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diff --git a/44838.txt b/44838.txt deleted file mode 100644 index da9f8e0..0000000 --- a/44838.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2663 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Time and Its Measurement, by James Arthur - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Time and Its Measurement - - -Author: James Arthur - - - -Release Date: February 7, 2014 [eBook #44838] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, RichardW, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the numerous original illustrations. - See 44838-h.htm or 44838-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44838/44838-h/44838-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44838/44838-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/timeitsmeasureme00arth - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - The notation "_{n}" means that n is a subscript. - - Small capital text has been converted to all uppercase. - - - - - -TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT - -by - -JAMES ARTHUR - - - - - - - -Reprinted from -Popular Mechanics Magazine - -Copyright, 1909, By H. H. Windsor - -Chicago, 1909 - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I - - HISTORIC OUTLINE - - Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night. - -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours - of the New Testament. -- Shadow, or sun time. -- Noon mark dials. - -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern dials. -- - Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. -- - "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and - time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece Page 13 - - - CHAPTER II - - JAPANESE CLOCKS - - Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying - length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line - dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for - same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock - movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. -- - Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials - founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics - and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3. - -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of - striking hours and half hours Page 25 - - - CHAPTER III - - MODERN CLOCKS - - De Vick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. -- - "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock. -- - The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with earliest - application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct designs - for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. -- 24-hour - watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. -- Correct method of - striking hours and quarters. -- Design for 24-hour dial and - hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions of the old clock-makers - Page 37 - - - CHAPTER IV - - ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME - - Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons - for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour - day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. -- - Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform - motion known to us. -- Time stars and transits. -- Local time. - -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of - a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal - time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement - in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of - the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for - astronomers. -- General conclusions Page 53 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Page - Portrait of James Arthur 8 - - Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods of Time Keeping 15 - - Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of Herculaneum 16 - - Noon-Mark Sundials 17 - - Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude 40 deg.-43' 18 - - The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to Axis 18 - - Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden 18 - - "Time-Boy" of India 19 - - "Hon-woo-et-low," or "Copper Jars Dropping Water"--Canton, China 19 - - Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass" 20 - - Tower of the Winds, Athens, Greece 20 - - Key to Japanese Figures 25 - - Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days 25 - - Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short Pendulum 26 - - Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and Balance 26 - - Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and Balance 27 - - Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having Curved Lines, Weight - and Balance 27 - - Japanese Vertical Dials 28 - - Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and Two Escapements 29 - - "Twelve Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems" as Used in - Clocks 30 - - Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems" 30 - - Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock 31 - - Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of Hours 32 - - Public Dial by James Arthur 37 - - Dial of Philadelphia City Hall Clock 37 - - Verge Escapement 37 - - De Vick's Clock of 1364 38 - - Anchor Escapement 38 - - American Anchor Escapement 39 - - Dead Beat Escapement 39 - - Remontoir Clock by James Arthur 40 - - Remontoir Clock Movement 40 - - Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made 41, 42 - - Double-Case Watch of Repousse Work 42 - - Triple-Case Turkish Watches 43 - - Watch Showing Dutch Art Work 43 - - Triple-Case Turkish Watch 44 - - Watches Showing Art Work 45 - - Antique Watch Cock 46 - - "Chinese" Watch 46 - - Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters 47 - - Syrian Dial 47 - - Hebrew Numerals 48 - - Twenty-four Hour Watch 48 - - Domestic Dial by James Arthur 49 - - Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and Ending of the Day 57 - - Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places 61 - - -[Illustration: James Arthur - -Mr. Arthur is an enthusiastic scientist, a successful inventor and -extensive traveler, who has for years been making a study of clocks, -watches, and time-measuring devices. He is not only a great authority -on this subject, but his collection of over 1500 timepieces gathered -from all parts of the globe has been pronounced the finest collection -in the world. Mr. Arthur is a pleasing exception to the average -business man, for he has found time to do a large amount of study and -research along various scientific lines in addition to conducting an -important manufacturing business in New York City, of which he is -president. Mr. Arthur is 67 years of age.--H. H. Windsor.] - - - - -CHAPTER I - -HISTORIC OUTLINE - - Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night. - -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours - of the New Testament. -- Shadow or sun time. -- Noon mark dials. - -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern Dials. -- - Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. -- - "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and - time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece. - - -Time, as a separate entity, has not yet been defined in language. -Definitions will be found to be merely explanations of the sense in -which we use the word in matters of practical life. No human being -can tell how long a minute is; only that it is longer than a second -and shorter than an hour. In some sense we can think of a longer -or shorter period of time, but this is merely comparative. The -difference between 50 and 75 steps a minute in marching is clear to -us, but note that we introduce motion and space before we can get a -conception of time as a succession of events, but time, in itself, -remains elusive. - -In time measures we strive for a uniform motion of something and -this implies equal spaces in equal times; so we here assume just -what we cannot explain, for space is as difficult to define as time. -Time cannot be "squared" or used as a multiplier or divisor. Only -numbers can be so used; so when we speak of "the square of the time" -we mean some number which we have arbitrarily assumed to represent -it. This becomes plain when we state that in calculations relating -to pendulums, for example, we may use seconds and inches--minutes -and feet--or seconds and meters and the answer will come out right -in the units which we have assumed. Still more, numbers themselves -have no meaning till they are applied to something, and here we are -applying them to time, space and motion; so we are trying to explain -three abstractions by a fourth! But, happily, the results of these -assumptions and calculations are borne out in practical human life, -and we are not compelled to settle the deep question as to whether -fundamental knowledge is possible to the human mind. Those desiring -a few headaches on these questions can easily get them from Kant -and Spencer--but that is all they will get on these four necessary -assumptions. - -Evidently, man began by considering the day as a unit and did not -include the night in his time keeping for a long period. "And the -evening and the morning were the first day" Gen. 1, 5; "Evening and -morning and at noonday," Ps. LV, 17, divides the day ("sun up") in -two parts. "Fourth part of a day," Neh. IX, 3, shows another advance. -Then comes, "are there not twelve hours in a day," John XI, 9. The -"eleventh hour," Matt. XX, 1 to 12, shows clearly that sunset was -12 o'clock. A most remarkable feature of this 12-hour day, in the -New Testament, is that the writers generally speak of the third, -sixth and ninth hours, Acts II, 15; III, 1; X, 9. This is extremely -interesting, as it shows that the writers still thought in quarter -days (Neh. IX, 3) and had not yet acquired the 12-hour conception -given to them by the Romans. They thought in quarter days even -when using the 12-hour numerals! Note further that references are -to "hours;" so it is evident that in New Testament times they did -not need smaller subdivisions. "About the third hour," shows the -mental attitude. That they had no conception of our minutes, seconds -and fifth seconds becomes quite plain when we notice that they -jumped down from the hour to nowhere, in such expressions as "in an -instant--in the twinkling of an eye." - -Before this, the night had been divided into three watches, Judges -VII, 19. Poetry to this day uses the "hours" and the "watches" as -symbols. - -This 12 hours of daylight gave very variable hours in latitudes some -distance from the equator, being long in summer and short in winter. -The amount of human ingenuity expended on time measures so as to -divide the time from sunrise to sunset into 12 equal parts is almost -beyond belief. In Constantinople, to-day, this is used, but in a -rather imperfect manner, for the clocks are modern and run 24 hours -uniformly; so the best they can do is to set them to mark twelve at -sunset. This necessitates setting to the varying length of the days, -so that the clocks appear to be sometimes more and sometimes less -than six hours ahead of ours. A clock on the tower at the Sultan's -private mosque gives the impression of being out of order and about -six hours ahead, but it is running correctly to their system. Hotels -often show two clocks, one of them to our twelve o'clock noon system. -Evidently the Jewish method of ending a day at sunset is the same -and explains the command, "let not the sun go down upon thy wrath," -which we might read, do not carry your anger over to another day. I -venture to say that we still need that advice. - -This simple line of steps in dividing the day and night is taken -principally from the Bible because everyone can easily look up the -passages quoted and many more, while quotations from books not in -general use would not be so clear. Further, the neglect of the Bible -is such a common complaint in this country that if I induce a few -to look into it a little some good may result, quite apart from the -matter of religious belief. - -Some Chinese and Japanese methods of dividing the day and night are -indicated in Fig. 1. The old Japanese method divides the day into -six hours and the night also into six, each hour averaging twice as -long as ours. In some cases they did this by changing the rate of the -clock, and in others by letting the clock run uniformly and changing -the hour marks on the dial, but this will come later when we reach -Japanese clocks. - -It is remarkable that at the present time in England the "saving -daylight" agitation is virtually an attempt to go back to this -discarded system. "John Bull," for a long period the time-keeper -of the world with headquarters at Greenwich, and during that time -the most pretentious clock-maker, now proposes to move his clocks -backward and forward several times a year so as to "fool" his workmen -out of their beds in the mornings! Why not commence work a few -minutes earlier each fortnight while days are lengthening and the -reverse when they are shortening? - -This reminds me of a habit which was common in Scotland,--"keeping -the clock half an hour forward." In those days work commenced at six -o'clock, so the husband left his house at six and after a good walk -arrived at the factory at six! Don't you see that if his clock had -been set right he would have found it necessary to leave at half -past five? But, you say he was simply deceiving himself and acting -in an unreasonable manner. Certainly, but the average man is not a -reasonable being, and "John Bull" knows this and is trying to fool -the average Englishman. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1--Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods -of Time Keeping] - -Now, as to the methods of measuring time, we must use circumstantial -evidence for the pre-historic period. The rising and the going down -of the sun--the lengthening shadows, etc., must come first, and we are -on safe ground here, for savages still use primitive methods like -setting up a stick and marking its shadow so that a party trailing -behind can estimate the distance the leaders are ahead by the changed -position of the shadow. Men notice their shortening and lengthening -shadows to this day. When the shadow of a man shortens more and -more slowly till it appears to be fixed, the observer knows it -is noon, and when it shows the least observable lengthening then -it is just past noon. Now, it is a remarkable fact that this crude -method of determining noon is just the same as "taking the sun" to -determine noon at sea. Noon is the time at which the sun reaches his -highest point on any given day. At sea this is determined generally -by a sextant, which simply measures the angle between the horizon -and the sun. The instrument is applied a little before noon and the -observer sees the sun creeping upward slower and slower till a little -tremor or hesitation appears indicating that the sun has reached his -height,--noon. Oh! you wish to know if the observer is likely to make -a mistake? Yes, and when accurate local time is important, several -officers on a large ship will take the meridian passage at the same -time and average their readings, so as to reduce the "personal -error." All of which is merely a greater degree of accuracy than that -of the man who observes his shadow. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2--Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of -Herculaneum] - -The gradual development of the primitive shadow methods culminated -in the modern sundial. The "dial of Ahas," Isa. XXXVIII, 8, on which -the sun went back 10 "degrees" is often referred to, but in one of -the revised editions of the unchangeable word the sun went back 10 -"steps." This becomes extremely interesting when we find that in -India there still remains an immense dial built with steps instead of -hour lines. Figure 2 shows a pocket, or portable sundial taken from -the ruins of Herculaneum and now in the Museo National, Naples. It -is bronze, was silver plated and is in the form of a ham suspended -from the hock joint. From the tail, evidently bent from its original -position, which forms the gnomon, lines radiate and across these wavy -lines are traced. It is about 5 in. long and 3 in. wide. Being in the -corner of a glass case I was unable to get small details, but museum -authorities state that names of months are engraved on it, so it -would be a good guess that these wavy lines had something to do with -the long and short days. - -In a restored flower garden, within one of the large houses in the -ruins of Pompeii, may be seen a sundial of the Armillary type, -presumably in its original position. I could not get close to it, as -the restored garden is railed in, but it looks as if the plane of the -equator and the position of the earth's axis must have been known to -the maker. - -Both these dials were in use about the beginning of our era and were -covered by the great eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., which destroyed -Pompeii and Herculaneum. - -Modern sundials differ only in being more accurately made and a few -"curiosity" dials added. The necessity for time during the night, -as man's life became a little more complicated, necessitated the -invention of time machines. The "clepsydra," or water clock, was -probably the first. A French writer has dug up some old records -putting it back to Hoang-ti 2679 B.C., but it appears to have been -certainly in use in China in 1100 B.C., so we will be satisfied -with that date. In presenting a subject to the young student it -is sometimes advisable to use round numbers to give a simple -comprehension and then leave him to find the overlapping of dates and -methods as he advances. Keeping this in mind, the following table may -be used to give an elementary hint of the three great steps in time -measuring: - - Shadow time, 2000 to 1000 B. C. - - Dials and Water Clocks, 1000 B. C. to 1000 A. D. - - Clocks and watches, 1000 to 2000 A. D. - -I have pushed the gear wheel clocks and watches forward to 2000 A.D., -as they may last to that time, but I have no doubt we will supersede -them. At the present time science is just about ready to say that -a time measurer consisting of wheels and pinions--a driving power -and a regulator in the form of a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy -contrivance and that we ought to do better very soon; but more on -this hoped-for, fourth method when we reach the consideration of the -motion on which we base all our time keeping. - -It is remarkable how few are aware that the simplest form of sundial -is the best, and that, as a regulator of our present clocks, it is -good within one or two minutes. No one need be without a "noon-mark" -sundial; that is, every one may have the best of all dials. Take a -post or any straight object standing "plumb," or best of all the -corner of a building as in Fig. 3. In the case of the post, or tree -trunk, a stone (shown in solid black) may be set in the ground; -but for the building a line may often be cut across a flagstone of -the footpath. Many methods may be employed to get this noon mark, -which is simply a north and south line. Viewing the pole star, using -a compass (if the local variation is known) or the old method of -finding the time at which the shadow of a pole is shortest. But the -best practical way in this day is to use a watch set to local time -and make the mark at 12 o'clock. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3--Noon-Mark Sundials] - -On four days of the year the sun is right and your mark may be set at -12 on these days, but you may use an almanac and look in the column -marked "mean time at noon" or "sun on meridian." For example, suppose -on the bright day when you are ready to place your noon mark you read -in this column 11:50, then when your watch shows 11:50 make your noon -mark to the shadow and it will be right for all time to come. Owing -to the fact that there are not an even number of days in a year, it -follows that on any given yearly date at noon the earth is not at -the same place in its elliptical orbit and the correction of this -by the leap years causes the equation table to vary in periods of -four years. The centennial leap years cause another variation of 400 -years, etc., but these variations are less than the error in reading -a dial. - - SUN ON NOON MARK, 1909 - ------------------------------------------------------- - Clock Clock Clock - Date Time Date Time Date Time - ------------------------------------------------------- - Jan. 2 12:04 May 1 11:57 Sep. 30 11:50 - " 4 12:05 " 15 11:56 Oct. 3 11:49 - " 7 12:06 " 28 11:57 " 6 11:48 - " 9 12:07 June 4 11:58 " 10 11:47 - " 11 12:08 " 10 11:59 " 14 11:46 - " 14 12:09 " 14 12:00 " 19 11:45 - " 17 12:10 " 19 12:01 " 26 11:44 - " 20 12:11 " 24 12:02 Nov. 17 11:45 - " 23 12:12 " 29 12:03 " 22 11:46 - " 28 12:13 July 4 12:04 " 25 11:47 - Feb. 3 12:14 " 10 12:05 " 29 11:48 - " 26 12:13 " 19 12:06 Dec. 1 11:49 - Mar. 3 12:12 Aug. 11 12:05 " 4 11:50 - " 8 12:11 " 16 12:04 " 6 11:51 - " 11 12:10 " 21 12:03 " 9 11:52 - " 15 12:09 " 25 12:02 " 11 11:53 - " 18 12:08 " 28 12:01 " 13 11:54 - " 22 12:07 " 31 12:00 " 15 11:55 - " 25 12:06 Sep. 4 11:59 " 17 11:56 - " 28 12:05 " 7 11:58 " 19 11:57 - Apr. 1 12:04 " 10 11:57 " 21 11:58 - " 4 12:03 " 12 11:56 " 23 11:59 - " 7 12:02 " 15 11:55 " 25 12:00 - " 11 12:01 " 18 11:54 " 27 12:01 - " 15 12:00 " 21 11:53 " 29 12:02 - " 19 11:59 " 24 11:52 " 31 12:03 - " 24 11:58 " 27 11:51 - ------------------------------------------------------- - The above table shows the variation of the sun from "mean" - or clock time, by even minutes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4--12-Inch Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude -40 deg.-43'] - -[Illustration: Fig. 5--The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to -Axis] - -The reason that the table given here is convenient for setting clocks -to mean time is that a minute is as close as a dial can be read, but -if you wish for greater accuracy, then the almanac, which gives the -"equation of time" to a second for each day, will be better. The -reason that these noon-mark dials are better than ordinary commercial -dials is that they are larger, and still further, noon is the only -time that any dial is accurate to sun time. This is because the -sun's rays are "refracted" in a variable manner by our atmosphere, -but at noon this refraction takes place on a north and south line, -and as that is our noon-mark line the dial reads correctly. So, -for setting clocks, the corner of your house is far ahead of the -most pretentious and expensive dial. In Fig. 4 is shown a modern -horizontal dial without the usual confusing "ornamentation," and in -Fig. 5 it is shown set up on the latitude of New York City for which -it is calculated. This shows clearly why the edge FG of the style -which casts the shadow must be parallel to the earth's axis and why -a horizontal dial must be made for the latitude of the place where -it is set up. Figure 6 is the same dial only the lines are laid -out on a square dial plate, and it will give your young scientific -readers a hint of how to set up a dial in the garden. In setting up a -horizontal dial, consider only noon and set the style, or 12 o'clock -line, north and south as described above for noon-mark dials. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6--Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden] - -A whole issue of Popular Mechanics could be filled on the subject -of dials and even then only give a general outline. Astronomy, -geography, geometry, mathematics, mechanics, as well as architecture -and art, come in to make "dialing" a most charming scientific and -intellectual avocation. - -During the night and also in cloudy weather the sundial was useless -and we read that the priests of the temples and monks of more modern -times "went out to observe the stars" to make a guess at the time -of night. The most prominent type after the shadow devices was the -"water clock" or "clepsydra," but many other methods were used, such -as candles, oil lamps and in comparatively late times, the sand -glass. The fundamental principle of all water clocks is the escape -of water from a vessel through a small hole. It is evident that such -a vessel would empty itself each time it is filled in very nearly -the same time. The reverse of this has been used as shown in Fig. 7, -which represents the "time-boy" of India. He sits in front of a large -vessel of water and floats a bronze cup having a small hole in its -bottom in this large vessel, and the leakage gradually lowers this -cup till it sinks, after which he fishes it up and strikes one or -more blows on it as a gong. This he continues and a rude division of -time is obtained,--while he keeps awake! - -[Illustration: Fig. 7--"Time-Boy" of India] - -[Illustration: Fig. 8--"Hon-woo-et-low" or "Copper Jars Dropping -Water"--Canton, China] - -The most interesting of all water clocks is undoubtedly the "copper -jars dropping water," in Canton, China, where I saw it in 1897. -Referring to the simple line sketch, which I make from memory, Fig. -8, and reading four Chinese characters downwards the translation is -"Canton City." To the left and still downwards,--"Hon-woo-et-low," -which is,--"Copper jars dropping water." Educated Chinamen inform me -that it is over 3,000 years old and had a weather vane. As they -speak of it as "the clock of the street arch" this would look quite -probable; since the little open building, or tower in which it stands -is higher than surrounding buildings. It is, therefore, reasonably -safe to state that the Chinese had a _weather and time station_ -over 1,000 years before our era. It consists of four copper jars -partially built in masonry forming a stair-like structure. Commencing -at the top jar each one drops into the next downward till the water -reaches the solid bottom jar. In this lowest one a float, "the bamboo -stick," is placed and indicates the height of the water and thus in -a rude way gives the time. It is said to be set morning and evening -by dipping the water from jar 4 to jar 1, so it runs 12 hours of -our time. What are the uses of jars 2 and 3, since the water simply -enters them and drips out again? No information could be obtained, -but I venture an explanation and hope the reader can do better, as -we are all of a family and there is no jealousy. When the top jar is -filled for a 12-hour run it would drip out too fast during the first -six hours and too slow during the second six hours, on account of -the varying "head" of water. Now, the spigot of jar 2 could be set -so that it would gain water during the first six hours, and lose -during the second six hours and thus equalize a little by splitting -the error of jar 1 in two parts. Similarly, these two errors of jar 2 -could be again split by jar 3 making four small variations in lowest -jar, instead of one large error in the flow of jar 1. This could -be extended to a greater number of jars, another jar making eight -smaller errors, etc., etc. But I am inclined to credit our ancient -Chinese inventor with the sound reasoning that a human attendant, -being very fallible and limited in his capacity, would have all he -could properly do to adjust four jars, and that his record would -average better than it would with a greater number. Remember, this -man lived thousands of years before the modern mathematician who -constructed a bell-shaped vessel with a small hole in the bottom, -and proportioned the varying diameter in such a manner that in -emptying itself the surface of the water sank equal distances in -equal times. The sand glass, Fig. 9, poetically called the "hour -glass," belongs to the water-clock class and the sand flows from one -bulb into the other, but it gives no subdivisions of its period, so -if you are using one running an hour it does not give you the half -hour. The sand glass is still in use by chairmen, and when the oldest -inhabitant gets on his feet, I always advise setting a 20-minute -glass "on him." - -[Illustration: Fig. 9--Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"] - -[Illustration: Fig. 10--"Tower of the Winds"--Athens, Greece] - -In the "Tower of the Winds" at Athens, Greece (Fig. 10), we have a -later "weather bureau" station. It is attributed to the astronomer -Andronicos, and was built about 50 B. C. It is octagonal in plan -and although 27 ft. in diameter and 44 ft. high, it looks like a -sentry box when seen from one of the hills of Athens. It had a -bronze weather vane and in later times sundials on its eight sides, -but all these are gone and the tower itself is only a dilapidated -ruin. In making the drawing for this cut, from a photograph of the -tower, I have sharpened the weathered and chipped corners of the -stones so as to give a view nearly like the structure as originally -built; but nothing is added. Under the eaves it has eight allegorical -sculptures, representing wind and weather. Artists state that -these sculptures are inferior as compared with Grecian art of an -older period. But the most interesting part is inside, and here -we find curious passages cut in solid stone, and sockets which -look as if they had contained metal bearings for moving machinery. -Circumstantial evidence is strong that it contained a complicated -water clock which could have been kept running with tolerable -accuracy by setting it daily to the dials on the outside. Probably -during a few days of cloudy weather the clock would "get off quite a -little," but business was not pressing in those days. Besides, the -timekeeper would swear by his little water wheel, anyway, and feel -safe, as there was no higher authority wearing an American watch. - -Some very interesting engravings of Japanese clocks and a general -explanation of them, as well as a presentation of the Japanese mental -attitude towards "hours" and their strange method of numbering them -may be expected in the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -JAPANESE CLOCKS - - Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying - length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line - dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for - same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock - movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. -- - Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials - founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics - and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3. - -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of - striking hours and half hours. - - -The ancient methods of dividing day and night in China and Japan -become more hazy as we go backwards and the complications grow. The -three circles in Fig. 1 (Chapter I) are all taken from Japanese -clocks, but the interpretation has been obtained from Chinese and -Japanese scholars. The Japanese obtained a great deal from the -Chinese, in fact nearly everything relating to the ancient methods of -time keeping and the compiling of calendars. I have not been able to -find any Chinese clocks constructed of wheels and pinions, but have a -number of Japanese. These have a distinct resemblance to the earlier -Dutch movements, and while made in Japan, they are practically Dutch, -so far as the "works" are concerned, but it is easy to see from the -illustrations that they are very Japanese in style and ornamentation. -The Dutch were the leaders in opening Japan to the European nations -and introduced modern mathematics and clocks from about 1590 A. D. -The ancient mathematics of Japan came largely from China through -Corea. In Fig. 11 are given the Japanese figures beside ours, for the -reader's use as a key. The complete day in Japan was divided into -twice six hours; that is, six for daylight and six for night, and -the clocks are set, as the days vary in length, so that six o'clock -is sunrise and sunset. The hour numerals on Fig. 12 are on little -plates which are movable, and are shown set for a long day and a -short night. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11] - -[Illustration: Fig. 12 Fig. 13. - -Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days] - -In Fig. 13 they are set for short days and long nights. The narrow -plates shown in solid black are the half-hour marks. In this type -the hand is stationary and always points straight upward. The dial -rotates, as per arrow, once in a full day. This style of dial is -shown on complete clocks, Fig. 14 being a weight clock and Fig. 15 a -spring clock with chain and fusee. The hours are 9 to 4 and the dials -rotate to make them read backwards. The six hours of daylight are 6, -5, 4, 9, 8, 7, 6 and the same for night, so these hours average twice -as long as ours. Note that nine is mid-day and mid-night, and as -these do not change by long and short days they are stationary on the -dial, as you can easily see by comparing Figs. 12 and 13, which are -the same dial set for different seasons. Between these extremes the -dial hours are set as often as the owner wishes; so if he happens to -correspond with our "time crank" he will set them often and dispute -with his neighbors about the time. Figure 16 shows a clock with the -hour numerals on a vertical series of movable plates and it is set -for uniform hours when day and night are equal at the equinox. The -ornamental pointer is fastened to the weight through the vertical -slit, plainly visible in illustration, and indicates the time as it -descends. This clock is wound up at sunset, so the six on the top of -the dial is sunset the same as the six on the bottom. Figure 17 shows -how this type of dial is set for long and short days and explains -itself, but will become plainer as we proceed. This dial is virtually -a continuation of the old method of marking time by the downward -motion of the water in the clepsydras and will be noticed later. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14--Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short -Pendulum] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15--Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and -Balance] - -Figure 18 represents a clock which is a work of art and shows great -refinement of design in providing for the varying lengths of days. -The bar lying across the dial is fastened to the weight through the -two slits running the whole length of the dial. On this cross bar -is a small pointer, which is movable by the fingers, and may be set -to any one of the thirteen vertical lines. The numerous characters -on the top space of dial indicate the dates on which the pointer is -to be set. This clock is wound up at sunset, and it is easy to see -that as the little pointer is set towards the right, the night hours -at the top of the dial become shorter and the day hours longer on -the lower part. The left edge of the dial gives the hours, reading -downwards, and as the pointer touches any one of the curved lines the -hour is read at the left-hand end. The curved lines formed of dots -are the half-hours. The right-hand edge of the dial has the "twelve -horary characters" which will be explained later. For dividing the -varying days into six hours' sunshine it would be difficult to -think of a more artistic and beautiful invention than this. It is -a fine example of great ingenuity and constant trouble to operate -a system which is fundamentally wrong according to our method of -uniform hours at all seasons. Clocks having these curved lines for -the varying lengths of days--and we shall find them on circular dials -as we go on--must be made for a certain latitude, since the days vary -more and more as you go farther from the equator. This will become -plain when you are reminded that a Japanese clock at the equator -would not need any adjustment of hour numerals, because the days and -nights are equal there all the year. So after such infinite pains in -forming these curved lines the clock is only good in the latitude -for which it was made and must not be carried north or south! Our -clocks are correct from pole to pole, but all clocks must be set to -local time if they are carried east or west. As this is a rather -fascinating phase of the subject it might be worth pointing out that -if you go north till you have the sun up for a month in the middle -of summer--and there are people living as far up as that--the Japanese -system would become absurd and break down; so there is no danger of -any of our polar expeditions carrying Japanese clocks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and -Balance.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 17--Japanese Vertical Dials] - -[Illustration: Fig. 18--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having -Curved Lines, Weight and Balance.] - -Figure 19 shows a very fine clock in which the dial is stationary and -the hand moves just as on our dials. This hour hand corresponds to -the single hand of the old Dutch clocks. When the Japanese reached -the point of considering the application of minute and second hands -to their clocks they found that these refinements would not fit their -old method and they were compelled to lay aside their clocks and -take ours. On this dial, Fig. 19, nine is noon, as usual, and is on -top side of dial. Hand points to three quarters past _seven_, that -is, a quarter to _six_, near sunset. Between the bell and the top of -the clock body two horizontal balances, having small weights hung on -them, are plainly shown, and the clock has two verge escapements--one -connected with each balance, or "foliot." Let us suppose a long -day coming to a close at sunset, just as the hand indicates. The -upper balance, which is the slow one, has been swinging backwards -and forwards measuring the long hours of the day. When the clock -strikes six, at sunset, the top balance is thrown out of action and -the lower one, which is the fast one, is thrown into action and -measures the short night hours. At sunrise this is thrown out and -the top one in again to measure the next day's long hours. As the -days vary in length, the balances, or foliots, can be made to swing -faster or slower by moving the weights inwards or outwards a notch -or two. The balance with small weights for regulation is the oldest -known and was used in connection with the verge escapement, just -as in this clock, by the Dutch about 1364. All the evidence I can -find indicates that the Japanese clocks are later than this date. In -design, ornamentation and methods for marking varying days, however, -the Japanese have shown great artistic taste and inventiveness. -It is seen that this dial in addition to the usual six hours, -twice over, has on the outside circle of dial, the "twelve horary -branches" called by the Japanese the "twelve honorary branches," thus -indicating the whole day of twelve Japanese hours, six of them for -day and six for night. By this means they avoided repeating the same -hours for day and night. When it is pointed out that these "twelve -horary branches" are very old Chinese, we are not in a position to -boast about our twenty-four hour system, because these branches -indicate positively whether any given hour is day or night. When we -print a time table in the twenty-four hour system so as to get rid -of our clumsy A. M. and P. M., we are thousands of years behind the -Chinese. More than that, for they got the matter right without any -such pressure as our close running trains have brought to bear on -us. These branches have one syllable names and the "ten celestial -stems" have also one syllable names, all as shown on Fig. 20. Refer -now to Fig. 21 where two disks are shown, one having the "twelve -horary branches" and the other the "ten celestial stems." These disks -are usually put behind the dial so that one "branch" and one "stem" -can be seen at the same time through two openings. The clock moves -these disks one step each night, so that a new pair shows each day. -Running in this manner, step by step, you will find that it takes -sixty moves, that is sixty days, to bring the same pair around again. -Each has a single syllable name, as shown on Fig. 20, and we thus get -sixty names of two syllables by reading them together to the left. -The two openings may be seen in the dials of Figs. 15 and 19. So the -Japanese know exactly what day it is in a period of sixty which they -used in their old calendars. These were used by the Chinese over four -thousand years ago as the names of a cycle of sixty years, called the -"sexagenary." The present Chinese year 4606 is YU-KI which means the -year 46 of the 76th "sexagenary." That is, 76x60+46 = 4,606. In Fig. -20, we read TSU-KIAH, or the first year. If you will make two disks -like Fig. 21 and commence with TSU-KIAH and move the two together -you will come to YU-KI on the 46th move. But there is another way -which you might like better, thus: Write the twelve "branches," -or syllables, straight downwards, continuously five times; close -to the right, write the ten "stems" six times. Now you have sixty -words of two syllables and the 46th, counting downwards, will be -YU-KI. Besides, this method gives you the whole sixty names of the -"sexagenary" at one view. Always read _left_, that is, pronounce the -"stem" syllable first. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19--Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and -Two Escapements; Dial Stationary, Hand Moves] - -Calendars constitute a most interesting and bewildering part of time -measuring. We feel that we have settled the matter by determining -the length of the year to within a second of time, and keeping the -dates correctly to the nearest day by a leap year every fourth and -every fourth century, established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, and -known as the "Gregorian Calendar." In simple words, our "almanac" is -the "Gregorian." We are in the habit of saying glibly that any year -divisible by four is a leap year, but this is far from correct. Any -year leaving out the _even hundreds_, which is divisible by four -is a leap year. _Even hundreds_ are leap when divisible by four. -This explains why 1900 was a common year, because _19 hundreds_ is -not divisible by four; 2000 will be a leap because _20 hundreds_ -is divisible by four; therefore 2100, 2200 and 2300 will be common -years and 2400 a leap, etc., to 4000 which must be made common, to -keep things straight, in spite of the fact that it is divisible by -four both in its hundreds and thousands. But for practical purposes, -during more than two thousand years to come, we may simplify the -rule to: _Years_ and _even hundreds_ divisible by four are leaps. -But great confusion still exists as a result of several countries -holding to their own old methods. The present Chinese year has 384 -days, 13 months and 13 full moons. Compared with our 1909 it begins -on January 21st and will end on February 8, 1910. Last year the -China-Japan calendar had 12 months, or moons, but as that is too -short they must put in an extra every thirtieth month. We only allow -the error to reach one day and correct it with our leap years, but -they are not so particular and let the error grow till they require -another "moon." The Old Testament is full of moons, and even with all -our "modernity" our "feasts" and holy days are often "variable" on -account of being mixed up with moons. In Japan the present year is -the 42nd of Meiji, that is, the 42nd of the present Emperor's reign. -The present is the Jewish 5669. These and others of varying lengths -overlap our year in different degrees, so that in trade matters great -confusion exists. The Chinese and Japanese publish a trade almanac -in parallel columns with ours to avoid this. It is easy to say that -we ought to have a uniform calendar all over the world, but the same -remark applies just as much to money, weights, measures, and even to -language itself. Finally, the difficulty consists in the facts that -there are not an even number of days in a year--or in a moon--or moons -in a year. "These many moons" is a survival in our daily speech of -this old method of measuring by moons. Just a little hint as to the -amount of superstition still connected with "new moon" will be enough -to make clear the fact that we are not yet quite so "enlightened" as -we say we are. While our calendar, or almanac, may be considered as -final, we must remember that custom and religion are so mixed up with -the matter in the older countries of the East that they will change -very slowly. Strictly, our "era" is arbitrary and Christian; so we -must not expect nations which had some astronomical knowledge and a -working calendar, thousands of years before us, to change suddenly to -our "upstart" methods. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20--Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial -Stems"] - -[Illustration: Fig. 21--"12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems" -as Used in Clocks] - -[Illustration: Fig. 22--Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock] - -In Fig. 22 we have the dial of a very complicated astronomical -clock. This old engraved brass dial did not photograph well, so I -made a copy by hand to get clean lines. Commencing at the centre, -there is a small disk, B, numbered from 1 to 30, giving days of the -moon's age. The moon rises at A and sets at AA, later each day, of -course. Her age is shown by the number she touches on disk B, as -this disk advances on the moon one number each day. Her phases are -shown by the motion of a black disk over her face; so we have here -three motions for the moon, so differentiated as to show _phase_, -_ascension_ and _age_. Still further, as she is represented on the -dial when below the horizon, it can be seen when she will rise, and -"moonlight" parties may be planned. Just outside the moon's course -is an annulus having Japanese numbers 1 to 12, indicating months. -Note the recurring character dividing the months in halves, which -means "middle," and is much used. If you will carefully read these -numbers you will find a character where _one_ would come; this means -"beginning" or "primary" and is often used instead of one. The clock -hand is the heavy arrow and sweeps the dial once in a whole day, same -direction as our clocks. This circle of the months moves along with -the hand, but a little faster, so as to gain one number in a month. -As shown on the figure it is about one week into the sixth month. -Next outward is the broad band having twelve curved lines for the -hours ending outwardly in a ring divided into 100 parts, marked off -in tens by dots. These curved lines are numbered with the Japanese -numerals for hours which you must now be able to read easily. These -hour lines, and the dotted lines for half hours, are really the same -as the similar lines on Fig. 18 which you now understand. As the -hand sweeps the dial daily it automatically moves outward a little -each day, so it shortens the nights and lengthens the days, just as -previously explained for Fig. 18. But there is one difference, for -you will notice that the last night hour, on which the arrow hand -now stands, is longer than the other night hours before it, and that -it is divided into _three_ by the dotted lines. The last day hour, -on the left of dial, is also long and divided into _three_. That is, -while all the dials previously described have equal hours for any -given day, or night, this dial has a _last long hour_ in each case, -divided into three instead of the usual half-hours. This is a curious -and interesting point having its origin long before clocks. In the -early days of the clepsydra in China, a certain time was allowed -to dip up the water from the lowest jar, each morning and evening -about five o'clock of our time, see Fig. 8 (Chapter 1). During this -operation the clepsydra was not marking time, and the oriental -mind evidently considered it in some sense outside of the regular -hours, and like many other things was retained till it appeared -absurdly on the earlier clocks. This wonderful feat of putting an -interval between two consecutive hours has always been impossible to -modern science; yet President Roosevelt performed it easily in his -"constructive" interregnum! Referring to the Canton clepsydra, Fig. -8, we find that the float, or "bamboo stick," was divided into 100 -parts. At one season 60 parts for the day and 40 parts for the night, -gradually being changed to the opposite for short days. The day hours -were beaten on a drum and the night hours blown on a trumpet. - -Later the hour numerals were made movable on the "bamboo stick." -This is virtually a vertical dial with movable hour plates, so their -idea of time measuring at that date, was of something moving up or -down. This was put on the first clocks by the Japanese; so that the -dial of Fig. 16 is substantially the float of the Chinese clepsydra. -Further, in this "bamboo stick" of 100 parts, we have our present -system of decimal numbers, so we can afford to be a little modest -here too. Before leaving Fig. 22 note the band, or annulus, of stars -which moves with the month circle. I cannot make these stars match -our twelve signs of the Zodiac, but as I have copied them carefully -the reader can try and make order out of them. The extreme outer edge -of the dial is divided into 360 parts, the tens being emphasized, as -in our decimal scales. - -As we are getting a little tired of these complicated descriptions, -let us branch off for a few remarks on some curiosities of Eastern -time keeping. They evidently think of an hour as a _period of time_ -more specifically than we do. When we say "6 o'clock" we mean a -point of time marked by the striking of the clock. We have no names -for the hour periods. We must say "from 5 to 6" or "between 5 and -6" for an hour period. The "twelfth hour" of the New Testament, I -understand to mean a whole hour ending at sunset; so we are dealing -with an oriental attitude of mind towards time. I think we get that -conception nearly correct when we read of the "middle watch" -and understand it to mean _during_ the middle third of the night. -Secondly, why do the Japanese use no 1, 2, 3 on their dials? These -numbers were sacred in the temples and must not be profaned by use on -clocks, and they mentally deducted these from the clock hours, but -ultimately became accustomed to 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Thirdly, why this -reading of the hours backwards? Let us suppose a toiler commencing -at sunrise, or six. When he toiled one hour he felt that there was -one less to come and he called it five. This looks quite logical, for -the diminishing numbers indicated to him how much of his day's toil -was to come. Another explanation which is probably the foundation -of "secondly" and "thirdly" above, is the fact that mathematics and -superstition were closely allied in the old days of Japan. If you -take the numbers 1 to 6, Fig. 23, and multiply them each into the -uncanny "yeng number," or nine, you will find that the last digits, -reading downwards, give 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Stated in other words: -When 1 to 6 are multiplied into "three times three" the last figures -are 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and _1, 2, 3, have disappeared_; so the common -people were filled with fear and awe. Some of the educated, even now, -are mystified by the strange results produced by using three and nine -as factors, and scientific journals often give space to the matter. -We know that these results are produced by the simple fact that nine -is one less than the "radix" of our decimal scale of numbers. Nine is -sometimes called the "indestructible number," since adding the digits -of any of its powers gives an even number of nines. But in those days -it was a mystery and the common people feared the mathematicians, and -I have no doubt the shrewd old fellows took full advantage of their -power over the plebeians. In Japan, mathematics was not cleared of -this rubbish till about 700 A. D. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23--Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of -Hours] - -On the right-hand side of Fig. 23 are given the animal names of -the hours, so the day and night hours could not be mistaken. In -selecting the _rat_ for night and the _horse_ for day they showed -good taste. Their forenoon was "before horse" and their afternoon -"after horse." Japanese clocks are remarkable for variety. It looks -as if they were always made to order and that the makers, probably -urged by their patrons, made extreme efforts to get in wonderful -motions and symbols relating to astronomy and astrology. Anyone -examining about fifty of them would be likely to conclude that it was -almost hopeless to understand them all. Remember, this is the old -Japanese method. Nearly all the clocks and watches I saw in Japan -were American. It will now be necessary to close this chapter with a -few points on the curious striking of Japanese clocks. - -In those like Figs. 14, 15, 19, the bell and hammer can be seen. In -the type of Fig. 16, the whole striking mechanism is in the weight. -In fact, the striking part of the clock is the weight. On each of the -plates, having the hour numerals, Fig. 16, a pin projects inwards and -as the weight containing the striking mechanism, descends, a little -lever touches these and lets off the striking just when the pointer -is on the hour numeral. Keeping this in mind, it is easy to see that -the clock will strike correctly when the hour is indicated by the -pointer, no matter how the hour plates are set for long or short -days. Similar pins project inwards from movable plates on Figs. 12, -13, 14, 15, so they strike correctly as each hour plate comes to the -top just under the point of the fixed hand. In Fig. 19, the striking -is let off by a star wheel just as in old Dutch clocks. Clocks -like Figs. 18-22 do not strike. In all cases the hours are struck -backwards, but the half-hours add another strange feature. The _odd_ -numbered hours, 9, 7, 5, are followed by one blow at the half hour; -and the _even_ hours, 8, 6, 4 by two blows, or stated altogether-- - - 9_{1} 8_{2} 7_{1} 6_{2} 5_{1} 4_{2}. - -Here the large figures are the hours and the small ones the -half-hours. Only one bell is used, because there being no one and -two among the hours, the half-hours cannot be mistaken. This is not -all, for you can tell what half hour it is within two hours. For -example, suppose you know approximately that it is somewhere between -9 and 7 and you hear the clock strike 2, then you know it is half -past 8. See the large and small figures above. This is far superior -to our method of one at each half-hour. - -By our method the clock strikes _one_ three times consecutively, -between 12 and 2 o'clock and thus mixes up the half hours with one -o'clock. Some interesting methods of striking will be explained in -the third chapter when we deal with modern time keeping. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -MODERN CLOCKS - - DeVick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. -- - "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock. - -- The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with - earliest application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct - designs for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. -- - Twenty-four hour watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. -- - Correct method of striking hours and quarters. -- Design for - twenty-four hour dial and hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions - of the old clockmakers. - -[Illustration: Public Dial by James Arthur Dial of Philadelphia City -Hall Clock - -Fig. 24] - - -Modern clocks commence with De Vick's of 1364 which is the first -unquestioned clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing the -fundamental features of our present clocks. References are often -quoted back to about 1000 A. D., but the words translated "clocks" -were used for bells and dials at that date; so we are forced to -consider the De Vick clock as the first till more evidence is -obtained. It has been pointed out, however, that this clock could -hardly have been invented all at once; and therefore it is probable -that many inventions leading up to it have been lost to history. The -part of a clock which does the ticking is called the "escapement" -and the oldest form known is the "verge," Fig. 25, the date of which -is unknown, but safely 300 years before De Vick. The "foliot" is on -the vertical verge, or spindle, which has the pallets A B. As the -foliot swings horizontally, from rest to rest, we hear one tick, but -it requires two of these single swings, or two ticks, to liberate -one tooth of the escape wheel; so there are twice as many ticks -in one turn of the escape wheel as it has teeth. We thus see that -an escapement is a device in which something moves back and forth -and allows the teeth of an "escape wheel" to escape. While this -escapement is, in some respects, the simplest one, it has always -been difficult to make it plain in a drawing, so I have made an -effort to explain it by making the side of the wheel and its pallet -B, which is nearest the eye, solid black, and farther side and its -pallet A, shaded as in the figure. The wheel moves in the direction -of the arrow, and tooth D is very near escaping from pallet B. The -tooth C on the farther side of wheel is moving left, so it will fall -on pallet A, to be in its turn liberated as the pallets and foliot -swing back and forth. It is easy to see that each tooth of the wheel -will give a little push to the pallet as it escapes, and thus keep -the balance swinging. This escapement is a very poor time-keeper, -but it was one of the great inventions and held the field for about -600 years, that is, from the days when it regulated bells up to the -"onion" watches of our grandfathers. Scattered references in old -writings make it reasonably certain that from about 1,000 to 1,300 -bells were struck by machines regulated with this verge escapement, -thus showing that the striking part of a clock is older than the -clock itself. It seems strange to us to say that many of the earlier -clocks were strikers, only, and had no dials or hands, just as if -you turned the face of your clock to the wall and depended on the -striking for the time. Keeping this action of the verge escapement -in mind we can easily understand its application, as made by De -Vick, in Fig. 26, where I have marked the same pallets A B. A tooth -is just escaping from pallet B and then one on the other side of -the wheel will fall on pallet A. Foliot, verge and pallets form one -solid piece which is suspended by a cord, so as to enable it to -swing with little friction. For the purpose of making the motions -very plain I have left out the dial and framework from the drawing. -The wheel marked "twelve hours," and the pinion which drives it, are -both outside the frame, just under the dial, and are drawn in dash -and dot. The axle of this twelve-hour wheel goes through the dial -and carries the hand, which marks hours only. The winding pinion and -wheel, in dotted lines, are inside the frame. Now follow the "great -wheel"--"intermediate"--"escape wheel" and the two pinions, all in -solid lines, and you have the "train" which is the principal part -of all clocks. This clock has an escapement, wheels, pinions, dial, -hand, weight, and winding square. We have only added the pendulum, -a better escapement, the minute and second hands in over 500 years! -The "anchor" escapement, Fig. 27, came about 1680 and is attributed -to Dr. Hooke, an Englishman. It gets its name from the resemblance of -the pallets to the flukes of an anchor. This anchor is connected to -the pendulum and as it swings right and left, the teeth of the escape -wheel are liberated, one tooth for each two swings from rest to rest, -the little push on the pallets A B, as the teeth escape, keeping the -pendulum going. It is astonishing how many, even among the educated, -think that the pendulum drives the clock! The pendulum must always be -driven by some power. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25--Verge Escapement] - -[Illustration: Fig. 26--De Vick's Clock of 1364] - -[Illustration: Fig. 27--Anchor Escapement] - -[Illustration: Fig. 28--American Anchor Escapement] - -This escapement will be found in nearly all the grandfather clocks in -connection with a seconds pendulum. It is a good time-keeper, runs -well, wears well, stands some rough handling and will keep going -even when pretty well covered with dust and cobwebs; so it is used -more than all the numerous types ever invented. Figure 28 gives the -general American form of the "anchor" which is made by bending a -strip of steel; but it is not the best form, as the acting surfaces -of the pallets are straight. It is, therefore, inferior to Fig. 27 -where the acting surfaces are curved, since these curves give an -easier "recoil." This recoil is the slight motion _backwards_ which -the escape wheel makes at each tick. The "dead beat" escapement is -shown in Fig. 29, and is used in clocks of a high grade, generally -with a seconds pendulum. It has no recoil as you can easily see that -the surfaces O O on which the teeth fall, are portions of a circle -around the center P. The beveled ends of these pallets are called the -impulse surfaces, and a tooth is just giving the little push on the -right-hand pallet. It is found in good railroad clocks, watch-makers' -regulators and in many astronomical clocks. These terms are merely -comparative, a "regulator" being a good clock and an "astronomical," -an extra good one. Figure 30 gives the movement of a "remontoir" -clock in which the dead beat shown is used. The upper one of the -three dials indicates seconds, and the lever which crosses its center -carries the large wheel on the left. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29--Dead Beat Escapement] - -[Illustration: Fig. 31--Remontoir Clock by James Arthur] - -[Illustration: Fig. 30--Remontoir Clock Movement] - -This wheel makes the left end of the lever heavier than the right, -and in sinking it drives the clock for one minute, but at the -sixtieth second it "remounts" by the action of the clock weight; -hence the name, "remontoir." Note here that the big weight does -not directly drive the clock; it only rewinds it every minute. The -minutes are shown on the dial to the right and its hand jumps forward -one minute at each sixtieth second as the lever remounts; so if you -wish to set your watch to this clock the proper way is to set it to -the even minute "on the jump." The hour hand is on the dial to the -left. By this remounting, or rewinding, the clock receives the same -amount of driving force each minute. The complete clock is shown -in Fig. 31, the large weight which does the rewinding each minute -being plainly visible. The pendulum is compensated with steel and -aluminum, so that the rate of the clock may not be influenced by hot -and cold weather. Was built in 1901 and is the only one I can find -room for here. It is fully described in "Machinery," New York, for -Nov., 1901. I have built a considerable number, all for experimental -purposes, several of them much more complicated than this one, but -all differing from clocks for commercial purposes. Pallets like O -O in Fig. 29 are often made of jewels; in one clock I used agates -and in another, running thirteen months with one winding, I used -pallets jeweled with diamonds. This is done to avoid friction and -wear. Those interested in the improvement of clocks are constantly -striving after light action and small driving weights. Conversely, -the inferior clock has a heavy weight and ticks loud. The "gravity -escapement" and others giving a "free" pendulum action would require -too much space here, so we must be satisfied with the few successful -ones shown out of hundreds of inventions, dozens of them patented. -The pendulum stands at the top as a time measurer and was known to -the ancients for measuring short periods of time just as musicians -now use the metronome to get regular beats. Galileo is credited with -noticing its regular beats, but did not apply it to clocks, although -his son made a partially successful attempt. The first mathematical -investigation of the pendulum was made by Huyghens about 1670, and -he is generally credited with applying it to clocks, so there is a -"Huyghens" clock with a pendulum instead of the foliot of De Vick's. -Mathematically, the longer and heavier the pendulum the better is -the time-keeping, but nature does not permit us to carry anything to -the extreme; so the difficulty of finding a tower high enough and -steady enough, the cumbersomeness of weight, the elasticity of the -rod, and many other difficulties render very long and heavy pendulums -impracticable beyond about 13 ft. which beats once in two seconds. -"Big Ben" of Westminster, London, has one of this length weighing 700 -lb. and measuring, over all, 15 ft. - -It runs with an error under one second a week. This is surpassed -only by some of the astronomical clocks which run sometimes two -months within a second. This wonderful timekeeping is done with -seconds pendulums of about 39 in., so the theoretical advantage of -long pendulums is lost in the difficulties of constructing them. -Fractions are left out of these lengths as they would only confuse -the explanations. At the Naval observatory in Washington, D. C., -the standard clocks have seconds pendulums, the rods of which are -nickel steel, called "Invar," which is little influenced by changes -of temperature. These clocks are kept in a special basement, so -they stand on the solid earth. The clock room is kept at a nearly -uniform temperature and each clock is in a glass cylinder exhausted -to about half an atmosphere. They are electric remontoirs, so no -winding is necessary and they can be kept sealed up tight in their -glass cylinders. Nor is any adjustment of their pendulums necessary, -or setting of the hands, as the correction of their small variations -is effected by slight changes in the air pressure within the glass -cylinders. When a clock runs fast they let a little air into its -cylinder to raise the resistance to the pendulum and slow it down, -and the reverse for slow. Don't forget that we are now considering -variations of less than a second a week. - -The clock room has double doors, so the outer one can be shut before -the inner one is opened, to avoid air currents. Visitors are not -permitted to see these clocks because the less the doors are opened -the better; but the Commander will sometimes issue a special permit -and detail a responsible assistant to show them, so if you wish -to see them you must prove to him that you have a head above your -shoulders and are worthy of such a great favor. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made] - -[Illustration: Fig. 34--Triple-Case Turkish Watches] - -The best thing the young student could do at this point would be -to grasp the remarkable fact that the clock is not an old machine, -since it covers only the comparatively short period from 1364 to the -present day. Compared with the period of man's history and inventions -it is of yesterday. Strictly speaking, as we use the word clock, its -age from De Vick to the modern astronomical is only about 540 years. -If we take the year 1660, we find that it represents the center of -modern improvements in clocks, a few years before and after that date -includes the pendulum, the anchor and dead beat escapements, the -minute and second hands, the circular balance and the hair spring, -along with minor improvements. Since the end of that period, which -we may make 1700, no fundamental invention has been added to clocks -and watches. This becomes impressive when we remember that the last -200 years have produced more inventions than all previous known -history--but only minor improvements in clocks! The application -of electricity for winding, driving, or regulating clocks is not -fundamental, for the timekeeping is done by the master clock with -its pendulum and wheels, just as by any grandfather's clock 200 -years old. This broad survey of time measuring does not permit us to -go into minute mechanical details. Those wishing to follow up the -subject would require a large "horological library"--and Dr. Eliot's -five-foot shelf would be altogether too short to hold the books. - -A good idea of the old church clocks may be obtained from Fig. -32 which is one of my valued antiques. Tradition has followed it -down as the "English Blacksmith's Clock." It has the very earliest -application of the pendulum. The pendulum, which I have marked by a -star to enable the reader to find it, is less than 3 in. long and -is hung on the verge, or pallet axle, and beats 222 per minute. -This clock may be safely put at 250 years old, and contains nothing -invented since that date. Wheels are cast brass and all teeth -laboriously filed out by hand. Pinions are solid with the axles, or -"staffs," and also filed out by hand. It is put together, generally -by mortise, tenon and cotter, but it has four original screws all -made by hand with the file. How did he thread the holes for these -screws? Probably made a tap by hand as he made the screws. But the -most remarkable feature is the fact that no lathe was used in forming -any part--all staffs, pinions and pivots being filed by hand. This is -simply extraordinary when it is pointed out that a little dead center -lathe is the simplest machine in the world, and he could have made -one in less than a day and saved himself weeks of hard labor. It is -probable that he had great skill in hand work and that learning to -use a lathe would have been a great and tedious effort for him. So we -have a complete striking clock made by a man so poor that he had only -his anvil, hammer and file. The weights are hung on cords as thick -as an ordinary lead pencil and pass over pulleys having spikes set -around them to prevent the cords from slipping. The weights descend -7 ft. in 12 hours, so they must be pulled up--not wound up--twice a -day. The single hour hand is a work of art and is cut through like -lace. Public clocks may still be seen in Europe with only one hand. -Many have been puzzled by finding that old, rudely made clocks often -have fine dials, but this is not remarkable when we state that art -and engraving had reached a high level before the days of clocks. -It is worthy of note that clocks in the early days were generally -built in the form of a church tower with the bell under the dome -and Figs. 32, 33 show a good example. It is highly probable that the -maker of this clock had access to some old church clock--a wonderful -machine in those days--and that he laboriously copied it. It strikes -the hours, only, by the old "count wheel" or "locking plate" method. -Between this and our modern clocks appeared a type showing quarter -hours on a small dial under the hour dial. No doubt this was at that -time a great advance and looked like cutting time up pretty fine. As -the hand on the quarter dial made the circuit in an hour the next -step was easy, by simply dividing the circle of quarters into sixty -minutes. The old fellows who thought in hours must have given it up -at this point, so the seconds and fifths seconds came easily. - -[Illustration: Fig. 35--Triple-Case Turkish Watch] - -[Illustration: Fig. 36--Double-Case Watch of Repousse Work] - -The first watches, about 1500, had the foliot and verge escapement, -and in some early attempts to govern the foliot a hog's bristle was -used as a spring. By putting a ring around the ends of the foliot -and adding the hair spring of Dr. Hooke, about 1640, we have the -verge watches of our grandfathers. This balance wheel and hair spring -stand today, but the "lever" escapement has taken the place of the -verge. It is a modification of the dead beat, Fig. 29, by adding -a lever to the anchor, and this lever is acted on by the balance, -hence the name "lever watch." All this you can see by opening your -watch, so no detailed explanation is necessary. Figure 34 shows two -triple-cased Turkish watches with verge escapements, the one to the -left being shown partly opened in Fig. 35. The watch with its inner -case, including the glass, is shown to the right. This inner case -is complete with two hinges and has a winding hole in the back. The -upper case, of "chased" work, goes on next, and then the third, or -outer case, covered with tortoise shell fastened with silver rivets, -goes on outside the other two. When all three cases are opened and -laid on the table, they look like a heap of oyster shells, but they -go easily together, forming the grand and dignified watch shown to -the left in Fig. 34. Oliver Cromwell wore an immense triple-case -watch of this kind, and the poor plebeians who were permitted to -examine such a magnificent instrument were favored! - -[Illustration: Fig. 37--Watches Showing Art Work] - -[Illustration: Fig. 38--Watch Showing Dutch Art Work] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39--Antique Watch Cock] - -[Illustration: Fig. 40--"Chinese" Watch] - -Our boys' watches costing one dollar keep much better time than this -type of watch. Comparing the Syrian dial, Fig. 42, with that on -Fig. 35, it is evident that the strange hour numerals on both are a -variation of the same characters. These, so-called, "Turkish watches" -were made in Europe for the Eastern trade. First-class samples of -this triple-case type are getting scarce, but I have found four, two -of them in Constantinople. Figure 36 shows the double-case style, -called "pair cases," the outer case thin silver, the figures and -ornaments being hammered and punched up from the inside and called -"repousse." Before we leave the old watches, the question of art work -deserves notice, for it looks as if ornamentation and time-keeping -varied inversely in those days--the more art the worse the watch. I -presume, as they could not make a good time-keeper at that date, the -watch-maker decided to give the buyer something of great size and -style for his money. In Fig. 37 four old movements are shown, and -there is no doubt about the art, since the work is purely individual -and no dies or templates used. In examining a large number of these -watches, I have never found the art work on any two of them alike. -Note the grotesque faces in these, and in Fig. 39 which is a fine -example of pierced, engraved work. Figure 38 is a fine example of -pierced work with animals and flowers carved in relief. Figure 40 -is a "Chinese" watch but made in Europe for the Chinese market. In -Fig. 41 we have what remains of a quarter repeater with musical -attachment. Each of the 24 straight gongs, commencing with the -longest one, goes a little nearer the center of the large wheel, -so a circle of pins is set in the wheel for each gong, or note, -and there is plenty of room for several tunes which the wearer can -set off at pleasure. Figure 43 is a modern watch with Hebrew hour -numerals. Figure 44 is a modern 24-hour watch used on some railroads -and steamship lines. I have a pretty clean-cut recollection of one -event in connection with the 24-hour system, as I left Messina -between 18 and 19 o'clock on the night of the earthquake! Dials and -hands constitute an important branch of the subject. The general -fault of hands is that they are too much alike; in many instances -they are the same, excepting that the minute hand is a little longer -than the hour. The dial shown on the left of Fig. 24 was designed by -me for a public clock and can be read twice as far away as the usual -dial. Just why we should make the worst dials and hands for public -clocks in the United States is more than I can find out, for there -is no possible excuse, since the "spade and pointer" hands have been -known for generations. Figure 45 is offered as a properly designed -dial for watches and domestic clocks, having flat-faced Gothic -figures of moderate height, leaving a clear center in the dial, and -the heavy "spade" hour hand reaching only to the inner edges of the -figures. For public clocks the Arabic numerals are the worst, for at -a distance they look like twelve thumb marks on the dial; while the -flat-faced Roman remain distinct as twelve clear marks. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41--Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters] - -Do you know that you do not read a public clock by the figures, but -by the position of the hands? This was discovered long ago. Lord -Grimthorp had one with twelve solid marks on the dial and also speaks -of one at the Athenaeum Club, both before 1860. The Philadelphia City -Hall clock has dials of this kind as shown on right side of Fig. 24. -It has also good hands and can be read at a great distance. Very few -persons, even in Philadelphia, know that it has no hour numerals on -its dials. Still further, there is no clock in the tower, the great -hands being moved every minute by air pressure which is regulated by -a master clock set in a clock room down below where the walls are 10 -ft. thick. Call and see this clock and you will find that the City -Hall officials sustain the good name of Philadelphia for politeness. -Generally, we give no attention to the hour numerals, even of our -watches, as the following proves. When you have taken out your watch -and looked at the time, for yourself, and put it back in your pocket, -and when a friend asks the time you take it out again to find the -time for him! Why? Because, for yourself, you did not read hours and -minutes, but only got a mental impression from the position of the -hands; so we only read hours and minutes when we are called on to -proclaim the time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42--Syrian Dial] - -We must find a little space for striking clocks. The simplest is one -blow at each hour just to draw attention to the clock. Striking the -hours and also one blow at each half hour as well as the quarter -double blow, called "ting tong" quarters, are too well known to need -description. The next stage after this is "chiming quarters" with -three or more musical gongs, or bells. One of the best strikers I -have has three trains, three weights and four bells. It strikes -the hour on a large bell and two minutes after the hour it strikes -it again, so as to give you another chance to count correctly. At -the first quarter it repeats the last hour followed by a musical -chord of three bells, which we will call _one triple blow_: at the -second quarter the hour again and two triple blows and at the third -quarter, the hour again and three triple blows. Suppose a sample -hour's striking from four o'clock, this is what you hear, and there -can be no mistake. "Four" and in two minutes "four"--"four and one -quarter"--"four and two quarters"--"four and three quarters," and the -same for all other hours. This is definite, for the clock proclaims -the hour, or the hour and so much past. It can be set silent, but -that only stops it from striking automatically, and whether so set -or not, it will repeat by pulling a cord. You awake in the night -and pull the cord, and then in mellow musical tones, almost as if -the clock were speaking, you hear--"four and two quarters." This I -consider a perfect striking clock. It is a large movement of fine -workmanship and was made in the department of the Jura, France. -When a clock or watch only repeats, I consider the old "five-minute -repeater" the best. I used this method in a clock which, on pulling -the cord, strikes the hour on a large bell and if that is all it -strikes, then it is less than five minutes past. If more than five -minutes past it follows the hour by one blow on a small bell for -every five minutes. This gives the time within five minutes. It is -fully described and illustrated in "Machinery," New York, for March, -1905. Just one more. An old Dutch clock which I restored strikes the -hour on a large bell; at the first quarter it strikes one blow on a -small bell; at the half hour it strikes the last hour over again on -the small bell; at the third quarter it strikes one blow on the large -bell. But this in spite of its great ingenuity, only gives definite -information at the hour and half hour. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43--Hebrew Numerals] - -[Illustration: Fig. 44--24-Hour Watch] - -Of curious clocks there is no end, so I shall just refer to one -invented by William Congreve, an Englishman, over one hundred years -ago, and often coming up since as something new. A plate about 8 in. -long and 4 in. wide has a long zigzag groove crosswise. This plate -is pivoted at its center so either end can be tipped up a little. -A ball smaller than a boy's marble will roll back and forth across -this plate till it reaches the lower end, at which point it strikes -a click and the mainspring of the clock tips the plate the other way -and the ball comes slowly back again till it strikes the disk at the -other end of the plate, etc. Every time the plate tips, the hands -are moved a little just like the remontoir clock already described. -Clocks of this kind are often used for deceptive purposes and those -ignorant of mechanics are deceived into the belief that they see -perpetual motion. The extent to which modern machine builders are -indebted to the inventions of the ancient clock-maker, I think, has -never been appreciated. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45--Domestic Dial by James Arthur] - -In its earlier stages the clock was almost the only machine -containing toothed gearing, and the "clock tooth" is still necessary -in our delicate machines. It is entirely different from our standard -gear tooth as used in heavy machines. The clock-makers led for a -long time in working steel for tools, springs and wearing surfaces. -They also made investigations in friction, bearings, oils, etc., -etc. Any one restoring old clocks for amusement and pleasure will -be astonished at the high-class mechanics displayed in them--nearly -always by unknown inventors. Here is an example: The old clock-maker -found that when he wished to drill a hole in a piece of thick wire -so as to make a short tube of it, he could only get the hole central -and straight by rotating the piece and holding the drill stationary. -By this method the drill tends to follow the center line of -rotation; and our great guns as well as our small rifles are bored -just that way to get bores which will shoot straight. The fourth and -last chapter will deal with the astronomical motions on which our -time-keeping is founded, our present hour zones of time, and close -with suggestions for a universal time system over the whole world. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME - - Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons - for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour - day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. -- - Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform - motion known to us. -- Time Stars and Transits. -- Local time. - -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of - a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal - time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement - in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of - the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for - astronomers. -- General conclusions. - - -The mystery of time encloses all things in its folds, and our grasp -of its infinite bearings is measured by our limitations. As there -are no isolated facts in the Universe, we can never get to the end -of our subject; so we know only what we have capacity to absorb. -In considering the foundation on which all our time measuring -is based, we are led into the fringe of that Elysian field of -science--astronomy. A science more poetical than poetry--more charming -than the optimistic phantasies of youth. That science which leaves -our imagination helpless; for its facts are more wonderful than our -extremest mental flights. The science of vastness and interminable -distances which our puny figures fail to express. "The stars sang -together for joy," might almost be placed in the category of facts; -while the music of the spheres may now be considered a mathematical -reality. Our time keeping is inevitably associated with these -motions, and we must select one which has periods not too long. That -is, no _continuous_ motion could be used, unless it passed some -species of milestones which we could observe. Consequently, our -clocks do not--in the strict sense--measure time; but are adjusted -to _divide_ periods which they do not determine. We are constantly -correcting their errors and never entirely succeed in getting them -to run accurately to _periods of time_ which exist entirely outside -of such little things as men and clocks. So a clock is better as it -approximates or bears a regular _relation_ to some motion in nature. -The sidereal clock of the astronomer _does_ run to a regular motion; -but our 24-hour clocks _do not_, as we shall see later. Now consider -the year, or the sun's apparent motion in the Zodiac, from any given -star around to the same one again. This is altogether too long to be -divided by clocks, as we cannot make a clock which could be depended -on for anywhere near a year. The next shorter period is that of a -"moon." This is also a little too long, is not easily observed, and -requires all sorts of corrections. Observations of the moon at sea -are so difficult and subject to error that mariners use them only -as a last resort. If a little freedom of language is permissible, I -would say that the moon has a bad character all around, largely on -account of her long association with superstition, false theology -and heathen feasts. She has not purged herself even to this day! -The ancients were probably right when they called erratic and -ill-balanced persons "luny." Now we come to the day and find that it -is about the right practical length--but what kind of a day? As there -are five kinds we ought to be able to select one good enough. They -are:-- - - 1st. The solar day, or noon to noon by the sun. - - 2nd. An imaginary sun moving uniformly in the ecliptic. - - 3rd. A second imaginary sun moving uniformly parallel to the - equator at all seasons of the year. - - 4th. One absolute rotation of the earth. - - 5th. One rotation of the earth measured from the node, or - point, of the spring equinox. - -The difference between 1st and 2nd is that part of the sun's error -due to the elliptical orbit of the earth. - -The other part of the sun's error--and the larger--between 2nd and 3rd -is that due to the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator. - -The whole error between 1st and 3rd is the "equation of time" as -shown for even minutes in the first chapter under the heading, "Sun -on Noon Mark 1909." - -Stated simply, for our present purpose, 1st is sundial time, and 3rd -our 24-hour clock time. - -This 2nd day is therefore a refinement of the astronomers to -separate the two principal causes of the sun's error, and I think we -ought to handle it cautiously, or my friend, Professor Todd, might -rap us over the knuckles for being presumptuous. - -This 5th day is the sidereal day of the astronomers and is the basis -of our time, so it is entitled to a little attention. I shall confine -"sidereal day" to this 5th to avoid confusion with 4th. If you will -extend the plane of the equator into the star sphere, you have the -celestial equator. When the center of the sun passes through this -plane on his journey north, in the Spring, we say, "the sun has -crossed the line." This is a distant point in the Zodiac which can -be determined for any given year by reference to the fixed stars. To -avoid technicalities as much as possible we will call it the point -of the Spring equinox. This is really the point which determines -the common year, or year of the seasons. Using popular language, -the seasons are marked by four points,--Spring equinox--longest day--; -Autumnal equinox--shortest day. This would be very simple if the -equinoctial points would stay in the same places in the star sphere; -but we find that they creep westward each year to the extent of 50 -seconds of arc in the great celestial circle of the Zodiac. This is -called the precession of the equinoxes. The year is measured from -Spring equinox to Spring equinox again; but each year it comes 50 -seconds of arc less than a full revolution of the earth around the -sun. Therefore _if we measured our year by a full revolution_ we -would displace the months with reference to the seasons till the -hot weather would come in January and the cold weather in July in -about 13,000 years; or a complete revolution of the seasons back to -where we are, in 26,000 years. Leaving out fractions to make the -illustration plain, we have:-- - - (1) 360 degrees of Zodiac } - --------------------- = 26,000 years } - 50 seconds of arc } - } - (2) 1 day of time } - ------------- = 26,000 years } - 3-1/3 seconds } All - } Approximate - (3) 1 year of time } - -------------- = 26,000 years } - 20-1/3 minutes } - } - (4) 3-1/3 seconds } - ------------- = 1/110 of a second} - days in a year } - -In (1) we see that a "precession" of 50 seconds of arc will bring the -Spring equinox around in 26,000 years. - -In (2) we see, as 50 seconds of arc represents the distance the earth -will rotate in 3-1/3 seconds, a difference of one day will result -in 26,000 years. That is since the clock regulated by the stars, or -absolute rotations of the earth, would get behind 3-1/3 seconds per -year, it would be behind a day in 26,000 years, as compared with a -sidereal clock regulated by the Spring equinoctial point. - -In (3) we see that as 50 seconds of arc is traversed by the earth, in -its annual revolution, in 20-1/3 minutes, a complete circle of the -Zodiac will be made in 26,000 years. - -In (4) we see that as the difference between the year of the seasons -and the Zodiacal year is 3-1/3 seconds of the earth's rotation, it -follows that if this is divided by the number of days in a year -we have the amount which a sidereal day is less than 4th, or an -absolute rotation of the earth. That is, any meridian passes the -Spring equinoctial point 1/110 of a second sooner than the time of -one absolute rotation. These four equations are all founded on the -precession of the equinoxes, and are simply different methods of -stating it. Absolutely and finally, our time is regulated by the -earth's rotation; but strange as it may appear, we do not take one -rotation as a unit. As shown above, we take a rotation to a _movable -point_ which creeps the 1/110 of a second daily. But after all, it is -the _uniform_ rotation which governs. This is the one "dependable" -motion which has not been found variable, and is the most easily -observed. When we remember that the earth is not far from being as -heavy as a ball of iron, and that its surface velocity at the equator -is about 17 miles per minute, it is easy to form a conception of its -uniform motion. Against this, however, we may place the friction -of the tides, forcing up of mountain ranges, as well as mining and -building skyscrapers--all tending to slow it. Mathematicians moving in -the ethereal regions of astronomy lead us to conclude that it _must_ -become gradually slower, and that _it is_ slowing; but the amount may -be considered a vanishing quantity even compared with the smallest -errors of our finest clocks; so for uncounted generations past--and to -come--we may consider the earth's rotation uniform. Having now found -a uniform motion easily observed and of convenient period, why not -adopt it as our time unit? The answer has been partially given above -in the fact that we are compelled to use a year, measured from the -Spring equinoctial point, so as to keep our seasons in order; and -therefore as we must have some point where the sidereal clocks and -the meantime clocks coincide, we take the same point, and that point -is the Spring equinox. Now we have three days:-- - - 1st. A sidereal day 1/110 of a second less than one rotation of - the earth. - - 2nd. One rotation of the earth in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 - seconds, nearly, of clock time. - - 3rd. One mean time clock day of 24 hours, which has been explained - previously. - -Now, isn't it remarkable that our 24-hour day is purely artificial, -and that nothing in nature corresponds to it? Our real day of 24 -hours is a _theoretical_ day. Still more remarkable, this theoretical -day is the unit by which we express motions in the solar system. A -lunar month is days--hours--minutes--and seconds of this theoretical -day, and so for planetary motions. And still more remarkable, the -earth's rotation which is _itself_ the foundation is expressed in -this imaginary time! This looks like involution involved, yet our -24-hour day is as real as reality; and the man has not yet spoken who -can tell whether a mathematical conception, sustained in practical -life, is less real than a physical fact. Our legal day of practical -life is therefore deduced from the day of a fraction _less_ than one -earth rotation. In practice, however, the small difference between -this and a rotation is often ignored, because as the tenth of a -second is about as near as observations can be made it is evident -that for single observations 1/110 of a second does not count, but -for a whole year it does, and amounts to 3-1/3 seconds. Now as to -the setting of our clocks. While the time measured by the point of -the Spring equinox is what we must find it is found by noting the -transits of fixed stars, because _the relation_ of star time to -equinoctial time is known and tabulated. Remember we cannot take -a transit of the equinoctial point, because there is nothing to -see, and that _nothing_ is moving! But it can be observed yearly -and astronomers can tell where it is, at any time of the year, by -calculation. The stars which are preferred for observation are -called "time stars" and are selected as near the celestial equator -as possible. The earth's axis has a little wabbling motion called -"nutation" which influences the _apparent_ motion of the stars near -the pole; but this motion almost disappears as they come near the -equator, because nutation gives the plane of the equator only a -little "swashplate" motion. The positions of a number of "time stars" -with reference to the equinoctial point, are known, and these are -observed and the observations averaged. The distance of any time -star from the equinoctial point, _in time_, is called its "right -ascension." Astronomers claim an accuracy to the twentieth part of -a second when such transits are carefully taken, but over a long -period, greater exactness is obtained. Really, the time at which any -given star passes the meridian is taken, _in practical life_, from -astronomical tables in the Nautical Almanacs. Those tables are the -result of the labors of generations of mathematicians, are constantly -subject to correction, and cannot be made simple. Remember, the -Earth's rotation is the only uniform motion, all the others being -subject to variations and even compound variations. This very subject -is the best example of the broad fact that science is a constant -series of approximations; therefore, nothing is exact, and nothing -is permanent but change. But you say that mathematics is an exact -science. Yes, but it is a _logical abstraction_, and is therefore -only the universal solvent in physical science. - -With our imaginary--but real--time unit of 24 hours we are now ready -to consider "local time." Keeping the above explanation in mind, we -may use the usual language and speak of the earth rotating in 24 -hours clock time; and since motion is relative, it is permissible to -speak of the motion of the sun. In the matter of the sun's apparent -motion we are compelled to speak of his "rising," "setting," etc., -because language to express the motion in terms of the earth's -rotation has not been invented yet. For these reasons we will assume -that in Fig. 47 the sun is moving as per large arrow and also that -the annulus, half black and half white, giving the 24 hours, is -fastened to the sun by a rigid bar, as shown, and moves around the -earth along with him. In such illustrations the sun must always be -made small in proportion, but this rather tends to plainness. For -simplicity, we assume that the illustration represents an equinox -when the sun is on the celestial equator. Imagine your eye in the -center of the sun's face at A, and you would be looking on the -meridian of Greenwich at 12 noon; then in one hour you would be -looking on 15 deg. west at 12 noon; but this would bring 13 o'clock to -Greenwich. Continue till you look down on New York at 12 noon, then -it is 17 o'clock at Greenwich (leaving out fractions for simplicity) -etc. If you will make a simple drawing like Fig. 47 and cut the -earth separate, just around the inside of the annulus, and stick a -pin at the North Pole for a center, you may rotate the earth as per -small arrow and get the actual motion, but the result will be just -the same as if you went by the big arrow. We thus see that every -instant of the 24 hours is represented, at some point, on the earth. -That is, the earth has an infinity of local times; so it has every -conceivable instant of the 24 hours at some place on the circle. -Suppose we set up 1,410 clocks at uniform distances on the equator, -then they would be about 17 miles apart and differ by minutes. Now -make it 86,400 clocks, they would be 1,500 feet apart and differ by -seconds. With 864,000 clocks they would be 150 feet apart and vary -by tenths of seconds. It is useless to extend this, since you could -always imagine more clocks in the circle; thus establishing the -fact that there are an infinity of times at an infinity of places -always on the earth. It is necessary to ask a little patience here -as I shall use this local time and its failure later in our talk. -Strictly, local time has never been used, because it has been found -impracticable in the affairs of life. This will be plain when we draw -attention to the uniform time of London, which is Greenwich time; yet -the British Museum is 30 seconds slow of Greenwich, and other places -in London even more. This is railroad time for Great Britain; but -it is 20 minutes too fast for the west of England. This led to no -end of confusion and clocks were often seen with two minute hands, -one to local and the other to railroad time. This mixed up method -was followed by "standard time," with which we are all pretty well -acquainted. Simply, standard time consists in a uniform time for each -15 deg. of longitude, but this is theoretical to the extreme, and is -not even approached in practice. The first zone commences at Greenwich -and as that is near the eastern edge of the British Islands, their -single zone time is fast at nearly all places, especially the west -coast of Ireland. When we follow these zones over to the United -States we find an attempt to make the middle of each zone correct to -local time, so at the hour jumping points, we pass from half an hour -slow to half an hour fast, or the reverse. We thus see that towns -about the middle of these four United States zones have sunrise and -sunset and their local day correct, but those at the eastern and -western edges average half an hour wrong. As a consequence of this -disturbance of the working hours depending on the light of the day, -many places keep two sets of clocks and great confusion results. Even -this is comprehensible; but it is a mere fraction of the trouble -and complication, because the hour zones are not separated by -meridians in practice, but by zig-zag lines of great irregularity. -Look at a time map of the United States and you will see the zones -divided by lines of the wildest irregularity. Now question one of -the brightest "scientific chaps" you can find in one of the great -railroad offices whose lines touch, or enter, Canada and Mexico. -Please do not tell me what he said to you! So great is the confusion -that no man understands it all. The amount of wealth destroyed in -printing time tables, _and failing to explain them_, is immense. The -amount of human life destroyed by premature death, as a result of -wear and tear of brain cells is too sad to contemplate. And all by -attempting the impossible; for local time, _even if it was reduced to -hourly periods_ is not compatible with any continental system of time -and matters can only get worse while the attempt continues. For the -present, banish this zone system from your mind and let us consider -the beginning and ending of a day, using strictly local time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47--Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and -Ending of the Day] - -A civil, or legal, day ends at the instant of 24 o'clock, midnight, -and the next day commences. The time is continuous, the last instant -of a day touching the first instant of the next. This is true for -all parts of the earth; but something _in addition_ to this happens -at a certain meridian called the "date line." Refer again to Fig. 47 -which is drawn with 24 meridians representing hours. As we are taking -Greenwich for our time, the meridians are numbered from 0 deg., on -which the observatory of Greenwich stands. When you visit Greenwich you -can have the pleasure of putting your foot on "the first meridian," -as it is cut plainly across the pavement. Degrees of longitude are -numbered east and west, meeting just opposite at 180 deg., which is -the "date line." Our day begins at this line, so far as _dates_ are -concerned; but the _local day_ begins everywhere at midnight. Let -us start to go around the world from the date line, westward. When -we arrive at 90 deg. we are one quarter around and it takes the sun 6 -hours longer to reach us. At 0 deg. (Greenwich) we are half around and -12 hours ahead of the sun motion. At 90 deg. west, three quarters, or -18 hours, and when back to 180 deg. we have _added_ to the length of -all days of our journey enough to make one day; therefore our date must -be one day behind. Try this example to change the wording:--Let us -start from an island B, just west of the date line. These islanders -have their 24-hour days, commencing at midnight, like all other -places. As we move westward our day commences later and later than -theirs, as shown above. Suppose we arrive at the eastern edge of -the 180 deg. line on Saturday at 12 o'clock, but before we cross it -we call over to the islanders,--what day is it? We would get answer, -"Sunday;" because all our days have been longer, totalling one day in -the circuit of the globe. So if we step over the line at 12 o clock -Saturday, presto, it is 12 o'clock Sunday. It looks like throwing out -24 hours, but this is not so, since we have lived exactly the same -number of hours and seconds as the islanders. In this supposition -we have all the _dates_, however, but have jumped half of Saturday -and half of Sunday, which equals one day. In practice this would not -have been the method, for if the ship was to call at the island, the -captain would have changed date on Friday night and thrown Saturday -out, all in one piece, and would have arrived on their Sunday; so -his log for that week would have contained only 6 days. It is not -necessary to go over the same ground for a circuit of the globe -eastward, but if you do so you will find that you _shorten_ your days -and on arriving at the date line would have a day too much; so in -this case you would _double_ a date and have 8 days in that week. In -both cases this is caused by compounding your motion with that of the -sun; going with him westward and lengthening your days, or eastward -meeting him and shortening them. Figure 47 shows Greenwich noon, we -will say on Monday, and at that instant, Monday only, exists from 0 -to 24 o'clock on the earth; but the next instant, Tuesday begins at -180 deg. B. In one hour it is noon of Monday at 15 deg. West, and -midnight at 165 deg. East; so Tuesday is one hour old and there is left -23 hours of Monday. Monday steadily declines to 0 as Tuesday steadily -grows to 24 hours; so that, except at the instant of Greenwich noon, -there are always two days on the world at once. If we said that there are -_always_ two days on the world at once, we could not be contradicted; -since there is no conceivable time between Monday and Tuesday; it -is an instantaneous change. As we cannot conceive of _no time_, -the statement that there is only one day on the earth at Greenwich -noon is not strictly permissible. Since there are always two days -on the world at once let us suppose that these two are December -31st and January 1st; then we have _two years_ on the world at once -for a period of 24 hours. Nine years ago we had the 19th and 20th -centuries on the world at once, etc. As a mental exercise, you may -carry this as far as you please. Suppose there was an impassable sea -wall built on the 180 deg. meridian, then there would be two days on -the world, just as explained above; but, _practically_, there would be -no date line, since in sailing west to this wall we would "lengthen -our days," and then shorten them the same amount coming around east -to the other side of the wall, but would never jump or double a date. -This explanation is founded, as it ought to be, on uniform local -time, and is the simplest I can give. The date line is fundamentally -simple, but is difficult to explain. When it is complicated by the -standard time--or jumping hour system--and also with the fact that -some islands count their dates from the wrong side of the line for -their longitudes, scientific paradoxes arise, such as having three -dates on the world at once, etc.; but as these things are of no more -value than wasting time solving Chinese puzzles, they are left out. -Ships change date on the nearest night to the date line; but if they -are to call at some island port in the Pacific, they may change -either sooner or later to correspond with its date. Here is a little -Irish date line wit printed for the first time,--I was telling my -bright friend about turning in on Saturday night and getting up for -breakfast on Monday morning. "Oh," said he, "I have known gentlemen -to do as good as that without leaving New York City!" - -As what is to follow relates to the growing difficulties of local -time and a proposed method of overcoming them, let us recapitulate:-- - - 1st. Local time has never been kept, and the difficulties of - using it have increased as man advanced, reaching a climax of - absurdity on the advent of the railroad; so it broke down and - became impractical. - - 2nd. To make the irregular disorder of local time an orderly - confusion, the "standard time"--jumping by hours--has helped a - little, but only because we can tell how much it is wrong at - any given place. This is its only advantage over the first - method, where we had no means of knowing what to expect on - entering any new territory. That is, we have improved things by - throwing out local time to the extent of an hour. - -My proposal is to throw local time out _totally_ and establish one, -invariable, _universal time_. Greenwich time being most in use now, -and meridians numbered from it, may be taken in preference to any -other. Still another reason is that the most important timekeepers in -modern life--ship's chronometers--are set to Greenwich time. Universal -time--no local time--only local day and night. Our 24-hour system is -all right, so do not disturb it, as it gets rid of A.M. and P.M. and -makes the day our unit of time. Our railroad time now throws out -local time to the extent of one hour; but I propose to throw it out -entirely and never change the clock hands from Greenwich time. The -chronometers do that now, so let us conduct all business to that time. - -Now refer to Fig. 46, in which Greenwich is taken as universal time. -The annulus, half white and half black, indicates the average day and -night, and is a separate ring in the dial which can be set so that -"noon" is on the meridian of the place, as shown for four places in -the illustration. It is the same dial in all four cases set to local -day and night. Strictly, the local time conception is dropped and the -local day left for regulating working and sleeping time. All business -would have the same time. In traveling east we would not have the -short hours; or west, the long hours. All clocks and watches would -show the same time as ship's chronometers do now. The only change -would be the names of the hours for the parts of the local day. -This is just the difficulty, for we are so accustomed to _associate_ -a certain number, as seven, with the morning and breakfast time. -Suppose breakfast time in London is 7 o'clock, then according to the -local day it would be 12 o'clock breakfast time in New York; but in -both cases it would be the same time with reference to the _local -daylight_. Let it be distinctly understood that our association of -_12 o'clock_ with _noon_ is not necessary. The Japanese called it -"horse" and "nine"--the ancient Romans, the New Testament writers, -and the Turks called it the "sixth hour"--the astronomers now call it -24 o'clock, and the Chinese represent it by several characters; but, -in all cases, it is simply the middle of the day at any place. By -the proposed universal time, morning, noon, and evening would be--_at -any given place_--the same hours. There would be no necessity of -establishing legal noon with exactness to the meridian, because that -would only regulate labor, meals, etc., and would not touch universal -time. This is an important part of the proposal and is worth -elaborating a little. Sections in manufacturing districts could make -their working hours correspond at pleasure and no confusion would -result. That is, local working hours to convenience but by the same -universal time. Note how perfectly this would work in traveling,--you -arrive in Chicago from the effete east and your watch corresponds -all along with the railroad clocks. As you leave the station you -glance up at the clock and see that Chicago noon is 17.30, so you -set the day and night ring of your watch to match the same ring on -the clock, but no disturbance of the hands. As you register at the -hotel you ask,--dinner? and get answer, 24.30--then breakfast, 12.30. -These questions are necessary now, so I do not add complication -here. When you arrive in a strange city you must ask about meals, -business hours, theater hours, "doors open" hours, etc., etc.; so -all this remains the same. Let us put the matter forcibly,--while we -count days, or _dates_, _something_ must vary with east and west; -I propose the fixing of hours for business and sleep to suit each -locality, but an invariable time. Get rid of the idea that a certain -number, as 7 o'clock, represents the age of the day _at all places_. -See how this would wipe out the silly proposal to "save daylight" -by setting the clock back and forward. Suppose workmen commenced at -12.30 in New York; for the long summer days make it 11.30, but no -change in universal time. As this is the only difference from our -present time system, keep the central conception, firmly,--universal -time--local day and night. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46--Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places] - -Suppose Chicago decided that "early to bed and early to rise" was -desirable; then it could establish its legal noon as 17.30, which -would be about 20 minutes early for its meridian. You could do -business with Chicago for a lifetime and not find this out, unless -you looked up the meridian of Chicago and found that it was 17.50 -o'clock. None of the railroads or steamship lines of the city would -need to know this, except as a matter of scientific curiosity, -for the time tables would all be printed in universal time. For -hiring labor, receiving and delivering goods, etc., they would -only need to know Chicago _business hours_. To state the matter in -different words,--Chicago would only need to decide what portion of -the universal 24 hours would suit it best for its day and which -for its night, and if it decided, as supposed above, to place its -working day forward a little to give some daylight after labor, -nothing would be disturbed and only the scientific would ever -know. Certainly, "save daylight," but do not make a fool of the -clock! Having shown the great liberty which localities could take -without touching the working of the system, the same remarks apply -to ultra-scientific localities. A city might establish its noon to -the instant; so it is possible--even if a little improbable--that -the brilliant and scientific aldermen of New York might appoint -a commission with proper campfollowers and instrument bearers to -determine the longitude of the city to the Nth of a second and tell -us where we "are at." The glory of this achievement--and especially -its total cost--would be all our own and incorruptible time would be -untouched! We thus see that great local freedom and great accuracy -are alike possible. With our present system, accuracy in local time -is impracticable and has never even been attempted, and is confusion -confused since we added the railroad hour jumps. Why did we nurse -this confusion till it has become almost intolerable? Because man -has always been a slave to _mental associations, and habits_. -Primitive man divided the local day into parts and gave them names -and this mental attitude sticks to us after it has served its day. -The advantages of universal time could hardly be enumerated, yet we -can have them all by dropping our childish association of 7 o'clock -with breakfast time! Another example,--you visit a friend for a few -days and on retiring the first night you ask "what is your breakfast -hour"--"8 o'clock." You have to ask this question and recollect the -answer. Now tell me what difference it would make if the answer had -been 13 o'clock? None whatever, unless, perhaps, that is, you do not -like thirteen! You ask, how about ships? Ships now carry universal -time and only change the clock on deck to please the simple minded -passengers. How about the date line? No change whatever, so long -as we use _dates_ which means numbering local days. It is useless -multiplying examples; all difficulties disappear, as if by magic, the -moment we can free our minds of local time and the association of -the _same hour_ with the _same portion_ of the day at _all places_. -The great interest at present manifested in the attempts to reach -the North Pole calls for some consideration of universal time in -the extreme north. Commencing at the equator, it is easy to see -that the day and night ring, Fig. 46, would represent the days and -nights of 12 hours at all seasons. As we go north, however, this -ring represents the _average_ day and night. When we reach the Polar -Circle, still going north, the _daily_ rising and setting of the sun -gradually ceases till we reach the great one-year day at the Pole, -consisting of six months darkness and six months light. Let us now -assume that an astronomical observatory is established here and the -great equatorial placed precisely on the pole. At this point, _local -time_, _day and night_, and _the date line_, almost cease to have -a meaning. For this very reason universal time would be the only -practical method; therefore, it _more_ than stands the test of being -carried to the extreme. Universal time would regulate working and -sleeping here the same as at all other places. Strictly local time in -this observatory would be an absurdity, because in walking around the -telescope (pole) you would be in all instants of the 24 hours within -five seconds! At the pole the day would commence at the same instant -as at some assumed place, and the day and night ring would represent -working and sleeping as at that place. Suppose this observatory to -be in telegraphic communication with New York, then it would be -best for the attendants to set their day and night to New York, so -as to correspond with its business hours. Many curious suppositions -might be made about this polar observatory with its "great night" -and equally "great day." It is evident that to keep count of itself -it would be compelled to note _dates_ and 24-hour _days_ to keep in -touch with us; so it would be forced to adopt the local day of some -place like New York. This choice would be free, because a polar -observatory would stand on all the meridians of the earth at once. - -We are now in a position to consider the next possible--and even -probable--improvement in our clocks and watches. To minimize the -next step it might be well to see what we can do now. Clocks are -often regulated by electric impulses over wires. Electricians inform -me that they can do this by wireless; but that owing to the rapid -attenuation of the impulses it cannot be done commercially, over -great distances. In the history of invention the first step was _to -do something_ and then find a way of doing it cheaply enough for -general use. So far as I know, the watch in the wearer's pocket has -not yet been regulated by wireless; but I am willing to risk the -statement that the editor of Popular Mechanics can name more than one -electrician who can do this. A watch to take these impulses might be -larger than our present watches, but it would not stay larger and -would ultimately become much smaller. You know what has happened -since the days of the big "onions" described in the third chapter. -Fig. 34; so get your electric watch and make it smaller at your -leisure. We have made many things commercially practicable, which -looked more revolutionary than this. Now throw out the mainspring, -wheels, pinions, etc., of our watches and reduce the machinery part -to little more than dial and hands and do the driving by wireless, -say, once every minute. I feel certain that I am restraining the -scientific imagination in saying that the man lives among us who can -do this. I repeat, that we now possess the elementary knowledge--which -if collated and applied--would produce such a watch. - -Now I have a big question to ask--the central note of interrogation -in this little scientific conversation with you,--does the man -live who can make the earth automatically record its rotation? -Do not be alarmed, for I am prepared to make a guess as to this -possibility. A _direct_ mechanical record of the earth's rotation -seems hopeless, but let us see what can be done. You are aware -that some of the fixed stars have a distinct spectrum. It is not -unreasonable to suppose that an instrument could be made to record -the passage of such a star over the meridian. Ah, but you say, there -is no mechanical force in this. Do not hurry, for we have long been -acquainted with the fact that things which, apparently, have no -force can be made to liberate something which manifests mechanical -force. We could now start or stop the greatest steam engine by a -gleam of sunlight, and some day we might be able to do as much by the -lately discovered pressure of light. That is, we can now liberate -the greatest forces by the most infinitesimal, by steps; the little -force liberating one greater than itself, and that one another still -greater. A good example is the stopping of an electric train, from a -distance, by wireless. The standard clock in Philadelphia, previously -referred to, is a delicate instrument and its most delicate part, -having the least force, moves a little valve every minute, and by -several steps liberates the air pressure, 200 feet higher in the -tower, to move the four sets of great hands. I am not traveling -beyond the record when I say that the invisible actinic rays could be -used to liberate a great force; therefore what is there unreasonable -in the supposition that the displacement of the sodium line in the -spectrum of a star might be made to record the earth's rotation? So -I say to the electrician--the optician--the photographer--the chemist -and the mechanic.--get together and produce this watch. Permit me, -with conventional and intentional modesty, to name the new timepiece -_Chroncosmic_. For pocket use, it would be _Cosmic watch_. In the -first chapter I allowed to the year 2,000 for the production of this -watch, but it is likely we will not need to wait so long. - -Having stated my proposal for universal time as fully as space will -permit and given my guess as to the coming cosmic watch, let us in -this closing paragraph indulge in a little mental exercise. Suppose -we copy the old time lecturer on astronomy and "allow our minds to -penetrate into space." Blessed be his memory, he was a doer of good. -How impressive as he repeatedly dropped his wooden pointer, and lo! -It always moved straight to the floor; thus triumphantly vindicating -universal gravitation!!! - -We can think of a time system which would discard months, weeks and -days. What is the meaning of the financial almanac in which the -days are numbered from 1 to 365 or 366? Simply a step in the right -direction, _away from the months and weeks_, so that the distance -between any two dates may be seen at a glance. We would really be -better without months and weeks. Now let us consider the year of -the seasons as a unit--long since proposed by the astronomers--and -divide it into 3,000 chrons. Clocks regulated by star transits, as -at present, would divide this decimally, the fourth place being near -enough to make the new pendulums of convenient length. This would -throw out months, weeks and days, local time and the date line. -Each of these chrons would represent the same time in the year, -permanently. For example, 464.6731 would mark to a _dixmilliemechron_ -(a little more than one second) the point reached in the year; while -the date does not, as I have shown in the first chapter. But you -still object that this is a great number of figures to use in fixing -a point in the year. Let us see what it takes to fix a point in the -year now, _August 24th, 11-16-32 P. M., New York standard time_. A -pretty long story, but it does not fix the point of the year even -then; for it would require the assistance of an astronomer to fix -such a point in _any given_ year, say 1909. But 464.6731 would be -eternally right in _absolute time_ of the seasons, and has only one -meaning, with no qualifications for any year whatever. I believe -the astronomers should use a method something like this. Ah, but -there is a difficulty in applying this to the affairs of daily life -which looks insurmountable. This is caused by the fact that the -_day_ and _year_ are incommeasurable. One of them cannot be exactly -expressed in terms of the other. They are like the diagonal and side -of a square. The day is now the unit and therefore the year has an -interminable fraction; conversely, if we make the year the unit, then -the day becomes an endless fraction. This brings us face to face with -the local day which we ignored in our scientific year unit. We _must_ -regulate our labors, in this world, to day and night and, with the -year unit, the chrons would bear no fixed relation to day and night, -even for two days in succession. So the year unit and absolute time -must be left to the astronomers; but the _day unit_ and the uniform -world day of _universal time_ as explained in connection with Fig. 46 -I offer as a practical system. - -I am satisfied that all attempts to measure the year and the day -by the same _time yard stick_ must fail and keep us in our present -confusion. Therefore separate them once for all time. Brought down to -its lowest terms my final proposal is:-- - - 1st. An equinoctial year unit for the astronomers, divided - somewhat as suggested, but no attempt to make the divisions - even approximate to days and hours. This would fix all - astronomical events, absolutely. A variation in the length of - the year would not disturb this system, since the year _itself_ - would be the unit. In translating this astronomical, or year - unit time, into clock time, no difficulties would be added, as - compared with our present translation of sidereal time into - clock time. Deal with the _year unit_ and _day unit_ separately - and convert them mutually when necessary. - - 2nd. A universal mean time day of 24 hours, as now kept at - Greenwich, all human business being regulated by this time. - Dates and the date line as well as leap years all being - retained as at present. - - 3rd. Weight and spring clocks and watches to be superseded by - the cosmic clocks and watches regulated by wireless impulses - from central time stations, all impulses giving the same - invariable time for all places. - - 4th. Automatic recording of the earth's rotations to determine - this time. - -To avoid any possibility of misunderstanding, I would advise never -counting a unit till it is completed. We do this correctly with our -hours, as we understand 24 o'clock to be the same as 0 o'clock. But -we do not carry this out logically, for we say 24.30. How can this -be so, since there is nothing more than 24 o'clock? It ought to be -simply 30 minutes, or 0 hour 30 minutes. How can there be any _hour_ -when a new day is only 30 minutes old? This brings up the acrimonious -controversy, of some years ago, as to whether there was any "year -one." One side insisted that till one year was completed there could -only be months and days. The other side argued that the "year one" -commenced at 0 and that the month and date showed how much of it had -passed. Test yourself,--is this the year 1909, of which only 8 months -have passed; or is it 1909 and 8 months more? Regarding the centuries -there appears to be no difference of opinion that 1900 is completed, -and that we are in the 20th century. But can you tell whether we are -8 years and 8 months into the 20th century or 9 years and 8 months? -It ought to be, logically 1909 years _complete_ and 8 months of the -next year, which we must not count till it is completed. Take a -carpenter's rule, we say 1/4 in.--1/2 in.--3/4 in., but do not count -an inch till we complete it. When the ancients are quoted,--"about -the middle of the third hour" there is no mistake, because that means -2-1/2 hours since sunrise. If we said the 1909th year that would be -definite too, and mean some distance into that year. Popular language -states that Greenwich is on the "first meridian"; strictly, it is on -the zero meridian, or 0 deg. These matters are largely academic and I -do not look on them as serious subjects of discussion; but they are good -thought producers. Bidding you good-bye, for the present, it might -be permissible to state that this conversational article on Time was -intended to be readable and somewhat instructive; but especially to -indicate the infinity of the subject, that thought and investigation -might be encouraged. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Original spelling and grammar have mostly been retained. However, on -page 31, "clepsydral" was changed to "clepsydra". - -Figures were moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. In -addition, some figures were originally out of numerical sequence; -they are now in sequence. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT*** - - -******* This file should be named 44838.txt or 44838.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/4/8/3/44838 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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