Add files from ibiblio as of 2025-03-03 17:33:32HEADmain

6 files changed, 7 insertions, 3208 deletions

diff --git a/44932-0.txt b/44932-0.txt
index 93bcc7f..ecba3bd 100644
--- a/44932-0.txt
+++ b/44932-0.txt
@@ -1,34 +1,4 @@
-Project Gutenberg's Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by Bertrand Russell
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-
-Title: Free Thought and Official Propaganda
-
-Author: Bertrand Russell
-
-Release Date: February 16, 2014 [EBook #44932]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-
-
-
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44932 ***
 
   [Italics are marked with _underscores_.]
 
@@ -832,365 +802,4 @@ print.)
 End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by 
 Bertrand Russell
 
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-***** This file should be named 44932-0.txt or 44932-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/9/3/44932/
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-
-
-
-*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
-http://gutenberg.org/license).
-
-
-Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works
-
-1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-
-1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.
-
-1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that
-
-- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.
-
-- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.
-
-1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
-
-
-Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
-and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
-
-
-Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
-http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
-809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
-business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
-information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
-page at http://pglaf.org
-
-For additional contact information:
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-     Chief Executive and Director
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-
-Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit http://pglaf.org
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
-
-
-Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
-
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
-
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-
-     http://www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44932 ***
diff --git a/44932-8.txt b/44932-8.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 3311633..0000000
--- a/44932-8.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1196 +0,0 @@
-Project Gutenberg's Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by Bertrand Russell
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-
-Title: Free Thought and Official Propaganda
-
-Author: Bertrand Russell
-
-Release Date: February 16, 2014 [EBook #44932]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-
-
-
-
-  [Italics are marked with _underscores_.]
-
-
-
-
-  Ex Libris
-  C. K. OGDEN
-  CONWAY MEMORIAL LECTURE
-
-  FREE THOUGHT
-  AND
-  OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA
-
-  DELIVERED AT SOUTH PLACE INSTITUTE ON
-  MARCH 24, 1922
-
-  BY
-  The Hon. BERTRAND RUSSELL,
-  M.A., F.R.S.
-
-  _(Professor Graham Wallas in the Chair)_
-
-  WATTS & CO.,
-  JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.4
-  1922
-
-
-
-
-  CHAIRMAN'S INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS
-
-
-I have come here to-night, partly because I want to hear Mr. Russell,
-and partly because of an old affection for South Place and its
-traditions. I myself have been for more than forty years a professional
-teacher; and it is as a teacher--who thirty-seven years ago was
-dismissed for refusing religious conformity--that I most easily approach
-the problem of free thought. Though systems of education professing to
-teach men and women how to think have been in use in Europe for,
-perhaps, three thousand years, we have not yet reached that degree of
-success which would be shown if most educated people came to much the
-same conclusions on the great problems of life from a study of the same
-evidence. Everywhere you have rebels; but ninety per cent. of French or
-American students of history come to French or American conclusions, and
-eighty-five per cent. of English students come to English conclusions;
-eighty per cent. of Eton boys hold Eton political opinions all their
-lives; ninety per cent. of the Irish Catholic population of the United
-States seem to hold generation after generation identical opinions on
-religion and politics which are not held by the vast majority of
-Americans. It may be said that in these cases only one kind of evidence
-is allowed to reach the students in each institution. But everybody
-reads newspapers, and talks with his neighbours, and travels, and visits
-museums; and most intelligent people read books and magazines. Sooner or
-later much of the same evidence reaches us all. I myself believe that
-one of the main reasons why we do not to a greater degree draw the same
-conclusions from that evidence is that we do not really learn the
-difficult art of thought. A boy at school is taught to memorize and to
-understand mathematical formulæ or foreign languages or scientific
-statements. But in weighing evidence the effort of memorizing, and even
-the effort of understanding, are not of the first importance. The
-effective process is a sort of painful and watchful expectancy. A
-schoolboy or a college student finds that he has an uncomfortable sense
-of unreality in repeating some accustomed formula, or writing an essay
-to enforce some accustomed line of argument. He shrinks from that
-feeling, as all animals shrink from discomfort. If he were taught what
-are the conditions of effective thought, and were encouraged to act on
-that lesson, he would know that it is only by resolutely fastening on
-such vague and painful premonitions, and forcing them to come into full
-consciousness and disclose their deeper causes and tendencies that he
-can arrive at new truth or make some old truth his own.
-
-But who is going to tell him this secret? Every day in London thousands
-of clever and sympathetic boys and girls begin the day by sitting
-through three-quarters of an hour of the dreary "Cowper-Temple"
-instruction which consists, as Bishop Temple once said, of teaching at
-everybody's expense what nobody believes. They may be conscious or
-half-conscious of a feeling of unreality; but, even if they have not
-been taught that it is a sacred duty to "struggle against doubt," they
-shrink, as the cleverest of them feel that the teacher is shrinking,
-from any further exploration on that path.
-
-Perhaps some day the teachers and students of the ordinary school and
-college subjects may learn something from those little isolated
-institutions where men and women try to prepare themselves for the
-creative arts. The young painter or sculptor or member of a group of
-young poets is often queerly ignorant and one-sided. But he lives in
-another world from that of the big conventional sixth-form boy at Harrow
-or St. Paul's, or the hockey-playing athlete of a girls' High School,
-because he has felt the pain and the exhilaration reached through pain
-by which alone new truth and new beauty are born into the world.
-
-
-
-
-  FREE THOUGHT AND
-  OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA
-
-
-Moncure Conway, in whose honour we are assembled to-day, devoted his
-life to two great objects: freedom of thought and freedom of the
-individual. In regard to both these objects, something has been gained
-since his time, but something also has been lost. New dangers, somewhat
-different in form from those of past ages, threaten both kinds of
-freedom, and unless a vigorous and vigilant public opinion can be
-aroused in defence of them, there will be much less of both a hundred
-years hence than there is now. My purpose in this address is to
-emphasize the new dangers and to consider how they can be met.
-
-Let us begin by trying to be clear as to what we mean by "free thought."
-This expression has two senses. In its narrower sense it means thought
-which does not accept the dogmas of traditional religion. In this sense
-a man is a "free thinker" if he is not a Christian or a Mussulman or a
-Buddhist or a Shintoist or a member of any of the other bodies of men
-who accept some inherited orthodoxy. In Christian countries a man is
-called a "free thinker" if he does not decidedly believe in God, though
-this would not suffice to make a man a "free thinker" in a Buddhist
-country.
-
-I do not wish to minimize the importance of free thought in this sense.
-I am myself a dissenter from all known religions, and I hope that every
-kind of religious belief will die out. I do not believe that, on the
-balance, religious belief has been a force for good. Although I am
-prepared to admit that in certain times and places it has had some good
-effects, I regard it as belonging to the infancy of human reason, and to
-a stage of development which we are now outgrowing.
-
-But there is also a wider sense of "free thought," which I regard as of
-still greater importance. Indeed, the harm done by traditional religions
-seems chiefly traceable to the fact that they have prevented free
-thought in this wider sense. The wider sense is not so easy to define as
-the narrower, and it will be well to spend some little time in trying to
-arrive at its essence.
-
-When we speak of anything as "free," our meaning is not definite unless
-we can say what it is free _from_. Whatever or whoever is "free" is not
-subject to some external compulsion, and to be precise we ought to say
-what this kind of compulsion is. Thus thought is "free" when it is free
-from certain kinds of outward control which are often present. Some of
-these kinds of control which must be absent if thought is to be "free"
-are obvious, but others are more subtle and elusive.
-
-To begin with the most obvious. Thought is not "free" when legal
-penalties are incurred by the holding or not holding of certain
-opinions, or by giving expression to one's belief or lack of belief on
-certain matters. Very few countries in the world have as yet even this
-elementary kind of freedom. In England, under the Blasphemy Laws, it is
-illegal to express disbelief in the Christian religion, though in
-practice the law is not set in motion against the well-to-do. It is also
-illegal to teach what Christ taught on the subject of non-resistance.
-Therefore, whoever wishes to avoid becoming a criminal must profess to
-agree with Christ's teaching, but must avoid saying what that teaching
-was. In America no one can enter the country without first solemnly
-declaring that he disbelieves in anarchism and polygamy; and, once
-inside, he must also disbelieve in communism. In Japan it is illegal to
-express disbelief in the divinity of the Mikado. It will thus be seen
-that a voyage round the world is a perilous adventure. A Mohammedan, a
-Tolstoyan, a Bolshevik, or a Christian cannot undertake it without at
-some point becoming a criminal, or holding his tongue about what he
-considers important truths. This, of course, applies only to steerage
-passengers; saloon passengers are allowed to believe whatever they
-please, provided they avoid offensive obtrusiveness.
-
-It is clear that the most elementary condition, if thought is to be
-free, is the absence of legal penalties for the expression of opinions.
-No great country has yet reached to this level, although most of them
-think they have. The opinions which are still persecuted strike the
-majority as so monstrous and immoral that the general principle of
-toleration cannot be held to apply to them. But this is exactly the same
-view as that which made possible the tortures of the Inquisition. There
-was a time when Protestantism seemed as wicked as Bolshevism seems now.
-Please do not infer from this remark that I am either a Protestant or a
-Bolshevik.
-
-Legal penalties are, however, in the modern world, the least of the
-obstacles to freedom of thoughts. The two great obstacles are economic
-penalties and distortion of evidence. It is clear that thought is not
-free if the profession of certain opinions makes it impossible to earn a
-living. It is clear also that thought is not free if all the arguments
-on one side of a controversy are perpetually presented as attractively
-as possible, while the arguments on the other side can only be
-discovered by diligent search. Both these obstacles exist in every large
-country known to me, except China, which is the last refuge of freedom.
-It is these obstacles with which I shall be concerned--their present
-magnitude, the likelihood of their increase, and the possibility of
-their diminution.
-
-We may say that thought is free when it is exposed to free competition
-among beliefs--i.e., when all beliefs are able to state their case, and
-no legal or pecuniary advantages or disadvantages attach to beliefs.
-This is an ideal which, for various reasons, can never be fully
-attained. But it is possible to approach very much nearer to it than we
-do at present.
-
-Three incidents in my own life will serve to show how, in modern
-England, the scales are weighted in favour of Christianity. My reason
-for mentioning them is that many people do not at all realize the
-disadvantages to which avowed Agnosticism still exposes people.
-
-The first incident belongs to a very early stage in my life. My father
-was a Freethinker, but died when I was only three years old. Wishing me
-to be brought up without superstition, he appointed two Freethinkers as
-my guardians. The Courts, however, set aside his will, and had me
-educated in the Christian faith. I am afraid the result was
-disappointing, but that was not the fault of the law. If he had directed
-that I should be educated as a Christadelphian or a Muggletonian or a
-Seventh-Day Adventist, the Courts would not have dreamed of objecting. A
-parent has a right to ordain that any imaginable superstition shall be
-instilled into his children after his death, but has not the right to
-say that they shall be kept free from superstition if possible.
-
-The second incident occurred in the year 1910. I had at that time a
-desire to stand for Parliament as a Liberal, and the Whips recommended
-me to a certain constituency. I addressed the Liberal Association, who
-expressed themselves favourably, and my adoption seemed certain. But, on
-being questioned by a small inner caucus, I admitted that I was an
-Agnostic. They asked whether the fact would come out, and I said it
-probably would. They asked whether I should be willing to go to church
-occasionally, and I replied that I should not. Consequently, they
-selected another candidate, who was duly elected, has been in Parliament
-ever since, and is a member of the present Government.
-
-The third incident occurred immediately afterwards. I was invited by
-Trinity College, Cambridge, to become a lecturer, but not a Fellow. The
-difference is not pecuniary; it is that a Fellow has a voice in the
-government of the College, and cannot be dispossessed during the term of
-his Fellowship except for grave immorality. The chief reason for not
-offering me a Fellowship was that the clerical party did not wish to add
-to the anti-clerical vote. The result was that they were able to dismiss
-me in 1916, when they disliked my views on the War.[1] If I had been
-dependent on my lectureship, I should have starved.
-
-These three incidents illustrate different kinds of disadvantages
-attaching to avowed freethinking even in modern England. Any other
-avowed Freethinker could supply similar incidents from his personal
-experience, often of a far more serious character. The net result is
-that people who are not well-to-do dare not be frank about their
-religious beliefs.
-
-It is not, of course, only or even chiefly in regard to religion that
-there is lack of freedom. Belief in communism or free love handicaps a
-man much more than Agnosticism. Not only is it a disadvantage to hold
-those views, but it is very much more difficult to obtain publicity for
-the arguments in their favour. On the other hand, in Russia the
-advantages and disadvantages are exactly reversed: comfort and power are
-achieved by professing Atheism, communism, and free love, and no
-opportunity exists for propaganda against these opinions. The result is
-that in Russia one set of fanatics feels absolute certainty about one
-set of doubtful propositions, while in the rest of the world another set
-of fanatics feels equal certainty about a diametrically opposite set of
-equally doubtful propositions. From such a situation war, bitterness,
-and persecution inevitably result on both sides.
-
-William James used to preach the "will to believe." For my part, I
-should wish to preach the "will to doubt." None of our beliefs are quite
-true; all have at least a penumbra of vagueness and error. The methods
-of increasing the degree of truth in our beliefs are well known; they
-consist in hearing all sides, trying to ascertain all the relevant
-facts, controlling our own bias by discussion with people who have the
-opposite bias, and cultivating a readiness to discard any hypothesis
-which has proved inadequate. These methods are practised in science, and
-have built up the body of scientific knowledge. Every man of science
-whose outlook is truly scientific is ready to admit that what passes for
-scientific knowledge at the moment is sure to require correction with
-the progress of discovery; nevertheless, it is near enough to the truth
-to serve for most practical purposes, though not for all. In science,
-where alone something approximating to genuine knowledge is to be found,
-men's attitude is tentative and full of doubt.
-
-In religion and politics, on the contrary, though there is as yet
-nothing approaching scientific knowledge, everybody considers it _de
-rigueur_ to have a dogmatic opinion, to be backed up by inflicting
-starvation, prison, and war, and to be carefully guarded from
-argumentative competition with any different opinion. If only men could
-be brought into a tentatively agnostic frame of mind about these
-matters, nine-tenths of the evils of the modern world would be cured.
-War would become impossible, because each side would realize that both
-sides must be in the wrong. Persecution would cease. Education would aim
-at expanding the mind, not at narrowing it. Men would be chosen for jobs
-on account of fitness to do the work, not because they flattered the
-irrational dogmas of those in power. Thus rational doubt alone, if it
-could be generated, would suffice to introduce the millennium.
-
-We have had in recent years a brilliant example of the scientific temper
-of mind in the theory of relativity and its reception by the world.
-Einstein, a German-Swiss-Jew pacifist, was appointed to a research
-professorship by the German Government in the early days of the War; his
-predictions were verified by an English expedition which observed the
-eclipse of 1919, very soon after the Armistice. His theory upsets the
-whole theoretical framework of traditional physics; it is almost as
-damaging to orthodox dynamics as Darwin was to _Genesis_. Yet physicists
-everywhere have shown complete readiness to accept his theory as soon as
-it appeared that the evidence was in its favour. But none of them, least
-of all Einstein himself, would claim that he has said the last word. He
-has not built a monument of infallible dogma to stand for all time.
-There are difficulties he cannot solve; his doctrines will have to be
-modified in their turn as they have modified Newton's. This critical
-undogmatic receptiveness is the true attitude of science.
-
-What would have happened if Einstein had advanced something equally new
-in the sphere of religion or politics? English people would have found
-elements of Prussianism in his theory; anti-Semites would have regarded
-it as a Zionist plot; nationalists in all countries would have found it
-tainted with lily-livered pacifism, and proclaimed it a mere dodge for
-escaping military service. All the old-fashioned professors would have
-approached Scotland Yard to get the importation of his writings
-prohibited. Teachers favourable to him would have been dismissed. He,
-meantime, would have captured the Government of some backward country,
-where it would have become illegal to teach anything except his
-doctrine, which would have grown into a mysterious dogma not understood
-by anybody. Ultimately the truth or falsehood of his doctrine would be
-decided on the battlefield, without the collection of any fresh evidence
-for or against it. This method is the logical outcome of William James's
-will to believe.
-
-What is wanted is not the will to believe, but the wish to find out,
-which is its exact opposite.
-
-If it is admitted that a condition of rational doubt would be desirable,
-it becomes important to inquire how it comes about that there is so much
-irrational certainty in the world. A great deal of this is due to the
-inherent irrationality and credulity of average human nature. But this
-seed of intellectual original sin is nourished and fostered by other
-agencies, among which three play the chief part--namely, education,
-propaganda, and economic pressure. Let us consider these in turn.
-
-(1) _Education._--Elementary education, in all advanced countries, is in
-the hands of the State. Some of the things taught are known to be false
-by the officials who prescribe them, and many others are known to be
-false, or at any rate very doubtful, by every unprejudiced person. Take,
-for example, the teaching of history. Each nation aims only at
-self-glorification in the school text-books of history. When a man
-writes his autobiography he is expected to show a certain modesty; but
-when a nation writes its autobiography there is no limit to its boasting
-and vainglory. When I was young, school books taught that the French
-were wicked and the Germans virtuous; now they teach the opposite. In
-neither case is there the slightest regard for truth. German school
-books, dealing with the battle of Waterloo, represent Wellington as all
-but defeated when Blücher saved the situation; English books represent
-Blücher as having made very little difference. The writers of both the
-German and the English books know that they are not telling the truth.
-American school books used to be violently anti-British; since the War
-they have become equally pro-British, without aiming at truth in either
-case (see _The Freeman_, Feb. 15, 1922, p. 532). Both before and since,
-one of the chief purposes of education in the United States has been to
-turn the motley collection of immigrant children into "good Americans."
-Apparently it has not occurred to any one that a "good American," like a
-"good German" or a "good Japanese," must be, _pro tanto_, a bad human
-being. A "good American" is a man or woman imbued with the belief that
-America is the finest country on earth, and ought always to be
-enthusiastically supported in any quarrel. It is just possible that
-these propositions are true; if so, a rational man will have no quarrel
-with them. But if they are true, they ought to be taught everywhere, not
-only in America. It is a suspicious circumstance that such propositions
-are never believed outside the particular country which they glorify.
-Meanwhile the whole machinery of the State, in all the different
-countries, is turned on to making defenceless children believe absurd
-propositions the effect of which is to make them willing to die in
-defence of sinister interests under the impression that they are
-fighting for truth and right. This is only one of countless ways in
-which education is designed, not to give true knowledge, but to make the
-people pliable to the will of their masters. Without an elaborate system
-of deceit in the elementary schools it would be impossible to preserve
-the camouflage of democracy.
-
-Before leaving the subject of education, I will take another example
-from America[2]--not because America is any worse than other countries,
-but because it is the most modern, showing the dangers that are growing
-rather than those that are diminishing. In the State of New York a
-school cannot be established without a licence from the State, even if
-it is to be supported wholly by private funds. A recent law decrees that
-a licence shall not be granted to any school "where it shall appear that
-the instruction proposed to be given includes the teachings of the
-doctrine that organized Governments shall be overthrown by force,
-violence, or unlawful means." As the _New Republic_ points out, there is
-no limitation to this or that organized Government. The law therefore
-would have made it illegal, during the War, to teach the doctrine that
-the Kaiser's Government should be overthrown by force; and, since then,
-the support of Kolchak or Denikin against the Soviet Government would
-have been illegal. Such consequences, of course, were not intended, and
-result only from bad draughtsmanship. What was intended appears from
-another law passed at the same time, applying to teachers in State
-schools. This law provides that certificates permitting persons to teach
-in such schools shall be issued only to those who have "shown
-satisfactorily" that they are "loyal and obedient to the Government of
-this State and of the United States," and shall be refused to those who
-have advocated, no matter where or when, "a form of government other
-than the Government of this State or of the United States." The
-committee which framed these laws, as quoted by the _New Republic_, laid
-it down that the teacher who "does not approve of the present social
-system......must surrender his office," and that "no person who is not
-eager to combat the theories of social change should be entrusted with
-the task of fitting the young and old for the responsibilities of
-citizenship." Thus, according to the law of the State of New York,
-Christ and George Washington were too degraded morally to be fit for the
-education of the young. If Christ were to go to New York and say,
-"Suffer the little children to come unto me," the President of the New
-York School Board would reply: "Sir, I see no evidence that you are
-eager to combat theories of social change. Indeed, I have heard it said
-that you advocate what you call the _kingdom_ of heaven, whereas this
-country, thank God, is a republic. It is clear that the Government of
-your kingdom of heaven would differ materially from that of New York
-State, therefore no children will be allowed access to you." If he
-failed to make this reply, he would not be doing his duty as a
-functionary entrusted with the administration of the law.
-
-The effect of such laws is very serious. Let it be granted, for the sake
-of argument, that the government and the social system in the State of
-New York are the best that have ever existed on this planet; yet even
-then both would presumably be capable of improvement. Any person who
-admits this obvious proposition is by law incapable of teaching in a
-State school. Thus the law decrees that the teachers shall all be either
-hypocrites or fools.
-
-The growing danger exemplified by the New York law is that resulting
-from the monopoly of power in the hands of a single organization,
-whether the State or a Trust or federation of Trusts. In the case of
-education, the power is in the hands of the State, which can prevent the
-young from hearing of any doctrine which it dislikes. I believe there
-are still some people who think that a democratic State is scarcely
-distinguishable from the people. This, however, is a delusion. The State
-is a collection of officials, different for different purposes, drawing
-comfortable incomes so long as the _status quo_ is preserved. The only
-alteration they are likely to desire in the _status quo_ is an increase
-of bureaucracy and of the power of bureaucrats. It is, therefore,
-natural that they should take advantage of such opportunities as war
-excitement to acquire inquisitorial powers over their employees,
-involving the right to inflict starvation upon any subordinate who
-opposes them. In matters of the mind, such as education, this state of
-affairs is fatal. It puts an end to all possibility of progress or
-freedom or intellectual initiative. Yet it is the natural result of
-allowing the whole of elementary education to fall under the sway of a
-single organization.
-
-Religious toleration, to a certain extent, has been won because people
-have ceased to consider religion so important as it was once thought to
-be. But in politics and economics, which have taken the place formerly
-occupied by religion, there is a growing tendency to persecution, which
-is not by any means confined to one party. The persecution of opinion in
-Russia is more severe than in any capitalist country. I met in Petrograd
-an eminent Russian poet, Alexander Block, who has since died as the
-result of privations. The Bolsheviks allowed him to teach æsthetics, but
-he complained that they insisted on his teaching the subject "from a
-Marxian point of view." He had been at a loss to discover how the theory
-of rhythmics was connected with Marxism, although, to avoid starvation,
-he had done his best to find out. Of course, it has been impossible in
-Russia ever since the Bolsheviks came into power to print anything
-critical of the dogmas upon which their regime is founded.
-
-The examples of America and Russia illustrate the conclusion to which we
-seem to be driven--namely, that so long as men continue to have the
-present fanatical belief in the importance of politics free thought on
-political matters will be impossible, and there is only too much danger
-that the lack of freedom will spread to all other matters, as it has
-done in Russia. Only some degree of political scepticism can save us
-from this misfortune.
-
-It must not be supposed that the officials in charge of education desire
-the young to become educated. On the contrary, their problem is to
-impart information without imparting intelligence. Education should have
-two objects: first, to give definite knowledge--reading and writing,
-languages and mathematics, and so on; secondly, to create those mental
-habits which will enable people to acquire knowledge and form sound
-judgments for themselves. The first of these we may call information,
-the second intelligence. The utility of information is admitted
-practically as well as theoretically; without a literate population a
-modern State is impossible. But the utility of intelligence is admitted
-only theoretically, not practically; it is not desired that ordinary
-people should think for themselves, because it is felt that people who
-think for themselves are awkward to manage and cause administrative
-difficulties. Only the guardians, in Plato's language, are to think; the
-rest are to obey, or to follow leaders like a herd of sheep. This
-doctrine, often unconsciously, has survived the introduction of
-political democracy, and has radically vitiated all national systems of
-education.
-
-The country which has succeeded best in giving information without
-intelligence is the latest addition to modern civilization, Japan.
-Elementary education in Japan is said to be admirable from the point of
-view of instruction. But, in addition to instruction, it has another
-purpose, which is to teach worship of the Mikado--a far stronger creed
-now than before Japan became modernized.[3] Thus the schools have been
-used simultaneously to confer knowledge and to promote superstition.
-Since we are not tempted to Mikado-worship, we see clearly what is
-absurd in Japanese teaching. Our own national superstitions strike us as
-natural and sensible, so that we do not take such a true view of them as
-we do of the superstitions of Nippon. But if a travelled Japanese were
-to maintain the thesis that our schools teach superstitions just as
-inimical to intelligence as belief in the divinity of the Mikado, I
-suspect that he would be able to make out a very good case.
-
-For the present I am not in search of remedies, but am only concerned
-with diagnosis. We are faced with the paradoxical fact that education
-has become one of the chief obstacles to intelligence and freedom of
-thought. This is due primarily to the fact that the State claims a
-monopoly; but that is by no means the sole cause.
-
-(2) _Propaganda._--Our system of education turns young people out of the
-schools able to read, but for the most part unable to weigh evidence or
-to form an independent opinion. They are then assailed, throughout the
-rest of their lives, by statements designed to make them believe all
-sorts of absurd propositions, such as that Blank's pills cure all ills,
-that Spitzbergen is warm and fertile, and that Germans eat corpses. The
-art of propaganda, as practised by modern politicians and governments,
-is derived from the art of advertisement. The science of psychology owes
-a great deal to advertisers. In former days most psychologists would
-probably have thought that a man could not convince many people of the
-excellence of his own wares by merely stating emphatically that they
-were excellent. Experience shows, however, that they were mistaken in
-this. If I were to stand up once in a public place and state that I am
-the most modest man alive, I should be laughed at; but if I could raise
-enough money to make the same statement on all the busses and on
-hoardings along all the principal railway lines, people would presently
-become convinced that I had an abnormal shrinking from publicity. If I
-were to go to a small shopkeeper and say: "Look at your competitor over
-the way, he is getting your business; don't you think it would be a good
-plan to leave your business and stand up in the middle of the road and
-try to shoot him before he shoots you?"--if I were to say this, any
-small shopkeeper would think me mad. But when the Government says it
-with emphasis and a brass band, the small shopkeepers become
-enthusiastic, and are quite surprised when they find afterwards that
-business has suffered. Propaganda, conducted by the means which
-advertisers have found successful, is now one of the recognized methods
-of government in all advanced countries, and is especially the method by
-which democratic opinion is created.
-
-There are two quite different evils about propaganda as now practised.
-On the one hand, its appeal is generally to irrational causes of belief
-rather than to serious argument; on the other hand, it gives an unfair
-advantage to those who can obtain most publicity, whether through wealth
-or through power. For my part, I am inclined to think that too much fuss
-is sometimes made about the fact that propaganda appeals to emotion
-rather than reason. The line between emotion and reason is not so sharp
-as some people think. Moreover, a clever man could frame a sufficiently
-rational argument in favour of any position which has any chance of
-being adopted. There are always good arguments on both sides of any real
-issue. Definite mis-statements of fact can be legitimately objected to,
-but they are by no means necessary. The mere words "Pear's Soap," which
-affirm nothing, cause people to buy that article. If, wherever these
-words appear, they were replaced by the words "The Labour Party,"
-millions of people would be led to vote for the Labour Party, although
-the advertisements had claimed no merit for it whatever. But if both
-sides in a controversy were confined by law to statements which a
-committee of eminent logicians considered relevant and valid, the main
-evil of propaganda, as at present conducted, would remain. Suppose,
-under such a law, two parties with an equally good case, one of whom had
-a million pounds to spend on propaganda, while the other had only a
-hundred thousand. It is obvious that the arguments in favour of the
-richer party would become more widely known than those in favour of the
-poorer party, and therefore the richer party would win. This situation
-is, of course, intensified when one party is the Government. In Russia
-the Government has an almost complete monopoly of propaganda, but that
-is not necessary. The advantages which it possesses over its opponents
-will generally be sufficient to give it the victory, unless it has an
-exceptionally bad case.
-
-The objection to propaganda is not only its appeal to unreason, but
-still more the unfair advantage which it gives to the rich and powerful.
-Equality of opportunity among opinions is essential if there is to be
-real freedom of thought; and equality of opportunity among opinions can
-only be secured by elaborate laws directed to that end, which there is
-no reason to expect to see enacted. The cure is not to be sought
-primarily in such laws, but in better education and a more sceptical
-public opinion. For the moment, however, I am not concerned to discuss
-cures.
-
-(3) _Economic pressure._--I have already dealt with some aspects of this
-obstacle to freedom of thought, but I wish now to deal with it on more
-general lines, as a danger which is bound to increase unless very
-definite steps are taken to counteract it. The supreme example of
-economic pressure applied against freedom of thought is Soviet Russia,
-where, until the trade agreement, the Government could and did inflict
-starvation upon people whose opinions it disliked--for example,
-Kropotkin. But in this respect Russia is only somewhat ahead of other
-countries. In France, during the Dreyfus affair, any teacher would have
-lost his position if he had been in favour of Dreyfus at the start or
-against him at the end. In America at the present day I doubt if a
-university professor, however eminent, could get employment if he were
-to criticize the Standard Oil Company, because all college presidents
-have received or hope to receive benefactions from Mr. Rockefeller.
-Throughout America Socialists are marked men, and find it extremely
-difficult to obtain work unless they have great gifts. The tendency,
-which exists wherever industrialism is well developed, for trusts and
-monopolies to control all industry, leads to a diminution of the number
-of possible employers, so that it becomes easier and easier to keep
-secret black books by means of which any one not subservient to the
-great corporations can be starved. The growth of monopolies is
-introducing in America many of the evils associated with State Socialism
-as it has existed in Russia. From the standpoint of liberty, it makes no
-difference to a man whether his only possible employer is the State or a
-Trust.
-
-In America, which is the most advanced country industrially, and to a
-lesser extent in other countries which are approximating to the American
-condition, it is necessary for the average citizen, if he wishes to make
-a living, to avoid incurring the hostility of certain big men. And these
-big men have an outlook--religious, moral, and political--with which
-they expect their employees to agree, at least outwardly. A man who
-openly dissents from Christianity, or believes in a relaxation of the
-marriage laws, or objects to the power of the great corporations, finds
-America a very uncomfortable country, unless he happens to be an eminent
-writer. Exactly the same kind of restraints upon freedom of thought are
-bound to occur in every country where economic organization has been
-carried to the point of practical monopoly. Therefore the safeguarding
-of liberty in the world which is growing up is far more difficult than
-it was in the nineteenth century, when free competition was still a
-reality. Whoever cares about the freedom of the mind must face this
-situation fully and frankly, realizing the inapplicability of methods
-which answered well enough while industrialism was in its infancy.
-
-There are two simple principles which, if they were adopted, would solve
-almost all social problems. The first is that education should have for
-one of its aims to teach people only to believe propositions when there
-is some reason to think that they are true. The second is that jobs
-should be given solely for fitness to do the work.
-
-To take the second point first. The habit of considering a man's
-religious, moral, and political opinions before appointing him to a post
-or giving him a job is the modern form of persecution, and it is likely
-to become quite as efficient as the Inquisition ever was. The old
-liberties can be legally retained without being of the slightest use.
-If, in practice, certain opinions lead a man to starve, it is poor
-comfort to him to know that his opinions are not punishable by law.
-There is a certain public feeling against starving men for not belonging
-to the Church of England, or for holding slightly unorthodox opinions in
-politics. But there is hardly any feeling against the rejection of
-Atheists or Mormons, extreme communists, or men who advocate free love.
-Such men are thought to be wicked, and it is considered only natural to
-refuse to employ them. People have hardly yet waked up to the fact that
-this refusal, in a highly industrial State, amounts to a very rigorous
-form of persecution.
-
-If this danger were adequately realized, it would be possible to rouse
-public opinion, and to secure that a man's beliefs should not be
-considered in appointing him to a post. The protection of minorities is
-vitally important; and even the most orthodox of us may find himself in
-a minority some day, so that we all have an interest in restraining the
-tyranny of majorities. Nothing except public opinion can solve this
-problem. Socialism would make it somewhat more acute, since it would
-eliminate the opportunities that now arise through exceptional
-employers. Every increase in the size of industrial undertakings makes
-it worse, since it diminishes the number of independent employers. The
-battle must be fought exactly as the battle of religious toleration was
-fought. And as in that case, so in this, a decay in the intensity of
-belief is likely to prove the decisive factor. While men were convinced
-of the absolute truth of Catholicism or Protestantism, as the case might
-be, they were willing to persecute on account of them. While men are
-quite certain of their modern creeds, they will persecute on their
-behalf. Some element of doubt is essential to the practice, though not
-to the theory, of toleration. And this brings me to my other point,
-which concerns the aims of education.
-
-If there is to be toleration in the world, one of the things taught in
-schools must be the habit of weighing evidence, and the practice of not
-giving full assent to propositions which there is no reason to believe
-true. For example, the art of reading the newspapers should be taught.
-The schoolmaster should select some incident which happened a good many
-years ago, and roused political passions in its day. He should then read
-to the school children what was said by the newspapers on one side, what
-was said by those on the other, and some impartial account of what
-really happened. He should show how, from the biased account of either
-side, a practised reader could infer what really happened, and he should
-make them understand that everything in newspapers is more or less
-untrue. The cynical scepticism which would result from this teaching
-would make the children in later life immune from those appeals to
-idealism by which decent people are induced to further the schemes of
-scoundrels.
-
-History should be taught in the same way. Napoleon's campaigns of 1813
-and 1814, for instance, might be studied in the _Moniteur_, leading up
-to the surprise which Parisians felt when they saw the Allies arriving
-under the walls of Paris after they had (according to the official
-bulletins) been beaten by Napoleon in every battle. In the more advanced
-classes, students should be encouraged to count the number of times that
-Lenin has been assassinated by Trotsky, in order to learn contempt for
-death. Finally, they should be given a school history approved by the
-Government, and asked to infer what a French school history would say
-about our wars with France. All this would be a far better training in
-citizenship than the trite moral maxims by which some people believe
-that civic duty can be inculcated.
-
-It must, I think, be admitted that the evils of the world are due to
-moral defects quite as much as to lack of intelligence. But the human
-race has not hitherto discovered any method of eradicating moral
-defects; preaching and exhortation only add hypocrisy to the previous
-list of vices. Intelligence, on the contrary, is easily improved by
-methods known to every competent educator. Therefore, until some method
-of teaching virtue has been discovered, progress will have to be sought
-by improvement of intelligence rather than of morals. One of the chief
-obstacles to intelligence is credulity, and credulity could be
-enormously diminished by instruction as to the prevalent forms of
-mendacity. Credulity is a greater evil in the present day than it ever
-was before, because, owing to the growth of education, it is much easier
-than it used to be to spread misinformation, and, owing to democracy,
-the spread of misinformation is more important than in former times to
-the holders of power. Hence the increase in the circulation of
-newspapers.
-
-If I am asked how the world is to be induced to adopt these two
-maxims--namely (1) that jobs should be given to people on account of
-their fitness to perform them; (2) that one aim of education should be
-to cure people of the habit of believing propositions for which there is
-no evidence--I can only say that it must be done by generating an
-enlightened public opinion. And an enlightened public opinion can only
-be generated by the efforts of those who desire that it should exist. I
-do not believe that the economic changes advocated by Socialists will,
-of themselves, do anything towards curing the evils we have been
-considering. I think that, whatever happens in politics, the trend of
-economic development will make the preservation of mental freedom
-increasingly difficult, unless public opinion insists that the employer
-shall control nothing in the life of the employee except his work.
-Freedom in education could easily be secured, if it were desired, by
-limiting the function of the State to inspection and payment, and
-confining inspection rigidly to the definite instruction. But that, as
-things stand, would leave education in the hands of the Churches,
-because, unfortunately, they are more anxious to teach their beliefs
-than Freethinkers are to teach their doubts. It would, however, give a
-free field, and would make it possible for a liberal education to be
-given if it were really desired. More than that ought not to be asked of
-the law.
-
-My plea throughout this address has been for the spread of the
-scientific temper, which is an altogether different thing from the
-knowledge of scientific results. The scientific temper is capable of
-regenerating mankind and providing an issue for all our troubles. The
-results of science, in the form of mechanism, poison gas, and the yellow
-press, bid fair to lead to the total downfall of our civilization. It is
-a curious antithesis, which a Martian might contemplate with amused
-detachment. But for us it is a matter of life and death. Upon its issue
-depends the question whether our grandchildren are to live in a happier
-world, or are to exterminate each other by scientific methods, leaving
-perhaps to negroes and Papuans the future destinies of mankind.
-
-
-
-
-  APPENDIX
-
-  THE CONWAY MEMORIAL LECTURESHIP
-
-
-At a general meeting of the South Place Ethical Society, held on October
-22, 1908, it was resolved, after full discussion, that an effort should
-be made to establish a series of lectures, to be printed and widely
-circulated, as a permanent Memorial to Dr. Conway.
-
-Moncure Conway's untiring zeal for the emancipation of the human mind
-from the thraldom of obsolete or waning beliefs, his pleadings for
-sympathy with the oppressed and for a wider and profounder conception of
-human fraternity than the world has yet reached, claim, it is urged, an
-offering of gratitude more permanent than the eloquent obituary or
-reverential service of mourning.
-
-The range of the lectures (of which the thirteenth is published
-herewith) must be regulated by the financial support accorded to the
-scheme; but it is hoped that sufficient funds will be eventually
-forthcoming for the endowment of periodical lectures by distinguished
-public men, to further the cause of social, political, and religious
-freedom, with which Dr. Conway's name must ever be associated.
-
-The Conway Memorial Lecture Committee, although not yet in possession of
-the necessary capital for the permanent endowment of the Lectureship,
-have inaugurated and maintained the work while inviting further
-contributions. The funds in hand, together with those which may
-reasonably be expected from supporters of the Movement, will ensure the
-delivery of an annual lecture for some years at least.
-
-The Committee earnestly appeal for either donations or subscriptions
-from year to year until the Memorial is permanently established.
-Contributions may be forwarded to the Hon. Treasurer.
-
-On behalf of the Executive Committee:--
-
-(Mrs.) C. Fletcher Smith and Ernest Carr, _Hon. Secretaries_.
-
-(Mrs.) F. M. Cockburn, _Hon. Treasurer_, "Peradeniya," Northampton Road,
-Croydon.
-
-
-  PRINTED BY WATTS AND CO., JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.4.
-
-
-
-
-  [Footnotes]
-
-
-[1] I should add that they re-appointed me later, when war passions had
-begun to cool.
-
-[2] See _The New Republic_, Feb. 1, 1922, p. 259 _ff._
-
-[3] See _The Invention of a New Religion_. By Professor Chamberlain, of
-Tokio. Published by the Rationalist Press Association. (Now out of
-print.)
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by 
-Bertrand Russell
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-***** This file should be named 44932-8.txt or 44932-8.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/9/3/44932/
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-
-
-
-*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
-http://gutenberg.org/license).
-
-
-Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works
-
-1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-
-1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.
-
-1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that
-
-- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.
-
-- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.
-
-1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
-
-
-Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
-and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
-
-
-Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
-http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
-809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
-business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
-information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
-page at http://pglaf.org
-
-For additional contact information:
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-     Chief Executive and Director
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-
-Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit http://pglaf.org
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
-
-
-Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
-
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
-
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-
-     http://www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/44932-8.zip b/44932-8.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 1d2e951..0000000
--- a/44932-8.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/44932-h/44932-h.htm b/44932-h/44932-h.htm
index d05abed..750dea0 100644
--- a/44932-h/44932-h.htm
+++ b/44932-h/44932-h.htm
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
     "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
 <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
   <head>
-    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" />
     <title>Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by Bertrand Russell - The Project Gutenberg eBook</title>
     <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg"/>
     <meta name='DC.Title' content='Free Thought and Official Propaganda'/>
@@ -28,45 +28,8 @@
       }
     </style>
   </head>
-  <body>
-
-
-<pre>
-
-Project Gutenberg's Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by Bertrand Russell
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-
-Title: Free Thought and Official Propaganda
-
-Author: Bertrand Russell
-
-Release Date: February 16, 2014 [EBook #44932]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44932 ***</div>
 
 <div class='pagination frontmatter'>
 <p>Ex Libris<br />
@@ -1293,388 +1256,7 @@ Press Association. (Now out of print.)</p>
 </table>
 </div>
 
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by 
-Bertrand Russell
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-***** This file should be named 44932-h.htm or 44932-h.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/9/3/44932/
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-
-
-
-*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
-http://gutenberg.org/license).
-
-
-Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works
-
-1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-
-1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.
-
-1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that
-
-- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.
-
-- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.
-
-1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
-
-
-Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
-and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
-
-
-Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
-http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
-809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
-business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
-information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
-page at http://pglaf.org
-
-For additional contact information:
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-     Chief Executive and Director
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-
-Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit http://pglaf.org
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
-
-
-Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
-
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
-
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-
-     http://www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
-
-</pre>
-
-  </body>
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44932 ***</div>
+</body>
   <!-- created with fpgen.py 3.03a on 2014-02-07 19:46:33 GMT -->
 </html>
diff --git a/44932.txt b/44932.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index f59547f..0000000
--- a/44932.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,1196 +0,0 @@
-Project Gutenberg's Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by Bertrand Russell
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-
-Title: Free Thought and Official Propaganda
-
-Author: Bertrand Russell
-
-Release Date: February 16, 2014 [EBook #44932]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ASCII
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-
-
-
-
-  [Italics are marked with _underscores_.]
-
-
-
-
-  Ex Libris
-  C. K. OGDEN
-  CONWAY MEMORIAL LECTURE
-
-  FREE THOUGHT
-  AND
-  OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA
-
-  DELIVERED AT SOUTH PLACE INSTITUTE ON
-  MARCH 24, 1922
-
-  BY
-  The Hon. BERTRAND RUSSELL,
-  M.A., F.R.S.
-
-  _(Professor Graham Wallas in the Chair)_
-
-  WATTS & CO.,
-  JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.4
-  1922
-
-
-
-
-  CHAIRMAN'S INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS
-
-
-I have come here to-night, partly because I want to hear Mr. Russell,
-and partly because of an old affection for South Place and its
-traditions. I myself have been for more than forty years a professional
-teacher; and it is as a teacher--who thirty-seven years ago was
-dismissed for refusing religious conformity--that I most easily approach
-the problem of free thought. Though systems of education professing to
-teach men and women how to think have been in use in Europe for,
-perhaps, three thousand years, we have not yet reached that degree of
-success which would be shown if most educated people came to much the
-same conclusions on the great problems of life from a study of the same
-evidence. Everywhere you have rebels; but ninety per cent. of French or
-American students of history come to French or American conclusions, and
-eighty-five per cent. of English students come to English conclusions;
-eighty per cent. of Eton boys hold Eton political opinions all their
-lives; ninety per cent. of the Irish Catholic population of the United
-States seem to hold generation after generation identical opinions on
-religion and politics which are not held by the vast majority of
-Americans. It may be said that in these cases only one kind of evidence
-is allowed to reach the students in each institution. But everybody
-reads newspapers, and talks with his neighbours, and travels, and visits
-museums; and most intelligent people read books and magazines. Sooner or
-later much of the same evidence reaches us all. I myself believe that
-one of the main reasons why we do not to a greater degree draw the same
-conclusions from that evidence is that we do not really learn the
-difficult art of thought. A boy at school is taught to memorize and to
-understand mathematical formulae or foreign languages or scientific
-statements. But in weighing evidence the effort of memorizing, and even
-the effort of understanding, are not of the first importance. The
-effective process is a sort of painful and watchful expectancy. A
-schoolboy or a college student finds that he has an uncomfortable sense
-of unreality in repeating some accustomed formula, or writing an essay
-to enforce some accustomed line of argument. He shrinks from that
-feeling, as all animals shrink from discomfort. If he were taught what
-are the conditions of effective thought, and were encouraged to act on
-that lesson, he would know that it is only by resolutely fastening on
-such vague and painful premonitions, and forcing them to come into full
-consciousness and disclose their deeper causes and tendencies that he
-can arrive at new truth or make some old truth his own.
-
-But who is going to tell him this secret? Every day in London thousands
-of clever and sympathetic boys and girls begin the day by sitting
-through three-quarters of an hour of the dreary "Cowper-Temple"
-instruction which consists, as Bishop Temple once said, of teaching at
-everybody's expense what nobody believes. They may be conscious or
-half-conscious of a feeling of unreality; but, even if they have not
-been taught that it is a sacred duty to "struggle against doubt," they
-shrink, as the cleverest of them feel that the teacher is shrinking,
-from any further exploration on that path.
-
-Perhaps some day the teachers and students of the ordinary school and
-college subjects may learn something from those little isolated
-institutions where men and women try to prepare themselves for the
-creative arts. The young painter or sculptor or member of a group of
-young poets is often queerly ignorant and one-sided. But he lives in
-another world from that of the big conventional sixth-form boy at Harrow
-or St. Paul's, or the hockey-playing athlete of a girls' High School,
-because he has felt the pain and the exhilaration reached through pain
-by which alone new truth and new beauty are born into the world.
-
-
-
-
-  FREE THOUGHT AND
-  OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA
-
-
-Moncure Conway, in whose honour we are assembled to-day, devoted his
-life to two great objects: freedom of thought and freedom of the
-individual. In regard to both these objects, something has been gained
-since his time, but something also has been lost. New dangers, somewhat
-different in form from those of past ages, threaten both kinds of
-freedom, and unless a vigorous and vigilant public opinion can be
-aroused in defence of them, there will be much less of both a hundred
-years hence than there is now. My purpose in this address is to
-emphasize the new dangers and to consider how they can be met.
-
-Let us begin by trying to be clear as to what we mean by "free thought."
-This expression has two senses. In its narrower sense it means thought
-which does not accept the dogmas of traditional religion. In this sense
-a man is a "free thinker" if he is not a Christian or a Mussulman or a
-Buddhist or a Shintoist or a member of any of the other bodies of men
-who accept some inherited orthodoxy. In Christian countries a man is
-called a "free thinker" if he does not decidedly believe in God, though
-this would not suffice to make a man a "free thinker" in a Buddhist
-country.
-
-I do not wish to minimize the importance of free thought in this sense.
-I am myself a dissenter from all known religions, and I hope that every
-kind of religious belief will die out. I do not believe that, on the
-balance, religious belief has been a force for good. Although I am
-prepared to admit that in certain times and places it has had some good
-effects, I regard it as belonging to the infancy of human reason, and to
-a stage of development which we are now outgrowing.
-
-But there is also a wider sense of "free thought," which I regard as of
-still greater importance. Indeed, the harm done by traditional religions
-seems chiefly traceable to the fact that they have prevented free
-thought in this wider sense. The wider sense is not so easy to define as
-the narrower, and it will be well to spend some little time in trying to
-arrive at its essence.
-
-When we speak of anything as "free," our meaning is not definite unless
-we can say what it is free _from_. Whatever or whoever is "free" is not
-subject to some external compulsion, and to be precise we ought to say
-what this kind of compulsion is. Thus thought is "free" when it is free
-from certain kinds of outward control which are often present. Some of
-these kinds of control which must be absent if thought is to be "free"
-are obvious, but others are more subtle and elusive.
-
-To begin with the most obvious. Thought is not "free" when legal
-penalties are incurred by the holding or not holding of certain
-opinions, or by giving expression to one's belief or lack of belief on
-certain matters. Very few countries in the world have as yet even this
-elementary kind of freedom. In England, under the Blasphemy Laws, it is
-illegal to express disbelief in the Christian religion, though in
-practice the law is not set in motion against the well-to-do. It is also
-illegal to teach what Christ taught on the subject of non-resistance.
-Therefore, whoever wishes to avoid becoming a criminal must profess to
-agree with Christ's teaching, but must avoid saying what that teaching
-was. In America no one can enter the country without first solemnly
-declaring that he disbelieves in anarchism and polygamy; and, once
-inside, he must also disbelieve in communism. In Japan it is illegal to
-express disbelief in the divinity of the Mikado. It will thus be seen
-that a voyage round the world is a perilous adventure. A Mohammedan, a
-Tolstoyan, a Bolshevik, or a Christian cannot undertake it without at
-some point becoming a criminal, or holding his tongue about what he
-considers important truths. This, of course, applies only to steerage
-passengers; saloon passengers are allowed to believe whatever they
-please, provided they avoid offensive obtrusiveness.
-
-It is clear that the most elementary condition, if thought is to be
-free, is the absence of legal penalties for the expression of opinions.
-No great country has yet reached to this level, although most of them
-think they have. The opinions which are still persecuted strike the
-majority as so monstrous and immoral that the general principle of
-toleration cannot be held to apply to them. But this is exactly the same
-view as that which made possible the tortures of the Inquisition. There
-was a time when Protestantism seemed as wicked as Bolshevism seems now.
-Please do not infer from this remark that I am either a Protestant or a
-Bolshevik.
-
-Legal penalties are, however, in the modern world, the least of the
-obstacles to freedom of thoughts. The two great obstacles are economic
-penalties and distortion of evidence. It is clear that thought is not
-free if the profession of certain opinions makes it impossible to earn a
-living. It is clear also that thought is not free if all the arguments
-on one side of a controversy are perpetually presented as attractively
-as possible, while the arguments on the other side can only be
-discovered by diligent search. Both these obstacles exist in every large
-country known to me, except China, which is the last refuge of freedom.
-It is these obstacles with which I shall be concerned--their present
-magnitude, the likelihood of their increase, and the possibility of
-their diminution.
-
-We may say that thought is free when it is exposed to free competition
-among beliefs--i.e., when all beliefs are able to state their case, and
-no legal or pecuniary advantages or disadvantages attach to beliefs.
-This is an ideal which, for various reasons, can never be fully
-attained. But it is possible to approach very much nearer to it than we
-do at present.
-
-Three incidents in my own life will serve to show how, in modern
-England, the scales are weighted in favour of Christianity. My reason
-for mentioning them is that many people do not at all realize the
-disadvantages to which avowed Agnosticism still exposes people.
-
-The first incident belongs to a very early stage in my life. My father
-was a Freethinker, but died when I was only three years old. Wishing me
-to be brought up without superstition, he appointed two Freethinkers as
-my guardians. The Courts, however, set aside his will, and had me
-educated in the Christian faith. I am afraid the result was
-disappointing, but that was not the fault of the law. If he had directed
-that I should be educated as a Christadelphian or a Muggletonian or a
-Seventh-Day Adventist, the Courts would not have dreamed of objecting. A
-parent has a right to ordain that any imaginable superstition shall be
-instilled into his children after his death, but has not the right to
-say that they shall be kept free from superstition if possible.
-
-The second incident occurred in the year 1910. I had at that time a
-desire to stand for Parliament as a Liberal, and the Whips recommended
-me to a certain constituency. I addressed the Liberal Association, who
-expressed themselves favourably, and my adoption seemed certain. But, on
-being questioned by a small inner caucus, I admitted that I was an
-Agnostic. They asked whether the fact would come out, and I said it
-probably would. They asked whether I should be willing to go to church
-occasionally, and I replied that I should not. Consequently, they
-selected another candidate, who was duly elected, has been in Parliament
-ever since, and is a member of the present Government.
-
-The third incident occurred immediately afterwards. I was invited by
-Trinity College, Cambridge, to become a lecturer, but not a Fellow. The
-difference is not pecuniary; it is that a Fellow has a voice in the
-government of the College, and cannot be dispossessed during the term of
-his Fellowship except for grave immorality. The chief reason for not
-offering me a Fellowship was that the clerical party did not wish to add
-to the anti-clerical vote. The result was that they were able to dismiss
-me in 1916, when they disliked my views on the War.[1] If I had been
-dependent on my lectureship, I should have starved.
-
-These three incidents illustrate different kinds of disadvantages
-attaching to avowed freethinking even in modern England. Any other
-avowed Freethinker could supply similar incidents from his personal
-experience, often of a far more serious character. The net result is
-that people who are not well-to-do dare not be frank about their
-religious beliefs.
-
-It is not, of course, only or even chiefly in regard to religion that
-there is lack of freedom. Belief in communism or free love handicaps a
-man much more than Agnosticism. Not only is it a disadvantage to hold
-those views, but it is very much more difficult to obtain publicity for
-the arguments in their favour. On the other hand, in Russia the
-advantages and disadvantages are exactly reversed: comfort and power are
-achieved by professing Atheism, communism, and free love, and no
-opportunity exists for propaganda against these opinions. The result is
-that in Russia one set of fanatics feels absolute certainty about one
-set of doubtful propositions, while in the rest of the world another set
-of fanatics feels equal certainty about a diametrically opposite set of
-equally doubtful propositions. From such a situation war, bitterness,
-and persecution inevitably result on both sides.
-
-William James used to preach the "will to believe." For my part, I
-should wish to preach the "will to doubt." None of our beliefs are quite
-true; all have at least a penumbra of vagueness and error. The methods
-of increasing the degree of truth in our beliefs are well known; they
-consist in hearing all sides, trying to ascertain all the relevant
-facts, controlling our own bias by discussion with people who have the
-opposite bias, and cultivating a readiness to discard any hypothesis
-which has proved inadequate. These methods are practised in science, and
-have built up the body of scientific knowledge. Every man of science
-whose outlook is truly scientific is ready to admit that what passes for
-scientific knowledge at the moment is sure to require correction with
-the progress of discovery; nevertheless, it is near enough to the truth
-to serve for most practical purposes, though not for all. In science,
-where alone something approximating to genuine knowledge is to be found,
-men's attitude is tentative and full of doubt.
-
-In religion and politics, on the contrary, though there is as yet
-nothing approaching scientific knowledge, everybody considers it _de
-rigueur_ to have a dogmatic opinion, to be backed up by inflicting
-starvation, prison, and war, and to be carefully guarded from
-argumentative competition with any different opinion. If only men could
-be brought into a tentatively agnostic frame of mind about these
-matters, nine-tenths of the evils of the modern world would be cured.
-War would become impossible, because each side would realize that both
-sides must be in the wrong. Persecution would cease. Education would aim
-at expanding the mind, not at narrowing it. Men would be chosen for jobs
-on account of fitness to do the work, not because they flattered the
-irrational dogmas of those in power. Thus rational doubt alone, if it
-could be generated, would suffice to introduce the millennium.
-
-We have had in recent years a brilliant example of the scientific temper
-of mind in the theory of relativity and its reception by the world.
-Einstein, a German-Swiss-Jew pacifist, was appointed to a research
-professorship by the German Government in the early days of the War; his
-predictions were verified by an English expedition which observed the
-eclipse of 1919, very soon after the Armistice. His theory upsets the
-whole theoretical framework of traditional physics; it is almost as
-damaging to orthodox dynamics as Darwin was to _Genesis_. Yet physicists
-everywhere have shown complete readiness to accept his theory as soon as
-it appeared that the evidence was in its favour. But none of them, least
-of all Einstein himself, would claim that he has said the last word. He
-has not built a monument of infallible dogma to stand for all time.
-There are difficulties he cannot solve; his doctrines will have to be
-modified in their turn as they have modified Newton's. This critical
-undogmatic receptiveness is the true attitude of science.
-
-What would have happened if Einstein had advanced something equally new
-in the sphere of religion or politics? English people would have found
-elements of Prussianism in his theory; anti-Semites would have regarded
-it as a Zionist plot; nationalists in all countries would have found it
-tainted with lily-livered pacifism, and proclaimed it a mere dodge for
-escaping military service. All the old-fashioned professors would have
-approached Scotland Yard to get the importation of his writings
-prohibited. Teachers favourable to him would have been dismissed. He,
-meantime, would have captured the Government of some backward country,
-where it would have become illegal to teach anything except his
-doctrine, which would have grown into a mysterious dogma not understood
-by anybody. Ultimately the truth or falsehood of his doctrine would be
-decided on the battlefield, without the collection of any fresh evidence
-for or against it. This method is the logical outcome of William James's
-will to believe.
-
-What is wanted is not the will to believe, but the wish to find out,
-which is its exact opposite.
-
-If it is admitted that a condition of rational doubt would be desirable,
-it becomes important to inquire how it comes about that there is so much
-irrational certainty in the world. A great deal of this is due to the
-inherent irrationality and credulity of average human nature. But this
-seed of intellectual original sin is nourished and fostered by other
-agencies, among which three play the chief part--namely, education,
-propaganda, and economic pressure. Let us consider these in turn.
-
-(1) _Education._--Elementary education, in all advanced countries, is in
-the hands of the State. Some of the things taught are known to be false
-by the officials who prescribe them, and many others are known to be
-false, or at any rate very doubtful, by every unprejudiced person. Take,
-for example, the teaching of history. Each nation aims only at
-self-glorification in the school text-books of history. When a man
-writes his autobiography he is expected to show a certain modesty; but
-when a nation writes its autobiography there is no limit to its boasting
-and vainglory. When I was young, school books taught that the French
-were wicked and the Germans virtuous; now they teach the opposite. In
-neither case is there the slightest regard for truth. German school
-books, dealing with the battle of Waterloo, represent Wellington as all
-but defeated when Bluecher saved the situation; English books represent
-Bluecher as having made very little difference. The writers of both the
-German and the English books know that they are not telling the truth.
-American school books used to be violently anti-British; since the War
-they have become equally pro-British, without aiming at truth in either
-case (see _The Freeman_, Feb. 15, 1922, p. 532). Both before and since,
-one of the chief purposes of education in the United States has been to
-turn the motley collection of immigrant children into "good Americans."
-Apparently it has not occurred to any one that a "good American," like a
-"good German" or a "good Japanese," must be, _pro tanto_, a bad human
-being. A "good American" is a man or woman imbued with the belief that
-America is the finest country on earth, and ought always to be
-enthusiastically supported in any quarrel. It is just possible that
-these propositions are true; if so, a rational man will have no quarrel
-with them. But if they are true, they ought to be taught everywhere, not
-only in America. It is a suspicious circumstance that such propositions
-are never believed outside the particular country which they glorify.
-Meanwhile the whole machinery of the State, in all the different
-countries, is turned on to making defenceless children believe absurd
-propositions the effect of which is to make them willing to die in
-defence of sinister interests under the impression that they are
-fighting for truth and right. This is only one of countless ways in
-which education is designed, not to give true knowledge, but to make the
-people pliable to the will of their masters. Without an elaborate system
-of deceit in the elementary schools it would be impossible to preserve
-the camouflage of democracy.
-
-Before leaving the subject of education, I will take another example
-from America[2]--not because America is any worse than other countries,
-but because it is the most modern, showing the dangers that are growing
-rather than those that are diminishing. In the State of New York a
-school cannot be established without a licence from the State, even if
-it is to be supported wholly by private funds. A recent law decrees that
-a licence shall not be granted to any school "where it shall appear that
-the instruction proposed to be given includes the teachings of the
-doctrine that organized Governments shall be overthrown by force,
-violence, or unlawful means." As the _New Republic_ points out, there is
-no limitation to this or that organized Government. The law therefore
-would have made it illegal, during the War, to teach the doctrine that
-the Kaiser's Government should be overthrown by force; and, since then,
-the support of Kolchak or Denikin against the Soviet Government would
-have been illegal. Such consequences, of course, were not intended, and
-result only from bad draughtsmanship. What was intended appears from
-another law passed at the same time, applying to teachers in State
-schools. This law provides that certificates permitting persons to teach
-in such schools shall be issued only to those who have "shown
-satisfactorily" that they are "loyal and obedient to the Government of
-this State and of the United States," and shall be refused to those who
-have advocated, no matter where or when, "a form of government other
-than the Government of this State or of the United States." The
-committee which framed these laws, as quoted by the _New Republic_, laid
-it down that the teacher who "does not approve of the present social
-system......must surrender his office," and that "no person who is not
-eager to combat the theories of social change should be entrusted with
-the task of fitting the young and old for the responsibilities of
-citizenship." Thus, according to the law of the State of New York,
-Christ and George Washington were too degraded morally to be fit for the
-education of the young. If Christ were to go to New York and say,
-"Suffer the little children to come unto me," the President of the New
-York School Board would reply: "Sir, I see no evidence that you are
-eager to combat theories of social change. Indeed, I have heard it said
-that you advocate what you call the _kingdom_ of heaven, whereas this
-country, thank God, is a republic. It is clear that the Government of
-your kingdom of heaven would differ materially from that of New York
-State, therefore no children will be allowed access to you." If he
-failed to make this reply, he would not be doing his duty as a
-functionary entrusted with the administration of the law.
-
-The effect of such laws is very serious. Let it be granted, for the sake
-of argument, that the government and the social system in the State of
-New York are the best that have ever existed on this planet; yet even
-then both would presumably be capable of improvement. Any person who
-admits this obvious proposition is by law incapable of teaching in a
-State school. Thus the law decrees that the teachers shall all be either
-hypocrites or fools.
-
-The growing danger exemplified by the New York law is that resulting
-from the monopoly of power in the hands of a single organization,
-whether the State or a Trust or federation of Trusts. In the case of
-education, the power is in the hands of the State, which can prevent the
-young from hearing of any doctrine which it dislikes. I believe there
-are still some people who think that a democratic State is scarcely
-distinguishable from the people. This, however, is a delusion. The State
-is a collection of officials, different for different purposes, drawing
-comfortable incomes so long as the _status quo_ is preserved. The only
-alteration they are likely to desire in the _status quo_ is an increase
-of bureaucracy and of the power of bureaucrats. It is, therefore,
-natural that they should take advantage of such opportunities as war
-excitement to acquire inquisitorial powers over their employees,
-involving the right to inflict starvation upon any subordinate who
-opposes them. In matters of the mind, such as education, this state of
-affairs is fatal. It puts an end to all possibility of progress or
-freedom or intellectual initiative. Yet it is the natural result of
-allowing the whole of elementary education to fall under the sway of a
-single organization.
-
-Religious toleration, to a certain extent, has been won because people
-have ceased to consider religion so important as it was once thought to
-be. But in politics and economics, which have taken the place formerly
-occupied by religion, there is a growing tendency to persecution, which
-is not by any means confined to one party. The persecution of opinion in
-Russia is more severe than in any capitalist country. I met in Petrograd
-an eminent Russian poet, Alexander Block, who has since died as the
-result of privations. The Bolsheviks allowed him to teach aesthetics, but
-he complained that they insisted on his teaching the subject "from a
-Marxian point of view." He had been at a loss to discover how the theory
-of rhythmics was connected with Marxism, although, to avoid starvation,
-he had done his best to find out. Of course, it has been impossible in
-Russia ever since the Bolsheviks came into power to print anything
-critical of the dogmas upon which their regime is founded.
-
-The examples of America and Russia illustrate the conclusion to which we
-seem to be driven--namely, that so long as men continue to have the
-present fanatical belief in the importance of politics free thought on
-political matters will be impossible, and there is only too much danger
-that the lack of freedom will spread to all other matters, as it has
-done in Russia. Only some degree of political scepticism can save us
-from this misfortune.
-
-It must not be supposed that the officials in charge of education desire
-the young to become educated. On the contrary, their problem is to
-impart information without imparting intelligence. Education should have
-two objects: first, to give definite knowledge--reading and writing,
-languages and mathematics, and so on; secondly, to create those mental
-habits which will enable people to acquire knowledge and form sound
-judgments for themselves. The first of these we may call information,
-the second intelligence. The utility of information is admitted
-practically as well as theoretically; without a literate population a
-modern State is impossible. But the utility of intelligence is admitted
-only theoretically, not practically; it is not desired that ordinary
-people should think for themselves, because it is felt that people who
-think for themselves are awkward to manage and cause administrative
-difficulties. Only the guardians, in Plato's language, are to think; the
-rest are to obey, or to follow leaders like a herd of sheep. This
-doctrine, often unconsciously, has survived the introduction of
-political democracy, and has radically vitiated all national systems of
-education.
-
-The country which has succeeded best in giving information without
-intelligence is the latest addition to modern civilization, Japan.
-Elementary education in Japan is said to be admirable from the point of
-view of instruction. But, in addition to instruction, it has another
-purpose, which is to teach worship of the Mikado--a far stronger creed
-now than before Japan became modernized.[3] Thus the schools have been
-used simultaneously to confer knowledge and to promote superstition.
-Since we are not tempted to Mikado-worship, we see clearly what is
-absurd in Japanese teaching. Our own national superstitions strike us as
-natural and sensible, so that we do not take such a true view of them as
-we do of the superstitions of Nippon. But if a travelled Japanese were
-to maintain the thesis that our schools teach superstitions just as
-inimical to intelligence as belief in the divinity of the Mikado, I
-suspect that he would be able to make out a very good case.
-
-For the present I am not in search of remedies, but am only concerned
-with diagnosis. We are faced with the paradoxical fact that education
-has become one of the chief obstacles to intelligence and freedom of
-thought. This is due primarily to the fact that the State claims a
-monopoly; but that is by no means the sole cause.
-
-(2) _Propaganda._--Our system of education turns young people out of the
-schools able to read, but for the most part unable to weigh evidence or
-to form an independent opinion. They are then assailed, throughout the
-rest of their lives, by statements designed to make them believe all
-sorts of absurd propositions, such as that Blank's pills cure all ills,
-that Spitzbergen is warm and fertile, and that Germans eat corpses. The
-art of propaganda, as practised by modern politicians and governments,
-is derived from the art of advertisement. The science of psychology owes
-a great deal to advertisers. In former days most psychologists would
-probably have thought that a man could not convince many people of the
-excellence of his own wares by merely stating emphatically that they
-were excellent. Experience shows, however, that they were mistaken in
-this. If I were to stand up once in a public place and state that I am
-the most modest man alive, I should be laughed at; but if I could raise
-enough money to make the same statement on all the busses and on
-hoardings along all the principal railway lines, people would presently
-become convinced that I had an abnormal shrinking from publicity. If I
-were to go to a small shopkeeper and say: "Look at your competitor over
-the way, he is getting your business; don't you think it would be a good
-plan to leave your business and stand up in the middle of the road and
-try to shoot him before he shoots you?"--if I were to say this, any
-small shopkeeper would think me mad. But when the Government says it
-with emphasis and a brass band, the small shopkeepers become
-enthusiastic, and are quite surprised when they find afterwards that
-business has suffered. Propaganda, conducted by the means which
-advertisers have found successful, is now one of the recognized methods
-of government in all advanced countries, and is especially the method by
-which democratic opinion is created.
-
-There are two quite different evils about propaganda as now practised.
-On the one hand, its appeal is generally to irrational causes of belief
-rather than to serious argument; on the other hand, it gives an unfair
-advantage to those who can obtain most publicity, whether through wealth
-or through power. For my part, I am inclined to think that too much fuss
-is sometimes made about the fact that propaganda appeals to emotion
-rather than reason. The line between emotion and reason is not so sharp
-as some people think. Moreover, a clever man could frame a sufficiently
-rational argument in favour of any position which has any chance of
-being adopted. There are always good arguments on both sides of any real
-issue. Definite mis-statements of fact can be legitimately objected to,
-but they are by no means necessary. The mere words "Pear's Soap," which
-affirm nothing, cause people to buy that article. If, wherever these
-words appear, they were replaced by the words "The Labour Party,"
-millions of people would be led to vote for the Labour Party, although
-the advertisements had claimed no merit for it whatever. But if both
-sides in a controversy were confined by law to statements which a
-committee of eminent logicians considered relevant and valid, the main
-evil of propaganda, as at present conducted, would remain. Suppose,
-under such a law, two parties with an equally good case, one of whom had
-a million pounds to spend on propaganda, while the other had only a
-hundred thousand. It is obvious that the arguments in favour of the
-richer party would become more widely known than those in favour of the
-poorer party, and therefore the richer party would win. This situation
-is, of course, intensified when one party is the Government. In Russia
-the Government has an almost complete monopoly of propaganda, but that
-is not necessary. The advantages which it possesses over its opponents
-will generally be sufficient to give it the victory, unless it has an
-exceptionally bad case.
-
-The objection to propaganda is not only its appeal to unreason, but
-still more the unfair advantage which it gives to the rich and powerful.
-Equality of opportunity among opinions is essential if there is to be
-real freedom of thought; and equality of opportunity among opinions can
-only be secured by elaborate laws directed to that end, which there is
-no reason to expect to see enacted. The cure is not to be sought
-primarily in such laws, but in better education and a more sceptical
-public opinion. For the moment, however, I am not concerned to discuss
-cures.
-
-(3) _Economic pressure._--I have already dealt with some aspects of this
-obstacle to freedom of thought, but I wish now to deal with it on more
-general lines, as a danger which is bound to increase unless very
-definite steps are taken to counteract it. The supreme example of
-economic pressure applied against freedom of thought is Soviet Russia,
-where, until the trade agreement, the Government could and did inflict
-starvation upon people whose opinions it disliked--for example,
-Kropotkin. But in this respect Russia is only somewhat ahead of other
-countries. In France, during the Dreyfus affair, any teacher would have
-lost his position if he had been in favour of Dreyfus at the start or
-against him at the end. In America at the present day I doubt if a
-university professor, however eminent, could get employment if he were
-to criticize the Standard Oil Company, because all college presidents
-have received or hope to receive benefactions from Mr. Rockefeller.
-Throughout America Socialists are marked men, and find it extremely
-difficult to obtain work unless they have great gifts. The tendency,
-which exists wherever industrialism is well developed, for trusts and
-monopolies to control all industry, leads to a diminution of the number
-of possible employers, so that it becomes easier and easier to keep
-secret black books by means of which any one not subservient to the
-great corporations can be starved. The growth of monopolies is
-introducing in America many of the evils associated with State Socialism
-as it has existed in Russia. From the standpoint of liberty, it makes no
-difference to a man whether his only possible employer is the State or a
-Trust.
-
-In America, which is the most advanced country industrially, and to a
-lesser extent in other countries which are approximating to the American
-condition, it is necessary for the average citizen, if he wishes to make
-a living, to avoid incurring the hostility of certain big men. And these
-big men have an outlook--religious, moral, and political--with which
-they expect their employees to agree, at least outwardly. A man who
-openly dissents from Christianity, or believes in a relaxation of the
-marriage laws, or objects to the power of the great corporations, finds
-America a very uncomfortable country, unless he happens to be an eminent
-writer. Exactly the same kind of restraints upon freedom of thought are
-bound to occur in every country where economic organization has been
-carried to the point of practical monopoly. Therefore the safeguarding
-of liberty in the world which is growing up is far more difficult than
-it was in the nineteenth century, when free competition was still a
-reality. Whoever cares about the freedom of the mind must face this
-situation fully and frankly, realizing the inapplicability of methods
-which answered well enough while industrialism was in its infancy.
-
-There are two simple principles which, if they were adopted, would solve
-almost all social problems. The first is that education should have for
-one of its aims to teach people only to believe propositions when there
-is some reason to think that they are true. The second is that jobs
-should be given solely for fitness to do the work.
-
-To take the second point first. The habit of considering a man's
-religious, moral, and political opinions before appointing him to a post
-or giving him a job is the modern form of persecution, and it is likely
-to become quite as efficient as the Inquisition ever was. The old
-liberties can be legally retained without being of the slightest use.
-If, in practice, certain opinions lead a man to starve, it is poor
-comfort to him to know that his opinions are not punishable by law.
-There is a certain public feeling against starving men for not belonging
-to the Church of England, or for holding slightly unorthodox opinions in
-politics. But there is hardly any feeling against the rejection of
-Atheists or Mormons, extreme communists, or men who advocate free love.
-Such men are thought to be wicked, and it is considered only natural to
-refuse to employ them. People have hardly yet waked up to the fact that
-this refusal, in a highly industrial State, amounts to a very rigorous
-form of persecution.
-
-If this danger were adequately realized, it would be possible to rouse
-public opinion, and to secure that a man's beliefs should not be
-considered in appointing him to a post. The protection of minorities is
-vitally important; and even the most orthodox of us may find himself in
-a minority some day, so that we all have an interest in restraining the
-tyranny of majorities. Nothing except public opinion can solve this
-problem. Socialism would make it somewhat more acute, since it would
-eliminate the opportunities that now arise through exceptional
-employers. Every increase in the size of industrial undertakings makes
-it worse, since it diminishes the number of independent employers. The
-battle must be fought exactly as the battle of religious toleration was
-fought. And as in that case, so in this, a decay in the intensity of
-belief is likely to prove the decisive factor. While men were convinced
-of the absolute truth of Catholicism or Protestantism, as the case might
-be, they were willing to persecute on account of them. While men are
-quite certain of their modern creeds, they will persecute on their
-behalf. Some element of doubt is essential to the practice, though not
-to the theory, of toleration. And this brings me to my other point,
-which concerns the aims of education.
-
-If there is to be toleration in the world, one of the things taught in
-schools must be the habit of weighing evidence, and the practice of not
-giving full assent to propositions which there is no reason to believe
-true. For example, the art of reading the newspapers should be taught.
-The schoolmaster should select some incident which happened a good many
-years ago, and roused political passions in its day. He should then read
-to the school children what was said by the newspapers on one side, what
-was said by those on the other, and some impartial account of what
-really happened. He should show how, from the biased account of either
-side, a practised reader could infer what really happened, and he should
-make them understand that everything in newspapers is more or less
-untrue. The cynical scepticism which would result from this teaching
-would make the children in later life immune from those appeals to
-idealism by which decent people are induced to further the schemes of
-scoundrels.
-
-History should be taught in the same way. Napoleon's campaigns of 1813
-and 1814, for instance, might be studied in the _Moniteur_, leading up
-to the surprise which Parisians felt when they saw the Allies arriving
-under the walls of Paris after they had (according to the official
-bulletins) been beaten by Napoleon in every battle. In the more advanced
-classes, students should be encouraged to count the number of times that
-Lenin has been assassinated by Trotsky, in order to learn contempt for
-death. Finally, they should be given a school history approved by the
-Government, and asked to infer what a French school history would say
-about our wars with France. All this would be a far better training in
-citizenship than the trite moral maxims by which some people believe
-that civic duty can be inculcated.
-
-It must, I think, be admitted that the evils of the world are due to
-moral defects quite as much as to lack of intelligence. But the human
-race has not hitherto discovered any method of eradicating moral
-defects; preaching and exhortation only add hypocrisy to the previous
-list of vices. Intelligence, on the contrary, is easily improved by
-methods known to every competent educator. Therefore, until some method
-of teaching virtue has been discovered, progress will have to be sought
-by improvement of intelligence rather than of morals. One of the chief
-obstacles to intelligence is credulity, and credulity could be
-enormously diminished by instruction as to the prevalent forms of
-mendacity. Credulity is a greater evil in the present day than it ever
-was before, because, owing to the growth of education, it is much easier
-than it used to be to spread misinformation, and, owing to democracy,
-the spread of misinformation is more important than in former times to
-the holders of power. Hence the increase in the circulation of
-newspapers.
-
-If I am asked how the world is to be induced to adopt these two
-maxims--namely (1) that jobs should be given to people on account of
-their fitness to perform them; (2) that one aim of education should be
-to cure people of the habit of believing propositions for which there is
-no evidence--I can only say that it must be done by generating an
-enlightened public opinion. And an enlightened public opinion can only
-be generated by the efforts of those who desire that it should exist. I
-do not believe that the economic changes advocated by Socialists will,
-of themselves, do anything towards curing the evils we have been
-considering. I think that, whatever happens in politics, the trend of
-economic development will make the preservation of mental freedom
-increasingly difficult, unless public opinion insists that the employer
-shall control nothing in the life of the employee except his work.
-Freedom in education could easily be secured, if it were desired, by
-limiting the function of the State to inspection and payment, and
-confining inspection rigidly to the definite instruction. But that, as
-things stand, would leave education in the hands of the Churches,
-because, unfortunately, they are more anxious to teach their beliefs
-than Freethinkers are to teach their doubts. It would, however, give a
-free field, and would make it possible for a liberal education to be
-given if it were really desired. More than that ought not to be asked of
-the law.
-
-My plea throughout this address has been for the spread of the
-scientific temper, which is an altogether different thing from the
-knowledge of scientific results. The scientific temper is capable of
-regenerating mankind and providing an issue for all our troubles. The
-results of science, in the form of mechanism, poison gas, and the yellow
-press, bid fair to lead to the total downfall of our civilization. It is
-a curious antithesis, which a Martian might contemplate with amused
-detachment. But for us it is a matter of life and death. Upon its issue
-depends the question whether our grandchildren are to live in a happier
-world, or are to exterminate each other by scientific methods, leaving
-perhaps to negroes and Papuans the future destinies of mankind.
-
-
-
-
-  APPENDIX
-
-  THE CONWAY MEMORIAL LECTURESHIP
-
-
-At a general meeting of the South Place Ethical Society, held on October
-22, 1908, it was resolved, after full discussion, that an effort should
-be made to establish a series of lectures, to be printed and widely
-circulated, as a permanent Memorial to Dr. Conway.
-
-Moncure Conway's untiring zeal for the emancipation of the human mind
-from the thraldom of obsolete or waning beliefs, his pleadings for
-sympathy with the oppressed and for a wider and profounder conception of
-human fraternity than the world has yet reached, claim, it is urged, an
-offering of gratitude more permanent than the eloquent obituary or
-reverential service of mourning.
-
-The range of the lectures (of which the thirteenth is published
-herewith) must be regulated by the financial support accorded to the
-scheme; but it is hoped that sufficient funds will be eventually
-forthcoming for the endowment of periodical lectures by distinguished
-public men, to further the cause of social, political, and religious
-freedom, with which Dr. Conway's name must ever be associated.
-
-The Conway Memorial Lecture Committee, although not yet in possession of
-the necessary capital for the permanent endowment of the Lectureship,
-have inaugurated and maintained the work while inviting further
-contributions. The funds in hand, together with those which may
-reasonably be expected from supporters of the Movement, will ensure the
-delivery of an annual lecture for some years at least.
-
-The Committee earnestly appeal for either donations or subscriptions
-from year to year until the Memorial is permanently established.
-Contributions may be forwarded to the Hon. Treasurer.
-
-On behalf of the Executive Committee:--
-
-(Mrs.) C. Fletcher Smith and Ernest Carr, _Hon. Secretaries_.
-
-(Mrs.) F. M. Cockburn, _Hon. Treasurer_, "Peradeniya," Northampton Road,
-Croydon.
-
-
-  PRINTED BY WATTS AND CO., JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.4.
-
-
-
-
-  [Footnotes]
-
-
-[1] I should add that they re-appointed me later, when war passions had
-begun to cool.
-
-[2] See _The New Republic_, Feb. 1, 1922, p. 259 _ff._
-
-[3] See _The Invention of a New Religion_. By Professor Chamberlain, of
-Tokio. Published by the Rationalist Press Association. (Now out of
-print.)
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Free Thought and Official Propaganda, by
-Bertrand Russell
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA ***
-
-***** This file should be named 44932.txt or 44932.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/9/3/44932/
-
-Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on
-page images made available by the Internet Archive
-(http://archive.org/details/freethoughtoffic00russiala).
-
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
-will be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
-one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
-(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
-permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
-set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
-copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
-protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
-Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
-charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
-do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
-rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
-such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
-research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
-practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
-subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
-redistribution.
-
-
-
-*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
-http://gutenberg.org/license).
-
-
-Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works
-
-1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
-all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
-If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
-terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
-entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
-
-1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
-paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
-and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
-or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
-collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
-individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
-located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
-copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
-works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
-are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
-Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
-freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
-this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
-the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
-keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
-Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
-a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
-the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
-before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
-creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
-Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
-the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
-States.
-
-1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
-access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
-whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
-copied or distributed:
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
-
-1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
-from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
-posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
-and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
-or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
-with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
-work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
-through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
-Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
-1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
-terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
-to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
-permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
-word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
-distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
-"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
-posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
-you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
-copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
-request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
-form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
-that
-
-- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
-     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
-     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
-     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
-     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
-     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
-     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
-     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
-     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
-     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-     License.  You must require such a user to return or
-     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
-     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
-     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
-     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
-     of receipt of the work.
-
-- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
-forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
-both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
-Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
-Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
-collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
-"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
-corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
-property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
-computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
-your equipment.
-
-1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
-your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
-the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
-refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
-providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
-receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
-is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
-opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
-WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
-WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
-If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
-law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
-interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
-the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
-provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
-with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
-promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
-harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
-that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
-or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
-work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
-Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
-
-
-Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
-including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
-because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
-people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
-To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
-and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
-
-
-Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
-Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
-http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
-permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
-Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
-throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
-809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
-business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
-information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
-page at http://pglaf.org
-
-For additional contact information:
-     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-     Chief Executive and Director
-     gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-
-Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
-SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
-particular state visit http://pglaf.org
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
-To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
-
-
-Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
-works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
-with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
-Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
-
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
-unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
-keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
-
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
-
-     http://www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/44932.zip b/44932.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index fdd528b..0000000
--- a/44932.zip
+++ /dev/null