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diff --git a/44908-8.txt b/44908-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d62c20c..0000000 --- a/44908-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13194 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Law of Civilization and Decay, by Brooks Adams - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Law of Civilization and Decay - An Essay on History - -Author: Brooks Adams - -Release Date: February 16, 2014 [EBook #44908] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LAW OF CIVILIZATION AND DECAY *** - - - - -Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on -page images generously made available by the Internet -Archive -(https://archive.org/details/lawofcivilizatio00adam). - - - - - - - [Italics are indicated by _underscores_. - - Superscript is indicated by this format: ^{superscript}.] - - - - - THE LAW OF - CIVILIZATION AND DECAY - - An Essay on History - - - BY - - BROOKS ADAMS - - - New York - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. - 1897 - - _All rights reserved_ - - - - - Copyright, 1896, - By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. - - Set up and electrotyped September, 1896. Reprinted February, - September, 1897. - - - Norwood Press - J. S. Cushing & Co. Berwick & Smith - Norwood Mass. U.S.A. - - - - -PREFACE - - -In offering to the public a second edition of _The Law of Civilization -and Decay_ I take the opportunity to say emphatically that such value -as the essay may have lies in its freedom from any preconceived bias. -All theories contained in the book, whether religious or economic, are -the effect, and not the cause, of the way in which the facts unfolded -themselves. I have been passive. - -The value of history lies not in the multitude of facts collected, but -in their relation to each other, and in this respect an author can have -no larger responsibility than any other scientific observer. If the -sequence of events seems to indicate the existence of a law governing -social development, such a law may be suggested, but to approve or -disapprove of it would be as futile as to discuss the moral bearings of -gravitation. - -Some years ago, when writing a sketch of the history of the colony of -Massachusetts Bay, I became deeply interested in certain religious -aspects of the Reformation, which seemed hardly reconcilable with -the theories usually advanced to explain them. After the book had -been published, I continued reading theology, and, step by step, -was led back, through the schoolmen and the crusades, to the revival -of the pilgrimage to Palestine, which followed upon the conversion -of the Huns. As ferocious pagans, the Huns had long closed the road -to Constantinople; but the change which swept over Europe after the -year 1000, when Saint Stephen was crowned, was unmistakable; the West -received an impulsion from the East. I thus became convinced that -religious enthusiasm, which, by stimulating the pilgrimage, restored -communication between the Bosphorus and the Rhine, was the power which -produced the accelerated movement culminating in modern centralization. - -Meanwhile I thought I had discovered not only that faith, during -the eleventh, twelfth, and early thirteenth centuries, spoke by -preference through architecture, but also that in France and Syria, -at least, a precise relation existed between the ecclesiastical and -military systems of building, and that the one could not be understood -without the other. In the commercial cities of the same epoch, on -the contrary, the religious idea assumed no definite form of artistic -expression, for the Gothic never flourished in Venice, Genoa, Pisa, -or Florence, nor did any pure school of architecture thrive in the -mercantile atmosphere. Furthermore, commerce from the outset seemed -antagonistic to the imagination, for a universal decay of architecture -set in throughout Europe after the great commercial expansion of the -thirteenth century; and the inference I drew from these facts was, -that the economic instinct must have chosen some other medium by -which to express itself. My observations led me to suppose that the -coinage might be such a medium, and I ultimately concluded that, if the -development of a mercantile community is to be understood, it must be -approached through its money. - -Another conviction forced upon my mind, by the examination of long -periods of history, was the exceedingly small part played by conscious -thought in moulding the fate of men. At the moment of action the human -being almost invariably obeys an instinct, like an animal; only after -action has ceased does he reflect. - -These controlling instincts are involuntary, and divide men into -species distinct enough to cause opposite effects under identical -conditions. For instance, impelled by fear, one type will rush upon an -enemy, and another will run away; while the love of women or of money -has stamped certain races as sharply as ferocity or cunning has stamped -the lion or the fox. - -Like other personal characteristics, the peculiarities of the mind -are apparently strongly hereditary, and, if these instincts be -transmitted from generation to generation, it is plain that, as the -external world changes, those who receive this heritage must rise or -fall in the social scale, according as their nervous system is well -or ill adapted to the conditions to which they are born. Nothing is -commoner, for example, than to find families who have been famous -in one century sinking into obscurity in the next, not because the -children have degenerated, but because a certain field of activity -which afforded the ancestor full scope, has been closed against his -offspring. Particularly has this been true in revolutionary epochs such -as the Reformation; and families so situated have very generally become -extinct. - -When this stage had been reached, the Reformation began to wear a new -aspect, but several years elapsed before I saw whither my studies led. -Only very slowly did a sequence of cause and effect take shape in my -mind, a sequence wholly unexpected in character, whose growth resembled -the arrangement of the fragments of an inscription, which cannot be -read until the stones have been set in a determined order. Finally, as -the historical work neared an end, I perceived that the intellectual -phenomena under examination fell into a series which seemed to -correspond, somewhat closely, with the laws which are supposed to -regulate the movements of the material universe. - -Theories can be tested only by applying them to facts, and the facts -relating to successive phases of human thought, whether conscious or -unconscious, constitute history; therefore, if intellectual phenomena -are evolved in a regular sequence, history, like matter, must be -governed by law. In support of such a conjecture, I venture to offer -an hypothesis by which to classify a few of the more interesting -intellectual phases through which human society must, apparently, -pass, in its oscillations between barbarism and civilization, or, what -amounts to the same thing, in its movement from a condition of physical -dispersion to one of concentration. The accompanying volume contains -the evidence which suggested the hypothesis, although, it seems hardly -necessary to add, an essay of this size on so vast a subject can only -be regarded as a suggestion. - -The theory proposed is based upon the accepted scientific principle -that the law of force and energy is of universal application in nature, -and that animal life is one of the outlets through which solar energy -is dissipated. - -Starting from this fundamental proposition, the first deduction is, -that, as human societies are forms of animal life, these societies must -differ among themselves in energy, in proportion as nature has endowed -them, more or less abundantly, with energetic material. - -Thought is one of the manifestations of human energy, and among the -earlier and simpler phases of thought, two stand conspicuous--Fear and -Greed. Fear, which, by stimulating the imagination, creates a belief -in an invisible world, and ultimately develops a priesthood; and Greed, -which dissipates energy in war and trade. - -Probably the velocity of the social movement of any community -is proportionate to its energy and mass, and its centralization -is proportionate to its velocity; therefore, as human movement -is accelerated, societies centralize. In the earlier stages of -concentration, fear appears to be the channel through which energy -finds the readiest outlet; accordingly, in primitive and scattered -communities, the imagination is vivid, and the mental types produced -are religious, military, artistic. As consolidation advances, fear -yields to greed, and the economic organism tends to supersede the -emotional and martial. - -Whenever a race is so richly endowed with the energetic material that -it does not expend all its energy in the daily struggle for life, -the surplus may be stored in the shape of wealth; and this stock of -stored energy may be transferred from community to community, either by -conquest, or by superiority in economic competition. - -However large may be the store of energy accumulated by conquest, a -race must, sooner or later, reach the limit of its martial energy, -when it must enter on the phase of economic competition. But, as the -economic organism radically differs from the emotional and martial, -the effect of economic competition has been, perhaps invariably, to -dissipate the energy amassed by war. - -When surplus energy has accumulated in such bulk as to preponderate -over productive energy, it becomes the controlling social force. -Thenceforward, capital is autocratic, and energy vents itself through -those organisms best fitted to give expression to the power of capital. -In this last stage of consolidation, the economic, and, perhaps, the -scientific intellect is propagated, while the imagination fades, -and the emotional, the martial, and the artistic types of manhood -decay. When a social velocity has been attained at which the waste of -energetic material is so great that the martial and imaginative stocks -fail to reproduce themselves, intensifying competition appears to -generate two extreme economic types,--the usurer in his most formidable -aspect, and the peasant whose nervous system is best adapted to thrive -on scanty nutriment. At length a point must be reached when pressure -can go no further, and then, perhaps, one of two results may follow: A -stationary period may supervene, which may last until ended by war, by -exhaustion, or by both combined, as seems to have been the case with -the Eastern Empire; or, as in the Western, disintegration may set in, -the civilized population may perish, and a reversion may take place to -a primitive form of organism. - -The evidence, however, seems to point to the conclusion that, when -a highly centralized society disintegrates, under the pressure of -economic competition, it is because the energy of the race has been -exhausted. Consequently, the survivors of such a community lack the -power necessary for renewed concentration, and must probably remain -inert until supplied with fresh energetic material by the infusion of -barbarian blood. - - BROOKS ADAMS. - - Quincy, August 20, 1896. - - - - -CONTENTS - - PAGE - - CHAPTER I - - The Romans 1 - - CHAPTER II - - The Middle Age 48 - - CHAPTER III - - The First Crusade 79 - - CHAPTER IV - - The Second Crusade 103 - - CHAPTER V - - The Fall of Constantinople 124 - - CHAPTER VI - - The Suppression of the Temple 152 - - CHAPTER VII - - The English Reformation 186 - - CHAPTER VIII - - The Suppression of the Convents 220 - - CHAPTER IX - - The Eviction of the Yeomen 243 - - CHAPTER X - - Spain and India 286 - - CHAPTER XI - - Modern Centralization 313 - - CHAPTER XII - - Conclusion 352 - - Index 385 - - - - -CIVILIZATION AND DECAY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE ROMANS - - -When the Romans first emerged from the mist of fable, they were already -a race of land-owners who held their property in severalty, and, as the -right of alienation was established, the formation of relatively large -estates had begun. The ordinary family, however, held, perhaps, twelve -acres, and, as the land was arable, and the staple grain, it supported -a dense rural population. The husbandmen who tilled this land were -of the martial type, and, probably for that reason, though supremely -gifted as administrators and soldiers, were ill-fitted to endure -the strain of the unrestricted economic competition of a centralized -society. Consequently their conquests had hardly consolidated before -decay set in, a decay whose causes may be traced back until they are -lost in the dawn of history. - -The Latins had little economic versatility; they lacked the instinct -of the Greeks for commerce, or of the Syrians and Hindoos for -manufactures. They were essentially land-owners, and, when endowed with -the acquisitive faculty, usurers. The latter early developed into a -distinct species, at once more subtle of intellect and more tenacious -of life than the farmers, and on the disparity between these two types -of men, the fate of all subsequent civilization has hinged. At a remote -antiquity Roman society divided into creditors and debtors; as it -consolidated, the power of the former increased, thus intensifying the -pressure on the weak, until, when centralization culminated under the -Cæsars, reproduction slackened, disintegration set in, and, after some -centuries of decline, the Middle Ages began. - -The history of the monarchy must probably always remain a matter of -conjecture, but it seems reasonably certain that the expulsion of -the Tarquins was the victory of an hereditary monied caste, which -succeeded in concentrating the functions of government in a practically -self-perpetuating body drawn from their own order.[1] Niebuhr has -demonstrated, in one of his most striking chapters, that usury was -originally a patrician privilege; and some of the fiercest struggles -of the early republic seem to have been decided against the oligarchy -by wealthy plebeians, who were determined to break down the monopoly -in money-lending. At all events, the conditions of life evidently -favoured the growth of the instinct which causes its possessor to suck -the vitality of the economically weak; and Macaulay, in the preface to -_Virginia_, has given so vivid a picture of the dominant class, that -one passage at least should be read entire. - - "The ruling class in Rome was a monied class; and it made and - administered the laws with a view solely to its own interest. - Thus the relation between lender and borrower was mixed up - with the relation between sovereign and subject. The great - men held a large portion of the community in dependence by - means of advances at enormous usury. The law of debt, framed - by creditors, and for the protection of creditors, was the - most horrible that has ever been known among men. The liberty, - and even the life, of the insolvent were at the mercy of - the patrician money-lenders. Children often became slaves in - consequence of the misfortunes of their parents. The debtor was - imprisoned, not in a public gaol under the care of impartial - public functionaries, but in a private workhouse belonging - to the creditor. Frightful stories were told respecting these - dungeons." - -But a prisoner is an expense, and the patricians wanted money. Their -problem was to exhaust the productive power of the debtor before -selling him, and, as slaves have less energy than freemen, a system was -devised by which the plebeians were left on their land, and stimulated -to labour by the hope of redeeming themselves and their children from -servitude. Niebuhr has explained at length how this was done. - -For money weighed out a person could pledge himself, his family, and -all that belonged to him. In this condition he became _nexus_, and -remained in possession of his property until breach of condition, -when the creditor could proceed by summary process.[2] Such a contract -satisfied the requirements, and the usurers had then only to invent a -judgment for debt severe enough to force the debtor to become _nexus_ -when the alternative was offered him. This presented no difficulty. -When an action was begun the defendant had thirty days of grace, and -was then arrested and brought before the prætor. If he could neither -pay nor find security, he was fettered with irons weighing not less -than fifteen pounds, and taken home by the plaintiff. There he was -allowed a pound of corn a day, and given sixty days in which to settle. -If he failed, he was taken again before the prætor and sentenced. -Under this sentence he might be sold or executed, and, where there -were several plaintiffs, they might cut him up among them, nor was -any individual liable for carving more than his share.[3] A man so -sentenced involved his descendants, and therefore, rather than submit, -the whole debtor class became _nexi_, toiling for ever to fulfil -contracts quite beyond their strength, and year by year sinking more -hopelessly into debt, for ordinarily the accumulated interest soon -raised "the principal to many times its original amount."[4] Niebuhr -has thus summed up the economic situation:-- - - "To understand the condition of the plebeian debtors, let the - reader, if he is a man of business, imagine that the whole of - the private debts in a given country were turned into bills - at a year, bearing interest at twenty per cent or more; and - that the non-payment of them were followed on summary process - by imprisonment, and by the transfer of the debtor's whole - property to his creditor, even though it exceeded what he - owed. We do not need those further circumstances, which are - incompatible with our manners, the personal slavery of the - debtor and of his children, to form an estimate of the fearful - condition of the unfortunate plebeians."[5] - -Thus the usurer first exhausted a family and then sold it; and as his -class fed on insolvency and controlled legislation, the laws were as -ingeniously contrived for creating debt, as for making it profitable -when contracted. One characteristic device was the power given the -magistrate of fining for "offences against order." Under this head "men -might include any accusations they pleased, and by the higher grades -in the scale of fines they might accomplish whatever they desired."[6] -As the capitalists owned the courts and administered justice, they had -the means at hand of ruining any plebeian whose property was tempting. -Nevertheless, the stronghold of usury lay in the fiscal system, which -down to the fall of the Empire was an engine for working bankruptcy. -Rome's policy was to farm the taxes; that is to say, after assessment, -to sell them to a publican, who collected what he could. The business -was profitable in proportion as it was extortionate, and the country -was subjected to a levy unregulated by law, and conducted to enrich -speculators. "Ubi publicanus est," said Livy, quoting the Senate, "ibi -aut jus publicum vanum, aut libertatem sociis nullam esse."[7] - -Usury was the cream of this business. The custom was to lend to -defaulters at such high rates of interest that insolvency was nearly -certain to follow; then the people were taken on execution, and -slave-hunting formed a regular branch of the revenue service. In -Cicero's time whole provinces of Asia Minor were stripped bare by the -traffic. The effect upon the Latin society of the fifth century before -Christ was singularly destructive. Italy was filled with petty states -in chronic war, the troops were an unpaid militia, which comprised the -whole able-bodied population, and though the farms yielded enough for -the family in good times, when the males were with the legions labour -was certain to be lacking. The campaigns therefore brought want, and -with want came the inability to pay taxes. - -As late as the Tunic War, Regulus asked to be relieved from his -command, because the death of his slave and the incompetence of his -hired man left his fields uncared for; and if a general and a consul -were pinched by absence, the case of the men in the ranks can be -imagined. Even in victory the lot of the common soldier was hard -enough, for, beside the chance of wounds and disease, there was the -certain loss of time, for which no compensation was made. Though the -plebeians formed the whole infantry of the line, they received no part -of the conquered lands, and even the plunder was taken from them, and -appropriated by the patricians to their private use.[8] In defeat, the -open country was overrun, the cattle were driven off or slaughtered, -the fruit trees cut down, the crops laid waste, and the houses burned. -In speaking of the Gallic invasion, Niebuhr has pointed out that the -ravaging of the enemy, and the new taxes laid to rebuild the ruined -public works, led to general insolvency.[9] - -Such conditions fostered the rapid propagation of distinct types of -mind, and at a very early period Romans had been bred destitute of the -martial instinct, but more crafty and more tenacious of life than the -soldier. These were the men who conceived and enforced the usury laws, -and who held to personal pledges as the dearest privilege of their -order; nor does Livy attempt to disguise the fact "that every patrician -house was a gaol for debtors; and that in seasons of great distress, -after every sitting of the courts, herds of sentenced slaves were led -away in chains to the houses of the nobless."[10] - -Of this redoubtable type the Claudian family was a famous specimen, -and the picture which has been drawn by Macaulay of the great usurer, -Appius Claudius, the decemvir, is so brilliant that it cannot be -omitted. - - "Appius Claudius Crassus ... was descended from a long line of - ancestors distinguished by their haughty demeanour, and by the - inflexibility with which they had withstood all the demands - of the plebeian order. While the political conduct and the - deportment of the Claudian nobles drew upon them the fiercest - public hatred, they were accused of wanting, if any credit - is due to the early history of Rome, a class of qualities - which, in a military commonwealth, is sufficient to cover a - multitude of offences. The chiefs of the family appear to have - been eloquent, versed in civil business, and learned after the - fashion of their age; but in war they were not distinguished - by skill or valour. Some of them, as if conscious where their - weakness lay, had, when filling the highest magistracies, taken - internal administration as their department of public business, - and left the military command to their colleagues. One of them - had been entrusted with an army, and had failed ignominiously. - None of them had been honoured with a triumph.... - - "His grandfather, called, like himself, Appius Claudius, had - left a name as much detested as that of Sextus Tarquinius. This - elder Appius had been consul more than seventy years before - the introduction of the Licinian Laws. By availing himself - of a singular crisis in public feeling, he had obtained the - consent of the commons to the abolition of the tribuneship, and - had been the chief of that Council of Ten to which the whole - direction of the State had been committed. In a few months - his administration had become universally odious. It had been - swept away by an irresistible outbreak of popular fury; and - its memory was still held in abhorrence by the whole city. The - immediate cause of the downfall of this execrable government - was said to have been an attempt made by Appius Claudius upon - the chastity of a beautiful young girl of humble birth. The - story ran that the Decemvir, unable to succeed by bribes and - solicitations, resorted to an outrageous act of tyranny. A vile - dependant of the Claudian house laid claim to the damsel as his - slave. The cause was brought before the tribunal of Appius. - The wicked magistrate, in defiance of the clearest proofs, - gave judgment for the claimant. But the girl's father, a brave - soldier, saved her from servitude and dishonour by stabbing her - to the heart in the sight of the whole Forum. That blow was the - signal for a general explosion. Camp and city rose at once; the - Ten were pulled down; the tribuneship was re-established; and - Appius escaped the hands of the executioner only by a voluntary - death."[11] - -Virginia was slain in 449 B.C., just in the midst of the long -convulsion which began with the secession to the Mons Sacer, and ended -with the Licinian Laws. During this century and a quarter, usury -drained the Roman vitality low. Niebuhr was doubtless right in his -conjecture that the mutinous legions were filled with nexi to whom -the continuance of the existing status meant slavery, and Mommsen also -pointed out that the convulsions of the third and fourth centuries, in -which it seemed as though Roman society must disintegrate, were caused -by "the insolvency of the middle class of land-holders."[12] - -Had Italy been more tranquil, it is not inconceivable that the small -farmers might even then have sunk into the serfdom which awaited them -under the Empire, for in peace the patricians might have been able -to repress insurrection with their clients; but the accumulation of -capital had hardly begun, and several centuries were to elapse before -money was to take its ultimate form in a standing army. Meanwhile, -troops were needed almost every year to defend the city; and, as the -legions were a militia, they were the enemy and not the instrument of -wealth. Until the organization of a permanent paid police they were, -however, the highest expression of force, and, when opposed to them, -the monied oligarchy was helpless, as was proved by the secession to -the Mons Sacer. The storm gathered slowly. The rural population was -ground down under the usury laws, and in 495 B.C. the farmers refused -to respond to the levy. The consul Publius Servilius had to suspend -prosecutions for debt and to liberate debtors in prison; but at the -end of the campaign the promises he had made in the moment of danger -were repudiated by Appius Claudius, who rigorously enforced the usury -legislation, and who was, for the time, too strong to be opposed. - -That year the men submitted, but the next the legions had again to be -embodied; they again returned victorious; their demands were again -rejected; and then, instead of disbanding, they marched in martial -array into the district of Crustumeria, and occupied the hill which -ever after was called the Sacred Mount.[13] Resistance was not even -attempted; and precisely the same surrender was repeated in 449. When -Virginius stabbed his daughter he fled to the camp, and his comrades -seized the standards and marched for Rome. The Senate yielded at once, -decreed the abolition of the Decemvirate, and the triumphant cohorts, -drawn up upon the Aventine, chose their tribunes. - -Finally, in the last great struggle, when Camillus was made dictator -to coerce the people, he found himself impotent. The monied oligarchy -collapsed when confronted with an armed force; and Camillus, reduced -to act as mediator, vowed a temple to Concord, on the passage of -the Licinian Laws.[14] The Licinian Laws provided for a partial -liquidation, and also for an increase of the means of the debtor class -by redistribution of the public land. This land had been seized in war, -and had been monopolized by the patricians without any particular legal -right. Licinius obtained a statute by which back payments of interest -should be applied to extinguishing the principal of debts, and balances -then remaining due should be liquidated in three annual instalments. -He also limited the quantity of the public domain which could be held -by any individual, and directed that the residue which remained after -the reduction of all estates to that standard should be distributed in -five-acre lots. - -Pyrrhus saw with a soldier's eye that Rome's strength did not lie in -her generals, who were frequently his inferiors, but in her farmers, -whom he could not crush by defeat, and this was the class which was -favoured by the Licinian Laws. They multiplied greatly when the usurers -capitulated, and, as Macaulay remarked, the effect of the reform -was "singularly happy and glorious." It was indeed no less than the -conquest of Italy. Rome, "while the disabilities of the plebeians -continued ... was scarcely able to maintain her ground against the -Volscians and Hernicans. When those disabilities were removed, she -rapidly became more than a match for Carthage and Macedon."[15] - -But nature's very bounty to the Roman husbandman and soldier proved -his ruin. Patient of suffering, enduring of fatigue, wise in council, -fierce in war, he routed all who opposed him; and yet the vigorous mind -and the robust frame which made him victorious in battle, were his -weakness when at peace. He needed costly nutriment, and when brought -into free economic competition with Africans and Asiatics, he starved. -Such competition resulted directly from foreign conquests, and came -rapidly when Italy had consolidated, and the Italians began to extend -their power over other races. Nearly five centuries intervened between -the foundation of the city and the defeat of Pyrrhus, but within little -more than two hundred years from the victory of Beneventum, Rome was -mistress of the world. - -Indeed, beyond the peninsula, there was not much, save Carthage, to -stop the march of the legions. After the death of Alexander, in 323 -B.C., Greece fell into decline, and by 200, when Rome attacked Macedon, -she was in decrepitude. The population of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt -was not martial, and had never been able to cope in battle with the -western races; while Spain and Gaul, though inhabited by fierce and -hardy tribes, lacked cohesion, and could not withstand the onset of -organized and disciplined troops. Distance, therefore, rather than -hostile military force, fixed the limit of the ancient centralization, -for the Romans were not maritime, and consequently failed to absorb -India or discover America. Thus their relatively imperfect movement -made the most material difference between the ancient and modern -economic system. - -By conquest the countries inhabited by races of a low vitality and -great tenacity of life were opened both for trade and slaving, and -their cheap labour exterminated the husbandmen of Italy. Particularly -after the annexation of Asia Minor this labour overran Sicily, and the -cultivation of the cereals by the natives became impossible when the -island had been parcelled out into great estates stocked by capitalists -with eastern slaves who, at Rome, undersold all competitors. During -the second century the precious metals poured into Latium in a flood, -great fortunes were amassed and invested in land, and the Asiatic -provinces of the Empire were swept of their men in order to make -these investments pay. No data remain by which to estimate, even -approximately, the size of this involuntary migration, but it must -have reached enormous numbers, for sixty thousand captives were the -common booty of a campaign, and after provinces were annexed they were -depopulated by the publicans. - -The best field hands came from the regions where poverty had always -been extreme, and where, for countless generations, men had been -inured to toil on scanty food. Districts like Bithynia and Syria, where -slaves could be bought for little or nothing, had always been tilled -by races far more tenacious of life than any Europeans. After Lucullus -plundered Pontus, a slave brought only four drachmæ, or, perhaps, -seventy cents.[16] On the other hand, competition grew sharper among -the Italians themselves. As capital accumulated in the hands of the -strongest, the poor grew poorer, and pauperism spread. As early as the -Marsian War, in 90 B.C., Lucius Marcius Philippus estimated that there -were only two thousand wealthy families among the burgesses. In about -three hundred years nature had culled a pure plutocracy from what had -been originally an essentially martial race. - -The primitive Roman was a high order of husbandman, who could only when -well fed flourish and multiply. He was adapted to that stage of society -when the remnants of caste gave a certain fixity of tenure to the -farmer, and when prices were maintained by the cost of communication -with foreign countries. As the world centralized, through conquest, -these barriers were swept away. Economic competition became free, -land tended to concentrate in fewer and fewer hands, and this land was -worked by eastern slaves, who reduced the wages of labour to the lowest -point at which the human being can survive. - -The effect was to split society in halves, the basis being servile, and -the freemen being separated into a series of classes, according to the -economic power of the mind. Wealth formed the title to nobility of the -great oligarchy which thus came to constitute the core of the Empire. -At the head stood the senators, whose rank was hereditary unless they -lost their property, for to be a senator a man had to be rich. Augustus -fixed $48,000 as the minimum of the senatorial fortune, and made up the -deficiency to certain favoured families,[17] but Tiberius summarily -ejected spendthrifts.[18] All Latin literature is redolent of money. -Tacitus, with an opulent connection, never failed to speak with disdain -of the base-born, or, in other words, of the less prosperous. "Poppæus -Sabinus, a man of humble birth," raised to position by the caprice of -two emperors;[19] "Cassius Severus, a man of mean extraction";[20] and, -in the poetry of antiquity, there are few more famous lines than those -in which Juvenal has described the burden of poverty: - - "Haud facile emergunt, quorum virtutibus obstat - Res angusta domi."[21] - -Perhaps no modern writer has been so imbued with the spirit of the -later Empire as Fustel de Coulanges, and on this subject he has been -emphatic. Not only were the Romans not democratic, but at no period of -her history did Rome love equality. In the Republic rank was determined -by wealth. The census was the basis of the social system. Every citizen -had to declare his fortune before a magistrate, and his grade was then -assigned him. "Poverty and wealth established the legal differences -between men." - -The first line of demarcation lay between those who owned land and -those who did not. The former were _assidui_: householders rooted in -the soil. The latter were _proletarians_. The _proletarians_ were equal -in their poverty; but the _assidui_ were unequal in their wealth, and -were consequently divided into five classes. Among these categories all -was unequal--taxes, military service, and political rights. They did -not mix together. - -"If one transports oneself to the last century of the Republic ... -one finds there an aristocracy as strongly consolidated as the ancient -patrician.... At the summit came the senatorial order. To belong to it -the first condition was to possess a great fortune.... The Roman mind -did not understand that a poor man could belong to the aristocracy, or -that a rich man was not part of it."[22] - -Archaic customs lingered late in Rome, for the city was not a centre -of commercial exchanges; and long after the death of Alexander, when -Greece passed its meridian, the Republic kept its copper coinage. -Regulus farmed his field with a single slave and a hired servant, -and there was, in truth, nothing extraordinary in the famous meeting -with Cincinnatus at the plough, although such simplicity astonished -a contemporary of Augustus. Advancing centralization swept away these -ancient customs, a centralization whose march is, perhaps, as sharply -marked by the migration of vagrants to the cities, as by any single -phenomenon. Vagrant paupers formed the proletariat for whose relief -the "Frumentariæ Leges" were framed; and yet, though poor-laws in some -form are considered a necessity in modern times, few institutions of -antiquity have been more severely criticised than those regulating -charity. From the time of Cato downward, the tendency has been to -maintain that at Rome demagogues fed the rabble at the cost of the -lives of the free-holders. - -Probably the exact converse is the truth; the public gifts of food -appear to have been the effect of the ruin of agriculture, and not -its cause. After the Italian husbandmen had been made insolvent by -the competition of races of lower vitality, they flocked starving to -the capital, but it was only reluctantly that the great speculators in -grain, who controlled the Senate, admitted the necessity of granting -State aid to the class whom they had destroyed. - -Long before the Punic Wars the Carthaginians had farmed Sicily on -capitalistic principles; that is to say, they had stocked domains with -slaves, and had traded on the basis of large sales and narrow profits. -The Romans when they annexed the island only carried out this system to -its logical end. Having all Asia Minor to draw upon for labour, they -deliberately starved and overworked their field-hands, since it was -cheaper to buy others than to lose command of the market. The familiar -story of the outbreak of the Servile War, about 134 B.C., shows how far -the contemporaries of the Sicilian speculators believed them capable of -going. - -Damophilus, an opulent Sicilian landlord, being one day implored by his -slaves to have pity on their nakedness and misery, indignantly demanded -why they went hungry and cold, with arms in their hands, and the -country before them. Then he bound them to stakes and flayed them with -the lash.[23] - -The reduction of Syracuse by Marcellus broke the Carthaginian power -in the island, and, after the fall of Agrigentum in 210 B.C., the -pacification of the country went on rapidly. Probably from the outset, -even in the matter of transportation, the provinces of the mainland -were at a disadvantage because of the cheapness of sea freights, but -at all events the opening of the Sicilian grain trade had an immediate -and disastrous effect on Italy. The migration of vagrants to Rome began -forthwith, and within seven years, 203 B.C., a public distribution of -wheat took place, probably by the advice of Scipio. Nevertheless the -charity was private and not gratuitous. On the contrary, a charge of -six sesterces, or twenty-five cents the bushel, was made, apparently -near half the market rate, a price pretty regularly maintained on such -occasions down to the Empire. This interval comprehended the whole -period of the Sicilian supremacy in the corn trade, for in 30 B.C. -Egypt was annexed by Augustus. - -The distress which followed upon free trade with Egypt finally broke -down the resistance of the rich to gratuitous relief for the poor. -Previously the opposition to State aid had been so stubborn that until -123 B.C. no legal provision whatever was made for paupers; and yet the -account left by Polybius of the condition of Lombardy toward the middle -of the second century shows the complete wreck of agriculture. - -"The yield of corn in this district is so abundant that wheat is -often sold at four obols a Sicilian medimnus [about eight cents by -the bushel, or a little less than two sesterces], barley at two, or -a metretes of wine for an equal measure of barley.... The cheapness -and abundance of all articles of food may also be clearly shown from -the fact that travellers in these parts, when stopping at inns, do not -bargain for particular articles, but simply ask what the charge is per -head for board. And for the most part the innkeepers are content" with -half an as (about half a cent) a day.[24] - -These prices indicate a lack of demand so complete, that the debtors -among the peasantry must have been ruined, and yet tax-payers remained -obdurate. Gratuitous distributions were tried in 58 B.C. by the Lex -Clodia, but soon abandoned as costly, and Cæsar applied himself to -reducing the outlay on the needy. He hoped to reach his end by cutting -down the number of grain-receivers one-half, by providing that no -grain should be given away except on presentation of a ticket, and by -ordering that the number of ticket-holders should not be increased. The -law of nature prevailed against him, for the absorption of Egypt in the -economic system of the Empire, marked, in the words of Mommsen "the end -of the old and the beginning of a new epoch."[25] - -Among the races which have survived through ages upon scanty nutriment, -none have, perhaps, excelled the Egyptian fellah. Even in the East no -peasantry has probably been so continuously overworked, so under-paid, -and so taxed. - - "If it is the aim of the State to work out the utmost possible - amount from its territory, in the Old World the Lagids were - absolutely the masters of statecraft. In particular they - were in this sphere the instructors and the models of the - Cæsars."[26] - -In the first century Egypt was, as it still is, preeminently a land -of cheap labour; but it was also something more. The valley of the -Nile, enriched by the overflow of the river, returned an hundred-fold, -without manure; and this wonderful district was administered, not like -an ordinary province, but like a private farm belonging to the citizens -of Rome. The emperor reserved it to himself. How large a revenue he -drew from it is immaterial; it suffices that one-third of all the -grain consumed in the capital came from thence. According to Athenæus, -some of the grain ships in use were about 420 feet long by 57 broad, -or nearly the size of a modern steamer in the Atlantic trade.[27] -From the beginning of the Christian era, therefore, the wages of the -Egyptian fellah regulated the price of the cereals within the limits -where trade was made free by Roman consolidation, and it is safe to -say that, thenceforward, such of the highly nourished races as were -constrained to sustain this competition, were doomed to perish. It -is even extremely doubtful whether the distributions of grain by the -government materially accelerated the march of the decay. Spain should -have been far enough removed from the centre of exchanges to have had -a certain local market of her own, and yet Martial, writing about 100 -A.D., described the Spanish husbandman eating and drinking the produce -he could not sell, and receiving but four sesterces the bushel for his -wheat, which was the price paid by paupers in the time of Cicero.[28] - -Thus by economic necessity great estates were formed in the hands of -the economically strong. As the value of cereals fell, arable land -passed into vineyards or pasture, and, the provinces being unable to -sustain their old population, eviction went on with gigantic strides. -Had the Romans possessed the versatility to enable them to turn -to industry, factories might have afforded a temporary shelter to -this surplus labour, but manufactures were monopolized by the East; -therefore the beggared peasantry were either enslaved for debt, or -wandered as penniless paupers to the cities, where gradually their -numbers so increased as to enable them to extort a gratuitous dole. -Indeed, during the third century, their condition fell so low that they -were unable even to cook the food freely given them, and Aurelian had -their bread baked at public ovens.[29] - -As centralization advanced with the acceleration of human movement, -force expressed itself more and more exclusively through money, and -the channel in which money chose to flow was in investments in land. -The social system fostered the growth of large estates. The Romans -always had an inordinate respect for the landed magnate, and a contempt -for the tradesman. Industry was reputed a servile occupation, and, -under the Republic, the citizen who performed manual labour was almost -deprived of political rights. Even commerce was thought so unworthy -of the aristocracy that it was forbidden to senators. "The soil was -always, in this Roman society, the principal source and, above all, the -only measure of wealth." - -A law of Tiberius obliged capitalists to invest two-thirds of their -property in land. Trajan not only exacted of aspirants to office that -they should be rich, but that they should place at least one-third -of their fortune in Italian real estate; and, down to the end of the -Empire, the senatorial class "was at the same time the class of great -landed proprietors."[30] - -The more property consolidated, the more resistless the momentum -of capital became. Under the Empire small properties grew steadily -rarer, and the fewer they were, the greater the disadvantage at which -their owners stood. The small farmer could hardly sustain himself -in competition with the great landlord. The grand domain of the -capitalist was not only provided with a full complement of labourers, -vine-dressers, and shepherds, but with the necessary artisans. The -poor farmer depended on his rich neighbour even for his tools. "He was -what a workman would be to-day who, amidst great factories, worked -alone."[31] He bought dearer and sold cheaper, his margin of profit -steadily shrunk; at last he was reduced to a bare subsistence in good -years, and the first bad harvest left him bankrupt. - -The Roman husbandman and soldier was doomed, for nature had turned -against him; the task of history is but to ascertain his fate, and -trace the fortunes of his country after he had gone. - -Of the evicted, many certainly drifted to the cities and lived upon -charity, forming the proletariat, a class alike despised and lost to -self-respect: some were sold into slavery, others starved; but when all -deductions have been made, a surplus is left to be accounted for, and -there is reason to suppose that these stayed on their farms as tenants -to the purchasers. - -In the first century such tenancies were common. The lessee remained -a freeman, under no subjection to his landlord, provided he paid his -rent; but in case of default the law was rigorous. Everything upon the -land was liable as a pledge, and the tenant himself was held in pawn -unless he could give security for what he owed. In case, therefore, -of prolonged agricultural depression, all that was left of the ancient -rural population could hardly fail to pass into the condition of serfs, -bound to the land by debts beyond the possibility of payment. - -That such a depression actually occurred, and that it extended through -several centuries, is certain. Nor is it possible that its only cause -was Egyptian competition, for had it been so, an equilibrium would have -been reached when the African exchanges had been adjusted, whereas a -continuous decline of prices went on until long after the fall of the -Western Empire. The only other possible explanation of the phenomenon -is that a contraction of the currency began soon after the death of -Augustus, and continued without much interruption down to Charlemagne. -Between the fall of Carthage and the birth of Christ, the Romans -plundered the richest portions of the world west of the Indus; in the -second century, North Africa, Macedon, Spain, and parts of Greece and -Asia Minor; in the first, Athens, Cappadocia, Syria, Gaul, and Egypt. -These countries yielded an enormous mass of treasure, which was brought -to Rome as spoil of war, but which was not fixed there by commercial -exchanges, and which continually tended to flow back to the natural -centres of trade. Therefore, when conquests ceased, the sources of -new bullion dried up, and the quantity held in Italy diminished as the -balance of trade grew more and more unfavourable. - -Under Augustus the precious metals were plenty and cheap, and the -prices of commodities were correspondingly high; but a full generation -had hardly passed before a dearth began to be felt, which manifested -itself in a debasement of the coinage, the surest sign of an -appreciation of the currency. - -Speaking generally, the manufactures and the more costly products of -antiquity came from countries to the east of the Adriatic, while the -West was mainly agricultural; and nothing is better established than -that luxuries were dear under the Empire, and food cheap.[32] Therefore -exchanges were unfavourable to the capital from the outset; the exports -did not cover the imports, and each year a deficit had to be made good -in specie. - -The Romans perfectly understood the situation, and this adverse balance -caused them much uneasiness. Tiberius dwelt upon it in a letter to the -Senate as early as 22 A.D. In that year the ædiles brought forward -proposals for certain sumptuary reforms, and the Senate, probably -to rid itself of a delicate question, referred the matter to the -executive. Most of the emperor's reply is interesting, but there is one -particularly noteworthy paragraph. "If a reform is in truth intended, -where must it begin? and how am I to restore the simplicity of ancient -times?... How shall we reform the taste for dress?... How are we to -deal with the peculiar articles of female vanity, and, in particular, -with that rage for jewels and precious trinkets, which drains the -Empire of its wealth, and sends, in exchange for bawbles, the money -of the Commonwealth to foreign nations, and even to the enemies of -Rome?"[33] Half a century later matters were, apparently, worse, for -Pliny more than once returned to the subject. In the twelfth book of -his Natural History, after enumerating the many well-known spices, -perfumes, drugs, and gems, which have always made the Eastern trade -of such surpassing value, he estimated that at the most moderate -computation 100,000,000 sesterces, or about $4,000,000 in coin, were -annually exported to Arabia and India alone; and at a time when silk -was worth its weight in gold, the estimate certainly does not seem -excessive. He added, "So dear do pleasures and women cost us."[34] - -The drain to Egypt and the Asiatic provinces could hardly have been -much less serious. Adrian almost seems to have been jealous of the -former, for in his letter to Servianus, after having criticised the -people, he remarked that it was also a rich and productive country -"in which no one was idle," and in which glass, paper and linen were -manufactured.[35] The Syrians were both industrial and commercial. -Tyre, for example, worked the raw silk of China, dyed and exported -it. The glass of Tyre and Sidon was famous; the local aristocracy were -merchants and manufacturers, "and, as later the riches acquired in the -East flowed to Genoa and Venice, so then the commercial gains of the -West flowed back to Tyre and Apamea."[36] - -Within about sixty years from the final consolidation of the Empire -under Augustus, this continuous efflux of the precious metals began -to cause the currency to contract, and prices to fall; and the first -effect of shrinking values appears to have been a financial crisis in -33 A.D. Probably the diminution in the worth of commodities relatively -to money, had already made it difficult for debtors to meet their -liabilities, for Tacitus has prefaced his story by pointing out that -usury had always been a scourge of Rome, and that just previous to -the panic an agitation against the money-lenders had begun with a view -to enforcing the law regarding interest. As most of the senators were -deep in usury they applied for protection to Tiberius, who granted what -amounted to a stay of proceedings, and then, as soon as the capitalists -felt themselves safe, they proceeded to take their revenge. Loans were -called, accommodation refused, and mortgagors were ruthlessly sold -out. "There was great scarcity of money ... and, on account of sales -on execution, coin accumulated in the imperial, or the public treasury. -Upon this the Senate ordered that every one should invest two-thirds of -his capital on loan, in Italian real estate; but the creditors called -in the whole, nor did public opinion allow debtors to compromise." -Meanwhile there was great excitement but no relief, "as the usurers -hoarded for the purpose of buying low. The quantity of sales broke the -market, and the more liabilities were extended, the harder liquidation -became. Many were ruined, and the loss of property endangered -social station and reputation."[37] The panic finally subsided, but -contraction went on and next showed itself, twenty-five years later, -in adulterated coinage. From the time of the Punic Wars, about two -centuries and a half before Christ, the silver denarius, worth nearly -seventeen cents, had been the standard of the Roman currency, and it -kept its weight and purity unimpaired until Nero, when it diminished -from 1/84 to 1/96 of a pound of silver, the pure metal being mixed with -1/10 of copper.[38] Under Trajan, toward 100 A.D., the alloy reached -twenty per cent; under Septimius Severus a hundred years later it had -mounted to fifty or sixty per cent, and by the time of Elagabalus, -220 A.D., the coin had degenerated into a token of base metal, and was -repudiated by the government. - -Something similar happened to the gold. The aureus, though it kept its -fineness, lost in weight down to Constantine. In the reign of Augustus -it equalled one-fortieth of a Roman pound of gold, in that of Nero -one forty-fifth, in that of Caracalla but one-fiftieth, in that of -Diocletian one-sixtieth, and in that of Constantine one seventy-second, -when the coin ceased passing by tale and was taken only by weight.[39] - -The repudiation of the denarius was an act of bankruptcy; nor did -the financial position improve while the administration remained at -Rome. Therefore the inference is that, toward the middle of the third -century, Italy had lost the treasure she had won in war, which had -gradually gravitated to the centre of exchanges. This inference is -confirmed by history. The movements of Diocletian seem to demonstrate -that after 250 A.D. Rome ceased to be either the political or -commercial capital of the world. - -Unquestionably Diocletian must have lived a life of intense activity at -the focus of affairs, to have raised himself from slavery to the purple -at thirty-nine; and yet Gibbon thought he did not even visit Rome until -he went thither to celebrate his triumph, after he had been twenty -years upon the throne. He never seemed anxious about the temper of the -city. When proclaimed emperor he ignored Italy and established himself -at Nicomedia on the Propontis, where he lived until he abdicated in -305. His personal preferences evidently did not influence him, since -his successors imitated his policy; and everything points to the -conclusion that he, and those who followed him, only yielded to the -same resistless force which fixed the economic capital of the world -upon the Bosphorus. In the case of Constantine the operation of this -force was conspicuous, for it was not only powerful enough to overcome -the habit of a lifetime, but to cause him to undertake the gigantic -task of building Constantinople. - -Constantine was proclaimed in Britain in 306, when only thirty-two. -Six years later he defeated Maxentius, and then governed the West alone -until his war with Licinius, whom he captured in 323 and afterward put -to death. Thus, at fifty, he returned to the East, after an absence of -nearly twenty years, and his first act was to choose Byzantium as his -capital, a city nearly opposite Nicomedia. - -The sequence of events seems plain. Very soon after the insolvency -of the government at Rome, the administration quitted the city and -moved toward the boundary between Europe and Asia; there, after some -forty years of vacillation, it settled permanently at the true seat of -exchanges, for Constantinople remained the economic centre of the earth -for more than eight centuries. - -Similar conclusions may be drawn from the fluctuations of the currency. -At Rome the coin could not be maintained at the standard, because of -adverse exchanges; but when the political and economic centres had come -to coincide, at a point upon the Bosphorus, depreciation ceased, and -the aureus fell no further. - -This migration of capital, which caused the rise of Constantinople, -was the true opening of the Middle Ages, for it occasioned the -gradual decline of the rural population, and thus brought about the -disintegration of the West. Victory carried wealth to Rome, and wealth -manifested its power in a permanent police; as the attack in war -gained upon the defence, and individual resistance became impossible, -transportation grew cheap and safe, and human movement was accelerated. -Then economic competition began, and intensified as centralization -advanced, telling always in favour of the acutest intellect and the -cheapest labour. Soon, exchanges became permanently unfavourable, -a steady drain of bullion set in to the East, and, as the outflow -depleted the treasure amassed at Rome by plunder, contraction began, -and with contraction came that fall of prices which first ruined, then -enslaved, and finally exterminated, the native rural population of -Italy. - -In the time of Diocletian, the ancient silver currency had long -been repudiated, and, in his well-known edict, he spoke of prices as -having risen ninefold, when reckoned in the denarii of base metal; -the purchasing power of pure gold and silver had, however, risen -very considerably in all the western provinces. Nor was this all. It -appears to be a natural law that when social development has reached -a certain stage, and capital has accumulated sufficiently, the class -which has had the capacity to absorb it shall try to enhance the -value of their property by legislation. This is done most easily by -reducing the quantity of the currency, which is a legal tender for the -payment of debts. A currency obviously gains in power as it shrinks -in volume, and the usurers of Constantinople intuitively condensed to -the utmost that of the Empire. After the insolvency under Elagabalus, -payments were exacted in gold by weight, and as it grew scarcer its -value rose. Aurelian issued an edict limiting its use in the arts; and -while there are abundant reasons for inferring that silver also gained -in purchasing power, gold far outstripped it. Although no statistics -remain by which to establish, with any exactness, the movement of -silver in comparison with commodities, the ratio between the precious -metals at different epochs is known, and gold appears to have doubled -between Cæsar and Romulus Augustulus. - - 47 B.C. gold stood to silver as 1 : 8.9 - 1 A.D. under Augustus, " " " 1 : 9.3 - 100-200, Trajan to Severus, " " " 1 : 9-10 - 310, Constantine, " " " 1 : 12.5 - 450, Theodosius II., " " " 1 : 18 - -As gold had become the sole legal tender, this change of ratio -represents a diminution, during the existence of the Western Empire, of -at least fifty per cent in the value of property in relation to debt, -leaving altogether out of view the appreciation of silver itself, which -was so considerable that the government was unable to maintain the -denarius.[40] - -Resistance to the force of centralized wealth was vain. Aurelian's -attempt to reform the mints is said to have caused a rebellion, which -cost him the lives of seven thousand of his soldiers; and though his -policy was continued by Probus, and Diocletian coined both metals -again at a ratio, expansion was so antagonistic to the interests of the -monied class that, by 360, silver was definitely discarded, and gold -was made by law the only legal tender for the payment of debts.[41] -Furthermore, the usurers protected themselves against any possible -tampering with the mints by providing that the solidus should pass by -weight and not by tale; that is to say, they reserved to themselves -the right to reject any golden son which contained less than one -seventy-second of a pound of standard metal, the weight fixed by -Constantine.[42] - -Thus, at a time when the exhaustion of the mines caused a failure in -the annual supply of bullion, the old composite currency was split -in two, and the half retained made to pass by weight alone, so as to -throw the loss by clipping and abrasion upon the debtor. So strong a -contraction engendered a steady fall of prices, a fall which tended -rather to increase than diminish as time went on. But in prolonged -periods of decline in the market value of agricultural products, -farmers can with difficulty meet a money rent, because the sale of -their crops leaves a greater deficit each year, and finally a time -comes when insolvency can no longer be postponed. - -In his opening chapter Gibbon described the Empire under the Antonines -as enjoying "a happy period of more than fourscore years" of peace and -prosperity; and yet nothing is more certain than that this halcyon age -was in reality an interval of agricultural ruin. On this point Pliny -was explicit, and Pliny was a large land-owner. - -He wrote one day to Calvisius about an investment, and went at length -into the condition of the property. A large estate adjoining his own -was for sale, and he was tempted to buy, "for the land was fertile, -rich, and well watered," the fields produced vines and wood which -promised a fair return, and yet this natural fruitfulness was marred by -the misery of the husbandmen. He found that the former owner "had often -seized the 'pignora,' or pledges [that is, all the property the tenants -possessed]; and though, by so doing, he had temporarily reduced their -arrears, he had left them" without the means of tilling the soil. These -tenants were freemen, who had been unable to meet their rent because of -falling prices, and who, when they had lost their tools, cattle, and -household effects, were left paupers on the farms they could neither -cultivate nor abandon. Consequently the property had suffered, the -rent had declined, and for these reasons and "the general hardness of -the times," its value had fallen from five million to three million -sesterces.[43] - -In another letter he explained that he was detained at home making new -arrangements with his tenants, who were apparently insolvent, for "in -the last five years, in spite of great concessions, the arrears have -increased. For this reason most [tenants] take no trouble to diminish -their debt, which they despair of paying. Indeed, they plunder and -consume what there is upon the land, since they think they cannot -save for themselves." The remedy he proposed was to make no more money -leases, but to farm on shares.[44] - -The tone of these letters shows that there was nothing unusual in all -this. Pliny nowhere intimated that the tenants were to blame, or that -better men were to be had. On the contrary, he said emphatically that -in such hard times money could not be collected, and therefore the -interest of the landlord was to cultivate his estates on shares, taking -the single precaution to place slaves over the tenants as overseers and -receivers of the crops. - -In the same way the digest referred to such arrears as habitual.[45] In -still another letter to Trajan, Pliny observed, "Continuæ sterilitates -cogunt me de remissionibus cogitare."[46] Certainly these insolvent -farmers could have held no better position when working on shares than -before their disasters, for as bankrupts they were wholly in their -creditors' power, and could be hunted like slaves, and brought back in -fetters if they fled. They were tied to the property by a debt which -never could be paid, and they and their descendants were doomed to stay -for ever as _coloni_ or serfs, chattels to be devised or sold as part -of the realty. In the words of the law, "they were considered slaves -of the land."[47] The ancient martial husbandman had thus "fallen -from point to point, from debt to debt, into an almost perpetual -subjection."[48] Deliverance was impossible, for payment was out of the -question. He was bound to the soil for his life, and his children after -him inherited his servitude with his debt. - -The customs, according to which the _coloni_ held, were infinitely -varied; they differed not only between estates, but between the hands -on the same estate. On the whole, however, the life must have been -hard, for the serfs of the Empire did not multiply, and the scarcity of -rural labour became a chronic disease. - -Yet, relatively, the position of the _colonus_ was good, for his wife -and children were his own; slavery was the ulcer which ate into the -flesh, and the Roman fiscal system, coupled as it was with usury, was -calculated to enslave all but the oligarchy who made the laws. - -The taxes of the provinces were assessed by the censors and then sold -for cash to the publicans, who undertook the collection. Italy was at -first exempted, but after her bankruptcy she shared the common fate. -Companies were formed to handle these ventures. The knights usually -subscribed the capital and divided the profits, which corresponded -with the severity of their administration; and, as the Roman conquests -extended, these companies grew too powerful to be controlled. The -only officials in a position to act were the provincial governors, -who were afraid to interfere, and preferred to share in the gains of -the traffic, rather than to run the risk of exciting the wrath of so -dangerous an enemy.[49] - -According to Pliny the collection of a rent in money had become -impossible in the reign of Trajan. The reason was that with a -contracting currency prices of produce fell, and each year's crop -netted less than that of the year before; therefore a rent moderate in -one decade was extortionate in the next. But taxes did not fall with -the fall in values; on the contrary, the tendency of centralization is -always toward a more costly administration. Under Augustus, one emperor -with a moderate household sufficed; but in the third century Diocletian -found it necessary to reorganize the government under four Cæsars, and -everything became specialized in the same proportion. - -In this way the people were caught between the upper and the nether -millstone. The actual quantity of bullion taken from them was -greater, the lower prices of their property fell, and arrears of taxes -accumulated precisely as Pliny described the accumulation of arrears -of rent. These arrears were carried over from reign to reign, and even -from century to century; and Petronius, the father-in-law of Valens, is -said to have precipitated the rebellion of Procopius, by exacting the -tribute unpaid since the death of Aurelian a hundred years before. - -The processes employed in the collection of the revenue were severe. -Torture was freely used,[50] and slavery was the fate of defaulters. -Armed with such power, the publicans held debtors at their mercy. -Though usury was forbidden, the most lucrative part of the trade -was opening accounts with the treasury, assuming debts, and charging -interest sometimes as high as fifty per cent. Though, as prices fell, -the pressure grew severer, the abuses of the administration were never -perhaps worse than toward the end of the Republic. In his oration -against Verres, Cicero said the condition of the people had become -intolerable: "All the provinces are in mourning, all the nations that -are free are complaining; every kingdom is expostulating with us about -our covetousness and injustice."[51] - -The well-known transactions of Brutus are typical of what went on -wherever the Romans marched. Brutus lent the Senate of Salaminia at -forty-eight per cent a year. As the contract was illegal, he obtained -two decrees of the Senate at Rome for his protection, and then to -enforce payment of his interest, Scaptius, his man of business, -borrowed from the governor of Cilicia a detachment of troops. With -this he blockaded the Senate so closely that several members starved -to death. The Salaminians, wanting at all costs to free themselves from -such a load, offered to pay off both interest and capital at once; but -to this Brutus would not consent, and to impose his own terms upon the -province he demanded from Cicero more troops, "only fifty horse."[52] - -When at last, by such proceedings, the debtors were so exhausted -that no torment could wring more from them, they were sold as slaves; -Nicodemus, king of Bithynia, on being reproached for not furnishing his -contingent of auxiliaries, replied that all his able-bodied subjects -had been taken by the farmers of the revenue.[53] Nor, though the -administration doubtless was better regulated under the Empire than -under the Republic, did the oppression of the provinces cease. Juvenal, -who wrote about 100, implored the young noble taking possession -of his government to put some curb upon his avarice, "to pity the -poverty of the allies. You see the bones of kings sucked of their very -marrow."[54] And though the testimony of Juvenal may be rejected as -savouring too much of poetical licence, Pliny must always be treated -with respect. When Maximus was sent to Achaia, Pliny thought it well -to write him a long letter of advice, in which he not only declared -that to wrest from the Greeks the shadow of liberty left them would be -"durum, ferum, barbarumque;" but adjured him to try to remember what -each city had been, and not to despise it for what it was.[55] - -Most impressive, perhaps, of all, is the statement of Dio Cassius that -the revolt led by Boadicea in Britain in 61 A.D., which cost the Romans -seventy thousand lives, was provoked by the rapacity of Seneca, who, -having forced a loan of ten million drachmas ($1,670,000) on the people -at usurious interest, suddenly withdrew his money, thereby inflicting -intense suffering.[56] As Pliny said with bitterness and truth, "The -arts of avarice were those most cultivated at Rome."[57] - -The stronger type exterminated the weaker; the money-lender killed out -the husbandman; the race of soldiers vanished, and the farms, whereon -they had once flourished, were left desolate. To quote the words -of Gibbon: "The fertile and happy province of Campania ... extended -between the sea and the Apennines from the Tiber to the Silarus. Within -sixty years after the death of Constantine, and on the evidence of an -actual survey, an exemption was granted in favour of three hundred and -thirty thousand English acres of desert and uncultivated land; which -amounted to one-eighth of the whole surface of the province."[58] - -It is true that Gibbon, in this paragraph, described Italy as she -was in the fourth century, just before the barbarian invasions, but a -similar fate had overtaken the provinces under the Cæsars. In the reign -of Domitian, according to Plutarch, Greece had been almost depopulated. - - "She can with much difficulty raise three thousand men, which - number the single city of Megara sent heretofore to the battle - of Platæa.... For of what use would the oracle be now, which - was heretofore at Tegyra or at Ptous? For scarcely shall you - meet, in a whole day's time, with so much as a herdsman or - shepherd in those parts."[59] - -Wallon has observed that Rome, "in the early times of the Republic, -was chiefly preoccupied with having a numerous and strong population of -freemen. Under the Empire she had but one anxiety--taxes."[60] - -To speak with more precision, force changed the channel through which -it operated. Native farmers and native soldiers were needless when -such material could be bought cheaper in the North or East. With money -the cohorts could be filled with Germans; with money, slaves and serfs -could be settled upon the Italian fields; and for the last century, -before the great inroads began, one chief problem of the imperial -administration was the regulation of the inflow of new blood from -without, lacking which the social system must have collapsed. - -The later campaigns on the Rhine and the Danube were really slave-hunts -on a gigantic scale. Probus brought back sixteen thousand men from -Germany, "the bravest and most robust of their youth," and distributed -them in knots of fifty or sixty among the legions. "Their aid was -now become necessary.... The infrequency of marriage, and the ruin -of agriculture, affected the principles of population; and not only -destroyed the strength of the present, but intercepted the hope of -future generations."[61] - -His importations of agricultural labour were much more considerable. In -a single settlement in Thrace, Probus established one hundred thousand -Bastarnæ; Constantius Chlorus is said to have made Gaul flourish by -the herds of slaves he distributed among the landlords; in 370, large -numbers of Alemanni were planted in the valley of the Po, and on the -vast spaces of the public domain there were barbarian villages where -the native language and customs were preserved. - -Probably none of these Germans came as freemen. Many, of course, -were captives sold as slaves, but perhaps the majority were serfs. -Frequently a tribe, hard pressed by enemies, asked leave to pass -the frontier, and settle as tributaries, that is to say as _coloni_. -On one such occasion Constantius II. was nearly murdered. A body of -Limigantes, who had made a raid, surrendered, and petitioned to be -given lands at any distance, provided they might have protection. The -emperor was delighted at the prospect of such a harvest of labourers, -to say nothing of recruits, and went among them to receive their -submission. Seeing him alone, the barbarians attacked him, and he -escaped with difficulty. His troops slaughtered the Germans to the last -man. - -This unceasing emigration gradually changed the character of the -rural population, and a similar alteration took place in the army. -As early as the time of Cæsar, Italy was exhausted; his legions were -mainly raised in Gaul, and as the native farmers sank into serfdom or -slavery, and then at last vanished, recruits were drawn more and more -from beyond the limits of the Empire. At first they were taken singly, -afterwards in tribes and nations, so that, when Aëtius defeated Attila -at Châlons, the battle was fought by the Visigoths under Theodoric, and -the equipment of the Romans and Huns was so similar that when drawn up -the lines "presented the image of civil war." - -This military metamorphosis indicated the extinction of the martial -type, and it extended throughout society. Rome not only failed to -breed the common soldier, she also failed to produce generals. After -the first century, the change was marked. Trajan was a Spaniard, -Septimius Severus an African, Aurelian an Illyrian peasant, Diocletian -a Dalmatian slave, Constantius Chlorus a Dardanian noble, and the son -of Constantius, by a Dacian woman, was the great Constantine. - -All these men were a peculiar species of military adventurer, for -they combined qualities which made them, not only effective chiefs -of police, but acceptable as heads of the civil bureaucracy, which -represented capital. Severus was the type, and Severus has never been -better described than by Machiavelli, who said he united the ferocity -of the lion to the cunning of the fox. This bureaucracy was the core -of the consolidated mass called the Empire; it was the embodiment of -money, the ultimate expression of force, and it recognized and advanced -men who were adapted to its needs. When such men were to be found, the -administration was thought good; but when no one precisely adapted for -the purple appeared, and an ordinary officer had to be hired to keep -the peace, friction was apt to follow, and the soldier, even though of -the highest ability, was often removed. Both Stilicho and Aëtius were -murdered. - -The monied oligarchy which formed this bureaucracy was a growth as -characteristic of the high centralization of the age, as a sacred -caste is characteristic of decentralization. Perhaps the capitalistic -class of the later Empire has been better understood and appreciated by -Fustel de Coulanges than by any other historian. - - "All the documents which show the spirit of the epoch show - that this noblesse was as much honoured by the government as - respected by the people.... It was from it that the imperial - government chose ordinarily its high functionaries." - -These functionaries were not sought among the lower classes. The high -offices were not given as a reward of long and faithful service; they -belonged by prescriptive right to the great families. The Empire made -the wealthy, senators, prætors, consuls, and governors; all dignities, -except only the military, were practically hereditary in the opulent -class. - - "This class is rich and the government is poor. This class is - mistress of the larger part of the soil; it is in possession - of the local dignities, of the administrative and judicial - functions. The government has only the appearance of power, and - an armed force which is continually diminishing.... - - "The aristocracy had the land, the wealth, the distinction, - the education, ordinarily the morality of existence; it did - not know how to fight and to command. It withdrew itself from - military service; more than that, it despised it. It was one of - the characteristic signs of this society to have always placed - the civil functions not on a level with, but much above, the - grades of the army. It esteemed much the profession of the - doctor, of the professor, of the advocate; it did not esteem - that of the officer and the soldier, and left it to men of low - estate."[62] - -This supremacy of the economic instinct transformed all the relations -of life, the domestic as well as the military. The family ceased -to be a unit, the members of which cohered from the necessity of -self-defence, and became a business association. Marriage took the form -of a contract, dissoluble at the will of either party, and, as it was -somewhat costly, it grew rare. As with the drain of their bullion to -the East, which crushed their farmers, the Romans were conscious, as -Augustus said, that sterility must finally deliver their city into the -hand of the barbarians.[63] They knew this and they strove to avert -their fate, and there is little in history more impressive than the -impotence of the ancient civilization in its conflict with nature. -About the opening of the Christian era the State addressed itself -to the task. Probably in the year 4 A.D., the emperor succeeded in -obtaining the first legislation favouring marriage, and this enactment -not proving effective, it was supplemented by the famous Leges Julia -and Papia Poppæa of the year 9. In the spring, at the games, the -knights demanded the repeal of these laws, and then Augustus, having -called them to the Forum, made them the well-known speech, whose -violence now seems incredible. Those who were single were the worst -of criminals, they were murderers, they were impious, they were -destroyers of their race, they resembled brigands or wild beasts. He -asked the _equites_ if they expected men to start from the ground to -replace them, as in the fable; and declared in bitterness that while -the government liberated slaves for the sole purpose of keeping up the -number of citizens, the children of the Marcii, of the Fabii, of the -Valerii, and the Julii, let their names perish from the earth.[64] - -In vain celibacy was made almost criminal. In vain celibates were -declared incapable of inheriting, while fathers were offered every -bribe, were preferred in appointments to office, were even given the -choice seats at games; in the words of Tacitus, "not for that did -marriage and children increase, for the advantages of childlessness -prevailed."[65] All that was done was to breed a race of informers, and -to stimulate the lawyers to fresh chicane.[66] - -When wealth became force, the female might be as strong as the male; -therefore she was emancipated. Through easy divorce she came to stand -on an equality with the man in the marriage contract. She controlled -her own property, because she could defend it; and as she had power, -she exercised political privileges. In the third century Julia Domna, -Julia Mamæa, Soæmias, and others, sat in the Senate, or conducted the -administration. - -The evolution of this centralized society was as logical as every other -work of nature. When force reached the stage where it expressed itself -exclusively through money, the governing class ceased to be chosen -because they were valiant or eloquent, artistic, learned, or devout, -and were selected solely because they had the faculty of acquiring and -keeping wealth. As long as the weak retained enough vitality to produce -something which could be absorbed, this oligarchy was invincible; and -for very many years after the native peasantry of Gaul and Italy had -perished under the load, new blood injected from more tenacious races -kept the dying civilization alive. - -The weakness of the monied class lay in their very power, for they not -only killed the producer, but in the strength of their acquisitiveness -they failed to propagate themselves. The State feigned to regard -marriage as a debt, and yet the opulent families died out. In the reign -of Augustus all but fifty of the patrician houses had become extinct, -and subsequently the emperor seemed destined to remain the universal -heir through bequests of the childless. - -With the peasantry the case was worse. By the second century barbarian -labour had to be imported to till the fields, and even the barbarians -lacked the tenacity of life necessary to endure the strain. They ceased -to breed, and the population dwindled. Then, somewhat suddenly, the -collapse came. With shrinking numbers, the sources of wealth ran dry, -the revenue failed to pay the police, and on the efficiency of the -police the life of this unwarlike civilization hung. - -In early ages every Roman had been a land-owner, and every land-owner -had been a soldier, serving without pay. To fight had been as essential -a part of life as to plough. But by the fourth century military service -had become commercial; the legions were as purely an expression of -money as the bureaucracy itself. - -From the time of the Servian constitution downward, the change in the -army had kept pace with the acceleration of movement which caused the -economic competition that centralized the State. Rome owed her triumphs -over Hannibal and Pyrrhus to the valour of her infantry, rather than to -the genius of her generals; but from Marius the census ceased to be the -basis of recruitment, and the rich refused to serve in the ranks. - -This was equivalent in itself to a social revolution; for, from the -moment when the wealthy succeeded in withdrawing themselves from -service, and the poor saw in it a trade, the citizen ceased to be a -soldier, and the soldier became a mercenary. From that time the army -could be used for "all purposes, provided that they could count on -their pay and their booty."[67] - -The administration of Augustus organized the permanent police, which -replaced the mercenaries of the civil wars, and this machine was the -greatest triumph and the crowning glory of capital. Dio Cassius has -described how the last vestige of an Italian army passed away. Up to -the time of Severus it had been customary to recruit the Prætorians -either from Italy itself, from Spain, Macedonia, or other neighbouring -countries, whose population had some affinity with that of Latium. -Severus, after the treachery of the guard to Pertinax, disbanded it, -and reorganized a corps selected from the bravest soldiers of the -legions. These men were a horde of barbarians, repulsive to Italians -in their habits, and terrible to look upon.[68] Thus a body of -wage-earners, drawn from the ends of the earth, was made cohesive by -money. For more than four hundred years this corps of hirelings crushed -revolt within the Empire, and regulated the injection of fresh blood -from without, with perfect promptitude and precision; nor did it fail -in its functions while the money which vitalized it lasted. - -But a time came when the suction of the usurers so wasted the life -of the community that the stream of bullion ceased to flow from the -capital to the frontiers; then, as the sustaining force failed, the -line of troops along the Danube and the Rhine was drawn out until it -broke, and the barbarians poured in unchecked. - -The so-called invasions were not conquests, for they were not -necessarily hostile; they were only the logical conclusion of a process -which had been going on since Trajan. When the power to control the -German emigration decayed, it flowed freely into the provinces. - -By the year 400 disintegration was far advanced; the Empire was -crumbling, not because it was corrupt or degenerate, but because the -most martial and energetic race the world had ever seen had been so -thoroughly exterminated by men of the economic type of mind, that petty -bands of sorry adventurers might rove whither they would, on what had -once been Roman soil, without meeting an enemy capable of facing them, -save other adventurers like themselves. Goths, not Romans, defeated -Attila at Châlons. - -The Vandals, who, in the course of twenty years, wandered from the Elbe -to the Atlas, were not a nation, not an army, not even a tribe, but a -motley horde of northern barbarians, ruined provincials, and escaped -slaves--a rabble whom Cæsar's legions would have scattered like chaff, -had they been as many as the sands of the shore; and yet when Genseric -routed Boniface and sacked Carthage, in 439, he led barely fifty -thousand fighting men. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE MIDDLE AGE - - -Probably the appreciation of the Roman monetary standard culminated -during the invasion of the Huns toward the middle of the fifth century. -In the reign of Valentinian III. gold sold for eighteen times its -weight of silver, and Valentinian's final catastrophe was the murder of -Aëtius in 454, with whose life the last spark of vitality at the heart -of Roman centralization died. The rise of Ricimer and the accession -of Odoacer, mark the successive steps by which Italy receded into -barbarism, and, in the time of Theoderic the Ostrogoth, she had become -a primitive, decentralized community, whose poverty and sluggishness -protected her from African and Asiatic competition. The Ostrogoths -subdued Italy in 493, and by that date the barbarians had overrun -the whole civilized world west of the Adriatic, causing the demand -for money to sustain a consolidated society to cease, the volume of -trade to shrink, the market for eastern wares to contract, and gold to -accumulate at the centre of exchanges. As gold accumulated, its value -fell, and during the first years of the sixth century it stood at a -ratio to silver of less than fifteen to one, a decline of eighteen per -cent.[69] As prices correspondingly rose, the pressure on the peasantry -relaxed, prosperity at Constantinople returned, and the collapse of the -Western Empire may have prolonged the life of the European population -of the Eastern for above one hundred and fifty years. The city which -Constantine planted in 324 on the shore of the Bosphorus, was in -reality a horde of Roman capitalists washed to the confines of Asia -by the current of foreign exchanges; and these emigrants carried with -them, to a land of mixed Greek and barbarian blood, their language and -their customs. For many years these monied potentates ruled their new -country absolutely. All that legislation could do for them was done. -They even annexed rations to their estates, to be supplied at the -public cost, to help their children maintain their palaces. As long as -prices fell, nothing availed; the aristocracy grew poorer day by day. -Their property lay generally in land, and the same stringency which -wasted Italy and Gaul operated, though perhaps less acutely, upon the -Danubian peasantry also. By the middle of the fifth century the country -was exhausted and at the mercy of the Huns. - -Wealth is the weapon of a monied society; for, though itself lacking -the martial instinct, it can, with money, hire soldiers to defend it. -But to raise a revenue from the people, they must retain a certain -surplus of income after providing for subsistence, otherwise the -government must trench on the supply of daily food, and exhaustion must -supervene. Finlay has explained that chronic exhaustion was the normal -condition of Byzantium under the Romans. - -"The whole surplus profits of society were annually drawn into the -coffers of the State, leaving the inhabitants only a bare sufficiency -for perpetuating the race of tax-payers. History, indeed, shows that -the agricultural classes, from the labourer to the landlord, were -unable to retain possession of the savings required to replace that -depreciation which time is constantly producing in all vested capital, -and that their numbers gradually diminished."[70] - -Under Theodosius II., when gold reached its maximum, complete -prostration prevailed. The Huns marched whither they would, and -one swarm "of barbarians followed another, as long as anything was -left to plunder." The government could no longer keep armies in the -field. A single example will show how low the community had fallen. -In 446, Attila demanded of Theodosius six thousand pounds of gold -as a condition of peace, and certainly six thousand pounds of gold, -equalling perhaps $1,370,000, was a small sum, even when measured by -the standard of private wealth. The end of the third century was not a -prosperous period in Italy, and yet before his election as emperor in -275, the fortune of Tacitus reached 280,000,000 sesterces, or upwards -of $11,000,000.[71] Nevertheless Theodosius was unable to wring this -inconsiderable indemnity from the people, and he had to levy a private -assessment on the senators, who were themselves so poor that to pay -they sold at auction the jewels of their wives and the furniture of -their houses. - -Almost immediately after the collapse of the Western Empire the tide -turned. With the fall in the price of gold the peasantry revived and -the Greek provinces flourished. In the reign of Justinian, Belisarius -and Narses marched from end to end of Africa and Europe, and Anastasius -rolled in wealth. - -Anastasius, the contemporary of Theoderic, acceded to the throne in -491. He not only built the famous long wall from the Propontis to the -Euxine, and left behind him a treasure of three hundred and twenty -thousand pounds of gold, but he remitted to his subjects the most -oppressive of their taxes, and the reign of Justinian, who succeeded -him at an interval of only ten years, must always rank as the prime -of the Byzantine civilization. The observation is not new, it has been -made by all students of Byzantine history. - -"The increased prosperity ... infused into society soon displayed its -effects; and the brilliant exploits of the reign of Justinian must -be traced back to the reinvigoration of the body politic of the Roman -Empire by Anastasius."[72] - -Justinian inherited the throne from his uncle Justin, a Dardanian -peasant, who could neither read nor write. But the barbarian shepherd -was a thorough soldier, and the army he left behind him was probably -not inferior to the legions of Titus or Trajan. At all events, had -Justinian's funds sufficed, there seems reason to suppose he might -have restored the boundaries of the Empire. His difficulty lay not in -lack of physical force, but in dearth of opulent enemies; in the sixth -century conquest had ceased to be profitable. The territory open to -invasion had been harried for generations, and hardly a country was to -be found rich enough to repay the cost of a campaign by mercenaries. -Therefore, the more the emperor extended his dominions, the more they -languished; and finally to provide for wars, barbarian subsidies, and -building, Justinian had to resort to over-taxation. With renewed want -came renewed decay, and perhaps the completion of Saint Sophia, in -558, may be taken as the point whence the race which conceived this -masterpiece hastened to its extinction. - -In the seventh century Asiatic competition devoured the Europeans -in the Levant, as three hundred years before it had devoured the -husbandmen of Italy; and this was a disease which isolation alone -could cure. But isolation of the centre of exchanges was impossible, -for the vital principle of an economic age is competition, and, -when the relief afforded by the collapse of Rome had been exhausted, -competition did its work with relentless rapidity. Under Heraclius -(610-640) the population sank fast, and by 717 the western blood -had run so low that an Asiatic dynasty reigned supreme. Everywhere -Greeks and Romans vanished before Armenians and Slavs, and for years -previous to the accession of Leo the Isaurian the great waste tracts -where they once lived were systematically repeopled by a more enduring -race. The colonists of Justinian II. furnished him an auxiliary army. -At Justinian's death in 711 the revolution had been completed; the -population had been renovated, and Constantinople had become an Asiatic -city.[73] The new aristocracy was Armenian, as strong an economic -type as ever existed in western Asia; while the Slavic peasantry -which underlay them were among the most enduring of mankind. There -competition ended, for it could go no further; and, apparently, from -the accession of Leo in 717, to the rise of Florence and Venice, three -hundred and fifty years later, Byzantine society, in fixity, almost -resembled the Chinese. Such movement as occurred, like Iconoclasm, came -from the friction of the migrating races with the old population. As -Texier has observed of architecture: "From the time of Justinian until -the end of the Empire we cannot remark a single change in the modes of -construction."[74] - -Only long after, when the money which sustained it was diverted toward -Italy during the crusades, did the social fabric crumble; and Gibbon -has declared that the third quarter of the tenth century "forms the -most splendid period of the Byzantine annals."[75] - -The later Byzantine was an economic civilization, without aspiration -or imagination, and perhaps the most vivid description which has -survived of that ostentatious, sordid, cowardly, and stagnant race, is -the little sketch of the Jew, Benjamin of Tudela, who travelled to the -Levant in 1173. - -Benjamin called the inhabitants of Constantinople Greeks, because -of their language, and he described the city as a vast commercial -metropolis, "common to all the world, without distinction of country -or religion." Merchants from the East and West flocked thither--from -Babylon, Mesopotamia, Media, and Persia, as well as from Egypt, -Hungary, Russia, Lombardy, and Spain. The rabbi thought the people well -educated and social, liking to eat and drink, "every man under his vine -and under his fig tree." They loved gold and jewels, pompous display, -and gorgeous ceremonial; and the Jew has dwelt with delight on the -palace, with its columns of gold and silver, and the wonderful crown so -studded with gems that it lighted the night without a lamp. The Greeks -also roused his enthusiasm for the splendour of their clothes and -of their horses' trappings, for when they went abroad they resembled -princes; but on the other hand, he remarked with a certain scorn, that -they were utterly cowardly, and, like women, had to hire men to protect -them. - - "The Greeks who inhabit the country are extremely rich and - possess great wealth of gold and precious stones. They dress - in garments of silk, ornamented by gold and other valuable - materials.... Nothing upon earth equals their wealth." - - "The Greeks hire soldiers of all nations whom they call - barbarians, for the purpose of carrying on ... wars with ... - the Turks." "They have no martial spirit themselves and like - women are unfit for war."[76] - -The movement of races in the Eastern Empire proceeded with automatic -regularity. The cheaper organism exterminated the more costly, because -energy operated through money strongly enough to cause free economic -competition; nor is the evidence upon which this conclusion rests to -be drawn from books alone. Coinage and architecture, sculpture and -painting, tell the tale with equal precision. - -When, in the fourth century, wealth, ebbing on the Tiber, floated to -the Bosphorus the core of the Latin aristocracy, it carried with it -also the Latin coinage. For several generations this coinage underwent -little apparent alteration, but after the final division of the Empire, -in 395, between the sons of Theodosius, a subtle change began in the -composition of the ruling class; a change reflected from generation -to generation in the issues of their mints. Sabatier has described the -transformation wrought in eight hundred years with the minuteness of an -antiquary. - -If a set of Byzantine coins are arranged in chronological order, those -of Anastasius, about 500, show at a glance an influence which is not -Latin. Strange devices have appeared on the reverse, together with -Greek letters. A century later, when the great decline was in progress -under Heraclius, the type had become barbarous, and the prevalence of -Greek inscriptions proves the steady exhaustion of the Roman blood. -Another fifty years, and by 690, under Justinian II., the permanent -and conventional phase had been developed. Religious emblems were -used; the head of Christ was struck on the golden son, and fixity -of form presaged the Asiatic domination. The official costumes, the -portraits of the emperors, certain consecrated inscriptions, all were -changeless; and in 717, an Armenian dynasty ascended the throne in -the person of Leo the Isaurian.[77] This motionless period lasted for -full three hundred and fifty years, as long as the exchanges of the -world centred at Byzantium, and the monied race who dwelt there sucked -copious nutriment from the pool of wealth in which it lay. But even -before the crusades the tide of trade began to flow to the south, and -quitting Constantinople passed directly from Bagdad to the cities of -Italy. Then the sustenance of the money-changers gradually failed. From -the reign of Michael VI. effigies of the saints were engraved upon the -coin, and after the revolution led by Alexius Comnenus, in 1081, the -execution degenerated and debasement began. This revolution marked the -beginning of the end. Immediately preceding the crusades, and attended -by sharp distress, it was probably engendered by an alteration in the -drift of foreign exchanges. Certainly the currency contracted sharply, -and the gold money soon became so bad that Alexius had to stipulate to -pay his debts in the byzants of his predecessor Michael.[78] For the -next hundred years, as the Italian cities rose, the Empire languished, -and with the thirteenth century, when Venice established its permanent -silver standard by coining the "grosso," Constantinople crumbled into -ruin. - -In architecture the same phenomena appear, only differently clothed. -Though the Germans, who swarmed across the Danube, often surged against -the walls of Constantinople, they never became the ruling class of the -community, because they were of the imaginative type. Money retained -its supremacy, and while it did so energy expressed itself through the -economic mind. Though Justinian was of barbarian blood, the nephew -of a barbarian shepherd, the aristocracy about him, which formed -the core of society, was neither imaginative nor devotional. Hardly -Christian, it tended toward paganism or scepticism. The artists were -of the subject caste, and they earned their living by gratifying the -tastes of the nobles; but the nobles loved magnificence and gorgeous -functions; hence all Byzantine architecture favoured display, and -nowhere more so than in Saint Sophia. "Art delighted in representing -Christ in all the splendour of power.... To glorify him the more all -the magnificence of the imperial court was introduced into heaven.... -Christ no longer appeared under the benevolent aspect of the good -shepherd, but in the superb guise of an oriental monarch: he is seated -on a throne glittering with gold and precious stones."[79] Here then -lay the impassable gulf between Byzantium and Paris; while Byzantium -remained economic and materialistic, Paris passed into the glory of an -imaginative age. - -The Germans who overran the Roman territory were of the same race -as the Greeks, the Latins, or the Gauls, but in a different stage -of development. They tilled farms and built villages and perhaps -fortresses, but they were not consolidated, and had neither nations -nor federations. They were substantially in the condition in which the -common family had been, when it divided many centuries before, and -their minds differed radically from the minds of the inhabitants of -the countries beyond the Danube and the Rhine. They were infinitely -more imaginative, and, as the flood of emigration poured down from the -north, the imagination came more and more to prevail. - -Although the lowest of existing savages are relatively advanced, they -suggest that the strongest passion of primeval man must have been fear; -and fear, not so much of living things, as of nature, which seemed to -him resolutely hostile. Against wild beasts, or savages like himself, -he might prevail by cunning or by strength; but against drought and -famine, pestilence and earthquake, he was helpless, and he regarded -these scourges as malevolent beings, made like himself, only more -formidable. His first and most pressing task was to mollify them, and -above the warrior class rose the sacred caste, whose function was to -mediate between the visible and the invisible world. - -Originally these intercessors appear to have been sorcerers, rather -than priests, for spirits were believed to be hostile to man; and -perhaps the first conception of a god may have been reached through -the victory of a clan of sorcerers in fight. As Statius said eighteen -hundred years ago, "Primus in orbe deos fecit timor."[80] Probably the -early wizards won their power by the discovery of natural secrets, -which, though they could be transmitted to their descendants, might -also be discovered by strangers. The later discoverers would become -rival medicine men, and battle would be the only test by which the -orthodoxy of the competitors could be determined. The victors would -almost certainly stigmatize the beings the vanquished served, as -devils who tormented men. There is an example of this process in the -eighteenth chapter of 1 Kings:-- - -"And Elijah ... said, How long halt ye between two opinions? if the -Lord be God, follow him: but if Baal, then follow him. And the people -answered him not a word." - -Then Elijah proposed that each side should dress a bullock, and lay it -on wood, and call upon their spirit; and the one who sent down fire -should be God. And all the people answered that it was well spoken. -And Jezebel's prophets took their bullock and dressed it, and called -on "Baal from morning even until noon, saying, O Baal, hear us!" But -nothing came of it. - -Then Elijah mocked them, "and said, Cry aloud: ... either he is -talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he -sleepeth, and must be awaked." - -And they cried aloud, and cut themselves with knives till "blood gushed -out upon them. And ... there was neither voice, nor any to answer." -Then Elijah built his altar, and cut up his bullock and laid him on -wood, and poured twelve barrels of water over the whole, and filled a -trench with water. - -And "the fire of the Lord fell, and consumed the burnt sacrifice, and -the wood, and the stones, and the dust, and licked up the water that -was in the trench. - -"And when all the people saw it, they fell on their faces: and they -said, The Lord, he is the God. - -"And Elijah said unto them, Take the prophets of Baal; let not one of -them escape. And they took them: and Elijah brought them down to the -brook Kishon, and slew them there." - -The Germans of the fourth century were a very simple race, who -comprehended little of natural laws, and who therefore referred -phenomena they did not understand to supernatural intervention. -This intervention could only be controlled by priests, and thus the -invasions caused a rapid rise in the influence of the sacred class. -The power of every ecclesiastical organization has always rested on -the miracle, and the clergy have always proved their divine commission -as did Elijah. This was eminently the case with the mediæval Church. -At the outset Christianity was socialistic, and its spread among the -poor was apparently caused by the pressure of competition; for the -sect only became of enough importance to be persecuted under Nero, -contemporaneously with the first signs of distress which appeared -through the debasement of the denarius. But socialism was only a -passing phase, and disappeared as the money value of the miracle rose, -and brought wealth to the Church. Under the Emperor Decius, about -250, the magistrates thought the Christians opulent enough to use gold -and silver vessels in their service, and, by the fourth century, the -supernatural so possessed the popular mind, that Constantine not only -allowed himself to be converted by a miracle, but used enchantment as -an engine of war. - -In one of his marches, he encouraged the belief that he saw a luminous -cross in the sky, with the words "By this conquer." The next night -Christ appeared to him, and directed him to construct a standard -bearing the same design, and, armed with this, to advance with -confidence against Maxentius. - -The legend, preserved by Eusebius, grew up after the event; but, for -that very reason, it reflects the feeling of the age. The imagination -of his men had grown so vivid that, whether he believed or not, -Constantine found it expedient to use the Labarum as a charm to ensure -victory. The standard supported a cross and a mystic monogram; the -army believed its guards to be invulnerable, and in his last and most -critical campaign against Licinius, the sight of the talisman not only -excited his own troops to enthusiasm, but spread dismay through the -enemy. - -The action of the Milvian Bridge, fought in 312, by which Constantine -established himself at Rome, was probably the point whence nature began -to discriminate decisively against the monied type in Western Europe. -Capital had already abandoned Italy; Christianity was soon after -officially recognized, and during the next century the priest began to -rank with the soldier as a force in war. - -Meanwhile, as the population sank into exhaustion, it yielded less and -less revenue, the police deteriorated, and the guards became unable -to protect the frontier. In 376, the Goths, hard pressed by the Huns, -came to the Danube and implored to be taken as subjects by the emperor. -After mature deliberation, the Council of Valens granted the prayer, -and some five hundred thousand Germans were cantoned in Moesia. The -intention of the government was to scatter this multitude through -the provinces as coloni, or to draft them into the legions; but the -detachment detailed to handle them was too feeble, the Goths mutinied, -cut the guard to pieces, and having ravaged Thrace for two years, -defeated and killed Valens at Hadrianople. In another generation the -disorganization of the Roman army had become complete, and Alaric gave -it its deathblow in his campaign of 410. - -Alaric was not a Gothic king, but a barbarian deserter, who, in 392, -was in the service of Theodosius. Subsequently, he sometimes held -imperial commands, and sometimes led bands of marauders on his own -account, but was always in difficulty about his pay. Finally, in the -revolution in which Stilicho was murdered, a corps of auxiliaries -mutinied and chose him their general. Alleging that his arrears were -unpaid, Alaric accepted the command, and with this army sacked Rome. - -During the campaign the attitude of the Christians was more interesting -than the strategy of the soldiers. Alaric was a robber, leading -mutineers, and yet the orthodox historians did not condemn him. They -did not condemn him because the sacred class instinctively loved the -barbarians whom they could overawe, whereas they could make little -impression on the materialistic intellect of the old centralized -society. Under the Empire the priests, like all other individuals, had -to obey the power which paid the police; and as long as a revenue could -be drawn from the provinces, the Christian hierarchy were subordinate -to the monied bureaucracy who had the means to coerce them. - - "It was long since established, as a fundamental maxim of the - Roman constitution, that every rank of citizens were alike - subject to the laws, and that the care of religion was the - right as well as duty of the civil magistrate."[81] - -Their conversion made little change in the attitude of the emperors, -and Constantine and his successors continued to exercise a supreme -jurisdiction over the hierarchy. The sixteenth book of the Theodosian -Code sufficiently sets forth the plenitude of their authority. In -theory, bishops were elected by the clergy and the people, but in -practice the emperor could control the patronage if it were valuable; -and whether bishops were elected or appointed, as long as they were -created and paid by laymen, they were dependent. The priesthood could -only become autocratic when fear of the miracle exempted them from -arrest; and toward the middle of the fifth century this point was -approaching, as appears by the effect of the embassy of Leo the Great -to Attila. - -In 452 the Huns had crossed the Alps and had sacked Aquileia. The Roman -army was demoralized; Aëtius could not make head against the barbarians -in the field; while Valentinian was so panic-stricken that he abandoned -Ravenna, which was thought impregnable, and retreated to the capital, -which was indefensible. At Rome, finding himself helpless in an open -city, the emperor conceived the idea of invoking the power of the -supernatural. He proposed to Leo to visit Attila and persuade him to -spare the town. The pope consented without hesitation, and with perfect -intrepidity caused himself to be carried to the Hun's tent, where he -met with respect not unalloyed by fear. The legend probably reflects -pretty accurately the feeling of the time. As the bishop stood before -the king, Peter and Paul appeared on either side, menacing Attila -with flaming swords; and though this particular form of apparition may -be doubted, Attila seems beyond question to have been oppressed by a -belief that he would not long survive the capture of Rome. He therefore -readily agreed to accept a ransom and evacuate Italy. - -From the scientific standpoint the saint and the sorcerer are akin; -for though the saint uses the supernatural for man's benefit, and -the sorcerer for his hurt, both deal in magic. The mediæval saint was -a powerful necromancer. He healed the sick, cast out devils, raised -the dead, foretold the future, put out fires, found stolen property, -brought rain, saved from shipwreck, routed the enemy, cured headache, -was sovereign in child-birth, and, indeed, could do almost anything -that was asked of him, whether he were alive or dead. This power was -believed to lie in some occult property of the flesh, which passed by -contact. The woman in the Bible said, "If I may touch but his clothes, -I shall be whole." Moreover, this fluid was a substance whose passage -could be felt, for "Jesus, immediately knowing in himself that virtue -had gone out of him, turned him about in the press, and said, Who -touched my clothes?"[82] - -Anything which came in contact with the saint was likely to have been -impregnated with this magical quality, and thus became a charm, or -relic, whose value depended primarily on the power of the man himself, -and secondly, on the thoroughness with which the material had been -charged. - -The tomb, which held the whole body, naturally stood highest; then -parts of the body, according to their importance--a head, an arm, a -leg, down to hairs of the beard. Then came hats, boots, girdles, cups, -anything indeed which had been used. The very ground on which a great -miracle-worker had stood might have high value. - -The Holy Grail, which had held Christ's blood, would cure wounds, -raise the dead, and fill itself with choice food, at the command of -the owner. The eucharist, though not properly a relic, and which only -became God through an incantation, would, in expert hands, stop fires, -cure disease, cast out devils, expound philosophy, and detect perjury -by choking the liar. - -Every prize in life was to be obtained by this kind of magic. When the -kings of France made war, they carried with them the enchanted banner -of Saint Denis, and Froissart has told how even in the reign of Charles -VI. it decided the battle of Roosebeke.[83] - -Disease was treated altogether by miracle, and the Church found -the business so profitable that she anathematized experimental -practitioners. In the thirteenth century Saint Thomas of Canterbury and -Saint James of Compostello were among the most renowned of healers, -and their shrines blazed with the gifts of the greatest and richest -persons of Europe. When Philip Augustus lay very ill, Louis the Pious -obtained leave to visit the tomb of Saint Thomas, then in the height of -the fashion, and left as part of his fee the famous regal of France, a -jewel so magnificent that three centuries and a half later Henry VIII. -seized it and set it in a thumb ring. Beside this wonderful gem, at -the pillage of the Reformation, "the king's receiver confessed that the -gold and silver and precious stones and sacred vestments taken away ... -filled six-and-twenty carts."[84] The old books of travel are filled -with accounts of this marvellous shrine. - - "But the magnificence of the tomb of Saint Thomas the Martyr, - Archbishop of Canterbury, is that which surpasses all belief. - This, notwithstanding its great size, is entirely covered with - plates of pure gold; but the gold is scarcely visible from the - variety of precious stones with which it is studded, such as - sapphires, diamonds, rubies, balas-rubies, and emeralds ... - and agates, jaspers and cornelians set in relievo, some of the - cameos being of such a size, that I do not dare to mention it; - but everything is left far behind by a ruby, not larger than - a man's thumb-nail, which is set to the right of the altar.... - They say that it was the gift of a king of France."[85] - -But beside these shrines of world-wide reputation, no hamlet was too -remote to possess its local fetish, which worked at cheap rates for the -peasantry. A curious list of these was sent to the Government by two of -Cromwell's visitors in the reign of Henry VIII. - -The nuns of Saint Mary, at Derby, had part of the shirt of Saint -Thomas, reverenced by pregnant women; so was the girdle of Saint -Francis at Grace Dieu. At Repton, a pilgrimage was made to Saint -Guthlac and his bell, which was put on the head for headache. The -wimple of Saint Audrede was used for sore breasts, and the rod of Aaron -for children with worms. At Bury Saint Edmund's, the shrine of Saint -Botulph was carried in procession when rain was needed, "and Kentish -men ... carry thence ... wax candles, which they light at the end of -the field while the wheat is sown, and hope from this that neither -tares nor other weeds will grow in the wheat that year."[86] Most -curious of all, perhaps, at Pontefract, Thomas, Duke of Lancaster's -belt and hat were venerated. They were believed to aid women in -child-birth, and also to cure headache. - -Saint Thomas Aquinas, a great venerator of the eucharist, used it to -help him in his lectures. When treating of the dogma of the Supper at -the University of Paris, many questions were asked him which he never -answered without meditating at the foot of the altar. One day, when -preparing an answer to a very difficult question, he placed it on the -altar, and cried, "Lord, who really and veritably dwells in the Holy -Sacrament, hear my prayer. If what I have written upon your divine -eucharist be true, let it be given me to teach and demonstrate it. If I -am deceived, stop me from proposing doctrines contrary to the truth of -your divine Sacrament." Forthwith the Lord appeared upon the altar, and -said to him, "You have written well upon the Sacrament of My body, and -you have answered the question which has been proposed to you as well -as human intelligence can fathom these mysteries."[87] - -Primitive people argue directly from themselves to their divinities, -and throughout the Middle Ages men believed that envy, jealousy, and -vanity were as rampant in heaven as on earth, and behaved accordingly. -The root of the monastic movement was the hope of obtaining advantages -by adulation. - - "A certain clerk, who had more confidence in the Mother than - the Son, continually repeated the Ave Maria as his only prayer. - One day, while so engaged, Christ appeared to him and said, 'My - mother thanks you very much for your salutations, ... _tamen et - me salutare memento_.'"[88] - -To insure perpetual intercession it was necessary that the song -of praise and the smoke of incense should be perpetual, and -therefore monks and nuns worked day and night at their calling. As a -twelfth-century bishop of Metz observed, when wakened one freezing -morning by the bell of Saint Peter of Bouillon tolling for matins: -"Neither the drowsiness of the night nor the bitterness of a glacial -winter [kept them] from praising the Creator of the world."[89] - -Bequests to convents were in the nature of policies of insurance in -favour of the grantor and his heirs, not only against punishment in -the next world, but against accident in this. On this point doubt is -impossible, for the belief of the donor is set forth in numberless -charters. Cedric de Guillac, in a deed to la Grande-Sauve, said that he -gave because "as water extinguishes fire, so gifts extinguish sin."[90] -And an anecdote preserved by Dugdale, shows how valuable an investment -against accident a convent was thought to be as late as the thirteenth -century. - -When Ralph, Earl of Chester, the founder of the monastery of -Dieulacres, was returning by sea from the Holy Land, he was overtaken -one night by a sudden tempest. "How long is it till midnight?" he asked -of the sailors. They answered, "About two hours." He said to them, -"Work on till midnight, and I trust in God that you may have help, -and that the storm will cease." When it was near midnight the captain -said to the earl, "My lord, commend yourself to God, for the tempest -increases; we are worn out, and are in mortal peril." Then Earl Ralph -came out of his cabin, and began to help with the ropes, and the rest -of the ship's tackle; nor was it long before the storm subsided. - -The next day, as they were sailing over a tranquil sea, the captain -said to the earl, "My lord, tell us, if you please, why you wished us -to work till the middle of the night, and then you worked harder than -all the rest." To which he replied, "Because at midnight my monks, and -others, whom my ancestors and I have endowed in divers places, rise -and sing divine service, and then I have faith in their prayers, and -I believe that God, because of their prayers and intercessions, gave -me more fortitude than I had before, and made the storm cease as I -predicted."[91] - -Philip Augustus, when caught in a gale in the Straits of Messina, -showed equal confidence in the matins of Clairvaux, and was also -rewarded for his faith by good weather towards morning. - -The power of the imagination, when stimulated by the mystery which, -in an age of decentralization, shrouds the operations of nature, -can be measured by its effect in creating an autocratic class of -miracle-workers. Between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries, about -one-third of the soil of Europe passed into the hands of religious -corporations, while the bulk of the highest talent of the age sought -its outlet through monastic life. - -The force operated on all; for, beside religious ecstasy, ambition and -fear were at work, and led to results inconceivable when centralization -has begot materialism. Saint Bernard's position was more conspicuous -and splendid than that of any monarch of his generation, and the agony -of terror which assailed the warriors was usually proportionate to the -freedom with which they had violated ecclesiastical commands. They fled -to the cloister for protection from the fiend, and took their wealth -with them. - -Gérard le Blanc was even more noted for his cruelty than for his -courage. He was returning to his castle one day, after having committed -a murder, when he saw the demon whom he served appear to claim him. -Seized with horror, he galloped to where six penitents had just founded -the convent of Afflighem, and supplicated them to receive him. The news -spread, and the whole province gave thanks to God that a monster of -cruelty should have been so converted. - -A few days after, his example was followed by another knight, equally a -murderer, who had visited the recluses, and, touched by their piety and -austerity, resolved to renounce his patrimony and live a penitent.[92] - -Had the German migrations been wars of extermination, as they have -sometimes been described, the imagination, among the new barbaric -population, might have been so stimulated that a pure theocracy would -have been developed between the time of Saint Benedict and Saint -Bernard. But the barbarians were not animated by hate; on the contrary, -they readily amalgamated with the old population, amongst whom the -materialism of Rome lay like a rock in a rising tide, sometimes -submerged, but never obliterated. - -The obstacle which the true emotionalists never overcame was the -inheritance of a secular clergy, who, down to the eleventh century, -were generally married, and in the higher grades were rather barons -than prelates. In France the Archbishop of Rheims, the Bishops of -Beauvais, Noyon, Langres, and others, were counts; while in Germany -the Archbishops of Mayence, of Treves, and of Cologne were princes -and electors, standing on the same footing as the Dukes of Saxony and -Bavaria. - -As feudal nobles these ecclesiastics were retainers of the king, owed -feudal service, led their vassals in war, and some of the fiercest -soldiers of the Middle Ages were clerks. Milo of Treves was a famous -eighth-century bishop. Charles Martel gave the archbishopric of Rheims -to a warrior named Milo, who managed also to obtain the see of Treves. -This Milo was the son of Basinus, the last incumbent of the preferment. -He was a fierce and irreligious soldier, and was finally killed -hunting; but during the forty years in which he held his offices, -Boniface, with all the aid of the crown and the pope, was unable to -prevail against him, and in 752 Pope Zachary wrote advising that he -should be left to the divine vengeance.[93] - -Such a system was incompatible with the supremacy of a theocracy. -The essence of a theocracy is freedom from secular control, and this -craving for freedom was the dominant instinct of monasticism. Saint -Anselm, perhaps the most perfect specimen of a monk, felt it in the -marrow of his bones; it was the master passion of his life, and he -insisted upon it with all the fire of his nature: "Nihil magis diligit -Deus in hoc mundo quam libertatem ecclesiæ suæ.... Liberam vult esse -Deus sponsam suam, non ancillam." - -Yet only very slowly, as the Empire disintegrated, did the theocratic -idea take shape. As late as the ninth century the pope prostrated -himself before Charlemagne, and did homage as to a Roman emperor.[94] - -Saint Benedict founded Monte Cassino in 529, but centuries elapsed -before the Benedictine order rose to power. The early convents were -isolated and feeble, and much at the mercy of the laity, who invaded -and debauched them. Abbots, like bishops, were often soldiers, who -lived within the walls with their wives and children, their hawks, -their hounds, and their men-at-arms; and it has been said that, in all -France, Corbie and Fleury alone kept always something of their early -discipline. - -Only in the early years of the most lurid century of the Middle -Ages, when decentralization culminated, and the imagination began to -gain its fullest intensity, did the period of monastic consolidation -open with the foundation of Cluny. In 910 William of Aquitaine drew -a charter[95] which, so far as possible, provided for the complete -independence of his new corporation. There was no episcopal visitation, -and no interference with the election of the abbot. The monks were -put directly under the protection of the pope, who was made their -sole superior. John XI. confirmed this charter by his bull of 932, and -authorized the affiliation of all convents who wished to share in the -reform.[96] - -The growth of Cluny was marvellous; by the twelfth century two thousand -houses obeyed its rule, and its wealth was so great, and its buildings -so vast, that in 1245 Innocent IV., the Emperor Baldwin, and Saint -Louis were all lodged together within its walls, and with them all the -attendant trains of prelates and nobles with their servants. - -In the eleventh century no other force of equal energy existed. -The monks were the most opulent, the ablest, and the best organized -society in Europe, and their effect upon mankind was proportioned -to their strength. They intuitively sought autocratic power, and -during the centuries when nature favoured them, they passed from -triumph to triumph. They first seized upon the papacy and made -it self-perpetuating; they then gave battle to the laity for the -possession of the secular hierarchy, which had been under temporal -control since the very foundation of the Church. - -About the year 1000 Rome was in chaos. The Counts of Tusculum, who -had often disposed of the tiara, on the death of John XIX., bought it -for Benedict IX. Benedict was then a child of ten, but he grew worse -as he grew older, and finally he fell so low that he was expelled by -the people. He was succeeded by Sylvester; but, a few months after his -coronation, Benedict re-entered the city, and crowned John XX. with -his own hands. Shortly after, he assaulted the Vatican, and then three -popes reigned together in Rome. In this crisis Gregory VI. tried to -restore order by buying the papacy for himself; but the transaction -only added a fourth pope to the three already consecrated, and two -years later he was set aside by the Emperor Henry, who appointed his -own chancellor in his place. - -It was a last triumph for the laity, but a triumph easier to win than -to sustain. When the soldier created the high priest of Christendom, -he did indeed inspire such terror that no man in the great assembly -dared protest; but in nine months Clement was dead, his successor lived -only twenty-four days, poisoned, as it was rumoured, by the perfidious -Italians; and when Henry sought a third pope among his prelates, he met -with general timidity to accept the post. Then the opportunity of the -monks came: they seized it, and with unerring instinct fixed themselves -upon the throne from which they have never been expelled. According to -the picturesque legend, Bruno, Bishop of Toul, seduced by the flattery -of courtiers and the allurements of ambition, accepted the tiara from -the emperor, and set out upon his journey to Italy with a splendid -retinue, and with his robe and crown. On his way he turned aside at -Cluny, where Hildebrand was prior. Hildebrand, filled with the spirit -of God, reproached him with having seized upon the seat of the vicar -of Christ by force, and accepted the holy office from the sacrilegious -hand of a layman. He exhorted Bruno to cast away his pomp, and to -cross the Alps humbly as a pilgrim, assuring him that the priests -and people of Rome would recognize him as their bishop, and elect him -according to canonical forms. Then he would taste the joys of a pure -conscience, having entered the fold of Christ as a shepherd and not as -a robber. Inspired by these words, Bruno dismissed his train, and left -the convent gate as a pilgrim. He walked barefoot, and when after two -months of pious meditations he stood before Saint Peter's, he spoke to -the people and told them it was their privilege to elect the pope, and -since he had come unwillingly he would return again, were he not their -choice. - -He was answered with acclamations, and on February 2, 1049, he was -enthroned as Leo IX. His first act was to make Hildebrand his minister. - -The legend tells of the triumph of Cluny as no historical facts could -do. Ten years later, in the reign of Nicholas II., the theocracy made -itself self-perpetuating through the assumption of the election of -the pope by the college of cardinals, and in 1073 Hildebrand, the -incarnation of monasticism, was crowned under the name of Gregory VII. - -With Hildebrand's election, war began. The council of Rome, held -in 1075, decreed that holy orders should not be recognized where -investiture had been granted by a layman, and that princes guilty of -conferring investiture should be excommunicated. The council of the -next year, which excommunicated the emperor, also enunciated the famous -propositions of Baronius--the full expression of the theocratic idea:-- - - "That the Roman pontiff alone can be called universal. - - "That he alone can depose or reconcile bishops. - - "That his legate, though of inferior rank, takes precedence - of all bishops in council, and can pronounce sentence of - deposition against them. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - "That all princes should kiss the pope's feet alone. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - "That he may depose emperors. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - "That his judgments can be overruled by none, and he alone can - overrule the judgments of all. - - "That he can be judged by no one. - - "That the Roman Church never has, and never can err, as the - Scriptures testify. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - "That by his precept and permission it is lawful for subjects - to accuse their princes. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - "That he is able to absolve from their allegiance the subjects - of the wicked."[97] - -The monks had won the papacy, but the emperor still held his secular -clergy, and, at the diet of Worms, where he undertook to depose -Hildebrand, he was sustained by his prelates. Without a moment of -hesitation the enchanter cast his spell, and it is interesting to -see, in the curse which he launched at the layman, how the head of -monasticism had become identified with the spirit which he served. The -priest had grown to be a god on earth. - - "So strong in this confidence, for the honour and defence - of your Church, on behalf of the omnipotent God, the Father, - the Son, and the Holy Ghost, by your power and authority, I - forbid the government of the German and Italian kingdoms, to - King Henry, the son of the Emperor Henry, who, with unheard-of - arrogance, has rebelled against your Church. I absolve all - Christians from the oaths they have made, or may make to him, - and I forbid that any one should obey him as king."[98] - -Henry marched on Italy, but in all European history there has been -no drama more tremendous than the expiation of his sacrilege. To his -soldiers the world was a vast space, peopled by those fantastic beings -which are still seen on Gothic towers. These demons obeyed the monk of -Rome, and his army, melting from the emperor under a nameless horror, -left him helpless. - -Gregory lay like a magician in the fortress of Canossa; but he had no -need of carnal weapons, for when the emperor reached the Alps he was -almost alone. Then his imagination also took fire, the panic seized -him, and he sued for mercy. - -For three days long he stood barefoot in the snow at the castle gate; -and when at last he was admitted, half-naked and benumbed, he was -paralyzed rather by terror than by cold. Then the great miracle was -wrought, by which God was made to publicly judge between them. - -Hildebrand took the consecrated wafer and broke it, saying to the -suppliant, "Man's judgments are fallible, God's are infallible; if I -am guilty of the crimes you charge me with, let Him strike me dead as I -eat." He ate, and gave what remained to Henry; but though for him more -than life was at stake, he dared not taste the bread. From that hour -his fate was sealed. He underwent his penance and received absolution; -and when he had escaped from the terrible old man, he renewed the war. -But the spell was over him, the horror clung to him, even his sons -betrayed him, and at last his mind gave way under the strain and he -abdicated. In his own words, to save his life he "sent to Mayence the -crown, the sceptre, the cross, the sword, the lance." - -On August 7, 1106, Henry died at Liège, an outcast and a mendicant, and -for five long years his body lay at the church door, an accursed thing -which no man dared to bury. - -Such was the evolution of the mediæval theocracy, the result of that -social disintegration which stimulates the human imagination, and -makes men cower before the unknown. The force which caused the rise -of an independent priesthood was the equivalent of magic, and it was -the waxing of this force through the dissolution of the Empire of the -West which made the schism which split Christendom in two. The Latin -Church divided from the Greek because it was the reflection of the -imaginative mind. While the West grew emotional, Constantinople stayed -the centre of exchanges, the seat of the monied class; and when Cluny -captured Rome, the antagonism between these irreconcilable instincts -precipitated a rupture. The schism dated from 1054, five years after -the coronation of Leo. Nor is the theory new; it was explained by -Gibbon long ago. - - "The rising majesty of Rome could no longer brook the insolence - of a rebel; and Michael Cerularius was excommunicated in the - heart of Constantinople by the pope's legates.... - - "From this thunderbolt we may date the consummation of the - schism. It was enlarged by each ambitious step of the Roman - pontiffs; the emperors blushed and trembled at the ignominious - fate of their royal brethren of Germany; and the people were - scandalized by the temporal power and military life of the - Latin clergy."[99] - - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE FIRST CRUSADE - - -Until the mechanical arts have advanced far enough to cause the attack -in war to predominate over the defence, centralization cannot begin; -for when a mud wall can stop an army, a police is impossible. The -superiority of the attack was the secret of the power of the monied -class who controlled Rome, because with money a machine could be -maintained which made individual resistance out of the question, and -revolt difficult. Titus had hardly more trouble in reducing Jerusalem, -and dispersing the Jews, than a modern officer would have under similar -circumstances. - -As the barbarians overran the Roman provinces, and the arts declined, -the conditions of life changed. The defence gained steadily on the -attack, and, after some centuries, a town with a good garrison, solid -ramparts, and abundant provisions had nothing to fear from the greatest -king. Even the small, square Norman tower was practically impregnable. -As Viollet-le-Duc has explained, these towers were mere passive -defences, formidable to a besieger only because no machinery existed -for making a breach in a wall. The beleaguered nobles had only to watch -their own men, see to their doors, throw projectiles at the enemy if he -approached too near, counter-mine if mined, and they might defy a great -army until their food failed. Famine was the enemy most feared.[100] - -By the eleventh century these towers had sprung up all over the West. -Even the convents and churches could be defended, and every such -stronghold was the seat of a count or baron, an abbot or bishop, who -was a sovereign because no one could coerce him, and who therefore -exercised all the rights of sovereignty, made war, dispensed justice, -and coined money. In France alone there were nearly two hundred mints -in the twelfth century. - -Down to the close of the Merovingian dynasty the gold standard had -been maintained, and contraction had steadily gone on; but, for reasons -which are not understood, under the second race, the purchasing power -of bullion temporarily declined, and this expansion was probably one -chief cause of the prosperity of the reign of Charlemagne. Perhaps the -relief was due to the gradual restoration of silver to circulation, -for the coinage was then reformed, and the establishment of the silver -pound as the measure of value may be considered as the basis of all the -monetary systems of modern Europe. - -The interval of prosperity was, however, brief; no permanent addition -was made to the stock of precious metals, and prices continued to fall, -as is demonstrated by the rapid deterioration of the currency. In this -second period of relapse disintegration reached its limit. - -During the tenth and eleventh centuries the Northmen infested the -coasts of France, and sailed up the rivers burning and ravaging, as -far as Rouen and Orléans. Even the convents of Saint Martin of Tours -and Saint Germain des Près were sacked. The Mediterranean swarmed with -Saracenic corsairs, who took Fraxinetum, near Toulon, seized the passes -of the Alps, and levied toll on travel into Italy. The cannibalistic -Huns overran the Lower Danube, and closed the road to Constantinople. -Western Europe was cut off from the rest of the world. Commerce nearly -ceased--the roads were so bad and dangerous, and the sea so full of -pirates. - -The ancient stock of scientific knowledge was gradually forgotten, and -the imagination had full play. Upon philosophy the effect was decisive; -Christianity sank to a plane where it appealed more vividly to the -minds of the surrounding pagans than their own faiths, and conversion -then went on rapidly. In 912 Rollo of Normandy was baptized; the Danes, -Norwegians, Poles, and Russians followed; and in 997 Saint Stephen -ascended the throne of Hungary and reopened to Latin Christians the way -to the Sepulchre. - -Perhaps the destiny of modern Europe has hinged upon the fact that -the Christian sacred places lay in Asia, and therefore the pilgrimage -brought the West into contact with the East. But the pilgrimage was -the effect of relic-worship, and relic-worship the vital principle of -monasticism. In these centuries of extreme credulity monasticism had -its strongest growth. A faculty for scientific study was abnormal, and -experimental knowledge was ascribed to sorcery. The monk Gerbert, who -became pope as Sylvester II., was probably the most remarkable man of -his generation. Though poor and of humble birth, he attracted so much -attention that he was sent to Spain, where he studied in the Moorish -schools at Barcelona and Cordova, and where he learned the rudiments of -mathematics and geography. His contemporaries were so bewildered by his -knowledge that they thought it due to magic, and told how he had been -seen flying home from Spain, borne on the back of the demon he served, -and loaded with the books he had stolen from the wizard, his master. -Sylvester died in 1003, but long afterwards anatomy was still condemned -by the Church, and four separate councils anathematized experimental -medicine, because it threatened to destroy the value of the shrines. -The ascendency of Cluny began with Saint Hugh, who was chosen abbot in -1049, the Year Leo's election. The corporation then obtained control -of Rome, and in another twenty-five years was engaged in its desperate -struggle with the remains of the old secular police power. But though -Hildebrand crushed Henry, the ancient materialism was too deeply -imbedded to be eradicated in a single generation, and meanwhile the -imagination had been brought to an uncontrollable intensity. A new and -fiercer excitement seethed among the people--a vision of the conquest -of talismans so powerful as to make their owners sure of heaven and -absolute on earth. - -The attraction of Palestine had been very early felt, for in 333 a -guide-book had been written, called the _Itinerary from Bordeaux to -Jerusalem_, which gave the route through the valley of the Danube, -together with an excellent account of the Holy Land. In those -days, before the barbaric inroads, the journey was safe enough; but -afterwards communication nearly ceased, and when Stephen was baptized -in 997, the relics of Jerusalem had all the excitement of novelty. -Europe glowed with enthusiasm. Sylvester proposed a crusade, and -Hildebrand declared he would rather risk his life for the holy places -"than rule the universe." - -Each year the throngs upon the road increased, convents sprang up along -the way to shelter the pilgrims, the whole population succoured and -venerated them, and by the time Cluny had seized the triple crown, they -left in veritable armies. Ingulf, secretary to William the Conqueror, -set out in 1064 with a band seven thousand strong. - -In that age of faith no such mighty stimulant could inflame the human -brain as a march to Jerusalem. A crusade was no vulgar war for a -vulgar prize, but an alliance with the supernatural for the conquest -of talismans whose possession was tantamount to omnipotence. Urban's -words at Clermont, when he first preached the holy war, have lost their -meaning now; but they burned like fire into the hearts of his hearers -then, for he promised them glory on earth and felicity in heaven, and -he spoke in substance thus: No longer do you attack a castle or a town, -but you undertake the conquest of the holy places. If you triumph, the -blessings of heaven and the kingdoms of the East will be your share; if -you fall, you will have the glory of dying where Christ died, and God -will not forget having seen you in His holy army.[101] - -Urban told them "that under their general Jesus Christ ... they, the -Christian, the invincible army," would march to certain victory. In -the eleventh century this language was no metaphor, for the Cluniac -monk spoke as the mouthpiece of a god who was there actually among -them, offering the cross he brought from the grave, and promising them -triumphs: not the common triumphs which may be won by man's unaided -strength, but the transcendent glory which belongs to beings of another -world. - -So the crusaders rode out to fight, the originals of the fairy knights, -clad in impenetrable armour, mounted on miraculous horses, armed with -resistless swords, and bearing charmed lives. - -Whole villages, even whole districts, were left deserted; land lost its -value; what could not be sold was abandoned; and the peasant, loaded -with his poor possessions, started on foot with his wife and children -in quest of the Sepulchre, so ignorant of the way that he mistook each -town upon the road for Zion. Whether he would or no, the noble had -to lead his vassals or be forsaken, and riding at their head with his -hawks and hounds, he journeyed towards that marvellous land of wealth -and splendour, where kingdoms waited the coming of the devoted knight -of God. Thus men, women, and children, princes and serfs, priests and -laymen, in a countless, motley throng, surged toward that mighty cross -and tomb whose possessor was raised above the limitations of the flesh. - -The crusaders had no commissariat and no supply train, no engines of -attack, or other weapons than those in their hands, and the holy relics -they bore with them. There was no general, no common language, no -organization; and so over unknown roads, and through hostile peoples, -they wandered from the Rhine to the Bosphorus, and from the Bosphorus -to Syria. - -These earlier crusades were armed migrations, not military invasions, -and had they met with a determined enemy, they must have been -annihilated; but it chanced that the Syrians and Egyptians were at -war, and the quarrel was so bitter that the caliph actually sought the -Christian alliance. Even under such circumstances the waste of life -was fabulous, and, had not Antioch been betrayed, the starving rabble -must have perished under its walls. At Jerusalem, also, the Franks were -reduced to the last extremity before they carried the town; and had it -not been for the arrival of a corps of Genoese engineers, who built -movable towers, they would have died miserably of hunger and thirst. -Nor was the coming of this reinforcement preconcerted. On the contrary, -the Italians accidentally lost their ships at Joppa, and, being left -without shelter, sought protection in the camp of the besiegers just in -time. - -So incapable were the crusaders of regular operations, that even -when the towers were finished and armed, the leaders did not know how -to fill the moat, and Raymond of Saint Gilles had nothing better to -propose than to offer a penny for every three stones thrown into the -ditch. - -On July 15, 1099, Jerusalem was stormed; almost exactly three years -after the march began. Eight days later Godfrey de Bouillon was elected -king, and then the invaders spread out over the strip of mountainous -country which borders the coast of Palestine and Syria, and the -chiefs built castles in the defiles of the hills, and bound themselves -together by a loose alliance against the common enemy. - -The decentralization of the colony was almost incredible. The core of -the kingdom was the barony of Jerusalem, which extended only from the -Egyptian desert to a stream just north of Beyrout, and inland to the -Jordan and the spurs of the hills beyond the Dead Sea, and yet it was -divided into more than eighteen independent fiefs, whose lords had all -the rights of sovereignty, made war, administered justice, and coined -money.[102] - -Beside these petty states, the ports were ceded to the Italian cities -whose fleets helped in the conquest. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa held -quarters in Ascalon, Joppa, Tyre, Acre, and Beyrout, which were -governed by consuls or viscounts, who wrangled with each other and with -the central government. - -Such was the kingdom over which Godfrey reigned, but there were three -others like it which together made up the Frankish monarchy. To the -north of the barony of Jerusalem lay the county of Tripoli, and beyond -Tripoli, extending to Armenia, the principality of Antioch. To the east -of Antioch the county of Edessa stretched along the base of the Taurus -Mountains and spread out somewhat indefinitely beyond the Euphrates. - -Thus on the north Edessa was the outwork of Christendom, while to the -south the castle of Karak, which commanded the caravan road between -Suez and Damascus, held a corresponding position among the hills to the -east of the Dead Sea. - -Beyond the mountains the great plain sweeps away into Central Asia, -and in this plain the Franks never could maintain their footing. Their -failure to do so proved their ruin, for their position lay exposed to -attack from Damascus; and it was by operating from Damascus as a base -that Saladin succeeded in forcing the pass of Banias, and in cutting -the Latin possessions in two at the battle of Tiberias. - -A considerable body of Europeans were thus driven in like a wedge -between Egypt and the Greek Empire, the two highest civilizations of -the Middle Ages, while in front lay the Syrian cities of the plain, -with whom the Christians were at permanent war. The contact was the -closest, the struggle for existence the sharpest, and the barbaric mind -received a stimulus not unlike the impulse Gaul received from Rome; for -the interval which separated the East from the West, at the beginning -of the twelfth century, was probably not less than that which divided -Italy from Gaul at the time of Cæsar. - -When Godfrey de Bouillon took the cross, the Byzantine Empire was -already sinking. The Eastern trade which, for so many centuries, had -nourished its population, was beginning to flow directly from Asia -into Italy, and, as the economic aristocracy of the capital lost its -nutriment, it lost its energy. Apparently it fell in 1081, in the -revolution which raised Alexius Comuenus to the throne. Because Alexius -sacked Constantinople with a following of mongrel Greeks, Slavs, and -Bulgarians, he has been called the first Greek emperor, but in reality -the pure Greek blood had long since perished. The Byzantine population -at the end of the eleventh century was the lees of a multitude of -races,--a mixture of Slavs, Armenians, Jews, Thracians, and Greeks; -a residuum of the most tenacious organisms, after all that was higher -had disappeared. The army was a mixed horde of Huns, Arabs, Italians, -Britons, Franks; of all in short who could fight and were for sale, -while the Church was servile, the fancy dead, and art and literature -were redolent of decaying wealth. - -Nevertheless, ever since the fall of Rome, Constantinople had been the -reservoir whence the West had drawn all its materialistic knowledge, -and therefore, it was during the centuries when the valley of the -Danube was closed, that the arts fell to their lowest ebb beyond the -Alps and Rhine. After pilgrimages began again in the reign of Stephen, -the Bosphorus lay once more in the path of travel, and as the returning -palmers spread over the West, a revival followed in their track; a -revival in which the spirit of Byzantium may yet be clearly read in the -architecture of Italy and France. Saint Mark is a feeble imitation of -Saint Sophia, while Viollet-le-Duc has described how long he hesitated -before he could decide whether the carving of Vézelay, Autun, and -Moissac was Greek or French; and has dwelt upon the laborious care with -which he pored over all the material, before he became convinced that -the stones were cut by artists trained at Cluny, who copied Byzantine -models.[103] - -But the great gulf between the economic and the imaginative -development, separated the moribund Greek society from the -semi-childhood of the Franks; a chasm in its nature impassable because -caused by a difference of mind, and which is, perhaps, seen most -strikingly in religious architecture; for religious architecture, -though always embodying the highest poetical aspirations of every -civilization, yet had in the East and West diametrically opposite -points of departure. - -Saint Sophia is pregnant with the spirit of the age of Justinian. There -was no attempt at mystery, or even solemnity, about the church, for the -mind of the architect was evidently fixed upon solving the problem of -providing the largest and lightest space possible, in which to display -the functions of a plutocratic court. His solution was brilliantly -successful. He enlarged the dome and diminished the supports, until, -nothing remaining to interrupt the view, it seemed as though the roof -had been suspended in the air. For his purpose the exterior had little -value, and he sacrificed it. - -The conception of the architects of France was the converse of this, -for it was highly emotional. The gloom of the lofty vaults, dimly -lighted by the subdued splendour of the coloured windows, made the -interior of the Gothic cathedral the most mysterious and exciting -sanctuary for the celebration of the miracle which has ever been -conceived by man; while without, the doors and windows, the pinnacles -and buttresses, were covered with the terrific shapes of demons and the -majestic figures of saints, admonishing the laity of the danger lurking -abroad, and warning them to take refuge within. - -But if the Greeks and the Franks had little affinity for each other, -the case was different with the Saracens, who were then in the full -vigour of their intellectual prime, and in the meridian of their -material splendour. - -In the eleventh century, when Paris was still a cluster of huts -cowering for shelter on the islands of the Seine, and the palace of -the Duke of Normandy and King of England was the paltry White Tower of -London, Cairo was being adorned with those masterpieces which are still -the admiration of the world. - -Prisse d'Avennes considered that, among the city gates the Bab-el-Nasr -stands first in "taste and style," and the famous Bab-el-Zouilyeh is -of the same period. He also thought the mosque of Teyloun a "model of -elegance and grandeur," and observed, when criticising the mosque of -the Sultan Hassan, built in 1356, that though imposing and beautiful, -it lacks the unity which is only found in the earlier Arabic monuments, -such as Teyloun.[104] Indeed, the signs are but too apparent that, from -the twelfth century, the instinct for form began to fail in Egypt, the -surest precursor of artistic decay. - -The magnificence of the decoration and furnishing of the Arabic palaces -and houses has seldom been surpassed, and a few extracts from an -inventory of a sale of the collections of the Caliph Mostanser-Billah, -held in 1050, may give some idea of its gorgeousness. - - _Precious Stones._--A chest containing 7 _Mudds_ of emeralds; - each of these worth at least 300,000 dynars, which makes in all - at the lowest estimation, 36,000,000 francs. - - A necklace of precious stones worth about 80,000 dynars. - - Seven _Waïbah_ of magnificent pearls sent by the Emir of Mecca. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - _Glass._--Several chests, containing a large number of vases ... - of the purest crystal, chased and plain. - - Other chests filled with precious vases of different materials. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - _Table Utensils._--A large number of gold dishes, enamelled or - plain, in which were incrusted all sorts of colours, forming - most varied designs. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - One hundred cups and other shapes, of bezoar-stone, on most of - which was engraved the name of the Caliph Haroun-el-Raschid. - - Another cup which was 3 1/2 hands wide and one deep. - - _Different Articles._--Chests containing inkstands of different - shapes, round or square, small or large, of gold or silver, - sandal wood, aloe, ebony, ivory, and all kinds of woods, - enriched with stones, gold and silver, or remarkable for beauty - and elegance of workmanship. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - Twenty-eight enamel dishes inlaid with gold, which the Caliph - Aziz had received as a present from the Greek emperor and each - of which was valued at 3000 dynars. - - Chests filled with an enormous quantity of steel, china, and - glass mirrors, ornamented with gold and silver filagree; some - were bordered with stones, and had cornelian handles, and - others precious stones. One of them had quite a long and thick - handle of emeralds. These mirrors were enclosed in cases made - of velvet or silk or most beautiful wood; their locks were of - gold or silver. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - Four hundred large cases, ornamented with gold and filled with - all sorts of jewels. - - Various silver household goods, and six thousand gold vases, in - which were put narcissus or violets. - - Thirty-six thousand pieces of crystal, among them a box - ornamented with figures in relief, weighing 17 roks. - - A large number of knives which, at the lowest price, were sold - for 36,000 dynars. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - A turban enriched with precious stones, one of the most curious - and valuable articles in the palace: it was said to be worth - 130,000 dynars. The stones which covered it, and whose weight - was 17 roks, were divided between two chiefs, who both claimed - it. One had in his share a ruby weighing 23 mitqâls, and in the - share which fell to the other were 100 pearls each of which - weighed 3 mitqâls. When the two generals were obliged to fly - from Fostat, all these valuables were given up to pillage. - - A golden peacock enriched with the most valuable precious - stones: the eyes were rubies, the feathers gilded enamel - representing all the colours of peacock feathers. - - A cock of the same metal, with a comb of the largest rubies - covered with pearls and other stones; the eyes also were made - of rubies. - - A gazelle whose body was covered all over with pearls and the - most precious stones; the stomach was white and composed of a - series of pearls of the purest water. - - A sardonyx table, with conical feet of the same substance; it - was large enough for several people to eat there at the same - time. - - A garden, the soil made of chased and gilt silver and yellow - earth. There were silver trees, with fruits made of precious - materials. - - A golden palm-tree enriched with superb pearls. It was in - a golden chest and its fruit was made of precious stones - representing dates in every stage of ripeness. This tree was of - inestimable value.[105] - -About the time the monk Gerbert was accused of sorcery because he -understood the elements of geometry, the Caliph Aziz-Billah founded the -university of Cairo, the greatest Mohammedan institution of learning. -This was two hundred years before the organization of the university -of Paris, and the lectures at the mosque of El-Azhar are said to have -been attended by twelve thousand students. Munk was of opinion that -Arabic philosophy reached its apogee with Averrhoës, who was born about -1120.[106] Certainly he was the last of a famous line which began at -Bagdad three centuries earlier; and Hauréau, in describing the great -period of Saint Thomas at Paris, dwelt upon the debt Western learning -owed to the Saracens. - -The splendour of Haroun-al-Raschid is still proverbial. The tales of -his gold and silver, his silks and gems, almost surpass belief, and -even in his reign the mechanical arts were so advanced that he sent a -clock to Charlemagne. - -Humboldt considered the Arabs as the founders of modern experimental -science, and they were relatively skilful chemists, for they understood -the composition of sulphuric and nitric acid, and of aqua regia, -beside the preparation of mercury and of various oxides of metals. As -physicians they were far in advance of Europe. While the Church healed -by miracles, and put experimental methods under her ban, the famous -Rhazes conducted the hospitals of Bagdad, and in the tenth century -wrote a work in ten books, which was printed at Venice as late as 15 -10. Practitioners of all nations have used his treatise on small-pox -and measles; he introduced mild purgatives, invented the seton, and was -a remarkable anatomist. He died in 932. - -William of Tyre stated that the Frankish nobles of Syria preferred -the native or Jewish doctors; and though Saladin sent his physician to -Richard, Richard never thought of sending an Englishman to Saladin when -afterwards attacked by illness. - -Even as late as the middle of the thirteenth century little advance -seems to have been made in Europe, for one of the most curious -phenomena of the crusades was the improvement in the health of the -army of Saint Louis after it surrendered. During the campaign various -epidemics had been very fatal; but when the soldiers were subjected -to the sanitary regulations of the Egyptian medical staff, disease -disappeared. - -The Arabs had a strong taste for mathematics, and were familiar with -most of the discoveries which have been attributed to astronomers of -the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. - -As early as 1000 spherical trigonometry was in use, and Aboul-Hassan -wrote an excellent treatise on conic sections. In 833 the Caliph -El-Mamoun, having founded observatories at Bagdad and Damascus, caused -a degree to be measured on the plain of Palmyra. By the thirteenth -century the Arabic instruments were comparatively perfect. They had -the astrolabe, the gnomon, the sextant, and the mariner's compass, -and Aboul-Wafa determined the third lunar variation six hundred years -before Tycho Brahe. - -To enumerate all the improvements in agriculture and manufactures which -came from the mediæval pilgrimage would take a separate treatise. A -French savant thought of writing a book upon the flora of the crusades -alone. The mulberry and the silkworm were brought from Greece, the -maize from Turkey, the plum from Damascus, the eschalot from Ascalon, -and the windmills with which, down to the present century, corn was -ground, were one of the importations from the Levant. - -It might almost be said that all the West knew of the arts was learned -on the road to the sepulchre. The Tyrians taught the Sicilians to -refine sugar, and the Venetians to make glass; Damascus steel was a -proverb, Damascus potters were the masters of the potters of France; -the silk, brocades, and carpets of Syria and Persia were in the twelfth -century what they have been down to the present day, at once the -admiration and despair of Western weavers, while there can be little -doubt that gunpowder was the invention of the chemists of the East. - -All the evidence tends to prove that the ogive came from the -Levant, and without the ogive Gothic architecture could never have -developed.[107] Prior to the council of Clermont the pointed arch was -practically unknown west of the Adriatic; but the Arabs had long used -it, and it may still be seen in the ninth century mosque of Teyloun. - -In Palestine the Franks were surrounded by Saracenic buildings, and -employed Saracenic masons, and the attention of Western architects -seems no sooner to have been drawn to the possibilities of the ogive, -than they saw in it the solution of those problems which had before -defied them. An arch formed by two intersecting segments of a circle -could be raised to any height from any base, and was perfectly adapted -to vaulting the parallelograms formed by the columns of the nave. -Therefore, contemporaneously with the building of the church of the -Holy Sepulchre, the period of transition between the Romanesque and the -Gothic opened in France. The two most important transition buildings -were the abbey of Saint Denis and the cathedral of Noyon, and, while -the Holy Sepulchre was dedicated in 1149, the abbey was completed in -1144, and the cathedral was begun almost immediately after.[108] - -Thenceforward the movement was rapid, and before the year 1200, -Christian sacred architecture was culminating in those marvels of -beauty, the cathedrals of Paris, of Bourges, of Chartres, and of Le -Alans. Yet, though sacred architecture tells the story of the rise of -the imagination as nothing else can, if it be true that centralization -hinges on the preponderance of the attack in war, the surest way of -measuring the advance toward civilization of rude peoples must be by -military engineering. - -In the eleventh century, north of the Alps, this science was -rudimentary, and nothing can be more impressive than to compare the -mighty ramparts of Constantinople with the small square tower which -William the Conqueror found ample for his needs in London. - -When the crusaders were first confronted with the Greek and Arabic -works, they were helpless; nor were their difficulties altogether those -of ignorance. Such fortifications were excessively costly, and a feudal -State was poor because the central power had not the force to constrain -individuals to pay taxes. The kingdom of Jerusalem was in chronic -insolvency. - -The life of the Latin colony in Syria, therefore, hung on the -development of some financial system which should make the -fortification of Palestine possible, and such a system grew up through -the operation of the imagination, though in an unusual manner. - -Fetish worship drew a very large annual contribution from the -population in the shape of presents to propitiate the saints, and -one of the effects of the enthusiasm for the crusades was to build up -conventual societies in the Holy Land, which acted as standing armies. -The most famous of the military orders were the Knights of the Temple -and the Knights of Saint John. William of Tyre has left an interesting -description of the way in which the Temple came to be organized:-- - - "As though the Lord God sends his grace there where he - pleases, worthy knights, who were of the land beyond the sea, - proposed to stay for ever in the service of Our Lord, and - to live in common, like regular canons. In the hand of the - patriarch they vowed chastity and obedience, and renounced all - property.... The king and the other barons, the patriarch and - other prelates of the Church, gave them funds to live on and - to clothe themselves.... The first thing which was enjoined - on them in pardon for their sins was to guard the roads by - which the pilgrims passed, from robbers and thieves, who did - great harm. This penance the patriarch and the other bishops - enjoined. Nine years they remained thus in secular habit, - wearing such garments as were given them by the knights and - other good people, for the love of God. In the ninth a council - was assembled in France in the city of Troyes. There were - assembled the archbishops of Rheims and Sens and all their - bishops. The bishop of Albano especially was there as papal - legate, the abbots of Citeau and Clairvaux, and many other of - the religious. - - "There were established the order and the rules by which they - were to live as monks. Their habit was ordered to be white, by - the authority of Pope Honorius and the patriarch of Jerusalem. - This order had already existed nine years, as I have told - you, and there were as yet only nine brothers, who lived from - day to day on charity. From that time their numbers began to - increase, and revenues and tenures were given them. In the time - of Pope Etigenius it was ordered that they should have sewn - upon their copes and on their robes a cross of red cloth, so - that they should be known among all men.... From thence have - their possessions so increased as you can see, that the order - of the Temple is in the ascendant.... Hardly can you find on - either side of the sea a Christian land where this order has - not to-day houses and brethren, and great revenues."[109] - -The council of Troyes was held in 1128, and in the next fifty years, -in proportion as the feudal organization of the Latin kingdom decayed, -the military orders increased in wealth and power. The Hospital held -nineteen thousand manors in Europe, the Temple nine thousand, and each -manor could maintain a knight in the field. - -At Paris the house of the Temple filled a whole quarter; its donjon was -one of the most superb buildings of the Middle Ages; at a later period, -when the corporation took to banking, it served as a place of deposit -for both public and private treasure, and in times of danger the king -himself was glad to take shelter within its walls. - -The creation of this monastic standing army was evidently due to the -inferiority of the attack to the defence, which made the civil power -incapable of coercing the individual who refused to pay taxes. The -petty barons who built the castles throughout Palestine were too poor -to erect fortifications capable of resisting the superior engines used -in the East. Therefore the whole burden of the war was thrown upon the -Church, and in all modern history nothing is more wonderful than the -way in which this work was done. - -Within fifty years after the conquest the feudal machinery was in -ruin, and the strategic points, one after another, passed into the -hands of the strongest force of the age, the force which was incarnate -imagination. - -The fortresses built by the monks were the ramparts of Christendom, -and among the remains which have survived the past, perhaps none are -more impressive than the huge castles of the crusaders in the gorges -of the Syrian mountains; nor do any show so clearly whence came the -rationalistic stimulus which revolutionized Europe, shattered the -Church, and brought in the economic society which has ruled Europe -since the Templars passed away. - -Twenty-five miles due west of Homs, at the point where the Lebanon -melts into the Ansarieh range, the mountains open, and two passes -lead by easy descents to the sea. Through the southern runs the road -to Tripoli, through the northern that to Tortosa. Between them, on a -crag a thousand feet above the valleys, still stands the castle of the -Krak des Chevaliers, ceded by Count Raymond of Tripoli to the Hospital -in 1145. Towering above the plain it can be seen for miles, and no -description can give an idea of its gigantic size and power. Coucy and -Pierrefonds are among the largest fortresses of Europe, and yet Coucy -and Pierrefonds combined are no larger than the Krak. - -Compared with it, the works then built in the West were toys, and -the engineering talent shown in its conception was equalled by the -magnificence of its masonry. The Byzantine system was adopted. A double -wall, the inner commanding the outer, with a moat between; and three -enormous towers rising from the moat, formed the donjon. There were -stone machicoulis and all the refinements of defence which appeared in -France under Saint Louis and his son, and a study of this stupendous -monument shows plainly whence Europeans drew their military instruction -for a century to come. - -The Krak was the outwork dominating the plain where the Christians -never made their footing good, and stood at the apex of a triangle -of fortresses as remarkable as itself. From its ramparts the great -white tower of Chastel-Blanc can be seen, midway between the outpost -commanding the mountain passes and the base upon the sea held by the -Temple; and from that tower the troop of Templars rode to relieve -the knights of Saint John, on the day when the crusaders routed the -conqueror Nour-ed-Din, and cut his army to pieces as it fled toward the -Lake of Homs, which lies in the distance. - -But the white tower is unlike the donjons of other lands, and bears the -imprint of the force which built it, for it is not a layman's hold, but -a church, whose windows are cut in walls thirteen feet thick, whence -the dim light falls across the altar where the magicians wrought their -miracles. - -Within easy supporting distance lay Tortosa, a walled town, the outwork -of a donjon at least as strong as the Krak, and built with a perfection -of workmanship, and a beauty of masonry, which proves at once the -knowledge and the resources of the order. No monarch of the West could, -probably, at that time have undertaken so costly an enterprise, and -yet Tortosa was but one of four vast structures which lie within a few -miles of each other. The place was ceded to the Temple in 1183, just -at the beginning of the reign of Philip Augustus, before men dreamed of -the more important French fortifications. - -At Margat, a day's journey to the north, the Hospital had their -base upon the sea: a stronghold whose cost must have been fabulous, -for it is perched upon a crag high above the Mediterranean, and so -inaccessible that it is not easy to understand how the materials for -building were collected. Viollet-le-Duc, who was lost in admiration at -Coucy, declared that it was colossal enough to befit a race of giants, -and yet Coucy could have stood in the courtyard of Margat. - -The Arabs, who were excellent engineers, deemed it a masterpiece, and -the Sultan Kalaoun could not endure the thought of injuring it. After -he had mined the great tower and was sure of victory, he proved to the -garrison his power to destroy it, in order to induce them to accept -most liberal terms of surrender, and let him have the prize. Perhaps -the best description ever given of the work is in a letter written by -the Sultan of Hamah to his vizier to announce its fall: - - "The devil himself had taken pleasure in consolidating its - foundations. How many times have the Mussulmans tried to reach - its towers and fallen down the precipices! Markab is unique, - perched on the summit of a rock. It is accessible to relief, - and inaccessible to attack. The eagle and the vulture alone can - fly to its ramparts."[110] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE SECOND CRUSADE - - -As the East was richer than the West, the Saracens were capable of a -higher centralization than the Franks, and although they were divided -amongst themselves at the close of the eleventh century, no long time -elapsed after the fall of Jerusalem before the consolidation began -which annihilated the Latin kingdom. - -The Sultan of Persia made Zenghi governor of Mosul in 1127. Zenghi, -who was the first Atabek, was a commander and organizer of ability, -and with a soldier's instinct struck where his enemy was vulnerable. He -first occupied Aleppo, Hamah, and Homs. He then achieved the triumph of -his life by the capture of Edessa. The next year he was murdered, and -was succeeded by his still more celebrated son, Nour-ed-Din, who made -Aleppo his capital, and devoted his life to completing the work his -father had begun. - -After a series of brilliant campaigns, by a mixture of vigour and -address, Nour-ed-Din made himself master of Damascus, and, operating -thence as a base, he conquered Egypt, and occupied Cairo in 1169. -During the Egyptian war, a young emir, named Saladin, rose rapidly into -prominence. He was the nephew of the general in command, at whose death -the caliph made him vizier, because he thought him pliable. In this the -caliph was mistaken, for Saladin was a man of iron will and consummate -ability. William of Tyre even accused him of having murdered the last -Fatimite caliph with his own hands in order to cause the succession to -pass to Nour-ed-Din, and to seize on the substance of power himself, as -Nour-ed-Din's representative. - -Certainly he administered Egypt in his own interest, and not in -his master's; so much so that Nour-ed-Din, having failed to obtain -obedience to his commands, had prepared to march against him in person, -when, on the eve of his departure, he died. Saladin then moved on -Damascus, and having defeated the army of El Melek, the heir to the -crown, at Hamah, he had himself declared Sultan of Egypt and Syria. - -With a power so centralized the Franks would probably, under the best -circumstances, have been unable to cope. The weakness of the Christians -was radical, and arose from the exuberance of their imagination, which -caused them to proceed by miracles, or more correctly, by magical -formulas. An exalted imagination was the basis of the characters of -both Louis VII. and Saint Bernard, and the faith resulting therefrom -led to the defeat of the second crusade. - -The Christian collapse began with the fall of Edessa, for the County of -Edessa was the extreme northeastern state of the Latin community, and -the key to the cities of the plain. When the first crusaders reached -Armenia, Baldwin, brother of Godfrey de Bouillon, conceived the idea of -carving a kingdom for himself out of the Christian country to the south -of the Taurus range. Taking with him such pilgrims as he could persuade -to go, he started from Mamistra, just north of the modern Alexandretta, -and marched east along the caravan road. Edessa lay sixteen hours' ride -beyond the Euphrates, and he reached it in safety. - -At this time, though Edessa still nominally formed part of the Greek -Empire, it was in reality independent, and was governed by an old man -named Theodore, who had originally been sent from Constantinople, but -who had gradually taken the position of a sovereign. The surrounding -country had been overrun by Moslems, and Theodore only maintained -himself by paying tribute. The people, therefore, were ready to welcome -any Frankish baron capable of defending them; and Baldwin, though a -needy adventurer, was an excellent officer, and well adapted to the -emergency. - -As he drew near, the townsmen went out to meet him, and escorted him to -the city in triumph, where he soon supplanted the old Theodore, whom -he probably murdered. He then became Count of Edessa, but he remained -in the country only two years, for in 1100 he was elected to succeed -his brother Godfrey. He was followed as Lord of Edessa by his cousin -Godfrey de Bourg, who, in his turn, was crowned King of Jerusalem in -1119, and the next count was de Bourg's cousin, Joscelin de Courtney, -who had previously held as a fief the territory to the west of the -Euphrates. This Joscelin was one of the most renowned warriors who ever -came from France, and while he lived the frontier was well defended. So -high was his prowess that he earned the title of "the great," in an age -when every man was a soldier, and in a country where arms were the only -path to fortune save the Church. - -The story of his death is one of the most dramatic of that dramatic -time. As he stood beneath the wall of a Saracenic tower he had mined, -it suddenly fell and buried him in the ruins. He was taken out a -mangled mass to die, but, as he lay languishing, news came that the -Sultan of Iconium had laid siege to one of his castles near Tripoli. -Feeling that he could not sit his horse, he called his son and directed -him to collect his vassals and ride to the relief of the fortress. The -youth hesitated, fearing that the enemy were too numerous. Then the -old man, grieving to think of the fate of his people when he should -be gone, had himself slung in a litter between two horses, and marched -against the foe. - -He had not gone far before he was met by a messenger, who told him -that when the Saracens heard the Lord of Courtney was upon the march, -they had raised the siege and fled. Then the wounded baron ordered his -litter to be set down upon the ground, and, stretching out his hands to -heaven, he thanked God who had so honoured him that his enemies dared -not abide his coming even when in the jaws of death, and died there -where he lay. - -The second generation of Franks seems to have deteriorated through the -influence of the climate, but the character of the younger Joscelin -was not the sole cause of the disasters which overtook him. Probably -even his father could not permanently have made head against the forces -which were combining against him. The weakness of the Frankish kingdom -was inherent: it could not contend with enemies who were further -advanced upon the road toward consolidation. Had Western society been -enough centralized to have organized a force capable of collecting -taxes, and of enforcing obedience to a central administration, a -wage-earning army might have been maintained on the frontier. As -it was, concentration was impossible, and the scattered nobles were -crushed in detail. - -Antioch was the nearest supporting point to Edessa, and, when Zenghi -made his attack, Raymond de Poitiers, one of the ablest soldiers of -his generation, was the reigning prince. But he was at feud with the -Courtneys; the king at Jerusalem could not force him to do his duty; -the other barons were too distant, even had they been well disposed; -and thus the key to the Christian position fell without a blow being -struck in its defence. - -To that emotional generation the loss of Edessa seemed a reversal of -the laws of nature; a consequence not of bad organization but of divine -wrath. The invincible relics had suddenly refused to act, and the only -explanation which occurred to the men of the time was, that there must -have been neglect of the magical formulas. - -Saint Bernard never doubted that God would fight if duly propitiated; -therefore all else must bend to the task of propitiation: "What think -ye, brethren? Is the hand of the Lord weakened, or unequal to the work -of defence, that he calls miserable worms to guard and restore his -heritage? Is he not able to send more than twelve legions of angels, -or, to speak truly, by word deliver his country?"[111] - -Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the soul of the second crusade, was born -at the castle of Fontaines, near Dijon, in 1091, so that his earliest -impressions must have been tinged by the emotional outburst which -followed the council of Clermont. The third son of noble parents, he -resembled his mother, who had the ecstatic temperament. While she lived -she tried to imitate the nuns, and at her death she was surrounded -by holy clerks, who sung with her while she could speak, and, when -articulation failed, watched her lips moving in praise to God. - -From the outset, Bernard craved a monastic life, and when he grew -up insisted on dedicating himself to Heaven. His first success was -the conversion of his brothers, whom he carried with him to the -cloister, with the exception of the youngest, who was then a child. -As the brothers passed through the castle courtyard, on their way to -the convent, Guy, the eldest, said to the boy, who was playing there -with other children, "Well, Nivard, all our land is now yours." "So -you will have heaven and I earth," the child answered; "that is an -unequal division." And a few years after he joined his brothers.[112] -The father and one daughter then were left alone, and at last they too -entered convents, where they died. - -At twenty-two, when Bernard took his vows at Citeaux, his influence was -so strong that he carried with him thirty of his comrades, and mothers -are said to have hid their sons from him, and wives their husbands, -lest he should lure them away. He actually broke up so many homes that -the abandoned wives formed a nunnery, which afterward grew rich. - -His abilities were so marked that his superiors singled him out, -when he had hardly finished his novitiate, to found a house in the -wilderness. This house became Clairvaux, in the twelfth century the -most famous monastery of the world. - -In the Middle Ages, convents were little patronized until by some -miracle they had proved themselves worthy of hire; their early years -were often passed in poverty, and Clairvaux was no exception to the -rule, for the brethren suffered privations which nearly caused revolt. -In the midst of his difficulties, Bernard's brother Gérard, who was -cellarer, came to him to complain that the fraternity were without -the barest necessities of life. The man of God asked, "How much will -suffice for present wants?" Gérard replied, "Twelve pounds." Bernard -dismissed him and betook himself to prayer. Soon after Gérard returned -and announced that a woman was without and wished to speak with -him. "She, when he had come to her, prostrating herself at his feet, -offered him a gift of twelve pounds, imploring the aid of his prayers -for her husband, who was dangerously sick. Having briefly spoken with -her, he dismissed her, saying: 'Go. You will find your husband well.' -She, going home, found what she had heard had come to pass. The abbot -comforting the weakness of his cellarer, made him stronger for bearing -other trials from God."[113] - -Although his family were somewhat sceptical about his gifts, and even -teased him to tears, the monk William tells, in his chronicle, how he -soon performed an astounding miracle which made Clairvaux a "veritable -valley of light," and then wealth poured in upon him. - -Meanwhile, his constitution, which had never been vigorous, had been so -impaired by his penances that he was unable to follow the monastic life -in its full rigour, and he therefore threw himself into politics, to -which he was led both by taste and by the current of events. - -Clairvaux was founded in 1115, and fifteen years later Bernard had -risen high in his profession. The turning-point in his life was the -part he took in the recognition of Innocent II. In 1130, Honorius II. -died, and two popes were chosen by the college of cardinals, Anacletus -and Innocent II. Anacletus stayed in Rome, but Innocent crossed -the Alps, and a council was summoned at Étampes to decide upon his -title. By a unanimous vote the question was referred to Bernard, and -his biographer described how he examined the evidence with fear and -trembling, and how at last the Holy Ghost spoke through his mouth, -and he recognized Innocent. His decision was ratified, and soon after -he managed to obtain the adhesion of the King of England to the new -pontiff. - -His success made him the foremost man in Europe, and when, in 1145, one -of his monks was raised to the papacy as Eugenius III., he wrote with -truth, "I am said to be more pope than you." - -Perhaps no one ever lived more highly gifted with the ecstatic -temperament than Saint Bernard. He had the mysterious attribute of -miracles, and, in the twelfth century, the miracle was, perhaps, the -highest expression of force. To work them was a personal gift, and the -possessor of the faculty might, at his caprice, use his power, like the -sorcerer, to aid or injure other men. - -One day as Saint Bernard was on his way to a field at harvest time, the -monk who drove the donkey on which he rode, fell in an epileptic fit. -"Seeing which the holy man had pity on him, and entreated God that for -the future he would not seize him unaware." Accordingly from that day -until his death, twenty years after, "whenever he was to fall from that -disease, he felt the fit coming for a certain space of time, so that he -had an opportunity to lie down on a bed, and so avert the bruises of a -sudden fall."[114] - -This cure was a pure act of grace, like alms, made to gratify the whim -of the saint; and a man who could so control nature was more powerful -than any other on earth. Bernard was such a man, and for this reason he -was chosen by acclamation to preach the second crusade. - -His sermons have perished, but two of his letters have survived,[115] -and they explain the essential weakness of a military force raised on -the basis of supernatural intervention. He looked upon the approaching -campaign as merely the vehicle for a miracle, and as devised to offer -to those who entered on it a special chance for salvation. Therefore -he appealed to the criminal classes. "For what is it but an exquisite -and priceless chance of salvation due to God alone, that the Omnipotent -should deign to summon to his service, as though they were innocent, -murderers, ravishers, adulterers, perjurers, and those guilty of every -crime?"[116] - -Even had an army composed of such material been well disciplined and -well led, it would have been untrustworthy in the face of an adversary -like Nour-ed-Din; but Louis VII. of France was as emotional and as -irrational as Saint Bernard. His father had been a great commander, -but he himself had been educated in the Abbey of Saint Denis, and -justified his wife's scornful jest, who, when she left him for Raymond -de Poitiers, said she had married a monk. The whole world held him -lightly, even the priests sneered at him, and Innocent II. spoke of -him as a child "who must be stopped from learning rebellion." Indeed, -the pope underrated him, for he appointed his own nephew to the See -of Bourges in defiance of the king, and the insult roused him to -resistance. Louis raised an army and invaded the County of Champagne, -where the bishop had taken refuge. There he stormed and burnt Vitry, -and some thirteen hundred men, women, and children, who had taken -refuge in the church, perished in the flames of the blazing town. -Horror seems to have unhinged his mind, absolution did not calm him, -and at last he came to believe that his only hope of salvation lay -in a pilgrimage to the Sepulchre. On Palm Sunday, 1146, when Bernard -harangued a vast throng at Vézelay, the king was the first to prostrate -himself, and take the cross from his hands. - -With that day began the most marvellous part of the saint's marvellous -career, and were the events which followed less well authenticated, -they would be incredible. In that age miracles were as common as -medical cures are now, and yet Bernard's performances so astonished -his contemporaries that they drew up a solemnly attested record of what -they saw, that the story of his preaching might never be questioned. - -When he neared a town the bells were rung, and young and old, from far -and near, thronged about him in crowds so dense that, at Constance, no -one saw what passed, because no one dared to venture into the press. At -Troyes he was in danger of being suffocated. Elsewhere the sick were -brought to him by a ladder as he stood at a window out of reach. What -he did may be judged by the work of a single day. - - "When the holy man entered Germany he shone so marvellously by - cures, that it can neither be told in words, nor would it be - believed if it were told. For those testify who were present - in the country of Constance, near the town of Doningen, who - diligently investigated these things, and saw them with their - eyes, that in one day eleven blind received their sight by the - laying on of his hands, ten maimed were restored, and eighteen - lame made straight."[117] - -Thus, literally by thousands, the blind saw, the lame walked, the -maimed were made whole. He cast out devils, turned water into wine, -raised the dead. But no modern description can give an idea of the -paroxysm of excitement; the stories must be read in the chronicles -themselves. Yet, strangely enough, such was the strength of the -materialistic inheritance from the Empire, that Bernard does not always -seem fully to have believed in himself. He was tinged with some shade -of scepticism. The meeting at Vézelay was held on March 24, 1146. Four -weeks later, on April 21, at a council held at Chartres, the command -of the army to invade Palestine was offered to the Abbot of Clairvaux. -Had the saint thoroughly believed in himself and his twelve legions of -angels, he would not have hesitated, for no enemy could have withstood -God. In fact he was panic-stricken, and wrote a letter to the pope -which might befit a modern clergyman. - -After explaining that he had been chosen commander against his will, he -exclaimed, "Who am I, that I should set camps in order, or should march -before armed men? Or what is so remote from my profession, even had I -the strength, and the knowledge were not lacking?... I beseech you, by -that charity you especially owe me, that you do not abandon me to the -wills of men."[118] - -During 1146 and 1147 two vast mixed multitudes, swarming with criminals -and women, gathered at Metz and Ratisbon. As a fighting force these -hosts were decidedly inferior to the bands which had left Europe fifty -years before, under Tancred and Godfrey de Bouillon, and they were -besides commanded by the semi-emasculated King of France. - -The Germans cannot be considered as having taken any part in the war, -for they perished without having struck a blow. The Greek emperor -caused them to be lured into the mountains of Asia Minor, where they -were abandoned by their guides, and wasted away from exposure, hunger, -and thirst, until the Saracens destroyed them without allowing them to -come to battle. - -The French fared little better. In crossing the Cadmus Mountains, their -lack of discipline occasioned a defeat, which made William of Tyre -wonder at the ways of God. - - "To no one should the things done by our Lord be displeasing, - for all his works are right and good, but according to the - judgment of men it was marvellous how our Lord permitted the - Franks (who are the people in the world who believe in him and - honour him most) to be thus destroyed by the enemies of the - faith."[119] - -Soon after this check Louis was joined by the Grand Master of the -Temple, under whose guidance he reached Atalia, a Greek port in -Pamphylia: and here, had the king been a rationalist, he would have -stormed the town and used it as a base of operations against Syria. In -the eyes of laymen, the undisguised hostility of the emperor would have -fully justified such an attack. But Louis was a devotee, bound by a -vow to the performance of a certain mystic formula, and one part of his -vow was not to attack Christians during his pilgrimage. In his mind the -danger of disaster from supernatural displeasure was greater than the -strategic advantage; and so he allowed his army to rot before the walls -in the dead of winter, without tents or supplies, until it wasted to a -shadow of its former strength. - -Finally the governor contracted to provide shipping, but he delayed -for another five weeks, and when the transports came they were too few. -Even then Louis would not strike, but abandoning the poor and sick to -their fate, he sailed away with the flower of his troops, and by spring -the corpses of those whom he had deserted bred a pestilence which -depopulated the city. - -When he arrived at Antioch new humiliations and disasters awaited him. -Raymond de Poitiers was one of the handsomest and most gifted men of -this time. Affable, courteous, brave, and sagacious, in many respects a -great captain, his failing was a hot temper, which led him to his ruin. -He forsook Joscelin through jealousy, and the fall of Edessa cost him -throne and life. - -After the successes of Zenghi, a very short experience of Nour-ed-Din -sufficed to convince Prince Raymond that Antioch could not be held -without re-establishing the frontier; and when Louis arrived, Raymond -tried hard to persuade him to abandon his pilgrimage for that season, -and make a campaign in the north. - -William of Tyre thought the plan good, and believed that the Saracens -were, for the moment, too demoralized to resist. Evidently, by -advancing from Antioch, Nour-ed-Din could have been isolated, whereas -on the south he was covered by Damascus, one of the strongest places in -the East. - -Such considerations had no weight with Louis, for, to his emotional -temperament, military strategy lay in obtaining supernatural aid, -without which no wisdom could avail, and with which victory was sure. -He therefore insisted on the punctilious performance of the religious -rites, and one of the most interesting passages in _William of Tyre_ is -the account of the interview between him and Raymond, when a movement -against the cities of the north was discussed. - - "The prince, who had tried the temper of the king several - times privately, and not found what he wanted, came one day - to him before his barons and made his requests to the best of - his power. Many reasons he showed that if he would agree, he - would do his soul much good, and would win the applause of his - age; Christendom would be so benefited by this thing. The king - took counsel, and then he answered that he was vowed to the - Sepulchre, and had taken the cross particularly to go there; - that, since he had left his country, he had met with many - hindrances, and that he had no wish to begin any wars until he - had perfected his pilgrimage."[120] - -This refusal so exasperated Prince Raymond that he threw off all -disguise, and became the avowed lover of the queen, who detested her -husband. Louis, shortly afterward, escaped by night from Antioch, -taking Eleanor with him by force, and thus the only hope for the -recovery of Edessa was lost. - -For the emotionalist everything yielded to the transcendent importance -of propitiatory rites; therefore Louis ascended Calvary, kissed -the stones, intoned the chants, received the benediction, and lost -Palestine. Thus, by the middle of the twelfth century, the idealist had -begun to flag in the struggle for life. - -An attempt, indeed, was afterwards made upon Damascus, but it only -served to expose the weakness of the men who relied on magic. By -the time the advance began, confidence had been restored among the -Saracens, the attack was repulsed, and Nour-ed-Din had only to move -from the north to throw the crusaders back upon Jerusalem, covered with -ridicule. Nothing conveys so vivid an idea of the shock these reverses -gave believers, as the words in which Saint Bernard defended his -prophecies. - - "Do they not say among the pagans, where is their God? Nor is - it wonderful. The sons of the Church, who are known by the name - of Christians, are laid low in the desert, destroyed by the - sword, or consumed by famine. The Lord hath poured contempt - upon princes, and hath caused them to wander in the wilderness, - where there is no way. Grief and misfortune have followed their - steps, fear and confusion have been in the palaces of the kings - themselves. How have the feet strayed of those promising peace - and blessings. We have said peace and there is no peace, we - have promised good fortune and behold tribulation, as if we - had acted in this matter with rashness and levity.... Yet if - one of two things must be, I prefer to have men murmur against - me rather than God. It is good if I am worthy to be used as a - shield. I take willingly the slanders of detractors, and the - poisoned stings of blasphemers, that they may not reach him. I - do not shrink from loss of glory that his may not be attacked, - who gives it to me to be glorified in the words of the - Psalmist: 'Because for thy sake I have borne reproach; shame - hath covered my face.'"[121] - -According to the account of William of Tyre, both sides felt the end -to be near. After the failure of Louis the Pious, Prince Raymond was -the first to go down before the storm he had too late seen gathering. -Nour-ed-Din fell upon his country with fire and sword, defeated him, -cut off his head and right arm, and sent them to Bagdad as trophies. -The wretched Joscelin died in a dungeon at Aleppo, while Nour-ed-Din -entered Damascus, and thus consolidated the Syrian cities of the -plain. Thenceforward the decentralized Franks lay helpless in the -grasp of their compact adversary, and all that was imaginative in the -Middle Ages received its death-wound at Tiberias. That action was the -beginning of the decay of fetish-worship. - -The crusaders believed they had found the cross on which Christ died -at Jerusalem. They venerated it as a charm no less powerful than the -Sepulchre itself, and having this advantage over the tomb, that it -was portable. They thought it invincible, and used it not only as a -weapon against living enemies, but as a means of controlling nature. A -remarkable example of the magical properties of this relic was given in -the retreat from Bosra. - -Baldwin III. was crowned in 1144, when only thirteen. The kingdom -was then at peace with Damascus, in whose territory Bosra lay; but, -notwithstanding, the child's advisers eagerly listened to the offer -of the emir in command to betray the town, and hastened forward the -departure of an expedition, in spite of the protests of the envoys -from Damascus. On the march the troops suffered severely from heat and -thirst, and on their arrival were appalled to find a loyal garrison. A -siege was out of the question, and a regular retreat so hazardous that -the barons besought the king to fly and save the cross; but the boy -refused, and stayed with his men to fight to the last. The outlook was -terrible, for the vegetation was dry, and when the march began-- - - "The Turks threw Greek fire everywhere, so that it seemed as - if the whole country burned. The high flames and thick smoke - blinded our men. Then were they so beset they knew not what to - do. But when there is great need, and men's help fails, then - should one seek aid of our Lord, and cry to him to care for - us; so did our Christians then; for they called the Archbishop - Robert of Nazareth, who carried the true cross before them, and - begged him that he would pray our Lord, who to save them had - suffered death upon that cross, that he would bring them from - this peril; for they could not endure it, nor did they look - for other help than his. Truly, they were there all black and - scorched, like smiths, from the fire and smoke. The archbishop - dismounted and kneeled down, and prayed our Lord with many - tears that he would have mercy on his people; then he arose - and held the true cross toward the fire which the wind brought - strongly against them. Our Lord by his great mercy regarded - his people in the great peril which they suffered; for the - wind changed straightway and blew the fire and smoke into the - faces of the enemy who had lighted it, so that they were forced - to scatter over the country and fly. Our men, when they saw - this, wept for joy, for they perceived that our Lord had not - forgotten them." - -Even then they were in extreme peril, for but one way was open, -for which they had no guide. Suddenly, a "knight appeared before -the troop whom no one in the host knew. He sat a white horse, and -carried a crimson banner, he wore a hauberk, whose sleeves came only -to the elbow. He offered to guide them, and he put himself in front; -he brought them to cool sweet springs; ... he made them sleep in -comfortable and good places. And he so guided them that on the third -day they came to the city of Gadre."[122] - -The mighty relic of the cross was taken and defiled by the Saracens at -Hattin, where the Christians suffered a decisive defeat, caused by the -impotence of the central administration at Jerusalem. - -Reginald de Chatillon was the type of the twelfth century adventurer. -He came to Palestine in the train of Louis the Pious, and he stayed -there because he married a princess. He was a brave soldier, but -greedy, violent, and rash, and his insubordination precipitated the -catastrophe which led to the fall of the capital. - -At the siege of Ascalon he so fascinated Constance, Princess of -Antioch, widow of Raymond, that she persisted in marrying him, -although she was sought by many of the greatest nobles, and he was -only a knight. Her choice was disastrous. He had hardly entered on his -government in the north before he quarrelled with the Greek emperor, -who forced him to do penance with a rope about his neck. Afterward he -was taken prisoner by Nour-ed-Din, who only liberated him after sixteen -years, when his wife was dead. He soon married again, this time also -another great heiress, Etiennette de Milly, Lady of Karak and Montréal, -and, as her husband, Reginald became commander of the fortress of -Karak to the east of the Dead Sea, which formed the defence against -Egypt. But as the commander of so important a post, this reckless and -rapacious adventurer defied the authority of his feudal superior, and -by plundering caravans on the Damascus road so irritated Saladin that -"in 1187 he burst, with a powerful army, into the Holy Land, made King -Guy prisoner, and the Prince Reginald, whose head he cut off with his -own hand."[123] - -Guy de Lusignan had been crowned at Jerusalem the year before -Saladin's invasion, and when war broke out he was at feud with the -Count of Tripoli. The imminence of the common danger brought about -some semblance of cohesion among the nobles, who agreed to put -every available man in the field. The castles were stripped of their -garrisons so that they were indefensible in case of reverse, and about -fifty thousand troops were concentrated at Sepphoris in Galilee. - -The contingents of the Temple and Hospital were well organized and well -disciplined, but the army, as a whole, was rather a loose gathering -of the retainers of thirty or forty independent chiefs, than a compact -mass, subject to a single will, such as the Egyptian revenues enabled -Saladin to put in the field. - -Suddenly news came to Sepphoris, that the Saracens had poured through -the pass of Banias and lay before Tiberias. Dissensions broke out -at once, which Guy de Lusignan could not control. He was not a man -of strong character, and had he been, he was only one among a dozen -princes, any one of whom could quit the army and retire to his castle -if he felt so disposed. The Count of Tripoli, who seems to have been -the ablest soldier among the Franks, saw the folly of leaving water and -marching across a burning country under a July sun, instead of waiting -to be attacked. As he represented, he of all men was most interested -in relieving Tiberias, for it was his town, and his wife was within -the walls; yet such was the jealousy of him in the Latin camp that his -advice was rejected, and an advance began on July 3, 1187. - -Three miles from Tiberias the action opened by a furious attack on -the rearguard, formed by the Temple and the Hospital. When they gave -ground Guy lost heart and ordered a halt. The night which followed was -frightful. The Moslems fired the dry undergrowth, and, amidst flames -and smoke, the Franks lay till dawn, tormented by hunger and thirst, -and exposed to clouds of arrows which the enemy poured in on them. - -At dawn fighting began again, but the demoralized infantry fled to a -hill, whence they refused to move. The Count of Tripoli, seeing the -battle lost, cut his way out with a band of his followers, but Guy de -Lusignan, Reginald de Chatillon, and a multitude of knights and nobles -were captured. The orders were practically annihilated, the whole -able-bodied population cut to pieces, and the holy cross, which had -been borne before the host as an invincible engine of war, was seized -and defiled on the mountain where Jesus taught his disciples to love -their enemies. - -Emmad-Eddin, an Arabic historian, has described the veneration of the -Christians for their talisman, their adoration of it in peace, and -their devotion to it in battles; and his words help a modern generation -to conceive the shock its worshippers received when it betrayed its -helplessness. - - "The great cross was taken before the king, and many of the - impious sought death about it. When it was held aloft the - infidels bent the knee and bowed the head. They had enriched - it with gold and jewels; they carried it on days of great - solemnity, and looked upon it as their first duty to defend it - in battle. The capture of this cross was more grievous to them - than the capture of their king." - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE - - -Most writers on the crusades have noticed the change which followed -the battle of Tiberias. Pigeonneau, for example, in his _History -of Commerce_, pointed out that, after the loss of Jerusalem, the -Christians "became more and more intent on economic interests," and the -"crusades became more and more political and commercial, rather than -religious, expeditions." [124] - -In other words, when decentralization reached its limit, the form of -competition changed, and consolidation began. With the reopening of -the valley of the Danube, the current turned. At first the tide ran -feebly, but after the conquest of the Holy Land the channels of trade -altered; capital began to accumulate; and by the thirteenth century -money controlled Palestine and Italy, and was rapidly subduing France. -Heyd remarked that "the commerce to the Levant took a leap, during the -crusades, of which the boldest imagination could hardly have dreamed -shortly before,"[125] because the possession of the Syrian ports -brought Europe into direct communication with Asia, and accelerated -exchanges. - - -From the dawn of European history to the rise of modern London, the -Eastern trade has enriched every community where it has centred, and, -among others, North Italy in the Middle Ages. Venice, Florence, Genoa, -and Pisa were its creations. - -In the year 452, when the barbarian migrations were flowing over -the Roman provinces in steadily increasing volume, the Huns sacked -Aquileia, and the inhabitants of the ravaged districts fled for -shelter to the islands which lie in the shallow water at the head -of the Adriatic. For many generations these fugitives remained poor, -subsisting mainly on fish, and selling salt as their only product; but -gradually they developed into a race highly adapted to flourish under -the conditions which began to prevail after the council of Clermont. - -Isolated save toward the sea, without agriculture or mines, but two -paths were open to them, piracy and commerce: and they excelled in -both. By the reign of Charlemagne they were prosperous; and when the -closing of the valley of the Danube forced traffic to go by sea, Venice -and Amalfi obtained a monopoly of what was left of the Eastern trade. -For many years, however, that trade was not highly lucrative. Though -Rome always offered a certain market for brocades for vestments and -for altar coverings, for incense, and jewels for shrines, ready money -was scarce, the West having few products which Asiatics or Africans -were willing to take in exchange for their goods. Therefore it was -not through enterprises sanctioned by the priesthood, that Venice won -in the economic competition which began to prevail in the eleventh -century. - -Venetians prospered because they were bolder and more unscrupulous than -their neighbours. They did without compunction what was needful for -gain, even when the needful thing was a damnable crime in the eyes of -the devout. - -The valley of the Nile, though fertile, produces neither wood nor iron, -nor men of the fighting type; for these the caliphs were ready to pay, -and the Venetians provided them all. Even as early as 971 dealings -with the common enemy in material of war had reached proportions which -not only stimulated the Emperor John Zimisces to energetic diplomatic -remonstrance, but made him threaten to burn all the ships he captured -laden with suspicious cargoes. - -To sell timber for ships, and iron for swords, to the Saracens, was a -mortal sin in children of the Church; but such a sin was as nothing -beside the infamy of kidnapping believers as slaves for infidels, -who made them soldiers to fight against their God. Charlemagne and -the popes after him tried to suppress the traffic, but without avail. -Slaving was so lucrative that it was carried on in the streets of Rome -herself,[126] and in the thirteenth century two thousand Europeans -were annually disposed of in Damietta and Alexandria, from whom the -Mamelukes, the finest corps of soldiers in the East, were recruited. - -Thus a race grew up in Italy, which differed from the people of -France and Germany because of the absence of those qualities which -had caused the Germans to survive when the inhabitants of the Empire -decayed. The mediæval Italians prospered because they were lacking -in the imagination which made the Northern peoples subservient to -the miracle-worker, and among mediæval Italians the Venetians, from -their exposed position, came to be the most daring, energetic, and -unscrupulous. By the end of the eleventh century their fleet was -so superior to the Greek, that the Emperor Alexis had to confide to -them the defence of the harbour of Durazzo against Robert Guiscard. -Guiscard attacked Durazzo in 1081, at the time of the revolution which -immediately preceded the debasement of the Byzantine coinage; and the -demonstration that Venice had already absorbed most of the carrying -trade, seems to prove that, during the last half of the eleventh -century, the centre of exchanges had a pronounced tendency to abandon -Constantinople. Moreover, the result of the campaign showed that the -Venetian navy was the strongest in the Mediterranean, and this was of -vital moment to the success of the crusades twenty years later, for, -without the command of the sea, the permanent occupation of Palestine -would have been impossible. - -After the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, almost the first operations of -Godfrey de Bouillon were against the Syrian ports; but as he controlled -too small a force to act alone, he made a treaty with Venice, by which, -in consideration of two hundred ships, he promised to cede to her a -third part of every town taken. Baldwin made a similar arrangement -with the Genoese, and, as the coast was subdued, the Italian cities -assumed their grants, and established their administrations. In the -end the Venetians predominated at Tyre, the Genoese at Acre, and the -Pisans at Antioch. Before the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, the -spices, drugs, brocades, carpets, porcelains, and gems of India and -China, reached the Mediterranean mainly by two routes. One by way of -the Persian Gulf to Bagdad, up the Euphrates to Rakka, and by land -to Aleppo, whence they were conveyed by caravan either to Antioch -or Damascus. Damascus, beside being the starting-place of caravans -for Mecca and Egypt, and the emporium for the products of Persia, -had important manufactures of its own. Its glass, porcelain, steel, -and brocades were famous, and it was a chief market for furs, which -were highly prized throughout the Middle Ages, when heating was not -understood. - -The second route was by water. Indian merchants usually sold their -cargoes at Aden, whence they were taken to a port in Upper Egypt, -floated down the Nile to Cairo, and bought by Europeans at Damietta -or Alexandria. The products of Egypt itself were valuable, and next to -Constantinople, Cairo was the richest city west of the Indus. - -What Europe gave to the Orientals in return is not so well known; but, -beside raw materials and slaves, her woollens were much esteemed. At -all events, exchanges must have become more favourable to her, as is -proved by the increased supply of the precious metals. - -Why the short period of expansion, which followed upon the -re-establishment of the silver standard in the West, should have been -succeeded by a sharp contraction is unknown, but the fact seems proved -by the coinage. In the reign of Charlemagne a silver pound of 7680 -grains was made the monetary unit, which was divided into 240 denarii, -or pence.[127] - -For some time these pence were tolerably maintained, but as the empire -of Charlemagne disintegrated, they deteriorated until, by the end -of the twelfth century, those coined at Venice were but a quarter of -their original weight and three parts alloy.[128] After Hattin a new -expansion began, in which Venice took the lead. The battle was fought -in 1187, and some years later, but probably before 1200, the grosso -was struck, a piece of fine silver, of good weight, which thereafter -was maintained at the standard. Half a century later gold appeared. -Florence coined the florin in 1252, Venice the ducat in 1284, and -between the two dates, Saint Louis issued his crowns. - -The return of the precious metals to the West indicated a revival -of trade and a change in the form of competition. Instead of the -imagination, the economic faculty began to predominate, and energy -chose money as its vent. Within a generation the miracle fell -decisively in power, and the beginning of this most crucial of social -revolutions is visible in the third crusade, the famous expedition led -by Philip Augustus and Coeur de Lion. - -These two great soldiers probably learned the art of fortification at -the siege of Acre, the most remarkable passage of arms of the Middle -Ages. The siege is said to have cost one hundred thousand lives, and -certainly called forth all the engineering skill of the time. Guy de -Lusignan, having been liberated by Saladin soon after Hattin, wandered -about the country, abandoned and forlorn, until at last he sat down -before Acre, in 1189, with a force inferior to the garrison. There -he was joined by the kings of France and England, who succeeded in -capturing the city after a desperate defence of two years. An immense -booty was taken, but the clergy complained that two secular princes had -embezzled the heritage of God. On the other hand, the troops had not -received the usual assistance from miracles; for though assaults were -delivered almost daily, none were worked, and the Virgin herself only -appeared once, and then so quietly as to arouse no enthusiasm. - -After the surrender Philip went home, while Richard remained in -command. The whole country had been overrun, only a few strongholds -like the Krak des Chevaliers and Tortosa held out; and Richard, far -from following the example of the first crusaders, who marched straight -for the relics at Jerusalem, turned his attention to re-establishing -the centres of trade upon the coast. - -He moved south along the shore, keeping close to his fleet, with -the enemy following on the mountains. As he approached Joppa, the -Saracens descended into the plain and gave battle. They were decisively -defeated, and Richard occupied Joppa without resistance. From Joppa -the road ran direct to Jerusalem. The way was not long nor the country -difficult, and there is no reason to suppose an attack to have been -particularly hazardous. On the contrary, when Richard advanced, the -opposition was not unusually stubborn, and he actually pursued the -enemy to within sight of the walls. Yet he resolutely resisted the -pressure of the clergy to undertake a siege, the inference being that -the power which controlled him held Jerusalem to be worthless. That -power must have been capital, for the treaty which he negotiated was -as frankly mercenary as though made in modern times. The seaboard from -Tyre to Joppa was ceded to the Franks; Ascalon, which was the key to -Egypt, was dismantled, and the only mention made of Jerusalem was that -it should be open to pilgrims in the future, as it had been in the -past. Of the cross, which fifty years before had been prized above all -the treasures of the East, not a word was said, nor does it appear -that, after Hattin, either Infidels or Christians attached a money -value to it. - -Some chroniclers have insisted that Richard felt remorse at thus -abandoning his God; and when, in a skirmish, he saw the walls of -Jerusalem, they related that he hid his face and wept. He may have done -so, but, during his life, the time came when Christian knights felt -naught but exultation at having successfully bartered the Sepulchre for -money. After Richard's departure, the situation of the Franks in the -Holy Land went rapidly from bad to worse. The decay of faith constantly -relaxed the bond which had once united them against the Moslems, -while they were divided amongst themselves by commercial jealousies. -The Temple and the Hospital carried on perpetual private wars about -disputed property, the fourth crusade miscarried, and the garrison of -Joppa was massacred, while Europe looked on with indifference. - -When this point was reached, the instinct of self-preservation seems to -have roused the clergy to the fact that their fate was bound up with -the fate of the holy places: if the miracle were discredited, their -reign was at an end. Accordingly, Innocent III., on his election, threw -himself into a new agitation with all the intensity of his nature. -Foulques de Neuilly was chosen to preach, like Saint Bernard; but his -success, at first, was not flattering. He was insulted publicly by -Richard, and was even accused of having embezzled the funds entrusted -to him. At length, in the year 1199, Tybalt, Count of Champagne, and -Louis, Count of Blois, took the cross at a tournament they were holding -at the castle of Ecry. They soon were joined by others, but probably -the most famous baron of the pilgrimage was Simon de Montfort. - -At the end of the twelfth century the great fiefs had not been -absorbed, and the Count of Champagne was a powerful sovereign. He was -therefore chosen leader of the expedition, and, at a meeting held -at Compiègne, the three chief princes agreed to send a committee -of six to Venice to contract for transportation. In this committee, -Ville-Hardouin, who wrote the chronicle of the war, represented Tybalt. - -The doge was then Henry Dandolo, perhaps the most remarkable man Venice -ever produced. Though nearly ninety-five, he was as vigorous as in -middle life. A materialist and a sceptic, he was the best sailor, the -ablest diplomatist, and the keenest speculator in Europe; and while, -as a statesman and a commander, he raised his country to the pinnacle -of glory, he proved himself the easy superior of Innocent III. in -intrigue. So eminent were his abilities that, by common consent, he was -chosen leader of a force which held some of the foremost captains of -the age; and when, by his sagacity, Constantinople had been captured, -he refused the imperial crown. - -Ville-Hardouin always spoke of him with deep respect as "the good duke, -exceeding wise and prudent;" and, indeed, without him the Frankish -princes would certainly have fallen victims to the cunning of the -Greeks, whom he alone knew how to over-reach, and whom he hated because -his eyes had been seared by the Emperor Manuel Comnenus, when he had -been upon a mission at his court. - -In his hands the Frankish envoys were like children, bewildered by -the wealth and splendour which surrounded them. After stating their -errand to Dandolo, they waited eight days for an answer, and were -then tendered a contract which has the look of having been part of a -premeditated plan to ensnare the crusaders, and make them serve the -republic. - -The Venetians bound themselves to provide shipping for 4500 knights -with their horses, 9000 squires, and 20,000 foot, with provisions -for nine months, for 85,000 marks of silver; probably about equal to -$5,500,000 of our money. But beside this the city proposed, "for the -love of God," to add fifty galleys, and divide the conquests equally. -Whatever its character, and however much such obligations were beyond -the ability of the Franks, the contract was executed and sent to -Innocent for ratification, who approved it with the proviso that no -hostilities should be undertaken against Christians during the crusade. -The pilgrims were to meet at Venice in the spring. - -When Ville-Hardouin returned, Tybalt was dying, and his loss threw all -into confusion. Possibly also the suspicion spread that the Venetians -had imposed on the committee, for many of the nobles sailed from other -ports where better terms were to be made, among whom was Reginald de -Dampierre, to whom Tybalt had confided his treasure. So, in the spring -of 1202, hardly more than half the knights presented themselves at -Venice, and these found it quite impossible to meet their engagements. -Even when the princes had sent their plate and jewels to the Ducal -Palace, a deficit, estimated at 34,000 marks, remained. - -On their side the Venetians declined to make any abatement of their -price, but offered as a compromise to give time, and collect the -balance from plunder. As a preliminary they proposed an attack on Zara, -an Adriatic port, which had revolted and transferred its allegiance to -the King of Hungary. - -Few propositions could have been a greater outrage on the Church. Not -only were the people of Zara fellow-Christians, against whom the Franks -had no complaint, but the King of Hungary was himself a crusader, his -dominions were under the protection of the pope, and an attack on him -was tantamount to an attack on Rome herself. - -On these points difference of opinion was impossible, and the papal -legate, with all the other ecclesiastics, denounced the Venetians and -threatened them with excommunication. The result showed that force -already expressed itself in the West through money, and not through the -imagination. - -What followed is the more interesting since it can be demonstrated -that, when beyond the Alps, and withdrawn from the pressure of -capital, the French barons were as emotional as ever. While these very -negotiations were pending, the subjects of Philip Augustus had deserted -him in a mass, and had grovelled before Innocent as submissively as if -he had been Hildebrand. - -The first wife of Philip Augustus was Ingeburga, a Danish princess, -for whom he had an irrepressible disinclination. In 1195 he obtained -a divorce from her, by an assembly of prelates presided over by the -Cardinal of Champagne. He then married Agnes de Méranie, to whom he was -devotedly attached; Ingeburga appealed to Rome, and Innocent declared -the divorce void, and ordered Philip to separate "from his concubine." - -Philip refused, and Innocent commanded his legate to put the kingdom -under interdict. At Vienne, in the month of January, 1200, at the dead -of night, the magical formulas were recited. When the Christ upon the -altar had been veiled, the sacred wafer burned, the miracle-working -corpses hidden in the crypt, before the shuddering people, the priest -laid his curse upon the king until he should put away his harlot. - -From that hour all religious rites were suspended. The church doors -were barred, the bells were silent, the sick died unshriven, the dead -lay unburied. The king summoned his bishops, and threatened to drive -them from France: it was of no avail. The barons shrank from him, his -very men-at-arms fell off from him; he was alone as Henry had been at -Canossa. The people were frenzied, and even went to England to obtain -priestly aid. The Count of Ponthieu had to marry Philip's sister at -Rouen, within the Norman jurisdiction. - -In his extremity Philip called a parliament at Paris, and Agnes, clad -in mourning, implored protection, but not a man moved; a mortal terror -was in every heart. She was then in the seventh month. The assembly -decided that the king must submit, and Agnes supplicated the pope not -to divide her from her husband; the crown, she said, was indifferent -to her. But this was a struggle for supremacy, and Innocent was -inexorable. A council was convened at Néelle, where Philip promised -to take back Ingeburga and part from Agnes. He explained that she -was pregnant, and to leave the realm might kill her; but the priests -demanded absolute submission, and he swore upon the evangelists to -see her no more. Agnes, broken by her misery, set forth for a Norman -castle, where she died in bearing a son, whom she called Tristan, from -her sorrow at his birth. - -The soldier, who belonged to the old imaginative society, had been -conquered by the Church, which was the incarnation of the imagination; -but Dandolo was a different development. He was the creation of -economic competition, and he trampled the clergy under his feet. - -Although, apparently, profoundly sceptical, as the man must be who is -the channel through which money acts, he understood how to play upon -the imaginations of others, and arranged a solemn function to glorify -the Sepulchre. One Sunday he summoned both citizens and pilgrims to -Saint Mark's, and mounting the pulpit, he addressed the congregation. - - "My lords, you are engaged to the greatest people of the world, - for the highest enterprise that ever was undertaken; and I am - old and feeble, and need repose, and am infirm in body; but I - see that none can command and control you as I can, who am your - doge. If you will permit me to take the cross to lead you, and - let my son stay here in my place and conduct the government, I - will go to live or die with you, and with the pilgrims."[129] - -Ville-Hardouin's simple chronicle shows how perfectly the old man knew -his audience:-- - - "There was great pity among the people of the country and the - pilgrims, and many tears were shed, because this worthy man had - so much cause to stay behind; for he was old and ... his sight - poor."[130] - -Amidst an outburst of enthusiasm assent was given. Then, while the -church rang with shouts, Dandolo knelt before the altar, in a passion -of tears fixed the cross to the ducal bonnet, and rose, the commander -of the finest army in the world. - -And Dandolo was a great commander; a commander of the highest stamp. -He tolerated no insubordination, and trod the clergy down. When Peter -of Capua, the papal legate, interfered, Dandolo sternly told him that -the army of Christ lacked not for military chiefs, and that if priests -would stay therein they must content themselves with prayers. - -A Cistercian monk, named Gunther, who had been appointed to follow his -abbot on the pilgrimage, kept a chronicle of what he saw. His superior, -named Martin, was so disheartened at Venice that he asked the legate -for absolution from his vow, and for permission to return to his -convent at Bâle; but this request the cardinal refused. The priests -had determined to stay by Dandolo and fight him to the last. Therefore -the abbot sailed with the Venetians, but he learned a bitter lesson -at Zara. There the clergy received a letter from Innocent, explaining -the position of the Church, and threatening with excommunication all -who should molest the King of Hungary. Simon de Montfort and a portion -of the more devout, who had from the first been scandalized at the -contract made with Dandolo, then withdrew and camped apart; and, at a -meeting called to consider the situation, Guy, Abbot of Vaux-de-Cernay, -tried to read the letter. An outbreak followed, and some of the -chroniclers assert that the Venetians would have murdered Guy, had not -Simon de Montfort stood by him sword in hand.[131] - -On the main point there is no doubt. The priests ignominiously failed -to protect their ally; the attack was made, and nothing shows that even -de Montfort refused to share in it, or to partake of the plunder after -the city fell. There was no resistance. The besieged made no better -defence than hanging crosses on their walls, and on the fifth day -capitulated. First the Franks divided the plunder with the Italians; -then they sent an embassy to Rome to ask for absolution. - -They alleged that they were helpless, and either had to accept the -terms offered by Dandolo, or abandon their enterprise. Innocent -submitted. He coupled his forgiveness, indeed, with the condition -that the plunder should be returned;[132] yet no record remains that a -single mark, of all the treasures taken from Zara, ever found its way -back to the original owners. - -The Venetians neither asked for pardon nor noticed the excommunication. -On the contrary, Dandolo used the time when the envoys were at Rome in -maturing the monstrous crime of diverting the crusade from Palestine to -Constantinople. - -Just before the departure from Venice, an event happened which -Ville-Hardouin called "one of the greatest marvels you ever heard of." -In 1195 the Greek emperor, named Isaac, had been dethroned, imprisoned, -and blinded by his brother Alexis, who usurped the throne. Isaac's son, -also named Alexis, escaped, and took shelter with his brother-in-law, -Philip of Swabia. Philip could not help him, but suggested to him to -apply to the crusaders in Venice, and ask them for aid. Whether or not -this application had been arranged by Dandolo, does not appear. Alexis -went to Venice, where he was cordially received by the doge; but as -the fleet was then weighing anchor, his affairs were postponed until -after the attack on Zara, when an embassy from Philip arrived, which -brought up the whole situation at Constantinople for consideration. -In the struggle which followed between the Venetians and the Church, -the Franks lay like a prize destined to fall to the stronger, and in -Gunther's narrative the love the priests bore their natural champions -can be plainly seen. In the thirteenth century, as in the fifth -century, the ecclesiastics recognized that over a monied oligarchy they -could never have control; accordingly the monks hated the Venetians, -whom Gunther stigmatized as "a people excessively greedy of money," -always ready to commit sacrilege for gain. - -On his side Dandolo followed his instinct, and tried to bribe the -pope by offering him an union of the communions. But Innocent was -inflexible. He wrote in indignation that the crusaders had sworn to -avenge the wrongs of Christ, and likened those who should turn back to -Lot's wife, whom God turned into a pillar of salt for disobeying his -commands.[133] - -Yet, though the priesthood put forth its whole strength, it was beaten. -The power of wealth was too great. No serious defection took place. -Ville-Hardouin gave a list of those who left the fleet, among whom was -Simon de Montfort, adding contemptuously, "Thus those left the host, -... which was great shame to them."[134] - -Judging by the words alone, a century might have separated the writer -and his comrades from the barons who abandoned Agnes to Innocent; yet -they were the same men transplanted to an economic civilization, and -excited by the power of wealth. - -On Easter Monday, 1203, the fleet sailed for Corfu, where another and -more serious split occurred. But the dazzling prize finally prevailed -over the fear of the supernatural, and, getting under way once more, -the pilgrims crossed the Sea of Marmora, and anchored at the convent -of Saint Stephen, about twelve miles from Constantinople. Since -exchanges had again returned to Italy, the vitality of the Greek Empire -had burned low. It was failing fast through inanition. But Byzantium -was still defended by those stupendous fortifications which were -impregnable from the land, and only to be assailed from the sea by an -admiral of genius. - -Such an one was Dandolo, a born seaman, sagacious yet fiery; and, -besides, a pilot of the port. At a council of war he laid out a plan of -campaign:-- - - "My lords, I know more of the character of this country than - you do, for I have been here before. You have before you the - greatest and most perilous enterprise which any men have ever - undertaken, and therefore it would be well that we should act - prudently."[135] - -He then explained how the attack should be made; and had the Franks -implicitly obeyed him, the town would have been carried at the first -assault. Three days later the allies occupied Scutari, the Asiatic -suburb of Constantinople, and lay there ten days collecting supplies. -On the twelfth they stormed the tower of Galata, which commanded Pera, -the key to the Golden Horn. While the action was going on, Dandolo -forced his way into the port. The entrance was defended not only by a -great tower, but by a huge iron chain, fastened to piles, and covered -by twenty galleys armed with machines. - -Nothing stopped the Venetians. Disregarding the fire, the sailors -sprang on the chain, and from thence gained the decks of the Greek -galleys, whose crews they threw overboard. Meanwhile, one of the -Italian ships, provided with steel shears, bore down on the cable, cut -it, and led the way into the harbour. - -The weakest part of the walls being uncovered, Dandolo insisted that -the only hope for success lay in assaulting from ship-board where the -battlements were lowest; but the French obstinately refused to depart -from their habits, and determined to fight on horseback. The event -proved Dandolo's wisdom; for though the attack failed through the -mistake of dividing the force, and of attempting the fortifications -toward the land, the doge so led his sailors that Ville-Hardouin -kindled with enthusiasm as he told the tale. - -When the old man saw his ships recoil before the tremendous fire from -the battlements, - - "so that the galleys could not make the land, then there - was seen a strange sight, for the duke of Venice, who was an - old man, and saw not well, was fully armed and commanded his - galley, and had the gonfalon of Saint Mark's before him; and - he cried to his men to put him ashore, or if they would not he - would do justice on their bodies; and they brought the galley - to shore, and they sallied forth and carried the banner before - him to the shore. And when the Venetians saw the gonfalon of - Saint Mark's ashore, and the galley of the lord ashore before - them, they were all ashamed and made for the land, and rushed - out from their ships pell-mell. Then might one see a marvellous - assault. And thus testifies Geoffrey de Ville-Hardouin, the - marshal of Champagne, who dictates this book, that more than - forty declare they saw the banner of Saint Mark of Venice on - one of the towers, and none knew who carried it thither."[136] - -Once a foothold on the ramparts had been gained, the Greeks fled, -twenty-five towers fell in quick succession, and the Italians had -already entered the streets and fired the houses to drive the enemy -from the roofs, when news was brought that Alexis was advancing from -the gates, and threatened to envelop the French. Indeed, the danger -was extreme; for, as Ville-Hardouin explained, the crusaders were -wondrous few when compared with the garrison, for they "had so many -men we should all have been engulfed amongst them."[137] With the -instinct of a great commander, Dandolo instantly sounded a retreat, -abandoned the half-conquered town, and hastened to the support of his -allies. He reached the ground opportunely, for Alexis, when he saw the -reinforcement, retreated without striking a blow. - -That night Alexis fled, leaving Constantinople without a government; -and the people took the blind Isaac from his dungeon and set him on the -throne. In theory, therefore, the work of the crusaders was done, and -they were free to embark for Palestine to battle for the Sepulchre. -In fact, the thing they came for remained to be obtained, and what -they demanded amounted to the ruin of the empire. Young Alexis had -promised 200,000 marks of silver, to join the crusade himself, to -provide rations for a year, and to recognize the supremacy of Rome; but -such promises were impossible to fulfil. During a delay of six months -the situation daily grew more strained, a bitter hatred sprang up -between the foreigners and the natives, riots broke out, conflagrations -followed, and at last the allies sent a deputation to the palace to -demand the execution of the treaty. - -In despair, Alexis attacked the fleet with fire-ships, and his failure -led to a revolution in which he was killed. Isaac died from terror, -and one Moursouffle was raised to the throne. In their extremity the -Greeks had recourse to treachery, and nearly succeeded in enticing -the Frankish princes to a banquet, at which they were to have been -assassinated. The plot was frustrated by the sagacity of Dandolo, who -would allow no one to trust themselves within the walls; then both -sides prepared for war. - -Defeat had taught the Franks obedience, and they consented to serve on -the galleys. They embarked on April 8, 1204, to be ready for an assault -in the morning. But though the attack was made in more than one hundred -places at once, "yet for our sins were the pilgrims repulsed." Then the -landsmen proposed to try some other part of the walls, but the sailors -told them that elsewhere the current would sweep them away; and "know," -said the marshal, "there were some who would have been well content -had the current swept them away" altogether, "for they were in great -peril."[138] - -This repulse fell on a Friday; the following Monday the attack was -renewed, and at first with small success, but at length-- - - "Our Lord raised a wind called Boreas ... and two ships which - were lashed together, the one named the _Pilgrim_ and the other - the _Paradise_, approached a tower on either side, just as God - and the wind brought them, so that the ladder of the _Pilgrim_ - was fixed to the tower; and straightway a Venetian and a French - knight ... scaled the tower, and others followed them, and - those in the lower were discomforted and fled."[139] - -From the moment the walls were carried, the battle turned into a -massacre. The ramparts were scaled in all directions, the gates were -burst open with battering rams, the allies poured into the streets, and -one of the most awful sacks of the Middle Ages began. - -Nothing was so sacred as to escape from pillage. The tombs of the -emperors were violated, and the body of Justinian stripped. The altar -of the Virgin, the glory of Saint Sophia, was broken in pieces, and -the veil of the sanctuary torn to rags. The crusaders played dice on -the tables which represented the apostles, and drank themselves drunk -in the holy chalices. Horses and mules were driven into the sanctuary, -and when they fell under their burdens, the blood from their wounds -stained the floor of the cathedral. At last a young prostitute mounted -the patriarch's chair, intoned a lewd chant, and danced before the -pilgrims. Thus fell Constantinople, by the arms of the soldiers of -Christ, on the twelfth day of April, in the year one thousand two -hundred and four. Since the sack of Rome by Alaric no such prize -had ever fallen to a victor, and the crusaders were drunk with their -success. Ville-Hardouin estimated that the share of the Franks, after -deducting some fifty thousand marks which the Venetians collected from -them, came to four hundred thousand marks of silver, not to speak of -masses of plunder of which no account was taken. The gain was so great -there seemed no end to the gold and silver, the precious stones, the -silks, the ermines, and whatever was costly in the world. - - "And Geoffrey de Ville-Hardouin testifies of his own knowledge, - that since the beginning of time, there was never so much - taken in one town. Every one took what he wanted, and there was - enough. Thus were the host of the pilgrims and of the Venetians - quartered, and there was great joy and honour for the victory - which God had given them, since those who had been poor were - rich and happy."[140] - - -In obedience to the soothsayers, the devotees of Louis the Pious had -perished by tens of thousands, and over their corpses the Moslems -had marched to victory. The defenders of Christ's cross had been -slaughtered like sheep upon the mountains of the Beatitudes, and sold -into slavery in herds at Damascus and Aleppo; even the men who, at the -bidding of God's vicar, had left Dandolo to fight for the Sepulchre -upon the barren hills of Palestine, had been immolated. Five hundred -had perished in shipwreck, more had been massacred in Illyria, none -had received reward. But those who, in defiance of the supernatural and -in contempt of their vow, had followed the excommunicated Venetian to -plunder fellow-Christians, had won immeasurable glory, and been sated -with incalculable spoil. - -The pilgrims who, constant to the end, had been spilling their blood -in God's service, came trooping to the Bosphorus to share in the last -remaining crumbs; the knights of the Temple and the Hospital set sail -for Greece, where money might still be made by the sword, and the King -of Jerusalem stood before the Tomb, naked unto his enemies. Innocent -himself was cowed; his commands had been disregarded and his curse -defied; laymen had insulted his legate, and had, without consulting -him, divided among themselves the patronage of the Church; and yet for -the strongest there was no moral law. When Baldwin announced that he -was emperor, the pope called him "his dearest son," and received his -subjects into the Roman communion.[141] - -But yesterday, the greatest king of Christendom had stood weeping, -begging for the life of his wife; a hundred years earlier an emperor -had stood barefoot, and freezing in the snow, at the gate of Canossa, -as a penance for rebellion; but in 1204 a Venetian merchant was blessed -by the haughtiest of popes for having stolen Christ's army, made war -on his flock, spurned his viceregent, flouted his legate, and usurped -his patrimony. He had appointed a patriarch without a reference to -Rome. All was forgiven, the appointment was confirmed, the sinner -was shriven; nothing could longer resist the power of money, for -consolidation had begun. - -Yet, though nature may discriminate against him, the emotionalist will -always be an emotionalist, for such is the texture of his brain; and -while he breathes, he will hate the materialist. The next year Baldwin -was defeated and captured by the Bulgarians, and then Innocent wrote -a letter to the Marquis of Montferrat, which showed how the wound had -rankled when he blessed the conqueror. - -He said bitterly:-- - - "You had nothing against the Greeks, and you were false to - your vows because you did not fight the Saracens, but the - Christians; you did not capture Jerusalem, but Constantinople; - you preferred earthly to heavenly treasures. But what was far - graver, you have spared neither religion, nor age, nor sex, and - you have committed adulteries, fornications and incests before - men's eyes.... Nor did the imperial treasures suffice you, nor - the plunder alike of rich and poor. You laid your hands on the - possessions of the Church, you tore the silver panels from - the altars, you broke into the sanctuaries and carried away - the images, the crosses and the relics, so that the Greeks, - though afflicted by persecution, scorn to render obedience - to the apostolic chair, since they see in the Latins nothing - but an example of perdition and of the works of darkness, and - therefore rightly abhor them more than dogs."[142] - -For the north and west of Europe the crusade of Constantinople seems to -have been the turning point whence the imagination rapidly declined. -At the opening of the thirteenth century, everything shows that the -genuine ecstatic type predominated in the Church--the quality of mind -which believed in the miracle, and therefore valued the amulet more -than money. Innocent himself, with all his apparent worldliness, must -have been such a man; for, though the material advantages of a union -with the Greek Church far outweighed the Sepulchre, his resistance to -the diversion of the army from Palestine was unshaken to the last. The -same feeling permeated the inferior clergy; and an anecdote told by -Gunther shows that even so late as the year 1204 the monks unaffectedly -despised wealth in its vulgar form. - - "When therefore the victors set themselves with alacrity - to spoil the conquered town, which was theirs by right of - war, the abbot Martin began to think about his share of the - plunder; and lest, when everything had been given to others, - he should be left empty-handed, he proposed to stretch out his - consecrated hand to the booty. But since he thought the taking - of secular things unworthy, he bestirred himself to obtain a - portion of the sacred relics, which he knew were there in great - quantities."[143] - -The idea was no sooner conceived than executed. Although private -marauding was punished with death, he did not hesitate, but hastened -to a church, where he found a frightened old monk upon his knees, whom -he commanded in a terrible voice to produce his relics or prepare for -death. He was shown a chest full to the brim. Plunging in his arms, he -took all he could carry, hurried to his ship and hid his booty in his -cabin; and he did this in a town whose streets were literally flowing -with gold and silver. He had his reward. Though a sacrilegious thief, -angels guarded him by sea and land until he reached his cloister at -Bâle. Then he distributed his plunder through the diocese. - -Occasionally, when the form of competition has abruptly changed, nature -works rapidly. Within a single generation after Hattin, the attitude, -not only of the laity but of the clergy, had been reversed, and money -was recognized, even by the monks, as the end of human effort. - -The relics at Jerusalem had first drawn the crusaders to the East, and, -incidentally, the capture of the Syrian seaports led to the reopening -of trade and the recentralization of the Western world. As long as -imagination remained the dominant force, and the miracle retained its -power, the ambition of the Franks was limited to holding the country -which contained their talismans; but as wealth accumulated, and the -economic type began to supplant the ecstatic, a different policy came -to prevail. - -Beside the cities of the Holy Land, two other portions of the Levant -had a high money value--the Bosphorus and the valley of the Nile. In -spite of Rome, the Venetians, in 1204, had seized Constantinople; at -the Lateran council of 1215, Innocent himself proposed an attack on -Cairo. Though conceived by Innocent, the details of the campaign were -arranged by Honorius III., who was consecrated in July, 1216; these -details are, however, unimportant: the interest of the crusade lies in -its close. John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, nominally commanded, -but the force he led little resembled Dandolo's. Far from being that -compact mass which can only be given cohesion by money, it rather -had the character of such an hysterical mob as Louis the Pious led to -destruction. - -After some semblance of a movement on Jerusalem, the army was conveyed -to the Delta of the Nile, and Damietta was invested in 1218. Here -the besiegers amounted to little more than a fluctuating rabble of -pilgrims, who came and went at their pleasure, usually serving about -six months. Among such material, military discipline could not exist; -but, on the contrary, the inflammable multitude were peculiarly adapted -to be handled by a priest, and soon the papal legate assumed control. -Cardinal Pelagius was a Spaniard who had been promoted by Innocent in -1206. His temperament was highly emotional, and, armed with plenary -power by Honorius, he exerted himself to inflame the pilgrims to the -utmost. After a blockade of eighteen months Damietta was reduced to -extremity, and to save the city the sultan offered the whole Holy Land, -except the fortress of Karak, together with the funds needed to rebuild -the walls of Jerusalem. King John, and all the soldiers, who understood -the difficulty of invading Egypt, favoured a peace; but Pelagius, -whose heart was fixed on the plunder of Cairo, prevented the council -from reaching a decision. Therefore the siege went on, and presently -the ramparts were carried without loss, as the whole population had -perished from hunger and pestilence. - -This victory made Pelagius a dictator, and he insisted on an advance -on the capital. John, and the grand masters of the military orders, -pointed out the disaster which must follow, as it was July, and the -Nile was rising. In a few weeks the country would be under water. -Moreover, the fleet could not ascend the river, therefore the army must -be isolated in the heart of a hostile country, and probably overwhelmed -by superior numbers. - -Pelagius reviled them. He told them God loved not cowards, but -champions who valued his glory more than they feared death. He -threatened them with excommunication should they hang back. Near -midsummer, 1221, the march began, and the pilgrims advanced to the apex -of the delta, where they halted, with the enemy on the opposite shore. - -The river was level with its banks, the situation was desperate, and -yet even then the sultan sent an embassy offering the whole of the -Holy Land in exchange for the evacuation of Egypt. The soldiers of all -nations were strenuously for peace, the priests as strenuously for war. -They felt confident of repeating the sack of Constantinople at Cairo, -nor can there be a greater contrast than Martin spurning the wealth of -Constantinople as dross, and Pelagius rejecting the Sepulchre that he -might glut himself with Egyptian wealth. - -But all history shows that the emotionalist cannot compete with the -materialist upon his own ground. In the end, under free economic -competition, he must be eliminated. Pelagius tarried idly in the jaws -of death until the Nile rose and engulfed him. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE SUPPRESSION OF THE TEMPLE - - -Physical weakness has always been the vulnerable point of the sacred -caste, for priests have rarely been warriors, and faith has seldom -been so profound as to guarantee ecclesiastics against attack. -This difficulty was marked in the early Middle Ages, when, although -disintegration so far prevailed as to threaten the very tradition of -centralized power, a strong leaven of the ancient materialism remained. - -In the ninth century the trend toward decentralization was resistless. -Although several of the descendants of Charlemagne were men of -ability and energy, the defence was so superior to the attack that -they could not coerce their vassals, and their domains melted away -into independent sovereignties until the crown became elective, and -the monarchy almost a tradition. During the tenth century it seems -possible that the regal authority might have been obliterated, even to -the last trace, had it not been for the Church, which was in sore need -of a champion. The priesthood cared nothing for the legitimate line; -what they sought was a protector, and accordingly they chose, not the -descendant of Charlemagne, but him who, in the words of the Archbishop -of Rheims, was "distinguished by his wisdom and who found support in -the greatness of his soul." Hugh Capet succeeded Louis V. because he -was the best chief of police in France. - -From such an alliance, between the priest and the soldier, has always -sprung the dogma of the divine right of kings. In mediæval Europe, -enchantment was a chief element of the royal power. The monarch -was anointed with a magic oil, girt with a sacred sword, given a -supernatural banner, and endowed with the gift of miracles. His touch -healed disease. In return for these gifts, he fought the battles of the -Church, whose property was the natural prey of a predatory baronage. -Every diocese and every abbey was embroiled in endless local wars, -which lasted from generation to generation, and sometimes from century -to century. A good example was the interminable feud between the Abbey -of Vézelay and the Counts of Nevers, and a letter of a papal legate -named Conon, which described one of the countless raids, gives an idea -of the ferocity of the attack. - - "The men of the Count of Nevers have burst open the doors - of the cloister, have thrown stones on the reliquaries which - contain the bodies of Saint Lazarus, of Saint Martha, of Saint - Andocious, and of Saint Pontianus; they have not even respected - the crucifix in which was preserved a morsel of the true cross, - they have beaten the monks, they have driven them out with - stones, and having taken one of them, they have treated him in - an infamous manner."[144] - -Until the stimulus given by the crusades was felt, subinfeudation went -on uninterruptedly; the Capetians were as unable to stem the current -as the Carlovingians before them, so that, under Philip I., the royal -domain had become almost as much dismembered as the kingdom of Lothaire -a century earlier. Consolidation began after the council of Clermont, -and Suger's _Life of Louis the Fat_ is the story of the last years of -the partisan warfare between the crown and the petty nobility which had -been going on since the time of Hugh Capet. - -During this long period the kings had fought a losing battle, -and without the material resources of the Church would have been -overpowered. Even as it was they failed to hold their own, and yet the -wealth of the clergy was relatively enormous. The single abbey of Saint -Denis was said to have controlled ten thousand men, and though this may -be an exaggeration, the corporation was organized on a gigantic scale. - -Between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries it held in France alone -three cities, upwards of seventy-four villages, twenty-nine manors -attached to these possessions, over a hundred parishes, and a great -many chapels bringing in valuable rentals, beside numerous vineyards, -mills and fields, with fifteen forests of the first class.[145] - -Suger's description of the country at the beginning of the twelfth -century is highly dramatic. Every strong position, like a hill or -a forest, was a baron's hold, from whence he rode to plunder and -torment the people. One of the most terrible of these robbers was -Hugh du Puiset, a man whom the Abbot of Saint Denis calls a ruffian, -the issue of a long line of ruffians. To the churchman, Hugh was the -incarnation of evil. He oppressed the clergy, and though hated by all, -few dared oppose him. At last he attacked Adèle, Countess of Chartres, -daughter of William the Conqueror, who went with her son Tybalt to -seek redress from the king. Louis did not relish the campaign, and the -monk described how the lady taunted him with the defeat his father had -suffered from the father of Hugh, who pursued him to Orléans, captured -a hundred of his knights, and cast his bishops into dungeons. - -Afterward, an assembly was held at Melun to consider the situation, -and there a concourse of prelates, clerks, and monks "threw themselves -at the king's feet and implored him, to his great embarrassment, to -repress this most greedy robber Hugh, who, more rapacious than a wolf, -devoured their lands."[146] - -Certainly the priests had cause for alarm, for the venerable Archbishop -of Chartres, who was present, had been captured, loaded with irons, and -long left to languish in prison. - -Three times this baron was defeated, but even when a prisoner, his -family connection was so powerful he was permitted to escape. At last -he died like a wolf, fighting to the last, having impaled the Seneschal -of France on his spear. - -Even singly, such men were almost a match for both Church and Crown; -but when joined in a league, especially if allied to one of the great -feudatories, such as the Duke of Normandy, they felt sure of victory. -One day, when Eudes, Count of Corbeil, was to join this very Hugh, -he put aside his armour-bearer who was attending him, and said to his -wife: "Pray, noble countess, bring the glittering sword to the noble -count, since he who takes it from you as a count, shall to-day return -it as a king."[147] - -The immediate effect of the crusades was to carry numbers of these -petty princes to Palestine, where they were often killed or ruined. As -their power of resistance weakened, the crown gained, and Louis the Fat -reconquered the domain. His active life began in 1097, the year of the -invasion of Palestine, and his absorption of the lordship of Montlhéri -is a good illustration of his success. - -The family of Rochefort-Montlhéri owned several of the strongest -donjons near Paris, and was divided into two branches, the one -represented by Guy Trousseau, Lord of Montlhéri, the other by Guy the -Red, Lord of Rochefort. Guy Trousseau's father was named Milo, and -all three went to Syria, where Milo was killed, and his son disgraced -himself. Suger spoke of him with extreme disdain:-- - - "Guy Trousseau, son of Milo of Montlhéri, a restless man and - a disturber of the kingdom, returned home from a pilgrimage - to the Holy Sepulchre, broken down by the anxiety of a long - journey and by the vexation of many troubles. And ... [being] - panic stricken at Antioch at the approach of Corboran, and - escaping down from a wall [he] ... abandoned the army of God - and fled destitute of everything." [148] - -Returning a ruined man, he married his daughter to the illegitimate -son of Philip, a half-brother of Louis, a child of twelve; and as -his guardians, the king and prince got possession of the castle. This -castle was almost at the gates of Paris, and a standing menace to the -communications of the kingdom: therefore their delight was great. "They -rejoiced as though they had taken a straw from their eyes, or as though -they had burst the barrier which imprisoned them."[149] And the old -king said to his son: "Guard well the tower, Louis, which has aged me -with chagrin, and through whose treachery and wicked fraud I have never -known peace and quiet."[150] - -Yet the destruction of the local nobility in Syria was the least -important part of the social revolution wrought by the crusades, for -though the power of the barons might have thus been temporarily broken, -they could never have been reduced to impotence unless wealth had grown -equal to organizing an overwhelming attack. The accumulation of wealth -followed the opening of the Eastern trade, and its first effect was to -cause the incorporation of the communes. - -Prior to 1095 but one town is known to have been chartered, Saint -Quentin, the capital of Vermandois, about 1080,[151] but after the -opening of the Syrian ports the whole complexion of society changed. -Noyon was chartered in 1108, Laon in 1111, Amiens in 1113, and then -free boroughs sprang up on every side. - -For want of the mariner's compass, commerce could not pass north by -the Straits of Gibraltar. Merchandise had therefore to go by land, and -exchanges between the north and south of Europe centred in the County -of Champagne, whose fairs became the great market of the thirteenth -century. - -The earliest dated document relating to these fairs is a deed drawn in -1114 by Hugh, Count of Troyes, by which he conveyed certain revenues -derived from them to the Abbey of Montier-en-Der. Fifty years later, -such mentions had grown frequent, and by the year 1200 the fairs had -attained their full development.[152] - -Weaving had been an industry in Flanders under the Romans, and in the -time of Charlemagne the cloth of the Low Countries had been famous; -but in the twelfth century the manufacture spread into the adjoining -provinces of France, and woollen became the most valuable European -export. The fleeces were brought chiefly from England, the weaving was -done on the Continent, and one of the sources of the Florentine wealth -was the dressing and dyeing of these fabrics to prepare them for the -Asiatic market. - -For mutual defence, the industrial towns of the north formed a league -called the Hanse of London, because London was the seat of the chief -counting-house. This league at first included only seventeen cities, -with Ypres and Bruges at the head, but the association afterward -increased to fifty or sixty, stretching as far west as Le Mans, as far -south as the Burgundian frontier, and as far east as Liège. Exclusive -of the royal domain, which was well consolidated under Philip Augustus, -the French portion of this region substantially comprised the counties -of Blois, Vermandois, Anjou, Champagne, and the Duchy of Normandy. -This district, which has ever since formed the core of France, became -centralized at Paris between the beginning of the reign of Philip -Augustus in 1180 and the reign of Philip the Fair a century later, and -there can be little doubt that this centralization was the effect of -the accumulation of capital, which created a permanent police. - -The merchants of all the cities of the league bound themselves to -trade exclusively at the fairs of Champagne, and, to prosper, the -first obstacle they had to overcome was the difficulty and cost -of transportation. Not only were the roads unsafe, because of the -strength of the castles in which the predatory nobility lived, but the -multiplicity of jurisdictions added to taxes. As late as the end of -the thirteenth century, a convention was made between fifteen of the -more important Italian cities, such as Florence, Genoa, Venice, and -Milan, and Otho of Burgundy, by which, in consideration of protection -upon the roads, tolls were to be paid at Gevry, Dôle, Augerans, Salins, -Chalamont, and Pontarlier. When six imposts were levied for crossing -a single duchy, the cost of importing the cheaper goods must have been -prohibitory. - -The Italian caravans reached Champagne ordinarily by two routes: one -by some Alpine pass to Geneva, and then through Burgundy; the other by -water to Marseilles or Aigues-Mortes, up the Rhone to Lyons, and north, -substantially as before. The towns of Provins, Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, -and Lagny-sur-Marne lie about midway between Bruges and Ypres on the -one side, and Lyons and Geneva on the other, and it was at these cities -that exchanges centralized, until the introduction of the mariner's -compass caused traffic to go by the ocean, and made Antwerp the monied -metropolis. - -The market was, in reality, open continuously, for six fairs were held, -each six weeks long, and the trade was so lucrative that places which, -in 1100, had been petty villages, in 1200 had wealth enough to build -those magnificent cathedrals which are still wonders of the world. - -The communal movement had nothing about it necessarily either liberal -or democratic. The incorporated borough was merely an instrument of -trade, and at a certain moment became practically independent, because -for a short period traders organized locally, before they could -amalgamate into centralized communities with a revenue sufficient to -pay a police capable of coercing individuals. - -What the merchant wanted was protection for trade, and, provided he -had it, the form in which it came was immaterial. Where the feudal -government was strong, communes did not exist: Paris never had a -charter. Conversely, where the government was weak, communes grew -up, because traders combined for mutual protection, and therefore the -communes reached perfection in ecclesiastical capitals. - -As a whole, the secular nobility rather favoured the incorporated -towns, because they could sell to them their services as policemen, and -could join with them in plundering the Church;[153] on their side the -tradesmen were always ready to commute personal military service into a -tax, and thus both sides benefited. To the Church, on the contrary, the -rise of the mercantile class was pure loss, not only because it caused -their vassals to seek better protection than ecclesiastics could give, -but because the propagation of the materialistic mind bred heresy. The -clergy had no police to sell, and the townsmen had, therefore, either -to do the work themselves or hire a secular noble. In the one case they -became substantially independent; in the other they transferred their -allegiance to a stranger. In any event, a new fief was carved out of -an ecclesiastical lordship, and such accessions steadily built up the -royal domain. - -From the outset, the sacred class seems to have been conscious of -its danger, and some of the most ferocious wars of the Middle Ages -were those waged upon ecclesiastical serfs who tried to organize for -self-defence. In one of his books Luchaire has told, at length, the -story of the massacre of the peasantry of the Laonnais by a soldier -whom the chapter of Laon elected bishop for the purpose,[154] and this -was but a single case out of hundreds. Hardly a bishop or an abbot -lived at peace with his vassals, and, as the clergy were the natural -prey of the secular nobility, the barons often sided with the populace, -and used the burghers as an excuse for private war. A speech made by -one of the Counts of Nevers, during a rising of the inhabitants of -Vézelay, gives a good idea of the intrigues which kept the prelates in -perpetual misery. - - "O very illustrious men, celebrated for great wisdom, valiant - by your strength and rich by the riches you have acquired - by your own merit, I am deeply afflicted at the miserable - condition to which you are reduced. Apparently the possessors - of much, in reality you are masters of nothing; and more than - this, you do not enjoy any portion of your natural liberty.... - If I think on these things I am greatly astonished, and ask - myself what has become of, or rather to what depth of cowardice - has fallen within you, that vigour formerly so renowned, when - you put to death your Lord, the abbot Artaud." - -The count then dwelt upon the harshness of the living abbot, and ended -thus:-- - - "Separate from this man, and bind yourselves to me by a mutual - agreement: if you consent, I engage myself to free you from all - exactions, from all illegal rentals, and to defend you from the - evils which are ready to fall upon you."[155] - -Wherever developed, the mercantile mind had always the same -characteristic: it was unimaginative, and, being unimaginative, it -doubted the utility of magic. Accordingly, all commercial communities -have rebelled against paying for miracles, and it was the spread of a -scepticism already well developed in the thirteenth century among the -manufacturing towns, which caused the Reformation of the sixteenth. At -Saint-Riquier the monks carried the relics of Saint Vigor each year -in procession. In 1264 the burghers took a dead cat and put it in a -shrine, while in another casket they placed a horse-bone, to do service -as the arm of Saint Vigor. When the procession reached a certain spot, -the reliquaries were set down, and a mock fight began between two -mummers. Then the bearers cried out, "Old Saint Riquier, you shall -go no further unless you reconcile these enemies," whereupon the -combatants fell into each other's arms, and all cried out that Saint -Riquier had wrought a miracle. - -Afterward they built a chapel and oratory, with an altar draped with -cloth of gold, and deposited the dead cat and the horse-bone; and -simple pilgrims, ignorant of the sacrilege, stopped to worship the -relics, the mayor and council aiding and abetting the crime, "to the -detriment of the whole Church universal."[156] - -The clergy retaliated with frightful ferocity. As heresy followed in -the wake of trade, the Inquisition followed in the wake of heresy, and -the beginning of the thirteenth century witnessed simultaneously the -prosperity of the mercantile class and the organization of the Holy -Office. - -Jacques de Vitry breathed the ecclesiastical spirit. One of the -most famous preachers of his age, he rose from a simple monk to -be Cardinal-bishop of Tusculum, legate in France, and Patriarch of -Jerusalem. He led a crusade against the Albigenses, was present at -the siege of Damietta, and died at Rome in 1240. His sermons burn -with his hatred of the bourgeoisie: "That detestable race of men ... -hurrying to meet its fate, which none or few could escape," all of whom -"were making haste toward hell.... But above all other evils of these -Babylonish cities, there is one which is the worst, for hardly is there -a community to be found in which there are not abettors, receivers, -defenders of, or believers in, heretics."[157] - -The basis of the secular society of the early Middle Ages was -individual physical force. Every layman, noble or serf, owed military -service, and when a borough was incorporated, it took its place in -the feudal hierarchy, like any other vassal. With the spread of the -mercantile type, however, a change began--the transmutation of physical -force into money--and this process went on until individual strength or -courage ceased to have importance. - -As soldiers the burgesses never excelled; citizen troops have seldom -been formidable, and those of the communes rarely withstood the first -onset of the enemy. The tradesmen themselves recognized their own -limitations, and in 1317 the deputies of the cities met at Paris and -requested the government to undertake the administration of the local -militia. - -Though unwarlike, the townsmen were wealthy, and, in the reign of -Philip Augustus, the same cause which led to the consolidation of -the kingdom, brought about, as Luchaire has pointed out, "a radical -modification of the military and financial organization of the -monarchy;" the substitution by the privileged corporations of money -payments for personal service.[158] - -Thus, from the time when the economic type had multiplied sufficiently -to hire a police, the strength of the State came to depend on -its revenue, and financiers grew to be the controlling element of -civilization. Before the crusades, the high offices of the kingdom -of France, such as the office of the seneschal, were not only held by -nobles, but tended to become hereditary in certain warlike families. -After the rise of the Eastern trade the royal council was captured by -the bourgeoisie. Jacques Coeur is a striking specimen of the class which -ruled in the fifteenth century. Of this class the lawyers were the -spokesmen, and men like Flotte and Nogaret, the chancellors of Philip -the Fair, expressed the notion of centralization as perfectly as the -jurists of ancient Rome. No one has understood the movement better -than Luchaire. He has pointed out, in his work on French institutions, -that from the beginning of the reign of Saint Louis (1226) the Privy -Council steadily gained in consequence.[159] The permanent civil -service, of which it was the core, served as a school for judges, -clerks, seneschals, and all judicial and executive officers. At first -the administration retained a strong clerical tinge, probably because -a generation elapsed before laymen could be equally well trained for -the work, but after the accession of Philip the Fair, toward the end -of the century, the laymen decisively predominated, and when they -predominated, the plunder of the Church began. - -Abstract justice is, of course, impossible. Law is merely the -expression of the will of the strongest for the time being, -and therefore laws have no fixity, but shift from generation to -generation. When the imagination is vivid and police weak, emotional or -ecclesiastical law prevails. As competition sharpens, and the movement -of society accelerates, religious ritual is supplanted by civil codes -for the enforcement of contracts and the protection of the creditor -class. - -The more society consolidates the more legislation is controlled by the -wealthy, and at length the representatives of the monied class acquire -that absolute power once wielded by the Roman proconsul, and now -exercised by the modern magistrate. - - "The two great figures of Saint Louis and of Philip the Fair - which dominate the third period are profoundly unlike, but - considering the facts as a whole ... [they] have but moderately - influenced the direction of the communal development. With - the bailiffs and Parliament the monarchical machine is in - possession of its essential works; it operates and will stop - no more. In vain the king shall essay to arrest its march, or - to direct it in another course: the innumerable army of agents - of the crown does not cease for a moment to destroy rival - jurisdictions, to suppress embarrassing powers, to replace - everywhere private jurisdictions by the single authority of the - sovereign. - - "To the infinite diversity of local liberties its will is - to substitute regularity of institutions; political and - administrative centralization."[160] - -As Luchaire has elsewhere observed, the current everywhere -"substituted, in the paths of administration, justice, and finance, -the lay and burgher for the ecclesiastical and noble element." In -other words, the economic type steadily gained ground, and the process -went on until the Revolution. Saint Simon never forgave Louis XIV. for -surrounding himself with men of mean birth, dependent on his will. - - "The Duke of Beauvilliers was the single example in the whole - course of his reign, as has been remarked in speaking of this - duke, the only nobleman who was admitted into his council - between the death of Cardinal Mazarin and his own; that is to - say, during fifty-four years."[161] - -From the middle of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century -was an interval of almost unparalleled commercial prosperity--a -prosperity which is sufficiently proved by the sumptuous quality of the -architecture of the time. Unquestionably the most magnificent buildings -of modern Europe date from this period, and this prosperity was not -limited to any country, but extended from Cairo to London. Such an -expansion of trade would have been impossible without a corresponding -expansion of the currency, and as no new mines were discovered, -recourse was had to paper. By the year 1200 bills of exchange had been -introduced,[162] and in order to give the bill of exchange its greatest -circulating power, a system of banking was created which operated as -a universal clearing house, and by means of which these bills were -balanced against each other. - -In the thirteenth century, Florence, Genoa, and Venice were the chief -monied centres. In these cities the purchase and sale of commercial -paper was, at the outset, monopolized by a body of money-changers, -who, in Venice at least, seem to have been controlled by the council -of merchants, and who probably were not always in the best credit. -At all events, they were required in 1318 to make a deposit of -£3,000 as security for their customers, and afterward the amount -was increased.[163] Possibly some such system of deposits may have -originally formed the capital of the Bank of Venice, but everything -relating to the organization of the mediæval banks is obscure. All that -seems certain is, that business was conducted by establishments of -this character long before the date of any records which now remain. -Amidst the multiplicity of mediæval jurisdictions, not only did the -currency become involved in inextricable confusion, but it generally -was debased through abrasion and clipping. Before clearings could be -conveniently made, therefore, a coinage of recognized value had to -be provided, and this the banks undertook to supply by their system -of deposits. They received coin fresh from the mints, for which they -gave credits, and these credits or notes were negotiable, and were -always to be bought in the market. The deposits themselves were seldom -withdrawn, as they bore a premium over common currency, which they lost -when put in circulation, and they were accordingly only transferred -on the books of the corporations, to correspond with the sales of -the notes which represented them. Thus merchants from all parts of -Europe and the Levant could draw on Venice or Genoa, and have their -balances settled by transfers of deposits at the banks, without the -intervention of coin. A calculation has been made that, by this means, -the effective power of the currency was multiplied tenfold. Of all -these institutions, the corporations of Genoa and Venice were the most -famous. The Bank of Saint George, at Genoa, was formally organized in -1407, but it undoubtedly had conducted business from the beginning of -the twelfth century;[164] next to nothing is known of the development -at Venice. Probably, however, Florence was more purely a monied centre -than either Venice or Genoa, and no money-lenders of the Middle Ages -ever equalled the great Florentine banking families. Most of the -important commercial centres came to have institutions of the kind. - -The introduction of credit had the same effect as a large addition -to the stock of bullion, and, as gold and silver grew more plentiful, -their relative value fell, and a general reform of the currency took -place. Venice began the movement with the grosso, it spread through -Italy and into France, and the coin of Saint Louis was long considered -as perfect money. - -With the expansion of the currency went a rise in prices, all -producers grew rich, and, for more than two generations, the strain of -competition was so relaxed that the different classes of the population -preyed upon each other less savagely than they are wont to do in less -happy times. - -Meanwhile no considerable additions were made to the volume of the -precious metals, and, as the bulk of commerce swelled, the capacity of -the new system of credit became exhausted, and contraction set in. The -first symptom of disorder seems to have been a rise in the purchasing -power of both the precious metals, but particularly of gold, which -rose in its ratio to silver from about one to nine and a half, to -one to twelve.[165] At the same time the value of commodities, even -when measured in silver, appears to have fallen sharply.[166] The -consequence of this fall was a corresponding addition to the burden -of debt, and a very general insolvency. The communes had been large -borrowers, and their straits were deplorable. Luchaire has described -their condition as shown "in the municipal accounts addressed by the -communes to the government."[167] Everywhere there was a deficit, -almost everywhere ruin. Amiens, Soissons, Roye, Saint Quentin, and -Rouen were all in difficulty with their loans, but Noyon was perhaps -the worst of all. In 1278 Noyon owed 16,000 pounds which it was -unable to pay. After a suspension for fourteen years the king issued -an ordinance regulating liquidation; a part of the claims had to be -cancelled, and the balance collected by a levy on private property. The -bankruptcy was complete. - -The royal government, equally hardly pressed, was unable to meet its -obligations in the standard coin, and resorted to debasement. Under -Saint Louis the mark of silver yielded but 2 pounds 15 sous 6 pence; -in 1306 the same weight of metal was cut into 8 pounds 10 sous. -The pressure upon the population was terrible, and led to terrible -results--the beginning of the spoliation of the emotionalists. - -Perhaps the combination of the two great forces of the age, of the -soldier and the monk, was the supreme effort of the emotional mind. -What a hold the dazzling dream of omnipotence, through the possession -of the Sepulchre, had upon the twelfth century, can be measured by -the gifts showered upon the crusading orders, for they represented a -prodigious sacrifice. - -At Paris the Temple had a capital city over against the capital of the -king. Within a walled enclosure of sixty thousand square metres, stood -the conventual buildings and a gigantic donjon of such perfect masonry -that it never needed other repairs than the patching of its roof. -Beyond the walls the domain extended to the Seine, a property which, -even in 1300, had an almost incalculable value. - -On every Eastern battle-field, and at every assault and siege, the -knights had fought with that fiery courage which has made their name a -proverb down to the present day. In 1265, at Safed, three hundred had -been butchered upon the ramparts in cold blood, rather than renounce -their faith. At Acre, whose loss sealed the fate of Palestine, they -held the keep at all odds until the donjon fell, burying Christians and -Moslems in a common grave. But skill and valour avail nothing against -nature. Step by step the Templars had been driven back, until Tortosa -surrendered in 1291. Then the Holy Land was closed, the enthusiasm -which had generated the order had passed away, and, meanwhile, -economic competition had bred a new race at home, to which monks were a -predestined prey. - -In 1285, as the Latin kingdom in Syria was tottering towards its -fall, Philip the Fair was crowned. Subtle, sceptical, treacherous, -and cruel, few kings have left behind them a more sombre memory, yet -he was the incarnation of the economic spirit in its conflict with -the Church. Nine years later Benedetto Gaetani was elected pope: -a man as completely the creation of the social revolution of the -thirteenth century as Philip himself. Trained at Bologna and Paris, a -jurist rather than a priest, his faith in dogma was so scanty that his -belief in the immortality of the soul has been questioned. A thorough -worldling, greedy, ambitious, and unscrupulous, he was suspected of -having murdered his predecessor, Celestin V. - -When Boniface came to the throne, the Church is supposed to have -owned about one-third of the soil of Europe, and on this property the -governments had no means of enforcing regular taxation. Toward the -close of the thirteenth century the fall of prices increased the weight -of debt, while it diminished the power of the population to pay. On -the other hand, as the system of administration became more complex, -the cost of government augmented, and at last the burden became more -than the laity could endure. Both England and France had a permanent -deficit, and Edward and Philip alike turned toward the clergy as -the only source of supply. Both kings met with opposition, but the -explosion came in France, where Clairvaux, the most intractable of -convents, appealed to Rome. - -Boniface had been elected by a coalition between the Colonna and the -Orsini factions, but after his coronation he turned upon the Colonnas, -who, in revenge, plundered his treasure. A struggle followed, which -ended fatally to the pope; but at first he had the advantage, sacked -their city of Præneste, and forced them to fly to France. On the brink -of this war, Boniface was in no condition to rouse so dangerous an -adversary as Philip, and, in answer to Clairvaux's appeal, he confined -himself to excommunicating the prince who should tax the priest and the -priest who should pay the impost. - -Nevertheless, the issue had to be met. The Church had weakened as -terror of the unknown had waned, and could no longer defend its wealth, -which was destined to pass more and more completely into the hands of -the laity. - -Philip continued his aggressions, and, when peace had been established -in Italy, the rupture came. Not realizing his impotence, and -exasperated at the royal policy, Boniface sent Bernard de Saisset, -Bishop of Pamiers, to Paris as his ambassador. Bernard had recently -been consecrated in defiance of Philip, and they were bitter enemies. -He was soon dismissed from court, but he continued his provocations, -calling the king a false coiner and a blockhead, and when he returned -to Pamiers he plotted an insurrection. He was arrested and prosecuted -by the Chancellor Flotte, but when delivered to the Archbishop of -Narbonne for degradation, action was suspended to await the sanction -of Rome. Then Flotte was sent to Italy to demand the surrender "of -the child of perdition," that Philip might make of him "an excellent -sacrifice to God." The mission necessarily failed, for it was a -struggle for supremacy, and the issue was well summed up in the final -words of the stormy interview which brought it to a close. "My power, -the spiritual power," cried Boniface, "embraces and encloses the -temporal." "True," retorted Flotte, "but yours is verbal, the king's is -real." - -An ecclesiastical council was convoked for October, 1302, and Philip -was summoned to appear before the greatest prelates of Christendom. -But, not waiting the meeting of this august assembly, Boniface, on -December 5, 1301, launched his famous bull, "Ausculta, fili," which was -his declaration of war.[168] - -Listen, my son: do not persuade yourself that you have no superior, and -are not in subjection to the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy: he -who says this is mad, he who sustains it is an infidel. You devour the -revenues of the vacant bishoprics, you pillage churches. I do not speak -now of the alterations in the coinage, and of the other complaints -which arise on all sides, and which cry to us against you, but not to -make myself accountable to God for your soul, I summon you to appear -before me, and in case of your refusal shall render judgment in your -absence.[169] - -A century before, the barons of France had abandoned Philip Augustus, -through fear of the incantations of Innocent, but, in the third -generation of the commercial type, such fears had been discarded. In -April, 1302, the estates of the realm sustained the "little one-eyed -heretic," as Boniface called Flotte, in burning the papal bull, and in -answering the admonitions of the pope with mockery. - - "Philip, by the grace of God king of the French, to Boniface, - who calls himself sovereign pontiff, little greeting or none. - Let your very great foolishness know that we are subject to - no one for the temporalty; that the collation to the vacant - churches and prebends belongs to us by royal right; that - their fruits are ours; that collations which have been made, - or are to be made by us, are valid for the past and for the - future, and that we will manfully protect their possessors - against all comers. Those who think otherwise we hold fools or - madmen."[170] - -The accepted theory long was that the bourgeoisie were neutral in -this quarrel; that they were an insignificant factor in the state, -and obeyed passively because they were without the power to oppose. In -reality, consolidation had already gone so far that money had become -the prevailing form of force in the kingdom of France; therefore the -monied class was on the whole the strongest class, and Flotte was their -mouthpiece. They accepted the papers drawn by the chancellor, because -the chancellor was their representative.[171] - -In July, 1302, Philip met with the defeat of Courtray, and the tone -of the ecclesiastical council, convened in October, shows that the -clergy thought his power broken. A priest relies upon the miracle, and, -if defied, he must either conquer by supernatural aid, or submit to -secular coercion. Boniface boldly faced the issue, and planted himself -by Hildebrand. In his bull, Unam Sanctam, he defined his claim to the -implicit obedience of laymen. - - "We are provided, under his authority, with two swords, - the temporal and the spiritual; ... both, therefore, are - in the power of the Church; to wit, the spiritual and the - material sword: ... the one is to be used by the priest, - the other by kings and soldiers; sed ad nutum et patientiam - sacerdotis."[172] - -A sentence of excommunication had also been prepared and sent to -France, which was to have been followed by deposition; but when it -arrived, Philip convened an assembly of prelates and barons at the -Louvre, and presented an indictment against Boniface, probably without -a parallel in modern history. The pope was accused of every crime. He -was an infidel, a denier of the immortality of the soul, a scoffer at -the eucharist, a murderer, and a sorcerer. He was guilty of unnatural -crimes and of robbery.[173] - -The bearer of the bull was arrested, the property of the bishops who -had attended the council sequestered, and Philip prepared to seize -Boniface in his own palace. Boniface, too, felt the decisive hour at -hand. He tried to reconcile himself with his enemies, drew the bull of -deposition, and prepared to affix it to the church door at Anagni on -September 8, 1303. Before the day came he was a prisoner, and face to -face with death. - -Flotte had been killed at Courtray, and had been succeeded by the -redoubtable Nogaret, whose grandfather was believed to have been burned -as a heretic. With Nogaret Philip joined Sciarra Colonna, the bloodiest -of the Italian nobles, and sent them together to Italy to deal with -his foe. Boniface had made war upon the Colonnas, and Sciarra had -been hunted like a wild beast. Flying disguised, he had been taken by -pirates, and had preferred to toil four years as a galley-slave, rather -than run the risk of ecclesiastical mercy by surrendering himself to -the vicar of Christ. At last Philip heard of his misfortunes, bought -him, and, at the crisis, let him slip like a mad dog at the old man's -throat. Nogaret and Colonna succeeded in corrupting the governor of -Anagni, and entered the town at dead of night; but the pope's nephews -had time to barricade the streets, and it was not until the church, -which communicated with the papal apartments, had been fired, that -the palace was forced. There, it was said, they found the proud old -priest sitting upon his throne, with his crown upon his head, and men -whispered that, as he sat there, Colonna struck him in the face with -his gauntlet. - -Probably the story was false, but it reflected truly enough the spirit -of the pope's captors. He himself believed them capable of poisoning -him, for from Saturday night till Monday morning he lay without food -or drink, and when liberated was exhausted. Boniface was eighty-six, -and the shock killed him. He was taken to Rome, and died there of -fever, according to the rumour, blaspheming, and gnawing his hands in -frenzy.[174] - -The death of Boniface was decisive. Benedict XI., who succeeded him, -did not attempt to prolong the contest; but peace without surrender was -impossible. The economic classes held the emotionalists by the throat, -and strangled them till they disgorged. - -Vainly Benedict revoked the acts of his predecessor. Philip demanded -that Boniface should be branded as a heretic, and sent Nogaret to -Rome as his ambassador. The insult was more than the priesthood could -yet endure. Summoning his courage, Benedict excommunicated Nogaret, -Colonna, and thirteen others, whom he had seen break into the palace -at Anagni. Within a month he was dead. Poison was whispered, and, for -the first time since the monks captured the papacy, the hierarchy was -paralyzed by fear. No complaint was made, or pursuit of the criminal -attempted; the consistory met, but failed to unite on a successor. - - -According to the legend, when the cardinals were unable to agree, the -faction opposed to Philip consented to name three candidates, from whom -the king should select the pope. The prelate he chose was Bertrand de -Goth, Archbishop of Bordeaux. Boniface had been his patron, but Philip, -who knew men, knew that this man had his price. The tale goes that -the king visited the bishop at an abbey near Saint-Jean-d'Angély, and -began the conversation as follows: "My lord Archbishop, I have that in -my hand will make you pope if I like, and it is for that I am come." -Bertrand fell on his knees, and the king imposed five conditions, -reserving a sixth, to exact thereafter. The last condition was the -condemnation of the Templars.[175] - -Doubtless the picturesque old tale is as false in detail as it is -true in spirit. Probably no such interview took place, and yet there -seems little doubt that Clement owed his election to Philip, and gave -pledges which bound him from the day of his coronation. Certainly -he surrendered all liberty of action, for he established himself at -Avignon, whence the battlements of Ville-Neuve can still be seen, built -by Philip to overawe the town. Within an hour he could have filled the -streets with his mercenaries. The victory was complete. The Church was -prostrate, and spoliation began. - -Clement was crowned in 1305, and after two years of slavery he began -to find his compact heavy upon him. He yielded up the patronage, -he consented to the taxation of the clergy, and he ordered the -grand-masters of the crusading orders to return to Europe, all at -Philip's bidding. But when he was commanded to condemn Boniface as a -heretic, he recoiled in terror. Indeed, to have rejected Boniface as an -impostor, and a false pope, would have precipitated chaos. His bishops -and cardinals would have been set aside, Clement's own election would -have been invalidated; none could foresee where the disorganization -would end. To gain time, Clement pleaded for a general council, -which the king morosely conceded, but only on the condition that the -excommunications against his agents, even against Nogaret, should -be withdrawn. Clement assented, for he was practically a prisoner at -Poitiers, a council at Vienne was agreed to, and the Crown seized the -Templars without opposition from the Church. - -Criticism has long ago dispelled the mystery which once shrouded this -bloody process. No historian now suggests that the knights were really -guilty of the fantastic enormities charged against them, and which they -confessed under torture. Scepticism doubtless was rife among them, as -it was among the cardinals, but there is nothing to show that the worst -differed materially from the population about them, and the superb -fortitude with which they perished, demonstrates that lack of religious -enthusiasm was not the crime for which they died. - -When Philip conceived the idea of first murdering and then plundering -the crusaders, is uncertain. Some have thought it was in 1306, while -sheltered in the Temple, when, he having suddenly raised his debased -money to the standard of Saint Louis, the mob destroyed the house of -his master of the mint. Probably it was much earlier, and was but the -necessary result of the sharpening of economic competition, which began -with the accelerated movement accompanying the crusades. - -After Clement's election, several years elapsed before the scheme -ripened. Nothing could be done until one or both of the grand-masters -had been enticed to France with their treasure. Under pretence of -preparing for a new crusade this was finally accomplished, and, in -1306, Jacques de Molay, a chivalrous Burgundian gentleman, journeyed -unsuspectingly to Paris, taking with him his chief officers and one -hundred and fifty thousand florins in gold, beside silver "enough to -load ten mules." - -Philip first borrowed all the money de Molay would lend, and then, -at one sudden swoop, arrested in a single night all the Templars -in France. On October 13, 1307, the seizure was made, and Philip's -organization was so perfect, and his agents so reliable, that the plan -was executed with precision. - -The object of the government was plunder, but before the goods -of the order could be confiscated, legal conviction of some crime -was necessary, which would entail forfeiture. Heresy was the only -accusation adapted to the purpose; accordingly Philip determined to -convict the knights of heresy, and the best evidence was confession. To -extort confession the Inquisition had to be set in motion by the pope, -and thus it came to pass that, in order to convey to the laymen the -property of ecclesiastics, Christ's soldiers were tormented to death by -his own vicar. - -In vain, in the midst of the work, Clement, in agonies of remorse, -revoked the commissions of the inquisitors. Philip jeered when the -cardinals delivered the message, saying "that God hated the lukewarm," -and the torture went on as before. When he had extorted what he needed, -he set out for Poitiers; Clement fled, but was arrested and brought -back a prisoner. Then his resolution gave way, and he abandoned the -knights to their fate, reserving only the grand-master and a few high -officials for himself. Still, though he forsook the individuals, he -could not be terrified into condemning the order in its corporate -capacity, and the final process was referred to the approaching -council. Meanwhile, a commission, presided over by the Archbishop of -Narbonne, proceeded with the trial of the knights. - -For three years these miserable wretches languished in their dungeons, -and the imagination recoils from picturing their torments. Finally -Philip felt that an end must be made, and in March, 1310, 546 of the -survivors were taken from their prisons and made to choose delegates, -for their exasperation was so deep that the government feared to let -them appear before the court in a body. - -The precaution availed little, for the knights who conducted the common -defence proved themselves as proud and bold in this last extremity of -human misery, as they had ever been upon the day of battle. They denied -the charges brought against them, they taunted their judges with the -lies told them to induce them to confess, and they showed how life and -liberty had been promised them, under the royal seal, if they would -admit the allegations of the government. Then they told the story of -those who had been steadfast to the end. - - "It is not astonishing that some have borne false witness, - but that any have told the truth, considering the sorrows - and suffering, the threats and insults, they daily endure.... - What is surprising is that faith should be given to those who - have testified untruly to save their bodies, rather than to - those who have died in their tortures in such numbers, like - martyrs of Christ, in defence of the truth, or who solely for - conscience sake, have suffered and still daily suffer in their - prisons, so many torments, trials, calamities, and miseries, - for this cause."[176] - -The witnesses called confirmed their statements. Bernard Peleti, when -examined, was asked if he had been put to the torture. He replied that -for three months previous to his confession to the Bishop of Paris, he -had lain with his hands so tightly bound behind his back that the blood -started from his finger nails. He had beside been put in a pit. Then -he broke out: "If I am tortured I shall deny all I have said now, and -shall say all they want me to say. If the time be short, I can bear to -be beheaded, or to die by boiling water, or by fire, for the honour of -the order; but I can no longer withstand the torments which, for more -than two years, I have endured in prison."[177] - -"I have been tortured three times," said Humbert de Podio. "I was -confined thirty-six weeks in a tower, on bread and water, quia non -confitebatur quae volebant."[178] Bernard de Vado showed two bones -which had dropped from his heels after roasting his feet.[179] - -Such testimony was disregarded, for condemnation was necessary as a -preliminary to confiscation. The suppression of the Temple was the -first step in that long spoliation of the Church which has continued -to the present day, and which has been agonizing to the victims in -proportion to their power of resistance. The fourteenth century was -still an age of faith, and the monks died hard. Philip grasped the -situation with the intuition of genius, and provided himself with an -instrument fit for the task before him. He forced Clement to raise -Philip de Marigni to the See of Sens, and Marigni was a man who shrank -from nothing. - -When made archbishop, he convoked a provincial council at Paris, and -condemned, as relapsed heretics, the knights who had repudiated their -confessions. Fifty-nine of these knights belonged to his own diocese. -He had them brought to a fenced enclosure in a field near the Abbey -of Saint Antoine, and there offered them pardon if they would recant. -Then they were chained to stakes, and slowly burned to ashes from the -feet upward. Not one flinched, but amidst shrieks of anguish, when half -consumed, they protested their innocence, and died imploring mercy of -Christ and of the Virgin.[180] - -Devotion so superb might have fired the imagination of even such a -craven as Clement, but Philip was equal to the emergency. He had -caused scores of witnesses to be examined to prove that Boniface -was a murderer, a sorcerer, a debauchee, and a heretic. Suddenly he -offered to drop the prosecution, and to restore the Temple lands to -the Church, if the order might be abolished and the process closed. -Clement yielded. In October, 1311, the council met at Vienne. The -winter was spent in intimidation and bribery; the second meeting was -not held until the following April, and then the decree of suppression -was published. By this decree the corporation was dissolved, but -certain of the higher officers still lived, and in an evil moment -Clement bethought him of their fate. In December, 1313, he appointed -a commission to try them. They were brought before a lofty scaffold at -the portal of the Cathedral of Paris, and there made to reiterate the -avowals which had been wrung from them in their dungeons. Then they -were sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. But at this supreme moment, -when it seemed that all was over, de Molay, the grand-master, and the -Master of Normandy, broke into a furious defence. The commissioners -adjourned in a panic, but Philip, thirsting for blood, sprang upon his -prey. - -He gave his orders to his own officers, without consulting any prelate. -On March 18, 1314, as night fell, the two crusaders were taken from -the provost, who acted as their gaoler, and carried to a little island -in the Seine, on which a statue of Henry of Navarre now stands. There -they were burned together, without a trial and without a sentence. -They watched the building of their funeral pile with "hearts so firm -and resolute, and persisted with such constancy in their denials to -the end, and suffered death with such composure, that they left the -witnesses of their execution in admiration and stupor."[181] - -An ancient legend told how de Molay, as he stood upon his blazing -fagots, summoned Clement to meet him before God's judgment-seat in -forty days, and Philip within a year. Neither survived the interval. -Philip had promised to restore the goods of the Temple to the Church, -but the plunder, for which this tremendous deed was done, was not -surrendered tamely to the vanquished after their defeat. The gold -and silver, and all that could be stolen, disappeared. The land was -in the end ceded to the Hospital, but so wasted that, for a century, -no revenue whatever accrued from what had been one of the finest -conventual estates in Europe.[182] - -Such was the opening of that social revolution which, when it reached -its height, was called the Reformation. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE ENGLISH REFORMATION - - -Many writers have pointed out the relation between commerce and -scepticism in the Middle Ages, and, among others, Thorold Rogers has a -passage in his _History of Agriculture and Prices_ so interesting that -it should be read entire:-- - - "The general spread of Lollardy, about which all the - theologians of the age complain, was at once the cause anti the - effect of progressive opulence. It cannot be by accident that - all the wealthiest parts of Europe, one district only excepted, - and that for very sufficient reasons, were suspected during the - Middle Ages of theological nonconformity. Before the campaigns - of Simon de Montfort, in the first half of the thirteenth - century, Provence was the garden and workshop of Europe. The - sturdiest advocates of the Reformation were the burghers of the - Low Countries.... In England the strength of the Lollard party - was, from the days of Wiklif to the days of Cranmer, in Norfolk - [the principal manufacturing county]; and I have no doubt that - ... the presence of students from this district must have told - on the theological bias of Cambridge University, which came out - markedly at the epoch of the Reformation.... - - "English Lollardy was, like its direct descendant Puritanism, - sour and opinionative, but it was also moral and thrifty. - They who denounced the lazy and luxurious life of the monks, - the worldliness and greed of the prelates, and the gross and - shallow artifices of the popular religion, were pretty sure - to inculcate parsimony and saving. By voluntarily and sturdily - cutting themselves off from the circumstance of the old faith, - they were certain, like the Quakers of more than two centuries - later, to become comparatively wealthy. They had nothing to - spare for monk or priest...."[183] - -The Lollards were of the modern economic type, and discarded the -miracle because the miracle was costly and yielded an uncertain -return. Yet the mediæval cult was based upon the miracle, and many of -the payments due for the supernatural services of the ecclesiastics -were obligatory; beside, gifts as an atonement for sin were a drain -on savings, and the economist instinctively sought cheaper methods of -propitiation. - -In an age as unscientific as the sixteenth century, the conviction -of the immutability of natural laws was not strong enough to admit -of the abrogation of religious formulas. The monied class, therefore, -proceeded step by step, and its first experiment was to suppress all -fees to middle-men, whether priests or saints, by becoming their own -intercessors with the Deity. - -As Dr. Witherspoon has observed, "fear of wrath from the avenger -of blood" made men "fly to the city of refuge";[184] but, as the -tradesman replaced the enthusiast, a dogma was evolved by which -mental anguish, which cost nothing, was substituted for the offering -which was effective in proportion to its money value. This dogma was -"Justification by Faith," the corner-stone of Protestantism. - -Far from requiring an outlay from the elect, "Justification by Faith" -discouraged it. The act consisted in "a deep humiliation of mind, -confession of guilt and wretchedness ... and acceptance of pardon and -peace through Christ Jesus, which they have neither contributed to -the procuring, nor can contribute to the continuance of, by their own -merit."[185] - -Yet the substitution of a mental condition for a money payment, led to -consequences more far-reaching than the suppression of certain clerical -revenues, for it involved the rejection of the sacred tradition which -had not only sustained relic worship, but which had made the Church the -channel of communication between Christians and the invisible world. - -That ancient channel once closed, Protestants had to open another, -and this led to the deification of the Bible, which, before the -Reformation, had been supposed to derive its authority from that divine -illumination which had enabled the priesthood to infallibly declare the -canon of the sacred books. Calvin saw the weak spot in the position of -the reformers, and faced it boldly. He maintained the Scripture to be -"self-authenticated, carrying with it its own evidence, and ought not -to be made the subject of demonstration and arguments from reason," -and that it should obtain "the same complete credit and authority -with believers ... as if they heard the very words pronounced by God -himself."[186] - -Thus for the innumerable costly fetishes of the imaginative age were -substituted certain writings, which could be consulted without a fee. -The expedient was evidently the device of a mercantile community, and -the saving to those who accepted it enormous, but it disintegrated -Christendom, and made an organized priesthood impossible. When each -individual might pry into the sacred mysteries at his pleasure, the -authority of the clergy was annihilated. - -Men of the priestly type among the reformers saw the danger and tried -to save themselves. The thesis which the early evangelical divines -maintained was the unity of truth. The Scriptures were true: therefore -if the whole body of Christians searched aright they could not fail to -draw truth from them, and this truth must be the creed of the universal -Church. Zwingli thus explained the doctrine:-- - - "Whoever hears the holy scriptures read aloud in church, judges - what he hears. Nevertheless what is heard is not itself the - Word through which we believe. For if we believed through the - simple hearing or reading of the Word, all would be believers. - On the contrary, we see that many hear and see and do not - believe. Hence it is clear that we believe only through the - word which the Heavenly Father speaks in our hearts, by which - he enlightens us so that we see, and draws us so that we - follow.... For God is not a God of strife and quarrel, but of - unity and peace. Where there is true faith, there the Holy - Spirit is present; but where the Holy Spirit is, there is - certainly effort for unity and peace.... Therefore there is no - danger of confusion in the Church since, if the congregation is - assembled through God, he is in the midst of them, and all who - have faith strive after unity and peace."[187] - -The inference the clergy sought to draw was, that though all could -read the Bible, only the enlightened could interpret it, and that -they alone were the enlightened. Hence Calvin's pretensions equalled -Hildebrand's:-- - - "This is the extent of the power with which the pastors of the - Church, by whatever name they may be distinguished, ought to - be invested; that by the word of God they may venture to do - all things with confidence; may constrain all the strength, - glory, wisdom, and pride of the world to obey and submit to - his majesty; supported by his power, may govern all mankind, - from the highest to the lowest; may build up the house of - Christ, and subvert the house of Satan; may feed the sheep, and - drive away the wolves; may instruct and exhort the docile; may - reprove, rebuke, and restrain the rebellious and obstinate; may - bind and loose; may discharge their lightnings and thunders, if - necessary; but all in the Word of God."[188] - -In certain regions, poor and remote from the centres of commerce, these -pretensions were respected. In Geneva, Scotland, and New England, men -like Calvin, Knox, and Cotton maintained themselves until economic -competition did its work: then they passed away. Nowhere has faith -withstood the rise of the mercantile class. As a whole the Reformation -was eminently an economic phenomenon, and is best studied in England, -which, after the Reformation, grew to be the centre of the world's -exchanges. - -From the beginning of modern history, commerce and scepticism have gone -hand in hand. The Eastern trade began to revive after the reopening of -the valley of the Danube, about 1000, and perhaps, in that very year, -Berenger, the first great modern heretic, was born. By 1050 he had -been condemned and made to recant, but with the growth of the Fairs -of Champagne his heresy grew, and in 1215, just in the flush of the -communal development, the Church found it necessary to define the dogma -of transubstantiation, and declare it an article of faith. A generation -later came the burning of schismatics; in 1252, by his bull "Ad -extirpanda," Innocent IV. organized the Inquisition, and the next year -Grossetête, Bishop of Lincoln, died, with whom the organized opposition -of the English to the ancient costly ritual may be said to have opened. - -In Great Britain the agitation for reform appears to have been -practical from the outset. There was no impatience with dogmas simply -because they were incomprehensible: the Trinity and the Double -Procession were always accepted. Formulas of faith were resisted -because they involved a payment of money, and foremost among these were -masses and penances. Another grievance was the papal patronage, and, -as early as the fourteenth century, Parliament passed the statutes of -provisors and præmunire to prevent the withdrawal of money from the -realm. - -The rise of the Lollards was an organized movement to resist -ecclesiastical exactions, and to confiscate ecclesiastical property; -and, if 1345 be taken as the opening of Wickliffe's active life, the -agitation for the seizure of monastic estates started just a generation -after Philip's attack on the Temple in France. There was at least this -difference in the industrial condition of the two nations, and probably -much more. - -Wickliffe was rather a politician than a theologian, and his preaching -a diatribe against the extravagance of the Church. In one of his -Saints' Days sermons he explained the waste of relic worship as -shrewdly as a modern man of business:-- - - "It would be to the benefit of the Church, and to the honour - of the saints, if the costly ornaments so foolishly lavished - upon their graves were divided among the poor. I am well - aware, however, that the man who would sharply and fully expose - this error would be held for a manifest heretic by the image - worshippers and the greedy people who make gain of such graves; - for in the adoration of the eucharist, and such worshipping of - dead bodies and images, the Church is seduced by an adulterous - generation."[189] - -The laity paid the priesthood fees because of their supernatural -powers, and the possession of these powers was chiefly demonstrated by -the miracle of the mass. Wickliffe, with a leader's eye, saw where the -enemy was vulnerable, and the last years of his life were passed in his -fierce controversy with the mendicants upon transubstantiation. Even at -that early day he presented the issue with incomparable clearness: "And -thou, then, that art an earthly man, by what reason mayst thou say that -thou makest thy maker?"[190] - -The deduction from such premises was inexorable. The mass had to be -condemned as fetish worship, and with it went the adoration of relics. - - "Indeed, many nominal Christians are worse than pagans; for it - is not so bad that a man should honour as God, for the rest - of the day, the first thing he sees in the morning, as that - regularly that accident should be really his God, which he - sees in the mass in the hands of the priest in the consecrated - wafer."[191] - -Wickliffe died December 30, 1384, and ten years later the Lollards -had determined to resist all payments for magic. They presented -their platform to Parliament in 1395, summed up in their _Book of -Conclusions_. Some of these "conclusions" are remarkably interesting:-- - - 5th.--"That the exorcisms and hallowings, consecrations and - blessings, over the wine, bread, wax, water, oil, salt, - incense, the altar-stone, and about the church-walls, over the - vestment, chalice, mitre, cross, and pilgrim-staves, are the - very practices of necromancy, rather than of sacred divinity. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - 7th.--"We mightily affirm ... that spiritual prayers made in the - church for the souls of the dead ... is a false foundation of - alms, whereupon all the houses of alms in England are falsely - founded. - - 8th.--"That pilgrimages, prayers, and oblations made unto blind - crosses or roods, or to deaf images made either of wood or - stone, are very near of kin unto idolatry."[192] - -When Lord Cobham, the head of the Lollard party, was tried for heresy -in 1413, Archbishop Arundel put him four test questions. First, whether -he believed, after the sacramental words had been spoken, any material -bread or wine remained in the sacrament; fourth, whether he believed -relic worship meritorious. - -His answers did not give satisfaction, and they roasted him in chains, -in Saint Giles's Fields, in 1418. - -A hundred years of high commercial activity followed Cobham's death. -The discovery of America, and of the sea passage to India, changed -the channels of commerce throughout the world, human movement was -accelerated, gunpowder made the attack overwhelming; centralization -took a prodigious stride, scepticism kept pace with centralization, -and in 1510 Erasmus wrote thus, and yet remained in the orthodox -communion:-- - - "Moreover savoureth it not of the same saulce [folly] (trow - ye) when everie countrey chalengeth a severall sainct for theyr - patrone, assignyng further to each sainct a peculiar cure and - office, with also sundrie ways of worshipping; as this sainct - helpeth for the tooth-ache, that socoureth in childbyrth; she - restoreth stolene goods; an other aydeth shipmen in tempests; - an other taketh charge of husbandmens hoggs; and so of the - rest; far too long were it to reherse all. Then some saincts - there be, that are generally sued for many thynges; amongst - whom chiefly is the virgin Mother of God, in whom vulgar folke - have an especiall confidence, yea almost more than in her - Sonne."[193] - -When Erasmus wrote, the Reformation was at hand, but the attack -on Church property had begun in England full two centuries before, -contemporaneously with Philip's onslaught on the Temple. All over -Europe the fourteenth century was a period of financial distress; in -France the communes became bankrupt and the coinage deteriorated, and -in England the debasement of the currency began in 1299, and kept pace -with the rise of Lollardy. In 1299 the silver penny weighed 22 1/2 -grains; Edward I. reduced it to 22 1/4 grains; Edward III. to 18 -grains; Henry IV. to 15 grains; and Henry VI., during his restoration -in 1470, to 12 grains. - -As the stringency increased, the attack on the clergy gained in -ferocity. Edward I. not only taxed the priesthood, but seized the -revenues of the alien priories; of these there might have been one -hundred and fifty within the realm, and what he took from them he spent -on his army. - -Edward II. and Edward III. followed the precedent, and during the -last reign, when the penny dropped four grains, these revenues were -sequestered no less than twenty-three years. Under Henry IV. the penny -lost three grains, and what remained of the income of these houses was -permanently applied to defraying the expenses of the court. Henry V. -dissolved them, and vested their estates in the crown. - -In the reign of Henry IV., when the penny was on the point of losing -three grains of its silver, the tone of Parliament was similar to that -of the parliaments of the Reformation. On one occasion the king asked -for a subsidy, and the Speaker suggested that without burdening the -laity he might "supply his occasions by seizing on the revenues of the -clergy";[194] and in 1410 Lord Cobham anticipated the Parliament of -1536 by introducing a bill for the confiscation of conventual revenues -to the amount of 322,000 marks, a sum which he averred represented -the income of certain corporations whose names he appended in a -schedule.[195] - -Year by year, as society consolidated, the economic type was -propagated; and, as the pressure of a contracting currency stimulated -these men to action, the demand for cheap religion grew fiercer. -London, the monied centre, waxed hotter and hotter, and a single -passage from the _Supplicacyon for Beggers_ shows how bitter the -denunciations of the system of paying for miracles became:-- - - "Whate money pull they yn by probates of testamentes, priuy - tithes, and by mennes offeringes to theyre pilgrimages, and at - theyre first masses? Euery man and childe that is buried, must - pay sumwhat for masses and diriges to be song for him, or elles - they will accuse the dedes frendes and executours of heresie. - whate money get they by mortuaries, by hearing of confessions - ... by halowing of churches, altares, superaltares, chapelles, - and bells, by cursing of men and absoluing theim agein for - money?"[196] - -One of the ballads of Cromwell's time ridiculed, in this manner, all -the chief pilgrimages of the kingdom:-- - - "Ronnying hyther and thyther, - We cannot tell whither, - In offryng candels and pence - To stones and stockes, - And to olde rotten blockes, - That came, we know not from whense. - - "To Walsyngham a gaddyng, - To Cantorbury a maddyng, - As men distraught of mynde; - With fewe clothes on our backes, - But an image of waxe, - For the lame and for the blynde. - - "Yet offer what ye wolde, - Were it otes, syluer, or golde - Pyn, poynt, brooche, or rynge, - The churche were as then, - Such charitable men, - That they would refuse nothyng."[197] - -But the war was not waged with words alone. At the comparatively -early date of 1393, London had grown so unruly that Richard assumed -the government of the city himself. First he appointed Sir Edward -Darlington warden, but Sir Edward proving too lenient, he replaced him -with Sir Baldwin Radington. Foxe, very frankly, explained why:-- - - "For the Londoners at that time were notoriously known to be - favourers of Wickliff's side, as partly before this is to be - seen, and in the story of Saint Alban's more plainly doth - appear, where the author of the said history, writing upon - the fifteenth year of King Richard's reign, reporteth in these - words of the Londoners, that they were 'not right believers in - God, nor in the traditions of their forefathers; sustainers - of the Lollards, depravers of religious men, withholders of - tithes, and impoverishers of the common people.' - - "... The king, incensed not a little with the complaint of the - bishops, conceived eftsoons, against the mayor and sheriffs, - and against the whole city of London, a great stomach; - insomuch, that the mayor and both the sheriffs were sent for, - and removed from their office."[198] - -By the opening of the sixteenth century a priest could hardly collect -his dues without danger; the Bishop of London indeed roundly declared -to the government that justice could not be had from the courts. - -In 1514 the infant child of a merchant tailor named Hun died, and the -parson of the parish sued the father for a bearing sheet, which he -claimed as a mortuary. Hun contested the case, and got out a writ of -præmunire against the priest, which so alarmed the clergy that the -chancellor of the diocese accused him of heresy, and confined him in -the Lollard's tower of Saint Paul's. - -In due time the usual articles were exhibited against the defendant, -charging that he had disputed the lawfulness of tithes, and had said -they were ordained "only by the covetousness of priests"; also that he -possessed divers of "Wickliff's damnable works," and more to the same -effect. - -Upon these articles Fitzjames, Bishop of London, examined Hun on -December 2, and after the examination recommitted him. On the morning -of the 4th, a boy sent with his breakfast found him hanging to a -beam in his cell. The clergy said suicide, but the populace cried -murder, and the coroner's jury found a verdict against Dr. Horsey, the -chancellor. The situation then became grave, and Fitzjames wrote to -Wolsey a remarkable letter, which showed not only high passion, but -serious alarm:-- - - "In most humble wise I beseech you, that I may have the king's - gracious favour ... for assured am I, if my chancellor be tried - by any twelve men in London, they be so maliciously set, 'in - favorem hæreticæ pravitatis,' that they will cast and condemn - any clerk, though he were as innocent as Abel."[199] - -The evidence is conclusive that, from the outset, industry bred -heretics; agriculture, believers. Thorold Rogers has explained that the -east of England, from Kent to the Wash and on to Yorkshire, was the -richest part of the kingdom,[200] and Mr. Blunt, in his _Reformation -of the Church of England_, has published an analysis of the martyrdoms -under Mary. He has shown that out of 277 victims, 234 came from the -district to the east of a line drawn from Boston to Portsmouth. -West of this line Oxford had most burnings; but, by the reign of -Mary, manufactures had spread so far inland that the industries -of Oxfordshire were only surpassed by those of Middlesex.[201] In -Wickliffe's time Norwich stood next to London, and Norwich was infested -with Lollards, many of whom were executed there. - -On the other hand, but two executions are recorded in the six -agricultural counties north of the Humber--counties which were -the poorest and the farthest removed from the lines of trade. Thus -the eastern counties were the hot-bed of Puritanism. There, Kett's -rebellion broke out under Edward VI.; there, Cromwell recruited his -Ironsides, and throughout this region, before the beginning of the -Reformation, assaults on relics were most frequent and violent. One of -the most famous of these relics was the rood of Dovercourt. Dovercourt -is part of Harwich, on the Essex coast; Dedham lies ten miles inland, -on the border of Suffolk; and the description given by Foxe of the -burning of the image of Dovercourt, is an example of what went on -throughout the southeast just before the time of the divorce:-- - - "In the same year of our Lord 1532, there was an idol named - the Rood of Dovercourt, whereunto was much and great resort - of people: for at that time there was great rumour blown - abroad amongst the ignorant sort, that the power of the idol - of Dovercourt was so great, that no man had power to shut - the church-door where he stood; and therefore they let the - church-door, both night and day, continually stand open, for - the more credit unto their blind rumour. This once being - conceived in the heads of the vulgar sort, seemed a great - marvel unto many men; but to many again, whom God had blessed - with his spirit, it was greatly suspected, especially unto - these, whose names here follow: as Robert King of Dedham, - Robert Debnam of Eastbergholt, Nicholas Marsh of Dedham, and - Robert Gardner of Dedham, whose consciences were sore burdened - to see the honour and power of the almighty living God so to be - blasphemed by such an idol. Wherefore they were moved by the - Spirit of God, to travel out of Dedham in a wondrous goodly - night, both hard frost and fair moonshine, although the night - before, and the night after, were exceeding foul and rainy. It - was from the town of Dedham, to the place where the filthy Rood - stood, ten miles. Notwithstanding, they were so willing in that - their enterprise, that they went these ten miles without pain, - and found the church door open, according to the blind talk of - the ignorant people: for there durst no unfaithful body shut - it. This happened well for their purpose, for they found the - idol, which had as much power to keep the door shut, as to keep - it open; and for proof thereof, they took the idol from his - shrine, and carried him quarter of a mile from the place where - he stood, without any resistance of the said idol. Whereupon - they struck fire with a flint-stone, and suddenly set him on - fire, who burned out so brim, that he lighted them homeward one - good mile of the ten. - - "This done, there went a great talk abroad that they should - have great riches in that place; but it was very untrue; for - it was not their thought or enterprise, as they themselves - afterwards confessed, for there was nothing taken away but his - coat, his shoes, and the tapers. The tapers did help to burn - him, the shoes they had again, and the coat one Sir Thomas Rose - did burn; but they had neither penny, halfpenny, gold, groat, - nor jewel. - - "Notwithstanding, three of them were afterwards indicted of - felony, and hanged in chains within half a year, or thereabout. - - . . . . . . . . . . - - "The same year, and the year before, there were many images - cast down and destroyed in many places: as the image of the - crucifix in the highway by Coggeshall, the image of Saint - Petronal in the church of Great Horksleigh, the image of Saint - Christopher by Sudbury, and another image of Saint Petronal in - a chapel of Ipswich."[202] - -England's economic supremacy is recent, and has resulted from the -change in the seat of exchanges which followed the discovery of -America and the sea-route to India; long before Columbus, however, the -introduction of the mariner's compass had altered the paths commerce -followed between the north and south of Europe during the crusades. - -The necessity of travel by land built up the Fairs of Champagne; they -declined when safe ocean navigation had cheapened marine freights. Then -Antwerp and Bruges superseded Provins and the towns of Central France, -and rapidly grew to be the distributing points for Eastern merchandise -for Germany, the Baltic, and England. In 1317 the Venetians organized -a direct packet service with Flanders, and finally, the discoveries -of Vasco-da-Gama, at the end of the fifteenth century, threw Italy -completely out of the line of the Asiatic trade. - -British industries seem to have sympathized with these changes, for -weaving first assumed some importance under Edward I., although English -cloth long remained inferior to continental. The next advance was -contemporaneous with the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. On July 8, -1497, Vasco-da-Gama sailed for Calicut, and in the previous year Henry -VII. negotiated the "Magnus Intercursus," by which treaty the Merchant -Adventurers succeeded for the first time in establishing themselves -advantageously in Antwerp. Thenceforward England began to play a part -in the industrial competition of Europe, but even then her progress was -painfully slow. The accumulations of capital were small, and increased -but moderately, and a full century later, when the Dutch easily raised -£600,000 for their East India Company, only £72,000 were subscribed in -London for the English venture. - -Throughout the Middle Ages, while exchanges centred in North Italy, -Great Britain hung on the outskirts of the commercial system of the -world, and even at the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. she could -not compare, either in wealth, refinement, or organization, with such a -kingdom as France. - -The crown had not been the prize of the strongest in a struggle among -equals, but had fallen to a soldier of a superior race, under whom no -great nobility ever grew up. No baron in England corresponded with such -princes as the dukes of Normandy and Burgundy, the counts of Champagne -and Toulouse. Fortifications were on a puny scale; no strongholds like -Pierrefonds or Vitré, Coucy or Carcassonne existed, and the Tower of -London itself was insignificant beside the Château Gaillard, which -Coeur-de-Lion planted on the Seine. - -The population was scanty, and increased little. When Henry VIII. came -to the throne in 1509, London may have had forty or fifty thousand -inhabitants, York eleven thousand, Bristol nine or ten thousand, and -Norwich six thousand.[203] Paris at that time probably contained -between three and four hundred thousand, and Milan and Ghent two -hundred and fifty thousand each. - -But although England was not a monied centre during the Middle Ages, -and perhaps for that very reason, she felt with acuteness the financial -pressure of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. She had little -gold and silver, and gold and silver rose in relative value; she had -few manufactures, and manufactures were comparatively prosperous; her -wealth lay in her agricultural interests, and farm products were, for -the most part, severely pinched. - -Commenting on the prices between the end of the thirteenth century and -the middle of the sixteenth, Mr. Rogers has observed:-- - - "Again, upon several articles of the first importance, there is - a marked decline in the price from the average of 1261-1400 to - that of 1401-1540. This would have been more conspicuous, if - I had in my earlier volumes compared all prices from 1261 to - 1350 with those of 1351-1400. But even over the whole range, - every kind of grain, except wheat and peas, is dearer in the - thirteenth and fourteenth centuries than it is in the first - hundred and forty years of the present period [1401-1582]; - and had I taken the average price of wheat during the last - fifty years of the fourteenth century, it would have been - (6s. 1 1/2d.) dearer than the average of 1401-1540 (5s. - 11 3/4d.), heightened as this is by the dearness of the last - thirteen years."[204] - -The tables published by Mr. Rogers make it possible to form some idea -of the strain to which the population of Great Britain was exposed, -during the two hundred and fifty years which intervened between the -crisis at the close of the thirteenth century, and the discovery of -the mines of Potosi in 1545, which flooded the world with silver. -Throughout this long interval an expanding commerce unceasingly -enlarged the demand for currency, while no adequate additions were made -to the stock of the precious metals; the consequence was that their -relative value rose, while the value of commodities declined, and this -process had a tendency to debase the coinage. - -The latter part of the Middle Ages was a time of rapid centralization, -when the cost of administration grew from year to year but in -proportion as the necessities of the government increased, the power -of the people to pay taxes diminished, because the products which they -sold brought less of the standard coin. To meet the deficit the same -weight of metal had to be cut into more pieces, and thus by a continued -inflation of the currency, general bankruptcy was averted. The various -stages of pressure are pretty clearly marked by the records of the -Mint. - -Apparently the stringency which began in France about the end of -the reign of Saint Louis, or somewhat later, did not affect England -immediately, for prices do not seem to have reached their maximum until -after 1290, and Edward I. only reduced the penny, in 1299, from 22.5 -grains of silver to 22.25 grains. Thenceforward the decline, though -spasmodic, on the whole tended to increase in severity from generation -to generation. The long French wars, and the Black Death, produced a -profound effect upon the domestic economy of the kingdom under Edward -III.; and the Black Death, especially, seems to have had the unusual -result of raising prices at a time of commercial collapse. This rise -probably was due to the dearth of labour, for half the population of -Europe is said to have perished, and, at all events, the crops often -could not be reaped through lack of hands. More than a generation -elapsed before normal conditions returned. - -Immediately before the French war the penny lost two grains, and -between 1346 and 1351, during the Black Death, it lost two grains and a -quarter more, a depreciation of four grains and a half in fifty years; -then for half a century an equilibrium was maintained. Under Henry -IV. there was a sharp decline of three grains, equal to an inflation -of seventeen per cent, and by 1470, under Henry VI., the penny fell -to twelve grains. Then a period of stability followed, which lasted -until just before the Reformation, when a crisis unparalleled in -severity began, a crisis which probably was the proximate cause of the -confiscation of the conventual estates. - -In 1526 the penny suddenly lost a grain and a half, or about twelve and -a half per cent, and then, when further reductions of weight would have -made the piece too flimsy, the government resorted to adulteration. In -1542, a ten-grain penny was coined with one part in five of alloy; in -1544, the alloy had risen to one-half, and in 1545, two-thirds of the -coin was base metal--a depreciation of more than seventy per cent in -twenty years. - -Meanwhile, though prices had fluctuated, the trend had been downward, -and downward so strongly that it had not been fully counteracted by the -reductions of bullion in the money. Rogers thought lath-nails perhaps -the best gauge of prices, and in commenting on the years which preceded -the Reformation, he remarked:-- - - "From 1461 to 1540, the average [of lath-nails] is very - little higher than it was from 1261 to 1350, illustrating - anew that significant decline in prices which characterizes - the economical history of England during the eighty years - 1461-1540."[205] - -Although wheat rose more than other grains, and is therefore an -unfavourable standard of comparison, wheat yields substantially the -same result. During the last forty years of the thirteenth century, -the average price of the quarter was 5s. 10 3/4d., and for the last -decade, 6s. 1d. For the first forty years of the sixteenth century -the average was 6s. 10d. The penny of 1526, however, contained only -about forty-seven per cent of the bullion of the penny of 1299. "The -most remarkable fact in connection with the issue of base money by -Henry VIII. is the singular identity of the average price of grain, -especially wheat, during the first 140 years of my present period, with -the last 140 of my first two volumes."[206] - -After a full examination of his tables, Rogers concluded that the great -rise which made the prosperity of Elizabeth's reign did not begin until -some "year between 1545 and 1549."[207] This corresponds precisely -with the discovery of Potosi in 1545, and that the advance was due -to the new silver, and not to the debasement of the coinage, seems -demonstrated by the fact that no fall took place when the currency -was restored by Elizabeth, but, on the contrary, the upward movement -continued until well into the next century. - -Some idea may be formed from these figures of the contraction which -prevailed during the years of the Reformation. In 1544, toward the -close of Henry's reign, the penny held five grains of pure silver as -against about 20.8 grains in 1299, and yet its purchasing power had not -greatly varied. Bullion must therefore have had about four times the -relative value in 1544 that it had two hundred and fifty years earlier, -and, if the extremely debased issues of 1545 and later be taken as the -measure, its value was much higher. - -Had Potosi been discovered a generation earlier, the whole course of -English development might have been modified, for it is not impossible -that, without the aid of falling prices, the rising capitalistic class -might have lacked the power to confiscate the monastic estates. As -it was, the pressure continued until the catastrophe occurred, relic -worship was swept away, the property of the nation was redistributed, -and an impulsion was given to large farming which led to the rapid -eviction of the yeomanry. As the yeomen were driven from their land, -they roamed over the world, colonizing and conquering, from the -Mississippi to the Ganges; building up, in the course of two hundred -and fifty years, a centralization greater than that of Rome, and more -absolute than that of Constantinople. - -Changes so vast in the forms of competition necessarily changed -the complexion of society. Men who had flourished in an age of -decentralization and of imagination passed away, and were replaced by a -new aristocracy. The soldier and the priest were overpowered; and, from -the Reformation downward, the monied type possessed the world. - -Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, was the ideal of this type, and he was -accordingly the Englishman who rose highest during the convulsion of -the Reformation. He was a perfect commercial adventurer, and Chapuys, -the ambassador of Charles V. at London, thus described his origin to -his master:-- - - "Cromwell is the son of a poor farrier, who lived in a little - village a league and a half from here, and is buried in the - parish graveyard. His uncle, father of the cousin whom he - has already made rich, was cook of the late Archbishop of - Canterbury. Cromwell was ill-behaved when young, and after - an imprisonment was forced to leave the country. He went to - Flanders, Rome, and elsewhere in Italy. When he returned he - married the daughter of a shearman, and served in his house; he - then became a solicitor."[208] - -The trouble which drove him abroad seems to have been with his -father, and he probably started on his travels about 1504. He led -a dissolute and vagabond life, served as a mercenary in Italy, "was -wild and youthful, ... as he himself was wont ofttimes to declare unto -Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; showing what a ruffian he was in -his young days ... also what a great doer he was with Geffery Chambers -in publishing and setting forth the pardons of Boston everywhere in -churches as he went."[209] - -These "pardons" were indulgences he succeeded in obtaining from the -pope for the town of Boston, which he peddled about the country as -he went. He served as a clerk in the counting house of the Merchant -Adventurers at Antwerp, and also appears to have filled some such -position with a Venetian merchant. On his return to England in 1513, -he married and set up a fulling-mill; he also became an attorney and a -usurer, dwelling by Fenchurch, in London. - -In 1523, having been elected to Parliament, Cromwell was a most -prosperous man. At this time he entered Wolsey's service, and made -himself of use in suppressing convents to supply endowments for -the cardinal's colleges at Oxford and Ipswich. When Wolsey fell, he -ingratiated himself with Henry, and thenceforward rose rapidly. He -became chancellor of the exchequer, master of the rolls, secretary of -state, vicar general, a Knight of the Garter, and Earl of Essex. At -once the head of Church and State, probably no English subject has ever -been so powerful. - -Both he and Cranmer succeeded through flexibility and adroitness. He -suggested to Henry to accomplish his ends by robbing the convents, and -Mr. Brewer, an excellent authority, thought him notoriously venal from -the outset. - -His executive and business capacity was unrivalled. He had the instinct -for money, and provided he made it, he scrupled not about the means. In -the _State Papers_ there is an amusing account of the treatment he put -up with, when at the pinnacle of greatness:-- - - "And as for my Lord Prevye Sealle, I wold not be in his case - for all that ever he hathe, for the King beknaveth him twice - a weke, and some-tyme knocke him well about thee pate; and yet - when he hathe bene well pomeld aboute the hedde, and shaken up, - as it were a dogge, he will come out into the great chambre, - shaking of the bushe with as mery a countenance as thoughe he - mought rule all the roste."[210] - -Though good-natured where his interests were not involved, he appears -to have been callous to the sight of pain, and not only attended to -the racking of important witnesses, but went in state to see Father -Forest roasted in chains for denying the royal supremacy, which he was -labouring to establish. His behaviour to Lambert, whom he sent to the -fire for confessing his own principles, astonished even those who knew -him well. How he became a Protestant is uncertain; Foxe thought, by -reading Erasmus's translation of the New Testament. More probably he -was sceptical because he was of the economic type. At all events, he -hated Rome, and Foxe said that in 1538 he was "the chief friend of the -gospellers." - -In that same year Lambert was tried for heresy regarding -transubstantiation, and it was then Cromwell sentenced him to be burned -alive. Characteristically, he is said to have invited him to breakfast -on the morning of the execution, and to have then begged his pardon for -what he had done. - -Pole described a conversation he had with Essex about the duty of -ministers to kings. Pole thought their first obligation was to consider -their masters' honour, and insisted on the divergence between honour -and expediency. Such notions seemed fantastic to Cromwell, who told -Pole that a prudent politician would study a prince's inclinations and -act accordingly. He then offered Pole a manuscript of Machiavelli's -_Prince_. Such a temperament differed, not so much in degree as in -kind, from that of Godfrey de Bouillon or Saint Louis, Bayard or the -Black Prince. It was subtler, more acquisitive, more tenacious of -life, and men and women of the breed of Cromwell rose rapidly to be -the owners of England during the sixteenth century. Social standards -changed. Even in semi-barbarous ages a lofty courtesy had always -been deemed befitting the great. Saint Anselm and Héloïse, Saladin -and Coeur-de-Lion have remained ideals for centuries, because they -represented a phase of civilization; and Froissart has described how -the Black Prince entertained his prisoners after Poitiers:-- - - "The prince himself served the king's table, as well as the - others, with every mark of humility, and would not sit down - at it, in spite of all his entreaties for him so to do, saying - that 'he was not worthy of such an honour, nor did it appertain - to him to seat himself at the table of so great a king, or of - so valiant a man as he had shown himself by his actions that - day.'"[211] - -One hundred and fifty years of progress had eliminated chivalry. -Manners were coarse and morals loose at the court of Henry VIII. -Foreign ambassadors spoke with little respect of the society they saw. -Chapuys permitted himself to sneer at Lady Jane Seymour, who afterward -became queen, because he seems to have thought the ladies of the court -venal:-- - - "I leave you to judge whether, being English, and having - frequented the court, 'si elle ne tiendroit pas à conscience - de navoir pourveu et prévenu de savoir que cest de faire - nopces.'"[212] - -The scandals of the Boleyn family are too well known to need -notice,[213] and it would be futile to accumulate examples of the -absence of female virtue when the fact is notorious. The rising -nobility resembled Cromwell more or less feebly. The mercenary quality -was the salient characteristic of the favoured class. Thomas Boleyn, -Earl of Wiltshire, made his fortune through his own shrewdness and the -beauty of his daughters. Mary, the younger, was an early mistress of -Henry; Anne, the elder and the astuter, was his wife. Boleyn's title -and his fortune came through this connection. Boleyn was a specimen of -a class; in him the instinct of self-preservation was highly developed. -When his daughter Anne, and his son, Lord Rochford, were tried at the -Tower for incest, the evidence was so flimsy that ten to one was bet -in the court-room on acquittal. At this supreme moment, the attitude -of the father was thus described by Chapuys, who had good sources of -information:-- - - "On the 15th the said concubine and her brother were condemned - of treason by all the principal lords of England, and the Duke - of Norfolk [her uncle] pronounced sentence. I am told the Earl - of Wiltshire was quite as ready to assist at the judgment as he - had done at the condemnation of the other four."[214] - -The grandfather of Thomas Boleyn had been an alderman of London and -a rich tradesman; his son had been knighted, and had retired from -business, and Wiltshire himself, though a younger son and with but -fifty pounds a year when married, raised himself by his wits, and the -use of his children, to be a wealthy earl. - -The history of the Cecil family is not dissimilar. David, the first -of the name who emerged from obscurity, gained a certain favour under -Henry VIII.; his son Richard, a most capable manager, obtained a fair -share of the monastic plunder, was groom of the robes, constable of -Warwick Castle, and died rich. His son was the great Lord Burleigh, -in regard to whom perhaps it may be best to quote an impartial -authority. Macaulay described him as possessed of "a cool temper, a -sound judgment, great powers of application, and a constant eye to -the main chance.... He never deserted his friends till it was very -inconvenient to stand by them, was an excellent Protestant when it was -not very advantageous to be a Papist, recommended a tolerant policy -to his mistress as strongly as he could recommend it without hazarding -her favour, never put to the rack any person from whom it did not seem -probable that useful information might be derived, and was so moderate -in his desires that he left only three hundred distinct landed estates, -though he might, as his honest servant assures us, have left much more, -'if he would have taken money out of the exchequer for his own use, as -many treasurers have done.'"[215] - -The Howards, though of an earlier time, were of the same temperament. -The founder was a lawyer, who sat on the bench of the Common Pleas -under Edward I., and who, therefore, did not earn his knighthood on a -stricken field, as the Black Prince won his spurs at Crécy. After his -death his descendants made little stir for a century, but they married -advantageously, accumulated money, and, in the fifteenth century, one -Robert Howard married a daughter of Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk. -This he hardly would have done had he not been a man of substance, -since he seems not to have been a man of war. The alliance made the -fortune of the family. It also appears to have added some martial -instinct to the stock, for Richard III. gave John Howard the title of -the Mowbrays, and this John was afterwards killed at Bosworth. His son -commanded at Flodden, and his grandson was the great spoiler of the -convents under Henry VIII., who also suppressed the northern rebellion. - -Thomas Howard, the minister of Henry VIII., was one of the most -interesting characters of his generation. He was naturally a strong -Conservative; Chapuys never doubted that "the change in matters of -religion [was] not to his mind": in 1534 he even went so far as to -tell the French ambassador that he would not consent to a change, and -this speech having been repeated to the king, occasioned his momentary -disgrace.[216] At one time Lord Darcy, the head of the reactionary -party, counted on his support against Cromwell, though he warned -Chapuys not to trust him implicitly, because of "his inconstancy."[217] -Yet, under a certain appearance of vacillation, he hid a profound -and subtle appreciation of the society which environed him; this -"inconstancy" made his high fortune. He had a sure instinct, which -taught him at the critical moment where his interests lay, and he never -was deceived. Henry distrusted him, but could not do without him, and -paid high for his support. Howard, on his side, was keenly distressed -when he found he had gone too far, and when the northern insurrection -broke out, and he was offered the command of the royal forces, the -Bishop of Carlisle, with whom he dined, said he had never seen the duke -"so happy as he was to-day."[218] - -Once in the field against his friends, there were no lengths to which -Thomas Howard would not go. He never wearied of boasting of his lies -and of his cruelty, he wrote to assure Henry he would spare no pains to -entrap them, and would esteem no promise he made to the rebels, "for -surely I shall observe no part thereof, for any respect of that other -might call mine honor dystayned."[219] - -As Cromwell behaved toward Lambert, so he behaved toward the -Carthusians. Though they were men in whose religion he probably -believed as sincerely as he believed anything, and in whose cause he -had professed himself ready to take up arms, when they were sent to the -stake he attended the execution as a spectacle, and watched them expire -in torments, without a pang. Men gifted like Howard were successful -in the Reformation, and Norfolk made a colossal fortune out of his -polities. The price of his service was thirteen convents, and his son -Surrey had two; of what he made in other ways no record remains. - -Such was the new aristocracy; but the bulk of the old baronage was -differently bred, and those who were of the antiquated type were doomed -to pass away. - -The publication of the _State Papers_ leaves no doubt that the ancient -feudal gentry, both titled and untitled, as a body, opposed the -reform. Many of the most considerable of these were compromised in -the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, among whom was Thomas Lord Darcy. If -a mediæval baron still lived in the middle of the sixteenth century, -that man was Darcy. Since the Conqueror granted the Norman de Areci -thirty lordships in Lincolnshire, his ancestors had been soldiers, and -at his home in the north his retainers formed an army as of old. Born -in 1467, at twenty-five he bound himself by indenture to serve Henry -VII. beyond the sea, at the head of a thousand men, and more than forty -years afterward he promised Chapuys that he would march against London -with a force eight thousand strong, if the emperor would attack Henry -VIII. All his life long he had fought upon the borders. He had been -captain of Berwick, warden of the east and middle marches, and in 1511 -he had volunteered to lead a British contingent against the Moors. He -was a Knight of the Garter, a member of the Privy Council, and when -the insurrection broke out, he commanded at Pontefract Castle, the -strongest position in Yorkshire. - -A survival of the past, he retained the ideas of Crécy and Poitiers, -and these brought him to the block. While negotiations were pending, -Norfolk seems to have wanted to save him, though possibly he may have -been actuated by a more sinister purpose. At all events he certainly -wrote suggesting to Darcy to make his peace by ensnaring Aske, the -rebel leader, and giving him up to the government. To Norfolk this -seemed a perfectly legitimate transaction. By such methods he rose to -eminence. To Darcy it seemed dishonour, and he died for it. Instead of -doing as he was bid, he reproached Norfolk for deeming him capable of -treachery:-- - - "Where your lordship advises me to take Aske, quick or dead, as - you think I may do by policy, and so gain the king's favour; - alays my good lord yt ever ye being a man of so much honour - and gret experyence shold advice or chuss mee a man to be of - eny such sortt or facion to betray or dissav eny liffyng man, - French man, Scott, yea, or a Turke; of my faith, to gett and - wyn to me and myn heyres fowr of the best dukes landdes in - Fraunce, or to be kyng there, I wold nott do it to no liffyng - person."[220] - -Darcy averred that he surrendered Pontefract to the rebels because the -government neglected to relieve him, and although doubtless he always -sympathized with the rising, he promptly wrote to London when the -outbreak began, to warn Henry not only of the weakness of his fortress, -but of the power of the enemy.[221] When the royal herald visited -the castle to treat with the insurgents, he found Darcy, Sir Robert -Constable, Aske, and others, who told him they were on a pilgrimage to -London to have all the "vile blood put from" the Privy Council, "and -noble blood set up again," and to make restitution for the wrongs done -the Church.[222] - -This Aske was he whom Darcy refused to betray, but instead he offered -to do all he could "as a true knight and subject" to pacify the -country, and he did help to persuade the rebels to disperse on Henry's -promise of a redress of grievances. In the moment of peril both Darcy -and Aske were pardoned and cajoled, but the rising monied type were not -the men to let the soldiers escape them, once they held them disarmed. -Even while Henry was plotting the destruction of those to whom he had -pledged his word, Norfolk wrote from the north to Cromwell: "I have -by policy brought him [Aske] to desire me to yeve him licence to ride -to London, and have promised to write a letter ... which ... I pray -you take of the like sort as you did the other I wrote for Sir Thomas -Percy. If neither of them both come never in this country again I think -neither true nor honest men woll be sorry thereof, nor in likewise for -my Lord Darcy nor Sir Robert Constable."[223] Percy and Constable, Aske -and Darcy, all perished on the scaffold. - -Darcy and his like recognized that a new world had risen about them, in -which they had no place. During his imprisonment in London, before his -execution, he was examined by Cromwell, and thus, almost with his dying -words, addressed the man who was the incarnation of the force that -killed him:-- - - "Cromwell, it is thou that art the very original and chief - causer of all this rebellion and mischief, and art likewise - causer of the apprehension of us that be noble men and dost - daily earnestly travail to bring us to our end and to strike - off our heads, and I trust that or thou die, though thou - wouldst procure all the noblemen's heads within the realm to be - stricken off, yet shall there one head remain that shall strike - off thy head."[224] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE SUPPRESSION OF THE CONVENTS - - -At the apex of the new society stood Henry VIII., who, like Philip the -Fair, had many of the qualities which make a great religious reformer -in an economic age. In reaching an estimate of his nature, however, the -opinions of Englishmen are of no great value, since they are usually -distorted by prejudice. The best observers were the foreign ministers -at his court, whose business was to collect information for their -governments. At a time when there were no newspapers, these agents had -to be accurate, and their despatches are trustworthy. - -Charles de Marillac was born in 1510. He belonged to an old family, and -had an unblemished reputation. He had no leaning against Protestants, -for he was disgraced by the Guise party. He was thirty when in London -as ambassador of Francis I. After having been a year in England, he -wrote:-- - - "This prince seems to me subject among other vices to three, - which certainly in a king may be called pests, of which the - first is, that he is so avaricious and covetous, that all the - riches of the world would not be sufficient to satisfy and - content his ambition.... From this proceeds the second evil and - pest, which is distrust and fear ... wherefore he ceaselessly - embrews his hands in blood, feeling in his mind doubt of those - about him, wishing to live without suspicion, which every day - augments.... And in part from these two evils proceeds the last - pest, which is levity and inconstancy; and partly also from the - temper of the nation, by which they have perverted the rights - of religion, of marriage, of honesty and honour, as if they - were wax, the which alloy can change itself into whatever forms - they wish."[225] - -Cruelty was one of Henry's most salient traits, and was, perhaps, the -faculty by which he succeeded in imposing himself most strongly upon -his contemporaries. He not only murdered his wives, his ministers, and -his friends, but he pursued those who opposed him with a vindictiveness -which appalled them. He was ingenious in devising torments. - -Friar Forest, whose crime was the denial of the royal supremacy, he -caused to be slowly roasted over a rood which he had fetched from Wales -on purpose. They "hanged [him] in Smithfield in chains, upon a gallows -quick, by the middle and arm-holes, and fire was made under him, and -so was he consumed and burned to death."[226] Henry relished the idea -of the show so much, that Chapuys thought him disappointed at not being -able to attend with his whole court. - -His way of dealing with the Carthusians was equally characteristic. The -Carthusians were in the Church what Darcy was in the State: men of the -old imaginative type, of austere life and ascetic habits, in whom still -glowed the fiery enthusiasm of Hildebrand. They could not accept Henry -as God's viceregent upon earth. The three priors--Houghton, Webster, -and Lawrence--were "ripped up in each other's presence, their arms torn -off, their hearts cut out and rubbed upon their mouths and faces."[227] - -Three more were chained upright to posts, where they stood for fourteen -days, "without the possibility of stirring for any purpose whatever, -held fast by iron collars on their necks, arms, and thighs."[228] Then -they were hanged and disembowelled. - -In 1537, ten were still resolute. They were chained in Newgate like -the others, where, according to Stowe, nine "died ... with stink and -miserably smothered." The tenth, who survived, was hanged. - -Had Henry been hampered, like Darcy, with scruples about honour, truth, -or conscience, he too might have been undone. His power lay in his -capacity for doing what was needful for success. He enticed Aske to -London, and, when he held him, slew him. He pardoned Darcy, and then -sent him to Tower Hill. - -Lacking force to crush the rebels, Norfolk, in the royal name, pacified -the people with pardon and promises of redress. They dispersed, -thinking themselves safe. Henry ignored his pledges, risings followed; -but, when the country had been tranquillized and his army was again in -peaceful possession, he thus instructed the Duke:-- - - "Our pleasure is, that ... you shal, in any wise, cause - suche dredfull execution to be doon upon a good nombre of - thinhabitauntes of every towne, village, and hamlet, that have - offended in this rebellion, aswell by the hanging of them uppe - in trees, as by the quartering of them, and the setting of - their heddes and quarters in every towne, greate and small, and - in al suche other places, as they may be a ferefull spectacle - to all other herafter, that wold practise any like mater: - whiche We requyre you to doo, without pitie or respecte, - according to our former letters; remembring that it shalbe - moche better, that these traitours shulde perishe in their - wilfull, unkynde, and traitorous folyes, thenne that so slendre - punishment shuld be doon upon them, as the dredde thereof shuld - not be a warning to others."[229] - -Norfolk was after Henry's pattern. The rebels were his friends--men -with whom he had pledged himself to act shortly before. But he had -chosen his side, he had made his bargain, and he earned his pay. He -was never weary of boasting of his cruelty toward the defenceless -yeomanry:-- - - "They shall be put to death in every town where they dwelt.... - As many as chains of iron can be made for in this town and in - the country shall be hanged in them; the rest in ropes. Iron is - marvellous scarce." - -He tried his prisoners by court martial, for he dared not trust the -juries. Many of the farmers declared they had been forced to join in -the insurrection through threats of violence, and these might have -been acquitted. "They say I came out for fear of my life, or for fear -of burning my houses and destroying of my wife and children."[230] But -where Henry and Norfolk were concerned there were no acquittals. - -In the same way Henry destroyed his ministers when he had done with -them. Though Cromwell was sagacious, he was less crafty than Henry. -Just before his fall the king made him Earl of Essex, and he lived -in such complete ignorance of his fate that his disgrace fell like -a thunder-bolt. Marillac has described how one day, in the council -chamber, Cromwell was arrested without warning, and "moved with -indignation, he plucked his hat from his head and threw it wrathfully -upon the ground, saying to Norfolk and to the rest of the council -assembled, that this was his reward for his services to the king, ... -adding that since he was so treated, he renounced all hope, and all he -asked of the king his master ... was not to let him languish...." - -The Duke of Norfolk, having reproached him with all the villanies -done by him, tore from him the Order of Saint George, which he wore -about his neck; and the admiral, to show himself as much his enemy in -adversity as he had been believed to be his friend in prosperity, undid -his garter.[231] - -From one point of view Henry's vanity was a weakness, for it laid him -open to attack, and the diplomatic correspondence is filled with sneers -like this of Castillon's: "Il n'oublye jamais sa grandeur et se taist -de celle des autres."[232] Probably nothing in English civilization -has ever equalled the adulation he exacted from his courtiers, and -especially from his bishops; yet even this vanity was a source of -strength, for it made him insensible to ridicule which would have -unnerved Saint Louis. - -On very scanty evidence, he caused his wife to be arraigned for incest, -and during the trial appeared in public so gaily dressed, and after her -conviction danced before the Court in such open delight, that Chapuys -himself was surprised:-- - - "There are still two English gentlemen detained on her account, - and it is suspected that there will be many more, because the - king has said he believed that more than 100 had to do with - her. You never saw prince or man who made greater show of his - horns or bore them more pleasantly."[233] - -His manners, like those of Cromwell and Norfolk, lacked the courtesy -which distinguished men, even of his own generation, like Sir Thomas -More. He was gluttonous and self-indulgent, and, toward the end of his -life, so bloated as to be helpless. His habits were well understood at -Court, and suitors tried to approach him in the afternoon, when he was -tipsy. Marillac thought his gormandizing would kill him:-- - - "There has been little doubt about the king, not so much for - the fever as for the trouble with the leg which he has had - which trouble seizes him very often because he is very gross, - and marvellously excessive in eating and drinking, so that - you often find him of a different purpose and opinion in the - morning from what you do after dinner."[234] - -On May 14, 1538, Castillon wrote:-- - - "Furthermore the king has had one of the fistulas on his legs - closed, and since ten or twelve days the humors, which have no - vent, have taken to stifling him, so much so, that he has been - some of the time speechless, the face all black, and in great - danger."[235] - -The most marked characteristic of the feudal aristocracy had been -personal courage; but as centralization advanced and a paid police -removed the necessity of self-defence, bravery ceased to be essential -to success; Henry apparently was not courageous--certainly was not -courageous in regard to disease. When most infatuated with Anne Boleyn, -she fell ill of the sweating sickness; he fled at once, and wrote from -a distance to beg her to fear nothing, as "few or no women ... have -died of it."[236] Marillac declared roundly that, in such matters, the -king was "the most timid person one could know."[237] - -On the other hand, he was habitually so overbearing as to be brutal to -the weak. Lambert was a poor sectary, of whom he determined to make an -example. He therefore prepared a solemn function, at which he presided, -assisted by the bishops and the other dignitaries of the realm. The -accused, when brought before this tribunal, apparently showed some -confusion, and Foxe has left a striking description of how Henry tried -to heighten this terror. Henry was dressed "all in white," probably -emblematic of his purity as the head of the Church, and his "look, his -cruel countenance, and his brows bent into severity, did not a little -augment this terror; plainly declaring a mind full of indignation, far -unworthy such a prince, especially in such a matter, and against so -humble and obedient a subject."[238] - -Gifted with such qualities, Henry could not have failed to be a great -religious reformer at the opening of a great economic age. More -than five hundred years before, when society hung on the brink of -dissolution, the Church sustained centralization by electing Hugh Capet -king of France. A century later the armed pilgrimages to Palestine -had accelerated the social movement, and consolidation again began. -Generation by generation the rapidity of movement had increased, -communication had been re-established between the East and West, the -mariner's compass and gunpowder had been introduced into Europe, the -attack had mastered the defence, and as the forms of competition slowly -changed, capital accumulated, until, at the beginning of the sixteenth -century, wealth reached the point where it could lay the foundation of -the paid police, the crowning triumph of the monied class. - -The Reformation was the victory of this class over the archaic type -of man, and with the Reformation the old imaginative civilization -passed away; but with all its power the monied intellect has certain -weaknesses, and neither in ancient Rome nor modern England have -capitalists been soldiers. The Tudor aristocracy was not a martial -caste. Lacking physical force, this new nobility feared the ancient -farming population, whom they slowly exterminated; and they feared them -with reason, for from among the yeomanry Cromwell drew his Ironsides. -Therefore one of the chief preoccupations of the Tudor nobility was to -devise means to hold this dangerous element in check, and as it could -not organize an army, it utilized the Church. The land-owners had other -purposes for the priesthood than simply to rob it; they had also to -enslave it, and Henry's title to greatness lies in his having attained -both ends. - -He not only plundered as no other man has plundered, but he succeeded -in assuming the functions of God's high priest, and becoming Christ's -vicar upon earth. Upon this point there can be no difference of -opinion; not only are the formularies of the Church of England clear, -but Anglicans themselves admit it. Macaulay was of Henry's communion; -Macaulay is an historian whose opinion on such a point commands -respect, and Macaulay has summed up the position of Henry VIII. as the -head of the capitalistic hierarchy in these words:-- - - "What Henry and his favourite counsellors meant, at one time, - by the supremacy, was certainly nothing less than the whole - power of the keys. The king was to be the pope of his kingdom, - the vicar of God, the expositor of Catholic verity, the channel - of sacramental graces. He arrogated to himself the right of - deciding dogmatically what was orthodox doctrine and what was - heresy, of drawing up and imposing confessions of faith, and of - giving religious instruction to his people. - - "He proclaimed that all jurisdiction, spiritual as well as - temporal, was derived from him alone, and that it was in his - power to confer episcopal authority, and to take it away.... - - "According to this system, as expounded by Cranmer, the king - was the spiritual as well as the temporal chief of the nation. - In both capacities his Highness must have lieutenants. As - he appointed civil officers to keep his seal, to collect - his revenues, and to dispense justice in his name, so he - appointed divines of various ranks to preach the gospel, and to - administer the sacraments. It was unnecessary that there should - be any imposition of hands. The king--such was the opinion - of Cranmer given in the plainest words,--might, in virtue of - authority derived from God, make a priest; and the priest so - made needed no ordination whatever."[239] - -Under the Tudors commerce and industry were yet in their infancy. -Great Britain still remained substantially agricultural, and capital -primarily sought investment in land. The enclosure of the commons and -the confiscations of the monastic estates, together formed a gigantic -real estate speculation, with which faith had little to do, and which -was possible only because force began to express itself through another -type of intellect than that which had been able to defend its property -during an imaginative age. - -The commercial community always demanded cheap religion. Under Henry -they inclined toward Zwingli, under Elizabeth toward Calvin, under -Charles they were Presbyterian; the gentry, on the contrary, were by -nature conservative, and favoured orthodoxy as far as their interest in -Church plunder permitted them. Henry and Norfolk stood at the head of -this class; Norfolk's conversion to Protestantism has been explained by -Chapuys, and Henry remained a bigot to his death. - - "Shortly before he died, when about to communicate, as he - always did, under one kind, he rose up from his chair, and fell - on his knees to adore the body of our Lord. The Zwinglians who - were present said that his majesty, by reason of his bodily - weakness, might make his communion sitting in his chair. The - king's answer was, 'If I could throw myself down, not only on - the ground, but under the ground, I should not then think that - I gave honour enough to the most Holy Sacrament.'"[240] - -As to Norfolk, Chapuys has left his opinion in very plain words:-- - - "He [Norfolk] has a good deal changed his tune, for it was he - alone [in] the Court who showed himself the best of Catholics, - and who favoured most the authority of the pope; but he - must act in this way not to lose his remaining influence, - which apparently does not extend much further than Cromwell - wishes."[241] - -To attain their end, the rising class, at whose head these two men -stood, had to doubly despoil the Church in whose dogmas they believed. -They confiscated her lands to enrich themselves, and they suppressed -her revenues to buy the support of the traders. Finally, their lack -of physical force suggested to them the expedient of seizing on -the ecclesiastical organization and filling it with their servants, -who should teach the people the religious duty of submission to an -authority which distrusted an appeal to arms. - -As Henry and Norfolk represented the landed magnates, so Cromwell -represented the mercantile community; and when the alliance between -these two monied interests had been perfected, by the appointment -of Cromwell as secretary of state, some time previous to April, -1534, events moved with precision and rapidity. They crowned Anne -Boleyn on June 1, 1533; in July the breach between the king and pope -became irreparable; in November, 1534, Parliament declared Henry -"Supreme Head" of the Church; and in the following winter the whole -administration, both civil and ecclesiastical, was concentrated in -Cromwell's hands. He acted with astonishing energy. - -In the autumn of 1535 he set on foot a visitation, preparatory to -the dissolution of the convents, and Parliament passed the bill -for suppression the next February. Cromwell also, as vicar general, -presided over the convocation of Canterbury, which made the first -reformation of faith. This convocation met in June, 1536, only shortly -before the Pilgrimage of Grace, and, under the fear of violence, -Henry and the conservatives were reduced to silence. The evangelical -influence for the moment held control, and the "Ten Articles," -the foundation of the "Thirty-nine Articles," together with the -"Institution of a Christian Man," which were produced, were a great -departure from orthodoxy. - -In the fourth article, the dogma of the "Supper" was made broad enough -to include Lutherans, and in the sixth, image worship was condemned. On -the other hand, "Justification by Faith" began to assume the importance -it must always hold in all really Protestant confessions. In one of his -homilies Cranmer, at a later time, showed the comparative futility of -good works:-- - - "A man must needs be nourished by good works; but first he - must have faith. He that doeth good deeds, yet without faith, - he hath no life. I can shew a man that by faith without works - lived, and came to heaven: but without faith never man had - life."[242] - - "Never had the Jews, in their most blindness, so many - pilgrimages unto images ... as hath been used in our time.... - Keeping in divers places, as it were marts or markets of - merits; being full of their holy relics, images, shrines, and - works of overflowing abundance ready to be sold.... Holy cowls, - holy girdles, holy pardons, heads, holy shoes, holy rules, and - all full of holiness.... Which were so esteemed and abused to - the great prejudice of God's glory and commandments, that they - were made most high and most holy things, whereby to attain to - the everlasting life, or remission of sin."[243] - -The anti-sacerdotal movement under Henry VIII. culminated in 1536 and -1537, when the country rebelled, and the land-owners were in need of -help from the towns. As long as the latter felt uncertain of their grip -on Church lands, the radical mercantile interest was permitted to mould -doctrine; but when Norfolk had triumphed in the north, and Aske and -Darcy had been executed, a reaction set in. In November, 1538, Lambert -was burned for denying transubstantiation, and in 1539 the chapter in -the statute book[244] which followed that providing for the suppression -of the mitred abbeys, re-established auricular confession, communion -in one kind, private masses, and, in a word, strict orthodoxy, saving -in the single tenet of the royal supremacy. To have conceded that would -have endangered property. Twelve months later the landed magnates felt -strong enough to discard the tradesmen; the alliance which had carried -through the Reformation was dissolved, and Cromwell was beheaded. - -Never did pope enforce the worship of the miracle more savagely than -did Henry. By the act of the "Six Articles," the denial of the miracle -of the mass was punished by burning and forfeiture of goods, without -the privilege of abjuration. Purity of faith could not have been the -ideal of reformers. - -Until quite recently, Protestants have accepted the tradition that the -convents of England were suppressed by the revolt of a people, outraged -by the disclosure of abominations perpetrated under the shelter -of monasticism. Within a few years, the publication of the British -archives has thrown a new and sombre light upon the Reformation. They -seem to prove, beyond a doubt, that as Philip dealt with the Templars, -so did Henry deal with all the religious orders of his realm. - -In 1533 Henry's position was desperate. He confronted not only the -pope and the emperor, but all that remained of the old feudal society, -and all that survived of the decaying imaginative age. Nothing could -resist this combination save the rising power of centralized capital, -and Henry therefore had to become the mouthpiece of the men who gave -expression to this force. - -He needed money, and money in abundance, and Cromwell rose to a -practical dictatorship because he was fittest to provide it. On all -that relates to Essex, Foxe is an undoubted authority, and Foxe did not -hesitate to attribute to Cromwell Henry's policy at this crisis:-- - - "For so it pleased Almighty God, by means of the said Lord - Cromwell, to induce the king to suppress first the chantries, - then the friars' houses and small monasteries, till, at length, - all the abbeys in England, both great and less, were utterly - overthrown and plucked up by the roots.... - - "Of how great laud and praise this man was worthy, and what - courage and stoutness was in him, it may hereby evidently - appear unto all men, that he alone, through the singular - dexterity of his wit and counsel, brought to pass that, which, - even unto this day no prince or king, throughout all Europe, - dare or can bring to pass. For whereas Brittania alone, of all - other nations, is and hath been, of her own proper nature, - most superstitious; this Cromwell, being born of a common - or base stock, through a divine method or policy of wit and - reason received, suffered, deluded, brake off, and repressed, - all the policies, trains, malice, and hatred of friars, monks, - religious men, and priests, of which sort there was a great - rabble in England."[245] - -Cromwell's strength lay in his superiority to those scruples of -truth and honour which hamper feebler men. He did what circumstances -demanded. His object, like Philip's, was to blacken his victims -that he might destroy them, and, to gather the evidence, he chose -instruments adapted to the work. To have used others would have -demonstrated himself unfit. Mr. Gairdner has remarked in his preface -to the tenth volume of the _Calendar_: "We have no reason indeed to -think highly of the character of Cromwell's visitors."[246] This -opinion of Mr. Gairdner is supported by all the evidence extant. -Thomas Legh, one of the commissioners, not only always took bribes, -but, having been appointed master of Sherburn Hospital, administered -it "to the utter disinheritance, decay and destruction of the ancient -and godly foundation of the same house."[247] Henry probably thought -him dishonest, since he had his accounts investigated. Even Legh's -colleague, Ap Rice, though venal himself, and in great fear of being -murdered for his treachery, denounced him in set terms to Cromwell:-- - - "And surely he asketh no less for every election than £20 as of - duty, which in my opinion is too much, and above any duty that - was ever taken heretofore. Also in his visitations he refuseth - many times his reward, though it be competent, for that they - offer him so little and maketh them to send after him such - rewards as may please him, for surely religious men were never - afraid so much of Dr. Allen as they be of him, he useth such - rough fashion with them."[248] - -The next day, however, Ap Rice, in alarm lest his frankness might lead -to his assassination, wrote to beg his master to be cautious:-- - - "Forasmuch as the said Mr. Doctor is of such acquaintance and - familiarity with many rufflers and serving men, ... I having - commonly no great assistance with me when I go abroad, might - take perchance irrevocable harm of him or his ere I were aware. - Please keep secret what I have said."[249] - -Ap Rice himself had been in difficulty, and Legh had exposed him, -for he admitted being "so abashed" at the accusation he could make no -defence. He had, also, certainly done something which put him in the -power of Cromwell, for he wrote: I know "from my own experience how -deadly it is for any man to incur your displeasure, which I would not -wish for my greatest enemy."[250] - - -The testimony of such witnesses would be of doubtful value, even had -they expressed themselves freely; but the government only tolerated -one form of report. A good example of the discipline enforced is to be -found in Layton's correspondence. He incautiously praised the Abbot of -Glastonbury, and was reprimanded by Cromwell, for he wrote to excuse -himself:-- - - "Whereas I understand by Mr. Pollard you much marvel why I - would ... so greatly praise ... the abbot of Glaston.... So - that my excessive and indiscrete praise ... must needs now - redound to my great folly and untruth, and cannot ... but - much diminish my credit towards his majesty, and even so to - your lordship.... And although they be all false, feigned, - flattering hypocritical knaves, as undoubtedly there is none - other of that sort. I must therefore now at this my necessity, - most humbly beseech your lordship to pardon me for that my - folly then committed ... and of your goodness to mitigate the - king's highness majesty in the premisses."[251] - -The charges made by the visitors are of a kind notoriously difficult to -prove, even with ample time, and with trained investigators. Cromwell's -examination was carried on by men of small worth, and in hot haste; -no opportunity was given for more than a cursory inspection of the -premises and the inmates:-- - - "This day we leave Bath for Kensam, where we shall make an end - by Tuesday, and then go on toward Maiden Bradley, within two - miles of which is a charterhouse called Wittame, and Bruton - Abbey seven miles, and Glastonbury seven miles.... If you tarry - with the king eight days we shall dispatch all the houses above - named."[252] - -The visitation began in August, 1535, and ended in February, 1536. -During these six months, four or five men, often travelling together, -undertook to examine one hundred and fifty-five houses scattered all -over England. "To judge by the proportion in Yorkshire," says Mr. -Gairdner, "the visitors examined only about four out of ten."[253] -So far as can be ascertained, the evidence upon which the reports -were based was generally of the flimsiest kind; either the scandal of -some discontented monk or nun, or the tattle of servants. There was -a striking instance of this at a nunnery in Chicksand, where Layton -accused two nuns of incontinence, although "the two prioresses would -not confess this, neither the parties, nor any of the nuns, but one old -beldame."[254] - -When nothing could be elicited, the accused were deemed in a -conspiracy. At Newark the house seemed well ordered, and nothing -questionable appeared on the surface, therefore Layton charged the -monks with being "confederyde," but he added that he would object -various horrible crimes against them, "which I have learnt from others. -What I shall find I cannot tell."[255] - -Where silence was taken as confession, the nuns especially fared -ill. Very generally they were too frightened, or too disgusted, to -answer. Even if such evidence were uncontradicted, no great weight -could attach to it, but it happens that there is much on the other -side. Not to speak of the episcopal visitations, which were carried -on as part of the discipline of the Church, Henry's own government -subsequently appointed boards of commissioners composed of country -gentlemen, and these boards, which made examinations at leisure -in five counties, formed conclusions generally favourable to the -ecclesiastics. Two examples will suffice to show the discrepancy -between the views of the men whom Cromwell did, and did not control. At -Geradon in Leicestershire, Cromwell's board reported a convent of White -Cistercians, which contained five monks addicted to sodomy with ten -boys.[256] The second board described the same corporation as "of good -conversation, and God's service well maintained."[257] - -At Grace Dieu two nuns were charged with incontinence.[258] The country -gentlemen found there only fifteen White Nuns of Saint Austin, "of good -and virtuous conversation and living."[259] - -No one familiar with the development of police during the later Middle -Ages, could have much doubt that, on the whole, the discipline of the -convents would correspond pretty accurately with the prevailing tone -of society, and that, although asceticism and enthusiasm might have -declined since the twelfth century, subordination to authority would -have increased with the advance of centralization. Rebellious monks, -like those who tried to murder Abélard, would certainly have been rarer -at the time of the Reformation than at the opening of the crusades. - -The crime of the English monks, like the crime of the Templars, was -defenceless wealth; and, like the Templars, they fared hardly in -proportion to their devotion and their courage. The flexible and the -corrupt, who betrayed their trust, received pensions or promotion; the -Carthusians, against whose stern enthusiasm torments were powerless, -perished as their predecessors had perished in the field of Saint -Antoine. - -The attack of Cromwell's hirelings resembled the onslaught of an -invading army. The convents fared like conquered towns; the shrines -were stripped and the booty heaped on carts, as at the sack of -Constantinople. Churches were desecrated, windows broken, the roofs -stripped of lead, the bells melted, the walls sold for quarries. Europe -overflowed with vestments and altar ornaments, while the libraries -were destroyed. Toward the end of 1539 Legh reached Durham, and the -purification of the sanctuary of Saint Cuthbert may be taken as an -example of the universal spoliation:-- - - "After the spoil of his ornaments and jewels, coming nearer - to his sacred body, thinking to have found nothing but dust - and bones, and finding the chest that he did lie in, very - strongly bound with iron, then the goldsmith did take a great - forge-hammer of a smith, and did break the said chest open. - - "And when they had opened the chest, they found him lying - whole, uncorrupt, with his face bare, and his beard as it had - been a fortnight's growth, and all his vestments upon him, as - he was accustomed to say mass withall, and his meet wand of - gold lying beside him. - - "Then, when the goldsmith did perceive that he had broken one - of his legs, when he did break open the chest, he was very - sorry for it and did cry, 'Alas, I have broken one of his - legs.' - - "Then Dr. Henley [one of the commissioners] hearing him say so, - did call upon him, and did bid him cast down his bones."[260] - -By the statute of 1536, only those convents were suppressed which were -worth less than £200 a year, or which, within twelve months after the -passage of the act, should be granted to the king by the abbot. This -legislation spared the mitred abbeys, and as long as any conventual -property remained undivided, the land-owners kept Cromwell in office, -not feeling, perhaps, quite sure of their capacity to succeed alone. - -In 1539 it had proved impossible to force the three great abbots -of Glastonbury, Reading, and Colchester into a surrender to the -Crown, and accordingly Cromwell devised an act to vest in Henry such -conventual lands as should be forfeited through attainder. Then he -indicted the abbots for treason, and thus sought to bring the estates -they represented constructively within the statute. The fate of Abbot -Whiting, whom Layton incautiously praised, will do for all. He was -eighty when he died, and his martyrdom is unusually interesting, as -it laid the fortune of the great house of Bedford, one of the most -splendid of modern dukedoms. - -The commissioners came unexpectedly, and found the old monk at a grange -at Sharpham, about a mile from Glastonbury. On September 19 they -apprehended him, searched his apartment, and finding nothing likely -to be of service, sent him up to London for Cromwell to deal with, -though he was "very weak and sickly." Cromwell lodged him in the Tower, -and examined him, apparently in a purely perfunctory fashion, for the -government had decided on its policy. The secretary of state simply -jotted down a memorandum to see "that the evidence be well sorted and -the indictments well drawn," and left the details of the murder to John -Russell, a man thoroughly to be trusted. Cromwell's only anxiety was -about the indictments, and he had "the king's learned counsel" with him -"all day" discussing the matter. Finally they decided, between them, -that it would be better to proceed at Glaston, and Whiting was sent -to Somersetshire to be dealt with by the progenitor of a long line of -opulent Whig landlords. - -In superintending the trial, Russell showed an energy and judgment -which won its reward. On the 14th of November, when the invalid reached -Wells, he wrote that he had provided for him "as worshipful a jury as -was ever charged here these many years. And there was never seen in -these parts so great appearance as were here at this present time, -and never better willing to serve the king."[261] Russell wasted no -time. He arranged for the trial one day and the execution the next. -"The Abbot of Glastonbury was arraigned, and the next day put to -execution with two other of his monks, for the robbing of Glastonbury -church."[262] - -He had the old man bound on a hurdle and dragged to the top of Tor -Hill, "but ... he would confess no more gold nor silver, nor any -other thing more than he did before your Lordship in the Tower.... -And thereupon took his death very patiently, and his head and body -bestowed in like manner as I certified your lordship in my last -letter."[263] "One quarter standeth at Wells, another at Bath, and at -Ilchester and Bridgewater the rest. And his head upon the abbey gate at -Glaston."[264] - -On the 17th of the following April, Henry created Cromwell Earl of -Essex, preparatory to slaughtering him. Within two months the new earl -was arrested by his bitterest enemy, the Duke of Norfolk, the chief -of the landed interest; on the 28th of July he lost his head on Tower -Hill, and his colossal fortune fed the men who had divided the body of -Whiting. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE EVICTION OF THE YEOMEN - - -Like primitive Rome, England, during the Middle Ages, had an unusually -homogeneous population of farmers, who made a remarkable infantry. Not -that the cavalry was defective; on the contrary, from top to bottom -of society, every man was a soldier, and the aristocracy had excellent -fighting qualities. Many of the kings, like Coeur-de-Lion, Edward III., -and Henry V., ranked among the ablest commanders of their day; the -Black Prince has always been a hero of chivalry; and earls and barons -could be named by the score who were famous in the Hundred Years' War. - -Yet, although the English knights were a martial body, there is nothing -to show that, on the whole, they surpassed the French. The English -infantry won Crécy and Poitiers, and this infantry, which was long -the terror of Europe, was recruited from among the small farmers who -flourished in Great Britain until they were exterminated by the advance -of civilization. - -As long as the individual could at all withstand the attack of the -centralized mass of society, England remained a hot-bed for breeding -this species of man. A mediæval king had no means of collecting a -regular revenue by taxation; he was only the chief of the free-men, and -his estates were supposed to suffice for his expenditure. The revenue -the land yielded consisted of men, not money, and to obtain men, the -sovereign granted his domains to his nearest friends, who, in their -turn, cut their manors into as many farms as possible, and each farmer -paid his rent with his body. - -A baron's strength lay in the band of spears which followed his banner, -and therefore he subdivided his acres as much as possible, having no -great need of money. Himself a farmer, he cultivated enough of his fief -to supply his wants, to provide his table, and to furnish his castle, -but, beyond this, all he kept to himself was loss. Under such a system -money contracts played a small part, and economic competition was -unknown. - -The tenants were free-men, whose estates passed from father to son by -a fixed tenure; no one could underbid them with their landlord, and no -capitalist could ruin them by depressing wages, for the serfs formed -the basis of society, and these serfs were likewise land-owners. In -theory, the villains may have held at will; but in fact they were -probably the descendants, or at least the representatives, of the -_coloni_ of the Empire, and a base tenure could be proved by the roll -of the manorial court. Thus even the weakest were protected by custom, -and there was no competition in the labour market. - -The manor was the social unit, and, as the country was sparsely -settled, waste spaces divided the manors from each other, and these -wastes came to be considered as commons appurtenant to the domain in -which the tenants of the manor had vested rights. The extent of these -rights varied from generation to generation, but substantially they -amounted to a privilege of pasture, fuel, or the like; aids which, -though unimportant to large property owners, were vital when the margin -of income was narrow. - -During the old imaginative age, before centralization gathered headway, -little inducement existed to pilfer these domains, since there was -room in plenty, and the population increased slowly, if at all. The -moment the form of competition changed, these conditions were reversed. -Precisely when a money rent became a more potent force than armed -men, may be hard to determine, but certainly that time had come when -Henry VIII. mounted the throne, for then capitalistic farming was -on the increase, and speculation in real estate already caused sharp -distress. At that time the establishment of a police had destroyed the -value of the retainer, and competitive rents had generally supplanted -military tenures. Instead of tending to subdivide, as in an age of -decentralization, land consolidated in the hands of the economically -strong, and capitalists systematically enlarged their estates by -enclosing the commons, and depriving the yeomen of their immemorial -rights. - -The sixteenth-century landlords were a type quite distinct from the -ancient feudal gentry. As a class they were gifted with the economic, -and not with the martial instinct, and they throve on competition. -Their strength lay in their power of absorbing the property of their -weaker neighbours under the protection of an overpowering police. - -Everything tended to accelerate consolidation, especially the rise -in the value of money. While, even with the debasement of the coin, -the price of cereals did not advance, the growth of manufactures had -caused wool to double in value. "We need not therefore be surprised at -finding that the temptation to sheep-farming was almost irresistible, -and that statute after statute failed to arrest the tendency."[265] The -conversion of arable land into pasture led, of course, to wholesale -eviction, and by 1515 the suffering had become so acute that details -were given in acts of Parliament. Places where two hundred persons -had lived, by growing corn and grain, were left desolate, the houses -had decayed, and the churches fallen into ruin.[266] The language of -these statutes proves that the descriptions of contemporaries were not -exaggerated. - - "For I myselfe know many townes and villages sore decayed, for - yt where as in times past there wer in some town an hundred - householdes there remain not now thirty; in some fifty, ther - are not now ten; yea (which is more to be lamented) I knowe - townes so wholly decayed, that there is neyther sticke nor - stone standyng as they use to say. - - "Where many men had good lyuinges, and maynteined hospitality, - able at times to helpe the kyng in his warres, and to susteyne - other charges, able also to helpe their pore neighboures, and - vertuously to bring up theyr children in Godly letters and - good scyences, nowe sheepe and conies deuoure altogether, no - man inhabiting the aforesayed places. Those beastes which - were created of God for the nouryshment of man doe nowe - deuoure man.... And the cause of all thys wretchednesse and - beggery in the common weale are the gredy Gentylmen, whyche - are shepemongers and grasyars. Whyle they study for their - owne priuate commoditie, the common weale is lyke to decay. - Since they began to be shepe maysters and feders of cattell, - we neyther had vyttayle nor cloth of any reasonable pryce. No - meruayle, for these forstallars of the market, as they use to - saye, haue gotten all thynges so into theyr handes, that the - poore man muste eyther bye it at their pryce, or else miserably - starue for hongar, and wretchedly dye for colde."[267] - -The reduction of the acreage in tillage must have lessened the crop of -the cereals, and accounts for their slight rise in value during the -second quarter of the sixteenth century. Nevertheless this rise gave -the farmer no relief, as, under competition, rents advanced faster than -prices, and in the generation which reformed the Church, the misery -of yeomen had become extreme. In 1549 Latimer preached a sermon, which -contains a passage often quoted, but always interesting:-- - - "Furthermore, if the king's honour, as some men say, standeth - in the great multitude of people; then these graziers, - inclosers, and rent-rearers, are hinderers of the king's - honour. For where as have been a great many householders and - inhabitants, there is now but a shepherd and his dog.... - - "My father was yeoman, and had no lands of his own, only he - had a farm of three or four pound by year at the uttermost, - and hereupon he tilled so much as kept half a dozen men. He had - walk for a hundred sheep; and my mother milked thirty kine. He - was able, and did find the king a harness, with himself and his - horse, while he came to the place that he should receive the - king's wages. I can remember that I buckled his harness when he - went unto Blackheath field. He kept me to school, or else I had - not been able to have preached before the king's majesty now. - - "He married my sisters with five pound, or twenty nobles - apiece; so that he brought them up in godliness and fear of - God. He kept hospitality for his poor neighbours, and some - alms he gave to the poor. And all this he did of the said - farm, where he that now hath it payeth sixteen pound by year, - or more, and is not able to do anything for his prince, for - himself, nor for his children, or give a cup of drink to the - poor."[268] - -The small proprietor suffered doubly: he had to meet the competition of -large estates, and to endure the curtailment of his resources through -the enclosure of the commons. The effect was to pauperize the yeomanry -and lesser gentry, and before the Reformation the homeless poor had so -multiplied that, in 1530, Parliament passed the first of a series of -vagrant acts.[269] At the outset the remedy applied was comparatively -mild, for able-bodied mendicants were only to be whipped until they -were bloody, returned to their domicile, and there whipped until they -put themselves to labour. As no labour was supplied, the legislation -failed, and in 1537 the emptying of the convents brought matters to a -climax. Meanwhile Parliament tried the experiment of killing off the -unemployed; by the second act vagrants were first mutilated and then -hanged as felons.[270] - -In 1547, when Edward VI. was crowned, the great crisis had reached -its height. The silver of Potosi had not yet brought relief, the -currency was in chaos, labour was disorganized, and the nation seethed -with the discontent which broke out two years later in rebellion. The -land-owners held absolute power, and before they yielded to the burden -of feeding the starving, they seriously addressed themselves to the -task of extermination. The preamble of the third act stated that, -in spite of the "great travel" and "godly statutes" of Parliament, -pauperism had not diminished, therefore any vagrant brought before two -justices was to be adjudged the slave of his captor for two years. He -might be compelled to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise, be fed -on bread and water, or refuse meat, and confined by a ring of iron -about his neck, arms or legs. For his first attempt at escape, his -slavery became perpetual, for his second, he was hanged.[271] - -Even as late as 1591, in the midst of the great expansion which brought -prosperity to all Europe, and when the monks and nuns, cast adrift -by the suppression of the convents, must have mostly died, beggars so -swarmed that at the funeral of the Earl of Shrewsbury "there were by -the report of such as served the dole unto them, the number of 8000. -And they thought that there were almost as many more that could not -be served, through their unruliness. Yea, the press was so great that -divers were slain and many hurt. And further it is reported of credible -persons, that well estimated the number of all the said beggars, that -they thought there were about 20,000." It was conjectured "that all the -said poor people were abiding and dwelling within thirty miles' compass -of Sheffield."[272] - -In 1549, just as the tide turned, insurrection blazed out all -over England. In the west a pitched battle was fought between the -peasantry and foreign mercenaries, and Exeter was relieved only after -a long siege. In Norfolk the yeomen, led by one Kett, controlled a -large district for a considerable time. They arrested the unpopular -landlords, threw open the commons they had appropriated, and ransacked -the manor houses to pay indemnities to evicted farmers. When attacked, -they fought stubbornly, and stormed Norwich twice. - -Strype described "these mutineers" as "certain poor men that sought -to have their commons again, by force and power taken from them; and -that a regulation be made according to law of arable lands turned into -pasture."[273] - -Cranmer understood the situation perfectly, and though a consummate -courtier, and himself a creation of the capitalistic revolution, spoke -in this way of his patrons:-- - - "And they complain much of rich men and gentlemen, saying, - that they take the commons from the poor, that they raise the - prices of all manner of things, that they rule the poverty, and - oppress them at their pleasure.... - - "And although here I seem only to speak against these unlawful - assemblers, yet I cannot allow those, but I must needs threaten - everlasting damnation unto them, whether they be gentlemen - or whatsoever they be, which never cease to purchase and join - house to house, and land to land, as though they alone ought to - possess and inhabit the earth."[274] - -Revolt against the pressure of this unrestricted economic competition -took the form of Puritanism, of resistance to the religious -organization controlled by capital, and even in Cranmer's time, the -attitude of the descendants of the men who formed the line at Poitiers -and Crécy was so ominous that Anglican bishops took alarm. - - "It is reported that there be many among these unlawful - assemblies that pretend knowledge of the gospel, and will needs - be called gospellers.... But now I will go further to speak - somewhat of the great hatred which divers of these seditious - persons do bear against the gentlemen; which hatred in many is - so outrageous, that they desire nothing more than the spoil, - ruin, and destruction of them that be rich and wealthy."[275] - -Somerset, who owed his elevation to the accident of being the -brother of Jane Seymour, proved unequal to the crisis of 1449, and -was supplanted by John Dudley, now better remembered as Duke of -Northumberland. Dudley was the strongest member of the new aristocracy. -His father, Edmund Dudley, had been the celebrated lawyer who rose -to eminence as the extortioner of Henry VII., and whom Henry VIII. -executed, as an act of popularity, on his accession. John, beside -inheriting his father's financial ability, had a certain aptitude -for war, and undoubted courage; accordingly he rose rapidly. He and -Cromwell understood each other; he flattered Cromwell, and Cromwell -lent him money.[276] Strype has intimated that Dudley had strong -motives for resisting the restoration of the commons.[277] - -In 1547 he was created Earl of Warwick, and in 1549 suppressed Kett's -rebellion. This military success brought him to the head of the State; -he thrust Somerset aside, and took the title of Duke of Northumberland. -His son was equally distinguished. He became the favourite of Queen -Elizabeth, who created him Earl of Leicester; but, though an expert -courtier, he was one of the most incompetent generals whom even the -Tudor landed aristocracy ever put in the field. - -The disturbances of the reign of Edward VI. did not ripen into -revolution, probably because of the relief given by rising prices -after 1550; but, though they fell short of actual civil war, they were -sufficiently formidable to terrify the aristocracy into abandoning -their policy of killing off the surplus population. In 1552 the -first statute was passed[278] looking toward the systematic relief of -paupers. Small farmers prospered greatly after 1660, for prices rose -strongly, very much more strongly than rents; nor was it until after -the beginning of the seventeenth century, when rents again began to -advance, that the yeomanry once more grew restive. Cromwell raised his -Ironsides from among the great-grandchildren of the men who stormed -Norwich with Kett. - - "I had a very worthy friend then; and he was a very noble - person, and I know his memory is very grateful to all,--Mr. John - Hampden. At my first going out into this engagement, I saw - our men were beaten at every hand. I did indeed; and desired - him that he would make some additions to my Lord Essex's army, - of some new regiments; and I told him I would be serviceable - to him in bringing such men in as I thought had a spirit - that would do something in the work. This is very true that - I tell you; God knows I lie not. 'Your troops,' said I, 'are - most of them old decayed serving-men, and tapsters, and such - kind of fellows; and,' said I, 'their troops are gentlemen's - sons, younger sons and persons of quality: do you think that - the spirits of such base and mean fellows will ever be able - to encounter gentlemen, that have honour and courage and - resolution in them?'... Truly I did tell him; 'You must get - men of a spirit: ... a spirit that is likely to go on as far as - gentlemen will go;--or else you will be beaten still....' - - "He was a wise and worthy person; and he did think that I - talked a good notion, but an impracticable one. Truly I told - him I could do somewhat in it, ... and truly I must needs - say this to you, ... I raised such men as had the fear of God - before them, as made some conscience of what they did; and from - that day forward, I must say to you, they were never beaten, - and wherever they were engaged against the enemy, they beat - continually."[279] - -Thus, by degrees, the pressure of intensifying centralization split the -old homogeneous population of England into classes, graduated according -to their economic capacity. Those without the necessary instinct sank -into agricultural day labourers, whose lot, on the whole, has probably -been somewhat worse than that of ordinary slaves. The gifted, like the -Howards, the Dudleys, the Cecils, and the Boleyns, rose to be rich -nobles and masters of the State. Between the two accumulated a mass -of bold and needy adventurers, who were destined finally not only to -dominate England, but to shape the destinies of the world. - -One section of these, the shrewder and less venturesome, gravitated to -the towns, and grew rich as merchants, like the founder of the Osborn -family, whose descendant became Duke of Leeds; or like the celebrated -Josiah Child, who, in the reign of William III., controlled the whole -eastern trade of the kingdom. The less astute and the more martial took -to the sea, and as slavers, pirates, and conquerors, built up England's -colonial empire, and established her maritime supremacy. Of this class -were Drake and Blake, Hawkins, Raleigh, and Clive. - -For several hundred years after the Norman conquest, Englishmen showed -little taste for the ocean, probably because sufficient outlet for -their energies existed on land. In the Middle Ages the commerce of -the island was mostly engrossed by the Merchants of the Steelyard, -an offshoot of the Hanseatic league; while the great explorers of -the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries were usually Italians or -Portuguese; men like Columbus, Vespucius, Vasco-da-Gama, or Magellan. -This state of things lasted, however, only until economic competition -began to ruin the small farmers, and then the hardiest and boldest -race of Europe were cast adrift, and forced to seek their fortunes in -strange lands. - -For the soldier or the adventurer, there was no opening in England -after the battle of Flodden. A peaceful and inert bourgeoisie more and -more supplanted the ancient martial baronage; their representatives -shrank from campaigns like those of Richard I., the Edwards, and Henry -V., and therefore, for the evicted farmer, there was nothing but the -far-off continents of America and Asia, and to these he directed his -steps. - -The lives of the admirals tell the tale on every page. Drake's history -is now known. His family belonged to the lesser Devon gentry, but -fallen so low that his father gladly apprenticed him as ship's boy on -a channel coaster, a life of almost intolerable hardship. From this -humble beginning he fought his way, by dint of courage and genius, to -be one of England's three greatest seamen; and Blake and Nelson, the -other two, were of the same blood. - -Sir Humphrey Gilbert was of the same west country stock as Drake; -Frobisher was a poor Yorkshire man, and Sir Walter Raleigh came from -a ruined house. No less than five knightly branches of Raleigh's -family once throve together in the western counties; but disaster came -with the Tudors, and Walter's father fell into trouble through his -Puritanism. Walter himself early had to face the world, and carved out -his fortune with his sword. He served in France in the religious wars; -afterward, perhaps, in Flanders; then, through Gilbert, he obtained a -commission in Ireland, but finally drifted to Elizabeth's court, where -he took to buccaneering, and conceived the idea of colonizing America. - -A profound gulf separated these adventurers from the landed -capitalists, for they were of an extreme martial type; a type hated -and feared by the nobility. With the exception of the years of the -Commonwealth, the landlords controlled England from the Reformation -to the revolution of 1688, a period of one hundred and fifty years, -and, during that long interval, there is little risk in asserting -that the aristocracy did not produce a single soldier or sailor of -more than average capacity. The difference between the royal and the -parliamentary armies was as great as though they had been recruited -from different races. Charles had not a single officer of merit, while -it is doubtful if any force has ever been better led than the troops -organized by Cromwell. - -Men like Drake, Blake, and Cromwell were among the most terrible -warriors of the world, and they were distrusted and feared by an -oligarchy which felt instinctively its inferiority in arms. Therefore, -in Elizabeth's reign, politicians like the Cecils took care that the -great seamen should have no voice in public affairs. And though these -men defeated the Armada, and though England owed more to them than -to all the rest of her population put together, not one reached the -peerage, or was treated with confidence and esteem. Drake's fate shows -what awaited them. Like all his class, Drake was hot for war with -Spain, and from time to time he was unchained, when fighting could not -be averted; but his policy was rejected, his operations more nearly -resembled those of a pirate than of an admiral, and when he died, he -died in something like disgrace. - -The aristocracy even made the false position in which they placed -their sailors a source of profit, for they forced them to buy pardon -for their victories by surrendering the treasure they had won with -their blood. Fortescue actually had to interfere to defend Raleigh and -Hawkins from Elizabeth's rapacity. In 1592 Borough sailed in command of -a squadron fitted out by the two latter, with some contribution from -the queen and the city of London. Borough captured the carack, the -Madre-de-Dios, whose pepper alone Burleigh estimated at £102,000. The -cargo proved worth £141,000, and of this Elizabeth's share, according -to the rule of distribution in use, amounted to one-tenth, or £14,000. -She demanded £80,000, and allowed Raleigh and Hawkins, who had spent -£34,000, only £36,000. Raleigh bitterly contrasted the difference made -between himself a soldier, and a peer, or a London speculator. "I was -the cause that all this came to the Queen, and that the King of Spaine -spent 300,000^{li} the last yere.... I that adventured all my estate, -lose of my principall.... I tooke all the care and paines; ... they -only sate still ... for which double is given to them, and less then -mine own to me."[280] - -Raleigh was so brave he could not comprehend that his talent was -his peril. He fancied his capacity for war would bring him fame and -fortune, and it led him to the block. While Elizabeth lived, the -admiration of the woman for the hero probably saved him, but he never -even entered the Privy Council, and of real power he had none. The -sovereign the oligarchy chose was James, and James imprisoned and then -slew him. Nor was Raleigh's fate peculiar, for, through timidity, the -Cavaliers conceived an almost equal hate of many soldiers. They dug -up the bones of Cromwell, they tried to murder William III., and they -dragged down Marlborough in the midst of victory. Such were the new -classes into which economic competition divided the people of England -during the sixteenth century, and the Reformation was only one among -many of the effects of this profound social revolution. - -In the first fifty-three years of the sixteenth century, England passed -through two distinct phases of ecclesiastical reform; the earlier, -under Henry, when the conventual property was appropriated by the -rising aristocracy; the later, under Edward, when portions of the -secular endowments were also seized. Each period of spoliation was -accompanied by innovations in doctrine, and each was followed by a -reaction, the final one, under Mary, taking the form of reconciliation -with Rome. Viewed in connection with the insurrections, the whole -movement can hardly be distinguished from an armed conquest of the -imaginative by the economic section of society; a conquest which -produced a most curious and interesting development of a new clerical -type. - -During the Middle Ages, the hierarchy had been a body of -miracle-workers, independent of, and at first superior to, the State. -This great corporation had subsisted upon its own resources, and -had generally been controlled by men of the ecstatic temperament, of -whom Saint Anselm is, perhaps, the most perfect example. After the -conquest at the Reformation, these conditions changed. Having lost -its independence, the priesthood lapsed into an adjunct of the civil -power; it then became reorganized upon an economic basis, and gradually -turned into a salaried class, paid to inculcate obedience to the -representative of an oligarchy which controlled the national revenue. -Perhaps, in all modern history, there is no more striking example of -the rapid and complete manner in which, under favourable circumstances, -one type can supersede another, than the thoroughness with which the -economic displaced the emotional temperament, in the Anglican Church, -during the Tudor dynasty. The mental processes of the new pastors did -not differ so much in degree as in kind from those of the old. - -Although the spoliations of Edward are less well remembered than those -of his father, they were hardly less drastic. They began with the -estates of the chantries and guilds, and rapidly extended to all sorts -of property. In the Middle Ages, one of the chief sources of revenue of -the sacred class had been their prayers for souls in purgatory, and all -large churches contained chapels, many of them richly endowed, for the -perpetual celebration of masses for the dead; in England and Wales more -than a thousand such chapels existed, whose revenues were often very -valuable. These were the chantries, which vanished with the imaginative -age which created them, and the guilds shared the same fate. - -Before economic competition had divided men into classes according -to their financial capacity, all craftsmen possessed capital, as -all agriculturists held land. The guild established the craftsman's -social status; as a member of a trade corporation he was governed by -regulations fixing the number of hands he might employ, the amount -of goods he might produce, and the quality of his workmanship; on -the other hand, the guild regulated the market, and ensured a demand. -Tradesmen, perhaps, did not easily grow rich, but they as seldom became -poor. - -With centralization life changed. Competition sifted the strong from -the weak; the former waxed wealthy, and hired hands at wages, the -latter lost all but the ability to labour; and, when the corporate body -of producers had thus disintegrated, nothing stood between the common -property and the men who controlled the engine of the law. By the 1 -Edward VI., c. 14, all the possessions of the schools, colleges, and -guilds of England, except the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and the -guilds of London, were conveyed to the king, and the distribution thus -begun extended far and wide, and has been forcibly described by Mr. -Blunt:-- - - "They tore off the lead from the roofs, and wrenched out the - brasses from the floors. The books they despoiled of their - costly covers, and then sold them for waste paper. The gold - and silver plate they melted down with copper and lead, to - make a coinage so shamefully debased as was never known before - or since in England. The vestments of altars and priests they - turned into table-covers, carpets, and hangings, when not very - costly; and when worth more money than usual, they sold them - to foreigners, not caring who used them for 'superstitious' - purposes, but caring to make the best 'bargains' they could - of their spoil. Even the very surplices and altar linen would - fetch something, and that too was seized by their covetous - hands."[281] - -These "covetous hands" were the privy councillors. Henry had not -intended that any member of the board should have precedence, but the -king's body was not cold before Edward Seymour began an intrigue to -make himself protector. To consolidate a party behind him, he opened -his administration by distributing all the spoil he could lay hands -on; and Mr. Froude estimated that "on a computation most favourable to -the council, estates worth ... in modern currency about five millions" -of pounds, were "appropriated--I suppose I must not say stolen--and -divided among themselves."[282] At the head of this council stood -Cranmer, who took his share without scruple. Probably Froude's estimate -is far too low; for though Seymour, as Duke of Somerset, had, like -Henry, to meet imperative claims which drained his purse, he yet built -Somerset House, the most sumptuous palace of London. - -Seymour was put to death by Dudley when he rose to power by his -military success in Norfolk. Dudley as well as Cromwell was fitted -for the emergency in which he lived; bold, able, unscrupulous and -energetic, his party hated but followed him, because without him they -saw no way to seize the property they coveted. He too, like Cromwell, -allied himself with the evangelical clergy, and under Edward the -orthodoxy of the "Six Articles" gave way to the doctrine of Geneva. -Even in 1548 Calvin had been able to write to Somerset, thanking God -that, through his wisdom, the "pure truth" was preached;[283] but when -Dudley administered the government as Duke of Northumberland, bishops -did not hesitate to teach that the dogma of the "carnal presence" -in the sacrament "maintaineth that beastly kind of cruelty of the -'Anthropophagi,' that is, the devourers of man's flesh: for it is a -more cruel thing to devour a quick man, than to slay him."[284] - -Dudley resembled Henry and Norfolk in being naturally conservative, -for he died a Catholic; but with them all, money was the supreme -object, and as they lacked the physical force to plunder alone, they -were obliged to conciliate the Radicals. These were represented by -Knox, and to Knox the duke paid assiduous court. The Scotchman began -preaching in Berwick in 1549, but the government soon brought him to -London, and in 1551 made him a royal chaplain, and, as chaplain, he -was called upon to approve the Forty-two Articles of 1552. This he -could do conscientiously, as they contained the dogmas of election -and predestination, original sin, and justification by faith, beside a -denial of "the reall and bodilie presence ... of Christes fleshe, and -bloude, in the Sacramente of the Lordes Supper." - -Dudley tried hard to buy Knox, and offered him the See of Rochester; -but the duke excited the deepest distrust and dislike in the preacher, -who called him "that wretched and miserable Northumberland." He -rejected the preferment, and indeed, from the beginning, bad blood -seems to have lain between the Calvinists and the court. Writing at -the beginning of 1554, Knox expressed his opinion of the reforming -aristocracy in emphatic language, beginning with Somerset, "who -became so cold in hearing Godis Word, that the year befoir his last -apprehensioun, he wald ga visit his masonis, and wald not dainyie -himself to ga frome his gallerie to his hall for heiring of a -sermone."[285] Afterward matters grew worse, for "the haill Counsaile -had said, Thay wald heir no mo of thair sermonis: thay wer but -indifferent fellowis; (yea, and sum of thame eschameit not to call -thame pratting knaves.)"[286] - -Finally, just before Edward's death the open rupture came. Knox had -a supreme contempt and antipathy for the Lord Treasurer, Paulet, -Marquis of Winchester, whom he called a "crafty fox." During Edward's -life, jeered Knox, "who was moste bolde to crye, Bastarde, bastarde, -incestuous bastarde, Mary shall never rule over us," and now that Mary -is on the throne it is to her Paulet "crouches and kneeleth."[287] In -the last sermon he preached before the king he let loose his tongue, -and probably he would have quitted the court, even had the reign -continued. In this sermon Dudley was Ahithophel, Paulet, Shebna:-- - - "I made this affirmacion, That commonlye it was sene, that - the most godly princes hadde officers and chief counseilours - moste ungodlye, conjured enemies to Goddes true religion, - and traitours to their princes.... Was David, sayd I, and - Ezechias, princes of great and godly giftes and experience, - abused by crafty counsailers and dissemblyng hypocrites? What - wonder is it then, that a yonge and innocent Kinge be deceived - by craftye, covetouse, wycked, and ungodly counselours? I - am greatly afrayd, that Achitophel be counsailer, that Judas - beare the purse, and that Sobna be scribe, comptroller, and - treasurer. This, and somwhat more I spake that daye, not in a - corner (as many yet can wytnesse) but even before those whome - my conscience judged worthy of accusation."[288] - -Knox understood the relation which men of his stamp bore to -Anglicanism. In 1549 much land yet remained to be divided, therefore -he and his like were flattered and cajoled until Paulet and his -friends should be strong enough to discard them. Faith, in the -hands of the monied oligarchy, became an instrument of police, and, -from the Reformation downward, revelation has been expounded in -England by statute. Hence men of the imaginative type, who could not -accept their creed with their stipend, were at any moment in danger -of being adjudged heretics, and suffering the extreme penalty of -insubordination. - -Docility to lay dictation has always been the test by which the -Anglican clergy have been sifted from Catholics and Puritans. To -the imaginative mind a faith must spring from a revelation, and a -revelation must be infallible and unchangeable. Truth must be single. -Catholics believed their revelation to be continuous, delivered through -the mouth of an illuminated priesthood, speaking in its corporate -capacity. Puritans held that theirs had been made once for all, and was -contained in a book. But both Catholics and Puritans were clear that -divine truth was immutable, and that the universal Church could not -err. To minds of this type, statutes regulating the appearance of God's -body in the elements were not only impious but absurd, and men of the -priestly temperament, whether Catholic or Puritan, have faced death in -its most appalling forms, rather than bow down before them. - -Here Fisher and Knox, Bellarmine and Calvin, agreed. Rather than accept -the royal supremacy, the flower of the English priesthood sought -poverty and exile, the scaffold and the stake. For this, the aged -Fisher hastened to the block on Tower Hill; for this, Forest dangled -over the embers of the smouldering rood; for this, the Carthusians -rotted in their noisome dens. Nor were Puritans a whit behind Catholics -in asserting the sacerdotal dignity; "Erant enim blasphemi qui vocarent -eum [Henricum VIII.] summum caput ecclesiæ sub Christo," wrote Calvin, -and on this ground the Nonconformists fought the established Church, -from Elizabeth's accession downward. - -The writings of Martin Marprelate only restated an issue which had -been raised by Hildebrand five hundred years before; for the advance -of centralization had reproduced in England something of the same -conditions which prevailed at Constantinople when it became a centre -of exchanges. Wherever civilization has reached the point at which -energy expresses itself through money, faith must be subordinate to the -representative of wealth. Stephen Gardiner understood the conditions -under which he lived, and accepted his servitude in consideration of -the great See of Winchester. With striking acuteness he cited Justinian -as a precedent for Henry:-- - - "Then, Sir, who did ever disallow Justinian's fact, that made - laws concerning the glorious Trinity, and the Catholic faith, - of bishops, of men, of the clergy, of heretics, and others, - such like?"[289] - -From the day of the breach with Rome, the British priesthood sank -into wage-earners, and those of the ancient clergy who remained in -the Anglican hierarchy after the Reformation, acquiesced in their -position, as appeared in all their writings, but in none, perhaps, more -strikingly than in the Formularies of Faith of Henry VIII., where the -episcopal bench submitted their views of orthodoxy to the revision of -the secular power:-- - - "And albeit, most dread and benign sovereign lord, we do affirm - by our learnings with one assent, that the said treatise is - in all points so concordant and agreeable to holy scripture, - as we trust your majesty shall receive the same as a thing - most sincerely and purely handled, to the glory of God, your - grace's honour, the unity of your people, the which things - your highness, we may well see and perceive, doth chiefly in - the same desire: yet we do most humbly submit it to the most - excellent wisdom and exact judgment of your majesty, to be - recognised, overseen, and corrected, if your grace shall find - any word or sentence in it meet to be changed, qualified, - or further expounded, for the plain setting forth of your - highness's most virtuous desire and purpose in that behalf. - Whereunto we shall in that case conform ourselves, as to our - most bounden duties to God and to your highness appertaineth." - -Signed by "your highness' most humble subjects and daily beadsmen, -Thomas Cantuarien" and all the bishops.[290] - -A Church thus lying at the mercy of the temporal power, became a -chattel in the hands of the class which controlled the revenue, and, -from the Reformation to the revolution of 1688, this class consisted of -a comparatively few great landed families, forming a narrow oligarchy -which guided the Crown. In the Middle Ages, a king had drawn his army -from his own domain. Coeur-de-Lion had his own means of attack and -defence like any other baron, only on a larger scale. Henry VIII., on -the contrary, stood alone and helpless. As centralization advanced, -the cost of administration grew, until regular taxation had become -necessary, and yet taxes could only be levied by Parliament. The king -could hardly pay a body-guard, and such military force as existed -within the realm obeyed the landlords. Had it not been for a few -opulent nobles, like Norfolk and Shrewsbury, the Pilgrims of Grace -might have marched to London and plucked Henry from his throne, as -easily as William afterward plucked James. These landlords, together -with the London tradesmen, carried Henry through the crisis of 1536, -and thereafter he lay in their hands. His impotence appeared in every -act of his reign. He ran the risk and paid the price, while others -fattened on the plunder. The Howards, the Cecils, the Russells, the -Dudleys, divided the Church spoil among themselves, and wrung from the -Crown its last penny, so that Henry lived in debt, and Edward faced -insolvency. - -Deeply as Mary abhorred sacrilege, she dared not ask for restitution to -the abbeys. Such a step would probably have caused her overthrow, while -Elizabeth never attempted opposition, but obeyed Cecil, the incarnation -of the spirit of the oligarchy. The men who formed this oligarchy were -of totally different type from anything which flourished in England -in the imaginative age. Unwarlike, for their insular position made it -possible for them to survive without the martial quality, they always -shrank from arms. Nor were they numerous enough, or strong enough, to -overawe the nation even in quiet times. Accordingly they generally -lay inert, and only from necessity allied themselves with some more -turbulent faction. - -The Tudor aristocracy were rich, phlegmatic, and unimaginative men, in -whom the other faculties were subordinated to acquisition, and they -treated their religion as a financial investment. Strictly speaking, -the Church of England never had a faith, but vibrated between the -orthodoxy of the "Six Articles," and the Calvinism of the "Lambeth -Articles," according to the exigencies of real estate. Within a single -generation, the relation Christ's flesh and blood bore to the bread and -wine was changed five times by royal proclamation or act of Parliament. - -But if creeds were alike to the new economic aristocracy, it well -understood the value of the pulpit as a branch of the police of the -kingdom, and from the outset it used the clergy as part of the secular -administration. On this point Cranmer was explicit.[291] Elizabeth -probably represented the landed gentry more perfectly than any other -sovereign, and she told her bishops plainly that she cared little for -doctrine, but wanted clerks to keep order. She remarked that she had -seen it said:-- - - "that hir Protestants themselves misliked hir, and in deede so - they doe (quoth she) for I have heard that some of them of late - have said, that I was of no religion, neither hot nor cold, but - such a one, as one day would give God the vomit.... After this - she wished the bishops to look unto private Conventicles, and - now (quoth she) I miss my Lord of London who looketh no better - unto the Citty where every merchant must have his schoolemaster - and nightly conventicles." [292] - -Elizabeth ruled her clergy with a rod of iron. No priest was allowed -to marry without the approbation of two justices of the peace, beside -the bishop, nor the head of a college without the leave of the visitor. -When the Dean of St. Paul's offended the queen in his sermon, she told -him "to retire from that ungodly digression and return to his text," -and Grindall was suspended for disobedience to her orders. - -In Grindall's primacy, monthly prayer meetings, called "prophesyings," -came into fashion among the clergy. For some reason these meetings -gave the government offence, and Grindall was directed to put a stop -to them. Attacked thus, in the priests' dearest rights, the archbishop -refused. Without more ado the old prelate was suspended, nor was he -pardoned until he made submission five years later. - -The correspondence of the Elizabethan bishops is filled with accounts -of their thraldom. Pilkington, among others, complained that "We are -under authority, and cannot make any innovation without the sanction -of the queen ... and the only alternative now allowed us is, whether we -will bear with these things or disturb the peace of the Church."[293] - -Even ecclesiastical property continued to be seized, where it could -be taken safely; and the story of Ely House, although it has been -denied, is authentic in spirit. From the beginning of the Reformation -the London palaces of the bishops had been a tempting prize. Henry -took York House for himself, Raleigh had a lease of Durham House, and, -about 1565, Sir Christopher Hatton, whose relations with the queen -were hardly equivocal, undertook to force Bishop Cox to convey him Ely -House. The bishop resisted. Hatton applied to the queen, and she is -said to have cut the matter short thus:-- - - "Proud prelate: I understand you are backward in complying - with your agreement, but I would have you know that I who made - you what you are can unmake you, and if you do not forthwith - fulfil your engagement, by God, I will immediately unfrock you. - Elizabeth." - -Had the great landlords been either stronger, so as to have controlled -the blouse of Commons, or more military, so as to have suppressed it, -English ecclesiastical development would have been different. As it -was, a knot of ruling families, gorged with plunder, lay between the -Catholics and the more fortunate of the evicted yeomen, who had made -money by trade, and who hated and competed with them. Puritans as well -as Catholics sought to unsettle titles to Church lands:-- - - "It is wonderfull to see how dispitefully they write of this - matter. They call us church robbers, devourers of holly things, - cormorantes, etc. affirminge that by the lawe of god, things - once consecrated to god for the service of this churche, - belong unto him for ever.... ffor my owne pte I have some - imppriations, etc. & I thanke god I keepe them w^{th} a good - conscience, and many wold be ondone. The law appveth us."[294] - -Thus beset, the landed capitalists struggled hard to maintain -themselves, and, as their best defence, they organized a body of -priests to preach and teach the divine right of primogeniture, which -became the distinctive dogma of this national church. Such at least was -the opinion of the non-jurors, who have always ranked among the most -orthodox of the Anglican clergy, and who certainly were all who had the -constancy to suffer for their faith. John Lake, Bishop of Chichester, -suspended in 1689 for not swearing allegiance to William and Mary, on -his death-bed made the following statement:-- - - "That whereas I was baptized into the religion of the Church - of England, and sucked it in with my milk, I have constantly - adhered to it through the whole course of my life, and now, - if so be the will of God, shall dye in it; and I had resolved - through God's grace assisting me to have dyed so, though at a - stake. - - "And whereas that religion of the Church of England taught me - the doctrine of non-resistance and passive obedience, which I - have accordingly inculcated upon others, and which I took to be - the distinguishing character of the Church of England, I adhere - no less firmly and steadfastly to that, and in consequence of - it, have incurred a suspension from the exercise of my office - and expected a deprivation."[295] - -In the twelfth century, the sovereign drew his supernatural quality -from his consecration by the priesthood; in the seventeenth century, -money had already come to represent a force so predominant that -the process had become reversed, and the priesthood attributed its -prerogative to speak in the name of the Deity, to the interposition -of the king. This was the substance of the Reformation in England. -Cranmer taught that God committed to Christian princes "the whole cure -of all their subjects, as well concerning the administration of God's -word ... as ... of things political"; therefore bishops, parsons, and -vicars were ministers of the temporal ruler, to whom he confided the -ecclesiastical office, as he confided the enforcement of order to a -chief of police.[296] As a part of the secular administration, the -main function of the Reformed priesthood was to preach obedience to -their patrons; and the doctrine they evolved has been thus summed up by -Macaulay:-- - - "It was gravely maintained that the Supreme Being regarded - hereditary monarchy, as opposed to other forms of government, - with peculiar favour; that the rule of succession in order - of primogeniture was a divine institution, anterior to the - Christian, and even to the Mosaic dispensation; that no human - power ... could deprive a legitimate prince of his rights; - that the authority of such a prince was necessarily always - despotic...."[297] - -In no other department of public affairs did the landed gentry show -particular energy or ability. Their army was ineffective, their navy -unequal to its work, their finances indifferently handled, but down to -the time of their overthrow, in 1688, they were eminently successful -in ecclesiastical organization. They chose their instruments with -precision, and an oligarchy has seldom been more adroitly served. -Macaulay was a practical politician, and Macaulay rated the clergy as -the chief political power under Charles II:-- - - "At every important conjuncture, invectives against the Whigs - and exhortations to obey the Lord's anointed resounded at once - from many thousands of pulpits; and the effect was formidable - indeed. Of all the causes which, after the dissolution of the - Oxford Parliament, produced the violent reaction against the - exclusionists, the most potent seems to have been the oratory - of the country clergy."[298] - -For country squires a wage-earning clergy was safe, and although -Macaulay's famous passage describing their fear of an army has met with -contradiction, it probably is true:-- - - "In their minds a standing army was inseparably associated - with the Rump, with the Protector, with the spoliation of - the Church, with the purgation of the Universities, with the - abolition of the peerage, with the murder of the King, with - the sullen reign of the Saints, with cant and asceticism, - with fines and sequestrations, with the insults which Major - Generals, sprung from the dregs of the people, had offered to - the oldest and most honourable families of the kingdom. There - was, moreover, scarcely a baronet or a squire in the parliament - who did not owe part of his importance in his own county to his - rank in the militia. If that national force were set aside, - the gentry of England must lose much of their dignity and - influence."[299] - -The work to be done by the Tudor hierarchy was mercenary, not -imaginative; therefore pastors had to be chosen who could be trusted to -labour faithfully for wages. Perhaps no equally large and intelligent -body of men has ever been more skilfully selected. The Anglican -priests, as a body, have uniformly been true to the hand which fed -them, without regard to the principles they were required to preach. -A remarkable instance of their docility, where loss of income was the -penalty for disobedience, was furnished at the accession of William and -Mary. Divine right was, of course, the most sacred of Anglican dogmas, -and yet, when the clergy were commanded to take the oath of allegiance -to him whom they held to be an usurper, as Macaulay has observed, -"some of the strongest motives which can influence the human mind, had -prevailed. Above twenty-nine thirtieths of the profession submitted -to the law."[300] Moreover, the landlords had the economic instinct, -bargaining accordingly, and Elizabeth bluntly told her bishops that -they must get her sober, respectable preachers, but men who should be -cheap. - - "Then spake my Lord Treasurer.... Her Maty hath declared unto - you a marvellous great fault, in that you make in this time - of light so many lewd and unlearned ministers.... It is the - Bishop of Litchfield ... that I mean, who made LXX. ministers - in one day for money, some taylors, some shoemakers, and other - craftsmen, I am sure the greatest part of them not worthy to - keep horses. Then said the Bp. of Rochester, that may be so, - for I know one that made 7 in one day, I would every man might - beare his own burthen, some of us have the greatest wrong - that can be offred.... But my Lord, if you would have none but - learned preachers to be admitted into the ministery, you must - provide better livings for them.... - - "To have learned ministers in every parish is in my judgm^{t} - impossible (quoth my Ld. of Canterbury) being 13,000 parishes - in Ingland, I know not how this realm should yield so many - learned preachers. - - "Jesus (quoth the Queen) 13,000 it is not to be looked for, I - thinke the time hath been, there hath not been 4. preachers in - a diocesse, my meaning is not you should make choice of learned - ministers only for they are not to be found, but of honest, - sober, and wise men, and such as can reade the scriptures and - homilies well unto the people."[301] - -The Anglican clergy under the Tudors and the Stuarts were not so -much priests, in the sense of the twelfth century, as hired political -retainers. Macaulay's celebrated description is too well known to need -full quotation: "for one who made the figure of a gentleman, ten were -mere menial servants.... The coarse and ignorant squire" could hire a -"young Levite" for his board, a small garret, and ten pounds a year. -This clergyman "might not only be the most patient of butts and of -listeners, might not only be always ready in fine weather for bowls, -and in rainy weather for shovelboard, but might also save the expense -of a gardener, or of a groom. Sometimes the reverend man nailed up the -apricots; and sometimes he curried the coach horses."[302] - -Yet, as Macaulay has also pointed out, the hierarchy was divided into -two sections, the ordinary labourers and the managers. The latter were -indispensable to the aristocracy, since without them their machine -could hardly have been kept in motion, and these were men of talent -who demanded and received good wages. Probably for this reason a -large revenue was reserved for the higher secular clergy, and from the -outset the policy proved successful. Many of the ablest organizers and -astutest politicians of England, during the sixteenth and seventeenth -centuries, sat on the episcopal bench, and two of the most typical, -as well as the ablest Anglicans who ever lived, were the two eminent -bishops who led the opposing wings of the Church when it was reformed -by Henry VIII.: Stephen Gardiner and Thomas Cranmer. - -Gardiner was the son of a clothworker of Bury Saint Edmunds, and was -born about 1483. At Cambridge he made himself the best civil lawyer of -the kingdom, and on meeting Wolsey, so strongly impressed him with his -talent that the cardinal advanced him rapidly, and in January 1529 sent -him to negotiate for the divorce at Rome. Nobody doubts that to the end -of his life Gardiner remained a sincere Catholic, but above all else he -was a great Anglican. Becoming secretary to the king in June, 1529, as -Wolsey was tottering to his fall, he laboured to bring the University -of Cambridge to the royal side, and he also devoted himself to Anne -until he obtained the See of Winchester, when his efforts for the -divorce slackened. He even went so far as to assure Clement that he had -repented, and meant to quit the court, but notwithstanding he "bore up -the laps" of Anne's robe at her coronation. - -In 1535 the ways parted, a decision could not be deferred, he renounced -Rome and preached his sermon "de vera Obedientia," in which he -recognized in Henry the supremacy of a Byzantine emperor. The pang -this act cost him lasted till he died, and he told the papal nuncio -"he made this book under compulsion, not having the strength to suffer -death patiently, which was ready for him."[303] Indeed, when dying, his -apostacy seems to have been his last thought, for in his closing hours, -as the story of the passion was read to him he exclaimed, "Negavi cum -Petro, exivi cum Petro, sed nondum flevi cum Petro." All his life long -his enemies accused him of dissimulation and hypocrisy for acts like -these, but it was precisely this quality which raised him to eminence. -Had he not been purchasable, he could hardly have survived as an -Anglican bishop; an enthusiast like Fisher would have ended on Tower -Hill. - -Perhaps more fully than any other prelate of his time, Gardiner -represented the faction of Henry and Norfolk; he was as orthodox as he -could be and yet prosper. He hated Cromwell and all "gospellers," and -he loved power and splendour and office. Fisher, with the temperament -of Saint Anselm, shivering in his squalid house, clad in his shirt of -hair, and sleeping on his pallet of straw, might indeed "humbly thank -the king's majesty" who rid him of "all this worldly business," but -men who rose to eminence in the reformed church were made of different -stuff, and Gardiner's ruling passion never burned more fiercely than as -he neared his death. Though in excruciating torments from disease, he -clung to office to the last. Noailles, the French ambassador, at a last -interview, found him "livid with jaundice and bursting with dropsy: but -for two hours he held discourse with me calmly and graciously, without -a sign of discomposure; and at parting he must needs take my arm and -walk through three saloons, on purpose to show himself to the people, -because they said that he was dead."[304] - -Gardiner was a man born to be a great prelate under a monied oligarchy, -but, gifted as he surely was, he must yield in glory to that wonderful -archbishop who stamped the impress of his mind so deeply on the sect he -loved, and whom most Anglicans would probably call, with Canon Dixon, -the first clergyman of his age. Cranmer was so supremely fitted to meet -the requirements of the economic revolution in which he lived, that he -rose at a bound from insignificance to what was, for an Englishman, the -summit of greatness. In 1529, when the breach came, Gardiner already -held the place of chief secretary, while Cranmer remained a poor Fellow -of Jesus. Within four years he had been consecrated primate, and he had -bought his preferment by swearing allegiance to the pope, though he -knew himself promoted for the express purpose of violating his oath, -by decreeing the divorce which should sever England from Rome. His -qualities were all recognized by his contemporaries; his adroitness, -his trustworthiness, and his flexibility. "Such an archbishop so -nominated, and ... so and in such wise consecrated, was a meet -instrument for the king to work by ... a meet cover for such a cup; -neither was there ever bear-ward that might more command his bears than -the king might command him."[305] This judgment has always been held by -Churchmen to be no small claim to fame; Burnet, for example, himself -a bishop and an admirer of his eminent predecessor, was clear that -Cranmer's strength lay in that mixture of intelligence and servility -which made him useful to those who paid him:-- - - "Cranmer's great interest with the king was chiefly grounded on - some opinions he had of the ecclesiastical officers being as - much subject to the king's power as all other civil officers - were.... But there was this difference: that Cranmer was once - of that opinion ... but Bonner against his conscience (if he - had any) complied with it."[306] - -The genius of the archbishop as a courtier may be measured by the fate -which overtook his contemporaries. He was the fourth of Henry's great -ministers, of whom Cromwell, Norfolk, and Wolsey were the other three. -Wolsey was disgraced, plundered, and hounded to death; Cromwell was -beheaded, and Norfolk was on his way to the scaffold, when saved by -the death of the man who condemned him. The priest alone, as Lutheran, -or as worshipper of the miracle which he afterward denied, always kept -the sunshine of favour. Burnet has described how readily he violated -his oath by participating in the attempt to change the succession -under Edward, "He stood firm, and said, that he could not subscribe -it without perjury; having sworn to the observance of King Henry's -will.... The king himself required him to set his hand to the will.... -It grieved him much; but such was the love that he bore to the king, -that in conclusion he yielded, and signed it."[307] Like the chameleon, -he changed his colour to match the force which upheld him. Under -Edward, he became radical as easily as he had sung the mass under the -"Six Articles," or as, under Mary, he pleaded to be allowed to return -to Rome. Nor did he act thus from cowardice, for when he went to the -fire, not a martyr of the Reformation showed more constancy than he. -With hardly an exception, Cranmer's contemporaries suffered because -they could not entirely divest themselves of their scruples. Even -Gardiner had convictions strong enough to lodge him in the Tower, and -Bonner ended his days in the Marshalsea, rather than abjure again under -Elizabeth, but no such weakness hampered Cranmer. At Oxford, before his -execution, he recanted, in various forms, very many times, and would -doubtless have gone on recanting could he have saved himself by so -doing. - -Unlike Gardiner, his convictions were evangelical, and he probably -imbibed reformed principles quite early, for he married Ossiander's -niece when in Germany, before he became archbishop. Characteristically -enough, he voted for the "Six Articles" in deference to Henry,[308] -although the third section of the act provided death and forfeiture -of goods for any priest who might marry. Afterward, he had to conceal -his wife and carry "her from place to place hidden from sight in a -chest."[309] Cranmer alleged at his trial that he had stayed orthodox -regarding the sacrament until Ridley had converted him, after Henry's -death. But, leaving out of consideration the improbability of a man of -Cranmer's remarkable acuteness being influenced by Ridley, the judgment -of such a man as Foxe should have weight. Certainly, Foxe thought him -a "gospeller" at the time of Lambert's trial, and nothing can give so -vivid an idea of the lengths to which men of the Anglican type were -ready to go, as the account given by Foxe of the martyrdom of this -sectary:-- - - "Lambert: 'I answer, with Saint Augustine, that it is the body - of Christ, after a certain manner.' - - "The King: 'Answer me neither out of Saint Augustine, nor by - the authority of any other; but tell me plainly, whether thou - sayest it is the body of Christ, or no.'... - - "Lambert: 'Then I deny it to be the body of Christ.' - - "The King: 'Mark well! for now thou shalt be condemned even by - Christ's own words, "Hoc est corpus meum."' - - "Then he commanded Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, - to refute his assertion; who, first making a short preface - unto the hearers, began his disputation with Lambert very - modestly.... Then again the king and the bishops raged against - Lambert, insomuch that he was not only forced to silence, - but also might have been driven into a rage, if his ears had - not been acquainted with such taunts before.... And here it - is much to be marvelled at, to see how unfortunately it came - to pass in this matter, that ... Satan (who oftentimes doth - raise up one brother to the destruction of another) did here - perform the condemnation of this Lambert by no other ministers - than gospellers themselves, Taylor, Barnes, Cranmer, and - Cromwell; who, afterwards, in a manner, all suffered the like - for the gospel's sake; of whom (God willing) we will speak - more hereafter.... Upon the day that was appointed for this - holy martyr of God to suffer, he was brought out of the prison - at eight o'clock in the morning unto the house of the lord - Cromwell, and so carried into his inward chamber, where, it - is reported of many, that Cromwell desired of him forgiveness - for what he had done.... As touching the terrible manner and - fashion of the burning of this blessed martyr, here is to be - noted, that of all others who have been burned and offered up - at Smithfield, there was yet none so cruelly and piteously - handled as he. For, after that his legs were consumed and - burned up to the stumps, and that the wretched tormentors and - enemies of God had withdrawn the fire from him, so that but a - small fire and coals were left under him, then two that stood - on each side of him, with their halberts pitched him upon their - pikes, as far as the chain would reach.... Then he, lifting up - such hands as he had, and his finger's ends flaming with fire, - cried unto the people in these words, 'None but Christ, none - but Christ;' and so, being let down again from their halberts, - fell into the fire, and there ended his life."[310] - -In a hierarchy like the Anglican, whose function was to preach passive -obedience to the representative of an opulent, but somewhat sluggish -oligarchy, there could be no permanent place for idealists. With a -Spanish invasion threatening them, an unwarlike ruling class might -tolerate sailors like Drake, or priests like Latimer; but, in the long -run, their interest lay in purging England of so dangerous an element. -The aristocracy sought men who could be bought; but such were of a -different type from Latimer, who, when they brought to him the fire, -as he stood chained to the stake, "spake in this manner: 'Be of good -comfort, master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this day light such -a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put -out.'" And so, "after he had stroked his face with his hands, and as it -were bathed them a little in the fire, he soon died." - -Ecclesiastics like Latimer were apt to be of the mind of Knox, who -held "that sick as may and do brydill the inordinatt appetyteis of -Princes, cannot be accusit of resistance to the aucthoratie, quhilk -is Godis gud ordinance." And as the interests of landed capital were -bound up with the maintenance of the royal prerogative, such men had -to be eliminated. After the death of Mary, the danger apprehended by -the landed gentry was a Spanish invasion, coupled with a Catholic -insurrection, and therefore the policy of statesmen like Cecil was -to foster hostility to Rome. Until after the Armada, Anglicans were -permitted to go all lengths towards Geneva; even as late as 1595 the -"Lambeth Articles" breathed pure Calvinism. But with the opening of -a new century, a change set in; as the power of Spain dwindled, rents -rose, and the farmers grew restive at the precise moment when men of -the heroic temperament could be discarded. Raleigh was sent to the -Tower in 1603. - -According to Thorold Rogers, "good arable land [which] let at less than -a shilling an acre in the last quarter of the sixteenth century, was -let at 5s. to 6s. at the end of the first quarter of the seventeenth," -while rent for pasture doubled.[311] Rising rents, and prices tending -to become stationary, caused suffering among the rural population, -and with suffering came discontent. This discontent in the country -was fomented by restlessness in the towns, for commerce had been -strongly stimulated during the reign of Elizabeth by the Spanish wars, -and the mercantile element began to rebel against legislation passed -in the interest of the favoured class. Suddenly the dissatisfaction -found vent; for more than forty years the queen's ministers had met -with no serious opposition in Parliament; in 1601, without warning, -their system of monopolies was struck down, and from that day to the -revolution of 1688, the House of Commons proved to be unmanageable by -the Crown. Even as early as the accession of James, the competition -between the aristocracy and their victims had begun to glow with the -heat which presages civil war. - -Had the Tudor aristocracy been a martial caste, they would -doubtless have organized an army, and governed by the sword; but -they instinctively felt that, upon the field of battle, they might -be at a disadvantage, and therefore they attempted to control the -popular imagination through the priesthood. Thus the divine right of -primogeniture came to be the distinguishing tenet of the Church of -England. James felt the full force of the current which was carrying -him onward, and expressed the situation pithily in his famous apothegm, -"No bishop, no king." "I will have," said he, "one doctrine, one -discipline, one religion in substance and ceremony;" and the policy -of the interest he represented was laid down as early as 1604, at the -conference at Hampton Court. - -Passive obedience was to be preached, and the church filled with men -who could be relied on by the oligarchy. Six weeks after the conference -at Hampton Court, Whitgift died, and Bancroft, Bishop of London, was -translated to Canterbury. Within a week he was at work. He had already -prepared a Book of Canons with which to test the clergy, and this he -had ratified by the convocation which preceded his consecration. In -these canons the divine origin of episcopacy was asserted; a strange -departure from the doctrine of Cranmer. In 1605 there are supposed to -have been about fifteen hundred Puritan clergymen in England and Wales, -and at Bancroft's first winnowing three hundred were ejected. - -Among these Puritans was a certain John Robinson, the teacher -of a small congregation of yeomen, in the village of Scrooby, in -Nottinghamshire. The man's birth is unknown, his early history is -obscure, but in him, and in the farmers who heard him preach, the -long and bitter struggle against the pressure of the class which -was destroying them, had bred that stern and sombre enthusiasm which -afterward marked the sect. By 1607 England had grown intolerable to -this congregation, and they resolved to emigrate. They had heard that -in Holland liberty of conscience was allowed, and they fondly hoped -that with liberty of conscience they might be content to earn their -daily bread in peace. Probably with them, however, religion was not the -cause, but the effect of their uneasiness, as the result proved. - -After many trials and sorrows, these poor people finally assembled in -Amsterdam, and thence journeyed to Leyden, where they dwelt some eleven -years. But they found the struggle for life to be full as severe in the -Low Countries as it had been at home, and presently the exiles began -to long for some distant land where "they might more glorify God, do -more good to their country, better provide for their posterity, and -live to be more refreshed by their labours, than ever they could do in -Holland." Accordingly, obtaining a grant from the Virginia Company, -they sailed in the Mayflower in 1620, to settle in New England; and -thus, by the eviction of the yeomen, England laid the foundation of one -great province of her colonial empire. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -SPAIN AND INDIA - - -In the words of Mr. Froude: "Before the sixteenth century had measured -half its course the shadow of Spain already stretched beyond the Andes; -from the mines of Peru and the custom-houses of Antwerp the golden -rivers streamed into her imperial treasury; the crowns of Aragon and -Castile, of Burgundy, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, clustered on the brow -of her sovereigns."[312] But with all their great martial qualities, -the Spaniards seem to have been incapable of attaining the same -velocity of movement as the races with which they had to compete. They -never emerged from the imaginative period, they never developed the -economic type, and in consequence they never centralized as the English -centralized. Even as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century -this peculiarity had been observed, for the Duke de Sully remarked that -with Spain the "legs and arms are strong and powerful, but the heart -infinitely weak and feeble." - -Captain Mahan has explained the military impotence of the mighty -mass which, scattered over two continents, could not command the sea, -and in the seventeenth century an intelligent Dutchman boasted that -"the Spaniards have publicly begun to hire our ships to sail to the -Indies.... It is manifest that the West Indies, being as the stomach to -Spain (for from it nearly all the revenue is drawn), must be joined to -the Spanish head by a sea force";[313] and the glory of the Elizabethan -sailors lay not only in having routed this sea force, but in having -assimilated no small portion of the nutriment which the American -stomach should have supplied to the Spanish heart. - -As Spain lingered long in the imaginative age, the priest and soldier -there reigned supreme after the mercantile and sceptical type had -begun to predominate elsewhere; and the instinct of the priest and -soldier has always been to exterminate their rivals when pressed by -their competition. In the Spanish peninsula itself the Inquisition soon -trampled out heresy, but by the middle of the sixteenth century the -Low Countries were a hotbed of Protestantism, and in Flanders these -opposing forces fought out their battle to the death. The war which -ruined Antwerp made England. - -In 1576 Antwerp was sacked and burned; in 1585 the town was reduced to -starvation by the Duke of Parma, and its commerce having been scattered -by successive disasters, some of it migrated to Amsterdam, and some -sought shelter in the Thames. In London the modern man was protected by -the sea, and the crisis of the combat came in 1588, when the Spaniards, -having decided to pursue their enemy to his last stronghold, sent the -Armada to perish in the Channel. With that supreme effort the vitality -of the great imaginative empire began to fail, disintegration set in, -and on the ruins of Spain rose the purely economic centralization of -Great Britain. - -Like the Venetians, the British laid the basis of their high fortune -by piracy and slaving, and their advantage over Spain lay not in -mass, but in a superior energy, which gave them more rapid movement. -Drake's squadron, when he sailed round the world, numbered five ships, -the largest measuring only one hundred and twenty tons, the smallest -twelve, but with these he succeeded because of their speed. For -example, he overtook the Cacafuego, whose ballast was silver, and whose -cargo gold and jewels. He never disclosed her value, but the Spanish -government afterward proved a loss of a million and a half of ducats, -beside the property of private individuals. In like manner the Armada -was destroyed by little ships, which sailed round their clumsy enemy, -and disabled him before he could strike a blow in self-defence. - -The Spanish wars were halcyon days for the men of martial blood who -had lost their land; they took to the sea by thousands, and ravaged -the Spanish colonies with the energy and ferocity of vikings. For -nearly a generation they wallowed in gold and silver and gems, and in -the plunder of the American towns. Among these men Sir Francis Drake -stood foremost, but, after 1560, the southern counties swarmed with -pirates; and when, in 1585, Drake sailed on his raid against the West -Indies, he led a force of volunteers twenty-five hundred strong. He -held no commission, the crews of his twenty-five ships served without -pay, they went as buccaneers to fatten on the commerce of the Spaniard. -As it happened, this particular expedition failed financially, for -the treasure fleet escaped, and the plunder of the three cities of -Santiago, Saint Domingo, and Carthagena yielded only £60,000, but the -injury done to Spain was incalculable. - -No computation can be attempted of the spoil taken during these years; -no reports were ever made; on the contrary, all concerned were anxious -to conceal their doings, but certain prizes were too dazzling to be -hidden. When Drake surprised three caravans on the Isthmus, numbering -one hundred and ninety mules, each mule loaded with three hundred -pounds of silver, the fact became known. No wonder Drake ate off -"silver richly gilt, and engraved with his arms," that he had "all -possible luxuries, even to perfumes," that he dined and supped "to the -music of violins," and that he could bribe the queen with a diamond -cross and a coronet set with splendid emeralds, and give the lord -chancellor a service of plate. What he gave in secret he alone knew. - -As Francis Drake was the ideal English corsair, so John Hawkins was -the ideal slaver. The men were kinsmen, and of the breed which, when -driven from their farms at the end of the Middle Ages, left their mark -all over the world. Of course the two sailors were "gospellers," and -Mr. Froude has quoted an interesting passage from the manuscript of a -contemporary Jesuit, which shows how their class was esteemed toward -the close of the sixteenth century: "The only party that would fight -to the death for the queen, the only real friends she had, were the -Puritans, the Puritans of London, the Puritans of the sea towns."[314] -These the priest thought desperate and determined men. Nevertheless -they sometimes provoked Elizabeth by their sermonizing. The story is -told that one day after reading a letter of Hawkins to Burleigh she -cried: "God's death! This fool went out a soldier, and has come back a -divine." - -Though both Drake and Hawkins possessed the predatory temperament, -Hawkins had a strong commercial instinct, and kept closely to trade. -He was the son of old William Hawkins, the first British captain -who ever visited Brazil, and who brought from thence a native -chief, whom he presented to Henry VIII. As a young man John had -discovered at the Canaries "that negroes were a very good commodity -in Hispaniola,"[315] and that they might easily be taken on the coast -of Guinea. Accordingly, in 1562, he fitted out three ships, touched at -Sierra Leone, and "partly by the sword and partly by other means," he -obtained a cargo, "and with that prey he sailed over the ocean sea" to -Hispaniola, where he sold his goods at a large profit. The West India -Islands, and the countries bordering the Gulf of Mexico, cannot be -cultivated profitably by white labourers; therefore, when the Spaniards -had, by hard usage, partially exterminated the natives, a fresh supply -of field hands became necessary, and these could be had easily and -cheaply on the coast of Africa. - -At first Spain tried to exclude foreigners from this most lucrative -traffic; but here again the English moved too quickly to be stopped. -Wherever Hawkins went, he went prepared to fight, and, if prevented -from trading peaceably, he used force. In his first voyage he met with -no opposition, but subsequently, at Burburata, leave to sell was denied -him, and, without an instant's hesitation, he marched against the town -with "a hundred men well armed," and brought the governor to terms. -Having supplied all the slaves needed at that port, Hawkins went on to -Rio de la Hacha, where he, in like manner, made a demonstration with -"one hundred men in armour," and two small guns, and in ten days he had -disposed of his whole stock. - -As at that time an able negro appears to have been worth about £160 -in the West Indies,[316] a cargo of five hundred ought to have netted -between seventy and eighty thousand pounds, for the cost of kidnapping -was trifling. No wonder, therefore, that slaving flourished, and that, -by the middle of the eighteenth century, England probably carried -not far from one hundred thousand blacks annually from Africa to the -colonies. The East offered no such market, and doubtless Adam Smith -was right in his opinion that the commerce with India had never been so -advantageous as the trade to America.[317] - -Both slavers and pirates brought bullion to England, and presently -this flow of silver began to stimulate at London a certain amount of -exchange between the East and West. The Orientals have always preferred -payment in specie, and, as silver has usually offered more profit than -gold as an export, the European with a surplus of silver has had the -advantage over all competitors. Accordingly, until Spain lost the power -to protect her communications with her mines, the Spanish peninsula -enjoyed almost a monopoly of the trade beyond the Cape; but as the war -went on, and more of the precious metal flowed to the north, England -and Holland began to send their silver to Asia, the Dutch organizing -one East India Company in 1595, and the British another in 1600. - -Sir Josiah Child, who was, perhaps, the ablest merchant of the -seventeenth century, observed that in 1545 "the trade of England then -was inconsiderable, and the merchants very mean and few."[318] Child's -facts are beyond doubt, and the date he fixed is interesting because -it coincides with the discovery of Potosi, whence most of the silver -came which supplied the pirates and the slavers. Prior to 1545 specie -had been scarce in London, but when the buccaneers had been scuttling -treasure galleons for a generation, they found themselves possessed of -enough specie to set them dreaming of India, and thus piracy laid the -foundation of the British empire in Asia. - -But robbing the Spaniards had another more immediate and more startling -result, for it probably precipitated the civil war. As the city grew -rich it chafed at the slow movement of the aristocracy, who, timid -and peaceful, cramped it by closing the channels through which it -reached the property of foreigners; and, just when the yeomanry were -exasperated by rising rents, London began to glow with that energy -which, when given vent, was destined to subdue so large a portion -of the world. Perhaps it is not going too far to say that, even from -the organization of the East India Company, the mercantile interest -controlled England. Not that it could then rule alone, it lacked the -power to do so for nearly a hundred years to come; but, after 1600, -its weight turned the scale on which side soever thrown. Before the -Long Parliament the merchants were generally Presbyterians or moderate -Puritans; the farmers, Independents or Radicals; and Winthrop, when -preparing for the emigration to Massachusetts, dealt not only with -squires like Hampden, but with city magnates like Thomas Andrews, the -lord mayor. This alliance between the rural and the urban Puritans -carried through the Great Rebellion, and as their coalition crushed the -monarchy so their separation reinstated it. - -Macaulay has very aptly observed that "but for the hostility of the -city, Charles the First would never have been vanquished, and that, -without the help of the city, Charles the Second could scarcely -have been restored."[319] At the Protector's death the Presbyterians -abandoned the farmers, probably because they feared them. The army of -the Commonwealth swarmed with men like Cromwell and Blake, warriors -resistless alike on land and sea, with whom, when organized, the city -could not cope. Therefore it scattered them, and, throwing in its lot -with the Cavaliers, set up the king. - -For about a generation after the Restoration, no single interest had -the force to impose its will upon the nation, or, in other words, -parties were equally balanced; but from the middle of the century the -tide flowed rapidly. Capital accumulated, and as it accumulated the -men adapted to be its instruments grew to be the governing class. -Sir Josiah Child is the most interesting figure of this period. -His acquaintance remembered him a poor apprentice sweeping the -counting-house where he worked; and yet, at fifty, his fortune reached -£20,000 a year, a sum almost equal to the rent-roll of the Duke of -Ormond, the richest peer of the realm. Child married his daughter to -the eldest son of the Duke of Beaufort, and gave her £50,000, and his -ability was so commanding that for years he absolutely ruled the East -India Company, and used its revenues to corrupt Parliament. On matters -of finance such a man would hardly err, and he gave it as his opinion -that in 1635 "there were more merchants to be found upon the Exchange -worth each one thousand pounds and upwards, than were in the former -days, viz., before the year 1600, to be found worth one hundred pounds -each." - - "And now ... there are more men to be found upon the Exchange - now worth ten thousand pounds estates, than were then of one - thousand pounds. And if this be doubted, let us ask the aged, - whether five hundred pounds portion with a daughter sixty years - ago, were not esteemed a larger portion than two thousand - pounds is now; and whether gentlewomen in those days would - not esteem themselves well clothed in a serge gown, which a - chambermaid now will be ashamed to be seen in.... We have now - almost one hundred coaches for one we had formerly. We with - ease can pay a greater tax now in one year than our forefathers - could in twenty. Our customs are very much improved, I believe - above the proportion aforesaid, of six to one; which is not - so much in advance of the rates of goods as by increase of the - bulk of trade.... - - "I can myself remember since there were not in London used so - many wharves or keys for the landing of merchants' goods, by - at least one third part, as now there are, and those that were - then could scarce have employment for half what they could - do; and now, notwithstanding one-third more used to the same - purpose, they are all too little, in time of peace, to land the - goods at, that come to London."[320] - -Child estimated that, within twenty years, wages had risen one-third, -and rents twenty-five per cent, while "houses new-built in London -yield twice the rent they did before the fire."[321] Farms that "their -grandfathers or fathers bought or sold fifty years past ... would -yield, one with another, at least treble the money, and in some cases, -six times the money, they were then bought and sold for."[322] Macaulay -has estimated the population of London in 1685 at half a million, and -believed it to have then become the largest city in Europe. - -The aristocracy were forced to tolerate men of the predatory type -while they feared a Spanish invasion, but after the defeat of the -Armada these warriors became dangerous at home, and the oligarchy, -very naturally, tried to purge the island of a class which constantly -menaced their authority. Persecution drove numbers of Nonconformists to -America, and the story of Captain John Smith shows how hardly society -then pressed on the race of adventurers, even where the bitterness of -the struggle did not produce religious enthusiasm. - -Smith lived a generation too late. Born in 1579, he was a child of -nine when the Armada perished, and only sixteen when Drake and Hawkins -died at sea. Smith's father had property, but when left an orphan his -guardians neglected him, and at fifteen let him set out on his travels -with only ten shillings in his pocket. At home no career was open to -him, for the Cecils rather inclined to imprison and behead soldiers -of fortune than to reward them. Accordingly he went abroad, and by -twenty-five had seen service in most countries of the Continent, had -been enslaved by the Turks, had escaped and wandered to Barbary, had -fought the Spanish on a French man-of-war, and at last had learned that -the dreams of his youth belonged to a past age, and that he must enter -a new path. He therefore joined himself to a party bound for Virginia, -and the hardship of the times may be gauged by the fact that out of a -company of a hundred, fifty-two were gentlemen adventurers as needy as -himself, none of whom sought exile for religion. - -Smith's voyages to America brought him nothing but bitterness. He -returned to England and passed his last years in obscurity and neglect, -and perhaps the fate that awaited soldiers under James, has been -nowhere better told than in Smith's own words. He spent five years -and more than five hundred pounds in the service of Virginia and New -England, yet "in neither ... have I one foot of land, nor the very -house I builded, nor the ground I digged with my own hands, nor ever -any content or satisfaction at all, and though I see ordinarily those -two countries shared before me by them that neither have them, nor know -them but by my descriptions."[323] - -As long as the Tudor aristocracy ruled, Great Britain afforded small -comfort for men like Smith. That aristocracy had genius neither for -adventure nor for war, and few Western nations have a sorrier military -history than England under the Stuarts. Yet beneath the inert mass of -the nobility seethed an energy which was to recentralize the world; -and when capital had accumulated to a certain point, the men who gave -it an outlet laid their grasp upon the State. In 1688 the commercial -adventurers conquered the kingdom. - -The change was radical; at once social, political, and religious. The -stronghold of the Tories had been the royal prerogative. The victors -lodged the power of the Crown in a committee chosen by the House of -Commons. The dogma of divine right immediately vanished, and with it -all that distinguished Anglicanism. Though perverted by the Tudors, -this great tenet of the Church of Henry VIII. had been at least a -survival of an imaginative age; and when the merchants swept it away, -all trace of idealism departed. Thenceforward English civilization -became a purely materialistic phenomenon. - -In proportion as movement accelerates societies consolidate, and as -societies consolidate they pass through a profound intellectual change. -Energy ceases to find vent through the imagination, and takes the form -of capital; hence as civilizations advance, the imaginative temperament -tends to disappear, while the economic instinct is fostered, and thus -substantially new varieties of men come to possess the world. - -Nothing so portentous overhangs humanity as this mysterious and -relentless acceleration of movement, which changes methods of -competition and alters paths of trade; for by it countless millions -of men and women are foredoomed to happiness or misery, as certainly -as the beasts and trees, which have flourished in the wilderness, are -destined to vanish when the soil is subdued by man. - -The Romans amassed the treasure by which they administered their -Empire, through the plunder and enslavement of the world. The Empire -cemented by that treasure crumbled when adverse exchanges carried -the bullion of Italy to the shore of the Bosphorus. An accelerated -movement among the semi-barbarians of the West caused the agony of the -crusades, amidst which Constantinople fell as the Italian cities rose; -while Venice and Genoa, and with them the whole Arabic civilization, -shrivelled, when Portugal established direct communication with -Hindostan. - -The opening of the ocean as a highroad precipitated the Reformation, -and built up Antwerp, while in the end it ruined Spain; and finally -the last great quickening of the age of steam, which centralized the -world at London, bathed the earth in blood, from the Mississippi to the -Ganges. Thus religions are preached and are forgotten, empires rise and -fall, philosophies are born and die, art and poetry bloom and fade, as -societies pass from the disintegration wherein the imagination kindles, -to the consolidation whose pressure ends in death. - -In 1688, when the momentum of England suddenly increased, the change -was equivalent to the conquest of the island by a new race. Among the -family of European nations, Great Britain rose as no people had risen -since the Punic Wars. Almost instantly she entered on a career of -conquest unparalleled in modern history. Of the hundred and twenty-five -years between the Boyne and Waterloo, she passed some seventy in waging -ferocious wars, from which she emerged victorious on land and sea, the -mistress of a mighty empire, the owner of incalculable wealth, and the -centre of the world's exchanges. Then, from this culminating point of -expansion by conquest, she glided subtly, and almost imperceptibly, -into the period of contraction, as Rome went before her under the -Cæsars. - -Although abundant metallic currency does not, probably, of itself, -create mercantile prosperity, such prosperity is hardly compatible with -a shrinking stock of money; for when contraction sets in and prices -fall, producers and debtors are ruined, as they were ruined in Italy -under the later emperors. Toward the close of the seventeenth century -Europe appeared to be on the brink of such a contraction, for though -Peru had lavishly replenished the supply of the precious metals a -hundred years previously, the drain to Asia and the increasing demands -of commerce had been so considerable, that the standard coin had -generally depreciated. From the reign of Augustus downward, commerce -between Europe and Asia has usually favoured Asia, and this was -particularly true of the seventeenth century, when the value of bullion -fell in the West, and therefore encouraged lavish exports to the East, -where it retained its purchasing power. According to Adam Smith, "the -banks of Venice, Genoa, Amsterdam, Hamburg, and Nuremberg, seem to -have been all originally established" to provide an ideal currency for -the settlement of bills of exchange, and the money "of such banks, -being better than the common currency of the country, necessarily -bore an agio, which was greater or smaller, according as the currency -was supposed to be more or less degraded below the standard of the -State."[324] Smith estimated the depreciation at Hamburg at fourteen -per cent, and at Amsterdam, early in the previous century, at nine per -cent; in short, all European countries suffered, but in England the -evil reached a climax through the inertia of the new aristocracy. - -In England, silver had always been the standard, and by the third year -of Elizabeth the coin had been restored to its proper fineness, which -thenceforward was scrupulously maintained. But though the metal was not -degraded by the government, the stock of bullion, if not constantly -replenished from without, tended to diminish in proportion to the -growth of the country and the export of specie to Asia. After the -discovery of America, the value of silver in relation to gold fell, in -Europe, to about fourteen or fifteen to one, while in China or India -it stood pretty steady at from ten to twelve to one. Consequently -from 1600 downward, silver remained the most profitable cargo which -could be sent round the Cape of Good Hope, and, unhappily for British -prosperity, at the very moment when the East India Company came into -being, piracy ceased. The chief supply of bullion being thus cut off, -the strain of the export trade fell upon the coin, and within a little -more than a generation the effect become apparent in a degeneration of -the currency. - -To make good her position as a centre of exchanges, England had no -choice but to supply her necessities by force. Cromwell understood the -situation perfectly, and had hardly assumed the office of Protector -when he laid plans to cut the evil at the root by conquering Spanish -America, and robbing Spain of her mines. To this end he fitted out -his great expedition against Saint Domingo, which was to serve him as -his base; but for once his military genius failed him, his commanders -blundered, the attack miscarried, and the island of Jamaica was all -that came of the campaign. - -Meanwhile, however, that no time might be lost while fighting for the -mines themselves, Cromwell sent Blake to intercept the treasure ships -off the coast of Spain. At first Blake also had ill-luck. In 1655 the -plate fleet escaped him, but the next year, though forced himself to -go to port for supplies, he detached Captain Stayner, with six sail, -to cruise off Cadiz, and on September 19, General Montague was able -to report that his "hart [was] very much warmed with the apprehension -of the singular providence of God," who had permitted Stayner to -meet, "with the Kinge of Spain's West India fleete," and take among -other prizes "a gallion reported to have in her two million pieces -of plate."[325] If the "plate" were Mexican "pieces of eight" at four -shillings and sixpence, the cargo was worth £450,000, or considerably -more than the whole annual export to the East at the beginning of -the eighteenth century. Had the Protector lived, there can be little -doubt that, by some such means as this, he would have fostered British -resources, and maintained the integrity of British coin; but in less -than two years from the date of Montague's dispatch, Cromwell was dead, -and the inertia of the Tory landlords paralyzed the nation for another -generation. No foreigner was robbed, and the stock of domestic silver -dwindled from year to year, until at the Revolution the golden guinea, -which, from its first issue in 1662 down to the accession of William -and Mary, had been nominally current for twenty shillings, actually -sold in the market for thirty shillings of the money in use. - - "This diminishing and counterfeiting the money was at this - time so excessive, that what was good silver was worth scarcely - one-half of its current value, whilst a great part of the coins - was only iron, brass, or copper plated, and some no more than - washed over."[326] - -One of the first acts of the new government was a complete recoinage, -which was finished in 1699; but the measure failed of its purpose, for -the reason that the exports of silver regularly exceeded the imports. - -In 1717, a committee of the House of Lords considered the condition -of the currency, and Lord Stanhope then explained very lucidly the -cause of the scarcity of silver. Among other papers he produced a -report from the Custom House, by which it appeared that, in the year -1717, "the East India Company had exported near three million ounces -of silver, which far exceeding the imports of the bullion in that -year, it necessarily followed that vast quantities of silver specie -must have been melted down, both to make up the export, and to supply -the silversmith."[327] For the decade from 1711 to 1720 the annual -export of bullion by the East India Company averaged £434,000.[328] -At the accession of George III., in 1760, Lord Liverpool estimated -that shillings had lost one-sixth, and sixpences one-quarter of -their original weight, while the crown-piece had almost wholly -disappeared.[329] Even Adam Smith admitted that because of this outflow -silver had risen in value, and probably purchased "a larger quantity -both of labour and commodities" than it otherwise would.[330] - -In this emergency the British merchants showed the resource which has -always been their characteristic, and, in default of an adequate supply -of specie, relieved the strain upon their currency by issuing paper. -Mediæval banking had gone no further than the establishment of reserves -of coin, to serve as a medium for clearing bills of exchange; the -English took the great step of accelerating the circulation of their -money, by using this reserve as a basis for a paper currency which -might be largely expanded. The Bank of England was incorporated in -1694, the Bank of Scotland in 1695, and the effect was unquestionably -considerable. Adam Smith has thus described the impetus received by -Glasgow:-- - - "The effects of it have been precisely those above described. - The business of the country is almost entirely carried on - by means of the paper of those different banking companies, - with which purchases and payments of all kinds are commonly - made. Silver very seldom appears except in the change of - a twenty shillings bank note, and gold still seldomer. But - though the conduct of all those different companies has not - been unexceptionable ... the country, notwithstanding, has - evidently derived great benefit from their trade. I have - heard it asserted, that the trade of the city of Glasgow - doubled in about fifteen years after the first erection of - the banks there; and that the trade of Scotland has more than - quadrupled since the first erection of the two public banks at - Edinburgh."[331] - -But although by this means a certain degree of relief was given, and -though prices rose slowly throughout the first half of the eighteenth -century, the fundamental difficulty remained. There was insufficient -silver for export, exchanges were adverse, and that stock of coined -money was lacking which is the form in which force clothes itself in -highly centralized communities. How England finally supplied her needs -is one of the most dramatic pages of history. - -As Jevons has aptly observed, Asia is "the great reservoir and sink of -the precious metals." From time immemorial the Oriental custom has been -to hoard, and from the Mogul blazing with the diamonds of Golconda, -to the peasant starving on his wretched pittance, every Hindoo had, in -former days, a treasure stored away against a day of trouble. Year by -year, since Pizarro had murdered the Inca Atahualpa for his gold, a -stream of bullion had flowed from America to Europe, and from Europe -to the East: there it had vanished as completely as though once more -buried in the bowels of the mine. These hoards, the savings of millions -of human beings for centuries, the English seized and took to London, -as the Romans had taken the spoil of Greece and Pontus to Italy. What -the value of the treasure was, no man can estimate, but it must have -been many millions of pounds--a vast sum in proportion to the stock -of the precious metals then owned by Europeans. Some faint idea of the -booty of the conqueror may be drawn from Macaulay's description of the -first visit of an English soldier to an Oriental treasure chamber:-- - - "As to Clive, there was no limit to his acquisitions but his - own moderation. The treasury of Bengal was thrown open to him. - There were piled up, after the usage of Indian princes, immense - masses of coin, among which might not seldom be detected the - florins and byzants with which, before any European ship had - turned the Cape of Good Hope, the Venetians purchased the - stuffs and spices of the East. Clive walked between heaps of - gold and silver, crowned with rubies and diamonds, and was at - liberty to help himself."[332] - -The lives of few men are better known than those of Clive and Hastings, -and yet there are few whose influence upon the fate of mankind has had -such scant appreciation. It is not too much to say that the destiny of -Europe hinged upon the conquest of Bengal. Robert Clive was of the same -stock as Drake and Hawkins, Raleigh, Blake, and Cromwell; he was the -eldest son of one of those small farmers whose ancestors had held their -land ever since the Conquest, and who, when at last evicted and driven -out to sea, had fought and conquered on every continent and on every -ocean. Among the throng of great English adventurers none is greater -than he. - -He was born in 1725, and from childhood displayed those qualities which -made him pre-eminent on the field of battle; fighting was his delight, -and so fierce was his temper that his family could not control him. At -last, when eighteen, his father gladly sent him to Madras as a clerk in -the service of the East India Company; and there, in a torrid climate -which shattered his health, poor and neglected, lonely and forlorn, -he pined, until in melancholy he twice attempted suicide. But he was -destined to found an empire, and at last his hour came. - -When Clive went to India, the Company was still a purely commercial -concern, holding only the land needed for its warehouses, and having -in their pay a few ill-disciplined sepoys. In the year 1746, when -Clive was twenty-one, the war of the Austrian Succession was raging, -and suddenly a French fleet, commanded by Labourdonnais, appeared off -Madras, and attacked Fort Saint George. Resistance was hopeless, the -place surrendered, and the governor and chief inhabitants were taken -to Pondicherry. Clive, however, managed to escape, and, volunteering, -received an ensign's commission, and began his military career. - -Shortly after, peace was made in Europe, but in India the issue of the -struggle lay undecided between the French and English, the prize being -the peninsula. Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, was a man -of commanding intellect, who first saw the possibility of constructing -a European empire in Hindostan by controlling native princes. Following -up his idea, he mixed in a war of succession, and having succeeded -in establishing a sovereign of the Deccan, he made himself master of -Southern India. The Nizam's treasure was thrown open to him, and beside -many jewels of price, he is said to have appropriated two hundred -thousand pounds in coin. This was the man whom Clive, when only a clerk -of twenty-five, without military education or experience, attacked and -overthrew. - -Clive began his campaigns by the capture and defence of Arcot, one -of the most daring deeds of a generation given over to perpetual -war. Aided by their native allies, the French had laid siege to -Trichinopoly, and Clive represented to his superiors that with the -fate of Trichinopoly was bound up the fate of the whole peninsula. He -recommended making a diversion by assaulting Arcot, the capital of the -Carnatic; his plan met with approval, and, with two hundred Europeans -and three hundred sepoys, he marched to fight the greatest power in -the East. He succeeded in surprising and occupying the town without -loss, but when within the city his real peril began. Arcot had neither -ditches nor defensible ramparts, the English were short of provisions, -and the Nabob hurried forward ten thousand men to relieve his capital. -With four officers, one hundred and twenty British, and two hundred -sepoys, Clive held the town for fifty days, and when the enemy -assaulted for the last time he served his own guns. He won a decisive -victory, and from that hour was recognized as among the most brilliant -officers of the world. - -Other campaigns followed, but his health, undermined by the tropics, -gave way, and at twenty-seven he returned home to squander his money -and contest an election to Parliament. He soon reached the end of -his resources, and, just before the opening of the Seven Years' War, -he accepted a lieutenant-colonel's commission, and set sail to take -command in Hindostan. The Company appointed him governor of Fort Saint -David, a settlement near Madras; but he had hardly assumed his office -before an event occurred which caused the conquest of Bengal. The Nabob -of Bengal captured Calcutta, and imprisoned one hundred and forty-six -of the English residents in the "Black Hole," where, in a single night, -one hundred and twenty-three perished. - -Clive was summoned, and acted with his usual vigour. He routed the -Nabob's army, recovered Calcutta, and would have taken vengeance at -once had not the civilians, who wanted to be restored to their places, -interfered. - -Long and tortuous negotiations followed, in which Clive displayed -more than Oriental cunning and duplicity, ending in a march into -the interior and the battle of Plassey. There, with one thousand -English and two thousand sepoys, he met and crushed the army of the -Nabob, sixty thousand strong. On June 23, 1757, one of the richest -provinces of Asia lay before him defenceless, ripe for plunder. Eight -hundred thousand pounds were sent down the Hooghly to Calcutta, in one -shipment; Clive himself took between two and three hundred thousand -pounds. - -Like Drake and Hawkins, Clive had done great things for England, but -he was a military adventurer, one of the class in whom the aristocracy -recognized an enemy; and though in London he was treated with outward -respect, and even given an Irish peerage, the landed interest hated -him, and tried to destroy him, as in the next generation it tried to -destroy Hastings. - -Upon the plundering of India there can be no better authority than -Macaulay, who held high office at Calcutta when the administration of -Hastings was still remembered; and who less than any of the writers who -have followed him, was a mouth-piece of the official class.[333] He has -told how after Plassey "the shower of wealth" began to fall, and he has -described Clive's own gains: "We may safely affirm that no Englishman -who started with nothing has ever, in any line of life, created such -a fortune at the early age of thirty-four."[334] But the takings of -Clive, either for himself or for the government, were trifling compared -to the wholesale robbery and spoliation which followed his departure, -when Bengal was surrendered a helpless prey to a myriad of greedy -officials. These officials were absolute, irresponsible, and rapacious, -and they emptied the private hoards. Their only thought was to wring -some hundreds of thousands of pounds out of the natives as quickly as -possible, and hurry home to display their wealth. - - "Enormous fortunes were thus rapidly accumulated at Calcutta, - while thirty millions of human beings were reduced to the - extremity of wretchedness." "The misgovernment of the English - was carried to a point such as seems hardly compatible with the - very existence of society. The Roman proconsul, who, in a year - or two, squeezed out of a province the means of rearing marble - palaces and baths on the shores of Campania, of drinking from - amber, of feasting on singing birds, of exhibiting armies of - gladiators and flocks of camelopards; the Spanish viceroy, who, - leaving behind him the curses of Mexico or Lima, entered Madrid - with a long train of gilded coaches, and of sumpter-horses - trapped and shod with silver, were now outdone."[335] - -Thus treasure in oceans flowed into England through private hands, -but in India the affairs of the Company went from bad to worse. -Misgovernment impoverished the people, the savings of long years of -toil were exhausted, and when, in 1770, a drought brought famine, the -resources of the people failed, and they perished by millions: "the -very streets of Calcutta were blocked up by the dying and the dead." -Then came an outbreak of wrath from disappointed stockholders; the -landed interest seized its opportunity to attack Clive in Parliament; -and the merchants chose Hastings to develop the resources of Hindostan. - -As Sheridan said, the Company "extended the sordid principles of their -origin over all their successive operations; connecting with their -civil policy, and even with their boldest achievements, the meanness -of a pedlar and the profligacy of pirates." In Hastings the Company -found a man fitted to their hands, a statesman worthy to organize a -vast empire on an economic basis. Able, bold, cool, and relentless, he -grasped the situation at a glance, and never faltered in his purpose. -If more treasure was to be wrung from the natives, force had to be -used systematically. Though Bengal might be ruined, the hoards of the -neighbouring potentates remained safe, and these Hastings deliberately -set himself to drain. Macaulay has explained the policy and the motives -which actuated him:-- - - "The object of his diplomacy was at this time simply to get - money. The finances of his government were in an embarrassed - state, and this embarrassment he was determined to relieve - by some means, fair or foul. The principle which directed all - his dealings with his neighbours is fully expressed by the old - motto of one of the great predatory families of Teviotdale, - 'Thou shalt want ere I want.' He seems to have laid it down, as - a fundamental proposition which could not be disputed, that, - when he had not as many lacs of rupees as the public service - required, he was to take them from anybody who had. One thing, - indeed, is to be said in excuse for him. The pressure applied - to him by his employers at home, was such as only the highest - virtue could have withstood, such as left him no choice except - to commit great wrongs, or to resign his high post, and with - that post all his hopes of fortune and distinction."[336] - -How he obtained his money, the pledges he violated, and the blood he -spilt, is known as few passages of history are known, for the story -has been told by Macaulay and by Burke. How he robbed the Nabob of -Bengal of half the income the Company had solemnly promised to pay, -how he repudiated the revenue which the government had covenanted -to yield to the Mogul as a tribute for provinces ceded them, and -how, in consideration of four hundred thousand pounds, he sent a -brigade to slaughter the Rohillas, and placidly saw "their villages -burned, their children butchered, and their women violated," has -been described in one of the most popular essays in the language. -At Hastings' impeachment, the heaviest charge against him was that -based on his conduct toward the princesses of Oude, whom his creature, -Asaph-ul-Dowlah, imprisoned and starved, whose servants he tormented, -and from whom he wrung at last twelve hundred thousand pounds, as the -price of blood. By these acts, and acts such as these, the treasure -which had flowed to Europe through the extermination of the Peruvians, -was returned again to England from the hoards of conquered Hindoos. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -MODERN CENTRALIZATION - - -In discussing the phenomena of the highly centralized society in -which he lived, Mill defined capital "as the accumulated stock of -human labour." In other words, capital may be considered as stored -energy; but most of this energy flows in fixed channels, money alone -is capable of being transmuted immediately into any form of activity. -Therefore the influx of the Indian treasure, by adding considerably to -the nation's cash capital, not only increased its stock of energy, but -added much to its flexibility and the rapidity of its movement. - -Very soon after Plassey the Bengal plunder began to arrive in London, -and the effect appears to have been instantaneous, for all authorities -agree that the "industrial revolution," the event which has divided the -nineteenth century from all antecedent time, began with the year 1760. -Prior to 1760, according to Baines, the machinery used for spinning -cotton in Lancashire was almost as simple as in India;[337] while -about 1750 the English iron industry was in full decline because of the -destruction of the forests for fuel. At that time four-fifths of the -iron in use in the kingdom came from Sweden. - -Plassey was fought in 1757, and probably nothing has ever equalled -the rapidity of the change which followed. In 1760 the flying-shuttle -appeared, and coal began to replace wood in smelting. In 1764 -Hargreaves invented the spinning-jenny, in 1779 Crompton contrived the -mule, in 1785 Cartwright patented the power-loom, and, chief of all, -in 1768 Watt matured the steam-engine, the most perfect of all vents -of centralizing energy. Hut though these machines served as outlets -for the accelerating movement of the time, they did not cause that -acceleration. In themselves inventions are passive, many of the most -important having lain dormant for centuries, waiting for a sufficient -store of force to have accumulated to set them working. That store must -always take the shape of money, and money not hoarded, but in motion. - -Thus printing had been known for ages in China before it came to -Europe; the Romans probably were acquainted with gunpowder; revolvers -and breech-loading cannon existed in the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries, and steam had been experimented upon long before the -birth of Watt. The least part of Watt's labour lay in conceiving -his idea; he consumed his life in marketing it. Before the influx of -the Indian treasure, and the expansion of credit which followed, no -force sufficient for this purpose existed; and had Watt lived fifty -years earlier, he and his invention must have perished together. -Considering the difficulties under which Matthew Boulton, the ablest -and most energetic manufacturer of his time, nearly succumbed, no -one can doubt that without Boulton's works at Birmingham the engine -could not have been produced, and yet before 1760 such works could -not have been organized. The factory system was the child of the -"industrial revolution," and until capital had accumulated in masses -capable of giving solidity to large bodies of labour, manufactures -were necessarily carried on by scattered individuals, who combined a -handicraft with agriculture. Defoe's charming description of Halifax -about the time Boulton learned his trade, is well known:-- - - "The nearer we came to Halifax, we found the houses thicker, - and the villages greater, in every bottom; ... for the land - being divided into small enclosures, from two acres to six or - seven each, seldom more, every three or four pieces of land had - an house belonging to them. - - "In short, after we had mounted the third hill, we found the - country one continued village, tho' every way mountainous, - hardly an house standing out of a speaking distance from - another; and, as the day cleared up, we could see at every - house a tenter, and on almost every tenter a piece of cloth, - kersie, or shalloon; which are the three articles of this - countries labour.... - - "This place then seems to have been designed by providence for - the very purposes to which it is now allotted.... Nor is the - industry of the people wanting to second these advantages. Tho' - we met few people without doors, yet within we saw the houses - full of lusty fellows, some at the dye vat, some at the loom, - others dressing the cloths; the women and children carding, or - spinning; all employed from the youngest to the oldest; scarce - anything above four years old, but its hands were sufficient - for its own support. Not a beggar to be seen, nor an idle - person, except here and there in an alms-house, built for those - that are antient, and past working. The people in general live - long; they enjoy a good air; and under such circumstances hard - labour is naturally attended with the blessing of health, if - not riches."[338] - -To the capitalist, then, rather than to the inventor, civilization -owes the steam engine as a part of daily life, and Matthew Boulton was -one of the most remarkable of the race of producers whose reign lasted -down to Waterloo. As far back as tradition runs the Boultons appear -to have been Northamptonshire farmers, but Matthew's grandfather met -with misfortunes under William, and sent his son to Birmingham to seek -his fortune in trade. There the adventurer established himself as a -silver stamper, and there, in 1728, Matthew was born. Young Boulton -early showed both energy and ingenuity, and on coming of age became -his father's partner, thenceforward managing the business. In 1759, -two years after the conquest of Bengal, the father died, and Matthew, -having married in 1760, might have retired on his wife's property, but -he chose rather to plunge more deeply into trade. Extending his works, -he built the famous shops at Soho, which he finished in 1762 at an -outlay of £20,000, a debt which probably clung to him to the end of his -life. - -Boulton formed his partnership with Watt in 1774, and then began to -manufacture the steam-engine, but he met with formidable difficulties. -Before the sales yielded any return, the outlay reduced him to the -brink of insolvency; nor did he achieve success until he had exhausted -his own and his friends' resources. - - "He mortgaged his lands to the last farthing; borrowed from his - personal friends; raised money by annuities; obtained advances - from bankers; and had invested upwards of forty thousand pounds - in the enterprise before it began to pay."[339] - -Agriculture, as well as industry, felt the impulsion of the new force. -Arthur Young remarked in 1770, that within ten years there had been -"more experiments, more discoveries, and more general good sense -displayed in the walk of agriculture than in an hundred preceding -ones"; and the reason why such a movement should have occurred seems -obvious. After 1760 a complex system of credit sprang up, based on a -metallic treasure, and those who could borrow had the means at their -disposal of importing breeds of cattle, and of improving tillage, as -well as of organizing factories like Soho. The effect was to cause -rapid centralization. The spread of high farming certainly raised the -value of land, but it also made the position of the yeomanry untenable, -and nothing better reveals the magnitude of the social revolution -wrought by Plassey, than the manner in which the wastes were enclosed -after the middle of the century. Between 1710 and 1760 only 335,000 -acres of the commons were absorbed; between 1760 and 1843, nearly -7,000,000. In eighty years the yeomanry became extinct. Many of these -small farmers migrated to the towns, where the stronger, like the -ancestor of Sir Robert Peel, accumulated wealth in industry, the weaker -sinking into factory hands. Those who lingered on the land, toiled as -day labourers. - -Possibly since the world began, no investment has ever yielded the -profit reaped from the Indian plunder, because for nearly fifty years -Great Britain stood without a competitor. That she should have so -long enjoyed a monopoly seems at first mysterious, but perhaps the -condition of the Continent may suggest an explanation. Since Italy -had been ruined by the loss of the Eastern trade, she had ceased to -breed the economic mind; consequently no class of her population could -suddenly and violently accelerate their movements. In Spain the priest -and soldier had so thoroughly exterminated the sceptic, that far from -centralizing during the seventeenth century, as England and France -had done, her empire was in full decline at the revolution of 1688. In -France something similar had happened, though in a much less degree. -After a struggle of a century and a half, the Church so far prevailed -in 1685 as to secure the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. At the -revocation many Huguenots went into exile, and thus no small proportion -of the economic class, who should have pressed England hardest, were -driven across the Channel, to add their energy to the energy of the -natives. Germany lacked capital. Hemmed in by enemies, and without -a seacoast, she had been at a disadvantage in predatory warfare; -accordingly she did not accumulate money, and failed to consolidate -until, in 1870, she extorted a treasure from France. Thus, in 1760, -Holland alone remained as a competitor, rich, maritime, and peopled -by Protestants. But Holland lacked the mass possessed by her great -antagonist, beside being without minerals; and accordingly, far from -accelerating her progress, she proved unable to maintain her relative -rate of advance. - -Thus isolated, and favoured by mines of coal and iron, England not only -commanded the European and American markets, at a time when production -was strained to the utmost by war, but even undersold Hindoo labour -at Calcutta. In some imperfect way her gains may be estimated by -the growth of her debt, which must represent savings. In 1756, when -Clive went to India, the nation owed £74,575,000, on which it paid an -interest of £2,753,000. In 1815 this debt had swelled to £861,000,000, -with an annual interest charge of £32,645,000. In 1761 the Duke of -Bridgewater finished the first of the canals which were afterward to -form an inland water-way costing £50,000,000, or more than two-thirds -of the amount of the public debt at the outbreak of the Seven Years' -War. Meanwhile, also, steam had been introduced, factories built, -turnpikes improved, and bridges erected, and all this had been done -through a system of credit extending throughout the land. Credit is the -chosen vehicle of energy in centralized societies, and no sooner had -treasure enough accumulated in London to offer it a foundation, than it -shot up with marvellous rapidity. - -From 1694 to Plassey, the growth had been relatively slow. For more -than sixty years after the foundation of the Bank of England, its -smallest note had been for £20, a note too large to circulate freely, -and which rarely travelled far from Lombard Street. Writing in 1790, -Burke mentioned that when he came to England in 1750 there were not -"twelve bankers' shops" in the provinces, though then, he said, they -were in every market town.[340] Thus the arrival of the Bengal silver -not only increased the mass of money, but stimulated its movement; -for at once, in 1759, the bank issued £10 and £15 notes, and, in the -country, private firms poured forth a flood of paper. At the outbreak -of the Napoleonic wars, there were not far from four hundred provincial -houses, many of more than doubtful solvency. Macleod, who usually -does not exaggerate such matters, has said, that grocers, tailors, and -drapers inundated the country with their miserable rags.[341] - -The cause of this inferiority of the country bankers was the avarice -of the Bank of England, which prevented the formation of joint stock -companies, who might act as competitors; and, as the period was one -of great industrial and commercial expansion, when the adventurous -and producing classes controlled society, enough currency of some -kind was kept in circulation to prevent the prices of commodities from -depreciating relatively to coin. The purchasing power of a currency is, -other things being equal, in proportion to its quantity. Or, to put the -proposition in the words of Locke, "the value of money, in general, -is the quantity of all the money in the world in proportion to all -the trade."[342] At the close of the eighteenth century, many causes -combined to make money plentiful, and therefore to cheapen it. Not only -was the stock of bullion in England increased by importations from -India, but, for nearly a generation, exports of silver to Asia fell -off. From an average of £600,000 annually between 1740 and 1760, the -shipments of specie by the East India Company fell to £97,500 between -1760 and 1780; nor did they rise to their old level until after the -close of the administration of Hastings, when trade returned to normal -channels. After 1800 the stream gathered volume, and between 1810 -and 1820 the yearly consignment amounted to £2,827,000, or to nearly -one-half of the precious metals yielded by the mines. - -From the crusades to Waterloo, the producers dominated Europe, the -money-lenders often faring hardly, as is proved by the treatment of the -Jews. From the highest to the lowest, all had wares to sell; the farmer -his crop, the weaver his cloth, the grocer his goods, and all were -interested in maintaining the value of their merchandise relatively -to coin, for they lost when selling on a falling market. By degrees, -as competition sharpened after the Reformation, a type was developed -which, perhaps, may be called the merchant adventurer; men like Child -and Boulton, bold, energetic, audacious. Gradually energy vented itself -more and more freely through these merchants, until they became the -ruling power in England, their government lasting from 1688 to 1815. -At length they fell through the very brilliancy of their genius. The -wealth they amassed so rapidly, accumulated, until it prevailed over -all other forms of force, and by so doing raised another variety of man -to power. These last were the modern bankers. - -With the advent of the bankers, a profound change came over -civilization, for contraction began. Self-interest had from the outset -taught the producer that, to prosper, he should deal in wares which -tended rather to rise than fall in value, relatively to coin. The -opposite instinct possessed the usurer; he found that he grew rich when -money appreciated, or when the borrower had to part with more property -to pay his debt when it fell due, than the cash lent him would have -bought on the day the obligation was contracted. As, toward the close -of the eighteenth century, the great hoards of London passed into the -possession of men of the latter type, the third and most redoubtable -variety of the economic intellect arose to prominence, a variety of -which perhaps the most conspicuous example is the family of Rothschild. - -In one of the mean and dirty houses of the Jewish quarter of Frankfort, -Mayer Amschel was born in the year 1743. The house was numbered 152 in -the Judengasse, but was better known as the house of the Red Shield, -and gave its name to the Amschel family. Mayer was educated by his -parents for a rabbi; but, judging himself better fitted for finance, -he entered the service of a Hanoverian banker named Oppenheim, and -remained with him until he had saved enough to set up for himself. Then -for some years he dealt in old coins, curiosities and bullion, married -in 1770, returned to Frankfort, established himself in the house of the -Red Shield, and rapidly advanced toward opulence. Soon after he gave up -his trade in curiosities, confining himself to banking, and his great -step in life was made when he became "Court Jew" to the Landgrave of -Hesse. By 1804 he was already so prosperous that he contracted with the -Danish Government for a loan of four millions of thalers. - -Mayer had five sons, to whom he left his business and his wealth. In -1812 he died, and, as he lay upon his death-bed, his last words were, -"You will soon be rich among the richest, and the world will belong -to you."[343] His prophecy came true. These five sons conceived and -executed an original and daring scheme. While the eldest remained at -Frankfort, and conducted the parent house, the four others migrated to -four different capitals, Naples, Vienna, Paris, and London, and, acting -continually in consort, they succeeded in obtaining a control over -the money market of Europe, as unprecedented as it was lucrative to -themselves. - -Of the five brothers, the third, Nathan, had commanding ability. In -1798 he settled in London, married in 1806 the daughter of one of the -wealthiest of the English Jews, and by 1815 had become the despot of -the Stock Exchange; "peers and princes of the blood sat at his table, -clergymen and laymen bowed before him." He had no tastes, either -literary, social, or artistic; "in his manners and address he seemed -to delight in displaying his thorough disregard of all the courtesies -and amenities of civilized life"; and when asked about the future -of his children he said, "I wish them to give mind, soul, and heart, -and body--everything to business. That is the way to be happy."[344] -Extremely ostentatious, though without delicacy or appreciation, -"his mansions were crowded with works of art, and the most gorgeous -appointments." His benevolence was capricious; to quote his own words, -"Sometimes to amuse myself I give a beggar a guinea. He thinks it is -a mistake, and for fear I shall find it out off he runs as hard as -he can. I advise you to give a beggar a guinea sometimes. It is very -amusing."[345] - -Though an astonishingly bold and unscrupulous speculator, Nathan -probably won his chief successes by skill in lending, and, in this -branch of financiering, he was favoured by the times in which he lived. -During the long wars Europe plunged into debt, contracting loans in -depreciated paper, or in coin which was unprecedentedly cheap because -of the abundance of the precious metals. - -In the year 1809, prices reached the greatest altitude they ever -attained in modern, or even, perhaps, in all history. There is -something marvellously impressive in this moment of time, as the -world stood poised upon the brink of a new era. To the contemporary -eye Napoleon had reached his zenith. Everywhere victorious, he had -defeated the English in Spain, and forced the army of Moore to embark -at Corunna; while at Wagram he had brought Austria to the dust. He -seemed about to rival Cæsar, and establish a military empire which -should consolidate the nations of the mainland of Europe. Yet in -reality one of those vast and subtle changes was impending, which, by -modifying the conditions under which men compete, alter the complexion -of civilizations, and which has led in the course of the nineteenth -century to the decisive rejection of the martial and imaginative mind. - -In April 1810 Bolivar obtained control at Caracas, and, with -the outbreak of the South American revolutions, the gigantic -but imaginative empire of Spain passed into the acute stage of -disintegration. On December 19 of the same year, the Emperor Alexander -opened the ports of Russia to neutral trade. By so doing Alexander -repudiated the "continental system" of Napoleon, made a breach with him -inevitable, and thus brought on the campaign of Moscow, the destruction -of the Grand Army, and the close of French military triumphs on the -hill of Waterloo. From the year 1810, nature has favoured the usurious -mind, even as she favoured it in Rome, from the death of Augustus. - -Moreover, both in ancient and modern life, the first symptom of this -profound economic and intellectual revolution was identical. Tacitus -has described the panic which was the immediate forerunner of the -rise of the precious metals in the first century; and in 1810 a -similar panic occurred in London, when prices suddenly fell fifteen -per cent,[346] and when the most famous magnate of the Stock Exchange -was ruined and killed. The great houses of Baring and of Goldsmid had -undertaken the negotiation of a government loan of £14,000,000. To -the surprise of these eminent financiers values slowly receded, and, -in September, the death of Sir Francis Baring precipitated a crisis; -Abraham Goldsmid, reduced to insolvency, in despair committed suicide; -the acutest intellects rose instantaneously upon the corpses of the -weaker, and the Rothschilds remained the dictators of the markets of -the world. From that day to this the slow contraction has continued, -with only the break of little more than twenty years, when the gold of -California and Australia came in an overwhelming flood; and, from that -day to this, the same series of phenomena have succeeded one another, -which eighteen hundred years ago marked the emasculation of Rome. - -At the peace, many causes converged to make specie rise; the exports of -bullion to the East nearly doubled; America grew vigorously, and mining -was interrupted by the revolt of the Spanish colonies. Yet favourable -as the position of the creditor class might be, it could be improved -by legislation, and probably no financial policy has ever been so ably -conceived, or so adroitly executed, as that masterpiece of state-craft -which gave Lombard Street control of the currency of Great Britain. - -Under the reign of the producers, values had generally been equalized -by cheapening the currency when prices fell. In the fourteenth, -fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the penny had been systematically -degraded, to keep pace with the growing dearth of silver. When the -flood of the Peruvian bullion had reached its height in 1561, the -currency regained its fineness; but in 1601 the penny lost another -half-grain of weight, and, though not again adulterated at the mint, -the whole coinage suffered so severely from hard usage that, under -the Stuarts, it fell to about two-thirds of its nominal value. A -re-coinage took place under William, but then paper came in to give -relief, and the money in circulation continued to degenerate, as there -was no provision for the withdrawal of light pieces. By 1774, the loss -upon even the guinea had become so great that Parliament intervened, -and Lord North recommended "that all the deficient gold coin should -be called in, and re-coined" and also that the "currency of the gold -coin should, in future, be regulated by weight as well as by tale ... -and that the several pieces should not be legal tender, if they were -diminished, by wearing or otherwise, below a certain weight, to be -determined by proclamation."[347] - -By such means as this, the integrity of the metallic money was at -length secured; but the emission of paper remained unlimited, and in -1797 even the Bank of England suspended cash payments. Then prices -advanced as they had never advanced before, and, during the first ten -years of the nineteenth century, the commercial adventurers reached -their meridian. From 1810 they declined in power; but for several -preceding generations they had formed a true aristocracy, shaping the -laws and customs of their country. They needed an abundant currency, -and they obtained it through the Bank. On their side the directors -recognized this duty to be their chief function, and laid it down -as a principle that all legitimate commercial paper should always be -discounted. If interest rose, the rise proved a dearth of money, and -they relieved that dearth with notes. - -Lord Overstone has thus explained the system of banking which was -accepted, without question, until 1810: "A supposed obligation to -meet the real wants of commerce, and to discount all commercial bills -arising out of legitimate transactions, appears to have been considered -as the principle upon which the amount of the circulation was to -be regulated."[348] And yet, strangely enough, even the adversaries -of this system admitted that it worked well. A man as fixed in his -opinions as Tooke, could not contain his astonishment that "under the -guidance of maxims and principles so unsound and of such apparently -mischievous tendency, as those professed by the governors and some -of the directors of the Bank in 1810, such moderation and ... such -regularity of issue should, under chances and changes in politics and -trade, unprecedented in violence and extent, have been preserved, as -that a spontaneous readjustment between the value of the gold and the -paper should have taken place, as it did, without any reduction of -their circulation."[349] - -With such a system the currency tended to fall rather than to rise in -value, in comparison with commodities, and for this reason the owners -of the great hoards were at a disadvantage. What powerful usurers, like -Rothschild, wanted, was a legal tender fixed in quantity, which, being -unable to expand to meet an increased demand, would rise in price. -Moreover, they needed a circulating medium sufficiently compact to be -controlled by a comparatively small number of capitalists, who would -thus, under favourable conditions, hold the whole debtor community at -their mercy. - -If the year 1810 be taken as the point at which the energy stored in -accumulations of money began to predominate in England, the revolution -which ended in the overthrow of the producers, advanced, with hardly a -check, to its completion by the "Bank Act" of 1844. The first symptom -of approaching change was the famous "Bullion Committee," appointed on -the motion of Francis Horner in 1810. This report is most interesting, -for it marks an epoch, and in it the struggle for supremacy between the -lender and the borrower is brought out in full relief. To the producer, -the commodity was the measure of value; to the banker, coin. The -producer sought a currency which should retain a certain ratio to all -commodities, of which gold was but one. The banker insisted on making a -fixed weight of the metal he controlled, the standard from which there -was no appeal. - -A distinguished merchant, named Chambers, in his evidence before the -Committee, put the issue in a nutshell:-- - - _Q._ "At the Mint price of standard gold in this country, how - much gold does a Bank of England note for one pound represent? - - _A._ "5 dwts. 3 grs. - - _Q._ "At the present market price of standard gold of £4 12. - per ounce, how much gold do you get for a Bank of England note - for one pound? - - _A._ "4 dwts. 8 grs. - - _Q._ "Do you consider that a Bank of England note for one - pound, under these present circumstances, is exchangeable in - gold for what it represents of that metal? - - _A._ "I do not conceive gold to be a fairer standard for Bank - of England notes than indigo or broadcloth." - -Although the bankers controlled the "Bullion Committee," the mercantile -interest still maintained itself in Parliament, and the resolutions -proposed by the chairman in his report were rejected in the Commons -by a majority of about two to one. The tide, however, had turned, and -perhaps the best index of the moment at which the balance of power -shifted, may be the course of Peel. Of all the public men of his -generation, Peel had the surest instinct for the strongest force. -Rarely, if ever, did this instinct fail him, and after 1812 his -intuition led him to separate from his father; as, later in life, it -led him to desert his party in the crisis of 1845. The first Sir Robert -Peel, the great manufacturer, who made the fortune of the family, -had the producer's instinct and utterly opposed contraction. In 1811 -he voted against the report of the Bullion Committee, and then his -son voted with him. After 1816, however, the younger Peel became the -spokesman of Lombard Street, and the story is told that when the bill -providing for cash payments passed in July, 1819, the old man, after -listening to his son's great speech, said with bitterness: "Robert has -doubled his fortune, but ruined his country."[350] - -Probably Waterloo marked the opening of the new era, for after -Waterloo the bankers met with no serious defeat. At first they hardly -encountered opposition. They began by discarding silver. In 1817 -the government made 123 374/1000 grs. of gold the unit of value, -the coin representing this weight of metal ceasing to be a legal -tender when deficient by about half a grain. The standard having -thus been determined, it remained to enforce it. By this time Peel -had been chosen by the creditor class as their mouthpiece, and in -1819 he introduced a bill to provide for cash payments. He found -little resistance to his measure, and proposed 1823 as the time for -the return; as it happened, the date was anticipated, and notes were -redeemed in gold from May 1, 1821. As far as the coinage was concerned, -this legislation completed the work, but the task of limiting discounts -remained untouched, a task of even more importance, for, as long as -the Bank continued discounting bills, and thus emitting an unlimited -quantity of notes whenever the rate of interest rose, debtors not only -might always be able to face their obligations, but the worth of money -could not be materially enhanced. This question was decided by the -issue of the panic of 1825, brought on by the Resumption Act. - -At the suspension of 1797, paper in small denominations had been -authorized to replace the coin which disappeared, but this act expired -two years after the return to specie payments. Therefore, as time -elapsed, the small issues began to be called in, and, according to -Macleod, the country circulation, by 1823, had contracted about twelve -per cent. The Bank of England also withdrew a large body of notes in -denominations less than five pounds, and, to fill the gap, hoarded some -twelve million sovereigns, a mass of gold about equal to the yield of -the mines for the preceding seven or eight years. This gold had to be -taken from the currency of Europe, and the sudden contraction caused a -shock which vibrated throughout the West. - -In France gold coinage almost ceased, and prices dropped heavily, -declining twenty-four per cent between 1819 and 1822. Yet perhaps the -most vivid picture of the distress caused by this absorption of gold, -is given in a passage written by Macleod, to prove that Peel's act had -nothing to do with the catastrophe:-- - - "There was one perfectly satisfactory argument to show that - the low prices of that year had nothing to do with the Act of - 1819, namely, that prices of all sorts of agricultural produce - were equally depressed all over the continent of Europe from - the same cause. The fluctuations, indeed, on the continent were - much more violent than even in England.... The same phenomena - were observed in Italy. A similar fall, but not to so great an - extent, took place at Lisbon. What could the Act of 1819 have - to do with these places?"[351] - -The severe and protracted depression, while affecting all producers, -bore with peculiar severity upon the gentry, whose estates were -burdened with mortgages and all kinds of settlements, so much so -that frequently properties sank below their encumbrances, and the -owners were beggared. At the opening of Parliament, both Houses were -overwhelmed with petitions for aid. Among these petitions, one of -the best known was presented to the Commons in May, 1822, by Charles -Andrew Thompson, of Chiswick, which serves to show the keenness of the -distress among debtors owning land. - -Thompson stated, in substance, that in 1811 he and his father, being -wealthy merchants, purchased an estate in Hertfordshire for £62,000, -and afterward laid out £10,000 more in improvements. That in 1812 they -entered into a contract for another estate, whose price was £60,000, -but, a question having arisen as to the title, a lawsuit intervened, -and, before judgment, the petitioner and his father had experienced -such losses that they could not pay the sum adjudged due by the court. -Thereupon, to raise money, they mortgaged both estates for £65,000. -In July, 1821, both estates were offered for sale, but they failed -to bring the amount for which they were mortgaged. Estates in other -counties which cost £33,166, had been sold for £12,000, and through the -depression of trade the petitioners had become bankrupt. In 1822 the -petitioner's father died of a broken heart; and he himself remained a -ruined man, with seven children of his own, ten of his brother's, and -seven of his sister's all depending on him.[352] - -The nation seemed upon the brink of some convulsion, for the gentry -hardly cared to disguise their design of effecting a readjustment of -both public and private debts. Passions ran high, and in June, 1822, -a long debate followed upon a motion, made by Mr. Western, to inquire -into the effects produced by the resumption of cash payments. The -motion was indeed defeated, but defeated by a concession which entailed -a catastrophe up to that time unequalled in the experience of Great -Britain. To save the "Resumption Act" the ministry in July brought in -a bill to respite the small notes until 1833, a measure which at once -quieted the agitation, but which produced the most far-reaching and -unexpected results. - -According to Francis, the country banks augmented their issues fifty -per cent between 1822 and 1825,[353] nor was this increase of paper the -only or the most serious form taken by the inflation. The great hoard -of sovereigns, accumulated by the Bank to replace its small notes, was -made superfluous; and, in a memorandum delivered by the directors to -the House of Commons, no less than £14,200,000 were stated to have been -thrown on their hands in 1824 by this change of policy.[354] The effect -was to create a veritable glut of gold in the United Kingdom; prices -rose abnormally--fifteen per cent--between 1824 and 1825. - -As values tended upward, a frenzy of speculation seized upon a people -who had long suffered from the grinding of contraction, and meanwhile -the Bank, adhering to its old policy, freely discounted all the sound -bills brought them. In 1824 prices rose above the Continental level, -and gold, being cheaper in London than in Paris, began to flow thither. -The Bank reserve steadily fell. In March, 1825, the fever reached -its height, and a decline set in, while the directors, anxious at the -condition of their reserve in May, attempted to restrict their issues. -The consequence was sharp contraction, and in November the crash came. -Mr. Huskisson stated, in the House of Commons, that for forty-eight -hours it was impossible to convert even government securities into -cash. Exchequer bills, bank stock, and East India stock were alike -unsalable, and many of the richest merchants of London walked the -streets, not knowing whether on the morrow they might not be insolvent. -"It is said" the Bank itself "must have stopped payment, and that we -should have been reduced to a state of barter, but for a box full of -old one and two-pound notes which was discovered by accident."[355] -What happened in the Bank parlour during those days is unknown. -Probably the pressure of the mercantile classes became too sharp to be -withstood, perhaps even the strongest bankers were alarmed; but, at -all events, the financial policy changed completely. Contraction was -abandoned, the Bank reverted to the system of 1810, and in an instant -relief came. "We lent by every possible means, and in modes we had -never adopted before; ... we not only discounted outright, but we made -advances on deposit of bills of exchange to an immense amount." The -Bank emitted five millions in notes in four days, and "this audacious -policy was crowned with the most complete success, the panic was stayed -almost immediately."[356] - -With an expansion of the currency sufficient to furnish the means of -paying debts, the panic passed away, but the disaster gave the bankers -their opportunity; they seized it, and thenceforward their hold upon -the community never, even for an instant, relaxed. The administration -fell into discredit, and turned for assistance to the only men who -promised to give them effective support: these were the capitalists of -Lombard Street, whose first care was to obtain a statute prohibiting -the small notes, which, they alleged, were the cause of the misfortune -of 1825. The act they demanded passed in 1826, and about this time -Samuel Loyd rose into prominence, who was, perhaps, the greatest -financier of modern times. Cautious and sagacious, though resolute -and bold, gifted with an amazing penetration into the complex causes -which control the competition of modern life, he swayed successive -administrations, and crushed down the fiercest opposition. Apparently -he never faltered in his course, and down to the day of his death he -sneered at the panic-stricken directors, who only saved themselves -from bankruptcy by accidentally remembering and issuing a "parcel of -old discarded one-pound notes ... drawn forth from a refuse cellar in -1825."[357] - -Loyd's father began life somewhat humbly as a dissenting minister -in Wales, but, after his marriage, he entered a Manchester firm, -and subsequently founded in London the house of Jones, Loyd and Co., -afterward merged in the London and Westminster Bank, one of the largest -concerns in the world. Samuel did not actually succeed his father until -1844, but much earlier he had grown to be the recognized chief of the -monied interest, and Sir Robert Peel long served as his lieutenant. -Loyd was the man who conceived the Bank Act of 1844, who succeeded in -laying his grasp upon the currency of the kingdom, and in whose words, -therefore, the policy of the new governing class is best stated:-- - - "A paper-circulation is the substitution of paper ... in the - place of the precious metals. The amount of it ought therefore - to be equal to what would have been the amount of a metallic - circulation; and of this the best measure is the influx or - efflux of bullion."[358] - - "By the provisions of that Act [the Bank Act of 1844] it - is permitted to issue notes to the amount of £14,000,000 as - before--that is, with no security for the redemption of the - notes on demand beyond the legal obligation so to redeem them. - But all fluctuations in the amount of notes issued beyond - this £14,000,000 must have direct reference to corresponding - fluctuations in the amount of gold."[359] - -Thus Loyd's principle, which he embodied in his statute, was the -rigid limitation of the currency to the weight of gold available -for money. "When ... notes are permitted to be issued, the number in -circulation should always be exactly equal to the coin which would -be in circulation if they did not exist."[360] In 1845 the Bank Act -was extended to Scotland, except that there small notes were still -tolerated; the expansion of provincial paper was prohibited, and -England reverted to the economic condition of Byzantium,--a condition -of contraction in which the debtor class lies prostrate, for, the legal -tender being absolutely limited, when creditors choose to withdraw -their loans, payment becomes impossible. - -Perhaps no financier has ever lived abler than Samuel Loyd. Certainly -he understood as few men, even of later generations, have understood, -the mighty engine of the single standard. He comprehended that, with -expanding trade, an inelastic currency must rise in value; he saw -that, with sufficient resources at command, his class might be able to -establish such a rise, almost at pleasure; certainly that they could -manipulate it when it came, by taking advantage of foreign exchanges. -He perceived moreover that, once established, a contraction of the -currency might be forced to an extreme, and that when money rose beyond -price, as in 1825, debtors would have to surrender their property on -such terms as creditors might dictate. - -Furthermore, he reasoned that under pressure prices must fall to a -point lower than in other nations, that then money would flow from -abroad, and relief would ultimately be given, even if the government -did not interfere; that this influx of gold would increase the quantity -of money, by so doing would again raise prices, and that, when prices -rose, pledges forfeited in the panic might be resold at an advance. He -explained the principle of this rise and fall of values, with his usual -lucidity, to a committee of the House of Lords, which investigated the -panic of 1847:-- - -"Monetary distress tends to produce fall of prices; that fall of prices -encourages exports and diminishes imports; consequently it tends to -promote an influx of bullion. I can quote a fact of rather a striking -character, which tends to show that a contracting operation upon the -circulation tends to cheapen the cost of our manufactured productions, -and therefore to increase our exports." He then stated that during -the panic he had received a letter "from a person of great importance -in Lancashire," begging him to use his influence with the ministry -"to be firm in maintaining the act,--to be firm in resisting these -applications for relaxation," because in Lancashire the manufacturers -were struggling to "resist the improperly high price of the raw -material of cotton." "That letter reached me the very morning that the -letter of the government was issued [suspending the act], and almost -immediately the raw cotton rose in price." - - _Q._ "The writer of that letter was probably a man of - considerable substance, a very wealthy man, with abundant - capital to carry on his business? - - _A._ "He had recently retired from business. I can state - another circumstance that occurred in London corroborative - of the same results. Within half an hour of the time that - the notes summoning the Court of Directors ... were issued, - parties, inferring probably ... that a relaxation was about to - take place, sent orders to withdraw goods from a sale which was - then going on."[361] - -The history of half a century has justified the diagnosis of this -eminent financier. As followed out by his successors, Loyd's policy -has not only forced down prices throughout the West, but has changed -the aspect of civilization. In England the catastrophe began with the -passage of the Bank Act. - -No sooner had this statute taken effect than it necessarily caused a -contraction of the currency at a time when gold was rising because of -commercial expansion. Between 1839 and 1849 there was a fall in prices -of twenty-eight per cent, and, severe as may have been the decline, -it seems moderate considering the conditions which then prevailed. -The yield of the mines was scanty, and of this yield India absorbed -annually an average of £2,308,000, or somewhat more than one-sixth. - -America was growing with unprecedented vigour, industrial competition -sharpened as prices fell, and the year of the "Bank Act" was the year -in which railway building began to take the form of a mania. - -The peasantry are always the weakest part of every population, and -therefore agricultural prices are the most sensitive. But the resources -of a peasantry are seldom large, and, as the value of their crops -shrinks, the margin of profit on which they live dwindles, until they -are left with only a bare subsistence in good years, and with famine -facing them in bad. The Irish peasants were the weakest portion of the -population of Great Britain when Lord Overstone became supreme, and -when the potato crop failed in 1845 they starved. - -Although the landlords had lost their command over the nation in -1688, they yet, down to the last administration of Peel, had kept -strength enough to secure protection from Parliament against foreign -competition. By 1815 the yeomanry had almost disappeared, the soil -belonged to a few rich families whose revenue depended on rents, and -the value of rents turned on the price of the cereals. To sustain the -market for wheat became therefore all-important to the aristocracy, and -when, with the peace, prices collapsed, they obtained a statute which -prohibited imports until the bushel should fetch ten shillings at home. - -This statute, though frequently amended to make it more effective, -partially failed of its purpose. A contracting currency did its -resistless work, prices dropped, tenants went bankrupt, and, as the -value of money rose, encumbered estates passed more frequently into -the hands of creditors. Thus when Peel took office in 1841, the Corn -Laws were regarded by the gentry as their only hope, and Peel as their -chosen champion; but only a few years elapsed before it became evident -that the policy of Lombard Street must precipitate a struggle for life -between the manufacturers and the landlords. In the famine of 1846 -the decisive moment came, and when Sir Robert sided, as was his wont, -with the strongest, and abandoned his followers to their fate, he only -yielded to the impulsion of a resistless force. - -As a class both landlords and manufacturers were debtors, and, by -1844, cheap bread appeared to be as vital to the one as dear corn was -to the other. With a steadily falling market the manufacturers saw -their margin of profit shrink, and at last Manchester and Birmingham -believed themselves to be confronted with ruin unless wages fell -proportionately, or they could broaden the market for their wares by -means of international exchanges. The Corn Laws closed both avenues of -relief; therefore there was war to the death between the manufacturers -and the aristocracy. The savageness of the attack can be judged -by Cobden's jeers at gentlemen who admitted that free corn meant -insolvency:-- - - "Sir Edward Knatchbull could not have made a better speech for - the League than that which he made lately, even if he were paid - for it. I roared so with laughter that he called me specially - to order, and I begged his pardon, for he is the last man in - the world I would offend, we are all so much obliged to him. - He said they could not do without this Corn Law, because, if - it were repealed, they could not pay the jointures, charged on - their estates. Lord Mountcashel, too (he's not over-sharp) said - that one half the land was mortgaged, and they could not pay - the interest unless they had a tax upon bread. In Lancashire, - when a man gets into debt and can't pay, he goes into the - _Gazette_, and what is good for a manufacturer is, I think, - good for a landlord."[362] - -In such a contest the gentry were overmatched, for they were but -nature's first effort toward creating the economic type, and they -were pitted against later forms which had long distanced them in the -competition of life. Bright and Cobden, as well as Loyd and Peel, -belonged to a race which had been driven into trade, by the loss -of their freeholds to the fortunate ancestors of the men who lay at -their mercy in 1846. Peel himself was the son of a cotton-spinner, and -the grandson of a yeoman, who, only in middle life, had quitted his -hand-loom to make his fortune in the "industrial revolution." - -In modern England, as in ancient Italy, the weakest sank first, and the -landed gentry succumbed, almost without resistance, to the combination -which Lombard Street made against them. Yet, though the manufacturers -seemed to triumph, their exultation was short, for the fate impended -over them, even in the hour of their victory, which always overhangs -the debtor when the currency has been seized by the creditor class. -By the "Bank Act" the usurers became supreme, and in 1846 the potato -crop failed even more completely than in 1845. Credit always is more -sensitive in England than in France, because it rests upon a narrower -basis, and at that moment it happened to be strained by excessive -railway loans. With free trade in corn, large imports of wheat were -made, which were paid for with gold. A drain set in upon the Bank, the -reserve was depleted, and by October 2, 1847, the directors denied all -further advances. Within three years of the passage of his statute, -the event Loyd had foreseen arrived. "Monetary distress" began to force -down prices. The decision of the directors to refuse discounts created -"a great excitement on the Stock Exchange. The town and country bankers -hastened to sell their public securities, to convert them into money. -The difference between the price of consols for ready money and for the -account of the 14th of October showed a rate of interest equivalent to -50 per cent per annum. Exchequer bills were sold at 35s. discount."... -"A complete cessation of private discounts followed. No one would part -with the money or notes in his possession. The most exorbitant sums -were offered to and refused by merchants for their acceptances."[363] - -Additional gold could only be looked for from abroad, and as a -considerable time must elapse before specie could arrive in sufficient -quantity to give relief, the currency actually in use offered the only -means of obtaining legal tender for the payment of debts. Consequently -hoarding became general, and, as the chancellor of the exchequer -afterward observed, "an amount of circulation which, under ordinary -circumstances, would have been adequate, became insufficient for the -wants of the community." Boxes of gold and bank-notes in "thousands -and tens of thousands of pounds" were "deposited with bankers." The -merchants, the chancellor said, begged for notes: "Let us have notes; -... we don't care what the rate of interest is.... Only tell us that we -can get them, and this will at once restore confidence."[364] - -But, after October 2, no notes were to be had, money was a commodity -without price, and had the policy of the "Bank Act" been rigorously -maintained, English debtors, whose obligations then matured, must have -forfeited their property, since credit had ceased to exist and currency -could not be obtained wherewith to redeem their pledges. - -The instinct of the usurer has, however, never been to ruin suddenly -the community in which he has lived: only by degrees does he exhaust -human vitality. Therefore, when the great capitalists had satisfied -their appetites, they gave relief. From the 2d to the 25th of October, -contraction was allowed to do its work; then Overstone intervened, the -government was instructed to suspend the "act," and the community was -promised all the currency it might require. - -The effect was instantaneous. The letter from the cabinet, signed -by Lord John Russell, which recommended the directors of the Bank to -increase their discounts, "was made public about one o'clock on Monday, -the 25th, and no sooner was it done so than the panic vanished like a -dream! Mr. Gurney stated that it produced its effect in ten minutes! No -sooner was it known that notes _might_ be had, than the want of them -ceased!"[365] Large parcels of notes were "returned to the Bank of -England cut into halves, as they had been sent down into the country." - -The story of this crisis demonstrates that, by 1844, the money-lenders -had become autocratic in London. The ministry were naturally unwilling -to suspend a statute which had just been enacted, and the blow to Sir -Robert Peel was peculiarly severe; but the position of the government -admitted of no alternative. At the time it was said that the private -bankers of London intimated to the chancellor of the exchequer that, -unless he interfered forthwith, they would withdraw their balances from -the Bank of England. This meant insolvency, and to such an argument -there was no reply. But whether matters actually went so far or not, -there can be no question that the cabinet acted under the dictation -of Lombard Street, for the chancellor of the exchequer defended his -policy by declaring that the "act" had not been suspended until "those -conversant with commercial affairs, and least likely to decide in -favour of the course which we ultimately adopted," unanimously advised -that relief should be given to the mercantile community.[366] - -There was extreme suffering throughout the country, which manifested -itself in all the well-known ways. The revenue fell off, emigration -increased, wheat brought but about five shillings the bushel, while -in England and Wales alone there were upwards of nine hundred thousand -paupers. Discontent took the form of Chartism, and a revolution seemed -imminent. Nor was it Great Britain only which was convulsed: all -Europe was shaken to its centre, and everything portended some dire -convulsion, when nature intervened and poured upon the world a stream -of treasure too bountiful to be at once controlled. - -In 1849 the first Californian gold reached Liverpool. In four years the -supply of the precious metals trebled, prices rose, crops sold again -at a profit. As the farmers grew rich, the demand for manufactures -quickened, wages advanced, discontent vanished, and though values -never again reached the altitude of 1809, they at least attained that -level of substantial prosperity which preceded the French Revolution. -Nevertheless, the fall in the purchasing power of money, and the -consequent ability of debtors to meet their obligations, did not -excite that universal joy which had thrilled Europe at the discovery -of Potosi, for a profound change had passed over society since the -buccaneers laid the foundations of England's fortune by the plunder of -the Peruvian galleons. - -To the type of mind which predominated after 1810, the permanent rise -of commodities relatively to money was unwelcome, and, almost from -the opening of the gold discoveries, a subtle but resistless force -was working for contraction--a force which first showed itself in the -movement for an uniform gold coinage, and afterwards in general gold -monometallism. The great change came with the conquest of France by -Germany. Until after the middle of the nineteenth century, Germany held -only a secondary position in the economic system of Europe, because of -her poverty. With few harbours, she had reaped little advantage from -the plunder of America and India, exchanges had never centred within -her borders, and her accumulated capital had not sufficed to stimulate -high consolidation. The conquest of France suddenly transformed these -conditions. In 1871 she acquired an enormous booty, and the effect upon -her was akin to the effect on England of the confiscations in Bengal; -the chief difference being that, unlike England, Germany passed almost -immediately into the period of contraction. - -The spoliation of India went on for twenty years, that of France -was finished in a few months, and, while in England the "industrial -revolution" intervened between Plassey and the adoption of the -gold standard, in Germany the bankers dominated from the outset. -The government belonged to the class which desired an appreciating -currency, and in 1873 the new empire followed in the steps of Lombard -Street, and demonetized silver. - -Germany's action was decisive. Restrictions were placed on the mints -of the Latin Union and of the United States, and thus, by degrees, -the whole stress of the trade of the West was transferred from the old -composite currency to gold alone. In this way, not only was the basis -of credit in the chief commercial states cut in half, but the annual -supply of metal for coinage was diminished. In 1893 the gold mined fell -nearly nine per cent short of the value of the gold and silver produced -in 1865, and yet, during those twenty-eight years, the demand for money -must have increased enormously, if it in any degree corresponded with -the growth of trade. - -The phenomena which followed the adoption of the gold standard by -Western countries were precisely those which had been anticipated by -Loyd. Lord Overstone had explained them to an earlier generation. -In one of his letters on the "Bank Charter," as early as 1855, he -developed the whole policy of the usurers:-- - - "If a country increases in population, in wealth, in - enterprise, and activity, more circulating medium will probably - be required to conduct its extended transactions. This demand - for increased circulation will raise the value of the existing - circulation; it will become more scarce and more valuable, ... - in other words--gold will rise...."[367] - -By the action of Germany, Overstone's policy was extended to the whole -Western world, with the results he had foreseen. Gold appreciated, -until it acquired a purchasing power unequalled since the Middle Ages, -and while in the silver-using countries prices remained substantially -unchanged and the producers accordingly prospered, prostration -supervened in Europe, the United States, and Australia. As usual the -rural population suffered most, and the English aristocracy, who had -been respited by the gold discoveries, were the first to succumb. They -not only drew their revenues from farming land, but, standing at the -focus of competition, they were exposed to the pressure of Asia and -America alike. The harvest of 1879 was one of the worst of the century, -land depreciated hopelessly, and that year may probably be taken as -marking the downfall of a class which had maintained itself in opulence -for nearly three hundred and fifty years. - -This Tudor aristocracy, which sprang up at the Reformation, was one -of the first effects of the quickened movement which transferred the -centre of exchanges from Italy to the North Sea. They represented -sharpening economic competition, and they prospered because of an -intellectual gift, an aptitude they enjoyed, of absorbing the lands -of the priests and soldiers amidst whom they dwelt. These soldiers -were the yeomen who, when evicted, became pirates, slavers, commercial -adventurers, religious colonists, and conquerors, and who together -poured the flood of treasure into London which, transmuted into -movement, made the "industrial revolution." When by their efforts, -toward the beginning of the nineteenth century, sufficiently vast -reservoirs of energy in the shape of money had accumulated, a new race -rose to prominence, fitted to give vent to this force--men like Nathan -Rothschild and Samuel Loyd, probably endowed with a subtler intellect -and a keener vision than any who had preceded them, financiers beside -whom the usurers of Byzantium, or the nobles of Henry VIII., were -pigmies. - -These bankers conceived a policy unrivalled in brilliancy, which made -them masters of all commerce, industry, and trade. They engrossed the -gold of the world, and then, by legislation, made it the sole measure -of values. What Samuel Loyd and his followers did to England, in 1847, -became possible for his successors to do to all the gold standard -nations, after 1873. When the mints had been closed to silver, the -currency being inelastic, the value of money could be manipulated like -that of any article limited in quantity, and thus the human race became -the subjects of the new aristocracy, which represented the stored -energy of mankind. - -From the moment this aristocracy has determined on a policy, as, -for example the "Bank Act" or monometallism, resistance by producers -becomes most difficult. Being debtors, producers are destroyed when -credit is withdrawn, and, at the first signs of insubordination, the -bankers draw in their gold, contract their loans, and precipitate a -panic. Then, to escape immediate ruin, the debtor yields. - -Since 1873 prices have generally fallen, and the mortgage has tended to -engulf the pledge; but, from time to time the creditor class feels the -need of turning the property it has acquired from bankrupts into gold, -and then the rise explained by Overstone takes place. The hoards are -opened, credit is freely given, the quantity of currency is increased, -values rise, sales are made, and new adventurers contract fresh -obligations. Then this expansion is followed by a fresh contraction, -and liquidation is repeated on an ever-descending scale. - -For many years farming land has fallen throughout the West, as it -fell in Italy in the time of Pliny. Everywhere, as under Trajan, the -peasantry are distressed; everywhere they migrate to the cities, as -they did when Rome repudiated the denarius. By the census of the United -Kingdom taken in 1891, not only did it appear that over seventy-one per -cent of the inhabitants of England and Wales lived in towns, but that, -while the urban districts had increased above fifteen per cent since -the last census, the population of the purely agricultural counties had -diminished.[368] - -Moreover, within a generation, there has been a marked loss of -fecundity among the more costly races. The rate of increase of the -population has diminished. In the United States it is generally -believed that the old native American blood is hardly reproducing -itself; but, in all social phenomena, France precedes other nations -by at least a quarter of a century, and it is, therefore, in France -that the failure of vitality is most plainly seen. In 1789 the -average French family consisted of 4.2 children. In 1891 it had -fallen to 2.1,[369] and, since 1890, the deaths seem to have equalled -the births.[370] In 1889 legislation was attempted to encourage -productiveness, and parents of seven children were exempted from -certain classes of taxes, but the experiment failed. Levasseur, in his -great work on the population of France, has expressed himself almost -in the words of Tacitus: "It can be laid down as a general law that, -if in such a social condition as that of the French of the nineteenth -century, the number of children is small, it is because the majority of -parents wish it should be small."[371] - -Such signs point to the climax of consolidation. And yet, even the -rise of the bankers is not the only or the surest indication that -centralization is culminating. The destruction, wrought by accelerated -movement, of the less tenacious organisms, is more evident below than -above, is more striking in the advance of cheap labour, than in the -evolution of the financier. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -CONCLUSION - - -Apparently nature needs to consume about three generations in -perfecting the selection of a new type. Accordingly the money-lenders -did not become absolute immediately after Waterloo, and a period -of some sixty years followed during which the adventurers kept up a -struggle, wherein they were aided by the discoveries of gold near the -middle of the century. Seemingly they met their final defeat at Sedan, -for the decay of the soldier, which had been in progress since the fall -of Napoleon, reached a point, after the collapse of the Second Empire, -even lower than after the consolidation of Rome. - -From Alaric to Napoleon the soldier had served as an independent vent -to energy. Often, even when opposed to capital, he had been victorious, -and the highest function of a leader of men had been, in theory at -least, military command. The ideal statesman had been one who, like -Cromwell, Frederic the Great, Henry IV., William III., and Washington, -could lead his followers in battle, and, on the Continent, down to -1789, the aristocracy had professedly been a military caste. In France -and Germany the old tradition lasted to within a generation. Only -after 1871 came the new era, an era marked by many social changes. For -the first time in their history the ruler of the French people passed -admittedly from the martial to the monied type, and everywhere the same -phenomenon appeared; the whole administration of society fell into the -hands of the economic man. Nothing so radical happened at Rome, or even -at Byzantium, for there the pressure of the barbarians necessitated -the retention of the commander at the head of the State; in Europe -he lost this importance. Since the capitulation of Paris the soldier -has tended to sink more and more into a paid official, receiving his -orders from financiers with his salary, without being allowed a voice -even in questions involving peace and war. The same fate has overtaken -the producing classes; they have failed to maintain themselves, and -have become subjects of the possessors of hoarded wealth. Although -the conventions of popular government are still preserved, capital is -at least as absolute as under the Cæsars, and, among capitalists, the -money-lenders form an aristocracy. Debtors are in reality powerless, -because of the extension of that very system of credit which they -invented to satisfy their needs. Although the volume of credit is -gigantic, the basis on which it rests is so narrow that it may be -manipulated by a handful of men. That basis is gold; in gold debts must -be paid; therefore, when gold is withdrawn, the debtor is helpless -and becomes the servant of his master. The elasticity of the age of -expansion has gone. - -The aristocracy which wields this autocratic power is beyond attack, -for it is defended by a wage-earning police, by the side of which the -legions were a toy; a police so formidable that, for the first time -in history, revolt is hopeless and is not attempted. The only question -which preoccupies the ruling class is whether it is cheaper to coerce -or to bribe. - -On looking back over long periods of time, the sequence of causes may -be followed which have led to this result. First, inventions from the -East facilitated trade; then, the perfection of weapons of attack made -police possible, and individual bravery unnecessary; on this followed -the abasement of the martial and exaltation of the economic type; and -finally that intense acceleration of movement by machinery supervened, -which, in annihilating space, has destroyed the protection that the -costly races long enjoyed against the competition of simpler organisms. - -Roman civilization was less complex than modern because of the relative -inflexibility of the Latin mind. Unable to quicken his motions by -inventions, the ancient Italian failed to discover America or absorb -India, and, for the same reason, collapsed without an effort under the -insidious attack of Asiatic and African labour. No industrial expansion -followed the influx of bullion under Cæsar, and therefore, when the -value of cereals fell, the evicted farmer either sank into slavery or -begged for bread from the magnates of the Senate. In modern times an -industrial period has intervened; the evicted long found employment -in the factories of the towns, and it has only been as contraction -has reduced the demand for merchandise, by diminishing the purchasing -power of the agricultural population, that those stagnant pools of the -unemployed have collected, which exactly correspond to the proletariat. -But, as each special faculty which, for a time, enables its possessor -to excel in competition, seems to bear with it the seeds of its own -decay, so the inventive, which once enabled the Western races to -undersell the Eastern in their homes seems destined to reduce all to a -common economic level, as Rome sank to the level of Egypt. - -For nearly a century the inventions of Hargreaves, of Crompton, of -Cartwright, and of Watt, enabled Lancashire to supply Bombay and -Calcutta with fabrics, as, in the seventeenth century, Surat and -Calicut had supplied London, and this superiority appeared assured -until Orientals should acquire the momentum necessary for machinery. -One effect in Europe was the rapid increase of a population congregated -in towns, and bearing a marked resemblance to the "humiliores" of -Rome in their disinclination for war. True to their instincts, the -adventurers ever quickened their movements, ever extended the sphere -of their enterprises, and, finally, just as the Second Empire verged -upon its fall, they opened the Suez Canal in 1869. The consequences -of this great engineering triumph have probably equalled in gravity -the establishment of the gold standard, but the two phenomena had this -marked difference. The producers saw their danger and resisted to the -utmost the contraction of the currency, whereas the Canal was a case -of suicide. Thenceforward grain, raised by the most enduring labour of -the world, could be thrown without limit on the European market, and, -agricultural competition once established, industrial could only be a -question of time. The Canal made the importation and the reparation of -machinery cheap throughout Asia. - -From a period, perhaps, as remote as Clive's victories, the Hindoos -had experienced a certain impulsion from contact with the British, -but it was not until the building of railroads, under Lord Dalhousie, -that the severer phases of competition opened among the inhabitants -of India. Lord Dalhousie became Governor General in 1848, and, that -the acceleration of the next nine years culminated in a catastrophe -seems certain, for nothing can be plainer than that the Mutiny of 1857 -was an outbreak of a martial Mohammedan population crushed under an -intolerable pressure. - -The locality of the disturbance alone is enough to demonstrate the -accuracy of this inference. Dalhousie's last act was the annexation -of the Kingdom of Oude. Of this province Lucknow is the capital, and -while Lucknow was one focus of the insurrection, Delhi, the capital -of the ancient Mogul empire, was the other. Once subdued by the -British, and reduced to an economic equality with subtler races, the -old Moslem gentry rapidly disappeared. Since 1857 these families, -which had maintained themselves for six or seven hundred years, have -rapidly fallen into ruin, and their estates have been bought by their -creditors, the rising usurer class. - -Under immemorial native custom the money-lender, generally speaking, -had no forcible means of collecting debt; he relied on public opinion -and conducted himself accordingly. On the other hand, unrestricted -alienation of land was not usually incidental to proprietorship, -and thus the tenant for life, as he would be called in English law, -could only pledge his crops; he could not sell the succession. With -centralization came full ownership, and with it summary process for -debt. Following her immutable law, nature, having changed the form -of competition, proceeded to select a quality of mind to correspond -with the new conditions of life. She demanded improved vents for her -energy. Forthwith, under the pressure of accelerated movement and -advancing consolidation, the trammels of caste relaxed, the population -fused, and a new aristocracy arose, composed of the strongest economic -types culled from all the peoples who inhabit the plains south of -the Himalayas. This aristocracy is a strange mixture of blood, an -amalgam of the most diverse elements, of Parsees, Brahmins, Bunniahs -of different races, with gifted individuals from other castes, like -the leather-workers or the goldsmiths; but among them all the most -ruthless, the corruptest, the most hated, and the most successful, are -the Marwaris, who have been thus described by a British commission:-- - - "The average Marwari money-lender is not a pleasant character - to analyze; his most prominent characteristics are love of gain - and indifference to the opinions or feelings of his neighbour. - He has considerable self-reliance and immense industry, but the - nature of his business and the method by which it is pursued - would tend to degrade and harden even a humane nature, which - his is not. As a landlord he follows the instincts of the - usurer, making the hardest terms possible with his tenant, - who is also his debtor and often little better than his - slave."[372] - -The effect of the selection of such a type as a dominant class must be -destructive to a martial population, whether it be French or English, -Mohammedan or Hindoo. The social revolution which swept over Oude after -its annexation has been referred to, but the fate which overtook the -famous Mahratta nation is even more tragic and impressive. - -When, toward the close of the last century, the British were pushing -their conquests inland, the most formidable enemy they met were the -Mahrattas; and, perhaps, the most renowned battle, next to Plassey, -ever fought by Europeans against natives, was Assaye, where Wellesley -defeated Sindhia in 1803. These Mahrattas were tribes of Hindoo -farmers, who inhabited the mountainous country about one hundred miles -to the east of Bombay; a territory of which Poona has always been -considered the capital. Mounted on their hill ponies, these bold and -hardy spearmen were always ready to follow their chiefs to battle, -and, in the eighteenth century, became the terror not only of the -Mohammedans of the Deccan, but of the Mogul himself, at Delhi. Even -the English respected and feared them, and only subdued them in 1818 -after desperate fighting. Then they were disarmed and subjected to the -combined action of peace and English law. - -Soon after this conquest an inflow of Marwaris began. As early as 1854, -in Dalhousie's administration, Captain Anderson stated that "two-thirds -of the ryots [were] in the hands of the Marwaris, and that the average -debt of each individual [was] not less than Rs. 100."[373] Competition -continued unchecked as time flowed on, and in 1875 disturbances -broke out in certain villages near Poona, serious enough to cause the -government to appoint a commission of inquiry. After full investigation -this commission reported that up to 1872 or 1873 the peasantry had -seemed relatively prosperous, but that afterward "prices fell quickly," -and that this fall had been accompanied by a rise in taxation of -somewhat more than fifty per cent.[374] Under this double pressure the -peasantry had rapidly sunk into insolvency, and the whole real estate -of the Deccan was passing into the hands of usurers, while the farmers -had become serfs toiling on the soil they had once owned, to satisfy an -inextinguishable debt. Precisely like the _colonus_, the delinquent was -not evicted, but remained, "recorded as occupier of his holding, and -responsible for the payment of revenue assessed on it, but virtually -reduced by pressure of debt to a tenant-at-will, ... sweated by his -Marwari creditor. It is in that creditor's power to eject him any day; -... and if allowed to hold on, it is only on condition of paying over -to his creditor all the produce of his land not absolutely necessary -for next year's seed grain or for the support of life. He is indebted -on an average to the extent of sixteen or seventeen years' payment of -the government revenue. He has nothing to hope for, but lives in daily -fear of the final catastrophe."[375] - -Since Assaye three generations have passed away, and the Mahratta -spearmen have vanished. The Western Ghats are now tilled by a sluggish -race whom the British officers deem unworthy of their cavalry, and in -the place of those renowned and daring chiefs Sivaji and Holkar, stands -the Marwari under whom no ryots can prosper save those "who having -received some education are able to combat the sowkars with their own -weapons, fraud, chicanery, and even forgery."[376] Apparently the same -destiny awaits every people which requires more than the minimum of -nutriment, or which is not gifted with the economic mind,[377] for the -"money-lenders sweep off the crops as soon as harvested, only leaving -with the ryots barely sufficient to eke out a subsistence till the -following year."[378] That allowance, in the Deccan, is estimated at -about a dollar a month in silver--too little to sustain any but the -most tenacious organisms, even among Asiatics. Consequently, though the -population of India is increasing rapidly, the increase lies chiefly -among the aboriginal tribes who form the lowest castes, or in other -words among the non-martial or servile races. Men who, though enslaved -by the Aryan invaders of prehistoric times, and who have always been -subjected to extremest hardship, have been gifted, like the Egyptian -fellah, with an endurance which has enabled them to survive.[379] - -Herein, likewise, may be plainly perceived the destructive effects -of the policy of the Western usurers upon the population subject -to them. By enhancing the value of their own money they have nearly -doubled the intensity of this Asiatic competition. In India, silver has -substantially retained its purchasing power, therefore the ryot now, as -in the days of Captain Cunningham, can exist on two rupees a month, but -he cannot live on less. Accordingly, the severity of his competition -with Europeans must be measured by the value of his wages when reckoned -on the European scale. In 1854 the ryot's two rupees were worth one -dollar; now, through the appreciation of gold, they are worth about -sixty cents, and the effect is the same as though the tenacity of life -of the Asiatic had been increased four-sixths. Everything the Indian or -Chinese peasant produces with his hands, whether on the farm or in the -factory, has been reduced in price, in relation to Western peoples, in -the ratio of six to ten. - -The cheapest form of labour is thus being bred on a gigantic scale, -and this labour is being accelerated by an industrial development -which is stimulated by eviction of the farmers, as the "industrial -revolution" was stimulated in England one hundred and thirty years ago. -For many years the cotton mills of Bombay have undersold Lancashire -in the coarser fabrics, and when, by means of a canal to the Pacific, -American cotton can be imported cheaply, they will spin the finer -also. Moreover, Hindostan is full of iron and coal which has never -been utilized because of the immense difference in the rapidity of -European and Asiatic labour, but the steadily falling range of Western -prices must force the cheapest product on the market, and when the -Indian railways have been assumed by the government, a new era will -have opened. The same causes are affecting China and Japan, and, under -precisely similar conditions, the centre of exchanges passed from the -Tiber to the Bosphorus sixteen hundred years ago. - -Such uniformity of development in the most distant times, and among the -most divergent peoples, points to a progressive law of civilization, -each stage of progress being marked by certain intellectual, moral, -and physical changes. As the attack in war masters the defence, and the -combative instinct becomes unnecessary to the preservation of life, the -economic supersedes the martial mind, being superior in bread-winning. -As velocity augments and competition intensifies, nature begins to -sift the economic minds themselves, culling a favoured aristocracy -of the craftiest and the subtlest types; choosing, for example, the -Armenian in Byzantium, the Marwari in India, and the Jew in London. -Conversely, as the costly nervous system of the soldier becomes an -encumbrance, organisms, which can exist on less, successively supplant -each other, until the limit of endurance is reached. Thus the Slavs -exterminated the Greeks in Thrace and Macedonia, the Mahrattas and the -Moslems dwindle before the low caste tribes of India, and the instinct -of self-preservation has taught white races to resist an influx of -Chinese. When nature has finished this double task, civilization has -reached its zenith. Humanity can ascend no higher. - -In view of this possible extermination of the martial blood in the -higher stages of civilization, the attention necessarily becomes -concentrated on what is, perhaps, the main point of divergence between -ancient and modern society,--the presence and the absence of a supply -of barbaric life. All the evidence points to the conclusion that the -infusion of vitality which Rome ever drew from territories beyond -her borders, was the cause both of her strength and of her longevity. -Without such aid she could never have consolidated the world. On the -other hand, the lack of this resource has been the weakness of modern -nations. One after another they have dreamed of universal conquest, and -one after another they have fallen through exhaustion in war. - -Spain levied never a pikeman in America, and her colonies were a source -of debility in so far as they drained her of her youth. Had Rome been -similarly situated, she could hardly have carried the eagles beyond the -Bosphorus and the Alps. Perhaps Cæsar's army was the best an ancient -general ever put in the field, and yet it was filled with barbarians. -All his legions were raised north of the Po, and most of them, -including the tenth, north of the Alps.[380] When pitted against this -force native Italians broke in rout, and one of the most striking pages -of Plutarch is the story of the gradual awakening of Pompey to a sense -of the impotence of Romans. Pompey himself was a commander of high -ability, and, until he split upon the rock of the pure martial blood, -battle had been with him synonymous with victory. - -At first he felt such confidence, he laughed at the suggestion of an -attack within the Rubicon. With the conviction of the conqueror he -said: "Whenever I stamp with my foot in any part of Italy, there will -rise up forces enough in an instant, both horse and foot."[381] A very -short experience of the men of the north sufficed to sober him; for, -though Cæsar's command amounted to only twenty-two thousand, and his -to twice as many, he not only declined an action, but took what care -he could to keep the threats of the Gauls from his men, "who were out -of heart and despondent, through terror at the fierceness and hardiness -of their enemies, whom they looked upon as a sort of wild beasts."[382] -Pharsalia stunned him. When the tenth legion routed his left wing, he -went to his tent and sat speechless until the invasion of the camp; -then he walked away "softly afoot, taken up altogether with thoughts -such as probably might possess a man that for the space of thirty-four -years together had been accustomed to conquest and victory, and was -then at last, in his old age, learning for the first time what defeat -and flight were."[383] - -Thus, in reality, barbarians consolidated the ancient world, and -the force which created the Empire, afterward upheld it. With each -succeeding century the drafts of centralized society upon the blood of -the country beyond the Danube and the Rhine increased, but the supply -proved limitless; and, when the Western provinces disintegrated, a new -imaginative race poured over Italy and France, creating a new religion, -a new art, a new literature, and new institutions. Among modern nations -the Russians alone have developed this power of absorbing kindred -conquered peoples; and yet, obviously, Napoleon would have fought his -campaigns under very different circumstances, and, perhaps, brought -them to a different end, had he, like Cæsar, had an exhaustless supply -of the best soldiers, altogether independent of the population of -France. - -Religious phenomena become explicable when viewed from the same -standpoint. Unquestionably scepticism has been to the full as rife -in Paris since 1789 as it ever was in Rome, and yet no new religion -has been born. Supposing, however, that a vast and highly emotional -emigration flowed annually into France, the aspect of life would be -completely changed. Christian saints and martyrs were not begotten by -the usurers of Constantinople or of Rome, but by barbarian soldiers -and Asiatic serfs, and Christianity could hardly have become a State -religion had the composition of society, as it existed under Trajan, -remained unaltered. Even in the reign of Justinian the aristocracy -carped at faith, and Byzantine architecture did not bloom until the -invasions of Alaric and Attila. - -If, then, although nature never precisely repeats herself, she operates -upon the human mind according to immutable laws, it should be possible -by comparing a living civilization with a dead, to estimate in some -degree the course which has been run. For such an attempt an infinite -variety of standards might be suggested, but few, perhaps, are more -suitable than the domestic relations which lie at the basis of the -reproduction of life. - -In a martial and imaginative age, where energy vents itself through -fear, and every man must be a soldier, the family generally forms a -unit; the women and children being under the control of the father, -as they were under the control of the patriarchs in the Bible, or -of the paterfamilias in Rome. In such periods the woman is sought -after by the man, and even commands a high money value; "And Shechem -said unto her father, ... Ask me never so much dowry and gift, and I -will give according as ye shall say unto me: but give me the damsel -to wife."[384] The Homeric heroes bought their wives, and, moreover, -were very fond of them--an affection the women returned, for in all -classical literature there are few more charming legends than that -of Penelope. Divorce was unknown to Hector and Agamemnon, Ulysses -and Achilles. Marriage, in these simple ages, is usually a rite -half sacred, half warlike. When Abraham's servant found Rebekah at -the well, he bowed his head, and blessed the Lord God of his master -Abraham, which had led him in the right way. A Roman wedding was a -solemn religious function accompanied by prayer and sacrifice, and, at -the end, the bride was carried to her husband's house, where she was -violently torn from her mother's arms. - -Aristotle, with his unerring acumen, made this observation: "That all -warlike races are prone to the love of women," and also that they tend -to "fall under the dominion of their wives."[385] Undoubtedly this is -the instinct of the soldier, and, in martial ages, women are idealized. -When a foreigner asked the wife of Leonidas, "Why do you Lacedæmonian -wives, unlike all others, govern your husbands?" the Spartan answered, -"Because we alone are the mothers of men." When at Rome Tiberius killed -the male serpent, thereby devoting himself to death to save Cornelia, -Plutarch, telling the story, remarked, "that Tiberius seemed to all men -to have done nothing unreasonable, in choosing to die for such a woman; -who, when King Ptolemy himself proffered her his crown, and would have -married her, refused it, and chose rather to live a widow."[386] - -In the Middle Ages, that greatest of martial and imaginative epochs, -marriage developed into the most solemn of sacraments, and the worship -of women became the popular religion. In France, especially, the -centre of thought, enthusiasm, and war, from the mighty fane of Paris -downward, the churches were dedicated to Mary, and the vow of chivalry -bound the knight to fight for God and for his lady. - - "It hath bene through all ages ever seene - That with the praise of armes and chevalrie - The prize of beautie still hath ioyned beene."[387] - -It might almost be said that the destinies of France have been moulded -by men's love for women, and that this influence still prevailed down -to the advent of the usurers after the rout of Waterloo. On the other -hand, nature bred a type of woman fit to mate with the imaginative -man. The devotion of Saint Clara to Saint Francis is one of the most -exquisite lyrics of the Church, and for six hundred years Héloïse -remained an ideal of the West. Perhaps, indeed, that strange blending -of tenderness and enthusiasm, which was peculiar to the mediæval mind, -never found more refined and exalted expression than in the simple -hymn which Héloïse is said to have composed and sung at the grave of -Abélard:-- - - "Tecum fata sum perpessa; - Tecum dormiam defessa, - Et in Sion veniam. - Solve crucem, - Due ad lucem - Degravatam animam." - -In primitive ages children are not only a source of power, but of -wealth, and therefore the highest merit of the woman is fecundity. -"And they blessed Rebekah, and said unto her, ... be thou the mother -of thousands of millions." Also maternity is then a glory, and -childlessness a shame; and Rachel said, "Give me children, or else -I die." "And she conceived and bare a son; and said, God hath taken -away my reproach." That she might live for her boys, Cornelia refused -a crown; and when they grew up, she would upbraid them because "the -Romans as yet rather called her the daughter of Scipio than the mother -of the Gracchi." But Cornelia's father was the conqueror of Hannibal, -and her son was an agrarian agitator, whom the monied oligarchy -murdered for reviving the Licinian Laws. Apparently, one of the first -signs of advancing civilization is the fall in the value of women in -men's eyes. Not very long after the siege of Troy, husbands must have -ceased paying for their wives; for, at a comparatively early date, they -demanded a price for wedding them. Euripides, born in 480 B.C., made -Medea complain that women had to buy their husbands for great sums of -money. In other words, the custom of the wedding portion had come to -prevail. - -As the pressure of economic competition intensifies with social -consolidation, the family regularly disintegrates, the children -rejecting the parental authority at a steadily decreasing age; until, -finally, the population fuses into a compact mass, in which all -individuals are equal before the law, and all are forced to compete -with each other for the means of subsistence. When at length wealth -has accumulated sufficiently to find vent through capitalistic methods -of farming and manufacture, children lose all value, for then hiring -labour is always cheaper than breeding. Thenceforward, among the more -extravagant races, the family dwindles, as in ancient Rome or modern -France, and marriage, having become a luxury, decreases. Moreover, -the economic instinct impels parents to reduce the number of possible -inheritors of their property, that its bulk may not shrink. - -Upon women the effect of these changed conditions is prodigious. -Their whole relation to society is altered. From a religious sacrament -marriage is metamorphosed into a civil contract, dissoluble, like other -contracts, by mutual consent; and, as the obligations of maternity -diminish, the relation of husband and wife resolves itself into a -sort of business partnership, tending always to become more ephemeral. -Frequent as divorce now is, it was even more so under the Antonines. - -On men the action of natural selection is, at least, as drastic. The -change wrought in Roman character in about three hundred years has -always been one of the problems of history. In the words of Aristotle, -the primitive Roman "was prone to the love of women." Strong in his -passions, austere in his life, fierce in his jealousy, he set the -undisputed possession of the female as his supreme happiness. Virginius -slew his daughter to keep her from Appius Claudius, and his comrades in -the legions washed out his wrong in the Decemvir's blood; while among -the stirring ballads of the fabled time which were sung at the farmer's -fireside, none roused such emotion as the tale of the vengeance wreaked -on Tarquin for Lucretia's death. Compare this virile race with the -aristocracy of the middle Empire. By the second century female purity -weighed light against money. Marcus Aurelius is said to have condensed -the whole economic moral code in one short sentence. His wife, -Faustina, was accused, by scandal, of being the most abandoned woman -of her generation, more notorious even than had been Messalina. When -the philosopher was urged to repudiate her, he replied, "Then I should -have to surrender her portion" (the Empire); and he not only lived with -her, but built a temple to her memory. Even if the story be false, it -reflects none the less truly the temper of the age. - -The minds of noble Romans of the third and fourth centuries, under -the same impulsion, worked differently from those of their primitive -ancestors; they lacked the martial and the amatory instincts. As a -general rule one salient characteristic of the later reigns was a -sexual lassitude yielding only to the most potent stimulants. The same -phenomena were noticed among Frenchmen at the collapse of the Empire, -since when like symptoms have become notorious in London. - -Taking history as a whole, women seem never to have more than -moderately appealed to the senses of the economic man. The monied -magnate seldom ruins himself for love, and chivalry would have been -as foreign to a Roman senator under Diocletian, as it would be now to -a Lombard Street banker. On the other hand, in proportion as women's -influence has declined when measured by their power over men, it has -increased when measured by the economic standard. In many ways the -female seems to serve as a vent for the energy of capital almost as -well as men; in the higher planes of civilization they hold their -property in severalty, and, by means of money, wield a power not unlike -Faustina's. If unmarried, the economic woman competes with the man on -nearly equal terms, and everywhere, and in all ages, the result is not -dissimilar. The stronger and more fortunate members of the sex have -grown rich and have bought social and political power. Roman politics -under Septimius Severus and Caracalla was much in the hands of women, -and Julia Mæsa, who was enormously wealthy, carried through a most -famous intrigue by purchasing the throne for Elagabalus. - -In Rome, however, there was always a strong admixture of barbaric -blood, and, to the last, the barbarians married for love. Justinian -was an example. Born of an obscure race of barbarians in the desolate -Bulgarian country, he fell uncontrollably in love with Theodora, who -had scandalized even the theatres of Constantinople. His mother died of -shame; but Justinian persevered, and, while she lived, his devotion to -his wife never wavered. - -In Rome and in Byzantium such women were the stronger or the more -fortunate; their counterparts are easily to be found in any economic -age. The fate of the weaker there was slavery; now they are forced by -competition into the ranks of the cheapest labour,--a lot, perhaps, -hardly preferable. - -And yet art, perhaps, even more clearly than religion, love, or -war, indicates the pathway of consolidation; for art reflects with -the subtlest delicacy those changes in the forms of competition -which enfeeble or inflame the imagination. Of Greek art, in its -zenith, little need be said; its great qualities have been too fully -recognized. It suffices to point out that it was absolutely honest, -and that it formed a vehicle of expression as flexible as the language -itself. A temple apparently of marble, was of marble; a colonnade -apparently supporting a portico, did support it; and, while the -ornament formed an integral part of the structure, the people read it -as intelligently as they read the poems of Homer. Nothing similar ever -flourished in Rome. - -Unlike the Greeks, the Romans were never sensitive or imaginative. -Properly speaking, they had nothing which they could express through -art; they were utilitarian from the outset, and their architecture -finally took shape in the most perfect system of materialistic building -which, probably, has ever existed. Obviously such a system could -only be matured in a capitalistic society, and, accordingly, Roman -architecture only reached perfection somewhat late, perhaps, toward the -close of the first century. - -The Romans, though vulgar and ostentatious, understood business. -They knew how to combine economy and even solidity with display. -As Viollet-le-Duc has observed, "They were rich, and they wanted to -appear so,"[388] but they strove to attain their end without waste. -Therefore they first ran up a cheap core of rubble, bricks, and mortar, -which could be put together by rude slave labour under the direction -of an engineer and a few overseers; and their squalid interior they -afterward veneered with marble, adding, by way of ornament, tier above -tier of Greek columns ranged against the walls. That gaudy exterior -had nothing whatever to do with the building itself, and could be -stripped off without vital injury. From the Greek standpoint nothing -could be falser, more insulting to the intelligence, or, in a word, -more plutocratic; but the work was sound and durable, and, to a certain -degree, imposing from its mass. This system lasted, substantially -unimpaired, even to Constantine or until the final migration of -capital to the Bosphorus, the only difference between the monuments of -the fourth century and the first being that the former are somewhat -coarser, just as the coins of Diocletian are coarser than those of -Nero. - -Yet, although the monied aristocracy remained supreme down to the -final disintegration of the West, emigration began very early to -modify the base of society, by the injection of a considerable amount -of imaginative blood; and, as early as the reign of Claudius, this -new store of energy made its presence felt through the outlet of -Christianity. The converts were, of course, the antipodes of the ruling -class. They were "humiliores," poor people, below the notice of a rich -man like Tacitus; "quos, ... vulgus Christianos appellabat."[389] - - -These Christians held a position analogous to that of Nihilists now, -whom they resembled save in respect to violence. They were socialists -living under a monied despotism, and they openly prayed for the end of -the world; therefore they were thought "haters of the human race,"[390] -and they suffered the penalty. Primitive Christianity was incompatible -with the existence of Roman society, against which it was a protest, -for it "fully accepted the idea that the rich, if he did not surrender -his superfluity, kept what belonged to another."[391] By right the -Kingdom of Heaven was closed to the wealthy. - -Probably very few of these early Christians were Italians; most of them -were from the Levant, and that they were intensely emotional is proved -by their lust for martyrdom--they voluntarily sought death as a means -of glorifying God. One day Arrius Antoninus, proconsul of Asia, having -ordered certain Christians arrested, saw all the faithful of the town -present themselves before his tribunal, demanding to share the fate of -those chosen for martyrdom. He dismissed them in wrath, telling them -that if they were so in love with death they might commit suicide;[392] -and Renan's account of the persecutions under Nero shows an incredible -exaltation.[393] - -Almost at once the effect of this emotional temperament became -perceptible. The paintings in the catacombs are, perhaps, the oldest -example of Christian art, and of these M. Vitet thus spoke many years -ago:-- - - "These decorations, made with the hand raised, in secret, - hurriedly, and more for pious reasons than for love of the - beautiful, nevertheless reveal to the most rebellious eyes - and in spite of strange negligence and incorrectness, I know - not what of animation, of youth, of fecundity, and, so to - speak, a real transformation of that very art which, in the - service of paganism, seemed then, we are all agreed, dying of - exhaustion."[394] - -As the world disintegrated, and the imagination everywhere acquired -power, and with power wealth and the means of expression, an entirely -new architecture sprang up in the East, whose growth closely followed -upon the barbarian invasions and the progressive failure of the -Roman blood. The system of construction was Asiatic modified by Greek -influences,[395] and with this new construction came an equally new -decoration, a decoration which once more served as a language. - -Mosaics of stone had long been used, but mosaics of glass, which -give such an incomparable lustre to the dome, were the invention of -Levantine Christians, and seem to have come into general use toward -the beginning of the fifth century. But the fifth century was the -period of the great invasions of Alaric, Attila, and Theoderic, and -during this period the population of Italy, Macedonia, and Thrace -must have undergone profound changes. In Italy the whole fabric of -consolidated society crumbled; south of the Danube it survived, but -survived in a modified form, a form on which the recent migrations -left an unmistakable imprint. Galla Placidia, the first great patron -of the pure Byzantine school, died in 450, after an eventful life -largely passed among the barbarians, one of whom she married. She began -to embellish Ravenna, and a comparison of these remains with those of -France and Italy of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, -exposes the difference in the forces which moulded these three -civilizations. - -With all its grace and refinement the characteristic of Ravenna was not -religious ecstasy, but rather an absence of fear of the unknown, and a -respect for wealth. There is nothing mysterious or terrible about these -charming buildings, which are manifestly rather a glorification of the -Empire on the Bosphorus, than of the Kingdom of Heaven. - -At San Vitale it is Justinian, with an aureole about his head and -surrounded by his courtiers, carrying a gift to the shrine; or -Theodora, blazing with jewels, and followed by the magnificent ladies -of her household. At San Apollinare the long procession of saints are -richly clad and bear crowns, while the Virgin herself, seated on a -throne and revered as a sovereign, is as far removed from the vulgar -as Theodora herself. "Byzantine etiquette no longer permits her to be -approached directly; four angels surround her and separate her from -humanity."[396] The terrifying was scrupulously avoided. "By a most -significant scruple, the artist, in reproducing various episodes of the -Passion, avoided the most painful, the Crucifixion."[397] - -Saint Sophia offers every indication of having been expressly contrived -to provide the large light spaces needful for such functions as those -depicted in San Vitale, and the account given by Procopius of its -erection sustains this supposition. According to Procopius, Saint -Sophia was a hobby of Justinian, who not only selected the architect -Anthemius because he was the most ingenious mechanic of his age, but -who also supplied the funds and "assisted it by the labour and powers -of his mind."[398] The dome, "from the lightness of the building ... -does not appear to rest upon a solid foundation, but to cover the -place beneath as though it were suspended from heaven by the fabled -golden chain"; and the interior "is singularly full of light and of -sunshine; you would declare that the place is not lighted by the sun -from without, but that the rays are produced within itself, such an -abundance of light is poured into this church."[399] Of the decorations -it is impossible to speak with certainty, since it is probable that the -mosaics which now exist were of a later period. - -Perhaps, however, the most significant phenomenon about the church is -its loneliness; nothing like it was built elsewhere, and the reason -seems plain. There was but one imperial court which needed so superb -a setting, and but one emperor who could pay for it. Herein lies the -radical divergence between the East and West; the great tabernacle of -Constantinople stood alone because it represented the wealth, the pomp, -and the imagination of the barbarian shepherd who had been raised by -fortune to be the chief of police of the city where the world's wealth -had centralized. In France every diocese had a temple magnificent -according to its means, some of which exceeded in majesty that of -Paris; and the cause was that, in France, the artistic and imaginative -caste formed a theocracy, who were not hired by king or emperor, but -who were themselves the strongest force in all the land. In the East, -the imaginative inroad was not strong enough to cause disintegration, -and the artists always remained wage-earners. In the West, society fell -back a thousand years, and consolidation began afresh. Six centuries -intervened between the death of Galla Placidia and the famous dream of -the monk Gauzon which contained the revelation of the plan of the Abbey -of Cluny, and yet six hundred years by no means represented the gap -between the Franks and the Burgundians, and the Eastern Empire, even -when it sank lowest under Heraclius. To Justinian the building of Saint -Sophia was a matter of time and money; to Saint Hugh the church of -Cluny was a miracle. - -In France the churches long were miracles; the chronicles are filled -with the revelations vouchsafed the monks; and none can cross the -threshold of one of these noble monuments and fail to grasp its -meaning. They are the most vigorous of all expressions of fear of the -unseen. The Gothic architect heeded no living potentate; he held kings -in contempt, and oftener represented them thrust down into hell than -seated on their thrones. With the enemy who lurked in darkness none -but the saints could cope, and them he idealized. No sculpture is more -terrible than the demons on the walls of Rheims, none more majestic -and pathetic than that over the door of the Virgin at Paris, while no -colour ever equalled the windows of Saint Denis and Chartres. - -With the thirteenth century came the influx of the Eastern trade and -the rise of the communes. Immediately the glory of the Gothic began to -fade; by the reign of Saint Louis it had passed its prime, and under -Philip the Fair it fell in full decline. The men who put dead cats -in shrines were not likely to be inspired in religious sculpture. The -decay, and the reasons for it, can be readily traced in colour. - -The monks who conceived the twelfth century windows, or painted -the pictures of the saints, only sought to render an emotion by a -conventional symbol which should rouse a response. Consequently -they used marvellous combinations of colours, in which blue was -apt to predominate, and they harmonized their colours with gold. -Viollet-le-Duc has elaborately explained how this was done.[400] -But such a system was not pretentious, and was incompatible with -perspective. The mediæval burgher, like the Roman, was rich, and wanted -to appear so. He demanded more for his money than a solemn portrait of -a saint. He craved a picture of himself, or of his guild, and above all -he insisted on display. The fourteenth century was the period when the -reds and yellows superseded the blues, and when the sense of harmony -began to fail. Furthermore, the burgher was realistic and required a -representation of the world he saw about him. Hence came perspective, -the abandonment of gold, and the final degradation of colour, which -sank into a lost art. For hundreds of years it has been impossible to -imitate the work of the monks of Saint Denis. In Italy, the economic -phenomena were yet more striking; for Italy, even in the Middle -Ages, was always a commercial community, which looked on art with the -economic eye. One example will suffice,--the treatment of the dome. - -Placed between the masterpieces of the East and West, and having little -imagination of his own, the Florentine banker conceived the idea of -combining the two systems and embellishing them in a cheap and showy -manner. Accordingly on Gothic arches he placed an Eastern dome, and -instead of adorning his dome with mosaics, which are costly, he had his -interior painted at about one-quarter of the price. The substitution of -the fresco for the mosaic is one of the most typical devices of modern -times. - -Before the opening of the economic age, when the imagination glowed -with all the passion of religious enthusiasm, the monks who built -the abbeys of Cluny and Saint Denis took no thought of money, for -it regarded them not. Sheltered by their convents, their livelihood -was assured; their bread and their robe were safe; they pandered to -no market, for they cared for no patron. Their art was not a chattel -to be bought, but an inspired language in which they communed with -God, or taught the people, and they expressed a poetry in the stones -they carved which far transcended words. For these reasons Gothic -architecture, in its prime, was spontaneous, elevated, dignified, and -pure. - -The advent of portraiture has usually been considered to portend -decay, and rightly, since the presence of the portrait demonstrates -the supremacy of wealth. A portrait can hardly be the ideal of -an enthusiast, like the figure of a god, for it is a commercial -article, sold for a price, and manufactured to suit a patron's taste; -were it made to please the artist, it might not find a buyer. When -portraits are fashionable, the economic period must be well advanced. -Portraiture, like other economic phenomena, blossomed during the -Renaissance, and it was then also that the artist, no longer shielded -by his convent or his guild, stood out to earn his living by the sale -of his wares, like the Venetian merchants whom he met on the Rialto, -whose vanity he flattered, and whose palaces he adorned. From the -sixteenth century downward, the man of imagination, unable to please -the economic taste, has starved. - -This mercenary quality forms the gulf which has divided the art of -the Middle Ages from that of modern times--a gulf which cannot be -bridged, and which has broadened with the lapse of centuries, until -at last the artist, like all else in society, has become the creature -of a commercial market, even as the Greek was sold as a slave to -the plutocrat of Rome. With each invention, with each acceleration -of movement, prose has more completely supplanted poetry, while the -economic intellect has grown less tolerant of any departure from those -representations of nature which have appealed to the most highly -gifted of the monied type among successive generations. Hence the -imperiousness of modern realism. - -Thus the history of art coincides with the history of all other -phenomena of life; for experience has demonstrated that, since the -Reformation, a school of architecture, like the Greek or Gothic, has -become impossible. No such school could exist in a society where -the imagination had decayed, for the Greek and Gothic represented -imaginative ideals. In an economic period, like that which has followed -the Reformation, wealth is the form in which energy seeks expression; -therefore, since the close of the fifteenth century, architecture has -reflected money. - -Viollet-le-Duc has said of the Romans, that, like all parvenus, the -true expression of art lay, for them, rather in lavish ornament than -in purity of form,[401] and what was true of the third century is true -of the nineteenth. The type of mind being the same, its operation must -be similar, and the economic, at once ostentatious and parsimonious, -produces a cheap core fantastically adorned. The Romans perched -the travesty of a Grecian colonnade upon the summit of a bath or an -amphitheatre, while the Englishman, having pillaged weaker nations of -their imaginative gems, delights to cover with coarse imitations the -exterior of banks and counting-houses. - -And yet, though thus alike, a profound difference separates Roman -architecture from our own; the Romans were never wholly sordid, nor did -they ever niggle. When they built a wall, that wall was solid masonry, -not painted iron; and, even down to Constantine, one chord remained -which, when struck, would always vibrate. Usurers may have sat in the -Senate, but barbarians filled the legions, and, as long as the triumph -wound its way through the Forum, men knew how to raise triumphal arches -to the victor. Perhaps, in all the ages, no more serious or majestic -monument has been conceived to commemorate the soldier than the column -of Trajan, a monument which it has been the ambition of our century to -copy. - -In Paris an imitation of this trophy was erected to the greatest -captain of France, and the column of the Place Vendôme serves to -mark the grave of the modern martial blood. Raised in 1810, almost at -the moment when Nathan Rothschild became despot of the London Stock -Exchange, the tide from thence ran swiftly, and, since Sedan, the -present generation has drained to the lees the cup of realism. - -No poetry can bloom in the arid modern soil, the drama has died, -and the patrons of art are no longer even conscious of shame at -profaning the most sacred of ideals. The ecstatic dream, which some -twelfth-century monk cut into the stones of the sanctuary hallowed by -the presence of his God, is reproduced to bedizen a warehouse; or the -plan of an abbey, which Saint Hugh may have consecrated, is adapted to -a railway station. - -Decade by decade, for some four hundred years, these phenomena have -grown more sharply marked in Europe, and, as consolidation apparently -nears its climax, art seems to presage approaching disintegration. The -architecture, the sculpture, and the coinage of London at the close of -the nineteenth century, when compared with those of the Paris of Saint -Louis, recall the Rome of Caracalla as contrasted with the Athens of -Pericles, save that we lack the stream of barbarian blood which made -the Middle Age. - - - - -[Footnotes] - - - [1] _History of Rome_, Mommsen, Dickson's trans., i. 288, 290. - - [2] _History of Rome_, Niebuhr, Hare's trans., i. 576. Niebuhr - has been followed in the text, although the "nexum" is one - of the vexed points of Roman law. (See _Über das altrömische - Schuldrecht_, Savigny.) The precise form of the contract is, - however, perhaps, not very important for the matter in hand, - as most scholars seem agreed that it resembled a mortgage, the - breach of whose condition involved not only the loss of the - pledge, but the personal liberty of the debtor. See _Gaius_, - iv. 21. - - [3] _History of Rome_, Niebuhr, Hare's trans., ii. 599. But - compare _Aulus Gellius_, xx. 1. - - [4] _Ibid._, i. 582. - - [5] _History of Rome_, Niebuhr, Hare's trans., i. 583. - - [6] _History of Rome_, Mommsen, Dickson's trans., i. 472. - - [7] Livy, xlv. 18. - - [8] _History of Rome_, Niebuhr, Hare's trans., i. 583. - - [9] _Ibid._, ii. 603. - - [10] _History of Rome_, Niebuhr, Hare's trans., i. 574. - - [11] Preface to _Virginia_. - - [12] _History of Rome_, Mommsen, Dickson's trans., i. 484. - - [13] See _History of Rome_, Mommsen, Dickson's trans., i. - 298-9. - - [14] See _History of Rome_, Niebuhr, Hare's trans., iii. 22, - 30. - - [15] Preface to _Virginia_, Macaulay. - - [16] _Histoire de l'Esclavage_, Wallon, ii. 38. - - [17] Suet. _Aug._, ii. 41. - - [18] Tacitus, _Ann._, ii. 48. - - [19] _Ann._, vi. 39. - - [20] _Ibid._, iv. 21. - - [21] _Sat._, iii. 164. - - [22] _L'Invasion Germanique_, Fustel de Coulanges, 146-157. - - [23] Diod. xxxiv. 38. On the subject of the Sicilian slavery, - see _Histoire de l'Esclavage_, Wallon, ii. 300 _et seq._ - - [24] _Polybius_, ii. 15, Shuckburgh's trans. - - [25] _Provinces of the Roman Empire_, Mommsen, ii. 233. - - [26] _Ibid._, ii. 239. - - [27] _Deipnosophists_, v. 37. - - [28] Martial, _Ep._, xii. 76. - - [29] Vopiscus, _Aurelianus_, 35. - - [30] _L'Invasion Germanique_, Fustel de Coulanges, 190. - - [31] _Le Colonat Romain: Recherches sur quelques Problèmes - d'Histoire_, Fustel de Coulanges, 143. - - [32] _Organisation Financière chez les Romains_, Marquardt, 65 - _et seq._ - - [33] Tacitus, _Ann._, Murphy's trans., iii. 53. - - [34] _Nat. Hist._, xii. 18. - - [35] Vopiscus, _Saturninus_, 8. - - [36] _Provinces of the Roman Empire_, Mommsen, ii. 140. - - [37] _Ann._, vi. 16, 17. - - [38] See _Geschichte des Römischen Münzwesens_, Mommsen, 756. - - [39] _Monnaies Byzantines_, Sabatier, i. 51, 52. - - [40] _Monnaies Byzantines_, Sabatier, i. 50. - - [41] _Geschichte des Römischen Münzwesens_, Mommsen, 837. - - [42] _Monnaies Byzantines_, Sabatier, i. 51, 52. - - [43] Pliny's _Letters_, iii. 19. - - [44] _Ibid._, ix. 37. - - [45] _Digest_, xix. 2, 15, and xxxiii. 7, 20. - - [46] _Letters_, x. 24. On this whole subject see _Le Colonat - Romain: Recherches sur quelques Problèmes d'Histoire_, Fustel - de Coulanges, ch. i. - - [47] _Code of Justinian_, xi. 51, 1. - - [48] _Le Colonat Romain_, Fustel de Coulanges, 21. - - [49] _Organisation Financière chez les Romains_, Marquardt, - 240; _Les Manieurs d'Argent à Rome_, Deloume, 377. - - [50] See _Decline and Fall_, ch. xvii. - - [51] In _C. Verrem_, IV. lxxxix. - - [52] _Cicero's Letters_, Ad Att. vi. 2; also Ad Att. v. 21, and - vi. 1. - - [53] Diod. xxxvi. 3. See also _Histoire de l'Esclavage_, - Wallon, ii. 42, 44. - - [54] _Satire_, viii. 89, 90. - - [55] _Letters_, viii. 24. - - [56] _Dio Cassius_, lxii. 2. - - [57] _Nat. Hist._, xiv., _Prooemium_. - - [58] _Decline and Fall_, ch. xvii. - - [59] _Morals, Trans. of_ 1718, 4, 11. - - [60] _Histoire de l'Esclavage_, iii. 268. - - [61] _Decline and Fall_, ch. xii. - - [62] _L'Invasion Germanique_, 200, 204, 223. - - [63] _Dio Cassius_, lvi. 7. - - [64] _Dio Cassius_, lvi. 5-8. - - [65] _Ann._, iii. 25. - - [66] _Ibid._, xxviii. Latin literature is full of references - to these famous laws. Tacitus, Pliny, Juvenal, and Martial - constantly speak of them. There were also many commentaries on - them by Roman jurists. - - [67] _L'Organisation Militaire chez les Romains_, Marquardt, - 143. - - [68] _Dio Cassius_, lxxiv. 2. - - [69] _Monnaies Byzantines_, Sabatier, i. 50. - - [70] _History of the Byzantine Empire_, Finlay, 9. - - [71] Vopiscus, _Tacitus_, 10. - - [72] _Greece under the Romans_, George Finlay, 214. - - [73] _Byzantine Empire_, Finlay, 256. - - [74] _Byzantine Architecture_, Texier, 24. - - [75] _Decline and Fall_, ch. lii. - - [76] _Itinerary of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela_, trans. from the - Hebrew by Asher, 54. - - [77] _Monnaies Byzantines_, i. 26. - - [78] See treaty with Bohemund. Anna Comnena, xiii. 7. - - [79] _L'Art Byzantin_, Bayet, 16, 17. - - [80] _Theb._, iii. 661. - - [81] _Decline and Fall_, ch. xx. - - [82] Mark v. 28, 30. - - [83] _Chronicles_, ii. 124. - - [84] _Anglican Schism_, Sander, trans. by Lewis, 143. - - [85] _A Relation, or rather a True Account of the Island of - England_, Camden Soc. 30. - - [86] _Cal._ x. No. 364. References to the calendar of State - papers edited by Messrs. Brewer and Gairdner will be made by - this word only. - - [87] _Histoire du Sacrament de l'Eucharistie_, Corblet, i. - 474. See also on this subject _Cæsarii Dialogus Miraculorum; De - Corpore Christi_. - - [88] _Hist. Lit. de la France_, xxii. 119. - - [89] _Les Moines d'Occident_, Montalembert, vi. 34. - - [90] _Histoire de la Grande-Sauve_, ii. 13. - - [91] _Monasticon_, v. 628, Ed. 1846. - - [92] _Les Moines d'Occident_, Montalembert, vi. 101. - - [93] _Sacerdotal Celibacy_, Lea, 129. - - [94] _Annales Lauressenses_, Perz, i. 188. - - [95] _Recueil des Chartes de l'Abbaye de Cluny_, Bruel, i. 124. - - [96] _Bull. Clun._, p. 2, col. 1. Also _Manuel des Institutions - Françaises_, Luchaire, 93, 95, where the authorities are - collected. - - [97] _Annales Ecclesiastici_, Baronius, year 1076. - - [98] Migne, cxlviii. 790. - - [99] _Decline and Fall_, ch. lx. - - [100] _Dictionnaire de l'Architecture_, v. 50. - - [101] _Annales Ecclesiastici_, Baronius, year 1095. - - [102] _Les Familles d'Outre-Mer_, ed. Rey, 3. - - [103] _Dictionnaire de l'Architecture_, viii. 108. - - [104] _L'Art Arabe_, 111 _et seq._ - - [105] _L'Art Arabe_, 203. - - [106] _Mélanges_, 458. - - [107] See _Dictionnaire de l'Architecture_, Viollet-le-Duc, vi. - 446. - - [108] See _Les Églises de la Terre Sainte_, Vogüé, 217; _Notre - Dame de Noyon; Études sur l'Histoire de l'Art_, Vitet, ii. 122; - _Dictionnaire de L'Architecture_, Viollet-le-Duc, ii. 301. - - [109] _Hist. des Croisades_, xii. 7. - - [110] See, on the Syrian castles, _Étude sur les Monuments de - l'Architecture Militaire des Croisés en Syrie_, Rey. - - [111] Letter 363, ed. 1877, Paris. - - [112] _Sancti Bernardi, Vita et Res Gestae, Auctore Guillelmo_, - 1-3. - - [113] _Secunda Vita S. Bernardi Auctore Alano_, vi. - - [114] _Exordium Magnum Cisterciense_, viii. - - [115] Nos. 363 and 423, ed. of 1877, Paris. - - [116] Letter 363. - - [117] _De Vita S. Bernardi, Auctore Gaufrido_, iv. 5. - - [118] Letter 256, ed. of 1877, Paris. - - [119] _Hist. des Croisades_, xvi. 25. - - [120] _Hist. des Croisades_, xvi. 27. - - [121] _De Consideratione_, ii. 1. - - [122] _Willam of Tyre_, xvi. 11, 12. - - [123] _Les Familles d'Outre-Mer_, Du Cange, 405. - - [124] _Histoire de la Commerce de la France_, 132. - - [125] _Histoire du Commerce du Levant_, Heyd, French trans., i. - 163. - - [126] _Histoire du Levant_, Heyd, French trans., i. 95. - - [127] See, on this question of cheaper money in the - Carlovingian period, _Nouveau Manuel de Numismatique_, - Blanchet, i. 101; also _Histoire du Commerce de la France_, - Pigeonneau, 87 _et seq._ - - [128] _Le Monete di Venezia_, Papadopoli, 73. - - [129] _Ville-Hardouin_, ed. Wailly, xiv. 65. - - [130] _Ibid._ - - [131] _Historiens de la France_, xix. 23. - - [132] _Patrologiæ Cursus Completus_, Migne, ccxiv. 1180. - - [133] _Historiens de la France_, xix. 421. - - [134] _Chronique_, ed. Buchon, 44. - - [135] _Ville-Hardouin_, ed. Buchon, 51. - - [136] _Chronique de Ville-Hardouin_, ed. Buchon, 69. - - [137] _Chronique_, ed. Wailly, xxxvii. 178. - - [138] _Chronique_, ed. Wailly, lii. 239. - - [139] _Chronique_, ed. Buchon, 96. - - [140] _Chronique_, ed. Buchon, 99. - - [141] _Patrologiæ Cursus Completus_, Migne, ccxv. 454. - - [142] _Migne_, ccxv. 712. - - [143] _Historia Captæ a Latinis Constantinopoleos_, Migne, - ccxii. 19. - - [144] _Bibl. de l'École des Chartes_, 3d series, ii. 353. - - [145] _Histoire del'Abbaye de Saint Denis_, D'Ayzac, i. 361-9. - - [146] _Vie de Louis le Gros_, Suger, ed. Molinier, 61, 62. - - [147] _Vie de Louis le Gros_, Suger, ed. Molinier, 70. - - [148] _Ibid._, 18. - - [149] Suger, ed. Molinier, 18. - - [150] _Ibid._ - - [151] _Études sur les origines de la commune de Saint Quentin_, - Giry, 9. - - [152] See _Études sur les Faires de Champagne_, Bourquelot, 72, - 74; and generally on this subject. - - [153] _Les Communes Françaises_, Luchaire, 221-225. - - [154] _Les Communes Françaises_, Luchaire, 85. - - [155] _Les Communes Françaises_, Luchaire, 233-234. - - [156] _Les Communes Françaises_, Luchaire, 260. - - [157] _Documents sur les Relations de la Royauté avec les - Villes de France_, Giry, 59, 61. - - [158] _Les Communes Françaises_, Luchaire, 189. - - [159] _Manuel des Institutions Françaises_, Luchaire, 535. - - [160] _Les Communes Françaises_, Luchaire, 283. - - [161] _Mémoires du Duc de Saint-Simon_, ed. 1874, xii. 19. - - [162] _Le Commerce de Marseille au Moyen Age_, Blancard, 3. - - [163] _La Libertà delle Banche a Venezia_, Lattes, 26. - - [164] _Les Grandes Compagnies de Commerce_, Bonnassieux, 23. - - [165] _La Rapport entre l'or et l'argent au Temps de Saint - Louis_, Marchéville, 22, 33. - - [166] _Ibid._, 42. - - [167] _Les Communes Françaises_, 200, 201. - - [168] The documents relating to the controversy are printed in - the _Histoire du Differend_, Dupuy. - - [169] Dupuy, 48. - - [170] _Ibid._, 44. - - [171] See letters of Beauvais and Laon, of 1303, _Documents_, - Giry, 160. - - [172] Dupuy, 55. - - [173] Dupuy, 351. Articles presented June, 1303. - - [174] See _Cronica di Villani_, viii. 63. - - [175] _Cronica di Villani_, viii. 80. Also _Ann. Eccl._, - Baronius, year 1305. - - [176] _Documents Inédits sur l'Histoire de France, Procès des - Templiers_, Michelet, i. 166. - - [177] _Procès des Templiers_, Michelet, i. 37. - - [178] _Ibid._, 264. - - [179] _Ibid._, 75. - - [180] _Cronica di Villani_, viii. 92. - - [181] _Continuatio Chronici Guilelmi de Nangiaco_, mcccxiii. - - [182] _La Maison du Temple_, Curzon, 200, 204. - - [183] _A History of Agriculture and Prices_, J. E. Thorold - Rogers, iv. 72. - - [184] _On Justification_, Works, i. 60. - - [185] _On Justification_, Works, i. 51. - - [186] _Institutes_, I. vii. 1 and 5. - - [187] _Zwinglis Theologie_, August Baur, 319, 320. - - [188] _Institutes_, IV. viii. 9. - - [189] _John Wicliffe and his English Precursors_, Lechler, Eng. - trans., 302. - - [190] Lechler, 349, note 1. - - [191] Lechler, 348, note. Extract from _De Eucharistia_. - - [192] _Acts and Monuments_, iii. 204, 205. - - [193] _The Praise of Folie_, 1541. Englished by Sir Thomas - Challoner. - - [194] _Parl. Hist._, Cobbett, i. 295. - - [195] _Ibid._, 310. - - [196] _A Supplicacyon for Beggers_, 2. Early Eng. Text Soc. - - [197] _Acts and Monuments_, v. 404. - - [198] _Ibid._, iii. 218. - - [199] _Acts and Monuments_, iv. 196. - - [200] _Agriculture and Prices_, iv. 18. - - [201] _Reformation of the Church of England_, Blunt, ii. 222. - - [202] _Acts and Monuments_, iv. 706. - - [203] _Industrial and Commercial History of England_, Rogers, - 48. - - [204] _Agriculture and Prices_, iv. 715. - - [205] _Agriculture and Prices_, iv. 454. - - [206] _Ibid._, iv. 200. For the average prices of grain see - tables in vol. i. 245, and iv. 292. - - [207] _Agriculture and Prices_, iv. 734. - - [208] Chapuys to Granville, _Cal._ ix. No. 862. The State - Papers edited by Messrs. Brewer and Gairdner are referred to by - the word "Cal." - - [209] _Acts and Monuments_, v. 365. - - [210] _State Papers_, ii. 552. - - [211] _Chronicles_, 1, clxvii. - - [212] Chapuys to Perrenot, _Cal._ x. No. 901. - - [213] See _Anne Boleyn_, Friedmann, i. 43, and elsewhere. - - [214] _Cal._ x. No. 908. - - [215] _Burleigh and his Times_, Essays. - - [216] _Cal._ vii. No. 296. - - [217] _Ibid._, xi. No. 576, Chapuys to Charles. - - [218] _Ibid._, xi. No. 576. - - [219] _Ibid._, xi. No. 864. - - [220] _Cal._ xi. No. 1045. - - [221] _Cal._ xi. No. 729. - - [222] _Ibid._, xi. No. 826. - - [223] _Ibid._, xii. pt. i. No. 698. - - [224] _Cal._ xii. pt. i. No. 976. - - [225] _Marillac au Connétable_, Kaulek, 211. - - [226] _Acts and Monuments_, v. 180. - - [227] _Cal._ viii. No. 726. - - [228] _Sander_, Lewis' trans., 119. - - [229] _State Papers_, i. 538. - - [230] _Cal._ xii. pt. i. No. 498. - - [231] Kaulek, 193, 194. - - [232] _Ibid._, 82. - - [233] _Cal._ x. No. 909. - - [234] Kaulek, 274; _Sander_, Lewis, 162, and note 2. - - [235] Kaulek, 50. - - [236] _Lettres de Henri VIII à Anne Boleyn_, Crapelet, Lettre - 3. - - [237] Kaulek, 199. - - [238] _Acts and Monuments_, v. 229. - - [239] _History of England_, chap. 1. - - [240] _Rise and Growth of the Anglican Schism_, Sander, trans. - by Lewis, 161. - - [241] Chapuys to Charles, _Cal._ vi. No. 1510, date Dec., 1533. - - [242] _The Homilies_, Corrie, 49. - - [243] _The Homilies_, Corrie, 56, 58. - - [244] 31 Henry VIII., c. 14. - - [245] _Acts and Monuments_, v. 368, 369. - - [246] _Cal._ x. pref. xliii. - - [247] See citations to the original authorities in _Henry VIII. - and the English Monasteries_, Gasquet, i. 454, and note. - - [248] _Cal._ ix. No. 622. In the _Calendar_ the letter is - condensed. The extract is given in full in Gasquet, i. 261, - 262. - - [249] _Ibid._, No. 630. In full in Gasquet, i. 263. - - [250] _Ibid._, No. 630. - - [251] _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_, i. 439. - - [252] _Cal._ ix. No. 42. - - [253] _Cal._ x. pref. xlv. note. - - [254] _Ibid._, ix. No. 1005. - - [255] _Ibid._, ix. No. 1005. - - [256] _Cal._ x. No. 364. - - [257] _Ibid._, No. 1191. - - [258] _Ibid._, No. 364. - - [259] _Ibid._, No. 1191. - - [260] _Rites of Durham_, Surtees Soc., 86. - - [261] Wright, 260. - - [262] Ellis, 1st Series, ii. 99. - - [263] Wright, 261, 262. - - [264] Ellis, 1st Series, ii. 99. - - [265] _Agriculture and Prices_, iv. 64. - - [266] 6 Henry VIII., c. 5; 7 Henry VIII., c. 1. - - [267] _Jewel of Joy_, Becon. Also _England in the Reign of - Henry VIII._, Early Eng. Text Soc., Extra Ser., No. xxxii. p. - 75. - - [268] _First Sermon before Edward VI. Sermons of Bishop - Latimer_, ed. of Parker Soc., 100, 101. - - [269] 22 Henry VIII., c. 12. - - [270] 27 Henry VIII., c. 25. - - [271] 1 Edward VI., c. 3. - - [272] Brit. Mus., Cole MS. xii. 41. Cited in _Henry VIII. and - the English Monasteries_, Gasquet, ii. 514, note. - - [273] _Eccl. Mem._, ii. pt. 1, 260. - - [274] Sermon on Rebellion, Cranmer, _Miscellaneous Writings and - Letters_, 194-6. - - [275] Sermon on Rebellion, Cranmer, _Miscellaneous Writings and - Letters_, 195, 196. - - [276] _Cal._ ix. No. 193. - - [277] _Eccl. Mem._, ii. pt. 1, 152. - - [278] 5 and 6 Edw. VI., c. 2. - - [279] _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_, Carlyle, Speech XI. - - [280] Raleigh to Burleigh, _Life of Sir Walter Raleigh_, - Edwards, ii. 76, letter xxxiv. - - [281] _The Reformation of the Church of England_, ii. 68. - - [282] _History of England_, v. 432. - - [283] Gorham's _Reformation Gleanings_, 61. - - [284] Ridley's disputation at Oxford in 1554, _Acts and - Monuments_, vi. 474. - - [285] _A Godly Letter to the Faithful, Works_, iii. 176. - - [286] _Ibid._, 177. - - [287] _A Faithful Admonition, Works_, iii. 283. - - [288] _Ibid._, iii. 281, 282. - - [289] _On True Obedience_, Heywood's ed., 73. - - [290] _The Institution of a Christian Man_, Preface, - _Formularies of Faith of Henry VIII._, Lloyd, 26. - - [291] See Burnet's _History of the Reformation, Records_, part - I. book iii. quest. 9. - - [292] _S. P. Dom. Eliz._ vol. 176, No. 69. - - [293] _Zurich Letters_, 1st Series, 287. - - [294] _Towchinge the bill and the booke exhibited in the - Parliament 1586 for a further reformation of the Churche, S. P. - Dom. Eliz_. 199, No. 1. - - [295] _History of the Non-jurors_, Lathbury, 50. - - [296] See _History of the Reformation_, Burnet, Pocock's ed. - _Records_, part I. book iii. quest 9. - - [297] _History of England_, ch. 1. - - [298] _History of England_, ch. iii. - - [299] _Ibid._, ch. vi. - - [300] _History of England_, ch. xiv. - - [301] _Queen's conference upon Graunt of a Subsedy, etc._, - 1584. _State Papers, Dom. Eliz._, 176, No. 69. - - [302] _History of England_, ch. iii. - - [303] _Cal._ x., No. 570. - - [304] _Ambassades_, v. 150. Quotation from _History of the - Church of England_, Dixon, iv. 450. - - [305] _Pretended Divorce of Henry VIII._, Harpsfield, Camden - Society, 291. - - [306] Burnet's _History of the Reformation_, Pocock's ed., i. - 428. - - [307] _Ibid._, iii. 376. - - [308] Blunt's _Reformation_, i. 475. - - [309] _Anglican Schism_, Sander, Lewis' trans., 181. Also - _Pretended Divorce of Henry VIII._, Harpsfield, 290. - - [310] _Acts and Monuments_, v. 230. - - [311] _Agriculture and Prices_, Rogers, v. 804. - - [312] _History of England_, viii. 425. - - [313] _Influence of the Sea Power upon History_, Mahan, 41. - - [314] _English Seamen of the Sixteenth Century_, 6. - - [315] Anderson's _History of Commerce_, i. 400. - - [316] _S. P. Dom. Eliz._, 53. - - [317] _Wealth of Nations_, book 4, ch. i. - - [318] _Discourse of Trade_, Child, ed. 1775, 8. - - [319] _History of England_, ch. iii. - - [320] _Discourse of Trade_, Josiah Child, ed. 1775, 8, 9, 10. - - [321] _Ibid._, Pref. xxxi. - - [322] _Ibid._, 41. - - [323] _American Biography_, Sparks, ii. 388. - - [324] _Wealth of Nations_, bk. iv. c. 3, pt. 1. - - [325] Thurloe's _State Papers_, v. 433, 434. - - [326] _Annals of the Coinage of Britain_, Ruding, iii. 378. - - [327] _Annals of the Coinage_, Ruding, iii. 470. - - [328] _Investigations in Currency and Finance_, Jevons, 140. - - [329] _Annals of the Coinage_, Ruding, iv. 26. - - [330] _Wealth of Nations_, bk. iv. c. 1. - - [331] _Wealth of Nations_, bk. ii. c. 2. - - [332] _Lord Clive._ - - [333] Macaulay's essays have been the subject of much recent - adverse criticism; but, in regard to the plundering of - Hindostan, nothing of consequence has been brought forward - against him. All recent historical work relating to India must - be taken with suspicion. The whole official influence has been - turned to distorting evidence in order to make a case for the - government. - - [334] _Lord Clive._ - - [335] _Lord Clive._ - - [336] _Warren Hastings._ - - [337] _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, 115. - - [338] _A Tour Thro' the whole Island of Great Britain_, ed. - 1753, iii. 136, 137. - - [339] _Lives of Boulton and Watt_, Smiles, 484. - - [340] _First Letter on a Regicide Peace._ - - [341] _Theory and Practice of Banking_, i. 507. - - [342] _Considerations of the Lowering of Interests. Works_, ed. - 1823, v. 49. - - [343] _The Rothschilds_, Reeves, 51. - - [344] The Rothschilds, Reeves, 192, 199. - - [345] _Ibid._, 200. - - [346] Wherever reference is made to comparative prices of - commodities, the authority used has been the tables published - by W. S. Jevons in _Investigations in Currency and Finance_, - 144. - - [347] _Annals of the Coinage_, Ruding, iv. 37. - - [348] _Overstone Tracts_, 49. - - [349] _History of Prices_, i. 158. - - [350] _Political Life of Sir Robert Peel_, Doubleday, i. 218, - note. - - [351] _Theory and Practice of Banking_, Macleod, ed. 1893, ii. - 103. - - [352] See Hansard, New Series, viii. 189. - - [353] _History of the Bank of England_, i. 348. - - [354] _History of the Bank of England_, i. 347. - - [355] _History of the Currency_, Maclaren, 161. - - [356] _Theory and Practice of Banking_, Macleod, ii. 117, 118. - - [357] _Overstone Tracts_, 325. - - [358] _Ibid._, 191. - - [359] _Ibid._, 318. - - [360] _Theory and Practice of Banking_, ii. 147. - - [361] _Overstone Tracts_, 573, 574. - - [362] _Cobden and the League_, Ashworth, 174. - - [363] _Theory and Practice of Banking_, Macleod, ii. 169, 170. - - [364] Hansard, Third Series, xcv. 399. - - [365] _Theory and Practice of Banking_, ii. 170. - - [366] Hansard, Third Series, xcv. 398. - - [367] _Overstone Tracts_, 319. - - [368] See _Journal of Roy. Stat. Soc._, liv. 464. - - [369] Dénombrement de 1891, 261. - - [370] _Annuaire de l'Économie Politique_, 1894, Block, 18. - - [371] _La Population Française_, ii. 214. - - [372] _Report of the Commission appointed in India to enquire - into the Causes of the Riots which took place in the year - 1875, in the Poona and Ahmednagar Districts of the Bombay - Presidency_, 12. - - [373] _Report Of The Commission Appointed In India To Enquire - Into The Causes Of The Riots Which Took Place In The Year - 1875, In The Poona And Ahmednagar Districts Of The Bombay - Presidency_, 159. - - [374] _Report of the Commission, etc._, 25, 26. - - [375] _Ibid._, 167. - - [376] _Report of the Commission, etc._, 168. - - [377] See _Musalmans and Money-lenders in the Punjab_, - Thorburn. - - [378] _Report of the Commission, etc._, 168. - - [379] See _Brief History of the Indian Peoples_, Hunter, 50. - - [380] See _History of the Romans_, ed. of 1852, Merivale, ii. - 81, where the authorities are collected. - - [381] Plutarch's _Lives_, Clough's trans., iv. 123. - - [382] _Ibid._, 298. - - [383] _Ibid._, 142. - - [384] Genesis xxxiv. 11, 12. - - [385] Aristotle, _Pol._, ii. 9. - - [386] Plutarch's _Lives_, Clough's trans., iv. 507. - - [387] _Faery Queene_, Spenser, iv. 5, 1. - - [388] _Entretiens sur l'Architecture_, i. 102. - - [389] _Ann._, xv. 44. - - [390] _Ann._, xv. 44. - - [391] _Marc-Aurèle_, Renan, 600. - - [392] Tertullian, _Ad Scapulam_, 5. - - [393] _L'Antechrist_, 163 _et seq._ - - [394] _Études sur l'Histoire de l'Art_, Vitet, i. 200. - - [395] _L'Art de Batir chez les Byzantins_, Choisy, 5, 6. - - [396] _Recherches pour servir à l'Histoire de la Peinture et de - la Sculpture Chrétiennes en Orient_, Bayet, 99. - - [397] _Ibid._, 99. - - [398] _Buildings of Justinian_, Procopius, trans. by Stewart, - i. 1. - - [399] _Ibid._ - - [400] _Dictionnaire de l'Architecture_, Art. "Peinture." - - [401] _Entretiens_, i. 102. - - - - -INDEX - - - Acre: siege of 130; - defence of by Templars 171. - - Alaric: served in Roman army 61. - - Alexander, Emperor of Russia: breach with Napoleon 324. - - Alexis: treats with crusaders 139; - death of 143. - - Anastasius: wealth of 51; - builds long wall 51. - - Anglicanism, _see_ Church of England. - - Antwerp: rise of 201; - centre of exchanges 201; - sack of 287. - - Architecture: Italian 88; - Gothic 89; - Byzantine 89; - Saracenic 90; - crusading 100; - Greek and Roman 372; - Byzantine 375 _et seq._; - Gothic 378; - modern 382; - _see_ Ogive. - - Armada: defeated by yeomen 256; - loss of 287. - - Army, _see_ Police. - - Art: decline of 380, 381; - _see_ Architecture. - - Articles, ecclesiastical: Six 232, 268; - Forty-two 262; - Lambeth 268. - - Attila: ransoms Constantinople 50; - vision of 63. - - Aureus: depreciation of 27; - passes by weight 31. - - - Baldwin, Count of Edessa: 105; - King of Jerusalem 105. - - Baldwin, Emperor of the East: 146; - reproved by Innocent 147. - - Bank of England: incorporated 303; - early issues of 319; - suspends cash payments 327; - policy of prior to 1810 327; - resumes specie payments 330; - hoards gold 331-333; - paper in panic of 1825 335; - Bank Act of 1844 336; - suspension of Bank Act 344. - - Bank of Genoa: 168. - - Bank of Venice: 168, 169. - - Bankers: mediæval 168; - increase of English country after 1760 319; - poor credit of 320; - increase issues in 1823 333; - rise of great modern houses 321; - policy of 328; - supremacy of 344; - absolute government by 353. - - Barbarians: imported by Roman emperors 39; - lack of in modern times 363; - formed strength of Roman armies 363; - want of weakness in modern civilization 364; - _see_ Coloni. - - Boadicea: revolt of 37. - - Boleyn, Anne: 212; - sweating sickness 226; - crowned 230. - - Boleyn, Thomas: character and rise of 213. - - Boniface VIII.: character of 172; - quarrel with Philip 173; - bulls of 174, 175; - seized at Anagni 177. - - Bosra: retreat from 119; - miracle at 119, 120. - - Boulton, Matthew: rise of 314; - partnership with Watt 316; - debts of 316. - - Bullion Committee: 328, 329. - - Burleigh, Lord: rise of 213; - hostile to adventurers 256; - family of typical landlords 267. - - - Cæsar: army of 363. - - Capital: centres at Constantinople 28; - Mill's definition of 313; - accelerates movement 314; - accumulates at London 319; - _see_ England and London. - - Carthusians: martyrdom of 221. - - Cecil, _see_ Burleigh. - - Champagne: fairs of 158; - centres of Eastern trade 158; - decline of 201. - - Chantries: confiscation of 259. - - Child, Sir Josiah: rise of 294; - estimates England's wealth 295. - - Church, Catholic: _see_ Early Christian; - becomes dominant in Italy 63; - secular character of mediæval clergy of 71; - secular clergy of 73; - claims of under Hildebrand 75; - makes papacy self-perpetuating 75; - emancipates itself from civil power 76, 77; - schism of with Constantinople 78; - character of clergy of at Reformation 264, 265; - miracles of, _see_ Miracles, Cluny, Convents. - - Church, Early Christian: socialistic 60; - acquires wealth in third century 60; - officially recognized 61; - favours barbarians 62; - subservient to Roman emperors 62; - based on miracles 63 _et seq._; - imaginative 373; - poverty of 373; - art of 374. - - Church, Eastern: remains subject to the emperors 78-88; - architecture of 89; - plundered 145; - art of 376. - - Church of England: an economic phenomenon 228; - Henry supreme head of 228; - robbed by landlords 230; - orthodox under Henry VIII. 232; - spoiled by Edward VI. 259, 260; - Calvinistic 262; - docile to lay dictation 264; - faith of regulated by statute 266; - without fixed faith 268; - ruled by Elizabeth 269; - hated by Puritans and Catholics 270; - divine right distinctive doctrine of 271; - organized as police by landlords 272; - mercenary 273; - types of clergy of 275; - great bishops of 276 _et seq._; - upheld by James I. 284; - persecutes Puritans under Bancroft 285. - - Clairvaux: foundation of 109; - appeals to pope against Philip the Fair 172; - _see_ Saint Bernard. - - Claudius, Appius: a usurer 7; - enslaves Virginia 8; - enforces usury laws 9. - - Clement V.: election of 178; - bargain with Philip 178; - entices Molay to Paris 180; - persecutes Templars 181; - tries Molay 184; - death of 185. - - Clermont: council of 83. - - Clive, Lord: birth of 306; - campaigns of 307; - Plassey 308; - wealth of 309; - attacked by landlords 310. - - Cluny: founded 72; - growth of 73; - controls papacy 75. - - Cobden: attacks landlords 341; - origin of 341. - - Cobham, Lord: trial of 193; - attempts conventual confiscation 195. - - Coeur-de-Lion: leads crusade 130; - treats with Saladin 131. - - Coinage, Roman: copper 15; - silver 20; - debasement of 26; - becomes gold monometallic 27, 30; - passes by weight 31; - of Constantinople 55; - debasement of coinage of Constantinople 56; - becomes silver under Charlemagne 129; - Venetian 129; - gold of thirteenth century 129; - debasement of French pound 170; - debasement of English penny 195; - base money of Henry VIII. 206; - standard restored by Elizabeth 300; - recoinage by William III. 302; - depreciation in eighteenth century 303; - English gold of nineteenth century 330; - passes by weight 326, 330; - _see_ Gold standard. - - Coloni: debtors 33; - barbarians settled as 39; - predecessors of mediæval serfs 244. - - Commerce: _see_ Eastern trade, Fairs of Champagne, Slaving, - West Indies. - - Commons: rights of tenants in 244; - enclosure of, in sixteenth century 245; - cause of Kett's rebellion 250; - final absorption of 317. - - Communes: rise of 157; - character of 160; - hostile to clergy 162; - not martial 164; - insolvency of 169. - - Constantine: built Constantinople 28; - vision of 60; - victory of Milvian Bridge 61. - - Constantinople: becomes the economic centre of the world 28; - prosperity of after fall of Western Empire 49, 50; - colonized by Roman capitalists 49; - taxation of 49; - poverty of under Theodosius II. 50; - prosperity of under Justinian I. 51; - population changes under Heraclius 52; - becomes an Asiatic city 52; - declines in eleventh century 53; - civilization of economic 53; - description of by Rabbi Benjamin 53; - population of economic and cowardly 54; - economic condition of in twelfth century 87; - army of 88; - sack of 144; - _see_ Coinage and Architecture. - - Convents: mediæval founders of 68; - efficacy of intercession of 69; - Benedictine 72; - early discipline of 72; - consolidation of 72; - Cluny 73; - control papacy 78; - armies organized by 99; - fortresses built by 99; - patronized for miracles 109; - wealth of 154; - attacked by feudal nobles 155; - hostile to communes 160, 161; - taxed by Philip the Fair 172; - revenues seized by Edward I. 195; - attacked by Lollards 196; - bill to suppress 231; - visitation of 235; - visitors of 235-238; - spoliation of 239. - - Corn: price of at Rome 17; - distribution of at Rome 18; - price of in 1849 345; - Corn Laws 340; - repeal of 340. - - Councils of the Church: Hildebrand's propositions at council - of 1076 75; - of Clermont 83; - of Troyes 98; - of Étampes 110; - Néelle 136; - Vienne 184. - - Cranmer: rise of 278; - character of 279; - death of 280. - - Credit: dawn of in thirteenth century 167; - rise of modern system of 303; - extension of after Plassey 319; - regulated by Bank Act of 1844 336; - prices dependent on 337; - weapon of the creditor class 349. - - Cromwell, Oliver: raises Ironsides 252; - attacks Spanish America 301; - intercepts plate fleet 301. - - Cromwell, Thomas: rise of 208; - arrest of 224; - vicar general 231; - proceeds against convents 233: - prosecutes Abbot of Glaston 240; - death of 242. - - Cross: miracle worked by at Bosra 119; - _see_ Relics. - - Crusade: first 84; - takes Jerusalem 85; - second, preached by Saint Bernard 112; - suffers before Atalia 115; - defeat of 118; - crusading becomes commercial 124; - third, led by Coeur-de-Lion 129; - takes Acre 130; - of Constantinople, preached 132; - reaches Venice 134; - diverted by Dandolo 139; - attacks Zara 138; - sacks Constantinople 145; - of Damietta 150; - defeated in Egypt 151. - - Currency: regulated by Charlemagne 129; - mediæval 168; - contraction of in thirteenth century 169; - debasement of English 194; - depreciation of in Middle Ages 204; - under Henry VIII. 207; - paper 303; - management of by producers 326; - by bankers 330; - _see_ Coinage, Bank of England, Bankers. - - - Dalhousie, Lord: administration of 356. - - Damietta, _see_ Crusade. - - Dandolo, Henry: character of 132; - treats with Franks 133; - takes command of crusade 137; - diverts crusade 139; - excommunicated 139; - assaults Constantinople 141; - shriven 147. - - Darcy, Thomas, Loid: character of 216; - declines to betray Aske 217; - execution of 219; - dying speech to Cromwell 219. - - Denarius: depreciation of at Rome 26; - repudiation of 26; - of Charlemagne 128; - of Venice 129; - _see_ Penny. - - Diocletian: a slave 27; - established capital at Nicomedia 27; - returns to silver coinage 30. - - Divine right: defined 272; - _see_ Church of England. - - Divorce: _see_ Domestic relations. - - Domestic relations: ancient and modern 365 _et seq._ - - Dovercourt: rood of 200. - - Drake: rise of 255; - death of 256; - cruises of 288. - - Dudley, John, Duke of Northumberland: rise of 251; - suppresses Kett's rebellion 252; - supersedes Seymour 261; - quarrel with Knox 262. - - - East India Companies: organized 292; - English company commercial up to 1757 306; - administration of 309. - - Eastern Empire, _see_ Constantinople. - - Eastern trade: in Rome 23, 24; - centres at Constantinople 28; - migrates to Italy 126; - early routes of 128; - character of in twelfth century 128; - brings bullion to Europe 129; - centres in Champagne 159; - centres at Antwerp 201; - at Amsterdam 287; - at London 291; - drains silver from Europe 299; - effect of Plassey on 310. - - Edessa: position of 86; - capture of 103; - occupied by Baldwin 105. - - Egypt: cheap labour of 19; - grain ships of 19; - architecture of 90; - conquered by Saladin 103; - slave trade with Venice of 126; - crusaders defeated in 151. - - Elizabeth: greed of 257; - severe to clergy 269; - letter about Ely House 270. - - England: Lollardy in 186; - Reformation in, an economic phenomenon 190; - debasement of currency in 194; - martyrdoms in 199; - condition of in Middle Ages 202; - new nobility of 212 _et seq._; - convents suppressed in 233 _et seq._; - population of in Middle Ages 243; - social revolution in, in sixteenth century 245, 246; - not originally maritime 254; - seamen of 255; - prosperity of in seventeenth century 292; - industrial revolution in 315; - distress in after 1815 332; - ruin of aristocracy of 341, 348; - money-lenders autocratic in 344; - _see_ Bank, and Church of England, and Yeomen. - - Exchanges: _see_ Rome, Constantinople, Eastern trade, Fairs of - Champagne, Venice. - - - Fairs, _see_ Champagne. - - Fetish, _see_ Relics. - - Fisher: temperament of 277. - - Flotte: chancellor of Philip the Fair 165. - - France: convents of in tenth century 72; - Cluny 73; - decentralization of in eleventh century 80; - money of 80; - barbarian invasions of 80; - seat of Gothic architecture 89; - ogive introduced into 95; - emotional in eleventh century 107; - disintegration of in tenth century 152; - kings of enjoy supernatural powers 153; - alliance of crown with clergy 154; - consolidation of under Philip Augustus 158; - centralization of under Saint Louis 165; - depreciation of coinage of 170; - estates of sustain Philip the Fair 174; - castles of 202. - - Frumentariæ Leges, _see_ Corn. - - - Gardiner, Stephen: on _True Obedience_ 265; - rise of 276; - death of 277. - - Germans: hunted by Romans for slaves 39; - used as recruits 40; - invade the Empire 46; - character of in fourth century 48; - adopt the gold standard 347. - - Glastonbury: suppression of 240. - - Godfrey de Bouillon: elected King of Jerusalem 85; - his kingdom 86; - his alliance with Venice 127. - - Gold: ratio of to silver in Roman Empire 30; - fall of value of in sixth century 48; - ratio of to silver in thirteenth century 169. - - Gold standard: in Rome 31; - under the Merovingians 80; - in England 330; - Overstone's views on 337; - in Germany 347; - elsewhere 348; - effect of 347. - - Gunther: chronicle of 137; - sails with Dandolo 138. - - - Hanse of London: organization of 158; - trades at fairs of Champagne 159; - Italian merchants frequent 159. - - Hastings: Governor-General 310; - policy of 311. - - Hattin: battle of 123. - - Hawkins, John: a slaver 289. - - Héloïse, hymn of 368. - - Henry IV., Emperor: breach with Hildebrand 75; - penance at Canossa 77; - death of 77. - - Henry VIII.: court of 212; - character of 220; - Lambert's trial 226; - supreme head 228; - orthodox 229; - suppresses convents 233; - revises Formularies of Faith 266; - helpless without landlords 267. - - Heraclius: disasters under 52. - - Hildebrand: prior of Cluny 74; - propositions presented by in council of Rome 75; - excommunicates Henry IV. 76; - Canossa 77. - - Holland: decay of 318. - - Hospital, _see_ Knights of. - - Howard, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk: family of 214; - character of 215; - commands against Pilgrims of Grace 215; - tries to corrupt Darcy 217; - arrests Cromwell 224. - - Hugh Capet: elected by clergy 153. - - Hugh du Puiset, _see_ Louis the Fat. - - Hun, Richard: death of 198. - - - Imagination: basis of mediæval Church 60; - gives power to priesthood 63; - cause of relic worship 64; - vivid in age of decentralization 69; - most intense in tenth century 72; - evolves Cluny 73; - cause of Hildebrand's power 78; - cause of crusades 82; - inspires Gothic architecture 89; - strong in Saint Bernard 108; - weakness of Louis VII. 117: - lacking in Venetians 126; - its power in France in thirteenth century 136; - strength of in Church up to 1200 148; - a weakness in war 151; - economic mind lacks 162; - cause of Templars' martyrdom 183; - lacking in English reformers 191; - Anglican clergy without 259; - Tudor aristocracy without 268; - strong in early Christians 373; - in contempt in nineteenth century 380, 381. - - India: failure of Romans to conquer 12; - hoards in 305; - conquered by England 307 _et seq._; - spoliation of 309-311; - influx of treasure from 313; - flow of silver to 320; - value of bullion exported to in 1810 321; - in 1840 339; - centralization of 356; - mutiny in 356; - money-lenders of 357; - fate of warlike tribes in 358; - _see_ Eastern trade. - - Industrial revolution: begins 313; - caused by Indian treasure 314. - - Innocent III.: incites crusade 132; - excommunicates Philip Augustus 135; - Dandolo 138; - absolves Dan dolo 147; - reproves Baldwin 147. - - Inquisition: organized 191. - - - Jacques de Vitry: hates bourgeoisie 163. - - Jerusalem: capture of 85; - kingdom of 86; - conquest of kingdom by Saracens 123. - - Joscelin de Courtney, Count of Edessa: 105; - death of 106; - son's death 118. - - Justification by faith: corner stone of Protestantism 187; - economic device 188; - taught by Cranmer 231; - included in Forty-two Articles 262. - - Justinian I.: prosperity of 51; - army of 51; - taxation by 52; - architecture under 53. - - - Karak: castle of 86, 121. - - Kett, _see_ Rebellion. - - Knights of Temple and Hospital: origin of 97, 98; - manors owned by in Europe 98; - castles of 99; - Knights of the Temple: possessions of 170; - faith of 171; - arrested 180; - tortured 181; - defence of 181; - burned 183; - disposition of property of 185. - - Knox, John: appointed royal chaplain 262; - offered bishopric 262; - breach with Dudley 263. - - Krak des Chevaliers: 100. - - - Lambert: martyrdom of 281. - - Landlords: Roman 21; - enslave their tenants 33; - form aristocracy of Empire 41; - not martial 42; - English mercenary 212; - rise of 227; - confiscate Church property 230; - evict yeomen 245; - despoil chantries 259, 200; - control Crown 267; - without faith 268; - organize Church 272; - fear army 273; - not martial 227, 245, 254, 255, 256, 267, 268, 283; - persecute Nonconformists 295; - persecute adventurers 295; - conquered in 1688 297; - jealous of Clive and Hastings 309; - suffer after 1815 332; - distressed in 1841 340; - attacked by Cobden 341; - ruined 348; - of Oude 356. - - Latimer: describes his father's farm 247; - martyrdom of 282. - - Leo the Great: visits Attila 63. - - Leo IX.: election of 75. - - Licinian Laws 10; - effect of 11. - - Lollards: description of 187; - _Book of Conclusions_ of 193; - policy of toward monks 195. - - London: hot-bed of Lollardism 197; - population of in 1500 203; - power of 293; - population of in 1685 295; - economic centre of the world 322; - art of 381-383; - _see_ Eastern trade and Hanse of London. - - Louis the Fat: defeats Hugh du Puiset 155; - obtains Montlhéri 157. - - Louis VII.: character of 112; - leads second crusade 114; - quarrels at Antioch 117; - superstition of 117; - repulsed at Damascus 117; - _see_ Crusade. - - - Madre-de-Dios: capture of 257. - - Mahrattas: conquest of 358; - disappearance of 350. - - Margat: castle of 101. - - Marriage: _see_ Domestic relations. - - Martin, Abbot: sails with Dandolo 138; - steals relics 148. - - Marwaris: 357; - destroy Mahrattas 359. - - Milo, Archbishop of Rheims: 71. - - Miracles: early Christian 63; - mediæval 64 _et seq._; - _see_ Bosra, Relics. - - Molay, Grand Master: lured to Paris 180; - burned 184. - - Monasticism: _see_ Convents. - - Money: Rome depleted of 23; - centres at Constantinople 28; - rises in value under Empire 35; - falls in value under Charlemagne 129; - rises in value in thirteenth century 169; - rises in fifteenth century 194; - rises under Henry VIII. 206; - falls after opening of Potosi 207; - abundant stimulates movement 299; - a form of energy 304; - hoarded in India 304; - falls at close of eighteenth century 320; - rises in nineteenth century 337, 360; - _see_ Capital, Coinage, Currency, Prices. - - Mons Sacer: secession to 9. - - Monte Casino: founded 72. - - Montfort, Simon de: joins crusade 132; - leaves Dandolo 138. - - Montlhéri: lords of 156; - castle 157. - - - Nantes: revocation of Edict of 318. - - Napoleon: decline of 324; - lacking soldiers 364; - column erected to 381. - - Nobility: feudal French 154; - English 216, 243; - Tudor, _see_ Landlords. - - Nogaret: captures Boniface 176, 177. - - Northumberland: _see_ Dudley. - - Nour-ed-Din: Sultan of Aleppo 103; - occupies Cairo 103; - repulses Louis VII. 117; - kills Raymond de Poitiers 118. - - - Ogive: of Eastern origin 95; - appears in transition architecture 96. - - Overstone, Lord: rise of 336; - conceives Bank Act 336; - financial policy of 337 _et seq._ - - - Panic: under Tiberius 25; - of thirteenth century 169, 170; - of 1810 325; - of 1825 334; - allayed by paper money 335; - of 1847 342. - - Passive obedience: _see_ Divine right. - - Patricians: usurers 7; - not martial 7; - sanction Licinian Laws 10; - _see_ Usury. - - Pauperism: under Henry VII I. 249; - in 1848 345. - - Peel, Sir Robert: represents Lombard Street 330; - separates from his father on money issue 330; - his Resumption Act 331; - effect of 331; - repeals Corn Laws 340; - parentage 342. - - Pelagius, Cardinal: commands crusade 150. - - Penny: the Roman, _see_ Denarius; - of Charlemagne 129; - depreciation of Venetian 129; - depreciation of English in fourteenth century 195; - under Henry VIII. 206, 207. - - Philip Augustus: regal of France vowed for recovery of 65; - belief in intercession 69; - commands crusade 129; - returns to Fiance 130; - divorced from Ingeburga 135; - excommunicated 135. - - Philip the Fair: character of 171; - quarrel with Boniface 172; - defeated at Courtray 175; - seizes Boniface 177; - makes Clement V. pope 178; - arrests Templars 180; - tortures Templars 182; - death of 185. - - Pilgrimage of Grace: _see_ Rebellion. - - Plassey: battle of 308; - effect of 313. - - Plebeians: farmers 6; - form infantry 6; - sold for debt 7; - secede to Mons Sacer 9; - favoured by Licinian Laws 10; - overthrow patricians 10; - suffer from Asiatic competition 11; - suffer from slave labour 12; - insolvent 22; - become _coloni_ 33; - disappear 44, 45. - - Police, a paid: lack of, causes defeat of patricians 39; - an effect of money 45; - organized by Augustus 45; - makes capital autocratic at Rome 46; - impossible when the defence in war is superior to the attack 79; - lack of, causes weakness of the Kingdom of Jerusalem 99, 121, 122; - the weapon of an economic community 164; - an effect of wealth and the basis of centralization 165; - in England under Henry VIII. 245; - destroys martial type 245; - drives adventurers from England 254; - resistless in nineteenth century 353. - - Pompey: defeat of 364. - - Potosi: discovery 207. - - Prices: fall of, under Trajan 33; - rise of in thirteenth century 167; - fall of in fifteenth century 203; - rise of in sixteenth century 207, 283; - rise of after Plassey 319; - culminate in 1809 324; - fall of in England after 1815 330; - depressed by gold standard 337; - fall of after Bank Act 339; - rise of after 1849 345; - fall of since 1873 349. - - Producers: predominance of 321; - currency system of 328, 329; - weakness of modern 349; - Indian 360. - - Puritans: reject royal supremacy 264; - resist ecclesiastical confiscation 270; - eviction of clergy 285; - emigration of 285; - foes of Spaniards 289. - - Pyrrhus: admires Roman infantry 11; - defeat of 11. - - - Raleigh: family of 255; - captures Madre-de-Dios 257; - death of 257. - - Raymond de Poitiers: at feud with de Courtney 107; - breach with Louis VII. 117; - death of 118. - - Rebellion: of Pilgrimage of Grace 216; - suppression of 222; - Kett's 250; - in West of England 250, 252. - - Reformation: an economic movement 188; - in England 230; - under Edward VI. 259, 260; - _see_ Church of England, Convents, Lollards. - - Reginald de Chatillon 121. - - Regulus: poverty of 15. - - Relics: magical 64; - gifts to 65; - list of English 66; - worship of cause of crusades 81; - true cross 119; - plunder of at Constantinople 148; - despised 151; - relic worship costly 192-196; - desecrated in England 200. - - Rent: rise of money value of in Rome 32; - effect of 33, 34; - substitution of for military service 245; - rises in sixteenth century 247; - effect of rise 248; - rise of in seventeenth century 283; - fall of after 1815 causes insolvency of landlords 332; - dependent on Corn Laws 340; - fall of after 1873 ruins gentry 348. - - Ridley: doctrine concerning sacrament 261; - burned 282. - - Robinson, John: congregation of 285. - - Rome: early society of 1; - classes in 2; - law of debt in 2-4; - early army of 9; - not maritime 12; - slavery in 13; - economic revolution in 14; - a plutocracy 15; - annexes Egypt 17; - senators land-owners 21; - great domains of 21; - conquests of 23; - unable to compete with Asia 23; - foreign exchanges unfavourable to 23; - insolvent 28; - decline of 37; - ceases breeding soldiers 40; - later emperors of foreign adventurers 40; - governed by a monied oligarchy 41; - economic type autocratic in 42; - women of emancipated 43; - paid police of 45; - barbarian invasions 46, 47; - domestic relations in 369; - art of 372; - architecture of 381; - _see_ Coinage, Slaving, Usurers, Usury. - - Rothschilds: rise of 322; - establish house in London 323. - - Russell, John, Earl of Bedford: conducts trial of - Abbot of Glaston 241. - - - Saint Bernard: birth of 108; - enters Citeaux 108; - founds Clairvaux 109; - recognizes Innocent II. 110; - preaches second crusade 112; - miracles of 113; - declines to lead crusade 114; - remarks on defeat of crusade 118. - - Saint Cuthbert: plunder of shrine of 239. - - Saint Denis: Abbey of 154. - - Saint Riquier: sacrilege at 162. - - Saint Sophia: architecture of 89, 377; - desecration of 145. - - Saint Thomas à Becket: shrine of 65. - - Saint Thomas Aquinas: veneration of for Eucharist 67. - - Saladin: sends physician to Richard 94; - crowned Sultan 104; - kills Reginald de Chatillon 121; - Hattin 122; - campaign against Richard 130; - treats with Richard 131. - - Saracens: architecture of 89, 90; - household decorations of 90; - philosophy of 93; - sciences of 94; - _see_ Crusades, Nour-ed-Din, Saladin, Zenghi. - - Schism: Greek 78. - - Seymour, Protector: confiscations under 261; - executed 261. - - Sicily: cheap labour in 16; - servile war in 16; - cheap grain of 17. - - Silver: Roman standard 26; - discarded in Rome 31; - restored by Charlemagne 128; - ratio of to gold in Rome 30; - to gold in thirteenth century 169; - Potosi 204; - Spaniards plundered of 288; - brought to England by piracy 291; - ratio to gold in seventeenth century 300; - standard in England 300; - exported to India in eighteenth century 299-302; - in 1810 320; - discarded by England 330; - by Germany 347; - relation to Asiatic competition 360; - _see_ Coinage, Currency, Denarius, Gold standard. - - Slavery: for debt in Rome 5; - plebeians sink into 33; - Roman population exhausted by 36; - in West Indies 289, 290. - - Slaving: part of Roman fiscal system 34; - by Roman emperors 39; - Venetian 126; - English 291; - _see_ Hawkins. - - Smith, Captain John: career of 295. - - Solidus: _see_ Aureus. - - Somerset: Duke of, _see_ Seymour. - - Spain: empire of 286; - war with Flanders 287; - plundered by Drake 288; - attacked by Cromwell 301; - _see_ Armada, West Indies. - - Spanish America: revolution of 324. - - Suez Canal: effect of 355. - - Sylvester II.: thought a sorcerer 81; - proposes a crusade 83. - - Syria: industrial 25; - _see_ Architecture, Crusades, Eastern trade, Saracens. - - - Temple, _see_ Knights of the. - - Tenures: primitive Roman 1; - servile Roman 33; - English military 244; - the manor 244; - modern economic 245; - Indian peasant 356. - - Thompson, Charles Andrew: petition of 332. - - Tiberias: battle of, _see_ Hattin. - - Tortosa: fortress of 101; - surrender of 171. - - Trade, _see_ Eastern trade, Fairs of Champagne, Slaving. - - - Urban II.: preaches at Clermont 83. - - Usurers: form Roman aristocracy 2; - checked by Licinian Laws 10; - absolute in Rome 46; - rise of in England 321; - absolute in Europe 353; - Indian 357; - _see_ Bankers. - - Usury: a patrician privilege 2; - stronghold of in Roman fiscal system 5; - ruins Roman provinces 35; - basis of Roman slaving 36; - _see_ Usurers. - - - Vagrant Acts: English 248. - - Venice: rise of 125; - slave trade of 126; - illicit trade of with Saracens 126; - population unimaginative 126; - navy of 127; - co-operates with Godfrey de Bouillon 127; - holds Syrian ports 127; - coinage of 129; - participates in crusade of Constantinople 137; - _see_ Crusade; - packet service to Flanders 201; - decline of 298. - - Vézelay: second crusade preached at 112; - feud with Counts of Nevers 161. - - Ville-Hardouin: chronicle of 132. - - Virginia: story of 8. - - - War: _see_ Police. - - Watt, James: invents engine 314; - partnership with Boulton 316. - - West Indies: Spanish revenue drawn from 287; - trade of lucrative 291; - Cromwell attacks 301. - - Whiting, Abbot of Glaston: martyrdom of 241. - - Wickliffe: begins his agitation 192. - - William of Tyre: describes origin of Temple 97; - defeat of Louis VII. in Cadmus Mountains 115; - breach between Louis and Prince Raymond 117; - the collapse of Kingdom of Jerusalem 118. - - Wiltshire: Earl of, _see_ Boleyn. - - - Yeomen: form British infantry 243; - small farmers 244; - decline of under Henry VIII. 245; - form Ironsides 252; - weaker become agricultural labourers 253; - become merchants 254; - become adventurers 254; - form English martial type 255; - extinction of 317; - migration to towns of 317; - descendants of become manufacturers and usurers 341, 342. - - - Zara: attack on 134; - stormed 138. - - Zenghi: rise of 103; - captures Edessa 103. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Law of Civilization and Decay, by Brooks Adams - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LAW OF CIVILIZATION AND DECAY *** - -***** This file should be named 44908-8.txt or 44908-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/9/0/44908/ - -Produced by Sean (scribe_for_hire@yahoo.com), based on -page images generously made available by the Internet -Archive -(https://archive.org/details/lawofcivilizatio00adam). - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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