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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4512-h.zip b/4512-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..38d1075 --- /dev/null +++ b/4512-h.zip diff --git a/4512-h/4512-h.htm b/4512-h/4512-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..13fbb22 --- /dev/null +++ b/4512-h/4512-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4841 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<HTML> +<HEAD> + +<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> + +<TITLE> +The Project Gutenberg E-text of Gardening Without Irrigation, by Steve Solomon +</TITLE> + +<STYLE TYPE="text/css"> +BODY { color: Black; + background: White; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-left: 10%; + font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; + text-align: justify } + +P {text-indent: 4% } + +P.noindent {text-indent: 0% } + +P.poem {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; b + font-size: small } + +P.letter {text-indent: 0%; + font-size: small ; + margin-left: 10% ; + margin-right: 10% } + +P.footnote {font-size: small ; + text-indent: 0% ; + margin-left: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.transnote {font-size: small ; + text-indent: 0% ; + margin-left: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.intro {font-size: medium ; + text-indent: -5% ; + margin-left: 5% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +P.finis { font-size: larger ; + text-align: center ; + text-indent: 0% ; + margin-left: 0% ; + margin-right: 0% } + +</STYLE> + +</HEAD> + +<BODY> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Gardening Without Irrigation: or without +much, anyway, by Steve Solomon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Gardening Without Irrigation: or without much, anyway + +Author: Steve Solomon + +Posting Date: August 8, 2009 [EBook #4512] +Release Date: October, 2003 +First Posted: January 28, 2002 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GARDENING WITHOUT IRRIGATION *** + + + + +Produced by Steve Solomon. HTML version by Al Haines. + + + + + +</pre> + + +<BR><BR> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Cascadia Gardening Series +</H3> + +<BR> + +<H1 ALIGN="center"> +Gardening Without Irrigation:<BR>or without much, anyway +</H1> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +Steve Solomon +</H2> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<H2 ALIGN="center"> +CONTENTS +</H2> + +<H4> +Chapter +</H4> + +<H4> + 1 <A HREF="#chap01">Predictably Rainless Summers</A><BR> + 2 <A HREF="#chap02">Water-Wise Gardening Science</A><BR> + 3 <A HREF="#chap03">Helping Plants to Need Less Irrigation</A><BR> + 4 <A HREF="#chap04">Water-Wise Gardening Year-Round</A><BR> + 5 <A HREF="#chap05">How to Grow It with Less Irrigation: A-Z</A><BR> + 6 <A HREF="#chap06">My Own Garden Plan</A><BR> + 7 <A HREF="#chap07">The Backyard</A><BR> +</H4> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Introduction +</H3> + +<H4> +Starting a New Gardening Era +</H4> + +<P> +First, you should know why a maritime Northwest raised-bed gardener +named Steve Solomon became worried about his dependence on +irrigation. +</P> + +<P> +I'm from Michigan. I moved to Lorane, Oregon, in April 1978 and +homesteaded on 5 acres in what I thought at the time was a cool, +showery green valley of liquid sunshine and rainbows. I intended to +put in a big garden and grow as much of my own food as possible. +</P> + +<P> +Two months later, in June, just as my garden began needing water, my +so-called 15-gallon-per-minute well began to falter, yielding less +and less with each passing week. By August it delivered about 3 +gallons per minute. Fortunately, I wasn't faced with a completely +dry well or one that had shrunk to below 1 gallon per minute, as I +soon discovered many of my neighbors were cursed with. Three gallons +per minute won't supply a fan nozzle or even a common impulse +sprinkler, but I could still sustain my big raised-bed garden by +watering all night, five or six nights a week, with a single, 2-1/2 +gallon-per-minute sprinkler that I moved from place to place. +</P> + +<P> +I had repeatedly read that gardening in raised beds was the most +productive vegetable growing method, required the least work, and +was the most water-efficient system ever known. So, without adequate +irrigation, I would have concluded that food self-sufficiency on my +homestead was not possible. In late September of that first year, I +could still run that single sprinkler. What a relief not to have +invested every last cent in land that couldn't feed us. +</P> + +<P> +For many succeeding years at Lorane, I raised lots of organically +grown food on densely planted raised beds, but the realities of +being a country gardener continued to remind me of how tenuous my +irrigation supply actually was. We country folks have to be +self-reliant: I am my own sanitation department, I maintain my own +800-foot-long driveway, the septic system puts me in the sewage +business. A long, long response time to my 911 call means I'm my own +self-defense force. And I'm my own water department. +</P> + +<P> +Without regular and heavy watering during high summer, dense stands +of vegetables become stunted in a matter of days. Pump failure has +brought my raised-bed garden close to that several times. Before my +frantic efforts got the water flowing again, I could feel the +stressed-out garden screaming like a hungry baby. +</P> + +<P> +As I came to understand our climate, I began to wonder about +<I>complete</I> food self-sufficiency. How did the early pioneers +irrigate their vegetables? There probably aren't more than a +thousand homestead sites in the entire maritime Northwest with +gravity water. Hand pumping into hand-carried buckets is impractical +and extremely tedious. Wind-powered pumps are expensive and have +severe limits. +</P> + +<P> +The combination of dependably rainless summers, the realities of +self-sufficient living, and my homestead's poor well turned out to +be an opportunity. For I continued wondering about gardens and +water, and discovered a method for growing a lush, productive +vegetable garden on deep soil with little or no irrigation, in a +climate that reliably provides 8 to 12 virtually dry weeks every +summer. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Gardening with Less Irrigation +</H4> + +<P> +Being a garden writer, I was on the receiving end of quite a bit of +local lore. I had heard of someone growing unirrigated carrots on +sandy soil in southern Oregon by sowing early and spacing the roots +1 foot apart in rows 4 feet apart. The carrots were reputed to grow +to enormous sizes, and the overall yield in pounds per square foot +occupied by the crop was not as low as one might think. I read that +Native Americans in the Southwest grew remarkable desert gardens +with little or no water. And that Native South Americans in the +highlands of Peru and Bolivia grow food crops in a land with 8 to 12 +inches of rainfall. So I had to wonder what our own pioneers did. +</P> + +<P> +In 1987, we moved 50 miles south, to a much better homestead with +more acreage and an abundant well. Ironically, only then did I grow +my first summertime vegetable without irrigation. Being a low-key +survivalist at heart, I was working at growing my own seeds. The +main danger to attaining good germination is in repeatedly +moistening developing seed. So, in early March 1988, I moved six +winter-surviving savoy cabbage plants far beyond the irrigated soil +of my raised-bed vegetable garden. I transplanted them 4 feet apart +because blooming brassicas make huge sprays of flower stalks. I did +not plan to water these plants at all, since cabbage seed forms +during May and dries down during June as the soil naturally dries +out. +</P> + +<P> +That is just what happened. Except that one plant did something a +little unusual, though not unheard of. Instead of completely going +into bloom and then dying after setting a massive load of seed, this +plant also threw a vegetative bud that grew a whole new cabbage +among the seed stalks. +</P> + +<P> +With increasing excitement I watched this head grow steadily larger +through the hottest and driest summer I had ever experienced. +Realizing I was witnessing revelation, I gave the plant absolutely +no water, though I did hoe out the weeds around it after I cut the +seed stalks. I harvested the unexpected lesson at the end of +September. The cabbage weighed in at 6 or 7 pounds and was sweet and +tender. +</P> + +<P> +Up to that time, all my gardening had been on thoroughly and +uniformly watered raised beds. Now I saw that elbow room might be +the key to gardening with little or no irrigating, so I began +looking for more information about dry gardening and soil/water +physics. In spring 1989, I tilled four widely separated, unirrigated +experimental rows in which I tested an assortment of vegetable +species spaced far apart in the row. Out of curiosity I decided to +use absolutely no water at all, not even to sprinkle the seeds to +get them germinating. +</P> + +<P> +I sowed a bit of kale, savoy cabbage, Purple Sprouting broccoli, +carrots, beets, parsnips, parsley, endive, dry beans, potatoes, +French sorrel, and a couple of field cornstalks. I also tested one +compact bush (determinate) and one sprawling (indeterminate) tomato +plant. Many of these vegetables grew surprisingly well. I ate +unwatered tomatoes July through September; kale, cabbages, parsley, +and root crops fed us during the winter. The Purple Sprouting +broccoli bloomed abundantly the next March. +</P> + +<P> +In terms of quality, all the harvest was acceptable. The root +vegetables were far larger but only a little bit tougher and quite a +bit sweeter than usual. The potatoes yielded less than I'd been used +to and had thicker than usual skin, but also had a better flavor and +kept well through the winter. +</P> + +<P> +The following year I grew two parallel gardens. One, my "insurance +garden," was thoroughly irrigated, guaranteeing we would have plenty +to eat. Another experimental garden of equal size was entirely +unirrigated. There I tested larger plots of species that I hoped +could grow through a rainless summer. +</P> + +<P> +By July, growth on some species had slowed to a crawl and they +looked a little gnarly. Wondering if a hidden cause of what appeared +to be moisture stress might actually be nutrient deficiencies, I +tried spraying liquid fertilizer directly on these gnarly leaves, a +practice called foliar feeding. It helped greatly because, I +reasoned, most fertility is located in the topsoil, and when it gets +dry the plants draw on subsoil moisture, so surface nutrients, +though still present in the dry soil, become unobtainable. That +being so, I reasoned that some of these species might do even better +if they had just a little fertilized water. So I improvised a simple +drip system and metered out 4 or 5 gallons of liquid fertilizer to +some of the plants in late July and four gallons more in August. To +some species, extra fertilized water (what I call "fertigation") +hardly made any difference at all. But unirrigated winter squash +vines, which were small and scraggly and yielded about 15 pounds of +food, grew more lushly when given a few 5-gallon, +fertilizer-fortified assists and yielded 50 pounds. Thirty-five +pounds of squash for 25 extra gallons of water and a bit of extra +nutrition is a pretty good exchange in my book. +</P> + +<P> +The next year I integrated all this new information into just one +garden. Water-loving species like lettuce and celery were grown +through the summer on a large, thoroughly irrigated raised bed. The +rest of the garden was given no irrigation at all or minimally +metered-out fertigations. Some unirrigated crops were foliar fed +weekly. +</P> + +<P> +Everything worked in 1991! And I found still other species that I +could grow surprisingly well on surprisingly small amounts of +water[—]or none at all. So, the next year, 1992, I set up a +sprinkler system to water the intensive raised bed and used the +overspray to support species that grew better with some moisture +supplementation; I continued using my improvised drip system to help +still others, while keeping a large section of the garden entirely +unwatered. And at the end of that summer I wrote this book. +</P> + +<P> +What follows is not mere theory, not something I read about or saw +others do. These techniques are tested and workable. The +next-to-last chapter of this book contains a complete plan of my +1992 garden with explanations and discussion of the reasoning behind +it. +</P> + +<P> +In <I>Water-Wise Vegetables</I> I assume that my readers already are +growing food (probably on raised beds), already know how to adjust +their gardening to this region's climate, and know how to garden +with irrigation. If you don't have this background I suggest you +read my other garden book, <I>Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades,</I> (Sasquatch Books, 1989). +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Steve Solomon +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap01"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Chapter 1 +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Predictably Rainless Summers +</H3> + +<P> +In the eastern United States, summertime rainfall can support +gardens without irrigation but is just irregular enough to be +worrisome. West of the Cascades we go into the summer growing season +certain we must water regularly. +</P> + +<P> +My own many-times-revised book <I>Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades</I> correctly emphasized that moisture-stressed vegetables +suffer greatly. Because I had not yet noticed how plant spacing +affects soil moisture loss, in that book I stated a half-truth as +law: Soil moisture loss averages 1-1/2 inches per week during +summer. +</P> + +<P> +This figure is generally true for raised-bed gardens west of the +Cascades, so I recommended adding 1 1/2 inches of water each week +and even more during really hot weather. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Summertime Rainfall West of the Cascades (in inches)* + + Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. + + Eureka, CA 3.0 2.1 0.7 0.1 0.3 0.7 3.2 + Medford, OR 1.0 1.4 0.98 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.1 + Eugene, OR 2.3 2.1 1.3 0.3 0.6 1.3 4.0 + Portland, OR 2.2 2.1 1.6 0.5 0.8 1.6 3.6 + Astoria, OR 4.6 2.7 2.5 1.0 1.5 2.8 6.8 + Olympia, WA 3.1 1.9 1.6 0.7 1.2 2.1 5.3 + Seattle, WA 2.4 1.7 1.6 0.8 1.0 2.1 4.0 + Bellingham, WA 2.3 1.8 1.9 1.0 1.1 2.0 3.7 + Vancouver, BC 3.3 2.8 2.5 1.2 1.7 3.6 5.8 + Victoria, BC 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.4 0.6 1.5 2.8 + + *Source: Van der Leeden et al., <I>The Water Encyclopedia,</I> 2nd ed., + (Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, 1990). +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +Defined scientifically, drought is not lack of rain. It is a dry +soil condition in which plant growth slows or stops and plant +survival may be threatened. The earth loses water when wind blows, +when sun shines, when air temperature is high, and when humidity is +low. Of all these factors, air temperature most affects soil +moisture loss. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Daily Maximum Temperature (F)* + + July/August Average + + Eureka, CA 61 + Medford, OR 89 + Eugene, OR 82 + Astoria, OR 68 + Olympia, WA 78 + Seattle, WA 75 + Bellingham, WA 74 + Vancouver, BC 73 + Victoria, BC 68 + + *Source: The Water Encyclopedia. +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +The kind of vegetation growing on a particular plot and its density +have even more to do with soil moisture loss than temperature or +humidity or wind speed. And, surprising as it might seem, bare soil +may not lose much moisture at all. I now know it is next to +impossible to anticipate moisture loss from soil without first +specifying the vegetation there. Evaporation from a large body of +water, however, is mainly determined by weather, so reservoir +evaporation measurements serve as a rough gauge of anticipated soil +moisture loss. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Evaporation from Reservoirs (inches per month)* + + Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. + + Seattle, WA 2.1 2.7 3.4 3.9 3.4 2.6 1.6 + Baker, OR 2.5 3.4 4.4 6.9 7.3 4.9 2.9 + Sacramento, CA 3.6 5.0 7.1 8.9 8.6 7.1 4.8 + + *Source: <I>The Water Encyclopedia</I> +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +From May through September during a normal year, a reservoir near +Seattle loses about 16 inches of water by evaporation. The next +chart shows how much water farmers expect to use to support +conventional agriculture in various parts of the West. Comparing +this data for Seattle with the estimates based on reservoir +evaporation shows pretty good agreement. I include data for Umatilla +and Yakima to show that much larger quantities of irrigation water +are needed in really hot, arid places like Baker or Sacramento. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Estimated Irrigation Requirements: + During Entire Growing Season (in inches)* + + Location Duration Amount + + Umatilla/Yakama Valley April-October 30 + Willamette Valley May-September 16 + Puget Sound May-September 14 + Upper Rogue/Upper Umpqua Valley March-September 18 + Lower Rogue/Lower Coquille Valley May-September 11 + NW California April-October 17 + + *Source: <I>The Water Encyclopedia</I> +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +In our region, gardens lose far more water than they get from +rainfall during the summer growing season. At first glance, it seems +impossible to garden without irrigation west of the Cascades. But +there is water already present in the soil when the gardening season +begins. By creatively using and conserving this moisture, some +maritime Northwest gardeners can go through an entire summer without +irrigating very much, and with some crops, irrigating not at all. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap02"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Chapter 2 +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Water-Wise Gardening Science +</H3> + +<H4> +Plants Are Water +</H4> + +<P> +Like all other carbon-based life forms on earth, plants conduct +their chemical processes in a water solution. Every substance that +plants transport is dissolved in water. When insoluble starches and +oils are required for plant energy, enzymes change them back into +water-soluble sugars for movement to other locations. Even cellulose +and lignin, insoluble structural materials that plants cannot +convert back into soluble materials, are made from molecules that +once were in solution. +</P> + +<P> +Water is so essential that when a plant can no longer absorb as much +water as it is losing, it wilts in self-defense. The drooping leaves +transpire (evaporate) less moisture because the sun glances off +them. Some weeds can wilt temporarily and resume vigorous growth as +soon as their water balance is restored. But most vegetable species +aren't as tough-moisture stressed vegetables may survive, but once +stressed, the quality of their yield usually drops markedly. +</P> + +<P> +Yet in deep, open soil west of the Cascades, most vegetable species +may be grown quite successfully with very little or no supplementary +irrigation and without mulching, because they're capable of being +supplied entirely by water already stored in the soil. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Soil's Water-Holding Capacity +</H4> + +<P> +Soil is capable of holding on to quite a bit of water, mostly by +adhesion. For example, I'm sure that at one time or another you have +picked up a wet stone from a river or by the sea. A thin film of +water clings to its surface. This is adhesion. The more surface area +there is, the greater the amount of moisture that can be held by +adhesion. If we crushed that stone into dust, we would greatly +increase the amount of water that could adhere to the original +material. Clay particles, it should be noted, are so small that +clay's ability to hold water is not as great as its mathematically +computed surface area would indicate. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Surface Area of One Gram of Soil Particles + + Particle type Diameter of Number of + particles particles Surface area + in mm per gm in sq. cm. + + Very coarse sand 2.00-1.00 90 11 + Coarse sand 1.00-0.50 720 23 + Medium sand 0.50-0.25 5,700 45 + Fine sand 0.25-0.10 46,000 91 + Very fine sand 0.10-0.05 772,000 227 + Silt 0.05-0.002 5,776,000 454 + Clay Below 0.002 90,260,853,000 8,000,000 + + Source: Foth, Henry D., <I>Fundamentals of Soil Science,</I> 8th ed. + (New York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990). +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +This direct relationship between particle size, surface area, and +water-holding capacity is so essential to understanding plant growth +that the surface areas presented by various sizes of soil particles +have been calculated. Soils are not composed of a single size of +particle. If the mix is primarily sand, we call it a sandy soil. If +the mix is primarily clay, we call it a clay soil. If the soil is a +relatively equal mix of all three, containing no more than 35 +percent clay, we call it a loam. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Available Moisture (inches of water per foot of soil) + + Soil Texture Average Amount + + Very coarse sand 0.5 + Coarse sand 0.7 + Sandy 1.0 + Sandy loam 1.4 + Loam 2.0 + Clay loam 2.3 + Silty clay 2.5 + Clay 2.7 + + Source: <I>Fundamentals of Soil Science</I>. +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +Adhering water films can vary greatly in thickness. But if the water +molecules adhering to a soil particle become too thick, the force of +adhesion becomes too weak to resist the force of gravity, and some +water flows deeper into the soil. When water films are relatively +thick the soil feels wet and plant roots can easily absorb moisture. +"Field capacity" is the term describing soil particles holding all +the water they can against the force of gravity. +</P> + +<P> +At the other extreme, the thinner the water films become, the more +tightly they adhere and the drier the earth feels. At some degree of +desiccation, roots are no longer forceful enough to draw on soil +moisture as fast as the plants are transpiring. This condition is +called the "wilting point." The term "available moisture" refers to +the difference between field capacity and the amount of moisture +left after the plants have died. +</P> + +<P> +Clayey soil can provide plants with three times as much available +water as sand, six times as much as a very coarse sandy soil. It +might seem logical to conclude that a clayey garden would be the +most drought resistant. But there's more to it. For some crops, deep +sandy loams can provide just about as much usable moisture as clays. +Sandy soils usually allow more extensive root development, so a +plant with a naturally aggressive and deep root system may be able +to occupy a much larger volume of sandy loam, ultimately coming up +with more moisture than it could obtain from a heavy, airless clay. +And sandy loams often have a clayey, moisture-rich subsoil. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Because of this interplay of factors, how much available water your +own unique garden soil is actually capable of providing and how much +you will have to supplement it with irrigation can only be +discovered by trial.</I> +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +How Soil Loses Water +</H4> + +<P> +Suppose we tilled a plot about April 1 and then measured soil +moisture loss until October. Because plants growing around the edge +might extend roots into our test plot and extract moisture, we'll +make our tilled area 50 feet by 50 feet and make all our +measurements in the center. And let's locate this imaginary plot in +full sun on flat, uniform soil. And let's plant absolutely nothing +in this bare earth. And all season let's rigorously hoe out every +weed while it is still very tiny. +</P> + +<P> +Let's also suppose it's been a typical maritime Northwest rainy +winter, so on April 1 the soil is at field capacity, holding all the +moisture it can. From early April until well into September the hot +sun will beat down on this bare plot. Our summer rains generally +come in insignificant installments and do not penetrate deeply; all +of the rain quickly evaporates from the surface few inches without +recharging deeper layers. Most readers would reason that a soil +moisture measurement taken 6 inches down on September 1, should show +very little water left. One foot down seems like it should be just +as dry, and in fact, most gardeners would expect that there would be +very little water found in the soil until we got down quite a few +feet if there were several feet of soil. +</P> + +<P> +But that is not what happens! The hot sun does dry out the surface +inches, but if we dig down 6 inches or so there will be almost as +much water present in September as there was in April. Bare earth +does not lose much water at all. <I>Once a thin surface layer is +completely desiccated, be it loose or compacted, virtually no +further loss of moisture can occur.</I> +</P> + +<P> +The only soils that continue to dry out when bare are certain kinds +of very heavy clays that form deep cracks. These ever-deepening +openings allow atmospheric air to freely evaporate additional +moisture. But if the cracks are filled with dust by surface +cultivation, even this soil type ceases to lose water. +</P> + +<P> +Soil functions as our bank account, holding available water in +storage. In our climate soil is inevitably charged to capacity by +winter rains, and then all summer growing plants make heavy +withdrawals. But hot sun and wind working directly on soil don't +remove much water; that is caused by hot sun and wind working on +plant leaves, making them transpire moisture drawn from the earth +through their root systems. Plants desiccate soil to the ultimate +depth and lateral extent of their rooting ability, and then some. +The size of vegetable root systems is greater than most gardeners +would think. The amount of moisture potentially available to sustain +vegetable growth is also greater than most gardeners think. +</P> + +<P> +Rain and irrigation are not the only ways to replace soil moisture. +If the soil body is deep, water will gradually come up from below +the root zone by capillarity. Capillarity works by the very same +force of adhesion that makes moisture stick to a soil particle. A +column of water in a vertical tube (like a thin straw) adheres to +the tube's inner surfaces. This adhesion tends to lift the edges of +the column of water. As the tube's diameter becomes smaller the +amount of lift becomes greater. Soil particles form interconnected +pores that allow an inefficient capillary flow, recharging dry soil +above. However, the drier soil becomes, the less effective capillary +flow becomes. <I>That is why a thoroughly desiccated surface layer +only a few inches thick acts as a powerful mulch.</I> +</P> + +<P> +Industrial farming and modern gardening tend to discount the +replacement of surface moisture by capillarity, considering this +flow an insignificant factor compared with the moisture needs of +crops. But conventional agriculture focuses on maximized yields +through high plant densities. Capillarity is too slow to support +dense crop stands where numerous root systems are competing, but +when a single plant can, without any competition, occupy a large +enough area, moisture replacement by capillarity becomes +significant. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +How Plants Obtain Water +</H4> + +<P> +Most gardeners know that plants acquire water and minerals through +their root systems, and leave it at that. But the process is not +quite that simple. The actively growing, tender root tips and almost +microscopic root hairs close to the tip absorb most of the plant's +moisture as they occupy new territory. As the root continues to +extend, parts behind the tip cease to be effective because, as soil +particles in direct contact with these tips and hairs dry out, the +older roots thicken and develop a bark, while most of the absorbent +hairs slough off. This rotation from being actively foraging tissue +to becoming more passive conductive and supportive tissue is +probably a survival adaptation, because the slow capillary movement +of soil moisture fails to replace what the plant used as fast as the +plant might like. The plant is far better off to aggressively seek +new water in unoccupied soil than to wait for the soil its roots +already occupy to be recharged. +</P> + +<P> +A simple bit of old research magnificently illustrated the +significance of this. A scientist named Dittmer observed in 1937 +that a single potted ryegrass plant allocated only 1 cubic foot of +soil to grow in made about 3 miles of new roots and root hairs every +day. (Ryegrasses are known to make more roots than most plants.) I +calculate that a cubic foot of silty soil offers about 30,000 square +feet of surface area to plant roots. If 3 miles of microscopic root +tips and hairs (roughly 16,000 lineal feet) draws water only from a +few millimeters of surrounding soil, then that single rye plant +should be able to continue ramifying into a cubic foot of silty soil +and find enough water for quite a few days before wilting. These +arithmetical estimates agree with my observations in the garden, and +with my experiences raising transplants in pots. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Lowered Plant Density: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening +</H4> + +<P> +I always think my latest try at writing a near-perfect garden book +is quite a bit better than the last. <I>Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades</I>, recommended somewhat wider spacings on raised beds than I +did in 1980 because I'd repeatedly noticed that once a leaf canopy +forms, plant growth slows markedly. Adding a little more fertilizer +helps after plants "bump," but still the rate of growth never equals +that of younger plants. For years I assumed crowded plants stopped +producing as much because competition developed for light. But now I +see that unseen competition for root room also slows them down. Even +if moisture is regularly recharged by irrigation, and although +nutrients are replaced, once a bit of earth has been occupied by the +roots of one plant it is not so readily available to the roots of +another. So allocating more elbow room allows vegetables to get +larger and yield longer and allows the gardener to reduce the +frequency of irrigations. +</P> + +<P> +Though hot, baking sun and wind can desiccate the few inches of +surface soil, withdrawals of moisture from greater depths are made +by growing plants transpiring moisture through their leaf surfaces. +The amount of water a growing crop will transpire is determined +first by the nature of the species itself, then by the amount of +leaf exposed to sun, air temperature, humidity, and wind. In these +respects, the crop is like an automobile radiator. With cars, the +more metal surfaces, the colder the ambient air, and the higher the +wind speed, the better the radiator can cool; in the garden, the +more leaf surfaces, the faster, warmer, and drier the wind, and the +brighter the sunlight, the more water is lost through transpiration. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Dealing with a Surprise Water Shortage +</H4> + +<P> +Suppose you are growing a conventional, irrigated garden and +something unanticipated interrupts your ability to water. Perhaps +you are homesteading and your well begins to dry up. Perhaps you're +a backyard gardener and the municipality temporarily restricts +usage. What to do? +</P> + +<P> +First, if at all possible before the restrictions take effect, water +very heavily and long to ensure there is maximum subsoil moisture. +Then eliminate all newly started interplantings and ruthlessly hoe +out at least 75 percent of the remaining immature plants and about +half of those about two weeks away from harvest. +</P> + +<P> +For example, suppose you've got a a 4-foot-wide intensive bed +holding seven rows of broccoli on 12 inch centers, or about 21 +plants. Remove at least every other row and every other plant in the +three or four remaining rows. Try to bring plant density down to +those described in Chapter 5, "How to Grow It: A-Z" +</P> + +<P> +Then shallowly hoe the soil every day or two to encourage the +surface inches to dry out and form a dust mulch. You water-wise +person—you're already dry gardening—now start fertigating. +</P> + +<P> +How long available soil water will sustain a crop is determined by +how many plants are drawing on the reserve, how extensively their +root systems develop, and how many leaves are transpiring the +moisture. If there are no plants, most of the water will stay unused +in the barren soil through the entire growing season. If a crop +canopy is established midway through the growing season, the rate of +water loss will approximate that listed in the table in Chapter 1 +"Estimated Irrigation Requirement." If by very close planting the +crop canopy is established as early as possible and maintained by +successive interplantings, as is recommended by most advocates of +raised-bed gardening, water losses will greatly exceed this rate. +</P> + +<P> +Many vegetable species become mildly stressed when soil moisture has +dropped about half the way from capacity to the wilting point. On +very closely planted beds a crop can get in serious trouble without +irrigation in a matter of days. But if that same crop were planted +less densely, it might grow a few weeks without irrigation. And if +that crop were planted even farther apart so that no crop canopy +ever developed and a considerable amount of bare, dry earth were +showing, this apparent waste of growing space would result in an +even slower rate of soil moisture depletion. On deep, open soil the +crop might yield a respectable amount without needing any irrigation +at all. +</P> + +<P> +West of the Cascades we expect a rainless summer; the surprise comes +that rare rainy year when the soil stays moist and we gather +bucketfuls of chanterelle mushrooms in early October. Though the +majority of maritime Northwest gardeners do not enjoy deep, open, +moisture-retentive soils, all except those with the shallowest soil +can increase their use of the free moisture nature provides and +lengthen the time between irrigations. The next chapter discusses +making the most of whatever soil depth you have. Most of our +region's gardens can yield abundantly without any rain at all if +only we reduce competition for available soil moisture, judiciously +fertigate some vegetable species, and practice a few other +water-wise tricks. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Would lowering plant density as much as this book suggests equally +lower the yield of the plot? Surprisingly, the amount harvested does +not drop proportionately. In most cases having a plant density +one-eighth of that recommended by intensive gardening advocates will +result in a yield about half as great as on closely planted raised +beds.</I> +</P> + +<P> +Internet Readers: In the print copy of this book are color pictures +of my own "irrigationless" garden. Looking at them about here in the +book would add reality to these ideas. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap03"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Chapter 3 +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Helping Plants to Need Less Irrigation +</H3> + +<P> +Dry though the maritime Northwest summer is, we enter the growing +season with our full depth of soil at field capacity. Except on +clayey soils in extraordinarily frosty, high-elevation locations, we +usually can till and plant before the soil has had a chance to lose +much moisture. +</P> + +<P> +There are a number of things we can do to make soil moisture more +available to our summer vegetables. The most obvious step is +thorough weeding. Next, we can keep the surface fluffed up with a +rotary tiller or hoe during April and May, to break its capillary +connection with deeper soil and accelerate the formation of a dry +dust mulch. Usually, weeding forces us to do this anyway. Also, if +it should rain during summer, we can hoe or rotary till a day or two +later and again help a new dust mulch to develop. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Building Bigger Root Systems +</H4> + +<P> +Without irrigation, most of the plant's water supply is obtained by +expansion into new earth that hasn't been desiccated by other +competing roots. Eliminating any obstacles to rapid growth of root +systems is the key to success. So, keep in mind a few facts about +how roots grow and prosper. +</P> + +<P> +The air supply in soil limits or allows root growth. Unlike the +leaves, roots do not perform photosynthesis, breaking down carbon +dioxide gas into atmospheric oxygen and carbon. Yet root cells must +breathe oxygen. This is obtained from the air held in spaces between +soil particles. Many other soil-dwelling life forms from bacteria to +moles compete for this same oxygen. Consequently, soil oxygen levels +are lower than in the atmosphere. A slow exchange of gases does +occur between soil air and free atmosphere, but deeper in the soil +there will inevitably be less oxygen. Different plant species have +varying degrees of root tolerance for lack of oxygen, but they all +stop growing at some depth. Moisture reserves below the roots' +maximum depth become relatively inaccessible. +</P> + +<P> +Soil compaction reduces the overall supply and exchange of soil air. +Compacted soil also acts as a mechanical barrier to root system +expansion. When gardening with unlimited irrigation or where rain +falls frequently, it is quite possible to have satisfactory growth +when only the surface 6 or 7 inches of soil facilitates root +development. When gardening with limited water, China's the limit, +because if soil conditions permit, many vegetable species are +capable of reaching 4, 5, and 8 eight feet down to find moisture and +nutrition. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Evaluating Potential Rooting Ability +</H4> + +<P> +One of the most instructive things a water-wise gardener can do is +to rent or borrow a hand-operated fence post auger and bore a +3-foot-deep hole. It can be even more educational to buy a short +section of ordinary water pipe to extend the auger's reach another 2 +or 3 feet down. In soil free of stones, using an auger is more +instructive than using a conventional posthole digger or shoveling +out a small pit, because where soil is loose, the hole deepens +rapidly. Where any layer is even slightly compacted, one turns and +turns the bit without much effect. Augers also lift the materials +more or less as they are stratified. If your soil is somewhat stony +(like much upland soil north of Centralia left by the Vashon +Glacier), the more usual fence-post digger or common shovel works +better. +</P> + +<P> +If you find more than 4 feet of soil, the site holds a dry-gardening +potential that increases with the additional depth. Some soils along +the floodplains of rivers or in broad valleys like the Willamette or +Skagit can be over 20 feet deep, and hold far more water than the +deepest roots could draw or capillary flow could raise during an +entire growing season. Gently sloping land can often carry 5 to 7 +feet of open, usable soil. However, soils on steep hillsides become +increasingly thin and fragile with increasing slope. +</P> + +<P> +Whether an urban, suburban, or rural gardener, you should make no +assumptions about the depth and openness of the soil at your +disposal. Dig a test hole. If you find less than 2 unfortunate feet +of open earth before hitting an impermeable obstacle such as rock or +gravel, not much water storage can occur and the only use this book +will hold for you is to guide your move to a more likely gardening +location or encourage the house hunter to seek further. Of course, +you can still garden quite successfully on thin soil in the +conventional, irrigated manner. <I>Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades</I> will be an excellent guide for this type of situation. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Eliminating Plowpan +</H4> + +<P> +Deep though the soil may be, any restriction of root expansion +greatly limits the ability of plants to aggressively find water. A +compacted subsoil or even a thin compressed layer such as plowpan +may function as such a barrier. Though moisture will still rise +slowly by capillarity and recharge soil above plowpan, plants obtain +much more water by rooting into unoccupied, damp soil. Soils close +to rivers or on floodplains may appear loose and infinitely deep but +may hide subsoil streaks of droughty gravel that effectively stops +root growth. Some of these conditions are correctable and some are +not. +</P> + +<P> +Plowpan is very commonly encountered by homesteaders on farm soils +and may be found in suburbia too, but fortunately it is the easiest +obstacle to remedy. Traditionally, American croplands have been +tilled with the moldboard plow. As this implement first cuts and +then flips a 6-or 7-inch-deep slice of soil over, the sole—the part +supporting the plow's weight—presses heavily on the earth about 7 +inches below the surface. With each subsequent plowing the plow sole +rides at the same 7-inch depth and an even more compacted layer +develops. Once formed plowpan prevents the crop from rooting into +the subsoil. Since winter rains leach nutrients from the topsoil and +deposit them in the subsoil, plowpan prevents access to these +nutrients and effectively impoverishes the field. So wise farmers +periodically use a subsoil plow to fracture the pan. +</P> + +<P> +Plowpan can seem as firm as a rammed-earth house; once established, +it can last a long, long time. My own garden land is part of what +was once an old wheat farm, one of the first homesteads of the +Oregon Territory. From about 1860 through the 1930s, the field +produced small grains. After wheat became unprofitable, probably +because of changing market conditions and soil exhaustion, the field +became an unplowed pasture. Then in the 1970s it grew daffodil +bulbs, occasioning more plowing. All through the '80s my soil again +rested under grass. In 1987, when I began using the land, there was +still a 2-inch-thick, very hard layer starting about 7 inches down. +Below 9 inches the open earth is soft as butter as far as I've ever +dug. +</P> + +<P> +On a garden-sized plot, plowpan or compacted subsoil is easily +opened with a spading fork or a very sharp common shovel. After +normal rotary tilling, either tool can fairly easily be wiggled 12 +inches into the earth and small bites of plowpan loosened. Once this +laborious chore is accomplished the first time, deep tillage will be +far easier. In fact, it becomes so easy that I've been looking for a +custom-made fork with longer tines. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Curing Clayey Soils +</H4> + +<P> +In humid climates like ours, sandy soils may seem very open and +friable on the surface but frequently hold some unpleasant subsoil +surprises. Over geologic time spans, mineral grains are slowly +destroyed by weak soil acids and clay is formed from the breakdown +products. Then heavy winter rainfall transports these minuscule clay +particles deeper into the earth, where they concentrate. It is not +unusual to find a sandy topsoil underlaid with a dense, cement-like, +clayey sand subsoil extending down several feet. If very impervious, +a thick, dense deposition like this may be called hardpan. +</P> + +<P> +The spading fork cannot cure this condition as simply as it can +eliminate thin plowpan. Here is one situation where, if I had a +neighbor with a large tractor and subsoil plow, I'd hire him to +fracture my land 3 or 4 feet deep. Painstakingly double or even +triple digging will also loosen this layer. Another possible +strategy for a smaller garden would be to rent a gasoline-powered +posthole auger, spread manure or compost an inch or two thick, and +then bore numerous, almost adjoining holes 4 feet deep all over the +garden. +</P> + +<P> +Clayey subsoil can supply surprisingly larger amounts of moisture +than the granular sandy surface might imply, but only if the earth +is opened deeply and becomes more accessible to root growth. +Fortunately, once root development increases at greater depths, the +organic matter content and accessibility of this clayey layer can be +maintained through intelligent green manuring, postponing for years +the need to subsoil again. Green manuring is discussed in detail +shortly. +</P> + +<P> +Other sites may have gooey, very fine clay topsoils, almost +inevitably with gooey, very fine clay subsoils as well. Though +incorporation of extraordinarily large quantities of organic matter +can turn the top few inches into something that behaves a little +like loam, it is quite impractical to work in humus to a depth of 4 +or 5 feet. Root development will still be limited to the surface +layer. Very fine clays don't make likely dry gardens. +</P> + +<P> +Not all clay soils are "fine clay soils," totally compacted and +airless. For example, on the gentler slopes of the geologic old +Cascades, those 50-million-year-old black basalts that form the +Cascades foothills and appear in other places throughout the +maritime Northwest, a deep, friable, red clay soil called (in +Oregon) Jori often forms. Jori clays can be 6 to 8 feet deep and are +sufficiently porous and well drained to have been used for highly +productive orchard crops. Water-wise gardeners can do wonders with +Joris and other similar soils, though clays never grow the best root +crops. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Spotting a Likely Site +</H4> + +<P> +Observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to +garden without much irrigation. Where Himalaya or Evergreen +blackberries grow 2 feet tall and produce small, dull-tasting fruit, +there is not much available soil moisture. Where they grow 6 feet +tall and the berries are sweet and good sized, there is deep, open +soil. When the berry vines are 8 or more feet tall and the fruits +are especially huge, usually there is both deep, loose soil and a +higher than usual amount of fertility. +</P> + +<P> +Other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture +reserves. For years I wondered at the short leaders and sad +appearance of Douglas fir in the vicinity of Yelm, Washington. Were +they due to extreme soil infertility? Then I learned that conifer +trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility. I +obtained a soil survey of Thurston County and discovered that much +of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil. Eureka! +</P> + +<P> +The Soil Conservation Service (SCS), a U.S. Government agency, has +probably put a soil auger into your very land or a plot close by. +Its tests have been correlated and mapped; the soils underlying the +maritime Northwest have been named and categorized by texture, +depth, and ability to provide available moisture. The maps are +precise and detailed enough to approximately locate a city or +suburban lot. In 1987, when I was in the market for a new homestead, +I first went to my county SCS office, mapped out locations where the +soil was suitable, and then went hunting. Most counties have their +own office. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture +</H4> + +<P> +Maintaining topsoil humus content in the 4 to 5 percent range is +vital to plant health, vital to growing more nutritious food, and +essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability +and cooperation known as good tilth. Humus is a spongy substance +capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay. +There are also new synthetic, long-lasting soil amendments that hold +and release even more moisture than humus. Garden books frequently +recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter +to increase a soil's water-holding capacity in the top few inches. +</P> + +<P> +Humus can improve many aspects of soil but will not reduce a +garden's overall need for irrigation, because it is simply not +practical to maintain sufficient humus deeply enough. Rotary tilling +only blends amendments into the top 6 or 7 inches of soil. Rigorous +double digging by actually trenching out 12 inches and then spading +up the next foot theoretically allows one to mix in significant +amounts of organic matter to nearly 24 inches. But plants can use +water from far deeper than that. Let's realistically consider how +much soil moisture reserves might be increased by double digging and +incorporating large quantities of organic matter. +</P> + +<P> +A healthy topsoil organic matter level in our climate is about 4 +percent. This rapidly declines to less than 0.5 percent in the +subsoil. Suppose inches-thick layers of compost were spread and, by +double digging, the organic matter content of a very sandy soil were +amended to 10 percent down to 2 feet. If that soil contained little +clay, its water-holding ability in the top 2 feet could be doubled. +Referring to the chart "Available Moisture" in Chapter 2, we see +that sandy soil can release up to 1 inch of water per foot. By dint +of massive amendment we might add 1 inch of available moisture per +foot of soil to the reserve. That's 2 extra inches of water, enough +to increase the time an ordinary garden can last between heavy +irrigations by a week or 10 days. +</P> + +<P> +If the soil in question were a silty clay, it would naturally make 2 +1/2 inches available per foot. A massive humus amendment would +increase that to 3 1/2 inches in the top foot or two, relatively not +as much benefit as in sandy soil. And I seriously doubt that many +gardeners would be willing to thoroughly double dig to an honest 24 +inches. +</P> + +<P> +Trying to maintain organic matter levels above 10 percent is an +almost self-defeating process. The higher the humus level gets, the +more rapidly organic matter tends to decay. Finding or making enough +well-finished compost to cover the garden several inches deep (what +it takes to lift humus levels to 10 percent) is enough of a job. +Double digging just as much more into the second foot is even more +effort. But having to repeat that chore every year or two becomes +downright discouraging. No, either your soil naturally holds enough +moisture to permit dry gardening, or it doesn't. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring +</H4> + +<P> +When roots decay, fresh organic matter and large, long-lasting +passageways can be left deep in the soil, allowing easier air +movement and facilitating entry of other roots. But no cover crop +that I am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other +resistant physical obstacles. Such a barrier forces all plants to +root almost exclusively in the topsoil. However, once the subsoil +has been mechanically fractured the first time, and if recompaction +is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery, green +manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil. +</P> + +<P> +To accomplish this, correct green manure species selection is +essential. Lawn grasses tend to be shallow rooting, while most +regionally adapted pasture grasses can reach down about 3 feet at +best. However, orchard grass (called coltsfoot in English farming +books) will grow down 4 or more feet while leaving a massive amount +of decaying organic matter in the subsoil after the sod is tilled +in. Sweet clover, a biennial legume that sprouts one spring then +winters over to bloom the next summer, may go down 8 feet. Red +clover, a perennial species, may thickly invade the top 5 feet. +Other useful subsoil busters include densely sown Umbelliferae such +as carrots, parsley, and parsnip. The chicory family also makes very +large and penetrating taproots. +</P> + +<P> +Though seed for wild chicory is hard to obtain, cheap varieties of +endive (a semicivilized relative) are easily available. And several +pounds of your own excellent parsley or parsnip seed can be easily +produced by letting about 10 row feet of overwintering roots form +seed. Orchard grass and red clover can be had quite inexpensively at +many farm supply stores. Sweet clover is not currently grown by our +region's farmers and so can only be found by mail from Johnny's +Selected Seeds (see Chapter 5 for their address). Poppy seed used +for cooking will often sprout. Sown densely in October, it forms a +thick carpet of frilly spring greens underlaid with countless +massive taproots that decompose very rapidly if the plants are +tilled in in April before flower stalks begin to appear. Beware if +using poppies as a green manure crop: be sure to till them in early +to avoid trouble with the DEA or other authorities. +</P> + +<P> +For country gardeners, the best rotations include several years of +perennial grass-legume-herb mixtures to maintain the openness of the +subsoil followed by a few years of vegetables and then back (see +Newman Turner's book in more reading). I plan my own garden this +way. In October, after a few inches of rain has softened the earth, +I spread 50 pounds of agricultural lime per 1,000 square feet and +break the thick pasture sod covering next year's garden plot by +shallow rotary tilling. Early the next spring I broadcast a +concoction I call "complete organic fertilizer" (see <I>Growing +Vegetables West of the Cascades</I> or the <I>Territorial Seed Company +Catalog</I>), till again after the soil dries down a bit, and then use +a spading fork to open the subsoil before making a seedbed. The +first time around, I had to break the century-old plowpan—forking +compacted earth a foot deep is a lot of work. In subsequent +rotations it is much much easier. +</P> + +<P> +For a couple of years, vegetables will grow vigorously on this new +ground supported only with a complete organic fertilizer. But +vegetable gardening makes humus levels decline rapidly. So every few +years I start a new garden on another plot and replant the old +garden to green manures. I never remove vegetation during the long +rebuilding under green manures, but merely mow it once or twice a +year and allow the organic matter content of the soil to redevelop. +If there ever were a place where chemical fertilizers might be +appropriate around a garden, it would be to affordably enhance the +growth of biomass during green manuring. +</P> + +<P> +Were I a serious city vegetable gardener, I'd consider growing +vegetables in the front yard for a few years and then switching to +the back yard. Having lots of space, as I do now, I keep three or +four garden plots available, one in vegetables and the others +restoring their organic matter content under grass. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Mulching +</H4> + +<P> +Gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is +recommended by Ruth Stout (see the listing for her book in More +Reading) and her disciples as a surefire way to drought-proof +gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage, weeding, +and fertilizing. I have attempted the method in both Southern +California and western Oregon—with disastrous results in both +locations. What follows in this section is addressed to gardeners +who have already read glowing reports about mulching. +</P> + +<P> +Permanent mulching with vegetation actually does not reduce +summertime moisture loss any better than mulching with dry soil, +sometimes called "dust mulching." True, while the surface layer +stays moist, water will steadily be wicked up by capillarity and be +evaporated from the soil's surface. If frequent light sprinkling +keeps the surface perpetually moist, subsoil moisture loss can occur +all summer, so unmulched soil could eventually become desiccated +many feet deep. However, capillary movement only happens when soil +is damp. Once even a thin layer of soil has become quite dry it +almost completely prevents any further movement. West of the +Cascades, this happens all by itself in late spring. One hot, sunny +day follows another, and soon the earth's surface seems parched. +</P> + +<P> +Unfortunately, by the time a dusty layer forms, quite a bit of soil +water may have risen from the depths and been lost. The gardener can +significantly reduce spring moisture loss by frequently hoeing weeds +until the top inch or two of earth is dry and powdery. This effort +will probably be necessary in any case, because weeds will germinate +prolifically until the surface layer is sufficiently desiccated. On +the off chance it should rain hard during summer, it is very wise to +again hoe a few times to rapidly restore the dust mulch. If hand +cultivation seems very hard work, I suggest you learn to sharpen +your hoe. +</P> + +<P> +A mulch of dry hay, grass clippings, leaves, and the like will also +retard rapid surface evaporation. Gardeners think mulching prevents +moisture loss better than bare earth because under mulch the soil +stays damp right to the surface. However, dig down 4 to 6 inches +under a dust mulch and the earth is just as damp as under hay. And, +soil moisture studies have proved that overall moisture loss using +vegetation mulch slightly exceeds loss under a dust mulch. +</P> + +<P> +West of the Cascades, the question of which method is superior is a +bit complex, with pros and cons on both sides. Without a long winter +freeze to set populations back, permanent thick mulch quickly breeds +so many slugs, earwhigs, and sowbugs that it cannot be maintained +for more than one year before vegetable gardening becomes very +difficult. Laying down a fairly thin mulch in June after the soil +has warmed up well, raking up what remains of the mulch early the +next spring, and composting it prevents destructive insect +population levels from developing while simultaneously reducing +surface compaction by winter rains and beneficially enhancing the +survival and multiplication of earthworms. But a thin mulch also +enhances the summer germination of weed seeds without being thick +enough to suppress their emergence. And any mulch, even a thin one, +makes hoeing virtually impossible, while hand weeding through mulch +is tedious. +</P> + +<P> +Mulch has some unqualified pluses in hotter climates. Most of the +organic matter in soil and consequently most of the available +nitrogen is found in the surface few inches. Levels of other mineral +nutrients are usually two or three times as high in the topsoil as +well. However, if the surface few inches of soil becomes completely +desiccated, no root activity will occur there and the plants are +forced to feed deeper, in soil far less fertile. Keeping the topsoil +damp does greatly improve the growth of some shallow-feeding species +such as lettuce and radishes. But with our climate's cool nights, +most vegetables need the soil as warm as possible, and the cooling +effect of mulch can be as much a hindrance as a help. I've tried +mulching quite a few species while dry gardening and found little or +no improvement in plant growth with most of them. Probably, the +enhancement of nutrition compensates for the harm from lowering soil +temperature. Fertigation is better all around. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Windbreaks +</H4> + +<P> +Plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines, when +temperatures are high, and when the wind blows; it is just like +drying laundry. Windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by +increasing temperature. Many other garden books discuss windbreaks, +and I conclude that I have a better use for the small amount of +words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data; Binda +Colebrook's [i]Winter Gardening in the Maritime Northwest[i] +(Sasquatch Books, 1989) is especially good on this topic. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying +</H4> + +<P> +In our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich, +while fertilizers, manures, and potent composts mainly improve the +topsoil. But the water-wise gardener must get nutrition down deep, +where the soil stays damp through the summer. +</P> + +<P> +If plants with enough remaining elbow room stop growing in summer +and begin to appear gnarly, it is just as likely due to lack of +nutrition as lack of water. Several things can be done to limit or +prevent midsummer stunting. First, before sowing or transplanting +large species like tomato, squash or big brassicas, dig out a small +pit about 12 inches deep and below that blend in a handful or two of +organic fertilizer. Then fill the hole back in. This double-digging +process places concentrated fertility mixed 18 to 24 inches below +the seeds or seedlings. +</P> + +<P> +Foliar feeding is another water-wise technique that keeps plants +growing through the summer. Soluble nutrients sprayed on plant +leaves are rapidly taken into the vascular system. Unfortunately, +dilute nutrient solutions that won't burn leaves only provoke a +strong growth response for 3 to 5 days. Optimally, foliar nutrition +must be applied weekly or even more frequently. To efficiently spray +a garden larger than a few hundred square feet, I suggest buying an +industrial-grade, 3-gallon backpack sprayer with a side-handle pump. +Approximate cost as of this writing was $80. The store that sells it +(probably a farm supply store) will also support you with a complete +assortment of inexpensive nozzles that can vary the rate of emission +and the spray pattern. High-quality equipment like this outlasts +many, many cheaper and smaller sprayers designed for the consumer +market, and replacement parts are also available. Keep in mind that +consumer merchandise is designed to be consumed; stuff made for +farming is built to last. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water +</H4> + +<P> +Does crop growth equal water use? Most people would say this +statement seems likely to be true. +</P> + +<P> +Actually, faster-growing crops use much less soil moisture than +slower-growing ones. As early as 1882 it was determined that less +water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is +fertilized than when it is not fertilized. One experiment required +1,100 pounds of water to grow 1 pound of dry matter on infertile +soil, but only 575 pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter +on rich land. Perhaps the single most important thing a water-wise +gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil, especially +the subsoil. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Poor plant nutrition increases the water cost of every pound of dry +matter produced.</I> +</P> + +<P> +Using foliar fertilizers requires a little caution and forethought. +Spinach, beet, and chard leaves seem particularly sensitive to +foliars (and even to organic insecticides) and may be damaged by +even half-strength applications. And the cabbage family coats its +leaf surfaces with a waxy, moisture-retentive sealant that makes +sprays bead up and run off rather than stick and be absorbed. Mixing +foliar feed solutions with a little spreader/sticker, Safer's Soap, +or, if bugs are also a problem, with a liquid organic insecticide +like Red Arrow (a pyrethrum-rotenone mix), eliminates surface +tension and allows the fertilizer to have an effect on brassicas. +</P> + +<P> +Sadly, in terms of nutrient balance, the poorest foliar sprays are +organic. That's because it is nearly impossible to get significant +quantities of phosphorus or calcium into solution using any +combination of fish emulsion and seaweed or liquid kelp. The most +useful possible organic foliar is 1/2 to 1 tablespoon each of fish +emulsion and liquid seaweed concentrate per gallon of water. +</P> + +<P> +Foliar spraying and fertigation are two occasions when I am +comfortable supplementing my organic fertilizers with water-soluble +chemical fertilizers. The best and most expensive brand is +Rapid-Gro. Less costly concoctions such as Peters 20-20-20 or the +other "Grows," don't provide as complete trace mineral support or +use as many sources of nutrition. One thing fertilizer makers find +expensive to accomplish is concocting a mixture of soluble nutrients +that also contains calcium, a vital plant food. If you dissolve +calcium nitrate into a solution containing other soluble plant +nutrients, many of them will precipitate out because few calcium +compounds are soluble. Even Rapid-Gro doesn't attempt to supply +calcium. Recently I've discovered better-quality hydroponic nutrient +solutions that do use chemicals that provide soluble calcium. These +also make excellent foliar sprays. Brands of hydroponic nutrient +solutions seem to appear and vanish rapidly. I've had great luck +with Dyna-Gro 7-9-5. All these chemicals are mixed at about 1 +tablespoon per gallon. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Vegetables That: +</H4> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Like foliars +<BR><BR> + Asparagus Carrots Melons Squash<BR> + Beans Cauliflower Peas Tomatoes<BR> + Broccoli Brussels sprouts Cucumbers<BR> + Cabbage Eggplant Radishes<BR> + Kale Rutabagas Potatoes<BR> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Don't like foliars +<BR><BR> + Beets Leeks Onions Spinach<BR> + Chard Lettuce Peppers<BR> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Like fertigation +<BR><BR> + Brussels sprouts Kale Savoy cabbage<BR> + Cucumbers Melons Squash<BR> + Eggplant Peppers Tomatoes<BR> +</P> + +<BR> + +<P> +Fertigation every two to four weeks is the best technique for +maximizing yield while minimizing water use. I usually make my first +fertigation late in June and continue periodically through early +September. I use six or seven plastic 5-gallon "drip system" +buckets, (see below) set one by each plant, and fill them all with a +hose each time I work in the garden. Doing 12 or 14 plants each time +I'm in the garden, it takes no special effort to rotate through them +all more or less every three weeks. +</P> + +<P> +To make a drip bucket, drill a 3/16-inch hole through the side of a +4-to-6-gallon plastic bucket about 1/4-inch up from the bottom, or +in the bottom at the edge. The empty bucket is placed so that the +fertilized water drains out close to the stem of a plant. It is then +filled with liquid fertilizer solution. It takes 5 to 10 minutes for +5 gallons to pass through a small opening, and because of the slow +flow rate, water penetrates deeply into the subsoil without wetting +much of the surface. Each fertigation makes the plant grow very +rapidly for two to three weeks, more I suspect as a result of +improved nutrition than from added moisture. Exactly how and when to +fertigate each species is explained in Chapter 5. +</P> + +<P> +Organic gardeners may fertigate with combinations of fish emulsion +and seaweed at the same dilution used for foliar spraying, or with +compost/manure tea. Determining the correct strength to make compost +tea is a matter of trial and error. I usually rely on weak Rapid-Gro +mixed at half the recommended dilution. The strength of the +fertilizer you need depends on how much and deeply you placed +nutrition in the subsoil. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap04"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Chapter 4 +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Water-Wise Gardening Year-Round +</H3> + +<H4> +Early Spring: The Easiest Unwatered Garden +</H4> + +<P> +West of the Cascades, most crops started in February and March +require no special handling when irrigation is scarce. These include +peas, early lettuce, radishes, kohlrabi, early broccoli, and so +forth. However, some of these vegetables are harvested as late as +June, so to reduce their need for irrigation, space them wider than +usual. Spring vegetables also will exhaust most of the moisture from +the soil before maturing, making succession planting impossible +without first irrigating heavily. Early spring plantings are best +allocated one of two places in the garden plan: either in that part +of the garden that will be fully irrigated all summer or in a part +of a big garden that can affordably remain bare during the summer +and be used in October for receiving transplants of overwintering +crops. The garden plan and discussion in Chapter 6 illustrate these +ideas in detail. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Later in Spring: Sprouting Seeds Without Watering +</H4> + +<P> +For the first years that I experimented with dry gardening I went +overboard and attempted to grow food as though I had no running +water at all. The greatest difficulty caused by this self-imposed +handicap was sowing small-seeded species after the season warmed up. +</P> + +<P> +Sprouting what we in the seed business call "big seed"—corn, beans, +peas, squash, cucumber, and melon—is relatively easy without +irrigation because these crops are planted deeply, where soil +moisture still resides long after the surface has dried out. And +even if it is so late in the season that the surface has become very +dry, a wide, shallow ditch made with a shovel will expose moist soil +several inches down. A furrow can be cut in the bottom of that damp +"valley" and big seeds germinated with little or no watering. +</P> + +<P> +Tillage breaks capillary connections until the fluffy soil +resettles. This interruption is useful for preventing moisture loss +in summer, but the same phenomenon makes the surface dry out in a +flash. In recently tilled earth, successfully sprouting small seeds +in warm weather is dicey without frequent watering. +</P> + +<P> +With a bit of forethought, the water-wise gardener can easily +reestablish capillarity below sprouting seeds so that moisture held +deeper in the soil rises to replace that lost from surface layers, +reducing or eliminating the need for watering. The principle here +can be easily demonstrated. In fact, there probably isn't any +gardener who has not seen the phenomenon at work without realizing +it. Every gardener has tilled the soil, gone out the next morning, +and noticed that his or her compacted footprints were moist while +the rest of the earth was dry and fluffy. Foot pressure restored +capillarity, and during the night, fresh moisture replaced what had +evaporated. +</P> + +<P> +This simple technique helps start everything except carrots and +parsnips (which must have completely loose soil to develop +correctly). All the gardener must do is intentionally compress the +soil below the seeds and then cover the seeds with a mulch of loose, +dry soil. Sprouting seeds then rest atop damp soil exactly they lie +on a damp blotter in a germination laboratory's covered petri dish. +This dampness will not disappear before the sprouting seedling has +propelled a root several inches farther down and is putting a leaf +into the sunlight. +</P> + +<P> +I've used several techniques to reestablish capillarity after +tilling. There's a wise old plastic push planter in my garage that +first compacts the tilled earth with its front wheel, cuts a furrow, +drops the seed, and then with its drag chain pulls loose soil over +the furrow. I've also pulled one wheel of a garden cart or pushed a +lightly loaded wheelbarrow down the row to press down a wheel track, +sprinkled seed on that compacted furrow, and then pulled loose soil +over it. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Handmade Footprints +</H4> + +<P> +Sometimes I sow large brassicas and cucurbits in clumps above a +fertilized, double-dug spot. First, in a space about 18 inches +square, I deeply dig in complete organic fertilizer. Then with my +fist I punch down a depression in the center of the fluffed-up +mound. Sometimes my fist goes in so easily that I have to replace a +little more soil and punch it down some more. The purpose is not to +make rammed earth or cement, but only to reestablish capillarity by +having firm soil under a shallow, fist-sized depression. Then a +pinch of seed is sprinkled atop this depression and covered with +fine earth. Even if several hot sunny days follow I get good +germination without watering. This same technique works excellently +on hills of squash, melon and cucumber as well, though these +large-seeded species must be planted quite a bit deeper. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Summer: How to Fluid Drill Seeds +</H4> + +<P> +Soaking seeds before sowing is another water-wise technique, +especially useful later in the season. At bedtime, place the seeds +in a half-pint mason jar, cover with a square of plastic window +screen held on with a strong rubber band, soak the seeds overnight, +and then drain them first thing in the morning. Gently rinse the +seeds with cool water two or three times daily until the root tips +begin to emerge. As soon as this sign appears, the seed must be +sown, because the newly emerging roots become increasingly subject +to breaking off as they develop and soon form tangled masses. +Presprouted seeds may be gently blended into some crumbly, moist +soil and this mixture gently sprinkled into a furrow and covered. If +the sprouts are particularly delicate or, as with carrots, you want +a very uniform stand, disperse the seeds in a starch gelatin and +imitate what commercial vegetable growers call fluid drilling. +</P> + +<P> +Heat one pint of water to the boiling point. Dissolve in 2 to 3 +tablespoons of ordinary cornstarch. Place the mixture in the +refrigerator to cool. Soon the liquid will become a soupy gel. +Gently mix this cool starch gel with the sprouting seeds, making +sure the seeds are uniformly blended. Pour the mixture into a +1-quart plastic zipper bag and, scissors in hand, go out to the +garden. After a furrow—with capillarity restored—has been +prepared, cut a small hole in one lower corner of the plastic bag. +The hole size should be under 1/4 inch in diameter. Walk quickly +down the row, dribbling a mixture of gel and seeds into the furrow. +Then cover. You may have to experiment a few times with cooled gel +minus seeds until you divine the proper hole size, walking speed and +amount of gel needed per length of furrow. Not only will presprouted +seeds come up days sooner, and not only will the root be penetrating +moist soil long before the shoot emerges, but the stand of seedlings +will be very uniformly spaced and easier to thin. After fluid +drilling a few times you'll realize that one needs quite a bit less +seed per length of row than you previously thought. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Establishing the Fall and Winter Garden +</H4> + +<P> +West of the Cascades, germinating fall and winter crops in the heat +of summer is always difficult. Even when the entire garden is well +watered, midsummer sowings require daily attention and frequent +sprinkling; however, once they have germinated, keeping little +seedlings growing in an irrigated garden usually requires no more +water than the rest of the garden gets. But once hot weather comes, +establishing small seeds in the dry garden seems next to impossible +without regular watering. Should a lucky, perfectly timed, and +unusually heavy summer rainfall sprout your seeds, they still would +not grow well because the next few inches of soil would at best be +only slightly moist. +</P> + +<P> +A related problem many backyard gardeners have with establishing the +winter and overwintered garden is finding enough space for both the +summer and winter crops. The nursery bed solves both these problems. +Instead of trying to irrigate the entire area that will eventually +be occupied by a winter or overwintered crop at maturity, the +seedlings are first grown in irrigated nurseries for transplanting +in autumn after the rains come back. Were I desperately short of +water I'd locate my nursery where it got only morning sun and sow a +week or 10 days earlier to compensate for the slower growth. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Vegetables to Start in a Nursery Bed + + Variety Sowing date Transplanting date + + Fall/winter lettuce mid-August early October + Leeks early April July + Overwintered onions early-mid August December/January + Spring cabbage mid-late August November/December + Spring cauliflower mid-August October/November 1st + Winter scallions mid-July mid-October +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +Seedlings in pots and trays are hard to keep moist and require daily +tending. Fortunately, growing transplants in little pots is not +necessary because in autumn, when they'll be set out, humidity is +high, temperatures are cool, the sun is weak, and transpiration +losses are minimal, so seedling transplants will tolerate +considerable root loss. My nursery is sown in rows about 8 inches +apart across a raised bed and thinned gradually to prevent crowding, +because crowded seedlings are hard to dig out without damage. When +the prediction of a few days of cloudy weather encourages +transplanting, the seedlings are lifted with a large, sharp knife. +If the fall rains are late and/or the crowded seedlings are getting +leggy, a relatively small amount of irrigation will moisten the +planting areas. Another light watering at transplanting time will +almost certainly establish the seedlings quite successfully. And, +finding room for these crops ceases to be a problem because fall +transplants can be set out as a succession crop following hot +weather vegetables such as squash, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, +potatoes, and beans. +</P> + +<PRE> + Vegetables that must be heavily irrigated + (These crops are not suitable for dry gardens.) + + Bulb Onions (for fall harvest) + Celeriac + Celery + Chinese cabbage + Lettuce (summer and fall) + Radishes (summer and fall) + Scallions (for summer harvest) + Spinach (summer) +</PRE> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap05"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Chapter 5 +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +How to Grow It with Less Irrigation: A-Z +</H3> + +<H4> +First, a Word About Varieties +</H4> + +<P> +As recently as the 1930s, most American country folk still did not +have running water. With water being hand-pumped and carried in +buckets, and precious, their vegetable gardens had to be grown with +a minimum of irrigation. In the otherwise well-watered East, one +could routinely expect several consecutive weeks every summer +without rain. In some drought years a hot, rainless month or longer +could go by. So vegetable varieties were bred to grow through dry +spells without loss, and traditional American vegetable gardens were +designed to help them do so. +</P> + +<P> +I began gardening in the early 1970s, just as the raised-bed method +was being popularized. The latest books and magazine articles all +agreed that raising vegetables in widely separated single rows was a +foolish imitation of commercial farming, that commercial vegetables +were arranged that way for ease of mechanical cultivation. Closely +planted raised beds requiring hand cultivation were alleged to be +far more productive and far more efficient users of irrigation +because water wasn't evaporating from bare soil. +</P> + +<P> +I think this is more likely to be the truth: Old-fashioned gardens +used low plant densities to survive inevitable spells of +rainlessness. Looked at this way, widely separated vegetables in +widely separated rows may be considered the more efficient users of +water because they consume soil moisture that nature freely puts +there. Only after, and if, these reserves are significantly depleted +does the gardener have to irrigate. The end result is surprisingly +more abundant than a modern gardener educated on intensive, +raised-bed propaganda would think. +</P> + +<P> +Finding varieties still adapted to water-wise gardening is becoming +difficult. Most American vegetables are now bred for +irrigation-dependent California. Like raised-bed gardeners, +vegetable farmers have discovered that they can make a bigger profit +by growing smaller, quick-maturing plants in high-density spacings. +Most modern vegetables have been bred to suit this method. Many new +varieties can't forage and have become smaller, more determinate, +and faster to mature. Actually, the larger, more sprawling heirloom +varieties of the past were not a great deal less productive overall, +but only a little later to begin yielding. +</P> + +<P> +Fortunately, enough of the old sorts still exist that a selective +and varietally aware home gardener can make do. Since I've become +water-wiser, I'm interested in finding and conserving heirlooms that +once supported large numbers of healthy Americans in relative +self-sufficiency. My earlier book, being a guide to what passes for +ordinary vegetable gardening these days, assumed the availability of +plenty of water. The varieties I recommended in [i]Growing +Vegetables West of the Cascades[i] were largely modern ones, and the +seed companies I praised most highly focused on top-quality +commercial varieties. But, looking at gardening through the filter +of limited irrigation, other, less modern varieties are often far +better adapted and other seed companies sometimes more likely +sources. +</P> + +<H4> +Seed Company Directory* +</H4> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Abundant Life See Foundation: P.O. Box 772, Port Townsend, WA 98368 +<I>(ABL)</I> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Johnny's Selected Seeds: Foss Hill Road, Albion, Maine 04910 <I>(JSS)</I> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Peace Seeds: 2345 SE Thompson Street, Corvallis, OR 97333 <I>(PEA)</I> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Ronninger's Seed Potatoes: P.O. Box 1838, Orting, WA 98360 <I>(RSP)</I> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Stokes Seeds Inc. Box 548, Buffalo, NY 14240 <I>(STK)</I> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Territorial Seed Company: P.O. Box 20, Cottage Grove, OR 97424 +<I>(TSC)</I> +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +*Throughout the growing directions that follow in this chapter, the +reader will be referred to a specific company only for varieties +that are not widely available. +</P> + +<P> +I have again come to appreciate the older style of +vegetable—sprawling, large framed, later maturing, longer yielding, +vigorously rooting. However, many of these old-timers have not seen +the attentions of a professional plant breeder for many years and +throw a fair percentage of bizarre, misshapen, nonproductive plants. +These "off types" can be compensated for by growing a somewhat +larger garden and allowing for some waste. Dr. Alan Kapuler, who +runs Peace Seeds, has brilliantly pointed out to me why heirloom +varieties are likely to be more nutritious. Propagated by centuries +of isolated homesteaders, heirlooms that survived did so because +these superior varieties helped the gardeners' better-nourished +babies pass through the gauntlet of childhood illnesses. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Plant Spacing: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening +</H4> + +<P> +Reduced plant density is the essence of dry gardening. The +recommended spacings in this section are those I have found workable +at Elkton, Oregon. My dry garden is generally laid out in single +rows, the row centers 4 feet apart. Some larger crops, like +potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and cucurbits (squash, cucumbers, and +melons) are allocated more elbow room. Those few requiring intensive +irrigation are grown on a raised bed, tightly spaced. I cannot +prescribe what would be the perfect, most efficient spacing for your +garden. Are your temperatures lower than mine and evaporation less? +Or is your weather hotter? Does your soil hold more, than less than, +or just as much available moisture as mine? Is it as deep and open +and moisture retentive? +</P> + +<P> +To help you compare your site with mine, I give you the following +data. My homestead is only 25 miles inland and is always several +degrees cooler in summer than the Willamette Valley. Washingtonians +and British Columbians have cooler days and a greater likelihood of +significant summertime rain and so may plant a little closer +together. Inland gardeners farther south or in the Willamette Valley +may want to spread their plants out a little farther. +</P> + +<P> +Living on 16 acres, I have virtually unlimited space to garden in. +The focus of my recent research has been to eliminate irrigation as +much as possible while maintaining food quality. Those with thinner +soil who are going to depend more on fertigation may plant closer, +how close depending on the amount of water available. More +irrigation will also give higher per-square-foot yields. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Whatever your combination of conditions, your results can only be +determined by trial.</I> I'd suggest you become water-wise by testing a +range of spacings. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +When to Plant +</H4> + +<P> +If you've already been growing an irrigated year-round garden, this +book's suggested planting dates may surprise you. And as with +spacing, sowing dates must also be wisely adjusted to your location. +The planting dates in this chapter are what I follow in my own +garden. It is impractical to include specific dates for all the +microclimatic areas of the maritime Northwest and for every +vegetable species. Readers are asked to make adjustments by +understanding their weather relative to mine. +</P> + +<P> +Gardeners to the north of me and at higher elevations should make +their spring sowings a week or two later than the dates I use. In +the Garden Valley of Roseburg and south along I-5, start spring +plantings a week or two earlier. Along the southern Oregon coast and +in northern California, start three or four weeks sooner than I do. +</P> + +<P> +Fall comes earlier to the north of me and to higher-elevation +gardens; end-of-season growth rates there also slow more profoundly +than they do at Elkton. Summers are cooler along the coast; that has +the same effect of slowing late-summer growth. Items started after +midsummer should be given one or two extra growing weeks by coastal, +high-elevation, and northern gardeners. Gardeners to the south +should sow their late crops a week or two later than I do; along the +south Oregon coast and in northern California, two to four weeks +later than I do. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Arugula (Rocket) +</H4> + +<P> +The tender, peppery little leaves make winter salads much more +interesting. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> I delay sowing until late August or early September +so my crowded patch of arugula lasts all winter and doesn't make +seed until March. Pregerminated seeds emerge fast and strong. +Sprouted in early October, arugula still may reach eating size in +midwinter. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Thinly seed a row into any vacant niche. The seedlings +will be insignificantly small until late summer. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> If the seedlings suffer a bit from moisture stress +they'll catch up rapidly when the fall rains begin. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> None. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Beans of All Sorts +</H4> + +<P> +Heirloom pole beans once climbed over considerable competition while +vigorously struggling for water, nutrition, and light. Modern bush +varieties tend to have puny root systems. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Mid-April is the usual time on the Umpqua, elsewhere, +sow after the danger of frost is over and soil stays over 60[de]F. +If the earth is getting dry by this date, soak the seed overnight +before sowing and furrow down to moist soil. However, do not cover +the seeds more than 2 inches. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Twelve to 16 inches apart at final thinning. Allow about +2[f]1/2 to 3 feet on either side of the trellis to avoid root +competition from other plants. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> If part of the garden is sprinkler irrigated, space +beans a little tighter and locate the bean trellis toward the outer +reach of the sprinkler's throw. Due to its height, the trellis tends +to intercept quite a bit of water and dumps it at the base. You can +also use the bucket-drip method and fertigate the beans, giving +about 25 gallons per 10 row-feet once or twice during the summer. +Pole beans can make a meaningful yield without any irrigation; under +severe moisture stress they will survive, but bear little. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Any of the pole types seem to do fine. Runner beans +seem to prefer cooler locations but are every bit as drought +tolerant as ordinary snap beans. My current favorites are Kentucky +Wonder White Seeded, Fortrex (TSC, JSS), and Musica (TSC). +</P> + +<P> +The older heirloom dry beans were mostly pole types. They are +reasonably productive if allowed to sprawl on the ground without +support. Their unirrigated seed yield is lower, but the seed is +still plump, tastes great, and sprouts well. Compared to unirrigated +Black Coco (TSC), which is my most productive and best-tasting bush +cultivar, Kentucky Wonder Brown Seeded (sometimes called Old +Homestead) (STK, PEA, ABL) yields about 50 percent more seed and +keeps on growing for weeks after Coco has quit. Do not bother to +fertigate untrellised pole beans grown for dry seed. With the threat +of September moisture always looming over dry bean plots, we need to +encourage vines to quit setting and dry down. Peace Seeds and +Abundant Life offer long lists of heirloom vining dry bean +varieties. +</P> + +<P> +Serious self-sufficiency buffs seeking to produced their own legume +supply should also consider the fava, garbanzo bean, and Alaska pea. +Many favas can be overwintered: sow in October, sprout on fall +rains, grow over the winter, and dry down in June with the soil. +Garbanzos are grown like mildly frost-tolerant peas. Alaska peas are +the type used for pea soup. They're spring sown and grown like +ordinary shelling peas. Avoid overhead irrigation while seeds are +drying down. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Beets +</H4> + +<P> +Beets will root far deeper and wider than most people realize—in +uncompacted, nonacid soils. Double or triple dig the subsoil +directly below the seed row. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Early April at Elkton, late March farther south, and +as late as April 30 in British Columbia. Beet seed germinates easily +in moist, cool soil. A single sowing may be harvested from June +through early March the next year. If properly thinned, good +varieties remain tender. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> A single row will gradually exhaust subsoil moisture from +an area 4 feet wide. When the seedlings are 2 to 3 inches tall, thin +carefully to about 1 inch apart. When the edible part is radish +size, thin to 2 inches apart and eat the thinings, tops and all. +When they've grown to golfball size, thin to 4 inches apart, thin +again. When they reach the size of large lemons, thin to 1 foot +apart. Given this much room and deep, open soil, the beets will +continue to grow through the entire summer. Hill up some soil over +the huge roots early in November to protect them from freezing. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Probably not necessary with over 4 feet of deep, open +soil. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> I've done best with Early Wonder Tall Top; when large, +it develops a thick, protective skin and retains excellent eating +quality. Winterkeepers, normally sown in midsummer with irrigation, +tend to bolt prematurely when sown in April. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Broccoli: Italian Style +</H4> + +<P> +Italian-style broccoli needs abundant moisture to be tender and make +large flowers. Given enough elbow room, many varieties can endure +long periods of moisture stress, but the smaller, woody, +slow-developing florets won't be great eating. Without any +irrigation, spring-sown broccoli may still be enjoyed in early +summer and Purple Sprouting in March/April after overwintering. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Without any irrigation at all, mid-March through early +April. With fertigation, also mid-April through mid-May. This later +sowing will allow cutting through summer. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Brocoli tastes better when big plants grow big, sweet +heads. Allow a 4-foot-wide row. Space early sowings about 3 feet +apart in the row; later sowings slated to mature during summer's +heat can use 4 feet. On a fist-sized spot compacted to restore +capillarity, sow a little pinch of seed atop a well-and deeply +fertilized, double-dug patch of earth. Thin gradually to the best +single plant by the time three or four true leaves have developed. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> After mid-June, 4 to 5 gallons of drip bucket liquid +fertilizer every two to three weeks makes an enormous difference. +You'll be surprised at the size of the heads and the quality of side +shoots. A fertigated May sowing will be exhausted by October. Take a +chance: a heavy side-dressing of strong compost or complete organic +fertilizer when the rains return may trigger a massive spurt of new, +larger heads from buds located below the soil's surface. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Many hybrids have weak roots. I'd avoid anything that +was "held up on a tall stalk" for mechanical harvest or was +"compact" or that "didn't have many side-shoots". Go for larger +size. Territorial's hybrid blend yields big heads for over a month +followed by abundant side shoots. Old, open-pollinated types like +Italian Sprouting Calabrese, DeCicco, or Waltham 29 are highly +variable, bushy, with rather coarse, large-beaded flowers, +second-rate flavor and many, many side shoots. Irrigating gardeners +who can start new plants every four weeks from May through July may +prefer hybrids. Dry gardeners who will want to cut side shoots for +as long as possible during summer from large, well-established +plants may prefer crude, open-pollinated varieties. Try both. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Broccoli: Purple Sprouting and Other Overwintering Types +</H4> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Grow like broccoli, 3 to 4 feet apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> It is easiest to sow in April or early May, minimally +fertigate a somewhat gnarly plant through the summer, push it for +size in fall and winter, and then harvest it next March. With too +early a start in spring, some premature flowering may occur in +autumn; still, massive blooming will resume again in spring. +</P> + +<P> +Overwintering green Italian types such as ML423 (TSC) will flower in +fall if sown before late June. These sorts are better started in a +nursery bed around August 1 and like overwintered cauliflower, +transplanted about 2 feet apart when fall rains return, then, pushed +for growth with extra fertilizer in fall and winter. +</P> + +<P> +With nearly a whole year to grow before blooming, Purple Sprouting +eventually reaches 4 to 5 feet in height and 3 to 4 feet in +diameter, and yields hugely. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> It is not essential to heavily fertigate Purple +Sprouting, though you may G-R-O-W enormous plants for their beauty. +Quality or quantity of spring harvest won't drop one bit if the +plants become a little stunted and gnarly in summer, as long as you +fertilize late in September to spur rapid growth during fall and +winter. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Root System Vigor in the Cabbage Family +</H4> + +<P> +Wild cabbage is a weed and grows like one, able to successfully +compete for water against grasses and other herbs. Remove all +competition with a hoe, and allow this weed to totally control all +the moisture and nutrients in all the earth its roots can occupy, +and it grows hugely and lushly. Just for fun, I once G-R-E-W one, +with tillage, hoeing, and spring fertilization but no irrigation; it +ended up 5 feet tall and 6 feet in diameter. +</P> + +<P> +As this highly moldable family is inbred and shaped into more and +more exaggerated forms, it weakens and loses the ability to forage. +Kale retains the most wild aggressiveness, Chinese cabbage perhaps +the least. Here, in approximately correct order, is shown the +declining root vigor and general adaptation to moisture stress of +cabbage family vegetables. The table shows the most vigorous at the +top, declining as it goes down. +</P> + +<BR> + +<PRE> + Adapted to dry gardening Not vigorous enough + + Kale Italian broccoli (some varieties) + Brussels sprouts (late types) Cabbage (regular market types) + Late savoy cabbage Brussels sprouts (early types) + Giant "field-type" kohlrabi Small "market-garden" kohlrabi + Mid-season savoy cabbage Cauliflower (regular, annual) + Rutabaga Turnips and radishes + Italian Broccoli (some varieties) Chinese cabbage + Brussels Sprouts +</PRE> + +<BR> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> If the plants are a foot tall before the soil starts +drying down, their roots will be over a foot deep; the plants will +then grow hugely with a bit of fertigation. At Elkton I dry garden +Brussels sprouts by sowing late April to early May. Started this +soon, even late-maturing varieties may begin forming sprouts by +September. Though premature bottom sprouts will "blow up" and become +aphid damaged, more, higher-quality sprouts will continue to form +farther up the stalk during autumn and winter. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Make each spot about 4 feet apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Without any added moisture, the plants will become +stunted but will survive all summer. Side-dressing manure or +fertilizer late in September (or sooner if the rains come sooner) +will provoke very rapid autumn growth and a surprisingly large yield +from plants that looked stress out in August. If increasingly larger +amounts of fertigation can be provided every two to three weeks, the +lush Brussels sprouts plants can become 4 feet in diameter and 4 +feet tall by October and yield enormously. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Use late European hybrid types. At Elkton, where +winters are a little milder than in the Willamette, Lunet (TSC) has +the finest eating qualities. Were I farther north I'd grow hardier +types like Stabolite (TSC) or Fortress (TSC). Early types are not +suitable to growing with insufficient irrigation or frequent +spraying to fight off aphids. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Cabbage +</H4> + +<P> +Forget those delicate, green supermarket cabbages unless you have +unlimited amounts of water. But easiest-to-grow savoy types will do +surprisingly well with surprisingly little support. Besides, savoys +are the best salad material. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> I suggest three sowing times: the first, a succession +of early, midseason, and late savoys made in mid-March for harvest +during summer; the second, late and very late varieties started late +April to early May for harvest during fall and winter; the last, a +nursery bed of overwintered sorts sown late in August. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Early-maturing savoy varieties are naturally smaller and +may not experience much hot weather before heading up—these may be +separated by about 30 inches. The later ones are large plants and +should be given 4 feet of space or 16 square feet of growing room. +Sow and grow them like broccoli. Transplant overwintered cabbages +from nursery beds late in October, spaced about 3 feet apart; these +thrive where the squash grew. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> The more fertigation you can supply, the larger and +more luxuriant the plants and the bigger the heads. But even small, +somewhat moisture-stressed savoys make very edible heads. In terms +of increased yield for water expended, it is well worth it to +provide late varieties with a few gallons of fertigation about +mid-June, and a bucketful in mid-July and mid-August. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Japanese hybrid savoys make tender eating but may not +withstand winter. European savoys are hardier, coarser, +thicker-leaved, and harder chewing. For the first sowing I suggest a +succession of Japanese varieties including Salarite or Savoy +Princess for earlies; Savoy Queen, King, or Savoy Ace for midsummer; +and Savonarch (TSC) for late August/early September harvests. +They're all great varieties. For the second sowing I grow Savonarch +(TSC) for September[-]November cutting and a very late European +hybrid type like Wivoy (TSC) for winter. Small-framed January King +lacks sufficient root vigor. Springtime (TSC) and FEM218 (TSC) are +the only overwintered cabbages available. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Carrots +</H4> + +<P> +Dry-gardening carrots requires patiently waiting until the weather +stabilizes before tilling and sowing. To avoid even a little bit of +soil compaction, I try to sprout the seed without irrigation but +always fear that hot weather will frustrate my efforts. So I till +and plant too soon. And then heavy rain comes and compacts my +perfectly fluffed-up soil. But the looser and finer the earth +remains during their first six growing weeks, the more perfectly the +roots will develop. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> April at Elkton. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Allocate 4 feet of width to a single row of carrot seed. +When the seedlings are about 2 inches tall, thin to 1 inch apart. +Then thin every other carrot when the roots are [f]3/8 to [f]1/2 +inch in diameter and eat the thinnings. A few weeks later, when the +carrots are about 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter, make a final thinning +to 1 foot apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Not necessary. Foliar feeding every few weeks will +make much larger roots. Without any help they should grow to several +pounds each. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Choosing the right variety is very important. Nantes +and other delicate, juicy types lack enough fiber to hold together +when they get very large. These split prematurely. I've had my best +results with Danvers types. I'd also try Royal Chantenay (PEA), +Fakkel Mix (TSC), Stokes "Processor" types, and Topweight (ABL). Be +prepared to experiment with variety. The roots will not be quite as +tender as heavily watered Nantes types but are a lot better than +you'd think. Huge carrots are excellent in soups and we cheerfully +grate them into salads. Something about accumulating sunshine all +summer makes the roots incredibly sweet. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Cauliflower +</H4> + +<P> +Ordinary varieties cannot forage for moisture. Worse, moisture +stress at any time during the growth cycle prevents proper formation +of curds. The only important cauliflowers suitable for dry gardening +are overwintered types. I call them important because they're easy +to grow and they'll feed the family during April and early May, when +other garden fare is very scarce. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> To acquire enough size to survive cold weather, +overwintered cauliflower must be started on a nursery bed during the +difficult heat of early August. Except south of Yoncalla, delaying +sowing until September makes very small seedlings that may not be +hardy enough and likely won't yield much in April unless winter is +very mild, encouraging unusual growth. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> In October, transplant about 2 feet apart in rows 3 to 4 +feet apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> If you have more water available, fertilize and till +up some dusty, dry soil, wet down the row, direct-seed like broccoli +(but closer together), and periodically irrigate until fall. If you +only moisten a narrow band of soil close to the seedlings it won't +take much water. Cauliflower grows especially well in the row that +held bush peas. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> The best are the very pricy Armado series sold by +Territorial. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Chard +</H4> + +<P> +This vegetable is basically a beet with succulent leaves and thick +stalks instead of edible, sweet roots. It is just as drought +tolerant as a beet, and in dry gardening, chard is sown, spaced, and +grown just like a beet. But if you want voluminous leaf production +during summer, you may want to fertigate it occasionally. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> The red chards are not suitable for starting early in +the season; they have a strong tendency to bolt prematurely if sown +during that part of the year when daylength is increasing. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Corn +</H4> + +<P> +Broadcast complete organic fertilizer or strong compost shallowly +over the corn patch till midwinter, or as early in spring as the +earth can be worked without making too many clods. Corn will +germinate in pretty rough soil. High levels of nutrients in the +subsoil are more important than a fine seedbed. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> About the time frost danger ends. Being large seed, +corn can be set deep, where soil moisture still exists even after +conditions have warmed up. Germination without irrigation should be +no problem. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing</I>: The farther south, the farther apart. Entirely without +irrigation, I've had fine results spacing individual corn plants 3 +feet apart in rows 3 feet apart, or 9 square feet per each plant. +Were I around Puget Sound or in B.C. I'd try 2 feet apart in rows 30 +inches apart. Gary Nabhan describes Papago gardeners in Arizona +growing individual cornstalks 10 feet apart. Grown on wide spacings, +corn tends to tiller (put up multiple stalks, each making one or two +ears). For most urban and suburban gardeners, space is too valuable +to allocate 9 square feet for producing one or at best three or four +ears. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> With normal sprinkler irrigation, corn may be spaced 8 +inches apart in rows 30 inches apart, still yielding one or two ears +per stalk. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Were I a devoted sweetcorn eater without enough +irrigation, I'd be buying a few dozen freshly picked ears from the +back of a pickup truck parked on a corner during local harvest +season. Were I a devoted corn grower without any irrigation, I'd be +experimenting with various types of field corn instead of sweet +corn. Were I a self-sufficiency buff trying earnestly to produce +all my own cereal, I'd accept that the maritime Northwest is a +region where survivalists will eat wheat, rye, millet, and other +small grains. +</P> + +<P> +Many varieties of field corn are nearly as sweet as ordinary sweet +corn, but grain varieties become starchy and tough within hours of +harvest. Eaten promptly, "pig" corn is every bit as tasty as +Jubilee. I've had the best dry-garden results with Northstine Dent +(JSS) and Garland Flint (JSS). Hookers Sweet Indian (TSC) has a weak +root system. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Successfully Starting Cucurbits From Seed +</H4> + +<P> +With cucurbits, germination depends on high-enough soil temperature +and not too much moisture. Squash are the most chill and moisture +tolerant, melons the least. Here's a failure-proof and simple +technique that ensures you'll plant at exactly the right time. +</P> + +<P> +Cucumbers, squash, and melons are traditionally sown atop a deeply +dug, fertilized spot that usually looks like a little mound after it +is worked and is commonly called a hill. About two weeks before the +last anticipated frost date in your area, plant five or six squash +seeds about 2 inches deep in a clump in the very center of that +hill. Then, a week later, plant another clump at 12 o'clock. In +another week, plant another clump at 3 o'clock, and continue doing +this until one of the sowings sprouts. Probably the first try won't +come up, but the hill will certainly germinate several clumps of +seedlings. If weather conditions turn poor, a later-to-sprout group +may outgrow those that came up earlier. Thin gradually to the best +single plant by the time the vines are running. +</P> + +<P> +When the first squash seeds appear it is time to begin sowing +cucumbers, starting a new batch each week until one emerges. When +the cucumbers first germinate, it's time to try melons. +</P> + +<P> +Approaching cucurbits this way ensures that you'll get the earliest +possible germination while being protected against the probability +that cold, damp weather will prevent germination or permanently +spoil the growth prospects of the earlier seedlings. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Cucumbers +</H4> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> About May 5 to 15 at Elkton. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Most varieties usually run five about 3 feet from the +hill. Space the hills about 5 to 6 feet apart in all directions. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Like melons. Regular and increasing amounts of +fertigation will increase the yield several hundred percent. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> I've had very good results dry-gardening Amira II +(TSC), even without any fertigation at all. It is a Middle +Eastern[-]style variety that makes pickler-size thin-skinned cukes +that need no peeling and have terrific flavor. The burpless or +Japanese sorts don't seem to adapt well to drought. Most slicers +dry-garden excellently. Apple or Lemon are similar novelty heirlooms +that make very extensive vines with aggressive roots and should be +given a foot or two more elbow room. I'd avoid any variety touted as +being for pot or patio, compact, or short-vined, because of a likely +linkage between its vine structure and root system. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Eggplant +</H4> + +<P> +Grown without regular sprinkler irrigation, eggplant seems to get +larger and yield sooner and more abundantly. I suspect this delicate +and fairly drought-resistant tropical species does not like having +its soil temperature lowered by frequent watering. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Set out transplants at the usual time, about two +weeks after the tomatoes, after all frost danger has passed and +after nights have stably warmed up above 50 degree F. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Double dig and deeply fertilize the soil under each +transplant. Separate plants by about 3 feet in rows about 4 feet +apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Will grow and produce a few fruit without any +watering, but a bucket of fertigation every three to four weeks +during summer may result in the most luxurious, hugest, and +heaviest-bearing eggplants you've ever grown. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> I've noticed no special varietal differences in ability +to tolerate dryish soil. I've had good yields from the regionally +adapted varieties Dusky Hybrid, Short Tom, and Early One. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Endive +</H4> + +<P> +A biennial member of the chicory family, endive quickly puts down a +deep taproot and is naturally able to grow through prolonged +drought. Because endive remains bitter until cold weather, it +doesn't matter if it grows slowly through summer, just so long as +rapid leaf production resumes in autumn. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> On irrigated raised beds endive is sown around August +1 and heads by mid-October. The problem with dry-gardened endive is +that if it is spring sown during days of increasing daylength when +germination of shallow-sown small seed is a snap, it will bolt +prematurely. The crucial moment seems to be about June 1. April/May +sowings bolt in July/August,: after June 1, bolting won't happen +until the next spring, but germination won't happen without +watering. One solution is soaking the seeds overnight, rinsing them +frequently until they begin to sprout, and fluid drilling them. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> The heads become huge when started in June. Sow in rows 4 +feet apart and thin gradually until the rosettes are 3 inches in +diameter, then thin to 18 inches apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Without a drop of moisture the plants, even as tiny +seedlings, will grow steadily but slowly all summer, as long as no +other crop is invading their root zone. The only time I had trouble +was when the endive row was too close to an aggressive row of yellow +crookneck squash. About August, the squash roots began invading the +endive's territory and the endive got wilty. +</P> + +<P> +A light side-dressing of complete organic fertilizer or compost in +late September will grow the hugest plants imaginable. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Curly types seem more tolerant to rain and frost during +winter than broad-leaf Batavian varieties. I prefer President (TSC). +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Herbs +</H4> + +<P> +Most perennial and biennial herbs are actually weeds and wild +hillside shrubs from Mediterranean climates similar to that of +Southern California. They are adapted to growing on winter rainfall +and surviving seven to nine months without rainfall every summer. In +our climate, merely giving them a little more elbow room than +usually offered, thorough weeding, and side-dressing the herb garden +with a little compost in fall is enough coddling. Annuals such as +dill and cilantro are also very drought tolerant. Basil, however, +needs considerable moisture. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Kale +</H4> + +<P> +Depending on the garden for a significant portion of my annual +caloric intake has gradually refined my eating habits. Years ago I +learned to like cabbage salads as much as lettuce. Since lettuce +freezes out many winters (19-21 degree F), this adjustment has proved +very useful. Gradually I began to appreciate kale, too, and now +value it as a salad green far more than cabbage. This personal +adaptation has proved very pro-survival, because even savoy cabbages +do not grow as readily or yield nearly as much as kale. And kale is +a tad more cold hardy than even savoy cabbage. +</P> + +<P> +You may be surprised to learn that kale produces more complete +protein per area occupied per time involved than any legume, +including alfalfa. If it is steamed with potatoes and then mashed, +the two vegetables complement and flavor each other. Our region +could probably subsist quite a bit more healthfully than at present +on potatoes and kale. The key to enjoying kale as a salad component +is varietal choice, preparation, and using the right parts of the +plant. Read on. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> With irrigation, fast-growing kale is usually started +in midsummer for use in fall and winter. But kale is absolutely +biennial—started in March or April, it will not bolt until the next +spring. The water-wise gardener can conveniently sow kale while +cool, moist soil simplifies germination. Starting this early also +produces a deep root system before the soil dries much, and a much +taller, very useful central stalk on oleracea types, while early +sown Siberian (Napa) varieties tend to form multiple rosettes by +autumn, also useful at harvest time. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Grow like broccoli, spaced 4 feet apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Without any water, the somewhat stunted plants will +survive the summer to begin rapid growth as soon as fall rains +resume. With the help of occasional fertigation they grow lushly and +are enormous by September. Either way, there still will be plenty of +kale during fall and winter. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Harvest:</I> Bundles of strong-flavored, tough, large leaves are sold +in supermarkets but are the worst-eating part of the plant. If +chopped finely enough, big raw leaves can be masticated and +tolerated by people with good teeth. However, the tiny leaves are +far tenderer and much milder. The more rosettes developed on +Siberian kales, the more little leaves there are to be picked. By +pinching off the central growing tip in October and then gradually +stripping off the large shading leaves, <I>oleracea</I> varieties may be +encouraged to put out dozens of clusters of small, succulent leaves +at each leaf notch along the central stalk. The taller the stalk +grown during summer, the more of these little leaves there will be. +Only home gardeners can afford the time to hand pick small leaves. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> I somewhat prefer the flavor of Red Russian to the +ubiquitous green Siberian, but Red Russian is very slightly less +cold hardy. Westland Winter (TSC) and Konserva (JSS) are tall +European oleracea varieties. Winterbor F1 (JSS, TSC) is also +excellent. The dwarf "Scotch" kales, blue or green, sold by many +American seed companies are less vigorous types that don't produce +nearly as many gourmet little leaves. Dwarfs in any species tend to +have dwarfed root systems. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Kohlrabi (Giant) +</H4> + +<P> +Spring-sown market kohlrabi are usually harvested before hot weather +makes them get woody. Irrigation is not required if they're given a +little extra elbow room. With ordinary varieties, try thinning to 5 +inches apart in rows 2 to 3 feet apart and harvest by thinning +alternate plants. Given this additional growing room, they may not +get woody until midsummer. On my irrigated, intensive bed I always +sow some more on August 1, to have tender bulbs in autumn. +</P> + +<P> +Kohlrabi was once grown as European fodder crop; slow-growing +farmers, varieties grow huge like rutabagas. These field types have +been crossed with table types to make "giant" table varieties that +really suit dry gardening. What to do with a giant kohlrabi (or any +bulb getting overblown)? Peel, grate finely, add chopped onion, +dress with olive oil and black pepper, toss, and enjoy this old +Eastern European mainstay. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Sow giant varieties during April, as late as possible +while still getting a foot-tall plant before really hot weather. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Thin to 3 feet apart in rows 4 feet apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Not absolutely necessary on deep soil, but if they get +one or two thorough fertigations during summer their size may +double. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> A few American seed companies, including Peace Seeds, +have a giant kohlrabi of some sort or other. The ones I've tested +tend to be woody, are crude, and throw many off-types, a high +percentage of weak plants, and/or poorly shaped roots. By the time +this book is in print, Territorial should list a unique Swiss +variety called Superschmeltz, which is uniformly huge and stays +tender into the next year. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Leeks +</H4> + +<P> +Unwatered spring-sown bulbing onions are impossible. Leek is the +only allium I know of that may grow steadily but slowly through +severe drought; the water-short gardener can depend on leeks for a +fall/winter onion supply. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Start a row or several short rows about 12 inches +apart on a nursery bed in March or early April at the latest. Grow +thickly, irrigate during May/June, and fertilize well so the +competing seedlings get leggy. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> By mid-to late June the seedlings should be slightly +spindly, pencil-thick, and scallion size. With a sharp shovel, dig +out the nursery row, carefully retaining 5 or 6 inches of soil below +the seedlings. With a strong jet of water, blast away the soil and, +while doing this, gently separate the tangled roots so that as +little damage is done as possible. Make sure the roots don't dry out +before transplanting. After separation, I temporarily wrap bundled +seedlings in wet newspaper. +</P> + +<P> +Dig out a foot-deep trench the width of an ordinary shovel and +carefully place this earth next to the trench. Sprinkle in a heavy +dose of organic fertilizer or strong compost, and spade that in so +the soil is fluffy and fertile 2 feet down. Do not immediately +refill the trench with the soil that was dug out. With a shovel +handle, poke a row of 6-inch-deep holes along the bottom of the +trench. If the nursery bed has grown well there should be about 4 +inches of stem on each seedling before the first leaf attaches. If +the weather is hot and sunny, snip off about one-third to one-half +the leaf area to reduce transplanting shock. Drop one leek seedling +into each hole up to the point that the first leaf attaches to the +stalk, and mud it in with a cup or two of liquid fertilizer. As the +leeks grow, gradually refill the trench and even hill up soil around +the growing plants. This makes the better-tasting white part of the +stem get as long as possible. Avoid getting soil into the center of +the leek where new leaves emerge, or you'll not get them clean after +harvest. +</P> + +<P> +Spacing of the seedlings depends on the amount of irrigation. If +absolutely none at all, set them 12 inches apart in the center of a +row 4 feet wide. If unlimited water is available, give them 2 inches +of separation. Or adjust spacing to the water available. The plants +grow slowly through summer, but in autumn growth will accelerate, +especially if they are side-dressed at this time. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> For dry gardening use the hardier, more vigorous winter +leeks. Durabel (TSC) has an especially mild, sweet flavor. Other +useful varieties include Giant Carentian (ABL), Alaska (STK), and +Winter Giant (PEA). +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Lettuce +</H4> + +<P> +Spring-sown lettuce will go to large sizes, remaining sweet and +tender without irrigation if spaced 1 foot apart in a single row +with 2 feet of elbow room on each side. Lettuce cut after mid-June +usually gets bitter without regular, heavy irrigation. I reserve my +well-watered raised bed for this summer salad crop. Those very short +of water can start fall/winter lettuce in a shaded, irrigated +nursery bed mid-August through mid-September and transplant it out +after the fall rains return. Here is one situation in which +accelerating growth with cloches or cold frames would be very +helpful. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Water-Wise Cucurbits +</H4> + +<P> +The root systems of this family are far more extensive than most +people realize. Usually a taproot goes down several feet and then, +soil conditions permitting, thickly occupies a large area, +ultimately reaching down 5 to 8 feet. Shallow feeder roots also +extend laterally as far as or farther than the vines reach at their +greatest extent. +</P> + +<P> +Dry gardeners can do several things to assist cucurbits. First, make +sure there is absolutely no competition in their root zone. This +means[i]one plant per hill, with the hills separated in all +directions a little farther than the greatest possible extent of the +variety's ultimate growth.[i] Common garden lore states that +squashes droop their leaves in midsummer heat and that this trait +cannot be avoided and does no harm. But if they've grown as +described above, on deep, open soil, capillarity and surface +moisture reserves ensure there usually will be no midday wilting, +even if there is no watering. Two plants per hill do compete and +make each other wilt. +</P> + +<P> +Second, double dig and fertilize the entire lateral root zone. +Third, as much as possible, avoid walking where the vines will +ultimately reach to avoid compaction. Finally, [i]do not transplant +them.[i] This breaks the taproot and makes the plant more dependent +on lateral roots seeking moisture in the top 18 inches of soil. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Melons +</H4> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> As soon as they'll germinate outdoors: at Elkton, May +15 to June 1. Thin to a single plant per hill when there are about +three true leaves and the vines are beginning to run. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Most varieties will grow a vine reaching about 8 feet in +diameter. Space the hills 8 feet apart in all directions. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Fertigation every two to three weeks will increase the +yield by two or three times and may make the melons sweeter. Release +the water/fertilizer mix close to the center of the vine, where the +taproot can use it. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Adaptation to our cool climate is critical with melons; +use varieties sold by our regional seed companies. Yellow Doll +watermelons (TSC) are very early and seem the most productive under +the most droughty conditions. I've had reasonable results from most +otherwise regionally adapted cantaloupes and muskmelons. Last year a +new hybrid variety, Passport (TSC), proved several weeks earlier +than I'd ever experienced and was extraordinarily prolific and +tasty. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Onions/Scallions +</H4> + +<P> +The usual spring-sown, summer-grown bulb onions and scallions only +work with abundant irrigation. But the water-short, water-wise +gardener can still supply the kitchen with onions or onion +substitutes year-round. Leeks take care of November through early +April. Overwintered bulb onions handle the rest of the year. +Scallions may also be harvested during winter. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Started too soon, overwintered or short-day bulbing +onions (and sweet scallions) will bolt and form seed instead of +bulbing. Started too late they'll be too small and possibly not +hardy enough to survive winter. About August 15 at Elkton I sow +thickly in a well-watered and very fertile nursery bed. If you have +more than one nursery row, separate them about by 12 inches. Those +who miss this window of opportunity can start transplants in early +October and cover with a cloche immediately after germination, to +accelerate seedling growth during fall and early winter. +</P> + +<P> +Start scallions in a nursery just like overwintered onions, but +earlier so they're large enough for the table during winter, I sow +them about mid-July. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> When seedlings are about pencil thick (December/January +for overwintering bulb onions), transplant them about 4 or 5 inches +apart in a single row with a couple of feet of elbow room on either +side. I've found I get the best growth and largest bulbs if they +follow potatoes. After the potatoes are dug in early October I +immediately fertilize the area heavily and till, preparing the onion +bed. Klamath Basin farmers usually grow a similar rotation: hay, +potatoes, onions. +</P> + +<P> +Transplant scallions in October with the fall rains, about 1 inch +apart in rows at least 2 feet apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Not necessary. However, side-dressing the transplants +will result in much larger bulbs or scallions. Scallions will bolt +in April; the bulbers go tops-down and begin drying down as the soil +naturally dries out. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> I prefer the sweet and tender Lisbon (TSC) for +scallions. For overwintered bulb onions, grow very mild but poorly +keeping Walla Walla Sweet (JSS), Buffalo (TSC), a better keeper, or +whatever Territorial is selling at present. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Parsley +</H4> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> March. Parsley seed takes two to three weeks to +germinate. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Thin to 12 inches apart in a single row 4 feet wide. Five +plants should overwhelm the average kitchen. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Not necessary unless yield falls off during summer and +that is very unlikely. Parsley's very deep, foraging root system +resembles that of its relative, the carrot. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> If you use parsley for greens, variety is not critical, +though the gourmet may note slight differences in flavor or amount +of leaf curl. Another type of parsley is grown for edible roots that +taste much like parsnip. These should have their soil prepared as +carefully as though growing carrots. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Peas +</H4> + +<P> +This early crop matures without irrigation. Both pole and bush +varieties are planted thickly in single rows about 4 feet apart. I +always overlook some pods, which go on to form mature seed. Without +overhead irrigation, this seed will sprout strongly next year. +Alaska (soup) peas grow the same way. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Peppers +</H4> + +<P> +Pepper plants on raised beds spaced the usually recommended 16 to 24 +inches apart undergo intense root competition even before their +leaves form a canopy. With or without unlimited irrigation, the +plants will get much larger and bear more heavily with elbow room. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Set out transplants at the usual time. Double dig a +few square feet of soil beneath each seedling, and make sure +fertilizer gets incorporated all the way down to 2 feet deep. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Three feet apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Without any irrigation only the most vigorous, +small-fruited varieties will set anything. For an abundant harvest, +fertigate every three or four weeks. For the biggest pepper plants +you ever grew, fertigate every two weeks. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> The small-fruited types, both hot and sweet, have much +more aggressive root systems and generally adapt better to our +region's cool weather. I've had best results with Cayenne Long Slim, +Gypsie, Surefire, Hot Portugal, the "cherries" both sweet and hot, +Italian Sweet, and Petite Sirah. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Potatoes +</H4> + +<P> +Humans domesticated potatoes in the cool, arid high plateaus of the +Andes where annual rainfall averages 8 to 12 inches. The species +finds our dry summer quite comfortable. Potatoes produce more +calories per unit of land than any other temperate crop. Irrigated +potatoes yield more calories and two to three times as much watery +bulk and indigestible fiber as those grown without irrigation, but +the same variety dry gardened can contain about 30 percent more +protein, far more mineral nutrients, and taste better. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> I make two sowings. The first is a good-luck ritual +done religiously on March 17th—St. Patrick's Day. Rain or shine, in +untilled mud or finely worked and deeply fluffed earth, I still +plant 10 or 12 seed potatoes of an early variety. This provides for +summer. +</P> + +<P> +The main sowing waits until frost is unlikely and I can dig the +potato rows at least 12 inches deep with a spading fork, working in +fertilizer as deeply as possible and ending up with a finely +pulverized 24-inch-wide bed. At Elkton, this is usually mid-to late +April. There is no rush to plant. Potato vines are not frost hardy. +If frosted they'll regrow, but being burned back to the ground +lowers the final yield. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> I presprout my seeds by spreading them out in daylight at +room temperature for a few weeks, and then plant one whole, +sprouting, medium-size potato every 18 inches down the center of the +row. Barely cover the seed potato. At maturity there should be +2[f]1/2 to 3 feet of soil unoccupied with the roots of any other +crop on each side of the row. As the vines emerge, gradually scrape +soil up over them with a hoe. Let the vines grow about 4 inches, +then pull up about 2 inches of cover. Let another 4 inches grow, +then hill up another 2 inches. Continue doing this until the vines +begin blooming. At that point there should be a mound of loose, +fluffy soil about 12 to 16 inches high gradually filling with tubers +lushly covered with blooming vines. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Not necessary. In fact, if large water droplets +compact the loose soil you scraped up, that may interfere with +maximum tuber enlargement. However, after the vines are a foot long +or so, foliar feeding every week or 10 days will increase the yield. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> The water-wise gardener's main potato problem is +too-early maturity, and then premature sprouting in storage. Early +varieties like Yukon Gold—even popular midseason ones like Yellow +Finn—don't keep well unless they're planted late enough to brown +off in late September. That's no problem if they're irrigated. But +planted in late April, earlier varieties will shrivel by August. +Potatoes only keep well when very cool, dark, and moist—conditions +almost impossible to create on the homestead during summer. The best +August compromise is to leave mature potatoes undug, but soil +temperatures are in the 70s during August, and by early October, +when potatoes should be lifted and put into storage, they'll already +be sprouting. Sprouting in October is acceptable for the remainders +of my St. Pat's Day sowing that I am keeping over for seed next +spring. It is not ok for my main winter storage crop. Our climate +requires very late, slow-maturing varieties that can be sown early +but that don't brown off until September. Late types usually yield +more, too. +</P> + +<P> +Most of the seed potato varieties found in garden centers are early +or midseason types chosen by farmers for yield without regard to +flavor or nutrition. One, Nooksack Cascadian, is a very late variety +grown commercially around Bellingham, Washington. Nooksack is pretty +good if you like white, all-purpose potatoes. +</P> + +<P> +There are much better homegarden varieties available in Ronniger's +catalog, all arranged according to maturity. For the ultimate in +earlies I suggest Red Gold. For main harvests I'd try Indian Pit, +Carole, German Butterball, Siberian, or a few experimental row-feet +of any other late variety taking your fancy. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Rutabagas +</H4> + +<P> +Rutabagas have wonderfully aggressive root systems and are capable +of growing continuously through long, severe drought. But where I +live, the results aren't satisfactory. Here's what happens. If I +start rutabagas in early April and space them about 2 to 3 feet +apart in rows 4 feet apart, by October they're the size of +basketballs and look pretty good; unfortunately, I harvest a hollow +shell full of cabbage root maggots. Root maggots are at their peak +in early June. That's why I got interested in dry-gardening giant +kohlrabi. +</P> + +<P> +In 1991 we had about 2 surprising inches of rain late in June, so as +a test I sowed rutabagas on July 1. They germinated without more +irrigation, but going into the hot summer as small plants with +limited root systems and no irrigation at all they became somewhat +stunted. By October 1 the tops were still small and a little gnarly; +big roots had not yet formed. Then the rains came and the rutabagas +began growing rapidly. By November there was a pretty nice crop of +medium-size good-eating roots. +</P> + +<P> +I suspect that farther north, where evaporation is not so severe and +midsummer rains are slightly more common, if a little irrigation +were used to start rutabagas about July 1, a decent unwatered crop +might be had most years. And I am certain that if sown at the normal +time (July 15) and grown with minimal irrigation but well spaced +out, they'll produce acceptably. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> Stokes Altasweet (STK, TSC) has the best flavor. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Sorrel +</H4> + +<P> +This weed-like, drought-tolerant salad green is little known and +underappreciated. In summer the leaves get tough and strong +flavored; if other greens are available, sorrel will probably be +unpicked. That's ok. During fall, winter, and spring, sorrel's +lemony taste and delicate, tender texture balance tougher savoy +cabbage and kale and turn those crude vegetables into very +acceptable salads. Serious salad-eating families might want the +production of 5 to 10 row-feet. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> The first year you grow sorrel, sow mid-March to +mid-April. The tiny seed must be placed shallowly, and it sprouts +much more readily when the soil stays moist. Plant a single furrow +centered in a row 4 feet wide. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> As the seedlings grow, thin gradually. When the leaves +are about the size of ordinary spinach, individual plants should be +about 6 inches apart. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Not necessary in summer—you won't eat it anyway. If +production lags in fall, winter, or spring, side-dress the sorrel +patch with a little compost or organic fertilizer. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Maintenance:</I> Sorrel is perennial. If an unusually harsh winter +freeze kills off the leaves it will probably come back from root +crowns in early spring. You'll welcome it after losing the rest of +your winter crops. In spring of the second and succeeding years +sorrel will make seed. Seed making saps the plant's energy, and the +seeds may naturalize into an unwanted weed around the garden. So, +before any seed forms, cut all the leaves and seed stalks close to +the ground; use the trimmings as a convenient mulch along the row. +If you move the garden or want to relocate the patch, do not start +sorrel again from seed. In any season dig up a few plants, divide +the root masses, trim off most of the leaves to reduce transplanting +shock, and transplant 1 foot apart. Occasional unique plants may be +more reluctant to make seed stalks than most others. Since seed +stalks produce few edible leaves and the leaves on them are very +harsh flavored, making seed is an undesirable trait. So I propagate +only seed-shy plants by root cuttings. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Spinach +</H4> + +<P> +Spring spinach is remarkably more drought tolerant than it would +appear from its delicate structure and the succulence of its leaves. +A bolt-resistant, long-day variety bred for summer harvest sown in +late April may still yield pickable leaves in late June or even +early July without any watering at all, if thinned to 12 inches +apart in rows 3 feet apart. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Squash, Winter and Summer +</H4> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Having warm-enough soil is everything. At Elkton I +first attempt squash about April 15. In the Willamette, May 1 is +usual. Farther north, squash may not come up until June 1. Dry +gardeners should not transplant squash; the taproot must not be +broken. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> The amount of room to give each plant depends on the +potential of a specific variety's maximum root development. Most +vining winter squash can completely occupy a 10-foot-diameter +circle. Sprawly heirloom summer squash varieties can desiccate an +8-or 9-foot-diameter circle. Thin each hill to one plant, not two or +more as is recommended in the average garden book. There must be no +competition for water. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> With winter storage types, an unirrigated vine may +yield 15 pounds of squash after occupying a 10-foot-diameter circle +for an entire growing season. However, starting about July 1, if you +support that vine by supplying liquid fertilizer every two to three +weeks you may harvest 60 pounds of squash from the same area. The +first fertigation may only need 2 gallons. Then mid-July give 4; +about August 1, 8; August 15, feed 15 gallons. After that date, +solar intensity and temperatures decline, growth rate slows, and +water use also decreases. On September 1 I'd add about 8 gallons and +about 5 more on September 15 if it hadn't yet rained significantly. +Total water: 42 gallons. Total increase in yield: 45 pounds. I'd say +that's a good return on water invested. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Varieties:</I> For winter squash, all the vining winter varieties in +the C. maxima or C. pepo family seem acceptably adapted to dry +gardening. These include Buttercup, Hubbard, Delicious, Sweet Meat, +Delicata, Spaghetti, and Acorn. I wouldn't trust any of the newer +compact bush winter varieties so popular on raised beds. Despite +their reputation for drought tolerance C. mixta varieties (or cushaw +squash) were believed to be strictly hot desert or humid-tropical +varieties, unable to mature in our cool climate. However, Pepita +(PEA) is a mixta that is early enough and seems entirely unbothered +by a complete lack of irrigation. The enormous vine sets numerous +good keepers with mild-tasting, light yellow flesh. +</P> + +<P> +Obviously, the compact bush summer squash varieties so popular these +days are not good candidates for withstanding long periods without +irrigation. The old heirlooms like Black Zucchini (ABL) (not Black +Beauty!) and warty Yellow Crookneck grow enormous, high-yielding +plants whose extent nearly rivals that of the largest winter squash. +They also grow a dense leaf cover, making the fruit a little harder +to find. These are the only American heirlooms still readily +available. Black Zucchini has become very raggedy; anyone growing it +should be prepared to plant several vines and accept that at least +one-third of them will throw rather off-type fruit. It needs the +work of a skilled plant breeder. Yellow Crookneck is still a fairly +"clean" variety offering good uniformity. Both have more flavor and +are less watery than the modern summer squash varieties. Yellow +Crookneck is especially rich, probably due to its thick, oily skin; +most gardeners who once grow the old Crookneck never again grow any +other kind. Another useful drought-tolerant variety is Gem, +sometimes called Rolet (TSC). It grows an extensive +winter-squash-like vine yielding grapefruit-size, excellent eating +summer squash. +</P> + +<P> +Both Yellow Crookneck and Black Zucchini begin yielding several +weeks later than the modern hybrids. However, as the summer goes on +they will produce quite a bit more squash than new hybrid types. I +now grow five or six fully irrigated early hybrid plants like Seneca +Zucchini too. As soon as my picking bucket is being filled with +later-to-yield Crooknecks, I pull out the Senecas and use the now +empty irrigated space for fall crops. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Tomato +</H4> + +<P> +There's no point in elaborate methods—trellising, pruning, or +training—with dry-gardened tomato vines. Their root systems must be +allowed to control all the space they can without competition, so +allow the vines to sprawl as well. And pruning the leaf area of +indeterminates is counterproductive: to grow hugely, the roots need +food from a full complement of leaves. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Sowing date:</I> Set out transplants at the usual time. They might +also be jump started under cloches two to three weeks before the +last frost, to make better use of natural soil moisture. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Spacing:</I> Depends greatly on variety. The root system can occupy as +much space as the vines will cover and then some. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Irrigation:</I> Especially on determinate varieties, periodic +fertigation will greatly increase yield and size of fruit. The old +indeterminate sprawlers will produce through an entire summer +without any supplemental moisture, but yield even more in response +to irrigation. +</P> + +<P> +<I>Variety:</I> With or without irrigation or anywhere in between, when +growing tomatoes west of the Cascades, nothing is more important +than choosing the right variety. Not only does it have to be early +and able to set and ripen fruit when nights are cool, but to grow +through months without watering the plant must be highly +indeterminate. This makes a built-in conflict: most of the sprawly, +huge, old heirloom varieties are rather late to mature. But cherry +tomatoes are always far earlier than big slicers. +</P> + +<P> +If I had to choose only one variety it would be the old heirloom +[Large] Red Cherry. A single plant is capable of covering a 9- to +10-foot-diameter circle if fertigated from mid-July through August. +The enormous yield of a single fertigated vine is overwhelming. +</P> + +<P> +Red Cherry is a little acid and tart. Non-acid, indeterminate cherry +types like Sweetie, Sweet 100, and Sweet Millions are also workable +but not as aggressive as Red Cherry. I wouldn't depend on most bush +cherry tomato varieties. But our earliest cherry variety of all, +OSU's Gold Nugget, must grow a lot more root than top, for, with or +without supplemental water, Gold Nugget sets heavily and ripens +enormously until mid-August, when it peters out from overbearing +(not from moisture stress). Gold Nugget quits just about when the +later cherry or slicing tomatoes start ripening heavily. +</P> + +<P> +Other well-adapted early determinates such as Oregon Spring and +Santiam may disappoint you. Unless fertigated, they'll set and ripen +some fruit but may become stunted in midsummer. However, a single +indeterminate Fantastic Hybrid will cover a 6-to 7-foot-diameter +circle, and grow and ripen tomatoes until frost with only a minimum +of water. I think Stupice (ABL, TSC) and Early Cascade are also +quite workable (and earlier than Fantastic in Washington). +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap06"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Chapter 6 +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +My Own Garden Plan +</H3> + +<P> +This chapter illustrates and explains my own dry garden. Any garden +plan is a product of compromises and preferences; mine is not +intended to become yours. But, all modesty aside, this plan results +from 20 continuous years of serious vegetable gardening and some +small degree of regional wisdom. +</P> + +<P> +My wife and I are what I dub "vegetablitarians." Not vegetarians, or +lacto-ovo vegetarians because we're not ideologues and eat meat on +rare, usually festive occasions in other peoples' houses. But over +80 percent of our calories are from vegetable, fruit, or cereal +sources and the remaining percentage is from fats or dairy foods. +The purpose of my garden is to provide at least half the actual +calories we eat year-round; most of the rest comes from home-baked +bread made with freshly ground whole grains. I put at least one very +large bowl of salad on the table every day, winter and summer. I +keep us in potatoes nine months a year and produce a year's supply +of onions or leeks. To break the dietary monotony of November to +April, I grow as wide an assortment of winter vegetables as possible +and put most produce departments to shame from June through +September, when the summer vegies are "on." +</P> + +<P> +The garden plan may seem unusually large, but in accordance with +Solomon's First Law of Abundance, there's a great deal of +intentional waste. My garden produces two to three times the amount +of food needed during the year so moochers, poachers, guests, adult +daughters accompanied by partners, husbands, and children, mistakes, +poor yields, and failures of individual vegetables are +inconsequential. Besides, gardening is fun. +</P> + +<P> +My garden is laid out in 125-foot-long rows and one equally long +raised bed. Each row grows only one or two types of vegetables. The +central focus of my water-wise garden is its irrigation system. Two +lines of low-angle sprinklers, only 4 feet apart, straddle an +intensively irrigated raised bed running down the center of the +garden. The sprinklers I use are Naans, a unique Israeli design that +emits very little water and throws at a very low angle (available +from TSC and some garden centers). Their maximum reach is about 18 +feet; each sprinkler is about 12 feet from its neighbor. On the +garden plan, the sprinklers are indicated by a circle surrounding an +"X." Readers unfamiliar with sprinkler system design are advised to +study the irrigation chapter in Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades. +</P> + +<P> +On the far left side of the garden plan is a graphic representation +of the uneven application of water put down by this sprinkler +system. The 4-foot-wide raised bed gets lots of water, uniformly +distributed. Farther away, the amount applied decreases rapidly. +About half as much irrigation lands only 6 feet from the edge of the +raised bed as on the bed itself. Beyond that the amount tapers off +to insignificance. During summer's heat the farthest 6 feet is +barely moistened on top, but no water effectively penetrates the dry +surface. Crops are positioned according to their need for or ability +to benefit from supplementation. For convenient description I've +numbered those rows. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +The Raised Bed +</H4> + +<P> +Crops demanding the most water are grown on the raised bed. These +include a succession of lettuce plantings designed to fill the +summer salad bowl, summer spinach, spring kohlrabi, my celery patch, +scallions, Chinese cabbages, radishes, and various nursery beds that +start overwintered crops for transplanting later. Perhaps the bed +seems too large just for salad greens. But one entire meal every day +consists largely of fresh, raw, high-protein green leaves; during +summer, looseleaf or semiheading lettuce is our salad item of +choice. And our individual salad bowls are larger than most families +of six might consider adequate to serve all of them together. +</P> + +<P> +If water were severely rationed I could irrigate the raised bed with +hose and nozzle and dry garden the rest, but as it is, rows 1, 2, 7, +and 8 do get significant but lesser amounts from the sprinklers. +Most of the rows hold a single plant family needing similar +fertilization and handling or, for convenience, that are sown at the +same time. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 1 +</H4> + +<P> +The row's center is about 3 feet from the edge of the raised bed. In +March I sow my very first salad greens down half this row—mostly +assorted leaf lettuce plus some spinach—and six closely spaced +early Seneca Hybrid zucchini plants. The greens are all cut by +mid-June; by mid-July my better-quality Yellow Crookneck squash come +on, so I pull the zucchini. Then I till that entire row, +refertilize, and sow half to rutabagas. The nursery bed of leek +seedlings has gotten large enough to transplant at this time, too. +These go into a trench dug into the other half of the row. The leeks +and rutabagas could be reasonably productive located farther from +the sprinklers, but no vegetables benefit more from abundant water +or are more important to a self-sufficient kitchen. Rutabagas break +the winter monotony of potatoes; leeks vitally improve winter +salads, and leeky soups are a household staple from November through +March. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 2: Semi-Drought Tolerant Brassicas +</H4> + +<P> +Row 2 gets about half the irrigation of row 1 and about one-third as +much as the raised bed, and so is wider, to give the roots more +room. One-third of the row grows savoy cabbage, the rest, Brussels +sprouts. These brassicas are spaced 4 feet apart and by summer's end +the lusty sprouts form a solid hedge 4 feet tall. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 3: Kale +</H4> + +<P> +Row 3 grows 125 feet of various kales sown in April. There's just +enough overspray to keep the plants from getting gnarly. I prefer +kale to not get very stunted, if only for aesthetics: on my soil, +one vanity fertigation about mid-July keeps this row looking +impressive all summer. Other gardens with poorer soil might need +more support. This much kale may seem an enormous oversupply, but +between salads and steaming greens with potatoes we manage to eat +almost all the tender small leaves it grows during winter. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 4: Root Crops +</H4> + +<P> +Mostly carrots, a few beets. No irrigation, no fertigation, none +needed. One hundred carrots weighing in at around 5 pounds each and +20-some beets of equal magnitude make our year's supply for salads, +soups, and a little juicing. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 5: Dry-Gardened Salads +</H4> + +<P> +This row holds a few crowns of French sorrel, a few feet of parsley. +Over a dozen giant kohlrabi are spring sown, but over half the row +grows endive. I give this row absolutely no water. Again, when +contemplating the amount of space it takes, keep in mind that this +endive and kohlrabi must help fill our salad bowls from October +through March. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 6: Peas, Overwintered Cauliflower, and All Solanaceae +</H4> + +<P> +Half the row grows early bush peas. Without overhead irrigation to +bother them, unpicked pods form seed that sprouts excellently the +next year. This half of the row is rotary tilled and fertilized +again after the pea vines come out. Then it stays bare through July +while capillarity somewhat recharges the soil. About August 1, I wet +the row's surface down with hose and fan nozzle and sow overwintered +cauliflower seed. To keep the cauliflower from stunting I must +lightly hand sprinkle the row's center twice weekly through late +September. Were water more restricted I could start my cauliflower +seedlings in a nursery bed and transplant them here in October. +</P> + +<P> +The other half is home to the Solanaceae: tomato, pepper, and +eggplant. I give this row a little extra width because pea vines +run, and I fertigate my Solanaceae, preferring sprawly tomato +varieties that may cover an 8-foot-diameter circle. There's also a +couple of extra bare feet along the outside because the neighboring +grasses will deplete soil moisture along the edge of the garden. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 7: Water-Demanding Brassicas +</H4> + +<P> +Moving away from irrigation on the other side of the raised bed, I +grow a succession of hybrid broccoli varieties and late fall +cauliflower. The broccoli is sown several times, 20 row-feet each +sowing, done about April 15, June 1, and July 15. The late +cauliflower goes in about July 1. If necessary I could use much of +this row for quick crops that would be harvested before I wanted to +sow broccoli or cauliflower, but I don't need more room. The first +sowings of broccoli are pulled out early enough to permit succession +sowings of arugula or other late salad greens. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 8: The Trellis +</H4> + +<P> +Here I erect a 125-foot-long, 6-foot-tall net trellis for gourmet +delicacies like pole peas and pole beans. The bean vines block +almost all water that would to on beyond it and so this row gets +more irrigation than it otherwise might. The peas are harvested +early enough to permit a succession sowing of Purple Sprouting +broccoli in mid-July. Purple Sprouting needs a bit of sprinkling to +germinate in the heat of midsummer, but, being as vigorous as kale, +once up, it grows adequately on the overspray from the raised bed. +The beans would be overwhelmingly abundant if all were sown at one +time, so I plant them in two stages about three weeks apart. Still, +a great many beans go unpicked. These are allowed to form seed, are +harvested before they quite dry, and crisp under cover away from the +sprinklers. We get enough seed from this row for planting next year, +plus all the dry beans we care to eat during winter. Dry beans are +hard to digest and as we age we eat fewer and fewer of them. In +previous years I've grown entire rows of dry legume seeds at the +garden's edge. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 9: Cucurbits +</H4> + +<P> +This row is so wide because here are grown all the spreading +cucurbits. The pole beans in row 8 tend to prevent overspray; this +dryness is especially beneficial to humidity-sensitive melons, +serendipitously reducing their susceptability to powdery mildew +diseases. All cucurbits are fertigated every three weeks. The squash +will have fallen apart by the end of September, melons are pulled +out by mid-September. The area is then tilled and fertilized, making +space to transplant overwintered spring cabbages, other overwintered +brassicas, and winter scallions in October. These transplants are +dug from nurseries on the irrigated raised bed. I could also set +cold frames here and force tender salad greens all winter. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Row 10: Unirrigated Potatoes +</H4> + +<P> +This single long row satisfies a potato-loving household all winter. +The quality of these dry-gardened tubers is so high that my wife +complains if she must buy a few new potatoes from the supermarket +after our supplies have become so sprouty and/or shriveled that +they're not tasty any longer. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<A NAME="chap07"></A> +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +Chapter 7 +</H3> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +The Backyard +</H3> + +<H4> +Water-Wise Gardener +</H4> + +<P> +I am an unusually fortunate gardener. After seven years of +struggling on one of the poorest growing sites in this region we now +live on 16 acres of mostly excellent, deep soil, on the floor of a +beautiful, coastal Oregon valley. My house and gardens are perched +safely above the 100-year flood line, there's a big, reliable well, +and if I ever want more than 20 gallons per minute in midsummer, +there's the virtually unlimited Umpqua River to draw from. Much like +a master skeet shooter who uses a .410 to make the sport more +interesting, I have chosen to dry garden. +</P> + +<P> +Few are this lucky. These days the majority of North Americans live +an urban struggle. Their houses are as often perched on steep, +thinly soiled hills or gooey, difficult clay as on a tiny fragment +of what was once prime farmland. And never does the municipal +gardener have one vital liberty I do: to choose which one-sixth of +an acre in his 14-acre "back yard" he'll garden on this year. +</P> + +<P> +I was a suburban backyard gardener for five years before deciding to +homestead. I've frequently recalled this experience while learning +to dry garden. What follows in this chapter are some strategies to +guide the urban in becoming more water-wise. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Water Conservation Is the Most Important First Step +</H4> + +<P> +After it rains or after sprinkler irrigation, water evaporates from +the surface until a desiccated earth mulch develops. Frequent light +watering increases this type of loss. Where lettuce, radishes, and +other shallow-rooting vegetables are growing, perhaps it is best to +accept this loss or spread a thin mulch to reduce it. But most +vegetables can feed deeper, so if wetting the surface can be +avoided, a lot of water can be saved. Even sprinkling longer and +less frequently helps accomplish that. Half the reason that drip +systems are more efficient is that the surface isn't dampened and +virtually all water goes deep into the earth. The other half is that +they avoiding evaporation that occurs while water sprays through the +air between the nozzle and the soil. Sprinkling at night or early in +the morning, when there is little or no wind, prevents almost all of +this type of loss. +</P> + +<P> +To use drip irrigation it is not necessary to invest in pipes, +emitters, filters, pressure regulators, and so forth. I've already +explained how recycled plastic buckets or other large containers can +be improvised into very effective drip emitters. Besides, drip tube +systems are not trouble free: having the beds covered with fragile +pipes makes hoeing dicey, while every emitter must be periodically +checked against blockage. +</P> + +<P> +When using any type of drip system it is especially important to +relate the amount of water applied to the depth of the soil to the +crops, root development. There's no sense adding more water than the +earth can hold. Calculating the optimum amount of water to apply +from a drip system requires applying substantial, practical +intelligence to evaluating the following factors: soil water-holding +capacity and accessible depth; how deep the root systems have +developed; how broadly the water spreads out below each emitter +(dispersion); rate of loss due to transpiration. All but one of +these factors—dispersion—are adequately discussed elsewhere in +<I>Gardening Without Irrigation.</I> +</P> + +<P> +A drip emitter on sandy soil moistens the earth nearly straight down +with little lateral dispersion; 1 foot below the surface the wet +area might only be 1 foot in diameter. Conversely, when you drip +moisture into a clay soil, though the surface may seem dry, 18 +inches away from the emitter and just 3 inches down the earth may +become saturated with water, while a few inches deeper, significant +dispersion may reach out nearly 24 inches. On sandy soil, emitters +on 12-inch centers are hardly close enough together, while on clay, +30-or even 36-inch centers are sufficient. +</P> + +<P> +Another important bit of data to enter into your arithmetic: 1 cubic +foot of water equals about 5 gallons. A 12-inch-diameter circle +equals 0.75 square feet (A = Pi x Radius squared), so 1 cubic foot +of water (5 gallons) dispersed from a single emitter will add +roughly 16 inches of moisture to sandy soil, greatly overwatering a +medium that can hold only an inch or so of available water per foot. +On heavy clay, a single emitter may wet a 4-foot-diameter circle, on +loams, anywhere in between, 5 gallons will cover a 4-foot-diameter +circle about 1 inch deep. So on deep, clay soil, 10 or even 15 +gallons per application may be in order. What is the texture of your +soil, its water-holding capacity, and the dispersion of a drip into +it? Probably, it is somewhere in between sand and clay. +</P> + +<P> +I can't specify what is optimum in any particular situation. Each +gardener must consider his own unique factors and make his own +estimation. All I can do is stress again that the essence of +water-wise gardening is water conservation. +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Optimizing Space: Planning the Water-Wise Backyard Garden +</H4> + +<P> +Intensive gardening is a strategy holding that yield per square foot +is the supreme goal; it succeeds by optimizing as many growth +factors as possible. So a raised bed is loosened very deeply without +concern for the amount of labor, while fertility and moisture are +supplied virtually without limit. Intensive gardening makes sense +when land is very costly and the worth of the food grown is judged +against organic produce at retail—and when water and nutrients are +inexpensive and/or available in unlimited amounts. +</P> + +<P> +When water use is reduced, yield inevitably drops proportionately. +The backyard water-wise gardener, then, must logically ask which +vegetable species will give him enough food or more economic value +with limited space and water. Taking maritime Northwest rainfall +patterns into consideration, here's my best estimation: +</P> + +<BR> + +<H4> +Water-Wise Efficiency of Vegetable Crops +</H4> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +(in terms of backyard usage of space and moisture) +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +EFFICIENT ENOUGH +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Early spring-sown crops: peas, broccoli, lettuce, radishes, savoy +cabbage, kohlrabi +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Overwintered crops: onions, broccoli cauliflower, +cabbage, favas beans +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Endive Kale +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Garden sorrel +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Indeterminate tomatoes +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Giant kohlrabi +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Parsley—leaf and root +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +heirloom summer squash (sprawly) +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Pole beans +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Herbs: marjoram, thyme, dill, cilantro, fennel, oregano +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Root crops: carrots, beets, parsnips +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +MARGINAL +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Brussels sprouts (late) +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Potatoes +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Determinate tomatoes +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Rutabagas +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Eggplant +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Leeks +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Leeks +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Savoy cabbage (late) +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Peppers, small fruited +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +INEFFICIENT +</P> + +<BR> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Beans, bush snap +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Peppers, bell +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Broccoli, summer +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Radishes +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Cauliflower +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Scallions, bulb onions +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Celery +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Sweet corn +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Lettuce +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Turnips +</P> + +<P CLASS="noindent"> +Have fun planning your own water-wise garden! +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR> + +<H3 ALIGN="center"> +More Reading +</H3> + +<H4> +About the Interlibrary Loan Service +</H4> + +<P> +Agricultural books, especially older ones, are not usually available +at local libraries. But most municipal libraries and all +universities offer access to an on-line database listing the +holdings of other cooperating libraries throughout the United +States. Almost any book published in this century will be promptly +mailed to the requesting library. Anyone who is serious about +learning by reading should discover how easy and inexpensive (or +free) it is to use the Interlibrary Loan Service. +</P> + +<P> +Carter, Vernon Gill, and Tom, Dale. <I>Topsoil and Civilization.</I> +</P> + +<P> +Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. +</P> + +<P> +The history of civilization's destruction of one ecosystem after +another by plowing and deforestation, and its grave implications for +our country's long-term survival. +</P> + +<P> +Cleveland, David A., and Daniela Soleri. <I>Food from Dryland Gardens: +An Ecological, Nutritional and Social Approach to Small-Scale +Household Food Production.</I> Tucson: Center for People, Food and +Environment, 1991. +</P> + +<P> +World-conscious survey of low-tech food production in semiarid +regions. +</P> + +<P> +Faulkner, Edward H. <I>Plowman's Folly.</I> Norman, Okla.: University of +Oklahoma Press, 1943. +</P> + +<P> +This book created quite a controversy in the 1940s. Faulkner +stresses the vital importance of capillarity. He explains how +conventional plowing stops this moisture flow. +</P> + +<P> +Foth, Henry D. <I>Fundamentals of Soil Science.</I> Eighth Edition. New +York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990. +</P> + +<P> +A thorough yet readable basic soil science text at a level +comfortable for university non-science majors. +</P> + +<P> +Hamaker, John. D. <I>The Survival of Civilization.</I> Annotated by +Donald A. Weaver. Michigan/California: Hamaker-Weaver Publishers, +1982. +</P> + +<P> +Hamaker contradicts our current preoccupation with global warming +and makes a believable case that a new epoch of planetary glaciation +is coming, caused by an increase in greenhouse gas. The book is also +a guide to soil enrichment with rock powders. +</P> + +<P> +Nabhan, Gary. <I>The Desert Smells like Rain: A Naturalist in Papago +Indian Country.</I> San Francisco: North Point Press, 1962. +</P> + +<P> +Describes regionally useful Native American dry-gardening techniques +</P> + +<P> +Russell, Sir E. John. <I>Soil Conditions and Plant Growth.</I> Eighth +Edition. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1950. +</P> + +<P> +Probably the finest, most human soil science text ever written. +Russell avoids unnecessary mathematics and obscure terminology. I do +not recommend the recent in-print edition, revised and enlarged by a +committee. +</P> + +<P> +Smith, J. Russell. Tree Crops: a Permanent Agriculture. New York: +Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1929. +</P> + +<P> +Smith's visionary solution to upland erosion is growing unirrigated +tree crops that produce cereal-like foods and nuts. Should sit on +the "family bible shelf" of every permaculturalist. +</P> + +<P> +Solomon, Stephen J. <I>Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades.</I> +Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1989. +</P> + +<P> +The complete regional gardening textbook. +</P> + +<P> +————————————-. <I>Backyard Composting.</I> Portland, Ore.: +George van Patten Publishing, 1992. +</P> + +<P> +Especially useful for its unique discussion of the overuse of +compost and a nonideological approach to raising the most nutritious +food possible. +</P> + +<P> +Stout, Ruth. <I>Gardening Without Work for the Aging, the Busy and the +Indolent.</I> Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair, 1961. +</P> + +<P> +Stout presents the original thesis of permanent mulching. +</P> + +<P> +Turner, Frank Newman. <I>Fertility, Pastures and Cover Crops Based on +Nature's Own Balanced Organic Pasture Feeds.</I> San Diego: Rateaver, +1975. Reprinted from the 1955 Faber and Faber, edition. +</P> + +<P> +Organic farming using long rotations, including deeply rooted green +manures developed to a high art. Turner maintained a productive +organic dairy farm using subsoiling and long rotations involving +tilled crops and semipermanent grass/herb mixtures. +</P> + +<P> +ven der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David K. Todd. <I>The Water +Encyclopedia, Second Edition.</I> Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, +1990. +</P> + +<P> +Reference data concerning every possible aspect of water. +</P> + +<P> +Weaver, John E., and William E. Bruner. <I>Root Development of +Vegetable Crops.</I> New York: McGraw-Hill, 1927. +</P> + +<P> +Contains very interesting drawings showing the amazing depth and +extent that vegetable roots are capable of in favorable soil. +</P> + +<P> +Widtsoe, John A. <I>Dry Farming: A System of Agriculture for Countries +Under Low Rainfall.</I> New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920. +</P> + +<P> +The best single review ever made of the possibilities of dry farming +and dry gardening, sagely discussing the scientific basis behind the +techniques. The quality of Widtsoe's understanding proves that newer +is not necessarily better. +</P> + +<BR><BR><BR><BR> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gardening Without Irrigation: or +without much, anyway, by Steve Solomon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GARDENING WITHOUT IRRIGATION *** + +***** This file should be named 4512-h.htm or 4512-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/4/5/1/4512/ + +Produced by Steve Solomon. HTML version by Al Haines. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Gardening Without Irrigation: or without much, anyway + +Author: Steve Solomon + +Posting Date: August 8, 2009 [EBook #4512] +Release Date: October, 2003 +First Posted: January 28, 2002 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GARDENING WITHOUT IRRIGATION *** + + + + +Produced by Steve Solomon. HTML version by Al Haines. + + + + + + + + + +Cascadia Gardening Series + +Gardening Without Irrigation: or without much, anyway + +Steve Solomon + + + +CONTENTS + + +Chapter + + 1 Predictably Rainless Summers + 2 Water-Wise Gardening Science + 3 Helping Plants to Need Less Irrigation + 4 Water-Wise Gardening Year-Round + 5 How to Grow It with Less Irrigation: A-Z + 6 My Own Garden Plan + 7 The Backyard + + + + +Introduction + +Starting a New Gardening Era + + +First, you should know why a maritime Northwest raised-bed gardener +named Steve Solomon became worried about his dependence on +irrigation. + +I'm from Michigan. I moved to Lorane, Oregon, in April 1978 and +homesteaded on 5 acres in what I thought at the time was a cool, +showery green valley of liquid sunshine and rainbows. I intended to +put in a big garden and grow as much of my own food as possible. + +Two months later, in June, just as my garden began needing water, my +so-called 15-gallon-per-minute well began to falter, yielding less +and less with each passing week. By August it delivered about 3 +gallons per minute. Fortunately, I wasn't faced with a completely +dry well or one that had shrunk to below 1 gallon per minute, as I +soon discovered many of my neighbors were cursed with. Three gallons +per minute won't supply a fan nozzle or even a common impulse +sprinkler, but I could still sustain my big raised-bed garden by +watering all night, five or six nights a week, with a single, 2-1/2 +gallon-per-minute sprinkler that I moved from place to place. + +I had repeatedly read that gardening in raised beds was the most +productive vegetable growing method, required the least work, and +was the most water-efficient system ever known. So, without adequate +irrigation, I would have concluded that food self-sufficiency on my +homestead was not possible. In late September of that first year, I +could still run that single sprinkler. What a relief not to have +invested every last cent in land that couldn't feed us. + +For many succeeding years at Lorane, I raised lots of organically +grown food on densely planted raised beds, but the realities of +being a country gardener continued to remind me of how tenuous my +irrigation supply actually was. We country folks have to be +self-reliant: I am my own sanitation department, I maintain my own +800-foot-long driveway, the septic system puts me in the sewage +business. A long, long response time to my 911 call means I'm my own +self-defense force. And I'm my own water department. + +Without regular and heavy watering during high summer, dense stands +of vegetables become stunted in a matter of days. Pump failure has +brought my raised-bed garden close to that several times. Before my +frantic efforts got the water flowing again, I could feel the +stressed-out garden screaming like a hungry baby. + +As I came to understand our climate, I began to wonder about +_complete_ food self-sufficiency. How did the early pioneers +irrigate their vegetables? There probably aren't more than a +thousand homestead sites in the entire maritime Northwest with +gravity water. Hand pumping into hand-carried buckets is impractical +and extremely tedious. Wind-powered pumps are expensive and have +severe limits. + +The combination of dependably rainless summers, the realities of +self-sufficient living, and my homestead's poor well turned out to +be an opportunity. For I continued wondering about gardens and +water, and discovered a method for growing a lush, productive +vegetable garden on deep soil with little or no irrigation, in a +climate that reliably provides 8 to 12 virtually dry weeks every +summer. + + +Gardening with Less Irrigation + +Being a garden writer, I was on the receiving end of quite a bit of +local lore. I had heard of someone growing unirrigated carrots on +sandy soil in southern Oregon by sowing early and spacing the roots +1 foot apart in rows 4 feet apart. The carrots were reputed to grow +to enormous sizes, and the overall yield in pounds per square foot +occupied by the crop was not as low as one might think. I read that +Native Americans in the Southwest grew remarkable desert gardens +with little or no water. And that Native South Americans in the +highlands of Peru and Bolivia grow food crops in a land with 8 to 12 +inches of rainfall. So I had to wonder what our own pioneers did. + +In 1987, we moved 50 miles south, to a much better homestead with +more acreage and an abundant well. Ironically, only then did I grow +my first summertime vegetable without irrigation. Being a low-key +survivalist at heart, I was working at growing my own seeds. The +main danger to attaining good germination is in repeatedly +moistening developing seed. So, in early March 1988, I moved six +winter-surviving savoy cabbage plants far beyond the irrigated soil +of my raised-bed vegetable garden. I transplanted them 4 feet apart +because blooming brassicas make huge sprays of flower stalks. I did +not plan to water these plants at all, since cabbage seed forms +during May and dries down during June as the soil naturally dries +out. + +That is just what happened. Except that one plant did something a +little unusual, though not unheard of. Instead of completely going +into bloom and then dying after setting a massive load of seed, this +plant also threw a vegetative bud that grew a whole new cabbage +among the seed stalks. + +With increasing excitement I watched this head grow steadily larger +through the hottest and driest summer I had ever experienced. +Realizing I was witnessing revelation, I gave the plant absolutely +no water, though I did hoe out the weeds around it after I cut the +seed stalks. I harvested the unexpected lesson at the end of +September. The cabbage weighed in at 6 or 7 pounds and was sweet and +tender. + +Up to that time, all my gardening had been on thoroughly and +uniformly watered raised beds. Now I saw that elbow room might be +the key to gardening with little or no irrigating, so I began +looking for more information about dry gardening and soil/water +physics. In spring 1989, I tilled four widely separated, unirrigated +experimental rows in which I tested an assortment of vegetable +species spaced far apart in the row. Out of curiosity I decided to +use absolutely no water at all, not even to sprinkle the seeds to +get them germinating. + +I sowed a bit of kale, savoy cabbage, Purple Sprouting broccoli, +carrots, beets, parsnips, parsley, endive, dry beans, potatoes, +French sorrel, and a couple of field cornstalks. I also tested one +compact bush (determinate) and one sprawling (indeterminate) tomato +plant. Many of these vegetables grew surprisingly well. I ate +unwatered tomatoes July through September; kale, cabbages, parsley, +and root crops fed us during the winter. The Purple Sprouting +broccoli bloomed abundantly the next March. + +In terms of quality, all the harvest was acceptable. The root +vegetables were far larger but only a little bit tougher and quite a +bit sweeter than usual. The potatoes yielded less than I'd been used +to and had thicker than usual skin, but also had a better flavor and +kept well through the winter. + +The following year I grew two parallel gardens. One, my "insurance +garden," was thoroughly irrigated, guaranteeing we would have plenty +to eat. Another experimental garden of equal size was entirely +unirrigated. There I tested larger plots of species that I hoped +could grow through a rainless summer. + +By July, growth on some species had slowed to a crawl and they +looked a little gnarly. Wondering if a hidden cause of what appeared +to be moisture stress might actually be nutrient deficiencies, I +tried spraying liquid fertilizer directly on these gnarly leaves, a +practice called foliar feeding. It helped greatly because, I +reasoned, most fertility is located in the topsoil, and when it gets +dry the plants draw on subsoil moisture, so surface nutrients, +though still present in the dry soil, become unobtainable. That +being so, I reasoned that some of these species might do even better +if they had just a little fertilized water. So I improvised a simple +drip system and metered out 4 or 5 gallons of liquid fertilizer to +some of the plants in late July and four gallons more in August. To +some species, extra fertilized water (what I call "fertigation") +hardly made any difference at all. But unirrigated winter squash +vines, which were small and scraggly and yielded about 15 pounds of +food, grew more lushly when given a few 5-gallon, +fertilizer-fortified assists and yielded 50 pounds. Thirty-five +pounds of squash for 25 extra gallons of water and a bit of extra +nutrition is a pretty good exchange in my book. + +The next year I integrated all this new information into just one +garden. Water-loving species like lettuce and celery were grown +through the summer on a large, thoroughly irrigated raised bed. The +rest of the garden was given no irrigation at all or minimally +metered-out fertigations. Some unirrigated crops were foliar fed +weekly. + +Everything worked in 1991! And I found still other species that I +could grow surprisingly well on surprisingly small amounts of +water[--]or none at all. So, the next year, 1992, I set up a +sprinkler system to water the intensive raised bed and used the +overspray to support species that grew better with some moisture +supplementation; I continued using my improvised drip system to help +still others, while keeping a large section of the garden entirely +unwatered. And at the end of that summer I wrote this book. + +What follows is not mere theory, not something I read about or saw +others do. These techniques are tested and workable. The +next-to-last chapter of this book contains a complete plan of my +1992 garden with explanations and discussion of the reasoning behind +it. + +In _Water-Wise Vegetables_ I assume that my readers already are +growing food (probably on raised beds), already know how to adjust +their gardening to this region's climate, and know how to garden +with irrigation. If you don't have this background I suggest you +read my other garden book, _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades,_ (Sasquatch Books, 1989). + +Steve Solomon + + + + +Chapter 1 + +Predictably Rainless Summers + + +In the eastern United States, summertime rainfall can support +gardens without irrigation but is just irregular enough to be +worrisome. West of the Cascades we go into the summer growing season +certain we must water regularly. + +My own many-times-revised book _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades_ correctly emphasized that moisture-stressed vegetables +suffer greatly. Because I had not yet noticed how plant spacing +affects soil moisture loss, in that book I stated a half-truth as +law: Soil moisture loss averages 1-1/2 inches per week during +summer. + +This figure is generally true for raised-bed gardens west of the +Cascades, so I recommended adding 1 1/2 inches of water each week +and even more during really hot weather. + + + Summertime Rainfall West of the Cascades (in inches)* + + Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. + + Eureka, CA 3.0 2.1 0.7 0.1 0.3 0.7 3.2 + Medford, OR 1.0 1.4 0.98 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.1 + Eugene, OR 2.3 2.1 1.3 0.3 0.6 1.3 4.0 + Portland, OR 2.2 2.1 1.6 0.5 0.8 1.6 3.6 + Astoria, OR 4.6 2.7 2.5 1.0 1.5 2.8 6.8 + Olympia, WA 3.1 1.9 1.6 0.7 1.2 2.1 5.3 + Seattle, WA 2.4 1.7 1.6 0.8 1.0 2.1 4.0 + Bellingham, WA 2.3 1.8 1.9 1.0 1.1 2.0 3.7 + Vancouver, BC 3.3 2.8 2.5 1.2 1.7 3.6 5.8 + Victoria, BC 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.4 0.6 1.5 2.8 + + *Source: Van der Leeden et al., _The Water Encyclopedia,_ 2nd ed., + (Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, 1990). + + +Defined scientifically, drought is not lack of rain. It is a dry +soil condition in which plant growth slows or stops and plant +survival may be threatened. The earth loses water when wind blows, +when sun shines, when air temperature is high, and when humidity is +low. Of all these factors, air temperature most affects soil +moisture loss. + + + Daily Maximum Temperature (F)* + + July/August Average + + Eureka, CA 61 + Medford, OR 89 + Eugene, OR 82 + Astoria, OR 68 + Olympia, WA 78 + Seattle, WA 75 + Bellingham, WA 74 + Vancouver, BC 73 + Victoria, BC 68 + + *Source: The Water Encyclopedia. + + +The kind of vegetation growing on a particular plot and its density +have even more to do with soil moisture loss than temperature or +humidity or wind speed. And, surprising as it might seem, bare soil +may not lose much moisture at all. I now know it is next to +impossible to anticipate moisture loss from soil without first +specifying the vegetation there. Evaporation from a large body of +water, however, is mainly determined by weather, so reservoir +evaporation measurements serve as a rough gauge of anticipated soil +moisture loss. + + + Evaporation from Reservoirs (inches per month)* + + Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. + + Seattle, WA 2.1 2.7 3.4 3.9 3.4 2.6 1.6 + Baker, OR 2.5 3.4 4.4 6.9 7.3 4.9 2.9 + Sacramento, CA 3.6 5.0 7.1 8.9 8.6 7.1 4.8 + + *Source: _The Water Encyclopedia_ + + +From May through September during a normal year, a reservoir near +Seattle loses about 16 inches of water by evaporation. The next +chart shows how much water farmers expect to use to support +conventional agriculture in various parts of the West. Comparing +this data for Seattle with the estimates based on reservoir +evaporation shows pretty good agreement. I include data for Umatilla +and Yakima to show that much larger quantities of irrigation water +are needed in really hot, arid places like Baker or Sacramento. + + + Estimated Irrigation Requirements: + During Entire Growing Season (in inches)* + + Location Duration Amount + + Umatilla/Yakama Valley April-October 30 + Willamette Valley May-September 16 + Puget Sound May-September 14 + Upper Rogue/Upper Umpqua Valley March-September 18 + Lower Rogue/Lower Coquille Valley May-September 11 + NW California April-October 17 + + *Source: _The Water Encyclopedia_ + +In our region, gardens lose far more water than they get from +rainfall during the summer growing season. At first glance, it seems +impossible to garden without irrigation west of the Cascades. But +there is water already present in the soil when the gardening season +begins. By creatively using and conserving this moisture, some +maritime Northwest gardeners can go through an entire summer without +irrigating very much, and with some crops, irrigating not at all. + + + + +Chapter 2 + +Water-Wise Gardening Science + + +Plants Are Water + +Like all other carbon-based life forms on earth, plants conduct +their chemical processes in a water solution. Every substance that +plants transport is dissolved in water. When insoluble starches and +oils are required for plant energy, enzymes change them back into +water-soluble sugars for movement to other locations. Even cellulose +and lignin, insoluble structural materials that plants cannot +convert back into soluble materials, are made from molecules that +once were in solution. + +Water is so essential that when a plant can no longer absorb as much +water as it is losing, it wilts in self-defense. The drooping leaves +transpire (evaporate) less moisture because the sun glances off +them. Some weeds can wilt temporarily and resume vigorous growth as +soon as their water balance is restored. But most vegetable species +aren't as tough-moisture stressed vegetables may survive, but once +stressed, the quality of their yield usually drops markedly. + +Yet in deep, open soil west of the Cascades, most vegetable species +may be grown quite successfully with very little or no supplementary +irrigation and without mulching, because they're capable of being +supplied entirely by water already stored in the soil. + + +Soil's Water-Holding Capacity + +Soil is capable of holding on to quite a bit of water, mostly by +adhesion. For example, I'm sure that at one time or another you have +picked up a wet stone from a river or by the sea. A thin film of +water clings to its surface. This is adhesion. The more surface area +there is, the greater the amount of moisture that can be held by +adhesion. If we crushed that stone into dust, we would greatly +increase the amount of water that could adhere to the original +material. Clay particles, it should be noted, are so small that +clay's ability to hold water is not as great as its mathematically +computed surface area would indicate. + + + Surface Area of One Gram of Soil Particles + + Particle type Diameter of Number of + particles particles Surface area + in mm per gm in sq. cm. + + Very coarse sand 2.00-1.00 90 11 + Coarse sand 1.00-0.50 720 23 + Medium sand 0.50-0.25 5,700 45 + Fine sand 0.25-0.10 46,000 91 + Very fine sand 0.10-0.05 772,000 227 + Silt 0.05-0.002 5,776,000 454 + Clay Below 0.002 90,260,853,000 8,000,000 + + Source: Foth, Henry D., _Fundamentals of Soil Science,_ 8th ed. + (New York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990). + + +This direct relationship between particle size, surface area, and +water-holding capacity is so essential to understanding plant growth +that the surface areas presented by various sizes of soil particles +have been calculated. Soils are not composed of a single size of +particle. If the mix is primarily sand, we call it a sandy soil. If +the mix is primarily clay, we call it a clay soil. If the soil is a +relatively equal mix of all three, containing no more than 35 +percent clay, we call it a loam. + + + Available Moisture (inches of water per foot of soil) + + Soil Texture Average Amount + + Very coarse sand 0.5 + Coarse sand 0.7 + Sandy 1.0 + Sandy loam 1.4 + Loam 2.0 + Clay loam 2.3 + Silty clay 2.5 + Clay 2.7 + + Source: _Fundamentals of Soil Science_. + + +Adhering water films can vary greatly in thickness. But if the water +molecules adhering to a soil particle become too thick, the force of +adhesion becomes too weak to resist the force of gravity, and some +water flows deeper into the soil. When water films are relatively +thick the soil feels wet and plant roots can easily absorb moisture. +"Field capacity" is the term describing soil particles holding all +the water they can against the force of gravity. + +At the other extreme, the thinner the water films become, the more +tightly they adhere and the drier the earth feels. At some degree of +desiccation, roots are no longer forceful enough to draw on soil +moisture as fast as the plants are transpiring. This condition is +called the "wilting point." The term "available moisture" refers to +the difference between field capacity and the amount of moisture +left after the plants have died. + +Clayey soil can provide plants with three times as much available +water as sand, six times as much as a very coarse sandy soil. It +might seem logical to conclude that a clayey garden would be the +most drought resistant. But there's more to it. For some crops, deep +sandy loams can provide just about as much usable moisture as clays. +Sandy soils usually allow more extensive root development, so a +plant with a naturally aggressive and deep root system may be able +to occupy a much larger volume of sandy loam, ultimately coming up +with more moisture than it could obtain from a heavy, airless clay. +And sandy loams often have a clayey, moisture-rich subsoil. + +_Because of this interplay of factors, how much available water your +own unique garden soil is actually capable of providing and how much +you will have to supplement it with irrigation can only be +discovered by trial._ + + +How Soil Loses Water + +Suppose we tilled a plot about April 1 and then measured soil +moisture loss until October. Because plants growing around the edge +might extend roots into our test plot and extract moisture, we'll +make our tilled area 50 feet by 50 feet and make all our +measurements in the center. And let's locate this imaginary plot in +full sun on flat, uniform soil. And let's plant absolutely nothing +in this bare earth. And all season let's rigorously hoe out every +weed while it is still very tiny. + +Let's also suppose it's been a typical maritime Northwest rainy +winter, so on April 1 the soil is at field capacity, holding all the +moisture it can. From early April until well into September the hot +sun will beat down on this bare plot. Our summer rains generally +come in insignificant installments and do not penetrate deeply; all +of the rain quickly evaporates from the surface few inches without +recharging deeper layers. Most readers would reason that a soil +moisture measurement taken 6 inches down on September 1, should show +very little water left. One foot down seems like it should be just +as dry, and in fact, most gardeners would expect that there would be +very little water found in the soil until we got down quite a few +feet if there were several feet of soil. + +But that is not what happens! The hot sun does dry out the surface +inches, but if we dig down 6 inches or so there will be almost as +much water present in September as there was in April. Bare earth +does not lose much water at all. _Once a thin surface layer is +completely desiccated, be it loose or compacted, virtually no +further loss of moisture can occur._ + +The only soils that continue to dry out when bare are certain kinds +of very heavy clays that form deep cracks. These ever-deepening +openings allow atmospheric air to freely evaporate additional +moisture. But if the cracks are filled with dust by surface +cultivation, even this soil type ceases to lose water. + +Soil functions as our bank account, holding available water in +storage. In our climate soil is inevitably charged to capacity by +winter rains, and then all summer growing plants make heavy +withdrawals. But hot sun and wind working directly on soil don't +remove much water; that is caused by hot sun and wind working on +plant leaves, making them transpire moisture drawn from the earth +through their root systems. Plants desiccate soil to the ultimate +depth and lateral extent of their rooting ability, and then some. +The size of vegetable root systems is greater than most gardeners +would think. The amount of moisture potentially available to sustain +vegetable growth is also greater than most gardeners think. + +Rain and irrigation are not the only ways to replace soil moisture. +If the soil body is deep, water will gradually come up from below +the root zone by capillarity. Capillarity works by the very same +force of adhesion that makes moisture stick to a soil particle. A +column of water in a vertical tube (like a thin straw) adheres to +the tube's inner surfaces. This adhesion tends to lift the edges of +the column of water. As the tube's diameter becomes smaller the +amount of lift becomes greater. Soil particles form interconnected +pores that allow an inefficient capillary flow, recharging dry soil +above. However, the drier soil becomes, the less effective capillary +flow becomes. _That is why a thoroughly desiccated surface layer +only a few inches thick acts as a powerful mulch._ + +Industrial farming and modern gardening tend to discount the +replacement of surface moisture by capillarity, considering this +flow an insignificant factor compared with the moisture needs of +crops. But conventional agriculture focuses on maximized yields +through high plant densities. Capillarity is too slow to support +dense crop stands where numerous root systems are competing, but +when a single plant can, without any competition, occupy a large +enough area, moisture replacement by capillarity becomes +significant. + + +How Plants Obtain Water + +Most gardeners know that plants acquire water and minerals through +their root systems, and leave it at that. But the process is not +quite that simple. The actively growing, tender root tips and almost +microscopic root hairs close to the tip absorb most of the plant's +moisture as they occupy new territory. As the root continues to +extend, parts behind the tip cease to be effective because, as soil +particles in direct contact with these tips and hairs dry out, the +older roots thicken and develop a bark, while most of the absorbent +hairs slough off. This rotation from being actively foraging tissue +to becoming more passive conductive and supportive tissue is +probably a survival adaptation, because the slow capillary movement +of soil moisture fails to replace what the plant used as fast as the +plant might like. The plant is far better off to aggressively seek +new water in unoccupied soil than to wait for the soil its roots +already occupy to be recharged. + +A simple bit of old research magnificently illustrated the +significance of this. A scientist named Dittmer observed in 1937 +that a single potted ryegrass plant allocated only 1 cubic foot of +soil to grow in made about 3 miles of new roots and root hairs every +day. (Ryegrasses are known to make more roots than most plants.) I +calculate that a cubic foot of silty soil offers about 30,000 square +feet of surface area to plant roots. If 3 miles of microscopic root +tips and hairs (roughly 16,000 lineal feet) draws water only from a +few millimeters of surrounding soil, then that single rye plant +should be able to continue ramifying into a cubic foot of silty soil +and find enough water for quite a few days before wilting. These +arithmetical estimates agree with my observations in the garden, and +with my experiences raising transplants in pots. + + +Lowered Plant Density: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening + +I always think my latest try at writing a near-perfect garden book +is quite a bit better than the last. _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades_, recommended somewhat wider spacings on raised beds than I +did in 1980 because I'd repeatedly noticed that once a leaf canopy +forms, plant growth slows markedly. Adding a little more fertilizer +helps after plants "bump," but still the rate of growth never equals +that of younger plants. For years I assumed crowded plants stopped +producing as much because competition developed for light. But now I +see that unseen competition for root room also slows them down. Even +if moisture is regularly recharged by irrigation, and although +nutrients are replaced, once a bit of earth has been occupied by the +roots of one plant it is not so readily available to the roots of +another. So allocating more elbow room allows vegetables to get +larger and yield longer and allows the gardener to reduce the +frequency of irrigations. + +Though hot, baking sun and wind can desiccate the few inches of +surface soil, withdrawals of moisture from greater depths are made +by growing plants transpiring moisture through their leaf surfaces. +The amount of water a growing crop will transpire is determined +first by the nature of the species itself, then by the amount of +leaf exposed to sun, air temperature, humidity, and wind. In these +respects, the crop is like an automobile radiator. With cars, the +more metal surfaces, the colder the ambient air, and the higher the +wind speed, the better the radiator can cool; in the garden, the +more leaf surfaces, the faster, warmer, and drier the wind, and the +brighter the sunlight, the more water is lost through transpiration. + + +Dealing with a Surprise Water Shortage + +Suppose you are growing a conventional, irrigated garden and +something unanticipated interrupts your ability to water. Perhaps +you are homesteading and your well begins to dry up. Perhaps you're +a backyard gardener and the municipality temporarily restricts +usage. What to do? + +First, if at all possible before the restrictions take effect, water +very heavily and long to ensure there is maximum subsoil moisture. +Then eliminate all newly started interplantings and ruthlessly hoe +out at least 75 percent of the remaining immature plants and about +half of those about two weeks away from harvest. + +For example, suppose you've got a a 4-foot-wide intensive bed +holding seven rows of broccoli on 12 inch centers, or about 21 +plants. Remove at least every other row and every other plant in the +three or four remaining rows. Try to bring plant density down to +those described in Chapter 5, "How to Grow It: A-Z" + +Then shallowly hoe the soil every day or two to encourage the +surface inches to dry out and form a dust mulch. You water-wise +person--you're already dry gardening--now start fertigating. + +How long available soil water will sustain a crop is determined by +how many plants are drawing on the reserve, how extensively their +root systems develop, and how many leaves are transpiring the +moisture. If there are no plants, most of the water will stay unused +in the barren soil through the entire growing season. If a crop +canopy is established midway through the growing season, the rate of +water loss will approximate that listed in the table in Chapter 1 +"Estimated Irrigation Requirement." If by very close planting the +crop canopy is established as early as possible and maintained by +successive interplantings, as is recommended by most advocates of +raised-bed gardening, water losses will greatly exceed this rate. + +Many vegetable species become mildly stressed when soil moisture has +dropped about half the way from capacity to the wilting point. On +very closely planted beds a crop can get in serious trouble without +irrigation in a matter of days. But if that same crop were planted +less densely, it might grow a few weeks without irrigation. And if +that crop were planted even farther apart so that no crop canopy +ever developed and a considerable amount of bare, dry earth were +showing, this apparent waste of growing space would result in an +even slower rate of soil moisture depletion. On deep, open soil the +crop might yield a respectable amount without needing any irrigation +at all. + +West of the Cascades we expect a rainless summer; the surprise comes +that rare rainy year when the soil stays moist and we gather +bucketfuls of chanterelle mushrooms in early October. Though the +majority of maritime Northwest gardeners do not enjoy deep, open, +moisture-retentive soils, all except those with the shallowest soil +can increase their use of the free moisture nature provides and +lengthen the time between irrigations. The next chapter discusses +making the most of whatever soil depth you have. Most of our +region's gardens can yield abundantly without any rain at all if +only we reduce competition for available soil moisture, judiciously +fertigate some vegetable species, and practice a few other +water-wise tricks. + +_Would lowering plant density as much as this book suggests equally +lower the yield of the plot? Surprisingly, the amount harvested does +not drop proportionately. In most cases having a plant density +one-eighth of that recommended by intensive gardening advocates will +result in a yield about half as great as on closely planted raised +beds._ + +Internet Readers: In the print copy of this book are color pictures +of my own "irrigationless" garden. Looking at them about here in the +book would add reality to these ideas. + + + + +Chapter 3 + +Helping Plants to Need Less Irrigation + + +Dry though the maritime Northwest summer is, we enter the growing +season with our full depth of soil at field capacity. Except on +clayey soils in extraordinarily frosty, high-elevation locations, we +usually can till and plant before the soil has had a chance to lose +much moisture. + +There are a number of things we can do to make soil moisture more +available to our summer vegetables. The most obvious step is +thorough weeding. Next, we can keep the surface fluffed up with a +rotary tiller or hoe during April and May, to break its capillary +connection with deeper soil and accelerate the formation of a dry +dust mulch. Usually, weeding forces us to do this anyway. Also, if +it should rain during summer, we can hoe or rotary till a day or two +later and again help a new dust mulch to develop. + + +Building Bigger Root Systems + +Without irrigation, most of the plant's water supply is obtained by +expansion into new earth that hasn't been desiccated by other +competing roots. Eliminating any obstacles to rapid growth of root +systems is the key to success. So, keep in mind a few facts about +how roots grow and prosper. + +The air supply in soil limits or allows root growth. Unlike the +leaves, roots do not perform photosynthesis, breaking down carbon +dioxide gas into atmospheric oxygen and carbon. Yet root cells must +breathe oxygen. This is obtained from the air held in spaces between +soil particles. Many other soil-dwelling life forms from bacteria to +moles compete for this same oxygen. Consequently, soil oxygen levels +are lower than in the atmosphere. A slow exchange of gases does +occur between soil air and free atmosphere, but deeper in the soil +there will inevitably be less oxygen. Different plant species have +varying degrees of root tolerance for lack of oxygen, but they all +stop growing at some depth. Moisture reserves below the roots' +maximum depth become relatively inaccessible. + +Soil compaction reduces the overall supply and exchange of soil air. +Compacted soil also acts as a mechanical barrier to root system +expansion. When gardening with unlimited irrigation or where rain +falls frequently, it is quite possible to have satisfactory growth +when only the surface 6 or 7 inches of soil facilitates root +development. When gardening with limited water, China's the limit, +because if soil conditions permit, many vegetable species are +capable of reaching 4, 5, and 8 eight feet down to find moisture and +nutrition. + + +Evaluating Potential Rooting Ability + +One of the most instructive things a water-wise gardener can do is +to rent or borrow a hand-operated fence post auger and bore a +3-foot-deep hole. It can be even more educational to buy a short +section of ordinary water pipe to extend the auger's reach another 2 +or 3 feet down. In soil free of stones, using an auger is more +instructive than using a conventional posthole digger or shoveling +out a small pit, because where soil is loose, the hole deepens +rapidly. Where any layer is even slightly compacted, one turns and +turns the bit without much effect. Augers also lift the materials +more or less as they are stratified. If your soil is somewhat stony +(like much upland soil north of Centralia left by the Vashon +Glacier), the more usual fence-post digger or common shovel works +better. + +If you find more than 4 feet of soil, the site holds a dry-gardening +potential that increases with the additional depth. Some soils along +the floodplains of rivers or in broad valleys like the Willamette or +Skagit can be over 20 feet deep, and hold far more water than the +deepest roots could draw or capillary flow could raise during an +entire growing season. Gently sloping land can often carry 5 to 7 +feet of open, usable soil. However, soils on steep hillsides become +increasingly thin and fragile with increasing slope. + +Whether an urban, suburban, or rural gardener, you should make no +assumptions about the depth and openness of the soil at your +disposal. Dig a test hole. If you find less than 2 unfortunate feet +of open earth before hitting an impermeable obstacle such as rock or +gravel, not much water storage can occur and the only use this book +will hold for you is to guide your move to a more likely gardening +location or encourage the house hunter to seek further. Of course, +you can still garden quite successfully on thin soil in the +conventional, irrigated manner. _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades_ will be an excellent guide for this type of situation. + + +Eliminating Plowpan + +Deep though the soil may be, any restriction of root expansion +greatly limits the ability of plants to aggressively find water. A +compacted subsoil or even a thin compressed layer such as plowpan +may function as such a barrier. Though moisture will still rise +slowly by capillarity and recharge soil above plowpan, plants obtain +much more water by rooting into unoccupied, damp soil. Soils close +to rivers or on floodplains may appear loose and infinitely deep but +may hide subsoil streaks of droughty gravel that effectively stops +root growth. Some of these conditions are correctable and some are +not. + +Plowpan is very commonly encountered by homesteaders on farm soils +and may be found in suburbia too, but fortunately it is the easiest +obstacle to remedy. Traditionally, American croplands have been +tilled with the moldboard plow. As this implement first cuts and +then flips a 6-or 7-inch-deep slice of soil over, the sole--the part +supporting the plow's weight--presses heavily on the earth about 7 +inches below the surface. With each subsequent plowing the plow sole +rides at the same 7-inch depth and an even more compacted layer +develops. Once formed plowpan prevents the crop from rooting into +the subsoil. Since winter rains leach nutrients from the topsoil and +deposit them in the subsoil, plowpan prevents access to these +nutrients and effectively impoverishes the field. So wise farmers +periodically use a subsoil plow to fracture the pan. + +Plowpan can seem as firm as a rammed-earth house; once established, +it can last a long, long time. My own garden land is part of what +was once an old wheat farm, one of the first homesteads of the +Oregon Territory. From about 1860 through the 1930s, the field +produced small grains. After wheat became unprofitable, probably +because of changing market conditions and soil exhaustion, the field +became an unplowed pasture. Then in the 1970s it grew daffodil +bulbs, occasioning more plowing. All through the '80s my soil again +rested under grass. In 1987, when I began using the land, there was +still a 2-inch-thick, very hard layer starting about 7 inches down. +Below 9 inches the open earth is soft as butter as far as I've ever +dug. + +On a garden-sized plot, plowpan or compacted subsoil is easily +opened with a spading fork or a very sharp common shovel. After +normal rotary tilling, either tool can fairly easily be wiggled 12 +inches into the earth and small bites of plowpan loosened. Once this +laborious chore is accomplished the first time, deep tillage will be +far easier. In fact, it becomes so easy that I've been looking for a +custom-made fork with longer tines. + + +Curing Clayey Soils + +In humid climates like ours, sandy soils may seem very open and +friable on the surface but frequently hold some unpleasant subsoil +surprises. Over geologic time spans, mineral grains are slowly +destroyed by weak soil acids and clay is formed from the breakdown +products. Then heavy winter rainfall transports these minuscule clay +particles deeper into the earth, where they concentrate. It is not +unusual to find a sandy topsoil underlaid with a dense, cement-like, +clayey sand subsoil extending down several feet. If very impervious, +a thick, dense deposition like this may be called hardpan. + +The spading fork cannot cure this condition as simply as it can +eliminate thin plowpan. Here is one situation where, if I had a +neighbor with a large tractor and subsoil plow, I'd hire him to +fracture my land 3 or 4 feet deep. Painstakingly double or even +triple digging will also loosen this layer. Another possible +strategy for a smaller garden would be to rent a gasoline-powered +posthole auger, spread manure or compost an inch or two thick, and +then bore numerous, almost adjoining holes 4 feet deep all over the +garden. + +Clayey subsoil can supply surprisingly larger amounts of moisture +than the granular sandy surface might imply, but only if the earth +is opened deeply and becomes more accessible to root growth. +Fortunately, once root development increases at greater depths, the +organic matter content and accessibility of this clayey layer can be +maintained through intelligent green manuring, postponing for years +the need to subsoil again. Green manuring is discussed in detail +shortly. + +Other sites may have gooey, very fine clay topsoils, almost +inevitably with gooey, very fine clay subsoils as well. Though +incorporation of extraordinarily large quantities of organic matter +can turn the top few inches into something that behaves a little +like loam, it is quite impractical to work in humus to a depth of 4 +or 5 feet. Root development will still be limited to the surface +layer. Very fine clays don't make likely dry gardens. + +Not all clay soils are "fine clay soils," totally compacted and +airless. For example, on the gentler slopes of the geologic old +Cascades, those 50-million-year-old black basalts that form the +Cascades foothills and appear in other places throughout the +maritime Northwest, a deep, friable, red clay soil called (in +Oregon) Jori often forms. Jori clays can be 6 to 8 feet deep and are +sufficiently porous and well drained to have been used for highly +productive orchard crops. Water-wise gardeners can do wonders with +Joris and other similar soils, though clays never grow the best root +crops. + + +Spotting a Likely Site + +Observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to +garden without much irrigation. Where Himalaya or Evergreen +blackberries grow 2 feet tall and produce small, dull-tasting fruit, +there is not much available soil moisture. Where they grow 6 feet +tall and the berries are sweet and good sized, there is deep, open +soil. When the berry vines are 8 or more feet tall and the fruits +are especially huge, usually there is both deep, loose soil and a +higher than usual amount of fertility. + +Other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture +reserves. For years I wondered at the short leaders and sad +appearance of Douglas fir in the vicinity of Yelm, Washington. Were +they due to extreme soil infertility? Then I learned that conifer +trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility. I +obtained a soil survey of Thurston County and discovered that much +of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil. Eureka! + +The Soil Conservation Service (SCS), a U.S. Government agency, has +probably put a soil auger into your very land or a plot close by. +Its tests have been correlated and mapped; the soils underlying the +maritime Northwest have been named and categorized by texture, +depth, and ability to provide available moisture. The maps are +precise and detailed enough to approximately locate a city or +suburban lot. In 1987, when I was in the market for a new homestead, +I first went to my county SCS office, mapped out locations where the +soil was suitable, and then went hunting. Most counties have their +own office. + + +Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture + +Maintaining topsoil humus content in the 4 to 5 percent range is +vital to plant health, vital to growing more nutritious food, and +essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability +and cooperation known as good tilth. Humus is a spongy substance +capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay. +There are also new synthetic, long-lasting soil amendments that hold +and release even more moisture than humus. Garden books frequently +recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter +to increase a soil's water-holding capacity in the top few inches. + +Humus can improve many aspects of soil but will not reduce a +garden's overall need for irrigation, because it is simply not +practical to maintain sufficient humus deeply enough. Rotary tilling +only blends amendments into the top 6 or 7 inches of soil. Rigorous +double digging by actually trenching out 12 inches and then spading +up the next foot theoretically allows one to mix in significant +amounts of organic matter to nearly 24 inches. But plants can use +water from far deeper than that. Let's realistically consider how +much soil moisture reserves might be increased by double digging and +incorporating large quantities of organic matter. + +A healthy topsoil organic matter level in our climate is about 4 +percent. This rapidly declines to less than 0.5 percent in the +subsoil. Suppose inches-thick layers of compost were spread and, by +double digging, the organic matter content of a very sandy soil were +amended to 10 percent down to 2 feet. If that soil contained little +clay, its water-holding ability in the top 2 feet could be doubled. +Referring to the chart "Available Moisture" in Chapter 2, we see +that sandy soil can release up to 1 inch of water per foot. By dint +of massive amendment we might add 1 inch of available moisture per +foot of soil to the reserve. That's 2 extra inches of water, enough +to increase the time an ordinary garden can last between heavy +irrigations by a week or 10 days. + +If the soil in question were a silty clay, it would naturally make 2 +1/2 inches available per foot. A massive humus amendment would +increase that to 3 1/2 inches in the top foot or two, relatively not +as much benefit as in sandy soil. And I seriously doubt that many +gardeners would be willing to thoroughly double dig to an honest 24 +inches. + +Trying to maintain organic matter levels above 10 percent is an +almost self-defeating process. The higher the humus level gets, the +more rapidly organic matter tends to decay. Finding or making enough +well-finished compost to cover the garden several inches deep (what +it takes to lift humus levels to 10 percent) is enough of a job. +Double digging just as much more into the second foot is even more +effort. But having to repeat that chore every year or two becomes +downright discouraging. No, either your soil naturally holds enough +moisture to permit dry gardening, or it doesn't. + + +Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring + +When roots decay, fresh organic matter and large, long-lasting +passageways can be left deep in the soil, allowing easier air +movement and facilitating entry of other roots. But no cover crop +that I am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other +resistant physical obstacles. Such a barrier forces all plants to +root almost exclusively in the topsoil. However, once the subsoil +has been mechanically fractured the first time, and if recompaction +is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery, green +manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil. + +To accomplish this, correct green manure species selection is +essential. Lawn grasses tend to be shallow rooting, while most +regionally adapted pasture grasses can reach down about 3 feet at +best. However, orchard grass (called coltsfoot in English farming +books) will grow down 4 or more feet while leaving a massive amount +of decaying organic matter in the subsoil after the sod is tilled +in. Sweet clover, a biennial legume that sprouts one spring then +winters over to bloom the next summer, may go down 8 feet. Red +clover, a perennial species, may thickly invade the top 5 feet. +Other useful subsoil busters include densely sown Umbelliferae such +as carrots, parsley, and parsnip. The chicory family also makes very +large and penetrating taproots. + +Though seed for wild chicory is hard to obtain, cheap varieties of +endive (a semicivilized relative) are easily available. And several +pounds of your own excellent parsley or parsnip seed can be easily +produced by letting about 10 row feet of overwintering roots form +seed. Orchard grass and red clover can be had quite inexpensively at +many farm supply stores. Sweet clover is not currently grown by our +region's farmers and so can only be found by mail from Johnny's +Selected Seeds (see Chapter 5 for their address). Poppy seed used +for cooking will often sprout. Sown densely in October, it forms a +thick carpet of frilly spring greens underlaid with countless +massive taproots that decompose very rapidly if the plants are +tilled in in April before flower stalks begin to appear. Beware if +using poppies as a green manure crop: be sure to till them in early +to avoid trouble with the DEA or other authorities. + +For country gardeners, the best rotations include several years of +perennial grass-legume-herb mixtures to maintain the openness of the +subsoil followed by a few years of vegetables and then back (see +Newman Turner's book in more reading). I plan my own garden this +way. In October, after a few inches of rain has softened the earth, +I spread 50 pounds of agricultural lime per 1,000 square feet and +break the thick pasture sod covering next year's garden plot by +shallow rotary tilling. Early the next spring I broadcast a +concoction I call "complete organic fertilizer" (see _Growing +Vegetables West of the Cascades_ or the _Territorial Seed Company +Catalog_), till again after the soil dries down a bit, and then use +a spading fork to open the subsoil before making a seedbed. The +first time around, I had to break the century-old plowpan--forking +compacted earth a foot deep is a lot of work. In subsequent +rotations it is much much easier. + +For a couple of years, vegetables will grow vigorously on this new +ground supported only with a complete organic fertilizer. But +vegetable gardening makes humus levels decline rapidly. So every few +years I start a new garden on another plot and replant the old +garden to green manures. I never remove vegetation during the long +rebuilding under green manures, but merely mow it once or twice a +year and allow the organic matter content of the soil to redevelop. +If there ever were a place where chemical fertilizers might be +appropriate around a garden, it would be to affordably enhance the +growth of biomass during green manuring. + +Were I a serious city vegetable gardener, I'd consider growing +vegetables in the front yard for a few years and then switching to +the back yard. Having lots of space, as I do now, I keep three or +four garden plots available, one in vegetables and the others +restoring their organic matter content under grass. + + +Mulching + +Gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is +recommended by Ruth Stout (see the listing for her book in More +Reading) and her disciples as a surefire way to drought-proof +gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage, weeding, +and fertilizing. I have attempted the method in both Southern +California and western Oregon--with disastrous results in both +locations. What follows in this section is addressed to gardeners +who have already read glowing reports about mulching. + +Permanent mulching with vegetation actually does not reduce +summertime moisture loss any better than mulching with dry soil, +sometimes called "dust mulching." True, while the surface layer +stays moist, water will steadily be wicked up by capillarity and be +evaporated from the soil's surface. If frequent light sprinkling +keeps the surface perpetually moist, subsoil moisture loss can occur +all summer, so unmulched soil could eventually become desiccated +many feet deep. However, capillary movement only happens when soil +is damp. Once even a thin layer of soil has become quite dry it +almost completely prevents any further movement. West of the +Cascades, this happens all by itself in late spring. One hot, sunny +day follows another, and soon the earth's surface seems parched. + +Unfortunately, by the time a dusty layer forms, quite a bit of soil +water may have risen from the depths and been lost. The gardener can +significantly reduce spring moisture loss by frequently hoeing weeds +until the top inch or two of earth is dry and powdery. This effort +will probably be necessary in any case, because weeds will germinate +prolifically until the surface layer is sufficiently desiccated. On +the off chance it should rain hard during summer, it is very wise to +again hoe a few times to rapidly restore the dust mulch. If hand +cultivation seems very hard work, I suggest you learn to sharpen +your hoe. + +A mulch of dry hay, grass clippings, leaves, and the like will also +retard rapid surface evaporation. Gardeners think mulching prevents +moisture loss better than bare earth because under mulch the soil +stays damp right to the surface. However, dig down 4 to 6 inches +under a dust mulch and the earth is just as damp as under hay. And, +soil moisture studies have proved that overall moisture loss using +vegetation mulch slightly exceeds loss under a dust mulch. + +West of the Cascades, the question of which method is superior is a +bit complex, with pros and cons on both sides. Without a long winter +freeze to set populations back, permanent thick mulch quickly breeds +so many slugs, earwhigs, and sowbugs that it cannot be maintained +for more than one year before vegetable gardening becomes very +difficult. Laying down a fairly thin mulch in June after the soil +has warmed up well, raking up what remains of the mulch early the +next spring, and composting it prevents destructive insect +population levels from developing while simultaneously reducing +surface compaction by winter rains and beneficially enhancing the +survival and multiplication of earthworms. But a thin mulch also +enhances the summer germination of weed seeds without being thick +enough to suppress their emergence. And any mulch, even a thin one, +makes hoeing virtually impossible, while hand weeding through mulch +is tedious. + +Mulch has some unqualified pluses in hotter climates. Most of the +organic matter in soil and consequently most of the available +nitrogen is found in the surface few inches. Levels of other mineral +nutrients are usually two or three times as high in the topsoil as +well. However, if the surface few inches of soil becomes completely +desiccated, no root activity will occur there and the plants are +forced to feed deeper, in soil far less fertile. Keeping the topsoil +damp does greatly improve the growth of some shallow-feeding species +such as lettuce and radishes. But with our climate's cool nights, +most vegetables need the soil as warm as possible, and the cooling +effect of mulch can be as much a hindrance as a help. I've tried +mulching quite a few species while dry gardening and found little or +no improvement in plant growth with most of them. Probably, the +enhancement of nutrition compensates for the harm from lowering soil +temperature. Fertigation is better all around. + + +Windbreaks + +Plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines, when +temperatures are high, and when the wind blows; it is just like +drying laundry. Windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by +increasing temperature. Many other garden books discuss windbreaks, +and I conclude that I have a better use for the small amount of +words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data; Binda +Colebrook's [i]Winter Gardening in the Maritime Northwest[i] +(Sasquatch Books, 1989) is especially good on this topic. + + +Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying + +In our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich, +while fertilizers, manures, and potent composts mainly improve the +topsoil. But the water-wise gardener must get nutrition down deep, +where the soil stays damp through the summer. + +If plants with enough remaining elbow room stop growing in summer +and begin to appear gnarly, it is just as likely due to lack of +nutrition as lack of water. Several things can be done to limit or +prevent midsummer stunting. First, before sowing or transplanting +large species like tomato, squash or big brassicas, dig out a small +pit about 12 inches deep and below that blend in a handful or two of +organic fertilizer. Then fill the hole back in. This double-digging +process places concentrated fertility mixed 18 to 24 inches below +the seeds or seedlings. + +Foliar feeding is another water-wise technique that keeps plants +growing through the summer. Soluble nutrients sprayed on plant +leaves are rapidly taken into the vascular system. Unfortunately, +dilute nutrient solutions that won't burn leaves only provoke a +strong growth response for 3 to 5 days. Optimally, foliar nutrition +must be applied weekly or even more frequently. To efficiently spray +a garden larger than a few hundred square feet, I suggest buying an +industrial-grade, 3-gallon backpack sprayer with a side-handle pump. +Approximate cost as of this writing was $80. The store that sells it +(probably a farm supply store) will also support you with a complete +assortment of inexpensive nozzles that can vary the rate of emission +and the spray pattern. High-quality equipment like this outlasts +many, many cheaper and smaller sprayers designed for the consumer +market, and replacement parts are also available. Keep in mind that +consumer merchandise is designed to be consumed; stuff made for +farming is built to last. + + +Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water + +Does crop growth equal water use? Most people would say this +statement seems likely to be true. + +Actually, faster-growing crops use much less soil moisture than +slower-growing ones. As early as 1882 it was determined that less +water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is +fertilized than when it is not fertilized. One experiment required +1,100 pounds of water to grow 1 pound of dry matter on infertile +soil, but only 575 pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter +on rich land. Perhaps the single most important thing a water-wise +gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil, especially +the subsoil. + +_Poor plant nutrition increases the water cost of every pound of dry +matter produced._ + +Using foliar fertilizers requires a little caution and forethought. +Spinach, beet, and chard leaves seem particularly sensitive to +foliars (and even to organic insecticides) and may be damaged by +even half-strength applications. And the cabbage family coats its +leaf surfaces with a waxy, moisture-retentive sealant that makes +sprays bead up and run off rather than stick and be absorbed. Mixing +foliar feed solutions with a little spreader/sticker, Safer's Soap, +or, if bugs are also a problem, with a liquid organic insecticide +like Red Arrow (a pyrethrum-rotenone mix), eliminates surface +tension and allows the fertilizer to have an effect on brassicas. + +Sadly, in terms of nutrient balance, the poorest foliar sprays are +organic. That's because it is nearly impossible to get significant +quantities of phosphorus or calcium into solution using any +combination of fish emulsion and seaweed or liquid kelp. The most +useful possible organic foliar is 1/2 to 1 tablespoon each of fish +emulsion and liquid seaweed concentrate per gallon of water. + +Foliar spraying and fertigation are two occasions when I am +comfortable supplementing my organic fertilizers with water-soluble +chemical fertilizers. The best and most expensive brand is +Rapid-Gro. Less costly concoctions such as Peters 20-20-20 or the +other "Grows," don't provide as complete trace mineral support or +use as many sources of nutrition. One thing fertilizer makers find +expensive to accomplish is concocting a mixture of soluble nutrients +that also contains calcium, a vital plant food. If you dissolve +calcium nitrate into a solution containing other soluble plant +nutrients, many of them will precipitate out because few calcium +compounds are soluble. Even Rapid-Gro doesn't attempt to supply +calcium. Recently I've discovered better-quality hydroponic nutrient +solutions that do use chemicals that provide soluble calcium. These +also make excellent foliar sprays. Brands of hydroponic nutrient +solutions seem to appear and vanish rapidly. I've had great luck +with Dyna-Gro 7-9-5. All these chemicals are mixed at about 1 +tablespoon per gallon. + + +Vegetables That: + +Like foliars + + Asparagus Carrots Melons Squash + Beans Cauliflower Peas Tomatoes + Broccoli Brussels sprouts Cucumbers + Cabbage Eggplant Radishes + Kale Rutabagas Potatoes + +Don't like foliars + + Beets Leeks Onions Spinach + Chard Lettuce Peppers + +Like fertigation + + Brussels sprouts Kale Savoy cabbage + Cucumbers Melons Squash + Eggplant Peppers Tomatoes + + +Fertigation every two to four weeks is the best technique for +maximizing yield while minimizing water use. I usually make my first +fertigation late in June and continue periodically through early +September. I use six or seven plastic 5-gallon "drip system" +buckets, (see below) set one by each plant, and fill them all with a +hose each time I work in the garden. Doing 12 or 14 plants each time +I'm in the garden, it takes no special effort to rotate through them +all more or less every three weeks. + +To make a drip bucket, drill a 3/16-inch hole through the side of a +4-to-6-gallon plastic bucket about 1/4-inch up from the bottom, or +in the bottom at the edge. The empty bucket is placed so that the +fertilized water drains out close to the stem of a plant. It is then +filled with liquid fertilizer solution. It takes 5 to 10 minutes for +5 gallons to pass through a small opening, and because of the slow +flow rate, water penetrates deeply into the subsoil without wetting +much of the surface. Each fertigation makes the plant grow very +rapidly for two to three weeks, more I suspect as a result of +improved nutrition than from added moisture. Exactly how and when to +fertigate each species is explained in Chapter 5. + +Organic gardeners may fertigate with combinations of fish emulsion +and seaweed at the same dilution used for foliar spraying, or with +compost/manure tea. Determining the correct strength to make compost +tea is a matter of trial and error. I usually rely on weak Rapid-Gro +mixed at half the recommended dilution. The strength of the +fertilizer you need depends on how much and deeply you placed +nutrition in the subsoil. + + + + +Chapter 4 + +Water-Wise Gardening Year-Round + + +Early Spring: The Easiest Unwatered Garden + +West of the Cascades, most crops started in February and March +require no special handling when irrigation is scarce. These include +peas, early lettuce, radishes, kohlrabi, early broccoli, and so +forth. However, some of these vegetables are harvested as late as +June, so to reduce their need for irrigation, space them wider than +usual. Spring vegetables also will exhaust most of the moisture from +the soil before maturing, making succession planting impossible +without first irrigating heavily. Early spring plantings are best +allocated one of two places in the garden plan: either in that part +of the garden that will be fully irrigated all summer or in a part +of a big garden that can affordably remain bare during the summer +and be used in October for receiving transplants of overwintering +crops. The garden plan and discussion in Chapter 6 illustrate these +ideas in detail. + + +Later in Spring: Sprouting Seeds Without Watering + +For the first years that I experimented with dry gardening I went +overboard and attempted to grow food as though I had no running +water at all. The greatest difficulty caused by this self-imposed +handicap was sowing small-seeded species after the season warmed up. + +Sprouting what we in the seed business call "big seed"--corn, beans, +peas, squash, cucumber, and melon--is relatively easy without +irrigation because these crops are planted deeply, where soil +moisture still resides long after the surface has dried out. And +even if it is so late in the season that the surface has become very +dry, a wide, shallow ditch made with a shovel will expose moist soil +several inches down. A furrow can be cut in the bottom of that damp +"valley" and big seeds germinated with little or no watering. + +Tillage breaks capillary connections until the fluffy soil +resettles. This interruption is useful for preventing moisture loss +in summer, but the same phenomenon makes the surface dry out in a +flash. In recently tilled earth, successfully sprouting small seeds +in warm weather is dicey without frequent watering. + +With a bit of forethought, the water-wise gardener can easily +reestablish capillarity below sprouting seeds so that moisture held +deeper in the soil rises to replace that lost from surface layers, +reducing or eliminating the need for watering. The principle here +can be easily demonstrated. In fact, there probably isn't any +gardener who has not seen the phenomenon at work without realizing +it. Every gardener has tilled the soil, gone out the next morning, +and noticed that his or her compacted footprints were moist while +the rest of the earth was dry and fluffy. Foot pressure restored +capillarity, and during the night, fresh moisture replaced what had +evaporated. + +This simple technique helps start everything except carrots and +parsnips (which must have completely loose soil to develop +correctly). All the gardener must do is intentionally compress the +soil below the seeds and then cover the seeds with a mulch of loose, +dry soil. Sprouting seeds then rest atop damp soil exactly they lie +on a damp blotter in a germination laboratory's covered petri dish. +This dampness will not disappear before the sprouting seedling has +propelled a root several inches farther down and is putting a leaf +into the sunlight. + +I've used several techniques to reestablish capillarity after +tilling. There's a wise old plastic push planter in my garage that +first compacts the tilled earth with its front wheel, cuts a furrow, +drops the seed, and then with its drag chain pulls loose soil over +the furrow. I've also pulled one wheel of a garden cart or pushed a +lightly loaded wheelbarrow down the row to press down a wheel track, +sprinkled seed on that compacted furrow, and then pulled loose soil +over it. + + +Handmade Footprints + +Sometimes I sow large brassicas and cucurbits in clumps above a +fertilized, double-dug spot. First, in a space about 18 inches +square, I deeply dig in complete organic fertilizer. Then with my +fist I punch down a depression in the center of the fluffed-up +mound. Sometimes my fist goes in so easily that I have to replace a +little more soil and punch it down some more. The purpose is not to +make rammed earth or cement, but only to reestablish capillarity by +having firm soil under a shallow, fist-sized depression. Then a +pinch of seed is sprinkled atop this depression and covered with +fine earth. Even if several hot sunny days follow I get good +germination without watering. This same technique works excellently +on hills of squash, melon and cucumber as well, though these +large-seeded species must be planted quite a bit deeper. + + +Summer: How to Fluid Drill Seeds + +Soaking seeds before sowing is another water-wise technique, +especially useful later in the season. At bedtime, place the seeds +in a half-pint mason jar, cover with a square of plastic window +screen held on with a strong rubber band, soak the seeds overnight, +and then drain them first thing in the morning. Gently rinse the +seeds with cool water two or three times daily until the root tips +begin to emerge. As soon as this sign appears, the seed must be +sown, because the newly emerging roots become increasingly subject +to breaking off as they develop and soon form tangled masses. +Presprouted seeds may be gently blended into some crumbly, moist +soil and this mixture gently sprinkled into a furrow and covered. If +the sprouts are particularly delicate or, as with carrots, you want +a very uniform stand, disperse the seeds in a starch gelatin and +imitate what commercial vegetable growers call fluid drilling. + +Heat one pint of water to the boiling point. Dissolve in 2 to 3 +tablespoons of ordinary cornstarch. Place the mixture in the +refrigerator to cool. Soon the liquid will become a soupy gel. +Gently mix this cool starch gel with the sprouting seeds, making +sure the seeds are uniformly blended. Pour the mixture into a +1-quart plastic zipper bag and, scissors in hand, go out to the +garden. After a furrow--with capillarity restored--has been +prepared, cut a small hole in one lower corner of the plastic bag. +The hole size should be under 1/4 inch in diameter. Walk quickly +down the row, dribbling a mixture of gel and seeds into the furrow. +Then cover. You may have to experiment a few times with cooled gel +minus seeds until you divine the proper hole size, walking speed and +amount of gel needed per length of furrow. Not only will presprouted +seeds come up days sooner, and not only will the root be penetrating +moist soil long before the shoot emerges, but the stand of seedlings +will be very uniformly spaced and easier to thin. After fluid +drilling a few times you'll realize that one needs quite a bit less +seed per length of row than you previously thought. + + +Establishing the Fall and Winter Garden + +West of the Cascades, germinating fall and winter crops in the heat +of summer is always difficult. Even when the entire garden is well +watered, midsummer sowings require daily attention and frequent +sprinkling; however, once they have germinated, keeping little +seedlings growing in an irrigated garden usually requires no more +water than the rest of the garden gets. But once hot weather comes, +establishing small seeds in the dry garden seems next to impossible +without regular watering. Should a lucky, perfectly timed, and +unusually heavy summer rainfall sprout your seeds, they still would +not grow well because the next few inches of soil would at best be +only slightly moist. + +A related problem many backyard gardeners have with establishing the +winter and overwintered garden is finding enough space for both the +summer and winter crops. The nursery bed solves both these problems. +Instead of trying to irrigate the entire area that will eventually +be occupied by a winter or overwintered crop at maturity, the +seedlings are first grown in irrigated nurseries for transplanting +in autumn after the rains come back. Were I desperately short of +water I'd locate my nursery where it got only morning sun and sow a +week or 10 days earlier to compensate for the slower growth. + + + Vegetables to Start in a Nursery Bed + + Variety Sowing date Transplanting date + + Fall/winter lettuce mid-August early October + Leeks early April July + Overwintered onions early-mid August December/January + Spring cabbage mid-late August November/December + Spring cauliflower mid-August October/November 1st + Winter scallions mid-July mid-October + + +Seedlings in pots and trays are hard to keep moist and require daily +tending. Fortunately, growing transplants in little pots is not +necessary because in autumn, when they'll be set out, humidity is +high, temperatures are cool, the sun is weak, and transpiration +losses are minimal, so seedling transplants will tolerate +considerable root loss. My nursery is sown in rows about 8 inches +apart across a raised bed and thinned gradually to prevent crowding, +because crowded seedlings are hard to dig out without damage. When +the prediction of a few days of cloudy weather encourages +transplanting, the seedlings are lifted with a large, sharp knife. +If the fall rains are late and/or the crowded seedlings are getting +leggy, a relatively small amount of irrigation will moisten the +planting areas. Another light watering at transplanting time will +almost certainly establish the seedlings quite successfully. And, +finding room for these crops ceases to be a problem because fall +transplants can be set out as a succession crop following hot +weather vegetables such as squash, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, +potatoes, and beans. + + Vegetables that must be heavily irrigated + (These crops are not suitable for dry gardens.) + + Bulb Onions (for fall harvest) + Celeriac + Celery + Chinese cabbage + Lettuce (summer and fall) + Radishes (summer and fall) + Scallions (for summer harvest) + Spinach (summer) + + + + +Chapter 5 + +How to Grow It with Less Irrigation: A-Z + + +First, a Word About Varieties + +As recently as the 1930s, most American country folk still did not +have running water. With water being hand-pumped and carried in +buckets, and precious, their vegetable gardens had to be grown with +a minimum of irrigation. In the otherwise well-watered East, one +could routinely expect several consecutive weeks every summer +without rain. In some drought years a hot, rainless month or longer +could go by. So vegetable varieties were bred to grow through dry +spells without loss, and traditional American vegetable gardens were +designed to help them do so. + +I began gardening in the early 1970s, just as the raised-bed method +was being popularized. The latest books and magazine articles all +agreed that raising vegetables in widely separated single rows was a +foolish imitation of commercial farming, that commercial vegetables +were arranged that way for ease of mechanical cultivation. Closely +planted raised beds requiring hand cultivation were alleged to be +far more productive and far more efficient users of irrigation +because water wasn't evaporating from bare soil. + +I think this is more likely to be the truth: Old-fashioned gardens +used low plant densities to survive inevitable spells of +rainlessness. Looked at this way, widely separated vegetables in +widely separated rows may be considered the more efficient users of +water because they consume soil moisture that nature freely puts +there. Only after, and if, these reserves are significantly depleted +does the gardener have to irrigate. The end result is surprisingly +more abundant than a modern gardener educated on intensive, +raised-bed propaganda would think. + +Finding varieties still adapted to water-wise gardening is becoming +difficult. Most American vegetables are now bred for +irrigation-dependent California. Like raised-bed gardeners, +vegetable farmers have discovered that they can make a bigger profit +by growing smaller, quick-maturing plants in high-density spacings. +Most modern vegetables have been bred to suit this method. Many new +varieties can't forage and have become smaller, more determinate, +and faster to mature. Actually, the larger, more sprawling heirloom +varieties of the past were not a great deal less productive overall, +but only a little later to begin yielding. + +Fortunately, enough of the old sorts still exist that a selective +and varietally aware home gardener can make do. Since I've become +water-wiser, I'm interested in finding and conserving heirlooms that +once supported large numbers of healthy Americans in relative +self-sufficiency. My earlier book, being a guide to what passes for +ordinary vegetable gardening these days, assumed the availability of +plenty of water. The varieties I recommended in [i]Growing +Vegetables West of the Cascades[i] were largely modern ones, and the +seed companies I praised most highly focused on top-quality +commercial varieties. But, looking at gardening through the filter +of limited irrigation, other, less modern varieties are often far +better adapted and other seed companies sometimes more likely +sources. + +Seed Company Directory* + +Abundant Life See Foundation: P.O. Box 772, Port Townsend, WA 98368 +_(ABL)_ + +Johnny's Selected Seeds: Foss Hill Road, Albion, Maine 04910 _(JSS)_ + +Peace Seeds: 2345 SE Thompson Street, Corvallis, OR 97333 _(PEA)_ + +Ronninger's Seed Potatoes: P.O. Box 1838, Orting, WA 98360 _(RSP)_ + +Stokes Seeds Inc. Box 548, Buffalo, NY 14240 _(STK)_ + +Territorial Seed Company: P.O. Box 20, Cottage Grove, OR 97424 +_(TSC)_ + +*Throughout the growing directions that follow in this chapter, the +reader will be referred to a specific company only for varieties +that are not widely available. + +I have again come to appreciate the older style of +vegetable--sprawling, large framed, later maturing, longer yielding, +vigorously rooting. However, many of these old-timers have not seen +the attentions of a professional plant breeder for many years and +throw a fair percentage of bizarre, misshapen, nonproductive plants. +These "off types" can be compensated for by growing a somewhat +larger garden and allowing for some waste. Dr. Alan Kapuler, who +runs Peace Seeds, has brilliantly pointed out to me why heirloom +varieties are likely to be more nutritious. Propagated by centuries +of isolated homesteaders, heirlooms that survived did so because +these superior varieties helped the gardeners' better-nourished +babies pass through the gauntlet of childhood illnesses. + + +Plant Spacing: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening + +Reduced plant density is the essence of dry gardening. The +recommended spacings in this section are those I have found workable +at Elkton, Oregon. My dry garden is generally laid out in single +rows, the row centers 4 feet apart. Some larger crops, like +potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and cucurbits (squash, cucumbers, and +melons) are allocated more elbow room. Those few requiring intensive +irrigation are grown on a raised bed, tightly spaced. I cannot +prescribe what would be the perfect, most efficient spacing for your +garden. Are your temperatures lower than mine and evaporation less? +Or is your weather hotter? Does your soil hold more, than less than, +or just as much available moisture as mine? Is it as deep and open +and moisture retentive? + +To help you compare your site with mine, I give you the following +data. My homestead is only 25 miles inland and is always several +degrees cooler in summer than the Willamette Valley. Washingtonians +and British Columbians have cooler days and a greater likelihood of +significant summertime rain and so may plant a little closer +together. Inland gardeners farther south or in the Willamette Valley +may want to spread their plants out a little farther. + +Living on 16 acres, I have virtually unlimited space to garden in. +The focus of my recent research has been to eliminate irrigation as +much as possible while maintaining food quality. Those with thinner +soil who are going to depend more on fertigation may plant closer, +how close depending on the amount of water available. More +irrigation will also give higher per-square-foot yields. + +_Whatever your combination of conditions, your results can only be +determined by trial._ I'd suggest you become water-wise by testing a +range of spacings. + + +When to Plant + +If you've already been growing an irrigated year-round garden, this +book's suggested planting dates may surprise you. And as with +spacing, sowing dates must also be wisely adjusted to your location. +The planting dates in this chapter are what I follow in my own +garden. It is impractical to include specific dates for all the +microclimatic areas of the maritime Northwest and for every +vegetable species. Readers are asked to make adjustments by +understanding their weather relative to mine. + +Gardeners to the north of me and at higher elevations should make +their spring sowings a week or two later than the dates I use. In +the Garden Valley of Roseburg and south along I-5, start spring +plantings a week or two earlier. Along the southern Oregon coast and +in northern California, start three or four weeks sooner than I do. + +Fall comes earlier to the north of me and to higher-elevation +gardens; end-of-season growth rates there also slow more profoundly +than they do at Elkton. Summers are cooler along the coast; that has +the same effect of slowing late-summer growth. Items started after +midsummer should be given one or two extra growing weeks by coastal, +high-elevation, and northern gardeners. Gardeners to the south +should sow their late crops a week or two later than I do; along the +south Oregon coast and in northern California, two to four weeks +later than I do. + + +Arugula (Rocket) + +The tender, peppery little leaves make winter salads much more +interesting. + +_Sowing date:_ I delay sowing until late August or early September +so my crowded patch of arugula lasts all winter and doesn't make +seed until March. Pregerminated seeds emerge fast and strong. +Sprouted in early October, arugula still may reach eating size in +midwinter. + +_Spacing:_ Thinly seed a row into any vacant niche. The seedlings +will be insignificantly small until late summer. + +_Irrigation:_ If the seedlings suffer a bit from moisture stress +they'll catch up rapidly when the fall rains begin. + +_Varieties:_ None. + + +Beans of All Sorts + +Heirloom pole beans once climbed over considerable competition while +vigorously struggling for water, nutrition, and light. Modern bush +varieties tend to have puny root systems. + +_Sowing date:_ Mid-April is the usual time on the Umpqua, elsewhere, +sow after the danger of frost is over and soil stays over 60[de]F. +If the earth is getting dry by this date, soak the seed overnight +before sowing and furrow down to moist soil. However, do not cover +the seeds more than 2 inches. + +_Spacing:_ Twelve to 16 inches apart at final thinning. Allow about +2[f]1/2 to 3 feet on either side of the trellis to avoid root +competition from other plants. + +_Irrigation:_ If part of the garden is sprinkler irrigated, space +beans a little tighter and locate the bean trellis toward the outer +reach of the sprinkler's throw. Due to its height, the trellis tends +to intercept quite a bit of water and dumps it at the base. You can +also use the bucket-drip method and fertigate the beans, giving +about 25 gallons per 10 row-feet once or twice during the summer. +Pole beans can make a meaningful yield without any irrigation; under +severe moisture stress they will survive, but bear little. + +_Varieties:_ Any of the pole types seem to do fine. Runner beans +seem to prefer cooler locations but are every bit as drought +tolerant as ordinary snap beans. My current favorites are Kentucky +Wonder White Seeded, Fortrex (TSC, JSS), and Musica (TSC). + +The older heirloom dry beans were mostly pole types. They are +reasonably productive if allowed to sprawl on the ground without +support. Their unirrigated seed yield is lower, but the seed is +still plump, tastes great, and sprouts well. Compared to unirrigated +Black Coco (TSC), which is my most productive and best-tasting bush +cultivar, Kentucky Wonder Brown Seeded (sometimes called Old +Homestead) (STK, PEA, ABL) yields about 50 percent more seed and +keeps on growing for weeks after Coco has quit. Do not bother to +fertigate untrellised pole beans grown for dry seed. With the threat +of September moisture always looming over dry bean plots, we need to +encourage vines to quit setting and dry down. Peace Seeds and +Abundant Life offer long lists of heirloom vining dry bean +varieties. + +Serious self-sufficiency buffs seeking to produced their own legume +supply should also consider the fava, garbanzo bean, and Alaska pea. +Many favas can be overwintered: sow in October, sprout on fall +rains, grow over the winter, and dry down in June with the soil. +Garbanzos are grown like mildly frost-tolerant peas. Alaska peas are +the type used for pea soup. They're spring sown and grown like +ordinary shelling peas. Avoid overhead irrigation while seeds are +drying down. + + +Beets + +Beets will root far deeper and wider than most people realize--in +uncompacted, nonacid soils. Double or triple dig the subsoil +directly below the seed row. + +_Sowing date:_ Early April at Elkton, late March farther south, and +as late as April 30 in British Columbia. Beet seed germinates easily +in moist, cool soil. A single sowing may be harvested from June +through early March the next year. If properly thinned, good +varieties remain tender. + +_Spacing:_ A single row will gradually exhaust subsoil moisture from +an area 4 feet wide. When the seedlings are 2 to 3 inches tall, thin +carefully to about 1 inch apart. When the edible part is radish +size, thin to 2 inches apart and eat the thinings, tops and all. +When they've grown to golfball size, thin to 4 inches apart, thin +again. When they reach the size of large lemons, thin to 1 foot +apart. Given this much room and deep, open soil, the beets will +continue to grow through the entire summer. Hill up some soil over +the huge roots early in November to protect them from freezing. + +_Irrigation:_ Probably not necessary with over 4 feet of deep, open +soil. + +_Varieties:_ I've done best with Early Wonder Tall Top; when large, +it develops a thick, protective skin and retains excellent eating +quality. Winterkeepers, normally sown in midsummer with irrigation, +tend to bolt prematurely when sown in April. + + +Broccoli: Italian Style + +Italian-style broccoli needs abundant moisture to be tender and make +large flowers. Given enough elbow room, many varieties can endure +long periods of moisture stress, but the smaller, woody, +slow-developing florets won't be great eating. Without any +irrigation, spring-sown broccoli may still be enjoyed in early +summer and Purple Sprouting in March/April after overwintering. + +_Sowing date:_Without any irrigation at all, mid-March through early +April. With fertigation, also mid-April through mid-May. This later +sowing will allow cutting through summer. + +_Spacing:_ Brocoli tastes better when big plants grow big, sweet +heads. Allow a 4-foot-wide row. Space early sowings about 3 feet +apart in the row; later sowings slated to mature during summer's +heat can use 4 feet. On a fist-sized spot compacted to restore +capillarity, sow a little pinch of seed atop a well-and deeply +fertilized, double-dug patch of earth. Thin gradually to the best +single plant by the time three or four true leaves have developed. + +_Irrigation:_ After mid-June, 4 to 5 gallons of drip bucket liquid +fertilizer every two to three weeks makes an enormous difference. +You'll be surprised at the size of the heads and the quality of side +shoots. A fertigated May sowing will be exhausted by October. Take a +chance: a heavy side-dressing of strong compost or complete organic +fertilizer when the rains return may trigger a massive spurt of new, +larger heads from buds located below the soil's surface. + +_Varieties:_ Many hybrids have weak roots. I'd avoid anything that +was "held up on a tall stalk" for mechanical harvest or was +"compact" or that "didn't have many side-shoots". Go for larger +size. Territorial's hybrid blend yields big heads for over a month +followed by abundant side shoots. Old, open-pollinated types like +Italian Sprouting Calabrese, DeCicco, or Waltham 29 are highly +variable, bushy, with rather coarse, large-beaded flowers, +second-rate flavor and many, many side shoots. Irrigating gardeners +who can start new plants every four weeks from May through July may +prefer hybrids. Dry gardeners who will want to cut side shoots for +as long as possible during summer from large, well-established +plants may prefer crude, open-pollinated varieties. Try both. + + +Broccoli: Purple Sprouting and Other Overwintering Types + +_Spacing:_ Grow like broccoli, 3 to 4 feet apart. + +_Sowing date:_ It is easiest to sow in April or early May, minimally +fertigate a somewhat gnarly plant through the summer, push it for +size in fall and winter, and then harvest it next March. With too +early a start in spring, some premature flowering may occur in +autumn; still, massive blooming will resume again in spring. + +Overwintering green Italian types such as ML423 (TSC) will flower in +fall if sown before late June. These sorts are better started in a +nursery bed around August 1 and like overwintered cauliflower, +transplanted about 2 feet apart when fall rains return, then, pushed +for growth with extra fertilizer in fall and winter. + +With nearly a whole year to grow before blooming, Purple Sprouting +eventually reaches 4 to 5 feet in height and 3 to 4 feet in +diameter, and yields hugely. + +_Irrigation:_ It is not essential to heavily fertigate Purple +Sprouting, though you may G-R-O-W enormous plants for their beauty. +Quality or quantity of spring harvest won't drop one bit if the +plants become a little stunted and gnarly in summer, as long as you +fertilize late in September to spur rapid growth during fall and +winter. + + +Root System Vigor in the Cabbage Family + +Wild cabbage is a weed and grows like one, able to successfully +compete for water against grasses and other herbs. Remove all +competition with a hoe, and allow this weed to totally control all +the moisture and nutrients in all the earth its roots can occupy, +and it grows hugely and lushly. Just for fun, I once G-R-E-W one, +with tillage, hoeing, and spring fertilization but no irrigation; it +ended up 5 feet tall and 6 feet in diameter. + +As this highly moldable family is inbred and shaped into more and +more exaggerated forms, it weakens and loses the ability to forage. +Kale retains the most wild aggressiveness, Chinese cabbage perhaps +the least. Here, in approximately correct order, is shown the +declining root vigor and general adaptation to moisture stress of +cabbage family vegetables. The table shows the most vigorous at the +top, declining as it goes down. + + + Adapted to dry gardening Not vigorous enough + + Kale Italian broccoli (some varieties) + Brussels sprouts (late types) Cabbage (regular market types) + Late savoy cabbage Brussels sprouts (early types) + Giant "field-type" kohlrabi Small "market-garden" kohlrabi + Mid-season savoy cabbage Cauliflower (regular, annual) + Rutabaga Turnips and radishes + Italian Broccoli (some varieties) Chinese cabbage + Brussels Sprouts + + +_Sowing date:_ If the plants are a foot tall before the soil starts +drying down, their roots will be over a foot deep; the plants will +then grow hugely with a bit of fertigation. At Elkton I dry garden +Brussels sprouts by sowing late April to early May. Started this +soon, even late-maturing varieties may begin forming sprouts by +September. Though premature bottom sprouts will "blow up" and become +aphid damaged, more, higher-quality sprouts will continue to form +farther up the stalk during autumn and winter. + +_Spacing:_ Make each spot about 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without any added moisture, the plants will become +stunted but will survive all summer. Side-dressing manure or +fertilizer late in September (or sooner if the rains come sooner) +will provoke very rapid autumn growth and a surprisingly large yield +from plants that looked stress out in August. If increasingly larger +amounts of fertigation can be provided every two to three weeks, the +lush Brussels sprouts plants can become 4 feet in diameter and 4 +feet tall by October and yield enormously. + +_Varieties:_ Use late European hybrid types. At Elkton, where +winters are a little milder than in the Willamette, Lunet (TSC) has +the finest eating qualities. Were I farther north I'd grow hardier +types like Stabolite (TSC) or Fortress (TSC). Early types are not +suitable to growing with insufficient irrigation or frequent +spraying to fight off aphids. + + +Cabbage + +Forget those delicate, green supermarket cabbages unless you have +unlimited amounts of water. But easiest-to-grow savoy types will do +surprisingly well with surprisingly little support. Besides, savoys +are the best salad material. + +_Sowing date:_ I suggest three sowing times: the first, a succession +of early, midseason, and late savoys made in mid-March for harvest +during summer; the second, late and very late varieties started late +April to early May for harvest during fall and winter; the last, a +nursery bed of overwintered sorts sown late in August. + +_Spacing:_ Early-maturing savoy varieties are naturally smaller and +may not experience much hot weather before heading up--these may be +separated by about 30 inches. The later ones are large plants and +should be given 4 feet of space or 16 square feet of growing room. +Sow and grow them like broccoli. Transplant overwintered cabbages +from nursery beds late in October, spaced about 3 feet apart; these +thrive where the squash grew. + +_Irrigation:_ The more fertigation you can supply, the larger and +more luxuriant the plants and the bigger the heads. But even small, +somewhat moisture-stressed savoys make very edible heads. In terms +of increased yield for water expended, it is well worth it to +provide late varieties with a few gallons of fertigation about +mid-June, and a bucketful in mid-July and mid-August. + +_Varieties:_ Japanese hybrid savoys make tender eating but may not +withstand winter. European savoys are hardier, coarser, +thicker-leaved, and harder chewing. For the first sowing I suggest a +succession of Japanese varieties including Salarite or Savoy +Princess for earlies; Savoy Queen, King, or Savoy Ace for midsummer; +and Savonarch (TSC) for late August/early September harvests. +They're all great varieties. For the second sowing I grow Savonarch +(TSC) for September[-]November cutting and a very late European +hybrid type like Wivoy (TSC) for winter. Small-framed January King +lacks sufficient root vigor. Springtime (TSC) and FEM218 (TSC) are +the only overwintered cabbages available. + + +Carrots + +Dry-gardening carrots requires patiently waiting until the weather +stabilizes before tilling and sowing. To avoid even a little bit of +soil compaction, I try to sprout the seed without irrigation but +always fear that hot weather will frustrate my efforts. So I till +and plant too soon. And then heavy rain comes and compacts my +perfectly fluffed-up soil. But the looser and finer the earth +remains during their first six growing weeks, the more perfectly the +roots will develop. + +_Sowing date:_ April at Elkton. + +_Spacing:_ Allocate 4 feet of width to a single row of carrot seed. +When the seedlings are about 2 inches tall, thin to 1 inch apart. +Then thin every other carrot when the roots are [f]3/8 to [f]1/2 +inch in diameter and eat the thinnings. A few weeks later, when the +carrots are about 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter, make a final thinning +to 1 foot apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary. Foliar feeding every few weeks will +make much larger roots. Without any help they should grow to several +pounds each. + +_Varieties:_ Choosing the right variety is very important. Nantes +and other delicate, juicy types lack enough fiber to hold together +when they get very large. These split prematurely. I've had my best +results with Danvers types. I'd also try Royal Chantenay (PEA), +Fakkel Mix (TSC), Stokes "Processor" types, and Topweight (ABL). Be +prepared to experiment with variety. The roots will not be quite as +tender as heavily watered Nantes types but are a lot better than +you'd think. Huge carrots are excellent in soups and we cheerfully +grate them into salads. Something about accumulating sunshine all +summer makes the roots incredibly sweet. + + +Cauliflower + +Ordinary varieties cannot forage for moisture. Worse, moisture +stress at any time during the growth cycle prevents proper formation +of curds. The only important cauliflowers suitable for dry gardening +are overwintered types. I call them important because they're easy +to grow and they'll feed the family during April and early May, when +other garden fare is very scarce. + +_Sowing date:_ To acquire enough size to survive cold weather, +overwintered cauliflower must be started on a nursery bed during the +difficult heat of early August. Except south of Yoncalla, delaying +sowing until September makes very small seedlings that may not be +hardy enough and likely won't yield much in April unless winter is +very mild, encouraging unusual growth. + +_Spacing:_ In October, transplant about 2 feet apart in rows 3 to 4 +feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ If you have more water available, fertilize and till +up some dusty, dry soil, wet down the row, direct-seed like broccoli +(but closer together), and periodically irrigate until fall. If you +only moisten a narrow band of soil close to the seedlings it won't +take much water. Cauliflower grows especially well in the row that +held bush peas. + +_Varieties:_ The best are the very pricy Armado series sold by +Territorial. + + +Chard + +This vegetable is basically a beet with succulent leaves and thick +stalks instead of edible, sweet roots. It is just as drought +tolerant as a beet, and in dry gardening, chard is sown, spaced, and +grown just like a beet. But if you want voluminous leaf production +during summer, you may want to fertigate it occasionally. + +_Varieties:_ The red chards are not suitable for starting early in +the season; they have a strong tendency to bolt prematurely if sown +during that part of the year when daylength is increasing. + + +Corn + +Broadcast complete organic fertilizer or strong compost shallowly +over the corn patch till midwinter, or as early in spring as the +earth can be worked without making too many clods. Corn will +germinate in pretty rough soil. High levels of nutrients in the +subsoil are more important than a fine seedbed. + +_Sowing date:_ About the time frost danger ends. Being large seed, +corn can be set deep, where soil moisture still exists even after +conditions have warmed up. Germination without irrigation should be +no problem. + +_Spacing_: The farther south, the farther apart. Entirely without +irrigation, I've had fine results spacing individual corn plants 3 +feet apart in rows 3 feet apart, or 9 square feet per each plant. +Were I around Puget Sound or in B.C. I'd try 2 feet apart in rows 30 +inches apart. Gary Nabhan describes Papago gardeners in Arizona +growing individual cornstalks 10 feet apart. Grown on wide spacings, +corn tends to tiller (put up multiple stalks, each making one or two +ears). For most urban and suburban gardeners, space is too valuable +to allocate 9 square feet for producing one or at best three or four +ears. + +_Irrigation:_ With normal sprinkler irrigation, corn may be spaced 8 +inches apart in rows 30 inches apart, still yielding one or two ears +per stalk. + +_Varieties:_ Were I a devoted sweetcorn eater without enough +irrigation, I'd be buying a few dozen freshly picked ears from the +back of a pickup truck parked on a corner during local harvest +season. Were I a devoted corn grower without any irrigation, I'd be +experimenting with various types of field corn instead of sweet +corn. Were I a self-sufficiency buff trying earnestly to produce +all my own cereal, I'd accept that the maritime Northwest is a +region where survivalists will eat wheat, rye, millet, and other +small grains. + +Many varieties of field corn are nearly as sweet as ordinary sweet +corn, but grain varieties become starchy and tough within hours of +harvest. Eaten promptly, "pig" corn is every bit as tasty as +Jubilee. I've had the best dry-garden results with Northstine Dent +(JSS) and Garland Flint (JSS). Hookers Sweet Indian (TSC) has a weak +root system. + + +Successfully Starting Cucurbits From Seed + +With cucurbits, germination depends on high-enough soil temperature +and not too much moisture. Squash are the most chill and moisture +tolerant, melons the least. Here's a failure-proof and simple +technique that ensures you'll plant at exactly the right time. + +Cucumbers, squash, and melons are traditionally sown atop a deeply +dug, fertilized spot that usually looks like a little mound after it +is worked and is commonly called a hill. About two weeks before the +last anticipated frost date in your area, plant five or six squash +seeds about 2 inches deep in a clump in the very center of that +hill. Then, a week later, plant another clump at 12 o'clock. In +another week, plant another clump at 3 o'clock, and continue doing +this until one of the sowings sprouts. Probably the first try won't +come up, but the hill will certainly germinate several clumps of +seedlings. If weather conditions turn poor, a later-to-sprout group +may outgrow those that came up earlier. Thin gradually to the best +single plant by the time the vines are running. + +When the first squash seeds appear it is time to begin sowing +cucumbers, starting a new batch each week until one emerges. When +the cucumbers first germinate, it's time to try melons. + +Approaching cucurbits this way ensures that you'll get the earliest +possible germination while being protected against the probability +that cold, damp weather will prevent germination or permanently +spoil the growth prospects of the earlier seedlings. + + +Cucumbers + +_Sowing date:_ About May 5 to 15 at Elkton. + +_Spacing:_ Most varieties usually run five about 3 feet from the +hill. Space the hills about 5 to 6 feet apart in all directions. + +_Irrigation:_ Like melons. Regular and increasing amounts of +fertigation will increase the yield several hundred percent. + +_Varieties:_ I've had very good results dry-gardening Amira II +(TSC), even without any fertigation at all. It is a Middle +Eastern[-]style variety that makes pickler-size thin-skinned cukes +that need no peeling and have terrific flavor. The burpless or +Japanese sorts don't seem to adapt well to drought. Most slicers +dry-garden excellently. Apple or Lemon are similar novelty heirlooms +that make very extensive vines with aggressive roots and should be +given a foot or two more elbow room. I'd avoid any variety touted as +being for pot or patio, compact, or short-vined, because of a likely +linkage between its vine structure and root system. + + +Eggplant + +Grown without regular sprinkler irrigation, eggplant seems to get +larger and yield sooner and more abundantly. I suspect this delicate +and fairly drought-resistant tropical species does not like having +its soil temperature lowered by frequent watering. + +_Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time, about two +weeks after the tomatoes, after all frost danger has passed and +after nights have stably warmed up above 50 degree F. + +_Spacing:_ Double dig and deeply fertilize the soil under each +transplant. Separate plants by about 3 feet in rows about 4 feet +apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Will grow and produce a few fruit without any +watering, but a bucket of fertigation every three to four weeks +during summer may result in the most luxurious, hugest, and +heaviest-bearing eggplants you've ever grown. + +_Varieties:_ I've noticed no special varietal differences in ability +to tolerate dryish soil. I've had good yields from the regionally +adapted varieties Dusky Hybrid, Short Tom, and Early One. + + +Endive + +A biennial member of the chicory family, endive quickly puts down a +deep taproot and is naturally able to grow through prolonged +drought. Because endive remains bitter until cold weather, it +doesn't matter if it grows slowly through summer, just so long as +rapid leaf production resumes in autumn. + +_Sowing date:_ On irrigated raised beds endive is sown around August +1 and heads by mid-October. The problem with dry-gardened endive is +that if it is spring sown during days of increasing daylength when +germination of shallow-sown small seed is a snap, it will bolt +prematurely. The crucial moment seems to be about June 1. April/May +sowings bolt in July/August,: after June 1, bolting won't happen +until the next spring, but germination won't happen without +watering. One solution is soaking the seeds overnight, rinsing them +frequently until they begin to sprout, and fluid drilling them. + +_Spacing:_ The heads become huge when started in June. Sow in rows 4 +feet apart and thin gradually until the rosettes are 3 inches in +diameter, then thin to 18 inches apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without a drop of moisture the plants, even as tiny +seedlings, will grow steadily but slowly all summer, as long as no +other crop is invading their root zone. The only time I had trouble +was when the endive row was too close to an aggressive row of yellow +crookneck squash. About August, the squash roots began invading the +endive's territory and the endive got wilty. + +A light side-dressing of complete organic fertilizer or compost in +late September will grow the hugest plants imaginable. + +_Varieties:_ Curly types seem more tolerant to rain and frost during +winter than broad-leaf Batavian varieties. I prefer President (TSC). + + +Herbs + +Most perennial and biennial herbs are actually weeds and wild +hillside shrubs from Mediterranean climates similar to that of +Southern California. They are adapted to growing on winter rainfall +and surviving seven to nine months without rainfall every summer. In +our climate, merely giving them a little more elbow room than +usually offered, thorough weeding, and side-dressing the herb garden +with a little compost in fall is enough coddling. Annuals such as +dill and cilantro are also very drought tolerant. Basil, however, +needs considerable moisture. + + +Kale + +Depending on the garden for a significant portion of my annual +caloric intake has gradually refined my eating habits. Years ago I +learned to like cabbage salads as much as lettuce. Since lettuce +freezes out many winters (19-21 degree F), this adjustment has proved +very useful. Gradually I began to appreciate kale, too, and now +value it as a salad green far more than cabbage. This personal +adaptation has proved very pro-survival, because even savoy cabbages +do not grow as readily or yield nearly as much as kale. And kale is +a tad more cold hardy than even savoy cabbage. + +You may be surprised to learn that kale produces more complete +protein per area occupied per time involved than any legume, +including alfalfa. If it is steamed with potatoes and then mashed, +the two vegetables complement and flavor each other. Our region +could probably subsist quite a bit more healthfully than at present +on potatoes and kale. The key to enjoying kale as a salad component +is varietal choice, preparation, and using the right parts of the +plant. Read on. + +_Sowing date:_ With irrigation, fast-growing kale is usually started +in midsummer for use in fall and winter. But kale is absolutely +biennial--started in March or April, it will not bolt until the next +spring. The water-wise gardener can conveniently sow kale while +cool, moist soil simplifies germination. Starting this early also +produces a deep root system before the soil dries much, and a much +taller, very useful central stalk on oleracea types, while early +sown Siberian (Napa) varieties tend to form multiple rosettes by +autumn, also useful at harvest time. + +_Spacing: _Grow like broccoli, spaced 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without any water, the somewhat stunted plants will +survive the summer to begin rapid growth as soon as fall rains +resume. With the help of occasional fertigation they grow lushly and +are enormous by September. Either way, there still will be plenty of +kale during fall and winter. + +_Harvest:_ Bundles of strong-flavored, tough, large leaves are sold +in supermarkets but are the worst-eating part of the plant. If +chopped finely enough, big raw leaves can be masticated and +tolerated by people with good teeth. However, the tiny leaves are +far tenderer and much milder. The more rosettes developed on +Siberian kales, the more little leaves there are to be picked. By +pinching off the central growing tip in October and then gradually +stripping off the large shading leaves, _oleracea_ varieties may be +encouraged to put out dozens of clusters of small, succulent leaves +at each leaf notch along the central stalk. The taller the stalk +grown during summer, the more of these little leaves there will be. +Only home gardeners can afford the time to hand pick small leaves. + +_Varieties:_ I somewhat prefer the flavor of Red Russian to the +ubiquitous green Siberian, but Red Russian is very slightly less +cold hardy. Westland Winter (TSC) and Konserva (JSS) are tall +European oleracea varieties. Winterbor F1 (JSS, TSC) is also +excellent. The dwarf "Scotch" kales, blue or green, sold by many +American seed companies are less vigorous types that don't produce +nearly as many gourmet little leaves. Dwarfs in any species tend to +have dwarfed root systems. + + +Kohlrabi (Giant) + +Spring-sown market kohlrabi are usually harvested before hot weather +makes them get woody. Irrigation is not required if they're given a +little extra elbow room. With ordinary varieties, try thinning to 5 +inches apart in rows 2 to 3 feet apart and harvest by thinning +alternate plants. Given this additional growing room, they may not +get woody until midsummer. On my irrigated, intensive bed I always +sow some more on August 1, to have tender bulbs in autumn. + +Kohlrabi was once grown as European fodder crop; slow-growing +farmers, varieties grow huge like rutabagas. These field types have +been crossed with table types to make "giant" table varieties that +really suit dry gardening. What to do with a giant kohlrabi (or any +bulb getting overblown)? Peel, grate finely, add chopped onion, +dress with olive oil and black pepper, toss, and enjoy this old +Eastern European mainstay. + +_Sowing date:_ Sow giant varieties during April, as late as possible +while still getting a foot-tall plant before really hot weather. + +_Spacing:_ Thin to 3 feet apart in rows 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not absolutely necessary on deep soil, but if they get +one or two thorough fertigations during summer their size may +double. + +_Varieties:_ A few American seed companies, including Peace Seeds, +have a giant kohlrabi of some sort or other. The ones I've tested +tend to be woody, are crude, and throw many off-types, a high +percentage of weak plants, and/or poorly shaped roots. By the time +this book is in print, Territorial should list a unique Swiss +variety called Superschmeltz, which is uniformly huge and stays +tender into the next year. + + +Leeks + +Unwatered spring-sown bulbing onions are impossible. Leek is the +only allium I know of that may grow steadily but slowly through +severe drought; the water-short gardener can depend on leeks for a +fall/winter onion supply. + +_Sowing date:_ Start a row or several short rows about 12 inches +apart on a nursery bed in March or early April at the latest. Grow +thickly, irrigate during May/June, and fertilize well so the +competing seedlings get leggy. + +_Spacing:_ By mid-to late June the seedlings should be slightly +spindly, pencil-thick, and scallion size. With a sharp shovel, dig +out the nursery row, carefully retaining 5 or 6 inches of soil below +the seedlings. With a strong jet of water, blast away the soil and, +while doing this, gently separate the tangled roots so that as +little damage is done as possible. Make sure the roots don't dry out +before transplanting. After separation, I temporarily wrap bundled +seedlings in wet newspaper. + +Dig out a foot-deep trench the width of an ordinary shovel and +carefully place this earth next to the trench. Sprinkle in a heavy +dose of organic fertilizer or strong compost, and spade that in so +the soil is fluffy and fertile 2 feet down. Do not immediately +refill the trench with the soil that was dug out. With a shovel +handle, poke a row of 6-inch-deep holes along the bottom of the +trench. If the nursery bed has grown well there should be about 4 +inches of stem on each seedling before the first leaf attaches. If +the weather is hot and sunny, snip off about one-third to one-half +the leaf area to reduce transplanting shock. Drop one leek seedling +into each hole up to the point that the first leaf attaches to the +stalk, and mud it in with a cup or two of liquid fertilizer. As the +leeks grow, gradually refill the trench and even hill up soil around +the growing plants. This makes the better-tasting white part of the +stem get as long as possible. Avoid getting soil into the center of +the leek where new leaves emerge, or you'll not get them clean after +harvest. + +Spacing of the seedlings depends on the amount of irrigation. If +absolutely none at all, set them 12 inches apart in the center of a +row 4 feet wide. If unlimited water is available, give them 2 inches +of separation. Or adjust spacing to the water available. The plants +grow slowly through summer, but in autumn growth will accelerate, +especially if they are side-dressed at this time. + +_Varieties:_ For dry gardening use the hardier, more vigorous winter +leeks. Durabel (TSC) has an especially mild, sweet flavor. Other +useful varieties include Giant Carentian (ABL), Alaska (STK), and +Winter Giant (PEA). + + +Lettuce + +Spring-sown lettuce will go to large sizes, remaining sweet and +tender without irrigation if spaced 1 foot apart in a single row +with 2 feet of elbow room on each side. Lettuce cut after mid-June +usually gets bitter without regular, heavy irrigation. I reserve my +well-watered raised bed for this summer salad crop. Those very short +of water can start fall/winter lettuce in a shaded, irrigated +nursery bed mid-August through mid-September and transplant it out +after the fall rains return. Here is one situation in which +accelerating growth with cloches or cold frames would be very +helpful. + + +Water-Wise Cucurbits + +The root systems of this family are far more extensive than most +people realize. Usually a taproot goes down several feet and then, +soil conditions permitting, thickly occupies a large area, +ultimately reaching down 5 to 8 feet. Shallow feeder roots also +extend laterally as far as or farther than the vines reach at their +greatest extent. + +Dry gardeners can do several things to assist cucurbits. First, make +sure there is absolutely no competition in their root zone. This +means[i]one plant per hill, with the hills separated in all +directions a little farther than the greatest possible extent of the +variety's ultimate growth.[i] Common garden lore states that +squashes droop their leaves in midsummer heat and that this trait +cannot be avoided and does no harm. But if they've grown as +described above, on deep, open soil, capillarity and surface +moisture reserves ensure there usually will be no midday wilting, +even if there is no watering. Two plants per hill do compete and +make each other wilt. + +Second, double dig and fertilize the entire lateral root zone. +Third, as much as possible, avoid walking where the vines will +ultimately reach to avoid compaction. Finally, [i]do not transplant +them.[i] This breaks the taproot and makes the plant more dependent +on lateral roots seeking moisture in the top 18 inches of soil. + + +Melons + +_Sowing date:_ As soon as they'll germinate outdoors: at Elkton, May +15 to June 1. Thin to a single plant per hill when there are about +three true leaves and the vines are beginning to run. + +_Spacing:_ Most varieties will grow a vine reaching about 8 feet in +diameter. Space the hills 8 feet apart in all directions. + +_Irrigation:_ Fertigation every two to three weeks will increase the +yield by two or three times and may make the melons sweeter. Release +the water/fertilizer mix close to the center of the vine, where the +taproot can use it. + +_Varieties:_ Adaptation to our cool climate is critical with melons; +use varieties sold by our regional seed companies. Yellow Doll +watermelons (TSC) are very early and seem the most productive under +the most droughty conditions. I've had reasonable results from most +otherwise regionally adapted cantaloupes and muskmelons. Last year a +new hybrid variety, Passport (TSC), proved several weeks earlier +than I'd ever experienced and was extraordinarily prolific and +tasty. + + +Onions/Scallions + +The usual spring-sown, summer-grown bulb onions and scallions only +work with abundant irrigation. But the water-short, water-wise +gardener can still supply the kitchen with onions or onion +substitutes year-round. Leeks take care of November through early +April. Overwintered bulb onions handle the rest of the year. +Scallions may also be harvested during winter. + +_Sowing date:_ Started too soon, overwintered or short-day bulbing +onions (and sweet scallions) will bolt and form seed instead of +bulbing. Started too late they'll be too small and possibly not +hardy enough to survive winter. About August 15 at Elkton I sow +thickly in a well-watered and very fertile nursery bed. If you have +more than one nursery row, separate them about by 12 inches. Those +who miss this window of opportunity can start transplants in early +October and cover with a cloche immediately after germination, to +accelerate seedling growth during fall and early winter. + +Start scallions in a nursery just like overwintered onions, but +earlier so they're large enough for the table during winter, I sow +them about mid-July. + +_Spacing:_ When seedlings are about pencil thick (December/January +for overwintering bulb onions), transplant them about 4 or 5 inches +apart in a single row with a couple of feet of elbow room on either +side. I've found I get the best growth and largest bulbs if they +follow potatoes. After the potatoes are dug in early October I +immediately fertilize the area heavily and till, preparing the onion +bed. Klamath Basin farmers usually grow a similar rotation: hay, +potatoes, onions. + +Transplant scallions in October with the fall rains, about 1 inch +apart in rows at least 2 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary. However, side-dressing the transplants +will result in much larger bulbs or scallions. Scallions will bolt +in April; the bulbers go tops-down and begin drying down as the soil +naturally dries out. + +_Varieties:_ I prefer the sweet and tender Lisbon (TSC) for +scallions. For overwintered bulb onions, grow very mild but poorly +keeping Walla Walla Sweet (JSS), Buffalo (TSC), a better keeper, or +whatever Territorial is selling at present. + + +Parsley + +_Sowing date:_ March. Parsley seed takes two to three weeks to +germinate. + +_Spacing:_ Thin to 12 inches apart in a single row 4 feet wide. Five +plants should overwhelm the average kitchen. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary unless yield falls off during summer and +that is very unlikely. Parsley's very deep, foraging root system +resembles that of its relative, the carrot. + +_Varieties:_ If you use parsley for greens, variety is not critical, +though the gourmet may note slight differences in flavor or amount +of leaf curl. Another type of parsley is grown for edible roots that +taste much like parsnip. These should have their soil prepared as +carefully as though growing carrots. + + +Peas + +This early crop matures without irrigation. Both pole and bush +varieties are planted thickly in single rows about 4 feet apart. I +always overlook some pods, which go on to form mature seed. Without +overhead irrigation, this seed will sprout strongly next year. +Alaska (soup) peas grow the same way. + + +Peppers + +Pepper plants on raised beds spaced the usually recommended 16 to 24 +inches apart undergo intense root competition even before their +leaves form a canopy. With or without unlimited irrigation, the +plants will get much larger and bear more heavily with elbow room. + +_Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time. Double dig a +few square feet of soil beneath each seedling, and make sure +fertilizer gets incorporated all the way down to 2 feet deep. + +_Spacing:_ Three feet apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without any irrigation only the most vigorous, +small-fruited varieties will set anything. For an abundant harvest, +fertigate every three or four weeks. For the biggest pepper plants +you ever grew, fertigate every two weeks. + +_Varieties:_ The small-fruited types, both hot and sweet, have much +more aggressive root systems and generally adapt better to our +region's cool weather. I've had best results with Cayenne Long Slim, +Gypsie, Surefire, Hot Portugal, the "cherries" both sweet and hot, +Italian Sweet, and Petite Sirah. + + +Potatoes + +Humans domesticated potatoes in the cool, arid high plateaus of the +Andes where annual rainfall averages 8 to 12 inches. The species +finds our dry summer quite comfortable. Potatoes produce more +calories per unit of land than any other temperate crop. Irrigated +potatoes yield more calories and two to three times as much watery +bulk and indigestible fiber as those grown without irrigation, but +the same variety dry gardened can contain about 30 percent more +protein, far more mineral nutrients, and taste better. + +_Sowing date:_ I make two sowings. The first is a good-luck ritual +done religiously on March 17th--St. Patrick's Day. Rain or shine, in +untilled mud or finely worked and deeply fluffed earth, I still +plant 10 or 12 seed potatoes of an early variety. This provides for +summer. + +The main sowing waits until frost is unlikely and I can dig the +potato rows at least 12 inches deep with a spading fork, working in +fertilizer as deeply as possible and ending up with a finely +pulverized 24-inch-wide bed. At Elkton, this is usually mid-to late +April. There is no rush to plant. Potato vines are not frost hardy. +If frosted they'll regrow, but being burned back to the ground +lowers the final yield. + +_Spacing:_ I presprout my seeds by spreading them out in daylight at +room temperature for a few weeks, and then plant one whole, +sprouting, medium-size potato every 18 inches down the center of the +row. Barely cover the seed potato. At maturity there should be +2[f]1/2 to 3 feet of soil unoccupied with the roots of any other +crop on each side of the row. As the vines emerge, gradually scrape +soil up over them with a hoe. Let the vines grow about 4 inches, +then pull up about 2 inches of cover. Let another 4 inches grow, +then hill up another 2 inches. Continue doing this until the vines +begin blooming. At that point there should be a mound of loose, +fluffy soil about 12 to 16 inches high gradually filling with tubers +lushly covered with blooming vines. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary. In fact, if large water droplets +compact the loose soil you scraped up, that may interfere with +maximum tuber enlargement. However, after the vines are a foot long +or so, foliar feeding every week or 10 days will increase the yield. + +_Varieties:_ The water-wise gardener's main potato problem is +too-early maturity, and then premature sprouting in storage. Early +varieties like Yukon Gold--even popular midseason ones like Yellow +Finn--don't keep well unless they're planted late enough to brown +off in late September. That's no problem if they're irrigated. But +planted in late April, earlier varieties will shrivel by August. +Potatoes only keep well when very cool, dark, and moist--conditions +almost impossible to create on the homestead during summer. The best +August compromise is to leave mature potatoes undug, but soil +temperatures are in the 70s during August, and by early October, +when potatoes should be lifted and put into storage, they'll already +be sprouting. Sprouting in October is acceptable for the remainders +of my St. Pat's Day sowing that I am keeping over for seed next +spring. It is not ok for my main winter storage crop. Our climate +requires very late, slow-maturing varieties that can be sown early +but that don't brown off until September. Late types usually yield +more, too. + +Most of the seed potato varieties found in garden centers are early +or midseason types chosen by farmers for yield without regard to +flavor or nutrition. One, Nooksack Cascadian, is a very late variety +grown commercially around Bellingham, Washington. Nooksack is pretty +good if you like white, all-purpose potatoes. + +There are much better homegarden varieties available in Ronniger's +catalog, all arranged according to maturity. For the ultimate in +earlies I suggest Red Gold. For main harvests I'd try Indian Pit, +Carole, German Butterball, Siberian, or a few experimental row-feet +of any other late variety taking your fancy. + + +Rutabagas + +Rutabagas have wonderfully aggressive root systems and are capable +of growing continuously through long, severe drought. But where I +live, the results aren't satisfactory. Here's what happens. If I +start rutabagas in early April and space them about 2 to 3 feet +apart in rows 4 feet apart, by October they're the size of +basketballs and look pretty good; unfortunately, I harvest a hollow +shell full of cabbage root maggots. Root maggots are at their peak +in early June. That's why I got interested in dry-gardening giant +kohlrabi. + +In 1991 we had about 2 surprising inches of rain late in June, so as +a test I sowed rutabagas on July 1. They germinated without more +irrigation, but going into the hot summer as small plants with +limited root systems and no irrigation at all they became somewhat +stunted. By October 1 the tops were still small and a little gnarly; +big roots had not yet formed. Then the rains came and the rutabagas +began growing rapidly. By November there was a pretty nice crop of +medium-size good-eating roots. + +I suspect that farther north, where evaporation is not so severe and +midsummer rains are slightly more common, if a little irrigation +were used to start rutabagas about July 1, a decent unwatered crop +might be had most years. And I am certain that if sown at the normal +time (July 15) and grown with minimal irrigation but well spaced +out, they'll produce acceptably. + +_Varieties:_ Stokes Altasweet (STK, TSC) has the best flavor. + + +Sorrel + +This weed-like, drought-tolerant salad green is little known and +underappreciated. In summer the leaves get tough and strong +flavored; if other greens are available, sorrel will probably be +unpicked. That's ok. During fall, winter, and spring, sorrel's +lemony taste and delicate, tender texture balance tougher savoy +cabbage and kale and turn those crude vegetables into very +acceptable salads. Serious salad-eating families might want the +production of 5 to 10 row-feet. + +_Sowing date:_ The first year you grow sorrel, sow mid-March to +mid-April. The tiny seed must be placed shallowly, and it sprouts +much more readily when the soil stays moist. Plant a single furrow +centered in a row 4 feet wide. + +_Spacing: _As the seedlings grow, thin gradually. When the leaves +are about the size of ordinary spinach, individual plants should be +about 6 inches apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary in summer--you won't eat it anyway. If +production lags in fall, winter, or spring, side-dress the sorrel +patch with a little compost or organic fertilizer. + +_Maintenance:_ Sorrel is perennial. If an unusually harsh winter +freeze kills off the leaves it will probably come back from root +crowns in early spring. You'll welcome it after losing the rest of +your winter crops. In spring of the second and succeeding years +sorrel will make seed. Seed making saps the plant's energy, and the +seeds may naturalize into an unwanted weed around the garden. So, +before any seed forms, cut all the leaves and seed stalks close to +the ground; use the trimmings as a convenient mulch along the row. +If you move the garden or want to relocate the patch, do not start +sorrel again from seed. In any season dig up a few plants, divide +the root masses, trim off most of the leaves to reduce transplanting +shock, and transplant 1 foot apart. Occasional unique plants may be +more reluctant to make seed stalks than most others. Since seed +stalks produce few edible leaves and the leaves on them are very +harsh flavored, making seed is an undesirable trait. So I propagate +only seed-shy plants by root cuttings. + + +Spinach + +Spring spinach is remarkably more drought tolerant than it would +appear from its delicate structure and the succulence of its leaves. +A bolt-resistant, long-day variety bred for summer harvest sown in +late April may still yield pickable leaves in late June or even +early July without any watering at all, if thinned to 12 inches +apart in rows 3 feet apart. + + +Squash, Winter and Summer + +_Sowing date:_ Having warm-enough soil is everything. At Elkton I +first attempt squash about April 15. In the Willamette, May 1 is +usual. Farther north, squash may not come up until June 1. Dry +gardeners should not transplant squash; the taproot must not be +broken. + +_Spacing:_ The amount of room to give each plant depends on the +potential of a specific variety's maximum root development. Most +vining winter squash can completely occupy a 10-foot-diameter +circle. Sprawly heirloom summer squash varieties can desiccate an +8-or 9-foot-diameter circle. Thin each hill to one plant, not two or +more as is recommended in the average garden book. There must be no +competition for water. + +_Irrigation:_ With winter storage types, an unirrigated vine may +yield 15 pounds of squash after occupying a 10-foot-diameter circle +for an entire growing season. However, starting about July 1, if you +support that vine by supplying liquid fertilizer every two to three +weeks you may harvest 60 pounds of squash from the same area. The +first fertigation may only need 2 gallons. Then mid-July give 4; +about August 1, 8; August 15, feed 15 gallons. After that date, +solar intensity and temperatures decline, growth rate slows, and +water use also decreases. On September 1 I'd add about 8 gallons and +about 5 more on September 15 if it hadn't yet rained significantly. +Total water: 42 gallons. Total increase in yield: 45 pounds. I'd say +that's a good return on water invested. + +_Varieties:_ For winter squash, all the vining winter varieties in +the C. maxima or C. pepo family seem acceptably adapted to dry +gardening. These include Buttercup, Hubbard, Delicious, Sweet Meat, +Delicata, Spaghetti, and Acorn. I wouldn't trust any of the newer +compact bush winter varieties so popular on raised beds. Despite +their reputation for drought tolerance C. mixta varieties (or cushaw +squash) were believed to be strictly hot desert or humid-tropical +varieties, unable to mature in our cool climate. However, Pepita +(PEA) is a mixta that is early enough and seems entirely unbothered +by a complete lack of irrigation. The enormous vine sets numerous +good keepers with mild-tasting, light yellow flesh. + +Obviously, the compact bush summer squash varieties so popular these +days are not good candidates for withstanding long periods without +irrigation. The old heirlooms like Black Zucchini (ABL) (not Black +Beauty!) and warty Yellow Crookneck grow enormous, high-yielding +plants whose extent nearly rivals that of the largest winter squash. +They also grow a dense leaf cover, making the fruit a little harder +to find. These are the only American heirlooms still readily +available. Black Zucchini has become very raggedy; anyone growing it +should be prepared to plant several vines and accept that at least +one-third of them will throw rather off-type fruit. It needs the +work of a skilled plant breeder. Yellow Crookneck is still a fairly +"clean" variety offering good uniformity. Both have more flavor and +are less watery than the modern summer squash varieties. Yellow +Crookneck is especially rich, probably due to its thick, oily skin; +most gardeners who once grow the old Crookneck never again grow any +other kind. Another useful drought-tolerant variety is Gem, +sometimes called Rolet (TSC). It grows an extensive +winter-squash-like vine yielding grapefruit-size, excellent eating +summer squash. + +Both Yellow Crookneck and Black Zucchini begin yielding several +weeks later than the modern hybrids. However, as the summer goes on +they will produce quite a bit more squash than new hybrid types. I +now grow five or six fully irrigated early hybrid plants like Seneca +Zucchini too. As soon as my picking bucket is being filled with +later-to-yield Crooknecks, I pull out the Senecas and use the now +empty irrigated space for fall crops. + + +Tomato + +There's no point in elaborate methods--trellising, pruning, or +training--with dry-gardened tomato vines. Their root systems must be +allowed to control all the space they can without competition, so +allow the vines to sprawl as well. And pruning the leaf area of +indeterminates is counterproductive: to grow hugely, the roots need +food from a full complement of leaves. + +_Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time. They might +also be jump started under cloches two to three weeks before the +last frost, to make better use of natural soil moisture. + +_Spacing:_ Depends greatly on variety. The root system can occupy as +much space as the vines will cover and then some. + +_Irrigation:_ Especially on determinate varieties, periodic +fertigation will greatly increase yield and size of fruit. The old +indeterminate sprawlers will produce through an entire summer +without any supplemental moisture, but yield even more in response +to irrigation. + +_Variety:_ With or without irrigation or anywhere in between, when +growing tomatoes west of the Cascades, nothing is more important +than choosing the right variety. Not only does it have to be early +and able to set and ripen fruit when nights are cool, but to grow +through months without watering the plant must be highly +indeterminate. This makes a built-in conflict: most of the sprawly, +huge, old heirloom varieties are rather late to mature. But cherry +tomatoes are always far earlier than big slicers. + +If I had to choose only one variety it would be the old heirloom +[Large] Red Cherry. A single plant is capable of covering a 9- to +10-foot-diameter circle if fertigated from mid-July through August. +The enormous yield of a single fertigated vine is overwhelming. + +Red Cherry is a little acid and tart. Non-acid, indeterminate cherry +types like Sweetie, Sweet 100, and Sweet Millions are also workable +but not as aggressive as Red Cherry. I wouldn't depend on most bush +cherry tomato varieties. But our earliest cherry variety of all, +OSU's Gold Nugget, must grow a lot more root than top, for, with or +without supplemental water, Gold Nugget sets heavily and ripens +enormously until mid-August, when it peters out from overbearing +(not from moisture stress). Gold Nugget quits just about when the +later cherry or slicing tomatoes start ripening heavily. + +Other well-adapted early determinates such as Oregon Spring and +Santiam may disappoint you. Unless fertigated, they'll set and ripen +some fruit but may become stunted in midsummer. However, a single +indeterminate Fantastic Hybrid will cover a 6-to 7-foot-diameter +circle, and grow and ripen tomatoes until frost with only a minimum +of water. I think Stupice (ABL, TSC) and Early Cascade are also +quite workable (and earlier than Fantastic in Washington). + + + + +Chapter 6 + +My Own Garden Plan + + +This chapter illustrates and explains my own dry garden. Any garden +plan is a product of compromises and preferences; mine is not +intended to become yours. But, all modesty aside, this plan results +from 20 continuous years of serious vegetable gardening and some +small degree of regional wisdom. + +My wife and I are what I dub "vegetablitarians." Not vegetarians, or +lacto-ovo vegetarians because we're not ideologues and eat meat on +rare, usually festive occasions in other peoples' houses. But over +80 percent of our calories are from vegetable, fruit, or cereal +sources and the remaining percentage is from fats or dairy foods. +The purpose of my garden is to provide at least half the actual +calories we eat year-round; most of the rest comes from home-baked +bread made with freshly ground whole grains. I put at least one very +large bowl of salad on the table every day, winter and summer. I +keep us in potatoes nine months a year and produce a year's supply +of onions or leeks. To break the dietary monotony of November to +April, I grow as wide an assortment of winter vegetables as possible +and put most produce departments to shame from June through +September, when the summer vegies are "on." + +The garden plan may seem unusually large, but in accordance with +Solomon's First Law of Abundance, there's a great deal of +intentional waste. My garden produces two to three times the amount +of food needed during the year so moochers, poachers, guests, adult +daughters accompanied by partners, husbands, and children, mistakes, +poor yields, and failures of individual vegetables are +inconsequential. Besides, gardening is fun. + +My garden is laid out in 125-foot-long rows and one equally long +raised bed. Each row grows only one or two types of vegetables. The +central focus of my water-wise garden is its irrigation system. Two +lines of low-angle sprinklers, only 4 feet apart, straddle an +intensively irrigated raised bed running down the center of the +garden. The sprinklers I use are Naans, a unique Israeli design that +emits very little water and throws at a very low angle (available +from TSC and some garden centers). Their maximum reach is about 18 +feet; each sprinkler is about 12 feet from its neighbor. On the +garden plan, the sprinklers are indicated by a circle surrounding an +"X." Readers unfamiliar with sprinkler system design are advised to +study the irrigation chapter in Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades. + +On the far left side of the garden plan is a graphic representation +of the uneven application of water put down by this sprinkler +system. The 4-foot-wide raised bed gets lots of water, uniformly +distributed. Farther away, the amount applied decreases rapidly. +About half as much irrigation lands only 6 feet from the edge of the +raised bed as on the bed itself. Beyond that the amount tapers off +to insignificance. During summer's heat the farthest 6 feet is +barely moistened on top, but no water effectively penetrates the dry +surface. Crops are positioned according to their need for or ability +to benefit from supplementation. For convenient description I've +numbered those rows. + + +The Raised Bed + +Crops demanding the most water are grown on the raised bed. These +include a succession of lettuce plantings designed to fill the +summer salad bowl, summer spinach, spring kohlrabi, my celery patch, +scallions, Chinese cabbages, radishes, and various nursery beds that +start overwintered crops for transplanting later. Perhaps the bed +seems too large just for salad greens. But one entire meal every day +consists largely of fresh, raw, high-protein green leaves; during +summer, looseleaf or semiheading lettuce is our salad item of +choice. And our individual salad bowls are larger than most families +of six might consider adequate to serve all of them together. + +If water were severely rationed I could irrigate the raised bed with +hose and nozzle and dry garden the rest, but as it is, rows 1, 2, 7, +and 8 do get significant but lesser amounts from the sprinklers. +Most of the rows hold a single plant family needing similar +fertilization and handling or, for convenience, that are sown at the +same time. + + +Row 1 + +The row's center is about 3 feet from the edge of the raised bed. In +March I sow my very first salad greens down half this row--mostly +assorted leaf lettuce plus some spinach--and six closely spaced +early Seneca Hybrid zucchini plants. The greens are all cut by +mid-June; by mid-July my better-quality Yellow Crookneck squash come +on, so I pull the zucchini. Then I till that entire row, +refertilize, and sow half to rutabagas. The nursery bed of leek +seedlings has gotten large enough to transplant at this time, too. +These go into a trench dug into the other half of the row. The leeks +and rutabagas could be reasonably productive located farther from +the sprinklers, but no vegetables benefit more from abundant water +or are more important to a self-sufficient kitchen. Rutabagas break +the winter monotony of potatoes; leeks vitally improve winter +salads, and leeky soups are a household staple from November through +March. + + +Row 2: Semi-Drought Tolerant Brassicas + +Row 2 gets about half the irrigation of row 1 and about one-third as +much as the raised bed, and so is wider, to give the roots more +room. One-third of the row grows savoy cabbage, the rest, Brussels +sprouts. These brassicas are spaced 4 feet apart and by summer's end +the lusty sprouts form a solid hedge 4 feet tall. + + +Row 3: Kale + +Row 3 grows 125 feet of various kales sown in April. There's just +enough overspray to keep the plants from getting gnarly. I prefer +kale to not get very stunted, if only for aesthetics: on my soil, +one vanity fertigation about mid-July keeps this row looking +impressive all summer. Other gardens with poorer soil might need +more support. This much kale may seem an enormous oversupply, but +between salads and steaming greens with potatoes we manage to eat +almost all the tender small leaves it grows during winter. + + +Row 4: Root Crops + +Mostly carrots, a few beets. No irrigation, no fertigation, none +needed. One hundred carrots weighing in at around 5 pounds each and +20-some beets of equal magnitude make our year's supply for salads, +soups, and a little juicing. + + +Row 5: Dry-Gardened Salads + +This row holds a few crowns of French sorrel, a few feet of parsley. +Over a dozen giant kohlrabi are spring sown, but over half the row +grows endive. I give this row absolutely no water. Again, when +contemplating the amount of space it takes, keep in mind that this +endive and kohlrabi must help fill our salad bowls from October +through March. + + +Row 6: Peas, Overwintered Cauliflower, and All Solanaceae + +Half the row grows early bush peas. Without overhead irrigation to +bother them, unpicked pods form seed that sprouts excellently the +next year. This half of the row is rotary tilled and fertilized +again after the pea vines come out. Then it stays bare through July +while capillarity somewhat recharges the soil. About August 1, I wet +the row's surface down with hose and fan nozzle and sow overwintered +cauliflower seed. To keep the cauliflower from stunting I must +lightly hand sprinkle the row's center twice weekly through late +September. Were water more restricted I could start my cauliflower +seedlings in a nursery bed and transplant them here in October. + +The other half is home to the Solanaceae: tomato, pepper, and +eggplant. I give this row a little extra width because pea vines +run, and I fertigate my Solanaceae, preferring sprawly tomato +varieties that may cover an 8-foot-diameter circle. There's also a +couple of extra bare feet along the outside because the neighboring +grasses will deplete soil moisture along the edge of the garden. + + +Row 7: Water-Demanding Brassicas + +Moving away from irrigation on the other side of the raised bed, I +grow a succession of hybrid broccoli varieties and late fall +cauliflower. The broccoli is sown several times, 20 row-feet each +sowing, done about April 15, June 1, and July 15. The late +cauliflower goes in about July 1. If necessary I could use much of +this row for quick crops that would be harvested before I wanted to +sow broccoli or cauliflower, but I don't need more room. The first +sowings of broccoli are pulled out early enough to permit succession +sowings of arugula or other late salad greens. + + +Row 8: The Trellis + +Here I erect a 125-foot-long, 6-foot-tall net trellis for gourmet +delicacies like pole peas and pole beans. The bean vines block +almost all water that would to on beyond it and so this row gets +more irrigation than it otherwise might. The peas are harvested +early enough to permit a succession sowing of Purple Sprouting +broccoli in mid-July. Purple Sprouting needs a bit of sprinkling to +germinate in the heat of midsummer, but, being as vigorous as kale, +once up, it grows adequately on the overspray from the raised bed. +The beans would be overwhelmingly abundant if all were sown at one +time, so I plant them in two stages about three weeks apart. Still, +a great many beans go unpicked. These are allowed to form seed, are +harvested before they quite dry, and crisp under cover away from the +sprinklers. We get enough seed from this row for planting next year, +plus all the dry beans we care to eat during winter. Dry beans are +hard to digest and as we age we eat fewer and fewer of them. In +previous years I've grown entire rows of dry legume seeds at the +garden's edge. + + +Row 9: Cucurbits + +This row is so wide because here are grown all the spreading +cucurbits. The pole beans in row 8 tend to prevent overspray; this +dryness is especially beneficial to humidity-sensitive melons, +serendipitously reducing their susceptability to powdery mildew +diseases. All cucurbits are fertigated every three weeks. The squash +will have fallen apart by the end of September, melons are pulled +out by mid-September. The area is then tilled and fertilized, making +space to transplant overwintered spring cabbages, other overwintered +brassicas, and winter scallions in October. These transplants are +dug from nurseries on the irrigated raised bed. I could also set +cold frames here and force tender salad greens all winter. + + +Row 10: Unirrigated Potatoes + +This single long row satisfies a potato-loving household all winter. +The quality of these dry-gardened tubers is so high that my wife +complains if she must buy a few new potatoes from the supermarket +after our supplies have become so sprouty and/or shriveled that +they're not tasty any longer. + + + + +Chapter 7 + +The Backyard + + +Water-Wise Gardener + +I am an unusually fortunate gardener. After seven years of +struggling on one of the poorest growing sites in this region we now +live on 16 acres of mostly excellent, deep soil, on the floor of a +beautiful, coastal Oregon valley. My house and gardens are perched +safely above the 100-year flood line, there's a big, reliable well, +and if I ever want more than 20 gallons per minute in midsummer, +there's the virtually unlimited Umpqua River to draw from. Much like +a master skeet shooter who uses a .410 to make the sport more +interesting, I have chosen to dry garden. + +Few are this lucky. These days the majority of North Americans live +an urban struggle. Their houses are as often perched on steep, +thinly soiled hills or gooey, difficult clay as on a tiny fragment +of what was once prime farmland. And never does the municipal +gardener have one vital liberty I do: to choose which one-sixth of +an acre in his 14-acre "back yard" he'll garden on this year. + +I was a suburban backyard gardener for five years before deciding to +homestead. I've frequently recalled this experience while learning +to dry garden. What follows in this chapter are some strategies to +guide the urban in becoming more water-wise. + + +Water Conservation Is the Most Important First Step + +After it rains or after sprinkler irrigation, water evaporates from +the surface until a desiccated earth mulch develops. Frequent light +watering increases this type of loss. Where lettuce, radishes, and +other shallow-rooting vegetables are growing, perhaps it is best to +accept this loss or spread a thin mulch to reduce it. But most +vegetables can feed deeper, so if wetting the surface can be +avoided, a lot of water can be saved. Even sprinkling longer and +less frequently helps accomplish that. Half the reason that drip +systems are more efficient is that the surface isn't dampened and +virtually all water goes deep into the earth. The other half is that +they avoiding evaporation that occurs while water sprays through the +air between the nozzle and the soil. Sprinkling at night or early in +the morning, when there is little or no wind, prevents almost all of +this type of loss. + +To use drip irrigation it is not necessary to invest in pipes, +emitters, filters, pressure regulators, and so forth. I've already +explained how recycled plastic buckets or other large containers can +be improvised into very effective drip emitters. Besides, drip tube +systems are not trouble free: having the beds covered with fragile +pipes makes hoeing dicey, while every emitter must be periodically +checked against blockage. + +When using any type of drip system it is especially important to +relate the amount of water applied to the depth of the soil to the +crops, root development. There's no sense adding more water than the +earth can hold. Calculating the optimum amount of water to apply +from a drip system requires applying substantial, practical +intelligence to evaluating the following factors: soil water-holding +capacity and accessible depth; how deep the root systems have +developed; how broadly the water spreads out below each emitter +(dispersion); rate of loss due to transpiration. All but one of +these factors--dispersion--are adequately discussed elsewhere in +_Gardening Without Irrigation._ + +A drip emitter on sandy soil moistens the earth nearly straight down +with little lateral dispersion; 1 foot below the surface the wet +area might only be 1 foot in diameter. Conversely, when you drip +moisture into a clay soil, though the surface may seem dry, 18 +inches away from the emitter and just 3 inches down the earth may +become saturated with water, while a few inches deeper, significant +dispersion may reach out nearly 24 inches. On sandy soil, emitters +on 12-inch centers are hardly close enough together, while on clay, +30-or even 36-inch centers are sufficient. + +Another important bit of data to enter into your arithmetic: 1 cubic +foot of water equals about 5 gallons. A 12-inch-diameter circle +equals 0.75 square feet (A = Pi x Radius squared), so 1 cubic foot +of water (5 gallons) dispersed from a single emitter will add +roughly 16 inches of moisture to sandy soil, greatly overwatering a +medium that can hold only an inch or so of available water per foot. +On heavy clay, a single emitter may wet a 4-foot-diameter circle, on +loams, anywhere in between, 5 gallons will cover a 4-foot-diameter +circle about 1 inch deep. So on deep, clay soil, 10 or even 15 +gallons per application may be in order. What is the texture of your +soil, its water-holding capacity, and the dispersion of a drip into +it? Probably, it is somewhere in between sand and clay. + +I can't specify what is optimum in any particular situation. Each +gardener must consider his own unique factors and make his own +estimation. All I can do is stress again that the essence of +water-wise gardening is water conservation. + + +Optimizing Space: Planning the Water-Wise Backyard Garden + +Intensive gardening is a strategy holding that yield per square foot +is the supreme goal; it succeeds by optimizing as many growth +factors as possible. So a raised bed is loosened very deeply without +concern for the amount of labor, while fertility and moisture are +supplied virtually without limit. Intensive gardening makes sense +when land is very costly and the worth of the food grown is judged +against organic produce at retail--and when water and nutrients are +inexpensive and/or available in unlimited amounts. + +When water use is reduced, yield inevitably drops proportionately. +The backyard water-wise gardener, then, must logically ask which +vegetable species will give him enough food or more economic value +with limited space and water. Taking maritime Northwest rainfall +patterns into consideration, here's my best estimation: + + +Water-Wise Efficiency of Vegetable Crops + +(in terms of backyard usage of space and moisture) + + +EFFICIENT ENOUGH + + +Early spring-sown crops: peas, broccoli, lettuce, radishes, savoy +cabbage, kohlrabi + +Overwintered crops: onions, broccoli cauliflower, +cabbage, favas beans + +Endive Kale + +Garden sorrel + +Indeterminate tomatoes + +Giant kohlrabi + +Parsley--leaf and root + +heirloom summer squash (sprawly) + +Pole beans + +Herbs: marjoram, thyme, dill, cilantro, fennel, oregano + +Root crops: carrots, beets, parsnips + + +MARGINAL + + +Brussels sprouts (late) + +Potatoes + +Determinate tomatoes + +Rutabagas + +Eggplant + +Leeks + +Leeks + +Savoy cabbage (late) + +Peppers, small fruited + + +INEFFICIENT + + +Beans, bush snap + +Peppers, bell + +Broccoli, summer + +Radishes + +Cauliflower + +Scallions, bulb onions + +Celery + +Sweet corn + +Lettuce + +Turnips + +Have fun planning your own water-wise garden! + + + + + +More Reading + +About the Interlibrary Loan Service + + +Agricultural books, especially older ones, are not usually available +at local libraries. But most municipal libraries and all +universities offer access to an on-line database listing the +holdings of other cooperating libraries throughout the United +States. Almost any book published in this century will be promptly +mailed to the requesting library. Anyone who is serious about +learning by reading should discover how easy and inexpensive (or +free) it is to use the Interlibrary Loan Service. + +Carter, Vernon Gill, and Tom, Dale. _Topsoil and Civilization._ + +Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. + +The history of civilization's destruction of one ecosystem after +another by plowing and deforestation, and its grave implications for +our country's long-term survival. + +Cleveland, David A., and Daniela Soleri. _Food from Dryland Gardens: +An Ecological, Nutritional and Social Approach to Small-Scale +Household Food Production._ Tucson: Center for People, Food and +Environment, 1991. + +World-conscious survey of low-tech food production in semiarid +regions. + +Faulkner, Edward H. _Plowman's Folly._ Norman, Okla.: University of +Oklahoma Press, 1943. + +This book created quite a controversy in the 1940s. Faulkner +stresses the vital importance of capillarity. He explains how +conventional plowing stops this moisture flow. + +Foth, Henry D. _Fundamentals of Soil Science._ Eighth Edition. New +York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990. + +A thorough yet readable basic soil science text at a level +comfortable for university non-science majors. + +Hamaker, John. D. _The Survival of Civilization._ Annotated by +Donald A. Weaver. Michigan/California: Hamaker-Weaver Publishers, +1982. + +Hamaker contradicts our current preoccupation with global warming +and makes a believable case that a new epoch of planetary glaciation +is coming, caused by an increase in greenhouse gas. The book is also +a guide to soil enrichment with rock powders. + +Nabhan, Gary. _The Desert Smells like Rain: A Naturalist in Papago +Indian Country._ San Francisco: North Point Press, 1962. + +Describes regionally useful Native American dry-gardening techniques + +Russell, Sir E. John. _Soil Conditions and Plant Growth._ Eighth +Edition. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1950. + +Probably the finest, most human soil science text ever written. +Russell avoids unnecessary mathematics and obscure terminology. I do +not recommend the recent in-print edition, revised and enlarged by a +committee. + +Smith, J. Russell. Tree Crops: a Permanent Agriculture. New York: +Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1929. + +Smith's visionary solution to upland erosion is growing unirrigated +tree crops that produce cereal-like foods and nuts. Should sit on +the "family bible shelf" of every permaculturalist. + +Solomon, Stephen J. _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades._ +Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1989. + +The complete regional gardening textbook. + +-------------------------. _Backyard Composting._ Portland, Ore.: +George van Patten Publishing, 1992. + +Especially useful for its unique discussion of the overuse of +compost and a nonideological approach to raising the most nutritious +food possible. + +Stout, Ruth. _Gardening Without Work for the Aging, the Busy and the +Indolent._ Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair, 1961. + +Stout presents the original thesis of permanent mulching. + +Turner, Frank Newman. _Fertility, Pastures and Cover Crops Based on +Nature's Own Balanced Organic Pasture Feeds._ San Diego: Rateaver, +1975. Reprinted from the 1955 Faber and Faber, edition. + +Organic farming using long rotations, including deeply rooted green +manures developed to a high art. Turner maintained a productive +organic dairy farm using subsoiling and long rotations involving +tilled crops and semipermanent grass/herb mixtures. + +ven der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David K. Todd. _The Water +Encyclopedia, Second Edition._ Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, +1990. + +Reference data concerning every possible aspect of water. + +Weaver, John E., and William E. Bruner. _Root Development of +Vegetable Crops._ New York: McGraw-Hill, 1927. + +Contains very interesting drawings showing the amazing depth and +extent that vegetable roots are capable of in favorable soil. + +Widtsoe, John A. _Dry Farming: A System of Agriculture for Countries +Under Low Rainfall._ New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920. + +The best single review ever made of the possibilities of dry farming +and dry gardening, sagely discussing the scientific basis behind the +techniques. The quality of Widtsoe's understanding proves that newer +is not necessarily better. + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gardening Without Irrigation: or +without much, anyway, by Steve Solomon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GARDENING WITHOUT IRRIGATION *** + +***** This file should be named 4512.txt or 4512.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/4/5/1/4512/ + +Produced by Steve Solomon. HTML version by Al Haines. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Hart +and may be reprinted only when these Etexts are free of all fees.] +[Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be used in any sales +of Project Gutenberg Etexts or other materials be they hardware or +software or any other related product without express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.10/04/01*END* + + + + + + +Created by: Steve Solomon ssolomon@soilandhealth.org + + + + +Cascadia Gardening Series + +Gardening Without Irrigation: or without much, anyway + +Steve Solomon + + + + + + +Introduction + +Starting a New Gardening Era + + + + + +First, you should know why a maritime Northwest raised-bed gardener +named Steve Solomon became worried about his dependence on +irrigation. + +I'm from Michigan. I moved to Lorane, Oregon, in April 1978 and +homesteaded on 5 acres in what I thought at the time was a cool, +showery green valley of liquid sunshine and rainbows. I intended to +put in a big garden and grow as much of my own food as possible. + +Two months later, in June, just as my garden began needing water, my +so-called 15-gallon-per-minute well began to falter, yielding less +and less with each passing week. By August it delivered about 3 +gallons per minute. Fortunately, I wasn't faced with a completely +dry well or one that had shrunk to below 1 gallon per minute, as I +soon discovered many of my neighbors were cursed with. Three gallons +per minute won't supply a fan nozzle or even a common impulse +sprinkler, but I could still sustain my big raised-bed garden by +watering all night, five or six nights a week, with a single, 2-1/2 +gallon-per-minute sprinkler that I moved from place to place. + +I had repeatedly read that gardening in raised beds was the most +productive vegetable growing method, required the least work, and +was the most water-efficient system ever known. So, without adequate +irrigation, I would have concluded that food self-sufficiency on my +homestead was not possible. In late September of that first year, I +could still run that single sprinkler. What a relief not to have +invested every last cent in land that couldn't feed us. + +For many succeeding years at Lorane, I raised lots of organically +grown food on densely planted raised beds, but the realities of +being a country gardener continued to remind me of how tenuous my +irrigation supply actually was. We country folks have to be +self-reliant: I am my own sanitation department, I maintain my own +800-foot-long driveway, the septic system puts me in the sewage +business. A long, long response time to my 911 call means I'm my own +self-defense force. And I'm my own water department. + +Without regular and heavy watering during high summer, dense stands +of vegetables become stunted in a matter of days. Pump failure has +brought my raised-bed garden close to that several times. Before my +frantic efforts got the water flowing again, I could feel the +stressed-out garden screaming like a hungry baby. + +As I came to understand our climate, I began to wonder about +_complete_ food self-sufficiency. How did the early pioneers +irrigate their vegetables? There probably aren't more than a +thousand homestead sites in the entire martitime Northwest with +gravity water. Hand pumping into hand-carried buckets is impractical +and extremely tedious. Wind-powered pumps are expensive and have +severe limits. + +The combination of dependably rainless summers, the realities of +self-sufficient living, and my homestead's poor well turned out to +be an opportunity. For I continued wondering about gardens and +water, and discovered a method for growing a lush, productive +vegetable garden on deep soil with little or no irrigation, in a +climate that reliably provides 8 to 12 virtually dry weeks every +summer. + +Gardening with Less Irrigation + +Being a garden writer, I was on the receiving end of quite a bit of +local lore. I had heard of someone growing unirrigated carrots on +sandy soil in southern Oregon by sowing early and spacing the roots +1 foot apart in rows 4 feet apart. The carrots were reputed to grow +to enormous sizes, and the overall yield in pounds per square foot +occupied by the crop was not as low as one might think. I read that +Native Americans in the Southwest grew remarkable desert gardens +with little or no water. And that Native South Americans in the +highlands of Peru and Bolivia grow food crops in a land with 8 to 12 +inches of rainfall. So I had to wonder what our own pioneers did. + +In 1987, we moved 50 miles south, to a much better homestead with +more acreage and an abundant well. Ironically, only then did I grow +my first summertime vegetable without irrigation. Being a low-key +survivalist at heart, I was working at growing my own seeds. The +main danger to attaining good germination is in repeatedly +moistening developing seed. So, in early March 1988, I moved six +winter-surviving savoy cabbage plants far beyond the irrigated soil +of my raised-bed vegetable garden. I transplanted them 4 feet apart +because blooming brassicas make huge sprays of flower stalks. I did +not plan to water these plants at all, since cabbage seed forms +during May and dries down during June as the soil naturally dries +out. + +That is just what happened. Except that one plant did something a +little unusual, though not unheard of. Instead of completely going +into bloom and then dying after setting a massive load of seed, this +plant also threw a vegetative bud that grew a whole new cabbage +among the seed stalks. + +With increasing excitement I watched this head grow steadily larger +through the hottest and driest summer I had ever experienced. +Realizing I was witnessing revelation, I gave the plant absolutely +no water, though I did hoe out the weeds around it after I cut the +seed stalks. I harvested the unexpected lesson at the end of +September. The cabbage weighed in at 6 or 7 pounds and was sweet and +tender. + +Up to that time, all my gardening had been on thoroughly and +uniformly watered raised beds. Now I saw that elbow room might be +the key to gardening with little or no irrigating, so I began +looking for more information about dry gardening and soil/water +physics. In spring 1989, I tilled four widely separated, unirrigated +experimental rows in which I tested an assortment of vegetable +species spaced far apart in the row. Out of curiosity I decided to +use absolutely no water at all, not even to sprinkle the seeds to +get them germinating. + +I sowed a bit of kale, savoy cabbage, Purple Sprouting broccoli, +carrots, beets, parsnips, parsley, endive, dry beans, potatoes, +French sorrel, and a couple of field cornstalks. I also tested one +compactbush (determinate) and one sprawling (indeterminate) tomato +plant. Many of these vegetables grew surprisingly well. I ate +unwatered tomatoes July through September; kale, cabbages, parsley, +and root crops fed us during the winter. The Purple Sprouting +broccoli bloomed abundantly the next March. + +In terms of quality, all the harvest was acceptable. The root +vegetables were far larger but only a little bit tougher and quite a +bit sweeter than usual. The potatoes yielded less than I'd been used +to and had thicker than usual skin, but also had a better flavor and +kept well through the winter. + +The following year I grew two parallel gardens. One, my "insurance +garden," was thoroughly irrigated, guaranteeing we would have plenty +to eat. Another experimental garden of equal size was entirely +unirrigated. There I tested larger plots of species that I hoped +could grow through a rainless summer. + +By July, growth on some species had slowed to a crawl and they +looked a little gnarly. Wondering if a hidden cause of what appeared +to be moisture stress might actually be nutrient deficiencies, I +tried spraying liquid fertilizer directly on these gnarly leaves, a +practice called foliar feeding. It helped greatly because, I +reasoned, most fertility is located in the topsoil, and when it gets +dry the plants draw on subsoil moisture, so surface nutrients, +though still present in the dry soil, become unobtainable. That +being so, I reasoned that some of these species might do even better +if they had just a little fertilized water. So I improvised a simple +drip system and metered out 4 or 5 gallons of liquid fertilizer to +some of the plants in late July and four gallons more in August. To +some species, extra fertilized water (what I call "fertigation") +hardly made any difference at all. But unirrigated winter squash +vines, which were small and scraggly and yielded about 15 pounds of +food, grew more lushly when given a few 5-gallon, +fertilizer-fortified assists and yielded 50 pounds. Thirty-five +pounds of squash for 25 extra gallons of water and a bit of extra +nutrition is a pretty good exchange in my book. + +The next year I integrated all this new information into just one +garden. Water-loving species like lettuce and celery were grown +through the summer on a large, thoroughly irrigated raised bed. The +rest of the garden was given no irrigation at all or minimally +metered-out fertigations. Some unirrigated crops were foliar fed +weekly. + +Everything worked in 1991! And I found still other species that I +could grow surprisingly well on surprisingly small amounts of +water[--]or none at all. So, the next year, 1992, I set up a +sprinkler system to water the intensive raised bed and used the +overspray to support species that grew better with some moisture +supplementation; I continued using my improvised drip system to help +still others, while keeping a large section of the garden entirely +unwatered. And at the end of that summer I wrote this book. + +What follows is not mere theory, not something I read about or saw +others do. These techniques are tested and workable. The +next-to-last chapter of this book contains a complete plan of my +1992 garden with explanations and discussion of the reasoning behind +it. + +In _Water-Wise Vegetables _I assume that my readers already are +growing food (probably on raised beds), already know how to adjust +their gardening to this region's climate, and know how to garden +with irrigation. If you don't have this background I suggest you +read my other garden book, _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades,_ (Sasquatch Books, 1989). + +Steve Solomon + + + + + + +Chapter 1 + +Predictably Rainless Summers + + + + + +In the eastern United States, summertime rainfall can support +gardens without irrigation but is just irregular enough to be +worrisome. West of the Cascades we go into the summer growing season +certain we must water regularly. + +My own many-times-revised book _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades_ correctly emphasized that moisture-stressed vegetables +suffer greatly. Because I had not yet noticed how plant spacing +affects soil moisture loss, in that book I stated a half-truth as +law: Soil moisture loss averages 1-1/2 inches per week during +summer. + +This figure is generally true for raised-bed gardens west of the +Cascades, so I recommended adding 1 1/2 inches of water each week +and even more during really hot weather. + +Summertime Rainfall West of the Cascades (in inches)* + +Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. +Eureka, CA 3.0 2.1 0.7 0.1 0.3 0.7 3.2 +Medford, OR 1.0 1.4 0.98 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.1 +Eugene, OR 2.3 2.1 1.3 0.3 0.6 1.3 4.0 +Portland, OR 2.2 2.1 1.6 0.5 0.8 1.6 3.6 +Astoria, OR 4.6 2.7 2.5 1.0 1.5 2.8 6.8 +Olympia, WA 3.1 1.9 1.6 0.7 1.2 2.1 5.3 +Seattle, WA 2.4 1.7 1.6 0.8 1.0 2.1 4.0 +Bellingham, WA 2.3 1.8 1.9 1.0 1.1 2.0 3.7 +Vancouver, BC 3.3 2.8 2.5 1.2 1.7 3.6 5.8 +Victoria, BC 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.4 0.6 1.5 2.8 + +*Source: Van der Leeden et al., _The Water Encyclopedia,_ 2nd +ed., (Chelsea, Mich.:Lewis Publishers, 1990). + +Defined scientifically, drought is not lack of rain. It is a dry +soil condition in which plant growth slows or stops and plant +survival may be threatened. The earth loses water when wind blows, +when sun shines, when air temperature is high, and when humidity is +low. Of all these factors, air temperature most affects soil +moisture loss. + +Daily Maximum Temperature (F)* + +July/August Average + +Eureka, CA 61 +Medford, OR 89 +Eugene, OR 82 +Astoria, OR 68 +Olympia, WA 78 +Seattle, WA 75 +Bellingham, WA 74 +Vancouver, BC 73 +Victoria, BC 68 + +*Source: The Water Encyclopedia. + +The kind of vegetation growing on a particular plot and its density +have even more to do with soil moisture loss than temperature or +humidity or wind speed. And, surprising as it might seem, bare soil +may not lose much moisture at all. I now know it is next to +impossible to anticipate moisture loss from soil without first +specifying the vegetation there. Evaporation from a large body of +water, however, is mainly determined by weather, so reservoir +evaporation measurements serve as a rough gauge of anticipated soil +moisture loss. + +Evaporation from Reservoirs (inches per month)* + +Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct +Seattle, WA 2.1 2.7 3.4 3.9 3.4 2.6 1.6 +Baker, OR 2.5 3.4 4.4 6.9 7.3 4.9 2.9 +Sacramento, CA 3.6 5.0 7.1 8.9 8.6 7.1 4.8 + +*Source: _The Water Encyclopedia_ + +From May through September during a normal year, a reservoir near +Seattle loses about 16 inches of water by evaporation. The next +chart shows how much water farmers expect to use to support +conventional agriculture in various parts of the West. Comparing +this data for Seattle with the estimates based on reservoir +evaporation shows pretty good agreement. I include data for Umatilla +and Yakima to show that much larger quantities of irrigation water +are needed in really hot, arid places like Baker or Sacramento. + +Estimated Irrigation Requirements: + +During Entire Growing Season (in inches)* + +Location Duration Amount +Umatilla/Yakama Valley April-October 30 +Willamette Valley May-September 16 +Puget Sound May-September 14 +Upper Rogue/Upper Umpqua Valley March-September 18 +Lower Rogue/Lower Coquille Valley May-September 11 +NW California April-October 17 + +*Source: _The Water Encyclopedia_ + +In our region, gardens lose far more water than they get from +rainfall during the summer growing season. At first glance, it seems +impossible to garden without irrigation west of the Cascades. But +there is water already present in the soil when the gardening season +begins. By creatively using and conserving this moisture, some +maritime Northwest gardeners can go through an entire summer without +irrigating very much, and with some crops, irrigating not at all. + + + + + + +Chapter 2 + +Water-Wise Gardening Science + +Plants Are Water + + + + + +Like all other carbon-based life forms on earth, plants conduct +their chemical processes in a water solution. Every substance that +plants transport is dissolved in water. When insoluble starches and +oils are required for plant energy, enzymes change them back into +water-soluble sugars for movement to other locations. Even cellulose +and lignin, insoluble structural materials that plants cannot +convert back into soluble materials, are made from molecules that +once were in solution. + +Water is so essential that when a plant can no longer absorb as much +water as it is losing, it wilts in self-defense. The drooping leaves +transpire (evaporate) less moisture because the sun glances off +them. Some weeds can wilt temporarily and resume vigorous growth as +soon as their water balance is restored. But most vegetable species +aren't as tough-moisture stressed vegetables may survive, but once +stressed, the quality of their yield usually drops markedly. + +Yet in deep, open soil west of the Cascades, most vegetable species +may be grown quite successfully with very little or no supplementary +irrigation and without mulching, because they're capable of being +supplied entirely by water already stored in the soil. + +Soil's Water-Holding Capacity + +Soil is capable of holding on to quite a bit of water, mostly by +adhesion. For example, I'm sure that at one time or another you have +picked up a wet stone from a river or by the sea. A thin film of +water clings to its surface. This is adhesion. The more surface area +there is, the greater the amount of moisture that can be held by +adhesion. If we crushed that stone into dust, we would greatly +increase the amount of water that could adhere to the original +material. Clay particles, it should be noted, are so small that +clay's ability to hold water is not as great as its mathematically +computed surface area would indicate. + +Surface Area of One Gram of Soil Particles + +Particle type Diameter of particles in mm Number of particles per gm +Surface area in sq. cm. + +Very coarse sand 2.00-1.00 90 11 +Coarse sand 1.00-0.50 720 23 +Medium sand 0.50-0.25 5,700 45 +Fine sand 0.25-0.10 46,000 91 +Very fine sand 0.10-0.05 772,000 227 +Silt 0.05-0.002 5,776,000 454 +Clay Below 0.002 90,260,853,000 8,000,000 + +Source: Foth, Henry D., _Fundamentals of Soil Science,_ 8th ed. + +(New York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990). + +This direct relationship between particle size, surface area, and +water-holding capacity is so essential to understanding plant growth +that the surface areas presented by various sizes of soil particles +have been calculated. Soils are not composed of a single size of +particle. If the mix is primarily sand, we call it a sandy soil. If +the mix is primarily clay, we call it a clay soil. If the soil is a +relatively equal mix of all three, containing no more than 35 +percent clay, we call it a loam. + +Available Moisture (inches of water per foot of soil) + +Soil Texture Average Amount +Very coarse sand 0.5 +Coarse sand 0.7 +Sandy 1.0 +Sandy loam 1.4 +Loam 2.0 +Clay loam 2.3 +Silty clay 2.5 +Clay 2.7 + +Source: _Fundamentals of Soil Science_. + +Adhering water films can vary greatly in thickness. But if the water +molecules adhering to a soil particle become too thick, the force of +adhesion becomes too weak to resist the force of gravity, and some +water flows deeper into the soil. When water films are relatively +thick the soil feels wet and plant roots can easily absorb moisture. +"Field capacity" is the term describing soil particles holding all +the water they can against the force of gravity. + +At the other extreme, the thinner the water films become, the more +tightly they adhere and the drier the earth feels. At some degree of +desiccation, roots are no longer forceful enough to draw on soil +moisture as fast as the plants are transpiring. This condition is +called the "wilting point." The term "available moisture" refers to +the difference between field capacity and the amount of moisture +left after the plants have died. + +Clayey soil can provide plants with three times as much available +water as sand, six times as much as a very coarse sandy soil. It +might seem logical to conclude that a clayey garden would be the +most drought resistant. But there's more to it. For some crops, deep +sandy loams can provide just about as much usable moisture as clays. +Sandy soils usually allow more extensive root development, so a +plant with a naturally aggressive and deep root system may be able +to occupy a much larger volume of sandy loam, ultimately coming up +with more moisture than it could obtain from a heavy, airless clay. +And sandy loams often have a clayey, moisture-rich subsoil. + +_Because of this interplay of factors, how much available water your +own unique garden soil is actually capable of providing and how much +you will have to supplement it with irrigation can only be +discovered by trial._ + +How Soil Loses Water + +Suppose we tilled a plot about April 1 and then measured soil +moisture loss until October. Because plants growing around the edge +might extend roots into our test plot and extract moisture, we'll +make our tilled area 50 feet by 50 feet and make all our +measurements in the center. And let's locate this imaginary plot in +full sun on flat, uniform soil. And let's plant absolutely nothing +in this bare earth. And all season let's rigorously hoe out every +weed while it is still very tiny. + +Let's also suppose it's been a typical maritime Northwest rainy +winter, so on April 1 the soil is at field capacity, holding all the +moisture it can. From early April until well into September the hot +sun will beat down on this bare plot. Our summer rains generally +come in insignificant installments and do not penetrate deeply; all +of the rain quickly evaporates from the surface few inches without +recharging deeper layers. Most readers would reason that a soil +moisture measurement taken 6 inches down on September 1, should show +very little water left. One foot down seems like it should be just +as dry, and in fact, most gardeners would expect that there would be +very little water found in the soil until we got down quite a few +feet if there were several feet of soil. + +But that is not what happens! The hot sun does dry out the surface +inches, but if we dig down 6 inches or so there will be almost as +much water present in September as there was in April. Bare earth +does not lose much water at all. _Once a thin surface layer is +completely desiccated, be it loose or compacted, virtually no +further loss of moisture can occur._ + +The only soils that continue to dry out when bare are certain kinds +of very heavy clays that form deep cracks. These ever-deepening +openings allow atmospheric air to freely evaporate additional +moisture. But if the cracks are filled with dust by surface +cultivation, even this soil type ceases to lose water. + +Soil functions as our bank account, holding available water in +storage. In our climate soil is inevitably charged to capacity by +winter rains, and then all summer growing plants make heavy +withdrawals. But hot sun and wind working directly on soil don't +remove much water; that is caused by hot sun and wind working on +plant leaves, making them transpire moisture drawn from the earth +through their root systems. Plants desiccate soil to the ultimate +depth and lateral extent of their rooting ability, and then some. +The size of vegetable root systems is greater than most gardeners +would think. The amount of moisture potentially available to sustain +vegetable growth is also greater than most gardeners think. + +Rain and irrigation are not the only ways to replace soil moisture. +If the soil body is deep, water will gradually come up from below +the root zone by capillarity. Capillarity works by the very same +force of adhesion that makes moisture stick to a soil particle. A +column of water in a vertical tube (like a thin straw) adheres to +the tube's inner surfaces. This adhesion tends to lift the edges of +the column of water. As the tube's diameter becomes smaller the +amount of lift becomes greater. Soil particles form interconnected +pores that allow an inefficient capillary flow, recharging dry soil +above. However, the drier soil becomes, the less effective capillary +flow becomes. _That is why a thoroughly desiccated surface layer +only a few inches thick acts as a powerful mulch._ + +Industrial farming and modern gardening tend to discount the +replacement of surface moisture by capillarity, considering this +flow an insignificant factor compared with the moisture needs of +crops. But conventional agriculture focuses on maximized yields +through high plant densities. Capillarity is too slow to support +dense crop stands where numerous root systems are competing, but +when a single plant can, without any competition, occupy a large +enough area, moisture replacement by capillarity becomes +significant. + +How Plants Obtain Water + +Most gardeners know that plants acquire water and minerals through +their root systems, and leave it at that. But the process is not +quite that simple. The actively growing, tender root tips and almost +microscopic root hairs close to the tip absorb most of the plant's +moisture as they occupy new territory. As the root continues to +extend, parts behind the tip cease to be effective because, as soil +particles in direct contact with these tips and hairs dry out, the +older roots thicken and develop a bark, while most of the absorbent +hairs slough off. This rotation from being actively foraging tissue +to becoming more passive conductive and supportive tissue is +probably a survival adaptation, because the slow capillary movement +of soil moisture fails to replace what the plant used as fast as the +plant might like. The plant is far better off to aggressively seek +new water in unoccupied soil than to wait for the soil its roots +already occupy to be recharged. + +A simple bit of old research magnificently illustrated the +significance of this. A scientist named Dittmer observed in 1937 +that a single potted ryegrass plant allocated only 1 cubic foot of +soil to grow in made about 3 miles of new roots and root hairs every +day. (Ryegrasses are known to make more roots than most plants.) I +calculate that a cubic foot of silty soil offers about 30,000 square +feet of surface area to plant roots. If 3 miles of microscopic root +tips and hairs (roughly 16,000 lineal feet) draws water only from a +few millimeters of surrounding soil, then that single rye plant +should be able to continue ramifying into a cubic foot of silty soil +and find enough water for quite a few days before wilting. These +arithmetical estimates agree with my observations in the garden, and +with my experiences raising transplants in pots. + +Lowered Plant Density: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening + +I always think my latest try at writing a near-perfect garden book +is quite a bit better than the last. _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades_, recommended somewhat wider spacings on raised beds than I +did in 1980 because I'd repeatedly noticed that once a leaf canopy +forms, plant growth slows markedly. Adding a little more fertilizer +helps after plants "bump," but still the rate of growth never equals +that of younger plants. For years I assumed crowded plants stopped +producing as much because competition developed for light. But now I +see that unseen competition for root room also slows them down. Even +if moisture is regularly recharged by irrigation, and although +nutrients are replaced, once a bit of earth has been occupied by the +roots of one plant it is not so readily available to the roots of +another. So allocating more elbow room allows vegetables to get +larger and yield longer and allows the gardener to reduce the +frequency of irrigations. + +Though hot, baking sun and wind can desiccate the few inches of +surface soil, withdrawals of moisture from greater depths are made +by growing plants transpiring moisture through their leaf surfaces. +The amount of water a growing crop will transpire is determined +first by the nature of the species itself, then by the amount of +leaf exposed to sun, air temperature, humidity, and wind. In these +respects, the crop is like an automobile radiator. With cars, the +more metal surfaces, the colder the ambient air, and the higher the +wind speed, the better the radiator can cool; in the garden, the +more leaf surfaces, the faster, warmer, and drier the wind, and the +brighter the sunlight, the more water is lost through transpiration. + +Dealing with a Surprise Water Shortage + +Suppose you are growing a conventional, irrigated garden and +something unanticipated interrupts your ability to water. Perhaps +you are homesteading and your well begins to dry up. Perhaps you're +a backyard gardener and the municipality temporarily restricts +usage. What to do? + +First, if at all possible before the restrictions take effect, water +very heavily and long to ensure there is maximum subsoil moisture. +Then eliminate all newly started interplantings and ruthlessly hoe +out at least 75 percent of the remaining immature plants and about +half of those about two weeks away from harvest. + +For example, suppose you've got a a 4-foot-wide intensive bed +holding seven rows of broccoli on 12 inch centers, or about 21 +plants. Remove at least every other row and every other plant in the +three or four remaining rows. Try to bring plant density down to +those described in Chapter 5, "How to Grow It: A-Z" + +Then shallowly hoe the soil every day or two to encourage the +surface inches to dry out and form a dust mulch. You water-wise +person--you're already dry gardening--now start fertigating. + +How long available soil water will sustain a crop is determined by +how many plants are drawing on the reserve, how extensively their +root systems develop, and how many leaves are transpiring the +moisture. If there are no plants, most of the water will stay unused +in the barren soil through the entire growing season. If a crop +canopy is established midway through the growing season, the rate of +water loss will approximate that listed in the table in Chapter 1 +"Estimated Irrigation Requirement." If by very close planting the +crop canopy is established as early as possible and maintained by +successive interplantings, as is recommended by most advocates of +raised-bed gardening, water losses will greatly exceed this rate. + +Many vegetable species become mildly stressed when soil moisture has +dropped about half the way from capacity to the wilting point. On +very closely planted beds a crop can get in serious trouble without +irrigation in a matter of days. But if that same crop were planted +less densely, it might grow a few weeks without irrigation. And if +that crop were planted even farther apart so that no crop canopy +ever developed and a considerable amount of bare, dry earth were +showing, this apparent waste of growing space would result in an +even slower rate of soil moisture depletion. On deep, open soil the +crop might yield a respectable amount without needing any irrigation +at all. + +West of the Cascades we expect a rainless summer; the surprise comes +that rare rainy year when the soil stays moist and we gather +bucketfuls of chanterelle mushrooms in early October. Though the +majority of maritime Northwest gardeners do not enjoy deep, open, +moisture-retentive soils, all except those with the shallowest soil +can increase their use of the free moisture nature provides and +lengthen the time between irrigations. The next chapter discusses +making the most of whatever soil depth you have. Most of our +region's gardens can yield abundantly without any rain at all if +only we reduce competition for available soil moisture, judiciously +fertigate some vegetable species, and practice a few other +water-wise tricks. + +_Would lowering plant density as much as this book suggests equally +lower the yield of the plot? Surprisingly, the amount harvested does +not drop proportionately. In most cases having a plant density +one-eighth of that recommended by intensive gardening advocates will +result in a yield about half as great as on closely planted raised +beds._ + +Internet Readers: In the print copy of this book are color pictures +of my own "irrigationless" garden. Looking at them about here in the +book would add reality to these ideas. + + + + + + +Chapter 3 + +Helping Plants to Need Less Irrigation + + + + + +Dry though the maritime Northwest summer is, we enter the growing +season with our full depth of soil at field capacity. Except on +clayey soils in extraordinarily frosty, high-elevation locations, we +usually can till and plant before the soil has had a chance to lose +much moisture. + +There are a number of things we can do to make soil moisture more +available to our summer vegetables. The most obvious step is +thorough weeding. Next, we can keep the surface fluffed up with a +rotary tiller or hoe during April and May, to break its capillary +connection with deeper soil and accelerate the formation of a dry +dust mulch. Usually, weeding forces us to do this anyway. Also, if +it should rain during summer, we can hoe or rotary till a day or two +later and again help a new dust mulch to develop. + +Building Bigger Root Systems + +Without irrigation, most of the plant's water supply is obtained by +expansion into new earth that hasn't been desiccated by other +competing roots. Eliminating any obstacles to rapid growth of root +systems is the key to success. So, keep in mind a few facts about +how roots grow and prosper. + +The air supply in soil limits or allows root growth. Unlike the +leaves, roots do not perform photosynthesis, breaking down carbon +dioxide gas into atmospheric oxygen and carbon. Yet root cells must +breathe oxygen. This is obtained from the air held in spaces between +soil particles. Many other soil-dwelling life forms from bacteria to +moles compete for this same oxygen. Consequently, soil oxygen levels +are lower than in the atmosphere. A slow exchange of gases does +occur between soil air and free atmosphere, but deeper in the soil +there will inevitably be less oxygen. Different plant species have +varying degrees of root tolerance for lack of oxygen, but they all +stop growing at some depth. Moisture reserves below the roots' +maximum depth beecome relatively inaccessible. + +Soil compaction reduces the overall supply and exchange of soil air. +Compacted soil also acts as a mechanical barrier to root system +expansion. When gardening with unlimited irrigation or where rain +falls frequently, it is quite possible to have satisfactory growth +when only the surface 6 or 7 inches of soil facilitates root +development. When gardening with limited water, China's the limit, +because if soil conditions permit, many vegetable species are +capable of reaching 4, 5, and 8 eight feet down to find moisture and +nutrition. + +Evaluating Potential Rooting Ability + +One of the most instructive things a water-wise gardener can do is +to rent or borrow a hand-operated fence post auger and bore a +3-foot-deep hole. It can be even more educational to buy a short +section of ordinary water pipe to extend the auger's reach another 2 +or 3 feet down. In soil free of stones, using an auger is more +instructive than using a conventional posthole digger or shoveling +out a small pit, because where soil is loose, the hole deepens +rapidly. Where any layer is even slightly compacted, one turns and +turns the bit without much effect. Augers also lift the materials +more or less as they are stratified. If your soil is somewhat stony +(like much upland soil north of Centralia left by the Vashon +Glacier), the more usual fence-post digger or common shovel works +better. + +If you find more than 4 feet of soil, the site holds a dry-gardening +potential that increases with the additional depth. Some soils along +the floodplains of rivers or in broad valleys like the Willamette or +Skagit can be over 20 feet deep, and hold far more water than the +deepest roots could draw or capillary flow could raise during an +entire growing season. Gently sloping land can often carry 5 to 7 +feet of open, usable soil. However, soils on steep hillsides become +increasingly thin and fragile with increasing slope. + +Whether an urban, suburban, or rural gardener, you should make no +assumptions about the depth and openness of the soil at your +disposal. Dig a test hole. If you find less than 2 unfortunate feet +of open earth before hitting an impermeable obstacle such as rock or +gravel, not much water storage can occur and the only use this book +will hold for you is to guide your move to a more likely gardening +location or encourage the house hunter to seek further. Of course, +you can still garden quite successfully on thin soil in the +conventional, irrigated manner. _Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades_ will be an excellent guide for this type of situation. + +Eliminating Plowpan + +Deep though the soil may be, any restriction of root expansion +greatly limits the ability of plants to aggressively find water. A +compacted subsoil or even a thin compressed layer such as plowpan +may function as such a barrier. Though moisture will still rise +slowly by capillarity and recharge soil above plowpan, plants obtain +much more water by rooting into unoccupied, damp soil. Soils close +to rivers or on floodplains may appear loose and infinitely deep but +may hide subsoil streaks of droughty gravel that effectively stops +root growth. Some of these conditions are correctable and some are +not. + +Plowpan is very commonly encountered by homesteaders on farm soils +and may be found in suburbia too, but fortunately it is the easiest +obstacle to remedy. Traditionally, American croplands have been +tilled with the moldboard plow. As this implement first cuts and +then flips a 6-or 7-inch-deep slice of soil over, the sole--the part +supporting the plow's weight--presses heavily on the earth about 7 +inches below the surface. With each subsequent plowing the plow sole +rides at the same 7-inch depth and an even more compacted layer +develops. Once formed plowpan prevents the crop from rooting into +the subsoil. Since winter rains leach nutrients from the topsoil and +deposit them in the subsoil, plowpan prevents access to these +nutrients and effectively impoverishes the field. So wise farmers +periodically use a subsoil plow to fracture the pan. + +Plowpan can seem as firm as a rammed-earth house; once established, +it can last a long, long time. My own garden land is part of what +was once an old wheat farm, one of the first homesteads of the +Oregon Territory. From about 1860 through the 1930s, the field +produced small grains. After wheat became unprofitable, probably +because of changing market conditions and soil exhaustion, the field +became an unplowed pasture. Then in the 1970s it grew daffodil +bulbs, occasioning more plowing. All through the '80s my soil again +rested under grass. In 1987, when I began using the land, there was +still a 2-inch-thick, very hard layer starting about 7 inches down. +Below 9 inches the open earth is soft as butter as far as I've ever +dug. + +On a garden-sized plot, plowpan or compacted subsoil is easily +opened with a spading fork or a very sharp common shovel. After +normal rotary tilling, either tool can fairly easily be wiggled 12 +inches into the earth and small bites of plowpan loosened. Once this +laborious chore is accomplished the first time, deep tillage will be +far easier. In fact, it becomes so easy that I've been looking for a +custom-made fork with longer tines. + +Curing Clayey Soils + +In humid climates like ours, sandy soils may seem very open and +friable on the surface but frequently hold some unpleasant subsoil +surprises. Over geologic time spans, mineral grains are slowly +destroyed by weak soil acids and clay is formed from the breakdown +products. Then heavy winter rainfall transports these minuscule clay +particles deeper into the earth, where they concentrate. It is not +unusual to find a sandy topsoil underlaid with a dense, cement-like, +clayey sand subsoil extending down several feet. If very impervious, +a thick, dense deposition like this may be called hardpan. + +The spading fork cannot cure this condition as simply as it can +eliminate thin plowpan. Here is one situation where, if I had a +neighbor with a large tractor and subsoil plow, I'd hire him to +fracture my land 3 or 4 feet deep. Painstakingly double or even +triple digging will also loosen this layer. Another possible +strategy for a smaller garden would be to rent a gasoline-powered +posthole auger, spread manure or compost an inch or two thick, and +then bore numerous, almost adjoining holes 4 feet deep all over the +garden. + +Clayey subsoil can supply surprisingly larger amounts of moisture +than the granular sandy surface might imply, but only if the earth +is opened deeply and becomes more accessible to root growth. +Fortunately, once root development increases at greater depths, the +organic matter content and accessibility of this clayey layer can be +maintained through intelligent green manuring, postponing for years +the need to subsoil again. Green manuring is discussed in detail +shortly. + +Other sites may have gooey, very fine clay topsoils, almost +inevitably with gooey, very fine clay subsoils as well. Though +incorporation of extraordinarily large quantities of organic matter +can turn the top few inches into something that behaves a little +like loam, it is quite impractical to work in humus to a depth of 4 +or 5 feet. Root development will still be limited to the surface +layer. Very fine clays don't make likely dry gardens. + +Not all clay soils are "fine clay soils," totally compacted and +airless. For example, on the gentler slopes of the geologic old +Cascades, those 50-million-year-old black basalts that form the +Cascades foothills and appear in other places throughout the +maritime Northwest, a deep, friable, red clay soil called (in +Oregon) Jori often forms. Jori clays can be 6 to 8 feet deep and are +sufficiently porous and well drained to have been used for highly +productive orchard crops. Water-wise gardeners can do wonders with +Joris and other similar soils, though clays never grow the best root +crops. + +Spotting a Likely Site + +Observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to +garden without much irrigation. Where Himalaya or Evergreen +blackberries grow 2 feet tall and produce small, dull-tasting fruit, +there is not much available soil moisture. Where they grow 6 feet +tall and the berries are sweet and good sized, there is deep, open +soil. When the berry vines are 8 or more feet tall and the fruits +are especially huge, usually there is both deep, loose soil and a +higher than usual amount of fertility. + +Other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture +reserves. For years I wondered at the short leaders and sad +appearance of Douglas fir in the vicinity of Yelm, Washington. Were +they due to extreme soil infertility? Then I learned that conifer +trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility. I +obtained a soil survey of Thurston County and discovered that much +of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil. Eureka! + +The Soil Conservation Service (SCS), a U.S. Government agency, has +probably put a soil auger into your very land or a plot close by. +Its tests have been correlated and mapped; the soils underlying the +maritime Northwest have been named and categorized by texture, +depth, and ability to provide available moisture. The maps are +precise and detailed enough to approximately locate a city or +suburban lot. In 1987, when I was in the market for a new homestead, +I first went to my county SCS office, mapped out locations where the +soil was suitable, and then went hunting. Most counties have their +own office. + +Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture + +Maintaining topsoil humus content in the 4 to 5 percent range is +vital to plant health, vital to growing more nutritious food, and +essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability +and cooperation known as good tilth. Humus is a spongy substance +capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay. +There are also new synthetic, long-lasting soil amendments that hold +and release even more moisture than humus. Garden books frequently +recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter +to increase a soil's water-holding capacity in the top few inches. + +Humus can improve many aspects of soil but will not reduce a +garden's overall need for irrigation, because it is simply not +practical to maintain sufficient humus deeply enough. Rotary tilling +only blends amendments into the top 6 or 7 inches of soil. Rigorous +double digging by actually trenching out 12 inches and then spading +up the next foot theoretically allows one to mix in significant +amounts of organic matter to nearly 24 inches. But plants can use +water from far deeper than that. Let's realistically consider how +much soil moisture reserves might be increased by double digging and +incorporating large quantities of organic matter. + +A healthy topsoil organic matter level in our climate is about 4 +percent. This rapidly declines to less than 0.5 percent in the +subsoil. Suppose inches-thick layers of compost were spread and, by +double digging, the organic matter content of a very sandy soil were +amended to 10 percent down to 2 feet. If that soil contained little +clay, its water-holding ability in the top 2 feet could be doubled. +Referring to the chart "Available Moisture" in Chapter 2, we see +that sandy soil can release up to 1 inch of water per foot. By dint +of massive amendment we might add 1 inch of available moisture per +foot of soil to the reserve. That's 2 extra inches of water, enough +to increase the time an ordinary garden can last between heavy +irrigations by a week or 10 days. + +If the soil in question were a silty clay, it would naturally make 2 +1/2 inches available per foot. A massive humus amendment would +increase that to 3 1/2 inches in the top foot or two, relatively not +as much benefit as in sandy soil. And I seriously doubt that many +gardeners would be willing to thoroughly double dig to an honest 24 +inches. + +Trying to maintain organic matter levels above 10 percent is an +almost self-defeating process. The higher the humus level gets, the +more rapidly organic matter tends to decay. Finding or making enough +well-finished compost to cover the garden several inches deep (what +it takes to lift humus levels to 10 percent) is enough of a job. +Double digging just as much more into the second foot is even more +effort. But having to repeat that chore every year or two becomes +downright discouraging. No, either your soil naturally holds enough +moisture to permit dry gardening, or it doesn't. + +Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring + +When roots decay, fresh organic matter and large, long-lasting +passageways can be left deep in the soil, allowing easier air +movement and facilitating entry of other roots. But no cover crop +that I am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other +resistant physical obstacles. Such a barrier forces all plants to +root almost exclusively in the topsoil. However, once the subsoil +has been mechanically fractured the first time, and if recompaction +is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery, green +manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil. + +To accomplish this, correct green manure species selection is +essential. Lawn grasses tend to be shallow rooting, while most +regionally adapted pasture grasses can reach down about 3 feet at +best. However, orchard grass (called coltsfoot in English farming +books) will grow down 4 or more feet while leaving a massive amount +of decaying organic matter in the subsoil after the sod is tilled +in. Sweet clover, a biennial legume that sprouts one spring then +winters over to bloom the next summer, may go down 8 feet. Red +clover, a perennial species, may thickly invade the top 5 feet. +Other useful subsoil busters include densely sown Umbelliferae such +as carrots, parsley, and parsnip. The chicory family also makes very +large and penetrating taproots. + +Though seed for wild chicory is hard to obtain, cheap varieties of +endive (a semicivilized relative) are easily available. And several +pounds of your own excellent parsley or parsnip seed can be easily +produced by letting about 10 row feet of overwintering roots form +seed. Orchard grass and red clover can be had quite inexpensively at +many farm supply stores. Sweet clover is not currently grown by our +region's farmers and so can only be found by mail from Johnny's +Selected Seeds (see Chapter 5 for their address). Poppy seed used +for cooking will often sprout. Sown densely in October, it forms a +thick carpet of frilly spring greens underlaid with countless +massive taproots that decompose very rapidly if the plants are +tilled in in April before flower stalks begin to appear. Beware if +using poppies as a green manure crop: be sure to till them in early +to avoid trouble with the DEA or other authorities. + +For country gardeners, the best rotations include several years of +perennial grass-legume-herb mixtures to maintain the openness of the +subsoil followed by a few years of vegetables and then back (see +Newman Turner's book in more reading). I plan my own garden this +way. In October, after a few inches of rain has softened the earth, +I spread 50 pounds of agricultural lime per 1,000 square feet and +break the thick pasture sod covering next year's garden plot by +shallow rotary tilling. Early the next spring I broadcast a +concoction I call "complete organic fertilizer" (see _Growing +Vegetables West of the Cascades_ or the _Territorial Seed Company +Catalog_), till again after the soil dries down a bit, and then use +a spading fork to open the subsoil before making a seedbed. The +first time around, I had to break the century-old plowpan--forking +compacted earth a foot deep is a lot of work. In subsequent +rotations it is much much easier. + +For a couple of years, vegetables will grow vigorously on this new +ground supported only with a complete organic fertilizer. But +vegetable gardening makes humus levels decline rapidly. So every few +years I start a new garden on another plot and replant the old +garden to green manures. I never remove vegetation during the long +rebuilding under green manures, but merely mow it once or twice a +year and allow the organic matter content of the soil to redevelop. +If there ever were a place where chemical fertilizers might be +appropriate around a garden, it would be to affordably enhance the +growth of biomass during green manuring. + +Were I a serious city vegetable gardener, I'd consider growing +vegetables in the front yard for a few years and then switching to +the back yard. Having lots of space, as I do now, I keep three or +four garden plots available, one in vegetables and the others +restoring their organic matter content under grass. + +Mulching + +Gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is +recommended by Ruth Stout (see the listing for her book in More +Reading) and her disciples as a surefire way to drought-proof +gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage, weeding, +and fertilizing. I have attempted the method in both Southern +California and western Oregon--with disastrous results in both +locations. What follows in this section is addressed to gardeners +who have already read glowing reports about mulching. + +Permanent mulching with vegetation actually does not reduce +summertime moisture loss any better than mulching with dry soil, +sometimes called "dust mulching." True, while the surface layer +stays moist, water will steadily be wicked up by capillarity and be +evaporated from the soil's surface. If frequent light sprinkling +keeps the surface perpetually moist, subsoil moisture loss can occur +all summer, so unmulched soil could eventually become desiccated +many feet deep. However, capillary movement only happens when soil +is damp. Once even a thin layer of soil has become quite dry it +almost completely prevents any further movement. West of the +Cascades, this happens all by itself in late spring. One hot, sunny +day follows another, and soon the earth's surface seems parched. + +Unfortunately, by the time a dusty layer forms, quite a bit of soil +water may have risen from the depths and been lost. The gardener can +significantly reduce spring moisture loss by frequently hoeing weeds +until the top inch or two of earth is dry and powdery. This effort +will probably be necessary in any case, because weeds will germinate +prolifically until the surface layer is sufficiently desiccated. On +the off chance it should rain hard during summer, it is very wise to +again hoe a few times to rapidly restore the dust mulch. If hand +cultivation seems very hard work, I suggest you learn to sharpen +your hoe. + +A mulch of dry hay, grass clippings, leaves, and the like will also +retard rapid surface evaporation. Gardeners think mulching prevents +moisture loss better than bare earth because under mulch the soil +stays damp right to the surface. However, dig down 4 to 6 inches +under a dust mulch and the earth is just as damp as under hay. And, +soil moisture studies have proved that overall moisture loss using +vegetation mulch slightly exceeds loss under a dust mulch. + +West of the Cascades, the question of which method is superior is a +bit complex, with pros and cons on both sides. Without a long winter +freeze to set populations back, permanent thick mulch quickly breeds +so many slugs, earwhigs, and sowbugs that it cannot be maintained +for more than one year before vegetable gardening becomes very +difficult. Laying down a fairly thin mulch in June after the soil +has warmed up well, raking up what remains of the mulch early the +next spring, and composting it prevents destructive insect +population levels from developing while simultaneously reducing +surface compaction by winter rains and beneficially enhancing the +survival and multiplication of earthworms. But a thin mulch also +enhances the summer germination of weed seeds without being thick +enough to suppress their emergence. And any mulch, even a thin one, +makes hoeing virtually impossible, while hand weeding through mulch +is tedious. + +Mulch has some unqualified pluses in hotter climates. Most of the +organic matter in soil and consequently most of the available +nitrogen is found in the surface few inches. Levels of other mineral +nutrients are usually two or three times as high in the topsoil as +well. However, if the surface few inches of soil becomes completely +desiccated, no root activity will occur there and the plants are +forced to feed deeper, in soil far less fertile. Keeping the topsoil +damp does greatly improve the growth of some shallow-feeding species +such as lettuce and radishes. But with our climate's cool nights, +most vegetables need the soil as warm as possible, and the cooling +effect of mulch can be as much a hindrance as a help. I've tried +mulching quite a few species while dry gardening and found little or +no improvement in plant growth with most of them. Probably, the +enhancement of nutrition compensates for the harm from lowering soil +temperature. Fertigation is better all around. + +Windbreaks + +Plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines, when +temperatures are high, and when the wind blows; it is just like +drying laundry. Windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by +increasing temperature. Many other garden books discuss windbreaks, +and I conclude that I have a better use for the small amount of +words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data; Binda +Colebrook's [i]Winter Gardening in the Maritime Northwest[i] +(Sasquatch Books, 1989) is especially good on this topic. + +Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying + +In our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich, +while fertilizers, manures, and potent composts mainly improve the +topsoil. But the water-wise gardener must get nutrition down deep, +where the soil stays damp through the summer. + +If plants with enough remaining elbow room stop growing in summer +and begin to appear gnarly, it is just as likely due to lack of +nutrition as lack of water. Several things can be done to limit or +prevent midsummer stunting. First, before sowing or transplanting +large species like tomato, squash or big brassicas, dig out a small +pit about 12 inches deep and below that blend in a handful or two of +organic fertilizer. Then fill the hole back in. This double-digging +process places concentrated fertility mixed 18 to 24 inches below +the seeds or seedlings. + +Foliar feeding is another water-wise technique that keeps plants +growing through the summer. Soluble nutrients sprayed on plant +leaves are rapidly taken into the vascular system. Unfortunately, +dilute nutrient solutions that won't burn leaves only provoke a +strong growth response for 3 to 5 days. Optimally, foliar nutrition +must be applied weekly or even more frequently. To efficiently spray +a garden larger than a few hundred square feet, I suggest buying an +industrial-grade, 3-gallon backpack sprayer with a side-handle pump. +Approximate cost as of this writing was $80. The store that sells it +(probably a farm supply store) will also support you with a complete +assortment of inexpensive nozzles that can vary the rate of emission +and the spray pattern. High-quality equipment like this outlasts +many, many cheaper and smaller sprayers designed for the consumer +market, and replacement parts are also available. Keep in mind that +consumer merchandise is designed to be consumed; stuff made for +farming is built to last. + +Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water + +Does crop growth equal water use? Most people would say this +statement seems likely to be true. + +Actually, faster-growing crops use much less soil moisture than +slower-growing ones. As early as 1882 it was determined that less +water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is +fertilized than when it is not fertilized. One experiment required +1,100 pounds of water to grow 1 pound of dry matter on infertile +soil, but only 575 pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter +on rich land. Perhaps the single most important thing a water-wise +gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil, especially +the subsoil. + +_Poor plant nutrition increases the water cost of every pound of dry +matter produced._ + +Using foliar fertilizers requires a little caution and forethought. +Spinach, beet, and chard leaves seem particularly sensitive to +foliars (and even to organic insecticides) and may be damaged by +even half-strength applications. And the cabbage family coats its +leaf surfaces with a waxy, moisture-retentive sealant that makes +sprays bead up and run off rather than stick and be absorbed. Mixing +foliar feed solutions with a little spreader/sticker, Safer's Soap, +or, if bugs are also a problem, with a liquid organic insecticide +like Red Arrow (a pyrethrum-rotenone mix), eliminates surface +tension and allows the fertilizer to have an effect on brassicas. + +Sadly, in terms of nutrient balance, the poorest foliar sprays are +organic. That's because it is nearly impossible to get significant +quantities of phosphorus or calcium into solution using any +combination of fish emulsion and seaweed or liquid kelp. The most +useful possible organic foliar is 1/2 to 1 tablespoon each of fish +emulsion and liquid seaweed concentrate per gallon of water. + +Foliar spraying and fertigation are two occasions when I am +comfortable supplementing my organic fertilizers with water-soluble +chemical fertilizers. The best and most expensive brand is +Rapid-Gro. Less costly concoctions such as Peters 20-20-20 or the +other "Grows," don't provide as complete trace mineral support or +use as many sources of nutrition. One thing fertilizer makers find +expensive to accomplish is concocting a mixture of soluble nutrients +that also contains calcium, a vital plant food. If you dissolve +calcium nitrate into a solution containing other soluble plant +nutrients, many of them will precipitate out because few calcium +compounds are soluble. Even Rapid-Gro doesn't attempt to supply +calcium. Recently I've discovered better-quality hydroponic nutrient +solutions that do use chemicals that provide soluble calcium. These +also make excellent foliar sprays. Brands of hydroponic nutrient +solutions seem to appear and vanish rapidly. I've had great luck +with Dyna-Gro 7-9-5. All these chemicals are mixed at about 1 +tablespoon per gallon. + +Vegetables That: + +Like foliars +Asparagus Carrots Melons Squash +Beans Cauliflower Peas Tomatoes +Broccoli Brussels sprouts Cucumbers +Cabbage Eggplant Radishes +Kale Rutabagas Potatoes + +Don't like foliars +Beets Leeks Onions Spinach +Chard Lettuce Peppers + +Like fertigation +Brussels sprouts Kale Savoy cabbage +Cucumbers Melons Squash +Eggplant Peppers Tomatoes + +Fertigation every two to four weeks is the best technique for +maximizing yield while minimizing water use. I usually make my first +fertigation late in June and continue periodically through early +September. I use six or seven plastic 5-gallon "drip system" +buckets, (see below) set one by each plant, and fill them all with a +hose each time I work in the garden. Doing 12 or 14 plants each time +I'm in the garden, it takes no special effort to rotate through them +all more or less every three weeks. + +To make a drip bucket, drill a 3/16-inch hole through the side of a +4-to-6-gallon plastic bucket about 1/4-inch up from the bottom, or +in the bottom at the edge. The empty bucket is placed so that the +fertilized water drains out close to the stem of a plant. It is then +filled with liquid fertilizer solution. It takes 5 to 10 minutes for +5 gallons to pass through a small opening, and because of the slow +flow rate, water penetrates deeply into the subsoil without wetting +much of the surface. Each fertigation makes the plant grow very +rapidly for two to three weeks, more I suspect as a result of +improved nutrition than from added moisture. Exactly how and when to +fertigate each species is explained in Chapter 5. + +Organic gardeners may fertigate with combinations of fish emulsion +and seaweed at the same dilution used for foliar spraying, or with +compost/manure tea. Determining the correct strength to make compost +tea is a matter of trial and error. I usually rely on weak Rapid-Gro +mixed at half the recommended dilution. The strength of the +fertilizer you need depends on how much and deeply you placed +nutrition in the subsoil. + + + + + + +Chapter 4 + +Water-Wise Gardening Year-Round + +Early Spring: The Easiest Unwatered Garden + + + + + +West of the Cascades, most crops started in February and March +require no special handling when irrigation is scarce. These include +peas, early lettuce, radishes, kohlrabi, early broccoli, and so +forth. However, some of these vegetables are harvested as late as +June, so to reduce their need for irrigation, space them wider than +usual. Spring vegetables also will exhaust most of the moisture from +the soil before maturing, making succession planting impossible +without first irrigating heavily. Early spring plantings are best +allocated one of two places in the garden plan: either in that part +of the garden that will be fully irrigated all summer or in a part +of a big garden that can affordably remain bare during the summer +and be used in October for receiving transplants of overwintering +crops. The garden plan and discussion in Chapter 6 illustrate these +ideas in detail. + +Later in Spring: Sprouting Seeds Without Watering + +For the first years that I experimented with dry gardening I went +overboard and attempted to grow food as though I had no running +water at all. The greatest difficulty caused by this self-imposed +handicap was sowing small-seeded species after the season warmed up. + +Sprouting what we in the seed business call "big seed"--corn, beans, +peas, squash, cucumber, and melon--is relatively easy without +irrigation because these crops are planted deeply, where soil +moisture still resides long after the surface has dried out. And +even if it is so late in the season that the surface has become very +dry, a wide, shallow ditch made with a shovel will expose moist soil +several inches down. A furrow can be cut in the bottom of that damp +"valley" and big seeds germinated with little or no watering. + +Tillage breaks capillary connections until the fluffy soil +resettles. This interruption is useful for preventing moisture loss +in summer, but the same phenomenon makes the surface dry out in a +flash. In recently tilled earth, successfully sprouting small seeds +in warm weather is dicey without frequent watering. + +With a bit of forethought, the water-wise gardener can easily +reestablish capillarity below sprouting seeds so that moisture held +deeper in the soil rises to replace that lost from surface layers, +reducing or eliminating the need for watering. The principle here +can be easily demonstrated. In fact, there probably isn't any +gardener who has not seen the phenomenon at work without realizing +it. Every gardener has tilled the soil, gone out the next morning, +and noticed that his or her compacted footprints were moist while +the rest of the earth was dry and fluffy. Foot pressure restored +capillarity, and during the night, fresh moisture replaced what had +evaporated. + +This simple technique helps start everything except carrots and +parsnips (which must have completely loose soil to develop +correctly). All the gardener must do is intentionally compress the +soil below the seeds and then cover the seeds with a mulch of loose, +dry soil. Sprouting seeds then rest atop damp soil exactly they lie +on a damp blotter in a germination laboratory's covered petri dish. +This dampness will not disappear before the sprouting seedling has +propelled a root several inches farther down and is putting a leaf +into the sunlight. + +I've used several techniques to reestablish capillarity after +tilling. There's a wise old plastic push planter in my garage that +first compacts the tilled earth with its front wheel, cuts a furrow, +drops the seed, and then with its drag chain pulls loose soil over +the furrow. I've also pulled one wheel of a garden cart or pushed a +lightly loaded wheelbarrow down the row to press down a wheel track, +sprinkled seed on that compacted furrow, and then pulled loose soil +over it. + +Handmade Footprints + +Sometimes I sow large brassicas and cucurbits in clumps above a +fertilized, double-dug spot. First, in a space about 18 inches +square, I deeply dig in complete organic fertilizer. Then with my +fist I punch down a depression in the center of the fluffed-up +mound. Sometimes my fist goes in so easily that I have to replace a +little more soil and punch it down some more. The purpose is not to +make rammed earth or cement, but only to reestablish capillarity by +having firm soil under a shallow, fist-sized depression. Then a +pinch of seed is sprinkled atop this depression and covered with +fine earth. Even if several hot sunny days follow I get good +germination without watering. This same technique works excellently +on hills of squash, melon and cucumber as well, though these +large-seeded species must be planted quite a bit deeper. + +Summer: How to Fluid Drill Seeds + +Soaking seeds before sowing is another water-wise technique, +especially useful later in the season. At bedtime, place the seeds +in a half-pint mason jar, cover with a square of plastic window +screen held on with a strong rubber band, soak the seeds overnight, +and then drain them first thing in the morning. Gently rinse the +seeds with cool water two or three times daily until the root tips +begin to emerge. As soon as this sign appears, the seed must be +sown, because the newly emerging roots become increasingly subject +to breaking off as they develop and soon form tangled masses. +Presprouted seeds may be gently blended into some crumbly, moist +soil and this mixture gently sprinkled into a furrow and covered. If +the sprouts are particularly delicate or, as with carrots, you want +a very uniform stand, disperse the seeds in a starch gelatin and +imitate what commercial vegetable growers call fluid drilling. + +Heat one pint of water to the boiling point. Dissolve in 2 to 3 +tablespoons of ordinary cornstarch. Place the mixture in the +refrigerator to cool. Soon the liquid will become a soupy gel. +Gently mix this cool starch gel with the sprouting seeds, making +sure the seeds are uniformly blended. Pour the mixture into a +1-quart plastic zipper bag and, scissors in hand, go out to the +garden. After a furrow--with capillarity restored--has been +prepared, cut a small hole in one lower corner of the plastic bag. +The hole size should be under 1/4 inch in diameter. Walk quickly +down the row, dribbling a mixture of gel and seeds into the furrow. +Then cover. You may have to experiment a few times with cooled gel +minus seeds until you divine the proper hole size, walking speed and +amount of gel needed per length of furrow. Not only will presprouted +seeds come up days sooner, and not only will the root be penetrating +moist soil long before the shoot emerges, but the stand of seedlings +will be very uniformly spaced and easier to thin. After fluid +drilling a few times you'll realize that one needs quite a bit less +seed per length of row than you previously thought. + +Establishing the Fall and Winter Garden + +West of the Cascades, germinating fall and winter crops in the heat +of summer is always difficult. Even when the entire garden is well +watered, midsummer sowings require daily attention and frequent +sprinkling; however, once they have germinated, keeping little +seedlings growing in an irrigated garden usually requires no more +water than the rest of the garden gets. But once hot weather comes, +establishing small seeds in the dry garden seems next to impossible +without regular watering. Should a lucky, perfectly timed, and +unusually heavy summer rainfall sprout your seeds, they still would +not grow well because the next few inches of soil would at best be +only slightly moist. + +A related problem many backyard gardeners have with establishing the +winter and overwintered garden is finding enough space for both the +summer and winter crops. The nursery bed solves both these problems. +Instead of trying to irrigate the entire area that will eventually +be occupied by a winter or overwintered crop at maturity, the +seedlings are first grown in irrigated nurseries for transplanting +in autumn after the rains come back. Were I desperately short of +water I'd locate my nursery where it got only morning sun and sow a +week or 10 days earlier to compensate for the slower growth. + +Vegetables to Start in a Nursery Bed + +Variety Sowing date Transplanting date +Fall/winter lettuce mid-August early October +Leeks early April July +Overwintered onions early-mid August December/January +Spring cabbage mid-late August November/December +Spring cauliflower mid-August October/November 1st +Winter scallions mid-July mid-October + +Seedlings in pots and trays are hard to keep moist and require daily +tending. Fortunately, growing transplants in little pots is not +necessary because in autumn, when they'll be set out, humidity is +high, temperatures are cool, the sun is weak, and transpiration +losses are minimal, so seedling transplants will tolerate +considerable root loss. My nursery is sown in rows about 8 inches +apart across a raised bed and thinned gradually to prevent crowding, +because crowded seedlings are hard to dig out without damage. When +the prediction of a few days of cloudy weather encourages +transplanting, the seedlings are lifted with a large, sharp knife. +If the fall rains are late and/or the crowded seedlings are getting +leggy, a relatively small amount of irrigation will moisten the +planting areas. Another light watering at transplanting time will +almost certainly establish the seedlings quite successfully. And, +finding room for these crops ceases to be a problem because fall +transplants can be set out as a succession crop following hot +weather vegetables such as squash, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, +potatoes, and beans. + +Vegetables that must be heavily irrigated +(These crops are not suitable for dry gardens.) + +Bulb Onions (for fall harvest) +Celeriac +Celery +Chinese cabbage +Lettuce (summer and fall) +Radishes (summer and fall) +Scallions (for summer harvest) +Spinach (summer) + + + + + + +Chapter 5 + +How to Grow It with Less Irrigation: A--Z + +First, a Word About Varieties + + + + + +As recently as the 1930s, most American country folk still did not +have running water. With water being hand-pumped and carried in +buckets, and precious, their vegetable gardens had to be grown with +a minimum of irrigation. In the otherwise well-watered East, one +could routinely expect several consecutive weeks every summer +without rain. In some drought years a hot, rainless month or longer +could go by. So vegetable varieties were bred to grow through dry +spells without loss, and traditional American vegetable gardens were +designed to help them do so. + +I began gardening in the early 1970s, just as the raised-bed method +was being popularized. The latest books and magazine articles all +agreed that raising vegetables in widely separated single rows was a +foolish imitation of commercial farming, that commercial vegetables +were arranged that way for ease of mechanical cultivation. Closely +planted raised beds requiring hand cultivation were alleged to be +far more productive and far more efficient users of irrigation +because water wasn't evaporating from bare soil. + +I think this is more likely to be the truth: Old-fashioned gardens +used low plant densities to survive inevitable spells of +rainlessness. Looked at this way, widely separated vegetables in +widely separated rows may be considered the more efficient users of +water because they consume soil moisture that nature freely puts +there. Only after, and if, these reserves are significantly depleted +does the gardener have to irrigate. The end result is surprisingly +more abundant than a modern gardener educated on intensive, +raised-bed propaganda would think. + +Finding varieties still adapted to water-wise gardening is becoming +difficult. Most American vegetables are now bred for +irrigation-dependent California. Like raised-bed gardeners, +vegetable farmers have discovered that they can make a bigger profit +by growing smaller, quick-maturing plants in high-density spacings. +Most modern vegetables have been bred to suit this method. Many new +varieties can't forage and have become smaller, more determinate, +and faster to mature. Actually, the larger, more sprawling heirloom +varieties of the past were not a great deal less productive overall, +but only a little later to begin yielding. + +Fortunately, enough of the old sorts still exist that a selective +and varietally aware home gardener can make do. Since I've become +water-wiser, I'm interested in finding and conserving heirlooms that +once supported large numbers of healthy Americans in relative +self-sufficiency. My earlier book, being a guide to what passes for +ordinary vegetable gardening these days, assumed the availability of +plenty of water. The varieties I recommended in [i]Growing +Vegetables West of the Cascades[i] were largely modern ones, and the +seed companies I praised most highly focused on top-quality +commercial varieties. But, looking at gardening through the filter +of limited irrigation, other, less modern varieties are often far +better adapted and other seed companies sometimes more likely +sources. + +Seed Company Directory* + +Abundant Life See Foundation: P.O. Box 772, Port Townsend, WA 98368 +_(ABL)_ +Johnny's Selected Seeds: Foss Hill Road, Albion, Maine 04910 _(JSS)_ +Peace Seeds: 2345 SE Thompson Street, Corvallis, OR 97333 _(PEA)_ +Ronninger's Seed Potatoes: P.O. Box 1838, Orting, WA 98360 _(RSP)_ +Stokes Seeds Inc. Box 548, Buffalo, NY 14240 _(STK)_ +Territorial Seed Company: P.O. Box 20, Cottage Grove, OR 97424 +_(TSC)_ + +*Throughout the growing directions that follow in this chapter, the +reader will be referred to a specific company only for varieties +that are not widely available. + +I have again come to appreciate the older style of vegetable-- +sprawling, large framed, later maturing, longer yielding, +vigorously rooting. However, many of these old-timers have not seen +the attentions of a professional plant breeder for many years and +throw a fair percentage of bizarre, misshapen, nonproductive plants. +These "off types" can be compensated for by growing a somewhat +larger garden and allowing for some waste. Dr. Alan Kapuler, who +runs Peace Seeds, has brilliantly pointed out to me why heirloom +varieties are likely to be more nutritious. Propagated by centuries +of isolated homesteaders, heirlooms that survived did so because +these superior varieties helped the gardeners' better-nourished +babies pass through the gauntlet of childhood illnesses. + +Plant Spacing: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening + +Reduced plant density is the essence of dry gardening. The +recommended spacings in this section are those I have found workable +at Elkton, Oregon. My dry garden is generally laid out in single +rows, the row centers 4 feet apart. Some larger crops, like +potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and cucurbits (squash, cucumbers, and +melons) are allocated more elbow room. Those few requiring intensive +irrigation are grown on a raised bed, tightly spaced. I cannot +prescribe what would be the perfect, most efficient spacing for your +garden. Are your temperatures lower than mine and evaporation less? +Or is your weather hotter? Does your soil hold more, than less than, +or just as much available moisture as mine? Is it as deep and open +and moisture retentive? + +To help you compare your site with mine, I give you the following +data. My homestead is only 25 miles inland and is always several +degrees cooler in summer than the Willamette Valley. Washingtonians +and British Columbians have cooler days and a greater likelihood of +significant summertime rain and so may plant a little closer +together. Inland gardeners farther south or in the Willamette Valley +may want to spread their plants out a little farther. + +Living on 16 acres, I have virtually unlimited space to garden in. +The focus of my recent research has been to eliminate irrigation as +much as possible while maintaining food quality. Those with thinner +soil who are going to depend more on fertigation may plant closer, +how close depending on the amount of water available. More +irrigation will also give higher per-square-foot yields. + +_Whatever your combination of conditions, your results can only be +determined by trial._ I'd suggest you become water-wise by testing a +range of spacings. + +When to Plant + +If you've already been growing an irrigated year-round garden, this +book's suggested planting dates may surprise you. And as with +spacing, sowing dates must also be wisely adjusted to your location. +The planting dates in this chapter are what I follow in my own +garden. It is impractical to include specific dates for all the +microclimatic areas of the maritime Northwest and for every +vegetable species. Readers are asked to make adjustments by +understanding their weather relative to mine. + +Gardeners to the north of me and at higher elevations should make +their spring sowings a week or two later than the dates I use. In +the Garden Valley of Roseburg and south along I-5, start spring +plantings a week or two earlier. Along the southern Oregon coast and +in northern California, start three or four weeks sooner than I do. + +Fall comes earlier to the north of me and to higher-elevation +gardens; end-of-season growth rates there also slow more profoundly +than they do at Elkton. Summers are cooler along the coast; that has +the same effect of slowing late-summer growth. Items started after +midsummer should be given one or two extra growing weeks by coastal, +high-elevation, and northern gardeners. Gardeners to the south +should sow their late crops a week or two later than I do; along the +south Oregon coast and in northern California, two to four weeks +later than I do. + +Arugula (Rocket) + +The tender, peppery little leaves make winter salads much more +interesting. + +_Sowing date:_ I delay sowing until late August or early September +so my crowded patch of arugula lasts all winter and doesn't make +seed until March. Pregerminated seeds emerge fast and strong. +Sprouted in early October, arugula still may reach eating size in +midwinter. + +_Spacing:_ Thinly seed a row into any vacant niche. The seedlings +will be insignificantly small until late summer. + +_Irrigation:_ If the seedlings suffer a bit from moisture stress +they'll catch up rapidly when the fall rains begin. + +_Varieties: _None. + +Beans of All Sorts + +Heirloom pole beans once climbed over considerable competition while +vigorously struggling for water, nutrition, and light. Modern bush +varieties tend to have puny root systems. + +_Sowing date:_ Mid-April is the usual time on the Umpqua, elsewhere, +sow after the danger of frost is over and soil stays over 60[de]F. +If the earth is getting dry by this date, soak the seed overnight +before sowing and furrow down to moist soil. However, do not cover +the seeds more than 2 inches. + +_Spacing:_ Twelve to 16 inches apart at final thinning. Allow about +2[f]1/2 to 3 feet on either side of the trellis to avoid root +competition from other plants. + +_Irrigation:_ If part of the garden is sprinkler irrigated, space +beans a little tighter and locate the bean trellis toward the outer +reach of the sprinkler's throw. Due to its height, the trellis tends +to intercept quite a bit of water and dumps it at the base. You can +also use the bucket-drip method and fertigate the beans, giving +about 25 gallons per 10 row-feet once or twice during the summer. +Pole beans can make a meaningful yield without any irrigation; under +severe moisture stress they will survive, but bear little. + +_Varieties:_ Any of the pole types seem to do fine. Runner beans +seem to prefer cooler locations but are every bit as drought +tolerant as ordinary snap beans. My current favorites are Kentucky +Wonder White Seeded, Fortrex (TSC, JSS), and Musica (TSC). + +The older heirloom dry beans were mostly pole types. They are +reasonably productive if allowed to sprawl on the ground without +support. Their unirrigated seed yield is lower, but the seed is +still plump, tastes great, and sprouts well. Compared to unirrigated +Black Coco (TSC), which is my most productive and best-tasting bush +cultivar, Kentucky Wonder Brown Seeded (sometimes called Old +Homestead) (STK, PEA, ABL) yields about 50 percent more seed and +keeps on growing for weeks after Coco has quit. Do not bother to +fertigate untrellised pole beans grown for dry seed. With the threat +of September moisture always looming over dry bean plots, we need to +encourage vines to quit setting and dry down. Peace Seeds and +Abundant Life offer long lists of heirloom vining dry bean +varieties. + +Serious self-sufficiency buffs seeking to produced their own legume +supply should also consider the fava, garbanzo bean, and Alaska pea. +Many favas can be overwintered: sow in October, sprout on fall +rains, grow over the winter, and dry down in June with the soil. +Garbanzos are grown like mildly frost-tolerant peas. Alaska peas are +the type used for pea soup. They're spring sown and grown like +ordinary shelling peas. Avoid overhead irrigation while seeds are +drying down. + +Beets + +Beets will root far deeper and wider than most people realize--in +uncompacted, nonacid soils. Double or triple dig the subsoil +directly below the seed row. + +_Sowing date:_ Early April at Elkton, late March farther south, and +as late as April 30 in British Columbia. Beet seed germinates easily +in moist, cool soil. A single sowing may be harvested from June +through early March the next year. If properly thinned, good +varieties remain tender. + +_Spacing:_ A single row will gradually exhaust subsoil moisture from +an area 4 feet wide. When the seedlings are 2 to 3 inches tall, thin +carefully to about 1 inch apart. When the edible part is radish +size, thin to 2 inches apart and eat the thinings, tops and all. +When they've grown to golfball size, thin to 4 inches apart, thin +again. When they reach the size of large lemons, thin to 1 foot +apart. Given this much room and deep, open soil, the beets will +continue to grow through the entire summer. Hill up some soil over +the huge roots early in November to protect them from freezing. + +_Irrigation:_ Probably not necessary with over 4 feet of deep, open +soil. + +_Varieties:_ I've done best with Early Wonder Tall Top; when large, +it develops a thick, protective skin and retains excellent eating +quality. Winterkeepers, normally sown in midsummer with irrigation, +tend to bolt prematurely when sown in April. + +Broccoli: Italian Style + +Italian-style broccoli needs abundant moisture to be tender and make +large flowers. Given enough elbow room, many varieties can endure +long periods of moisture stress, but the smaller, woody, +slow-developing florets won't be great eating. Without any +irrigation, spring-sown broccoli may still be enjoyed in early +summer and Purple Sprouting in March/April after overwintering. + +_Sowing date:_Without any irrigation at all, mid-March through early +April. With fertigation, also mid-April through mid-May. This later +sowing will allow cutting through summer. + +_Spacing:_ Brocoli tastes better when big plants grow big, sweet +heads. Allow a 4-foot-wide row. Space early sowings about 3 feet +apart in the row; later sowings slated to mature during summer's +heat can use 4 feet. On a fist-sized spot compacted to restore +capillarity, sow a little pinch of seed atop a well-and deeply +fertilized, double-dug patch of earth. Thin gradually to the best +single plant by the time three or four true leaves have developed. + +_Irrigation:_ After mid-June, 4 to 5 gallons of drip bucket liquid +fertilizer every two to three weeks makes an enormous difference. +You'll be surprised at the size of the heads and the quality of side +shoots. A fertigated May sowing will be exhausted by October. Take a +chance: a heavy side-dressing of strong compost or complete organic +fertilizer when the rains return may trigger a massive spurt of new, +larger heads from buds located below the soil's surface. + +_Varieties:_ Many hybrids have weak roots. I'd avoid anything that +was "held up on a tall stalk" for mechanical harvest or was +"compact" or that "didn't have many side-shoots". Go for larger +size. Territorial's hybrid blend yields big heads for over a month +followed by abundant side shoots. Old, open-pollinated types like +Italian Sprouting Calabrese, DeCicco, or Waltham 29 are highly +variable, bushy, with rather coarse, large-beaded flowers, +second-rate flavor and many, many side shoots. Irrigating gardeners +who can start new plants every four weeks from May through July may +prefer hybrids. Dry gardeners who will want to cut side shoots for +as long as possible during summer from large, well-established +plants may prefer crude, open-pollinated varieties. Try both. + +Broccoli: Purple Sprouting and Other Overwintering Types + +_Spacing:_ Grow like broccoli, 3 to 4 feet apart. + +_Sowing date:_ It is easiest to sow in April or early May, minimally +fertigate a somewhat gnarly plant through the summer, push it for +size in fall and winter, and then harvest it next March. With too +early a start in spring, some premature flowering may occur in +autumn; still, massive blooming will resume again in spring. + +Overwintering green Italian types such as ML423 (TSC) will flower in +fall if sown before late June. These sorts are better started in a +nursery bed around August 1 and like overwintered cauliflower, +transplanted about 2 feet apart when fall rains return, then, pushed +for growth with extra fertilizer in fall and winter. + +With nearly a whole year to grow before blooming, Purple Sprouting +eventually reaches 4 to 5 feet in height and 3 to 4 feet in +diameter, and yields hugely. + +_Irrigation:_ It is not essential to heavily fertigate Purple +Sprouting, though you may G-R-O-W enormous plants for their beauty. +Quality or quantity of spring harvest won't drop one bit if the +plants become a little stunted and gnarly in summer, as long as you +fertilize late in September to spur rapid growth during fall and +winter. + +Root System Vigor in the Cabbage Family + +Wild cabbage is a weed and grows like one, able to successfully +compete for water against grasses and other herbs. Remove all +competition with a hoe, and allow this weed to totally control all +the moisture and nutrients in all the earth its roots can occupy, +and it grows hugely and lushly. Just for fun, I once G-R-E-W one, +with tillage, hoeing, and spring fertilization but no irrigation; it +ended up 5 feet tall and 6 feet in diameter. + +As this highly moldable family is inbred and shaped into more and +more exaggerated forms, it weakens and loses the ability to forage. +Kale retains the most wild aggressiveness, Chinese cabbage perhaps +the least. Here, in approximately correct order, is shown the +declining root vigor and general adaptation to moisture stress of +cabbage family vegetables. The table shows the most vigorous at the +top, declining as it goes down. + +Adapted to dry gardening Not vigorous enough + +Kale Italian broccoli (some varieties) +Brussels sprouts (late types) Cabbage (regular market types) +Late savoy cabbage Brussels sprouts (early types) +Giant "field-type" kohlrabi Small "market-garden" kohlrabi +Mid-season savoy cabbage Cauliflower (regular, annual) +Rutabaga Turnips and radishes +Italian Broccoli (some varieties) Chinese cabbage +Brussels Sprouts + +_Sowing date:_ If the plants are a foot tall before the soil starts +drying down, their roots will be over a foot deep; the plants will +then grow hugely with a bit of fertigation. At Elkton I dry garden +Brussels sprouts by sowing late April to early May. Started this +soon, even late-maturing varieties may begin forming sprouts by +September. Though premature bottom sprouts will "blow up" and become +aphid damaged, more, higher-quality sprouts will continue to form +farther up the stalk during autumn and winter. + +_Spacing: _Make each spot about 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without any added moisture, the plants will become +stunted but will survive all summer. Side-dressing manure or +fertilizer late in September (or sooner if the rains come sooner) +will provoke very rapid autumn growth and a surprisingly large yield +from plants that looked stress out in August. If increasingly larger +amounts of fertigation can be provided every two to three weeks, the +lush Brussels sprouts plants can become 4 feet in diameter and 4 +feet tall by October and yield enormously. + +_Varieties: _Use late European hybrid types. At Elkton, where +winters are a little milder than in the Willamette, Lunet (TSC) has +the finest eating qualities. Were I farther north I'd grow hardier +types like Stabolite (TSC) or Fortress (TSC). Early types are not +suitable to growing with insufficient irrigation or frequent +spraying to fight off aphids. + +Cabbage + +Forget those delicate, green supermarket cabbages unless you have +unlimited amounts of water. But easiest-to-grow savoy types will do +surprisingly well with surprisingly little support. Besides, savoys +are the best salad material. + +_Sowing date:_ I suggest three sowing times: the first, a succession +of early, midseason, and late savoys made in mid-March for harvest +during summer; the second, late and very late varieties started late +April to early May for harvest during fall and winter; the last, a +nursery bed of overwintered sorts sown late in August. + +_Spacing:_ Early-maturing savoy varieties are naturally smaller and +may not experience much hot weather before heading up--these may be +separated by about 30 inches. The later ones are large plants and +should be given 4 feet of space or 16 square feet of growing room. +Sow and grow them like broccoli. Transplant overwintered cabbages +from nursery beds late in October, spaced about 3 feet apart; these +thrive where the squash grew. + +_Irrigation:_ The more fertigation you can supply, the larger and +more luxuriant the plants and the bigger the heads. But even small, +somewhat moisture-stressed savoys make very edible heads. In terms +of increased yield for water expended, it is well worth it to +provide late varieties with a few gallons of fertigation about +mid-June, and a bucketful in mid-July and mid-August. + +_Varieties:_ Japanese hybrid savoys make tender eating but may not +withstand winter. European savoys are hardier, coarser, +thicker-leaved, and harder chewing. For the first sowing I suggest a +succession of Japanese varieties including Salarite or Savoy +Princess for earlies; Savoy Queen, King, or Savoy Ace for midsummer; +and Savonarch (TSC) for late August/early September harvests. +They're all great varieties. For the second sowing I grow Savonarch +(TSC) for September[-]November cutting and a very late European +hybrid type like Wivoy (TSC) for winter. Small-framed January King +lacks sufficient root vigor. Springtime (TSC) and FEM218 (TSC) are +the only overwintered cabbages available. + +Carrots + +Dry-gardening carrots requires patiently waiting until the weather +stabilizes before tilling and sowing. To avoid even a little bit of +soil compaction, I try to sprout the seed without irrigation but +always fear that hot weather will frustrate my efforts. So I till +and plant too soon. And then heavy rain comes and compacts my +perfectly fluffed-up soil. But the looser and finer the earth +remains during their first six growing weeks, the more perfectly the +roots will develop. + +_Sowing date:_ April at Elkton. + +_Spacing: _Allocate 4 feet of width to a single row of carrot seed. +When the seedlings are about 2 inches tall, thin to 1 inch apart. +Then thin every other carrot when the roots are [f]3/8 to [f]1/2 +inch in diameter and eat the thinnings. A few weeks later, when the +carrots are about 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter, make a final thinning +to 1 foot apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary. Foliar feeding every few weeks will +make much larger roots. Without any help they should grow to several +pounds each. + +_Varieties:_ Choosing the right variety is very important. Nantes +and other delicate, juicy types lack enough fiber to hold together +when they get very large. These split prematurely. I've had my best +results with Danvers types. I'd also try Royal Chantenay (PEA), +Fakkel Mix (TSC), Stokes "Processor" types, and Topweight (ABL). Be +prepared to experiment with variety. The roots will not be quite as +tender as heavily watered Nantes types but are a lot better than +you'd think. Huge carrots are excellent in soups and we cheerfully +grate them into salads. Something about accumulating sunshine all +summer makes the roots incredibly sweet. + +Cauliflower + +Ordinary varieties cannot forage for moisture. Worse, moisture +stress at any time during the growth cycle prevents proper formation +of curds. The only important cauliflowers suitable for dry gardening +are overwintered types. I call them important because they're easy +to grow and they'll feed the family during April and early May, when +other garden fare is very scarce. + +_Sowing date:_ To acquire enough size to survive cold weather, +overwintered cauliflower must be started on a nursery bed during the +difficult heat of early August. Except south of Yoncalla, delaying +sowing until September makes very small seedlings that may not be +hardy enough and likely won't yield much in April unless winter is +very mild, encouraging unusual growth. + +_Spacing:_ In October, transplant about 2 feet apart in rows 3 to 4 +feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ If you have more water available, fertilize and till +up some dusty, dry soil, wet down the row, direct-seed like broccoli +(but closer together), and periodically irrigate until fall. If you +only moisten a narrow band of soil close to the seedlings it won't +take much water. Cauliflower grows especially well in the row that +held bush peas. + +_Varieties:_ The best are the very pricy Armado series sold by +Territorial. + +Chard + +This vegetable is basically a beet with succulent leaves and thick +stalks instead of edible, sweet roots. It is just as drought +tolerant as a beet, and in dry gardening, chard is sown, spaced, and +grown just like a beet. But if you want voluminous leaf production +during summer, you may want to fertigate it occasionally. + +_Varieties:_ The red chards are not suitable for starting early in +the season; they have a strong tendency to bolt prematurely if sown +during that part of the year when daylength is increasing. + +Corn + +Broadcast complete organic fertilizer or strong compost shallowly +over the corn patch till midwinter, or as early in spring as the +earth can be worked without making too many clods. Corn will +germinate in pretty rough soil. High levels of nutrients in the +subsoil are more important than a fine seedbed. + +_Sowing date:_ About the time frost danger ends. Being large seed, +corn can be set deep, where soil moisture still exists even after +conditions have warmed up. Germination without irrigation should be +no problem. + +_Spacing_: The farther south, the farther apart. Entirely without +irrigation, I've had fine results spacing individual corn plants 3 +feet apart in rows 3 feet apart, or 9 square feet per each plant. +Were I around Puget Sound or in B.C. I'd try 2 feet apart in rows 30 +inches apart. Gary Nabhan describes Papago gardeners in Arizona +growing individual cornstalks 10 feet apart. Grown on wide spacings, +corn tends to tiller (put up multiple stalks, each making one or two +ears). For most urban and suburban gardeners, space is too valuable +to allocate 9 square feet for producing one or at best three or four +ears. + +_Irrigation:_ With normal sprinkler irrigation, corn may be spaced 8 +inches apart in rows 30 inches apart, still yielding one or two ears +per stalk. + +_Varieties: _Were I a devoted sweetcorn eater without enough +irrigation, I'd be buying a few dozen freshly picked ears from the +back of a pickup truck parked on a corner during local harvest +season. Were I a devoted corn grower without any irrigation, I'd be +experimenting with various types of field corn instead of sweet +corn. Were I a self-sufficiency buff trying a ernestly to produce +all my own cereal, I'd accept that the maritime Northwest is a +region where survivalists will eat wheat, rye, millet, and other +small grains. + +Many varieties of field corn are nearly as sweet as ordinary sweet +corn, but grain varieties become starchy and tough within hours of +harvest. Eaten promptly, "pig" corn is every bit as tasty as +Jubilee. I've had the best dry-garden results with Northstine Dent +(JSS) and Garland Flint (JSS). Hookers Sweet Indian (TSC) has a weak +root system. + +Successfully Starting Cucurbits From Seed + +With cucurbits, germination depends on high-enough soil temperature +and not too much moisture. Squash are the most chill and moisture +tolerant, melons the least. Here's a failure-proof and simple +technique that ensures you'll plant at exactly the right time. + +Cucumbers, squash, and melons are traditionally sown atop a deeply +dug, fertilized spot that usually looks like a little mound after it +is worked and is commonly called a hill. About two weeks before the +last anticipated frost date in your area, plant five or six squash +seeds about 2 inches deep in a clump in the very center of that +hill. Then, a week later, plant another clump at 12 o'clock. In +another week, plant another clump at 3 o'clock, and continue doing +this until one of the sowings sprouts. Probably the first try won't +come up, but the hill will certainly germinate several clumps of +seedlings. If weather conditions turn poor, a later-to-sprout group +may outgrow those that came up earlier. Thin gradually to the best +single plant by the time the vines are running. + +When the first squash seeds appear it is time to begin sowing +cucumbers, starting a new batch each week until one emerges. When +the cucumbers first germinate, it's time to try melons. + +Approaching cucurbits this way ensures that you'll get the earliest +possible germination while being protected against the probability +that cold, damp weather will prevent germination or permanently +spoil the growth prospects of the earlier seedlings. + +Cucumbers + +_Sowing date:_ About May 5 to 15 at Elkton. + +_Spacing:_ Most varieties usually run five about 3 feet from the +hill. Space the hills about 5 to 6 feet apart in all directions. + +_Irrigation:_ Like melons. Regular and increasing amounts of +fertigation will increase the yield several hundred percent. + +_Varieties:_ I've had very good results dry-gardening Amira II +(TSC), even without any fertigation at all. It is a Middle +Eastern[-]style variety that makes pickler-size thin-skinned cukes +that need no peeling and have terrific flavor. The burpless or +Japanese sorts don't seem to adapt well to drought. Most slicers +dry-garden excellently. Apple or Lemon are similar novelty heirlooms +that make very extensive vines with aggressive roots and should be +given a foot or two more elbow room. I'd avoid any variety touted as +being for pot or patio, compact, or short-vined, because of a likely +linkage between its vine structure and root system. + +Eggplant + +Grown without regular sprinkler irrigation, eggplant seems to get +larger and yield sooner and more abundantly. I suspect this delicate +and fairly drought-resistant tropical species does not like having +its soil temperature lowered by frequent watering. + +_Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time, about two +weeks after the tomatoes, after all frost danger has passed and +after nights have stably warmed up above 50 degree F. + +_Spacing:_ Double dig and deeply fertilize the soil under each +transplant. Separate plants by about 3 feet in rows about 4 feet +apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Will grow and produce a few fruit without any +watering, but a bucket of fertigation every three to four weeks +during summer may result in the most luxurious, hugest, and +heaviest-bearing eggplants you've ever grown. + +_Varieties: _I've noticed no special varietal differences in ability +to tolerate dryish soil. I've had good yields from the regionally +adapted varieties Dusky Hybrid, Short Tom, and Early One. + +Endive + +A biennial member of the chicory family, endive quickly puts down a +deep taproot and is naturally able to grow through prolonged +drought. Because endive remains bitter until cold weather, it +doesn't matter if it grows slowly through summer, just so long as +rapid leaf production resumes in autumn. + +_Sowing date:_ On irrigated raised beds endive is sown around August +1 and heads by mid-October. The problem with dry-gardened endive is +that if it is spring sown during days of increasing daylength when +germination of shallow-sown small seed is a snap, it will bolt +prematurely. The crucial moment seems to be about June 1. April/May +sowings bolt in July/August,: after June 1, bolting won't happen +until the next spring, but germination won't happen without +watering. One solution is soaking the seeds overnight, rinsing them +frequently until they begin to sprout, and fluid drilling them. + +_Spacing:_ The heads become huge when started in June. Sow in rows 4 +feet apart and thin gradually until the rosettes are 3 inches in +diameter, then thin to 18 inches apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without a drop of moisture the plants, even as tiny +seedlings, will grow steadily but slowly all summer, as long as no +other crop is invading their root zone. The only time I had trouble +was when the endive row was too close to an aggressive row of yellow +crookneck squash. About August, the squash roots began invading the +endive's territory and the endive got wilty. + +A light side-dressing of complete organic fertilizer or compost in +late September will grow the hugest plants imaginable. + +_Varieties:_ Curly types seem more tolerant to rain and frost during +winter than broad-leaf Batavian varieties. I prefer President (TSC). + +Herbs + +Most perennial and biennial herbs are actually weeds and wild +hillside shrubs from Mediterranean climates similar to that of +Southern California. They are adapted to growing on winter rainfall +and surviving seven to nine months without rainfall every summer. In +our climate, merely giving them a little more elbow room than +usually offered, thorough weeding, and side-dressing the herb garden +with a little compost in fall is enough coddling. Annuals such as +dill and cilantro are also very drought tolerant. Basil, however, +needs considerable moisture. + +Kale + +Depending on the garden for a significant portion of my annual +caloric intake has gradually refined my eating habits. Years ago I +learned to like cabbage salads as much as lettuce. Since lettuce +freezes out many winters (19-21 degree F), this adjustment has proved +very useful. Gradually I began to appreciate kale, too, and now +value it as a salad green far more than cabbage. This personal +adaptation has proved very pro-survival, because even savoy cabbages +do not grow as readily or yield nearly as much as kale. And kale is +a tad more cold hardy than even savoy cabbage. + +You may be surprised to learn that kale produces more complete +protein per area occupied per time involved than any legume, +including alfalfa. If it is steamed with potatoes and then mashed, +the two vegetables complement and flavor each other. Our region +could probably subsist quite a bit more healthfully than at present +on potatoes and kale. The key to enjoying kale as a salad component +is varietal choice, preparation, and using the right parts of the +plant. Read on. + +_Sowing date:_ With irrigation, fast-growing kale is usually started +in midsummer for use in fall and winter. But kale is absolutely +biennial--started in March or April, it will not bolt until the next +spring. The water-wise gardener can conveniently sow kale while +cool, moist soil simplifies germination. Starting this early also +produces a deep root system before the soil dries much, and a much +taller, very useful central stalk on oleracea types, while early +sown Siberian (Napa) varieties tend to form multiple rosettes by +autumn, also useful at harvest time. + +_Spacing: _Grow like broccoli, spaced 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without any water, the somewhat stunted plants will +survive the summer to begin rapid growth as soon as fall rains +resume. With the help of occasional fertigation they grow lushly and +are enormous by September. Either way, there still will be plenty of +kale during fall and winter. + +_Harvest:_ Bundles of strong-flavored, tough, large leaves are sold +in supermarkets but are the worst-eating part of the plant. If +chopped finely enough, big raw leaves can be masticated and +tolerated by people with good teeth. However, the tiny leaves are +far tenderer and much milder. The more rosettes developed on +Siberian kales, the more little leaves there are to be picked. By +pinching off the central growing tip in October and then gradually +stripping off the large shading leaves, _oleracea_ varieties may be +encouraged to put out dozens of clusters of small, succulent leaves +at each leaf notch along the central stalk. The taller the stalk +grown during summer, the more of these little leaves there will be. +Only home gardeners can afford the time to hand pick small leaves. + +_Varieties:_ I somewhat prefer the flavor of Red Russian to the +ubiquitous green Siberian, but Red Russian is very slightly less +cold hardy. Westland Winter (TSC) and Konserva (JSS) are tall +European oleracea varieties. Winterbor F1 (JSS, TSC) is also +excellent. The dwarf "Scotch" kales, blue or green, sold by many +American seed companies are less vigorous types that don't produce +nearly as many gourmet little leaves. Dwarfs in any species tend to +have dwarfed root systems. + +Kohlrabi (Giant) + +Spring-sown market kohlrabi are usually harvested before hot weather +makes them get woody. Irrigation is not required if they're given a +little extra elbow room. With ordinary varieties, try thinning to 5 +inches apart in rows 2 to 3 feet apart and harvest by thinning +alternate plants. Given this additional growing room, they may not +get woody until midsummer. On my irrigated, intensive bed I always +sow some more on August 1, to have tender bulbs in autumn. + +Kohlrabi was once grown as European fodder crop; slow-growing +farmers, varieties grow huge like rutabagas. These field types have +been crossed with table types to make "giant" table varieties that +really suit dry gardening. What to do with a giant kohlrabi (or any +bulb getting overblown)? Peel, grate finely, add chopped onion, +dress with olive oil and black pepper, toss, and enjoy this old +Eastern European mainstay. + +_Sowing date:_ Sow giant varieties during April, as late as possible +while still getting a foot-tall plant before really hot weather. + +_Spacing:_ Thin to 3 feet apart in rows 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not absolutely necessary on deep soil, but if they get +one or two thorough fertigations during summer their size may +double. + +_Varieties:_ A few American seed companies, including Peace Seeds, +have a giant kohlrabi of some sort or other. The ones I've tested +tend to be woody, are crude, and throw many off-types, a high +percentage of weak plants, and/or poorly shaped roots. By the time +this book is in print, Territorial should list a unique Swiss +variety called Superschmeltz, which is uniformly huge and stays +tender into the next year. + +Leeks + +Unwatered spring-sown bulbing onions are impossible. Leek is the +only allium I know of that may grow steadily but slowly through +severe drought; the water-short gardener can depend on leeks for a +fall/winter onion supply. + +_Sowing date:_ Start a row or several short rows about 12 inches +apart on a nursery bed in March or early April at the latest. Grow +thickly, irrigate during May/June, and fertilize well so the +competing seedlings get leggy. + +_Spacing:_ By mid-to late June the seedlings should be slightly +spindly, pencil-thick, and scallion size. With a sharp shovel, dig +out the nursery row, carefully retaining 5 or 6 inches of soil below +the seedlings. With a strong jet of water, blast away the soil and, +while doing this, gently separate the tangled roots so that as +little damage is done as possible. Make sure the roots don't dry out +before transplanting. After separation, I temporarily wrap bundled +seedlings in wet newspaper. + +Dig out a foot-deep trench the width of an ordinary shovel and +carefully place this earth next to the trench. Sprinkle in a heavy +dose of organic fertilizer or strong compost, and spade that in so +the soil is fluffy and fertile 2 feet down. Do not immediately +refill the trench with the soil that was dug out. With a shovel +handle, poke a row of 6-inch-deep holes along the bottom of the +trench. If the nursery bed has grown well there should be about 4 +inches of stem on each seedling before the first leaf attaches. If +the weather is hot and sunny, snip off about one-third to one-half +the leaf area to reduce transplanting shock. Drop one leek seedling +into each hole up to the point that the first leaf attaches to the +stalk, and mud it in with a cup or two of liquid fertilizer. As the +leeks grow, gradually refill the trench and even hill up soil around +the growing plants. This makes the better-tasting white part of the +stem get as long as possible. Avoid getting soil into the center of +the leek where new leaves emerge, or you'll not get them clean after +harvest. + +Spacing of the seedlings depends on the amount of irrigation. If +absolutely none at all, set them 12 inches apart in the center of a +row 4 feet wide. If unlimited water is available, give them 2 inches +of separation. Or adjust spacing to the water available. The plants +grow slowly through summer, but in autumn growth will accelerate, +especially if they are side-dressed at this time. + +_Varieties:_ For dry gardening use the hardier, more vigorous winter +leeks. Durabel (TSC) has an especially mild, sweet flavor. Other +useful varieties include Giant Carentian (ABL), Alaska (STK), and +Winter Giant (PEA). + +Lettuce + +Spring-sown lettuce will go to large sizes, remaining sweet and +tender without irrigation if spaced 1 foot apart in a single row +with 2 feet of elbow room on each side. Lettuce cut after mid-June +usually gets bitter without regular, heavy irrigation. I reserve my +well-watered raised bed for this summer salad crop. Those very short +of water can start fall/winter lettuce in a shaded, irrigated +nursery bed mid-August through mid-September and transplant it out +after the fall rains return. Here is one situation in which +accelerating growth with cloches or cold frames would be very +helpful. + +Water-Wise Cucurbits + +The root systems of this family are far more extensive than most +people realize. Usually a taproot goes down several feet and then, +soil conditions permitting, thickly occupies a large area, +ultimately reaching down 5 to 8 feet. Shallow feeder roots also +extend laterally as far as or farther than the vines reach at their +greatest extent. + +Dry gardeners can do several things to assist cucurbits. First, make +sure there is absolutely no competition in their root zone. This +means[i]one plant per hill, with the hills separated in all +directions a little farther than the greatest possible extent of the +variety's ultimate growth.[i] Common garden lore states that +squashes droop their leaves in midsummer heat and that this trait +cannot be avoided and does no harm. But if they've grown as +described above, on deep, open soil, capillarity and surface +moisture reserves ensure there usually will be no midday wilting, +even if there is no watering. Two plants per hill do compete and +make each other wilt. + +Second, double dig and fertilize the entire lateral root zone. +Third, as much as possible, avoid walking where the vines will +ultimately reach to avoid compaction. Finally, [i]do not transplant +them.[i] This breaks the taproot and makes the plant more dependent +on lateral roots seeking moisture in the top 18 inches of soil. + +Melons + +_Sowing date:_ As soon as they'll germinate outdoors: at Elkton, May +15 to June 1. Thin to a single plant per hill when there are about +three true leaves and the vines are beginning to run. + +_Spacing:_ Most varieties will grow a vine reaching about 8 feet in +diameter. Space the hills 8 feet apart in all directions. + +_Irrigation:_ Fertigation every two to three weeks will increase the +yield by two or three times and may make the melons sweeter. Release +the water/fertilizer mix close to the center of the vine, where the +taproot can use it. + +_Varieties:_ Adaptation to our cool climate is critical with melons; +use varieties sold by our regional seed companies. Yellow Doll +watermelons (TSC) are very early and seem the most productive under +the most droughty conditions. I've had reasonable results from most +otherwise regionally adapted cantaloupes and muskmelons. Last year a +new hybrid variety, Passport (TSC), proved several weeks earlier +than I'd ever experienced and was extraordinarily prolific and +tasty. + +Onions/Scallions + +The usual spring-sown, summer-grown bulb onions and scallions only +work with abundant irrigation. But the water-short, water-wise +gardener can still supply the kitchen with onions or onion +substitutes year-round. Leeks take care of November through early +April. Overwintered bulb onions handle the rest of the year. +Scallions may also be harvested during winter. + +_Sowing date:_ Started too soon, overwintered or short-day bulbing +onions (and sweet scallions) will bolt and form seed instead of +bulbing. Started too late they'll be too small and possibly not +hardy enough to survive winter. About August 15 at Elkton I sow +thickly in a well-watered and very fertile nursery bed. If you have +more than one nursery row, separate them about by 12 inches. Those +who miss this window of opportunity can start transplants in early +October and cover with a cloche immediately after germination, to +accelerate seedling growth during fall and early winter. + +Start scallions in a nursery just like overwintered onions, but +earlier so they're large enough for the table during winter, I sow +them about mid-July. + +_Spacing:_ When seedlings are about pencil thick (December/January +for overwintering bulb onions), transplant them about 4 or 5 inches +apart in a single row with a couple of feet of elbow room on either +side. I've found I get the best growth and largest bulbs if they +follow potatoes. After the potatoes are dug in early October I +immediately fertilize the area heavily and till, preparing the onion +bed. Klamath Basin farmers usually grow a similar rotation: hay, +potatoes, onions. + +Transplant scallions in October with the fall rains, about 1 inch +apart in rows at least 2 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary. However, side-dressing the transplants +will result in much larger bulbs or scallions. Scallions will bolt +in April; the bulbers go tops-down and begin drying down as the soil +naturally dries out. + +_Varieties:_ I prefer the sweet and tender Lisbon (TSC) for +scallions. For overwintered bulb onions, grow very mild but poorly +keeping Walla Walla Sweet (JSS), Buffalo (TSC), a better keeper, or +whatever Territorial is selling at present. + +Parsley + +_Sowing date:_ March. Parsley seed takes two to three weeks to +germinate. + +_Spacing:_ Thin to 12 inches apart in a single row 4 feet wide. Five +plants should overwhelm the average kitchen. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary unless yield falls off during summer and +that is very unlikely. Parsley's very deep, foraging root system +resembles that of its relative, the carrot. + +_Varieties:_ If you use parsley for greens, variety is not critical, +though the gourmet may note slight differences in flavor or amount +of leaf curl. Another type of parsley is grown for edible roots that +taste much like parsnip. These should have their soil prepared as +carefully as though growing carrots. + +Peas + +This early crop matures without irrigation. Both pole and bush +varieties are planted thickly in single rows about 4 feet apart. I +always overlook some pods, which go on to form mature seed. Without +overhead irrigation, this seed will sprout strongly next year. +Alaska (soup) peas grow the same way. + +Peppers + +Pepper plants on raised beds spaced the usually recommended 16 to 24 +inches apart undergo intense root competition even before their +leaves form a canopy. With or without unlimited irrigation, the +plants will get much larger and bear more heavily with elbow room. + +_Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time. Double dig a +few square feet of soil beneath each seedling, and make sure +fertilizer gets incorporated all the way down to 2 feet deep. + +_Spacing:_ Three feet apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Without any irrigation only the most vigorous, +small-fruited varieties will set anything. For an abundant harvest, +fertigate every three or four weeks. For the biggest pepper plants +you ever grew, fertigate every two weeks. + +_Varieties:_ The small-fruited types, both hot and sweet, have much +more aggressive root systems and generally adapt better to our +region's cool weather. I've had best results with Cayenne Long Slim, +Gypsie, Surefire, Hot Portugal, the "cherries" both sweet and hot, +Italian Sweet, and Petite Sirah. + +Potatoes + +Humans domesticated potatoes in the cool, arid high plateaus of the +Andes where annual rainfall averages 8 to 12 inches. The species +finds our dry summer quite comfortable. Potatoes produce more +calories per unit of land than any other temperate crop. Irrigated +potatoes yield more calories and two to three times as much watery +bulk and indigestible fiber as those grown without irrigation, but +the same variety dry gardened can contain about 30 percent more +protein, far more mineral nutrients, and taste better. + +_Sowing date:_ I make two sowings. The first is a good-luck ritual +done religiously on March 17th--St. Patrick's Day. Rain or shine, in +untilled mud or finely worked and deeply fluffed earth, I still +plant 10 or 12 seed potatoes of an early variety. This provides for +summer. + +The main sowing waits until frost is unlikely and I can dig the +potato rows at least 12 inches deep with a spading fork, working in +fertilizer as deeply as possible and ending up with a finely +pulverized 24-inch-wide bed. At Elkton, this is usually mid-to late +April. There is no rush to plant. Potato vines are not frost hardy. +If frosted they'll regrow, but being burned back to the ground +lowers the final yield. + +_Spacing:_ I presprout my seeds by spreading them out in daylight at +room temperature for a few weeks, and then plant one whole, +sprouting, medium-size potato every 18 inches down the center of the +row. Barely cover the seed potato. At maturity there should be +2[f]1/2 to 3 feet of soil unoccupied with the roots of any other +crop on each side of the row. As the vines emerge, gradually scrape +soil up over them with a hoe. Let the vines grow about 4 inches, +then pull up about 2 inches of cover. Let another 4 inches grow, +then hill up another 2 inches. Continue doing this until the vines +begin blooming. At that point there should be a mound of loose, +fluffy soil about 12 to 16 inches high gradually filling with tubers +lushly covered with blooming vines. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary. In fact, if large water droplets +compact the loose soil you scraped up, that may interfere with +maximum tuber enlargement. However, after the vines are a foot long +or so, foliar feeding every week or 10 days will increase the yield. + +_Varieties:_ The water-wise gardener's main potato problem is +too-early maturity, and then premature sprouting in storage. Early +varieties like Yukon Gold--even popular midseason ones like Yellow +Finn--don't keep well unless they're planted late enough to brown +off in late September. That's no problem if they're irrigated. But +planted in late April, earlier varieties will shrivel by August. +Potatoes only keep well when very cool, dark, and moist--conditions +almost impossible to create on the homestead during summer. The best +August compromise is to leave mature potatoes undug, but soil +temperatures are in the 70s during August, and by early October, +when potatoes should be lifted and put into storage, they'll already +be sprouting. Sprouting in October is acceptable for the remainders +of my St. Pat's Day sowing that I am keeping over for seed next +spring. It is not ok for my main winter storage crop. Our climate +requires very late, slow-maturing varieties that can be sown early +but that don't brown off until September. Late types usually yield +more, too. + +Most of the seed potato varieties found in garden centers are early +or midseason types chosen by farmers for yield without regard to +flavor or nutrition. One, Nooksack Cascadian, is a very late variety +grown commercially around Bellingham, Washington. Nooksack is pretty +good if you like white, all-purpose potatoes. + +There are much better homegarden varieties available in Ronniger's +catalog, all arranged according to maturity. For the ultimate in +earlies I suggest Red Gold. For main harvests I'd try Indian Pit, +Carole, German Butterball, Siberian, or a few experimental row-feet +of any other late variety taking your fancy. + +Rutabagas + +Rutabagas have wonderfully aggressive root systems and are capable +of growing continuously through long, severe drought. But where I +live, the results aren't satisfactory. Here's what happens. If I +start rutabagas in early April and space them about 2 to 3 feet +apart in rows 4 feet apart, by October they're the size of +basketballs and look pretty good; unfortunately, I harvest a hollow +shell full of cabbage root maggots. Root maggots are at their peak +in early June. That's why I got interested in dry-gardening giant +kohlrabi. + +In 1991 we had about 2 surprising inches of rain late in June, so as +a test I sowed rutabagas on July 1. They germinated without more +irrigation, but going into the hot summer as small plants with +limited root systems and no irrigation at all they became somewhat +stunted. By October 1 the tops were still small and a little gnarly; +big roots had not yet formed. Then the rains came and the rutabagas +began growing rapidly. By November there was a pretty nice crop of +medium-size good-eating roots. + +I suspect that farther north, where evaporation is not so severe and +midsummer rains are slightly more common, if a little irrigation +were used to start rutabagas about July 1, a decent unwatered crop +might be had most years. And I am certain that if sown at the normal +time (July 15) and grown with minimal irrigation but well spaced +out, they'll produce acceptably. + +_Varieties:_ Stokes Altasweet (STK, TSC) has the best flavor. + +Sorrel + +This weed-like, drought-tolerant salad green is little known and +underappreciated. In summer the leaves get tough and strong +flavored; if other greens are available, sorrel will probably be +unpicked. That's ok. During fall, winter, and spring, sorrel's +lemony taste and delicate, tender texture balance tougher savoy +cabbage and kale and turn those crude vegetables into very +acceptable salads. Serious salad-eating families might want the +production of 5 to 10 row-feet. + +_Sowing date:_ The first year you grow sorrel, sow mid-March to +mid-April. The tiny seed must be placed shallowly, and it sprouts +much more readily when the soil stays moist. Plant a single furrow +centered in a row 4 feet wide. + +_Spacing: _As the seedlings grow, thin gradually. When the leaves +are about the size of ordinary spinach, individual plants should be +about 6 inches apart. + +_Irrigation:_ Not necessary in summer--you won't eat it anyway. If +production lags in fall, winter, or spring, side-dress the sorrel +patch with a little compost or organic fertilizer. + +_Maintenance:_ Sorrel is perennial. If an unusually harsh winter +freeze kills off the leaves it will probably come back from root +crowns in early spring. You'll welcome it after losing the rest of +your winter crops. In spring of the second and succeeding years +sorrel will make seed. Seed making saps the plant's energy, and the +seeds may naturalize into an unwanted weed around the garden. So, +before any seed forms, cut all the leaves and seed stalks close to +the ground; use the trimmings as a convenient mulch along the row. +If you move the garden or want to relocate the patch, do not start +sorrel again from seed. In any season dig up a few plants, divide +the root masses, trim off most of the leaves to reduce transplanting +shock, and transplant 1 foot apart. Occasional unique plants may be +more reluctant to make seed stalks than most others. Since seed +stalks produce few edible leaves and the leaves on them are very +harsh flavored, making seed is an undesirable trait. So I propagate +only seed-shy plants by root cuttings. + +Spinach + +Spring spinach is remarkably more drought tolerant than it would +appear from its delicate structure and the succulence of its leaves. +A bolt-resistant, long-day variety bred for summer harvest sown in +late April may still yield pickable leaves in late June or even +early July without any watering at all, if thinned to 12 inches +apart in rows 3 feet apart. + +Squash, Winter and Summer + +_Sowing date:_ Having warm-enough soil is everything. At Elkton I +first attempt squash about April 15. In the Willamette, May 1 is +usual. Farther north, squash may not come up until June 1. Dry +gardeners should not transplant squash; the taproot must not be +broken. + +_Spacing:_ The amount of room to give each plant depends on the +potential of a specific variety's maximum root development. Most +vining winter squash can completely occupy a 10-foot-diameter +circle. Sprawly heirloom summer squash varieties can desiccate an +8-or 9-foot-diameter circle. Thin each hill to one plant, not two or +more as is recommended in the average garden book. There must be no +competition for water. + +_Irrigation:_ With winter storage types, an unirrigated vine may +yield 15 pounds of squash after occupying a 10-foot-diameter circle +for an entire growing season. However, starting about July 1, if you +support that vine by supplying liquid fertilizer every two to three +weeks you may harvest 60 pounds of squash from the same area. The +first fertigation may only need 2 gallons. Then mid-July give 4; +about August 1, 8; August 15, feed 15 gallons. After that date, +solar intensity and temperatures decline, growth rate slows, and +water use also decreases. On September 1 I'd add about 8 gallons and +about 5 more on September 15 if it hadn't yet rained significantly. +Total water: 42 gallons. Total increase in yield: 45 pounds. I'd say +that's a good return on water invested. + +_Varieties:_ For winter squash, all the vining winter varieties in +the C. maxima or C. pepo family seem acceptably adapted to dry +gardening. These include Buttercup, Hubbard, Delicious, Sweet Meat, +Delicata, Spaghetti, and Acorn. I wouldn't trust any of the newer +compact bush winter varieties so popular on raised beds. Despite +their reputation for drought tolerance C. mixta varieties (or cushaw +squash) were believed to be strictly hot desert or humid-tropical +varieties, unable to mature in our cool climate. However, Pepita +(PEA) is a mixta that is early enough and seems entirely unbothered +by a complete lack of irrigation. The enormous vine sets numerous +good keepers with mild-tasting, light yellow flesh. + +Obviously, the compact bush summer squash varieties so popular these +days are not good candidates for withstanding long periods without +irrigation. The old heirlooms like Black Zucchini (ABL) (not Black +Beauty!) and warty Yellow Crookneck grow enormous, high-yielding +plants whose extent nearly rivals that of the largest winter squash. +They also grow a dense leaf cover, making the fruit a little harder +to find. These are the only American heirlooms still readily +available. Black Zucchini has become very raggedy; anyone growing it +should be prepared to plant several vines and accept that at least +one-third of them will throw rather off-type fruit. It needs the +work of a skilled plant breeder. Yellow Crookneck is still a fairly +"clean" variety offering good uniformity. Both have more flavor and +are less watery than the modern summer squash varieties. Yellow +Crookneck is especially rich, probably due to its thick, oily skin; +most gardeners who once grow the old Crookneck never again grow any +other kind. Another useful drought-tolerant variety is Gem, +sometimes called Rolet (TSC). It grows an extensive +winter-squash-like vine yielding grapefruit-size, excellent eating +summer squash. + +Both Yellow Crookneck and Black Zucchini begin yielding several +weeks later than the modern hybrids. However, as the summer goes on +they will produce quite a bit more squash than new hybrid types. I +now grow five or six fully irrigated early hybrid plants like Seneca +Zucchini too. As soon as my picking bucket is being filled with +later-to-yield Crooknecks, I pull out the Senecas and use the now +empty irrigated space for fall crops. + +Tomato + +There's no point in elaborate methods--trellising, pruning, or +training--with dry-gardened tomato vines. Their root systems must be +allowed to control all the space they can without competition, so +allow the vines to sprawl as well. And pruning the leaf area of +indeterminates is counterproductive: to grow hugely, the roots need +food from a full complement of leaves. + +_Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time. They might +also be jump started under cloches two to three weeks before the +last frost, to make better use of natural soil moisture. + +_Spacing:_ Depends greatly on variety. The root system can occupy as +much space as the vines will cover and then some. + +_Irrigation:_ Especially on determinate varieties, periodic +fertigation will greatly increase yield and size of fruit. The old +indeterminate sprawlers will produce through an entire summer +without any supplemental moisture, but yield even more in response +to irrigation. + +_Variety:_ With or without irrigation or anywhere in between, when +growing tomatoes west of the Cascades, nothing is more important +than choosing the right variety. Not only does it have to be early +and able to set and ripen fruit when nights are cool, but to grow +through months without watering the plant must be highly +indeterminate. This makes a built-in conflict: most of the sprawly, +huge, old heirloom varieties are rather late to mature. But cherry +tomatoes are always far earlier than big slicers. + +If I had to choose only one variety it would be the old heirloom +[Large] Red Cherry. A single plant is capable of covering a 9-to +10-foot-diameter circle if fertigated from mid-July through August. +The enormous yield of a single fertigated vine is overwhelming. + +Red Cherry is a little acid and tart. Non-acid, indeterminate cherry +types like Sweetie, Sweet 100, and Sweet Millions are also workable +but not as aggressive as Red Cherry. I wouldn't depend on most bush +cherry tomato varieties. But our earliest cherry variety of all, +OSU's Gold Nugget, must grow a lot more root than top, for, with or +without supplemental water, Gold Nugget sets heavily and ripens +enormously until mid-August, when it peters out from overbearing +(not from moisture stress). Gold Nugget quits just about when the +later cherry or slicing tomatoes start ripening heavily. + +Other well-adapted early determinates such as Oregon Spring and +Santiam may disappoint you. Unless fertigated. they'll set and ripen +some fruit but may become stunted in midsummer. However, a single +indeterminate Fantastic Hybrid will cover a 6-to 7-foot-diameter +circle, and grow and ripen tomatoes until frost with only a minimum +of water. I think Stupice (ABL, TSC) and Early Cascade are also +quite workable (and earlier than Fantastic in Washington). + + + + + + +Chapter 6 + +My Own Garden Plan + + + + + +This chapter illustrates and explains my own dry garden. Any garden +plan is a product of compromises and preferences; mine is not +intended to become yours. But, all modesty aside, this plan results +from 20 continuous years of serious vegetable gardening and some +small degree of regional wisdom. + +My wife and I are what I dub "vegetablitarians." Not vegetarians, or +lacto-ovo vegetarians because we're not ideologues and eat meat on +rare, usually festive occasions in other peoples' houses. But over +80 percent of our calories are from vegetable, fruit, or cereal +sources and the remaining percentage is from fats or dairy foods. +The purpose of my garden is to provide at least half the actual +calories we eat year-round; most of the rest comes from home-baked +bread made with freshly ground whole grains. I put at least one very +large bowl of salad on the table every day, winter and summer. I +keep us in potatoes nine months a year and produce a year's supply +of onions or leeks. To break the dietary monotony of November to +April, I grow as wide an assortment of winter vegetables as possible +and put most produce departments to shame from June through +September, when the summer vegies are "on." + +The garden plan may seem unusually large, but in accordance with +Solomon's First Law of Abundance, there's a great deal of +intentional waste. My garden produces two to three times the amount +of food needed during the year so moochers, poachers, guests, adult +daughters accompanied by partners, husbands, and children, mistakes, +poor yields, and failures of individual vegetables are +inconsequential. Besides, gardening is fun. + +My garden is laid out in 125-foot-long rows and one equally long +raised bed. Each row grows only one or two types of vegetables. The +central focus of my water-wise garden is its irrigation system. Two +lines of low-angle sprinklers, only 4 feet apart, straddle an +intensively irrigated raised bed running down the center of the +garden. The sprinklers I use are Naans, a unique Israeli design that +emits very little water and throws at a very low angle (available +from TSC and some garden centers). Their maximum reach is about 18 +feet; each sprinkler is about 12 feet from its neighbor. On the +garden plan, the sprinklers are indicated by a circle surrounding an +"X." Readers unfamiliar with sprinkler system design are advised to +study the irrigation chapter in Growing Vegetables West of the +Cascades. + +On the far left side of the garden plan is a graphic representation +of the uneven application of water put down by this sprinkler +system. The 4-foot-wide raised bed gets lots of water, uniformly +distributed. Farther away, the amount applied decreases rapidly. +About half as much irrigation lands only 6 feet from the edge of the +raised bed as on the bed itself. Beyond that the amount tapers off +to insignificance. During summer's heat the farthest 6 feet is +barely moistened on top, but no water effectively penetrates the dry +surface. Crops are positioned according to their need for or ability +to benefit from supplementation. For convenient description I've +numbered those rows. + +The Raised Bed + +Crops demanding the most water are grown on the raised bed. These +include a succession of lettuce plantings designed to fill the +summer salad bowl, summer spinach, spring kohlrabi, my celery patch, +scallions, Chinese cabbages, radishes, and various nursery beds that +start overwintered crops for transplanting later. Perhaps the bed +seems too large just for salad greens. But one entire meal every day +consists largely of fresh, raw, high-protein green leaves; during +summer, looseleaf or semiheading lettuce is our salad item of +choice. And our individual salad bowls are larger than most families +of six might consider adequate to serve all of them together. + +If water were severely rationed I could irrigate the raised bed with +hose and nozzle and dry garden the rest, but as it is, rows 1, 2, 7, +and 8 do get significant but lesser amounts from the sprinklers. +Most of the rows hold a single plant family needing similar +fertilization and handling or, for convenience, that are sown at the +same time. + +Row 1 + +The row's center is about 3 feet from the edge of the raised bed. In +March I sow my very first salad greens down half this row--mostly +assorted leaf lettuce plus some spinach--and six closely spaced +early Seneca Hybrid zucchini plants. The greens are all cut by +mid-June; by mid-July my better-quality Yellow Crookneck squash come +on, so I pull the zucchini. Then I till that entire row, +refertilize, and sow half to rutabagas. The nursery bed of leek +seedlings has gotten large enough to transplant at this time, too. +These go into a trench dug into the other half of the row. The leeks +and rutabagas could be reasonably productive located farther from +the sprinklers, but no vegetables benefit more from abundant water +or are more important to a self-sufficient kitchen. Rutabagas break +the winter monotony of potatoes; leeks vitally improve winter +salads, and leeky soups are a household staple from November through +March. + +Row 2: Semi-Drought Tolerant Brassicas + +Row 2 gets about half the irrigation of row 1 and about one-third as +much as the raised bed, and so is wider, to give the roots more +room. One-third of the row grows savoy cabbage, the rest, Brussels +sprouts. These brassicas are spaced 4 feet apart and by summer's end +the lusty sprouts form a solid hedge 4 feet tall. + +Row 3: Kale + +Row 3 grows 125 feet of various kales sown in April. There's just +enough overspray to keep the plants from getting gnarly. I prefer +kale to not get very stunted, if only for aesthetics: on my soil, +one vanity fertigation about mid-July keeps this row looking +impressive all summer. Other gardens with poorer soil might need +more support. This much kale may seem an enormous oversupply, but +between salads and steaming greens with potatoes we manage to eat +almost all the tender small leaves it grows during winter. + +Row 4: Root Crops + +Mostly carrots, a few beets. No irrigation, no fertigation, none +needed. One hundred carrots weighing in at around 5 pounds each and +20-some beets of equal magnitude make our year's supply for salads, +soups, and a little juicing. + +Row 5: Dry-Gardened Salads + +This row holds a few crowns of French sorrel, a few feet of parsley. +Over a dozen giant kohlrabi are spring sown, but over half the row +grows endive. I give this row absolutely no water. Again, when +contemplating the amount of space it takes, keep in mind that this +endive and kohlrabi must help fill our salad bowls from October +through March. + +Row 6: Peas, Overwintered Cauliflower, and All Solanaceae + +Half the row grows early bush peas. Without overhead irrigation to +bother them, unpicked pods form seed that sprouts excellently the +next year. This half of the row is rotary tilled and fertilized +again after the pea vines come out. Then it stays bare through July +while capillarity somewhat recharges the soil. About August 1, I wet +the row's surface down with hose and fan nozzle and sow overwintered +cauliflower seed. To keep the cauliflower from stunting I must +lightly hand sprinkle the row's center twice weekly through late +September. Were water more restricted I could start my cauliflower +seedlings in a nursery bed and transplant them here in October. + +The other half is home to the Solanaceae: tomato, pepper, and +eggplant. I give this row a little extra width because pea vines +run, and I fertigate my Solanaceae, preferring sprawly tomato +varieties that may cover an 8-foot-diameter circle. There's also a +couple of extra bare feet along the outside because the neighboring +grasses will deplete soil moisture along the edge of the garden. + +Row 7: Water-Demanding Brassicas + +Moving away from irrigation on the other side of the raised bed, I +grow a succession of hybrid broccoli varieties and late fall +cauliflower. The broccoli is sown several times, 20 row-feet each +sowing, done about April 15, June 1, and July 15. The late +cauliflower goes in about July 1. If necessary I could use much of +this row for quick crops that would be harvested before I wanted to +sow broccoli or cauliflower, but I don't need more room. The first +sowings of broccoli are pulled out early enough to permit succession +sowings of arugula or other late salad greens. + +Row 8: The Trellis + +Here I erect a 125-foot-long, 6-foot-tall net trellis for gourmet +delicacies like pole peas and pole beans. The bean vines block +almost all water that would to on beyond it and so this row gets +more irrigation than it otherwise might. The peas are harvested +early enough to permit a succession sowing of Purple Sprouting +broccoli in mid-July. Purple Sprouting needs a bit of sprinkling to +germinate in the heat of midsummer, but, being as vigorous as kale, +once up, it grows adequately on the overspray from the raised bed. +The beans would be overwhelmingly abundant if all were sown at one +time, so I plant them in two stages about three weeks apart. Still, +a great many beans go unpicked. These are allowed to form seed, are +harvested before they quite dry, and crisp under cover away from the +sprinklers. We get enough seed from this row for planting next year, +plus all the dry beans we care to eat during winter. Dry beans are +hard to digest and as we age we eat fewer and fewer of them. In +previous years I've grown entire rows of dry legume seeds at the +garden's edge. + +Row 9: Cucurbits + +This row is so wide because here are grown all the spreading +cucurbits. The pole beans in row 8 tend to prevent overspray; this +dryness is especially beneficial to humidity-sensitive melons, +serendipitously reducing their susceptability to powdery mildew +diseases. All cucurbits are fertigated every three weeks. The squash +will have fallen apart by the end of September, melons are pulled +out by mid-September. The area is then tilled and fertilized, making +space to transplant overwintered spring cabbages, other overwintered +brassicas, and winter scallions in October. These transplants are +dug from nurseries on the irrigated raised bed. I could also set +cold frames here and force tender salad greens all winter. + +Row 10: Unirrigated Potatoes + +This single long row satisfies a potato-loving household all winter. +The quality of these dry-gardened tubers is so high that my wife +complains if she must buy a few new potatoes from the supermarket +after our supplies have become so sprouty and/or shriveled that +they're not tasty any longer. + + + + + + +Chapter 7 + +The Backyard + +Water-Wise Gardener + + + + + +I am an unusually fortunate gardener. After seven years of +struggling on one of the poorest growing sites in this region we now +live on 16 acres of mostly excellent, deep soil, on the floor of a +beautiful, coastal Oregon valley. My house and gardens are perched +safely above the 100-year flood line, there's a big, reliable well, +and if I ever want more than 20 gallons per minute in midsummer, +there's the virtually unlimited Umpqua River to draw from. Much like +a master skeet shooter who uses a .410 to make the sport more +interesting, I have chosen to dry garden. + +Few are this lucky. These days the majority of North Americans live +an urban struggle. Their houses are as often perched on steep, +thinly soiled hills or gooey, difficult clay as on a tiny fragment +of what was once prime farmland. And never does the municipal +gardener have one vital liberty I do: to choose which one-sixth of +an acre in his 14-acre "back yard" he'll garden on this year. + +I was a suburban backyard gardener for five years before deciding to +homestead. I've frequently recalled this experience while learning +to dry garden. What follows in this chapter are some strategies to +guide the urban in becoming more water-wise. + +Water Conservation Is the Most Important First Step + +After it rains or after sprinkler irrigation, water evaporates from +the surface until a desiccated earth mulch develops. Frequent light +watering increases this type of loss. Where lettuce, radishes, and +other shallow-rooting vegetables are growing, perhaps it is best to +accept this loss or spread a thin mulch to reduce it. But most +vegetables can feed deeper, so if wetting the surface can be +avoided, a lot of water can be saved. Even sprinkling longer and +less frequently helps accomplish that. Half the reason that drip +systems are more efficient is that the surface isn't dampened and +virtually all water goes deep into the earth. The other half is that +they avoiding evaporation that occurs while water sprays through the +air between the nozzle and the soil. Sprinkling at night or early in +the morning, when there is little or no wind, prevents almost all of +this type of loss. + +To use drip irrigation it is not necessary to invest in pipes, +emitters, filters, pressure regulators, and so forth. I've already +explained how recycled plastic buckets or other large containers can +be improvised into very effective drip emitters. Besides, drip tube +systems are not trouble free: having the beds covered with fragile +pipes makes hoeing dicey, while every emitter must be periodically +checked against blockage. + +When using any type of drip system it is especially important to +relate the amount of water applied to the depth of the soil to the +crops, root development. There's no sense adding more water than the +earth can hold. Calculating the optimum amount of water to apply +from a drip system requires applying substantial, practical +intelligence to evaluating the following factors: soil water-holding +capacity and accessible depth; how deep the root systems have +developed; how broadly the water spreads out below each emitter +(dispersion); rate of loss due to transpiration. All but one of +these factors--dispersion--are adequately discussed elsewhere in +_Gardening Without Irrigation._ + +A drip emitter on sandy soil moistens the earth nearly straight down +with little lateral dispersion; 1 foot below the surface the wet +area might only be 1 foot in diameter. Conversely, when you drip +moisture into a clay soil, though the surface may seem dry, 18 +inches away from the emitter and just 3 inches down the earth may +become saturated with water, while a few inches deeper, significant +dispersion may reach out nearly 24 inches. On sandy soil, emitters +on 12-inch centers are hardly close enough together, while on clay, +30-or even 36-inch centers are sufficient. + +Another important bit of data to enter into your arithmetic: 1 cubic +foot of water equals about 5 gallons. A 12-inch-diameter circle +equals 0.75 square feet (A = Pi x Radius squared), so 1 cubic foot +of water (5 gallons) dispersed from a single emitter will add +roughly 16 inches of moisture to sandy soil, greatly overwatering a +medium that can hold only an inch or so of available water per foot. +On heavy clay, a single emitter may wet a 4-foot-diameter circle, on +loams, anywhere in between, 5 gallons will cover a 4-foot-diameter +circle about 1 inch deep. So on deep, clay soil, 10 or even 15 +gallons per application may be in order. What is the texture of your +soil, its water-holding capacity, and the dispersion of a drip into +it? Probably, it is somewhere in between sand and clay. + +I can't specify what is optimum in any particular situation. Each +gardener must consider his own unique factors and make his own +estimation. All I can do is stress again that the essence of +water-wise gardening is water conservation. + +Optimizing Space: Planning the Water-Wise Backyard Garden + +Intensive gardening is a strategy holding that yield per square foot +is the supreme goal; it succeeds by optimizing as many growth +factors as possible. So a raised bed is loosened very deeply without +concern for the amount of labor, while fertility and moisture are +supplied virtually without limit. Intensive gardening makes sense +when land is very costly and the worth of the food grown is judged +against organic produce at retail--and when water and nutrients are +inexpensive and/or available in unlimited amounts. + +When water use is reduced, yield inevitably drops proportionately. +The backyard water-wise gardener, then, must logically ask which +vegetable species will give him enough food or more economic value +with limited space and water. Taking maritime Northwest rainfall +patterns into consideration, here's my best estimation: + +Water-Wise Efficiency of Vegetable Crops + +(in terms of backyard usage of space and moisture) + + +EFFICIENT ENOUGH + + +Early spring-sown crops: peas, broccoli, lettuce, radishes, savoy +cabbage, kohlrabi + +Overwintered crops: onions, broccoli cauliflower, +cabbage, favas beans + +Endive Kale + +Garden sorrel + +Indeterminate tomatoes + +Giant kohlrabi + +Parsley--leaf and root + +heirloom summer squash (sprawly) + +Pole beans + +Herbs: marjoram, thyme, dill, cilantro, fennel, oregano + +Root crops: carrots, beets, parsnips + + +MARGINAL + + +Brussels sprouts (late) + +Potatoes + +Determinate tomatoes + +Rutabagas + +Eggplant + +Leeks + +Leeks + +Savoy cabbage (late) + +Peppers, small fruited + + +INEFFICIENT + + +Beans, bush snap + +Peppers, bell + +Broccoli, summer + +Radishes + +Cauliflower + +Scallions, bulb onions + +Celery + +Sweet corn + +Lettuce + +Turnips + +Have fun planning your own water-wise garden! + + + + + + +More Reading + +About the Interlibrary Loan Service + + + + + +Agricultural books, especially older ones, are not usually available +at local libraries. But most municipal libraries and all +universities offer access to an on-line database listing the +holdings of other cooperating libraries throughout the United +States. Almost any book published in this century will be promptly +mailed to the requesting library. Anyone who is serious about +learning by reading should discover how easy and inexpensive (or +free) it is to use the Interlibrary Loan Service. + +Carter, Vernon Gill, and Tom, Dale. _Topsoil and Civilization._ + +Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. + +The history of civilization's destruction of one ecosystem after +another by plowing and deforestation, and its grave implications for +our country's long-term survival. + +Cleveland, David A., and Daniela Soleri. _Food from Dryland Gardens: +An Ecological, Nutritional and Social Approach to Small-Scale +Household Food Production. _Tucson: Center for People, Food and +Environment, 1991. + +World-conscious survey of low-tech food production in semiarid +regions. + +Faulkner, Edward H._ Plowman's Folly._ Norman, Okla.: University of +Oklahoma Press, 1943. + +This book created quite a controversy in the 1940s. Faulkner +stresses the vital importance of capillarity. He explains how +conventional plowing stops this moisture flow. + +Foth, Henry D. _Fundamentals of Soil Science. _Eighth Edition. New +York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990. + +A thorough yet readable basic soil science text at a level +comfortable for university non-science majors. + +Hamaker, John. D. _The Survival of Civilization._ Annotated by +Donald A. Weaver. Michigan/California: Hamaker-Weaver Publishers, +1982. + +Hamaker contradicts our current preoccupation with global warming +and makes a believable case that a new epoch of planetary glaciation +is coming, caused by an increase in greenhouse gas. The book is also +a guide to soil enrichment with rock powders. + +Nabhan, Gary. _The Desert Smells like Rain: A Naturalist in Papago +Indian Country. _San Francisco: North Point Press, 1962. + +Describes regionally useful Native American dry-gardening techniques + +Russell, Sir E. John. _Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. _Eighth +Edition. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1950. + +Probably the finest, most human soil science text ever written. +Russell avoids unnecessary mathematics and obscure terminology. I do +not recommend the recent in-print edition, revised and enlarged by a +committee. + +Smith, J. Russell. Tree Crops: a Permanent Agriculture. New York: +Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1929. + +Smith's visionary solution to upland erosion is growing unirrigated +tree crops that produce cereal-like foods and nuts. Should sit on +the "family bible shelf" of every permaculturalist. + +Solomon, Stephen J. _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades. +_Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1989. + +The complete regional gardening textbook. + +-------------------------. _Backyard Composting._ Portland, Ore.: +George van Patten Publishing, 1992. + +Especially useful for its unique discussion of the overuse of +compost and a nonideological approach to raising the most nutritious +food possible. + +Stout, Ruth. _Gardening Without Work for the Aging, the Busy and the +Indolent. _Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair, 1961. + +Stout presents the original thesis of permanent mulching. + +Turner, Frank Newman. _Fertility, Pastures and Cover Crops Based on +Nature's Own Balanced Organic Pasture Feeds._ San Diego: Rateaver, +1975. Reprinted from the 1955 Faber and Faber, edition. + +Organic farming using long rotations, including deeply rooted green +manures developed to a high art. Turner maintained a productive +organic dairy farm using subsoiling and long rotations involving +tilled crops and semipermanent grass/herb mixtures. + +ven der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David K. Todd. _The Water +Encyclopedia, Second Edition. _Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, +1990. + +Reference data concerning every possible aspect of water. + +Weaver, John E., and William E. Bruner. _Root Development of +Vegetable Crops._ New York: McGraw-Hill, 1927. + +Contains very interesting drawings showing the amazing depth and +extent that vegetable roots are capable of in favorable soil. + +Widtsoe, John A. _Dry Farming: A System of Agriculture for Countries +Under Low Rainfall. _New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920. + +The best single review ever made of the possibilities of dry farming +and dry gardening, sagely discussing the scientific basis behind the +techniques. The quality of Widtsoe's understanding proves that newer +is not necessarily better. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg Etext of Gardening Without Irrigation: or without much, anyway +by Steve Solomon + diff --git a/old/grdwr10.zip b/old/grdwr10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..23f1eb3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/grdwr10.zip |