were used for burials, and
by the middle of the nineteenth century most of
them were crowded with tombstones. In London
nearly all are now laid out as open spaces; many
of the grave-stones have quite disappeared, and
those which remain are rapidly perishing.</p>

<p>13. When we remember that the churchyards of
the old churches had been used as burial-places in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
many cases since the early days of Christianity,
and even before that, we can easily grasp the fact
that the earth had been used over and over again
for burials. About the middle of the nineteenth
century the nation came to the conclusion that
burials in churches and crowded town churchyards
should no longer be allowed. The practice was
dangerous to the living. So <em class="bold">cemeteries</em> were opened
in districts away from the towns and homes of the
people. Towns have grown so fast that many of
these cemeteries are now surrounded by houses,
and are the centres of big populations.</p>

<p>14. About the year 1840 interest began to be
taken in the old English styles of building, and a
taste for <em class="bold">Gothic architecture</em> arose again. Since
that time places of worship of all descriptions have
for the most part been built in some sort of Gothic.
When you read that such and such a church or
building is in the fourteenth or fifteenth century
style, you must understand that it is not a copy of
a church built in the fourteenth or fifteenth century,
but that its window-heads, doorways, arches, and
fittings are <em class="italic">in the style</em> of the fourteenth or
fifteenth century. Most of these modern buildings
are of brick, only faced or dressed with stone.
It is pretty safe to say that there is no old church
standing which was built entirely in the fourteenth
century, and has remained unaltered from that day
to this.</p>

<p>15. In our towns almost every tower and spire
which we see is a modern building, though the
<em class="italic">styles</em> may vary from Norman to Perpendicular and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
seventeenth century. Modern buildings, churches,
halls, public offices, and private houses are mostly
imitations of the work of past ages. There is no
nineteenth-century style of English architecture.
Some day, perhaps, England may develop a new
style of architecture, such as the world has never
yet seen, but at the present time we can only copy
and adapt the work of those who have gone before
us.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;<em class="italic">Pews</em>
came much into use in churches after
the Reformation, and the sides were very high. In the
seventeenth century very few new churches were built, but
many rings of bells were placed in the towers. The <em class="italic">monuments</em>
became tablets, ornamented with skulls, cross-bones,
&amp;c. The oldest <em class="italic">tombstones</em> in churchyards are not earlier
than 1660. In Wren's churches there is much fine woodwork.</p>

<p>In the eighteenth century the new churches built were
oblong rooms, fitted up with galleries on three sides, having
<em class="italic">high pews and a tall pulpit</em>. Corpses were buried in
<em class="italic">vaults</em>
under these churches and chapels, but by the middle of the
nineteenth century burials in town churches and churchyards
came to an end.</p>

<p>About 1840 a liking for <em class="italic">Gothic architecture</em> revived, and
the churches and chapels since then have been built mostly
in one or other of the Gothic styles. The nineteenth century
has no style of architecture of its own.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLV" id="CHAPTER_XLV">CHAPTER XLV</a><br />

<small>SCHOOLS AFTER THE REFORMATION</small></h2>


<p>1. A little of the property which had belonged
to the religious houses was saved and turned to
useful purposes. Just a very few of the old alms-houses
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
were allowed to continue their work, like St.
Cross at Winchester, and some schools and colleges
were founded.</p>

<p>2. There are some of those schools which bear
the name of King Edward VI. But Edward VI
was only a lad of sixteen years of age when he
died, so that he had practically nothing to do with
either the good or the evil which was done in his
name. In other towns, besides London, good men
set to work and managed to get back some small
part of the property of old religious houses for
school work. In some places they were allowed to
have part of an old ruin, which they patched up
and made to serve as a school-room. This was the
case, for instance, at St. Alban's, where the Lady
Chapel of the monastery was the grammar-school
until about twenty-five years ago.</p>

<p>3. It is quite true to say that many of our present
<em class="bold">grammar-schools</em> rose out of the ashes of the monasteries.
But they were not great buildings to hold
scores of scholars. Many of them were only founded
for ten or twelve scholars from a particular town
or district. The sum set apart for a master to
teach them was very small, so that he was usually
allowed to take other scholars who paid for their
education.</p>

<p>4. These schools had their "ups and downs", but
many of them in the eighteenth century were in a
very bad way. Some had scarcely any scholars,
and the buildings were much out of repair. However,
most of them are alive and active to-day, and
many of them have histories of which they may be
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
proud, and a past which should help them to excel
in the future.</p>

<p>5. Children were often taught in the church and
<em class="bold">church porch</em> in country places. John Evelyn was
so taught in the early part of the seventeenth century,
and many more people could read and write
than we sometimes imagine; but knowledge was
not within the reach of all.</p>

<p>6. The condition of the poor occupied a good deal
of attention, and the <em class="bold">poor-laws</em> were used to improve
matters in many ways. At Norwich, for
instance, in the year 1632, a children's hospital was
provided for boys between the ages of ten and
fourteen. They were to be taught useful trades,
and fed and clothed. For dinner they were to have
6 ounces of bread, 1 pint of beer, and, on three
days of the week, 1 pint of pottage and 6 ounces of
beef; on the other four days, 1 ounce of butter and
2 ounces of cheese. For supper they were to have
6 ounces of bread, 1 pint of beer, 1 ounce of butter,
and 2 ounces of cheese. For breakfast every day
they had 3 ounces of bread, 1/2 ounce of butter, and
1/2 pint of beer.</p>

<p>7. About the year 1685 the Middlesex magistrates
established a "College for Infants", as they called
it, where poor children might be trained and taught;
and the same plan was followed in other places.</p>

<p>8. Then, too, about the same time, we find private
persons establishing <em class="bold">charity schools</em> for a similar
purpose. The boys and girls, however, in these
schools were not always boarded and fed, but lived
at home and went to school day by day. The rules
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
drawn up for them by their founders seem very
quaint and almost laughable to us. We must remember
that there were good reasons for those
rules when they were made. There were charity
schools in almost every town, and most of them
were carried on in the old way till well into the
nineteenth century.</p>

<p>9. The <em class="bold">dress</em> of the school-boys looks queer to us,
because it is the style of dress worn when the school
was founded. A <em class="bold">blue-coat</em> boy wears still the dress
worn in the sixteenth century. The little <em class="bold">charity-school
boys</em> wore leather breeches, coloured stockings,
coats of a quaint cut of brown or blue or
green or grey, and flat caps, with two little pieces
of fine linen fluttering under their chins&mdash;bands as
they were called. This was the boys' dress of the
seventeenth century, and they wore it long after it
was out of fashion. The girls, too, had frocks and
cloaks of a wonderful cut and colour, white aprons,
and "such mob-caps".</p>

<p>10. They went to school in queer old buildings
on Sundays and on week-days. They were often
taken to church, where they were perched up aloft
by the organ in dreadfully uncomfortable galleries,
so uncomfortable that it is a wonder that some
of them did not fall over into the church below.
There they led the singing&mdash;what little there was.
Their hours in school were pretty long, but they
managed to get in a very fair amount of play, and
always had time for falling into mischief.</p>

<p>11. People often laugh at these old-fashioned
charity schools, and the work they did. That is
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
a pity, because they were founded long before
Parliament troubled itself about the education of
the people. All honour to those good old-fashioned
men and women who did what they could to provide
teaching and training for poor boys and girls,
and to put them in the way of being able to earn
their own living.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Most of Edward VI
<em class="italic">grammar-schools</em> were
founded out of small portions of property which had belonged
to religious houses. Generally they were only for a small
number of scholars. In the eighteenth century many of
these schools were in a very poor condition. Most of them
now are alive and flourishing. In the seventeenth century
a good many attempts were made to teach the children of
the poor on a small scale. Some took charge of the children
altogether; others, the <em class="italic">charity schools,</em> were day-schools.
These lasted without much change till the middle of the
nineteenth century. The blue-coat boys' dress and the dress
of these charity children was the dress of the time when
they were founded.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLVI" id="CHAPTER_XLVI">CHAPTER XLVI</a><br />

<small>APPRENTICES</small></h2>


<p>1. From many of these old-fashioned schools boys
and girls were apprenticed. Connected with old
parishes there are still funds for so placing out
boys and girls.</p>

<p>2. All through the Middle Ages the only way by
which a man could become a craftsman was by
being first of all an <em class="bold">apprentice</em>, and the rules by
which a lad was bound to a master were very strict.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
Things did not alter much in this respect in the
sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.
An apprentice was always bound for seven years
in the presence of magistrates. The master had to
find his apprentice in food, clothing, lodging, and
to instruct him in his art, or "mystery" as it was
called. The apprentice lived in his master's house,
and was bound to serve him.</p>

<p>3. His master could chastise him if he was idle
or "saucy", and even have him sent to the house
of correction for further punishment. Both masters
and apprentices could complain of each other to the
magistrates at the Quarter Sessions, and the hearing
of the complaints often took up a lot of time. According
to many of the complaints, of which records
still exist, some of the apprentices must have had
rather a hard time&mdash;"seven years, hard". Some
complained of having to eat mouldy cheese and
rotten meat; others, of their ragged clothes; others,
that their masters beat them with pokers, hammers,
pint-pots, to say nothing of whips and sticks; prevented
them from going to church; and others, that
their masters turned them out-of-doors, or ran away
and left them. The masters, on their side, often
complain that their apprentices are idle, that they
rob them, that they stop out at night and keep
company with bad characters, and so on. So it
seems they did not always get on well together.</p>

<p>4. But then there were the others&mdash;those who
made the best of it. Where the master did his
duty, and the apprentice took pains to learn, they
got on pretty well together. It was not an easy
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
life for the apprentice, but it made him a craftsman.</p>

<p>5. In some parts of the country, in manufacturing
districts, there were little schools where children
were taught <em class="bold">straw-plait</em> and
<em class="bold">lace-making</em>. Then,
especially in villages, the parish clerk, or some old
lady, kept a <em class="bold">small school</em>, in which a few boys and
girls picked up a little reading, writing, and arithmetic.</p>

<p>6. <em class="bold">Elementary schools</em>, out of which our present
schools have grown, began about a century ago.
Many and great changes have taken place since
then, and knowledge is within the reach of every
boy or girl to-day.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;Many boys and girls were put out as
<em class="italic">apprentices</em>
from old charity schools, and many parishes have
still funds for apprenticing boys and girls to trades. For
centuries a man could only become a craftsman who had been
an apprentice. The apprentice had to serve for seven years,
and the life was often very hard and trying, but it made
good craftsmen in many cases. There were <em class="italic">plait schools</em> and
<em class="italic">lace-making</em> schools in some parts of the country, and almost
every village had its <em class="italic">little school</em> taught by the parish clerk
or an old lady. Our present <em class="italic">elementary schools</em> began less
than a century ago, and they have passed through many
changes already.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLVII" id="CHAPTER_XLVII">CHAPTER XLVII</a><br />

<small>PLAY</small></h2>


<p>1. In all the many centuries of our history there
have been boys and girls; and, whatever has been
going on in the world around them, they have
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
found time to play. Many of their games go back
so far in the history of man that their origin is
forgotten. Yet there are games which children
play now just as they did in the days of Queen
Elizabeth; and those queer rhymes, which you
know so well, and understand nothing about, have
been repeated, some of them, since England began
to be England.</p>

<p>2. There is plenty to say about games, but not
enough space to say it all here. There are some
games which come and go as regularly as the
seasons. The queer part of it all is: Who starts
the game? As sure as the early spring evenings
arrive you will find boys playing at marbles. Town
or country, it does not matter, all at once "marbles
are <em class="italic">in</em>". Nobody says it is "marble season"; nobody
ever yet found the boy who brings out the
first marble of the season. Somehow a <em class="italic">something</em>
inside a boy tells him it is "marble" time, and the
marbles appear in his pocket.</p>

<p>3. It is just the same with "tops"; they come
and they go with absolute regularity. They come
as if by magic, and by magic they disappear.
When the errand-boy, who has left school a month
or two, stops, basket on arm, to watch the game,
you may be sure that it is the height of the season.
When the ground is occupied by the little chaps
who have just come up from the infant school, and
the errand-boy passes whistling by on the other side,
it is quite certain that the season is over and gone.</p>

<p>4. These are games that want no clubs, associations,
nor subscriptions. Yet they are governed by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
time-honoured rules, which have never been written
down, but must be strictly observed, or there is
much talking and wrangling over the game.</p>

<p>5. <em class="bold">Sports</em> have an important place in the life of
towns and villages nowadays; but, though cricket
and football are old games really, they have not
always been as popular as they are now. <em class="bold">Cricket</em>,
in some form or other, was played in the thirteenth
century; indeed all games where a ball is used are
more or less ancient. It seems to have been played
at Guildford as early as 1598, but modern cricket
only dates from the middle of the eighteenth century.
Kent seems to have led the way, and Hampshire
was the home of the game in 1774.</p>

<p>6. <em class="bold">Football</em> has almost driven every other game
out of our towns, but it is only within the last
thirty years that it has become so popular. Football
of some kind has been played for many centuries,
especially in the streets of towns. Kingston,
Chester, and Dorking, amongst other places, have
a custom of playing football on Shrove Tuesday.
The story as to how the custom arose is the same
in most of these places.</p>

<p>7. Far back in the ninth century a party of
Danes ravaged the district and attacked the town.
The townsmen made a brave stand against them
till help came. Then the Danes were defeated,
their leader slain, his head struck off, and kicked
about the streets in triumph. That is said to have
given rise to the custom; but it was a very hideous
football.</p>

<p>8. Football was not always regarded with favour.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
Folk often wanted to play football when their lords
and masters wanted them to practise with their
bows and arrows. So the young men and apprentices
were frequently told what a dangerous game
it was, and over and over again it was forbidden.
Football was always apparently a game over which
the players fell out, much as they do now. Nearly
four hundred years ago a worthy gentleman wrote
of the game:&mdash;</p>

<p>"It is nothyng but beastely fury and extreme
violence, whereby procedeth hurte, and consequently
rancour and malice do remayne with thym that be
wounded".</p>


<p>9. There are some places where the school-boys
of long, long ago have left their marks. In the
cloisters at Westminster Abbey and Gloucester
Cathedral, for instance, are some roughly cut marks
in the old stone benches, forming the "tables" or
"boards" on which they played some almost forgotten
games with stones.</p>

<div class="figcenter">
  <img src="images/img204.jpg" width="400" height="155"
    alt=""/>
</div>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;<em class="italic">Children's games</em>
are very ancient, and the
rhymes have been handed down from very early times, so
that we do not know now what they mean. Marbles, tops,
and hop-scotch are games which come and go regularly,
and are governed by unwritten rules. <em class="italic">Football</em>
and <em class="italic">cricket</em>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
are old games. Both games have altered very much. The
marks of some old games, which were played with stones,
are still to be seen in the cloisters at Westminster and Gloucester.
(See cut on previous page.)</p></blockquote>




<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLVIII" id="CHAPTER_XLVIII">CHAPTER XLVIII</a><br />

<small>GOVERNMENT</small></h2>


<p>1. There was not much change for many centuries
in the way in which towns and villages were
governed.</p>

<p>2. The borough towns, which gained their charters
back in the days of King John, or King Henry III,
had them confirmed by various kings in later times;
but the powers of the towns were not much altered.
The <em class="bold">corporation</em> of a borough was usually made
up of men chosen by the freemen; but if the freemen
did not admit many persons to the freedom
of the borough, the power of electing, in the course
of years, fell into the hands of a very few people.</p>

<p>3. This was what actually happened in a very
large number of cases, and at the end of the
eighteenth century there were many old boroughs
which were governed by "close corporations"&mdash;the
bulk of the people living in the borough having
no voice in the management of the affairs of the
town. All that was altered in the early part of
the nineteenth century. Many of the old boroughs
lost their privileges, as they had become such small
unimportant places. All other boroughs now have
regular elections of town councillors by the rate-payers
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
each first of November. The councils elect
the mayor on each 9th of November.</p>

<p>4. The <em class="bold">mayor</em>, and some of the inhabitants of
the borough, are also magistrates and attend to
police cases; while the <em class="bold">town council</em> looks after
matters connected with sewers, lighting, paving,
and cleansing the streets of the town. It has now
also charge of educational affairs.</p>

<p>5. In London and large towns, where there is
much <em class="bold">police-court business</em>, there are special magistrates
who attend to nothing else.</p>

<p>6. In country places, for centuries, the <em class="bold">manor
court</em> governed the manor; but gradually, and
by Tudor times, most of the power of the manor
court, or court leet as it was sometimes called,
had passed into the hands of the <em class="bold">Vestry</em>. This
consisted of the parish officers and rate-payers in
the whole parish. It was called the Vestry, because
its meeting-place was the vestry of the parish
church, or even the church itself.</p>

<p>7. The relief of the poor and the care of the
highways provided the vestry with most of its
business. The <em class="bold">churchwardens</em> had special care of
the property of the Church, but in Tudor times
they were also charged with the relief of the poor.
To help them in this work two <em class="bold">overseers</em>, at least,
in each parish, were chosen every year. All the
rate-payers were liable to serve in turn if elected,
unless they could show a good reason for not serving.
The elections took place about Lady Day.
The vestry fixed what rates were to be made, and
the overseers collected them. But the overseers
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
had to be admitted to their office, and all rates
allowed, by two justices of the peace, before they
were legal.</p>

<p>8. It became necessary, as the poor-law business
increased, to have constables to help the overseers
in keeping an eye on strangers, vagrants and beggars
who came into the parish. These, too, had to
serve for one year. In big parishes they were
assisted by a <em class="bold">beadle</em>, and had, with the help of all
the inhabitants in turn, to keep <em class="bold">watch and ward</em>
at night. Very unpleasant work they had to do
in towns and places just outside towns. This duty
of watching and warding had to be carried out
until towards the middle of the nineteenth century,
when our present system of <em class="bold">police</em> was established.
Beadles and constables had to see to the whippings,
which were so common, and to setting people in
the stocks and the cage; to moving sick and diseased
wretches on to the next parish, and other
unpleasant duties.</p>

<p>9. The <em class="bold">surveyors of the highways</em> had to see
that each person who was liable did his share of
the work of the highways, or paid for having it
done. But by far the most important business
was that of the churchwardens and overseers.
They had to settle in what houses the poor folk
were to live, who were to look after them, what
allowance was to be made for them. The poor
usually had their money paid to them at church,
monthly. Then the overseers had to see that every
able-bodied man was at work, often having to
provide the work, to place out apprentices, and to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
supply flax or wool for the women and children to
spin. Sometimes the poor were boarded out; some
of them lived in cottages, or in the poors' house
which the parish built. Then, too, these officers
had to relieve beggars, and persons passing through
the parish.</p>

<p>10. This work of providing for the poor was
very difficult and very anxious, especially at the
end of the eighteenth and in the early part of the
nineteenth century.</p>

<p>11. Then <em class="bold">poor-law unions</em> were formed, and
<em class="bold">union
workhouses</em> built, in which the helpless poor might
be better cared for, and vagrants and wanderers
find a night's lodging. We have not a perfect plan
yet, by any means. The difficulties of how to deal
with the poor who, through no fault of their own,
cannot help themselves, and how to deal with those
who are lazy and will not work, are very great.</p>

<p>12. The work of the old vestries has now passed
to the <em class="bold">Parish Councils,</em> the
<em class="bold">District Councils,</em> and
the <em class="bold">County Councils</em>. The work is important, and
has much to do with the welfare of our towns
and villages. We must not expect that these
bodies can do everything at once, or that they will
make no mistakes. If we know something of the
past history of our towns and villages it will help
us to form a right judgment concerning difficulties
which have to be met in the present, and so to act
that those who come after us may be able to go
on building upon our work, that there may be
nothing to undo, nothing to blame, but that future
years may say of our times:</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>

<p>"They knew how to work, and they worked on
right principles".</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;In the course of centuries the government
of most boroughs got into the hands of few people. This
was altered early in the nineteenth century. Borough towns
now choose a certain number of members, and the councils
elect a mayor. The mayor is a magistrate; in the large
towns of England trained lawyers are appointed magistrates
to act in the police courts.</p>

<p>In country places much of the power of the manor court
got into the hands of the vestry. The vestry made the
rates required, and chose churchwardens, overseers, surveyors
of highways, every year. In towns the inhabitants
had to keep "watch and ward" in turn, till the police force
was organized in the nineteenth century. Each parish looked
after and provided for its own poor till early in the nineteenth
century.</p>

<p>The work of the vestries is now done by Parish Councils,
District Councils, and the County Councils.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XLIX" id="CHAPTER_XLIX">CHAPTER XLIX</a><br />

<small>SOME CHANGES</small></h2>


<p>1. There was not much alteration in the outward
appearance of the villages and the "look" of the
country round them for many centuries. Indeed
even now many of the villages themselves are not
greatly altered in their general arrangement. Down
to the times of the Tudor kings the old land and
manor customs had gone on since Saxon days,
changing but very slowly. Many of the class which
had been villeins in the Middle Ages had become
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
yeomen; some had got lands of their own, and some
land on the old manors, which they rented. But
they did not alter very much the old way of
treating the land, and it was only gradually that
<em class="bold">farmhouses</em> sprang up away from the villages.</p>

<p>2. In some parts of the country these lonely
farmhouses are more common than in others.
There are, for instance, a good many in the Weald
of Sussex which sprang up first as huts in forest
clearings, and afterwards became houses with farm-buildings
attached to them.</p>

<p>3. On the borders of great lonely heaths and
commons we can often see very old and very small
cottages, with walls of clay, or wood, or stone,
according to the district in which they happen to
be. Long ago some <em class="bold">squatter</em> built his little hut
here, and out of pity, perhaps, or carelessness, the
lord of the manor took no notice. There he remained,
year after year, until custom allowed him
to look upon it as his own; and in time it actually
became his private property. Such squatters in
lonely places were often looked upon more or less
with fear by the timid folk living in the distant
village. They did not care to do or say anything
to upset the stranger, fearing for the safety of their
sheep, cattle, and poultry. Many little holdings and
small farms began in this way.</p>

<p>4. Many of the <em class="bold">farms</em>, though they were separate
holdings, still had strips in the big fields of the
parish. The crops were sown and gathered according
to the ancient customs, and the cattle turned
into them and out on the waste lands at certain
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
seasons, just as they had been in the Middle
Ages.</p>

<p>5. But about the beginning of the eighteenth
century there was a pretty general movement
towards breaking up these big fields into separate
parts, and letting each farmer have his portion to
himself, so that he might know exactly what land
was his and what belonged to his neighbour. So
it came to pass that <em class="bold">Enclosure Acts</em> were passed for
parish after parish. The old common arable fields
were divided amongst those who had rights in
them. Then many of the old wastes, heaths,
commons, and marshes were treated in the same
way.</p>

<p>6. That caused a great change in the appearance
of the parish. Instead of the fields in long, straight
strips, with unploughed balks between them, the
strips belonging to each farmer were thrown into
one, and <em class="bold">hedgerows</em> planted. In time they became
smooth fields, separated from each other by hedges,
in which grew here and there timber trees. The
old cart-tracks, winding across and round the
common fields, in time became <em class="bold">lanes</em> bounded by
high hedges. The trackways across many of the
old wastes and commons in a similar way were
turned into lanes, and the waste broken up into
fields. Still a good deal of the waste land was left,
and has never yet been enclosed. So far as we can
see now, this is not likely to happen, because we feel
more and more every year that, for the sake of the
health and recreation of the people, it is absolutely
necessary to preserve them as open spaces.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p>

<p>7. The fields, the hedgerows, and the lanes which
delight us so much in the country are, most of them,
some two hundred years old.</p>

<p>8. When the farm had its own separate fields
allotted to it, it became convenient for the farmer
to live in the midst of his land. So we find the
farmhouse and its buildings, with a few labourers'
cottages, a long way out of the village, and away
from the church. If you take notice you will find
that from this outlying farmhouse there is usually
a pretty straight field-path to the parish church.</p>

<p>9. Then, too, in parishes through which a big
main road ran, as the traffic on the road increased,
houses of entertainment for man and beast became
necessary; <em class="bold">ale-houses</em> and <em class="bold">inns</em>
sprang up, with
little farmsteads round them. <em class="bold">Coaches</em> were put
on many roads in the time of King Charles II, and
had regular stopping-places, and these little inns
often became important centres of business. Gradually
hamlets sprang up round many of them.</p>

<p>10. The roads were so bad that horses frequently
cast their shoes, tires came off wheels, and wheels
came off carts and coaches; so under many "a
spreading chestnut-tree" a little smithy and wheel-wright's
shop arose. A smithy is always a centre
of life and news, as everybody knows. You can see
to-day, along many of our roads, sheds and shops
being opened, where broken-down cycles and motor
cars can be repaired and supplied with odds and
ends which they may happen to need.</p>

<p>11. Thus <em class="bold">hamlets</em> have grown up away from the
old village green, its church, and its manor-house.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
In scores of places the hamlet has become of more
importance than the old village, and has grown into
a little town, where new churches and chapels and
public buildings have sprung up.</p>

<p>12. Then there are the <em class="bold">districts</em> where new industries
and manufactures have been planted.
That is too large a subject to deal with here, but
think of the great changes these have wrought on
the face of the country in the coal and mineral
districts of England in the last two hundred years.</p>

<p>13. Again, there are the <em class="bold">railways</em>. Notice how
little townships have grown up round the railway-stations,
especially on the main lines in districts
near a big town. Houses spring up for the hosts
of people who, like streams of human ants, hurry
to the station to catch the early morning trains,
and, as the afternoon wears into evening, come
again from the station to snatch a few hours' rest
at home.</p>

<p>14. We have said nothing of</p>

<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="i0">"The beauty and mystery of the ships,<br /></span>
<span class="i0">And the magic of the sea",<br /></span>
</div></div>

<p>and the part they have had in the making of our
towns and villages. This subject would require a
book all to itself, and then we shall only just have
begun to think about it, and to find out how little
we know and understand of the things which go to
make up our daily lives.</p>

<p>15. Yes, the life of our towns and villages is a
very interesting subject. Nature and Man each
works for and with the other; both are full of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
mystery, life, and beauty, if we could only use our
eyes to see, our intelligence to understand, our
hearts to sympathize, and our hands to work.</p>

<blockquote>

<p><em class="bold">Summary.</em>&mdash;The earliest
<em class="italic">farmhouses</em> began as settlers'
huts in such forest regions as the Weald. <em class="italic">Squatters</em> gradually
got little holdings near lonely heaths and commons.
<em class="italic">Separate farms</em>, with farm-buildings and labourers' cottages
attached to them, date from about the middle of the eighteenth
century, when the <em class="italic">old common fields</em> began to be
enclosed. <em class="italic">Fields and hedgerows and country lanes</em>, as we
see them now, mostly began then. <em class="italic">New hamlets</em> sprang up
by main roads as coaches came into use: an ale-house and a
forge were usually the first buildings.</p>

<p><em class="italic">New towns</em> have sprung up in manufacturing districts
and round railway-stations.</p></blockquote>



<hr class="chap" />
<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</a></h2>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">
<span class="label">[1]</span></a> Also between Hitchin and Cambridge, at Clothall,
in Herts, in the
Chiltern Hills, on the steep side of the Sussex Downs, in Clun Forest,
in Carmarthenshire, and in Wilts.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a>
<a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
Spinneys are plantations of trees growing closely together.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">
<span class="label">[3]</span></a> A diocese is the district over which a bishop
rules.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">
<span class="label">[4]</span></a> In the Fens.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">
<span class="label">[5]</span></a> When we speak of Saxon work in buildings
we mean work done between
the time of King Cnut and the Norman Conquest&mdash;the first half of the
eleventh century.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">
<span class="label">[6]</span></a> The Cistercian houses here in England, however,
were always known as
<em class="italic">abbeys</em>, though Citeaux, their head-quarters,
was in France.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7">
<span class="label">[7]</span></a> <em class="italic">founded</em>, that is,
established.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8">
<span class="label">[8]</span></a> <em class="italic">found</em>, that is,
discovered.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9">
<span class="label">[9]</span></a> <em class="italic">feaden</em>, that is,
feed.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10">
<span class="label">[10]</span></a> <em class="italic">pullen</em>, that is,
poultry.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11">
<span class="label">[11]</span></a> The Jews were expelled from England
<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 1290.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12">
<span class="label">[12]</span></a> That is, whipped at a cart's tail.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13">
<span class="label">[13]</span></a> <em class="italic">Terra-cotta</em>
is a compound of pure clay, fine sand, or powdered flint.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14">
<span class="label">[14]</span></a> See the picture on p. 162.</p></div>

<div class="footnote">

<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15">
<span class="label">[15]</span></a> <em class="italic">Jacobean</em> means of the
time of James I and on to James II.</p></div>

<div class="transnote">

<p style="font-weight:bold;">Transcriber's Notes:</p>

<p>Text appearing in illustrations has been replicated along with the
illustration caption.</p>

<p>Some presumed printer's errors have been corrected.
These are listed below with the original text (top) and the
replacement text (bottom).</p>

<p>Westminster Abbey, As more p. <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
Westminster Abbey. As more</p>

<p>magis-strates  [end-of-line hyphen]  p. <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
magistrates</p>

<p>plainly At the end p. <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
plainly. At the end</p>


</div>

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