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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Time and Its Measurement, by James Arthur
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Time and Its Measurement
+
+
+Author: James Arthur
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 7, 2014  [eBook #44838]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, RichardW, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      See 44838-h.htm or 44838-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44838/44838-h/44838-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44838/44838-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      https://archive.org/details/timeitsmeasureme00arth
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The notation "_{n}" means that n is a subscript.
+
+      Small capital text has been converted to all uppercase.
+
+
+
+
+
+TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT
+
+by
+
+JAMES ARTHUR
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Reprinted from
+Popular Mechanics Magazine
+
+Copyright, 1909, By H. H. Windsor
+
+Chicago, 1909
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ HISTORIC OUTLINE
+
+ Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night.
+ -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours
+ of the New Testament. -- Shadow, or sun time. -- Noon mark dials.
+ -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern dials. --
+ Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. --
+ "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and
+ time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece          Page 13
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ JAPANESE CLOCKS
+
+ Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying
+ length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line
+ dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for
+ same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock
+ movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. --
+ Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials
+ founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics
+ and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3.
+ -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of
+ striking hours and half hours                                 Page 25
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ MODERN CLOCKS
+
+ De Vick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. --
+ "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock. --
+ The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with earliest
+ application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct designs
+ for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. -- 24-hour
+ watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. -- Correct method of
+ striking hours and quarters. -- Design for 24-hour dial and
+ hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions of the old clock-makers
+                                                               Page 37
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME
+
+ Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons
+ for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour
+ day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. --
+ Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform
+ motion known to us. -- Time stars and transits. -- Local time.
+ -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of
+ a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal
+ time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement
+ in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of
+ the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for
+ astronomers. -- General conclusions                           Page 53
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+ Portrait of James Arthur                                            8
+
+ Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods of Time Keeping     15
+
+ Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of Herculaneum              16
+
+ Noon-Mark Sundials                                                 17
+
+ Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude 40�-43�                     18
+
+ The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to Axis                 18
+
+ Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden                                    18
+
+ "Time-Boy" of India                                                19
+
+ "Hon-woo-et-low," or "Copper Jars Dropping Water"--Canton, China   19
+
+ Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"                                  20
+
+ Tower of the Winds, Athens, Greece                                 20
+
+ Key to Japanese Figures                                            25
+
+ Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days                         25
+
+ Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short Pendulum             26
+
+ Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and Balance             26
+
+ Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and Balance              27
+
+ Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having Curved Lines, Weight
+ and Balance                                                        27
+
+ Japanese Vertical Dials                                            28
+
+ Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and Two Escapements      29
+
+ "Twelve Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems" as Used in
+ Clocks                                                             30
+
+ Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems"               30
+
+ Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock                                31
+
+ Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of Hours                     32
+
+ Public Dial by James Arthur                                        37
+
+ Dial of Philadelphia City Hall Clock                               37
+
+ Verge Escapement                                                   37
+
+ De Vick's Clock of 1364                                            38
+
+ Anchor Escapement                                                  38
+
+ American Anchor Escapement                                         39
+
+ Dead Beat Escapement                                               39
+
+ Remontoir Clock by James Arthur                                    40
+
+ Remontoir Clock Movement                                           40
+
+ Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made                              41, 42
+
+ Double-Case Watch of Repouss� Work                                 42
+
+ Triple-Case Turkish Watches                                        43
+
+ Watch Showing Dutch Art Work                                       43
+
+ Triple-Case Turkish Watch                                          44
+
+ Watches Showing Art Work                                           45
+
+ Antique Watch Cock                                                 46
+
+ "Chinese" Watch                                                    46
+
+ Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters                        47
+
+ Syrian Dial                                                        47
+
+ Hebrew Numerals                                                    48
+
+ Twenty-four Hour Watch                                             48
+
+ Domestic Dial by James Arthur                                      49
+
+ Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and Ending of the Day         57
+
+ Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places                            61
+
+
+[Illustration: James Arthur
+
+Mr. Arthur is an enthusiastic scientist, a successful inventor and
+extensive traveler, who has for years been making a study of clocks,
+watches, and time-measuring devices. He is not only a great authority
+on this subject, but his collection of over 1500 timepieces gathered
+from all parts of the globe has been pronounced the finest collection
+in the world. Mr. Arthur is a pleasing exception to the average
+business man, for he has found time to do a large amount of study and
+research along various scientific lines in addition to conducting an
+important manufacturing business in New York City, of which he is
+president. Mr. Arthur is 67 years of age.--H. H. Windsor.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HISTORIC OUTLINE
+
+ Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night.
+ -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours
+ of the New Testament. -- Shadow or sun time. -- Noon mark dials.
+ -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern Dials. --
+ Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. --
+ "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and
+ time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece.
+
+
+Time, as a separate entity, has not yet been defined in language.
+Definitions will be found to be merely explanations of the sense in
+which we use the word in matters of practical life. No human being
+can tell how long a minute is; only that it is longer than a second
+and shorter than an hour. In some sense we can think of a longer
+or shorter period of time, but this is merely comparative. The
+difference between 50 and 75 steps a minute in marching is clear to
+us, but note that we introduce motion and space before we can get a
+conception of time as a succession of events, but time, in itself,
+remains elusive.
+
+In time measures we strive for a uniform motion of something and
+this implies equal spaces in equal times; so we here assume just
+what we cannot explain, for space is as difficult to define as time.
+Time cannot be "squared" or used as a multiplier or divisor. Only
+numbers can be so used; so when we speak of "the square of the time"
+we mean some number which we have arbitrarily assumed to represent
+it. This becomes plain when we state that in calculations relating
+to pendulums, for example, we may use seconds and inches--minutes
+and feet--or seconds and meters and the answer will come out right
+in the units which we have assumed. Still more, numbers themselves
+have no meaning till they are applied to something, and here we are
+applying them to time, space and motion; so we are trying to explain
+three abstractions by a fourth! But, happily, the results of these
+assumptions and calculations are borne out in practical human life,
+and we are not compelled to settle the deep question as to whether
+fundamental knowledge is possible to the human mind. Those desiring
+a few headaches on these questions can easily get them from Kant
+and Spencer--but that is all they will get on these four necessary
+assumptions.
+
+Evidently, man began by considering the day as a unit and did not
+include the night in his time keeping for a long period. "And the
+evening and the morning were the first day" Gen. 1, 5; "Evening and
+morning and at noonday," Ps. LV, 17, divides the day ("sun up") in
+two parts. "Fourth part of a day," Neh. IX, 3, shows another advance.
+Then comes, "are there not twelve hours in a day," John XI, 9. The
+"eleventh hour," Matt. XX, 1 to 12, shows clearly that sunset was
+12 o'clock. A most remarkable feature of this 12-hour day, in the
+New Testament, is that the writers generally speak of the third,
+sixth and ninth hours, Acts II, 15; III, 1; X, 9. This is extremely
+interesting, as it shows that the writers still thought in quarter
+days (Neh. IX, 3) and had not yet acquired the 12-hour conception
+given to them by the Romans. They thought in quarter days even
+when using the 12-hour numerals! Note further that references are
+to "hours;" so it is evident that in New Testament times they did
+not need smaller subdivisions. "About the third hour," shows the
+mental attitude. That they had no conception of our minutes, seconds
+and fifth seconds becomes quite plain when we notice that they
+jumped down from the hour to nowhere, in such expressions as "in an
+instant--in the twinkling of an eye."
+
+Before this, the night had been divided into three watches, Judges
+VII, 19. Poetry to this day uses the "hours" and the "watches" as
+symbols.
+
+This 12 hours of daylight gave very variable hours in latitudes some
+distance from the equator, being long in summer and short in winter.
+The amount of human ingenuity expended on time measures so as to
+divide the time from sunrise to sunset into 12 equal parts is almost
+beyond belief. In Constantinople, to-day, this is used, but in a
+rather imperfect manner, for the clocks are modern and run 24 hours
+uniformly; so the best they can do is to set them to mark twelve at
+sunset. This necessitates setting to the varying length of the days,
+so that the clocks appear to be sometimes more and sometimes less
+than six hours ahead of ours. A clock on the tower at the Sultan's
+private mosque gives the impression of being out of order and about
+six hours ahead, but it is running correctly to their system. Hotels
+often show two clocks, one of them to our twelve o'clock noon system.
+Evidently the Jewish method of ending a day at sunset is the same
+and explains the command, "let not the sun go down upon thy wrath,"
+which we might read, do not carry your anger over to another day. I
+venture to say that we still need that advice.
+
+This simple line of steps in dividing the day and night is taken
+principally from the Bible because everyone can easily look up the
+passages quoted and many more, while quotations from books not in
+general use would not be so clear. Further, the neglect of the Bible
+is such a common complaint in this country that if I induce a few
+to look into it a little some good may result, quite apart from the
+matter of religious belief.
+
+Some Chinese and Japanese methods of dividing the day and night are
+indicated in Fig. 1. The old Japanese method divides the day into
+six hours and the night also into six, each hour averaging twice as
+long as ours. In some cases they did this by changing the rate of the
+clock, and in others by letting the clock run uniformly and changing
+the hour marks on the dial, but this will come later when we reach
+Japanese clocks.
+
+It is remarkable that at the present time in England the "saving
+daylight" agitation is virtually an attempt to go back to this
+discarded system. "John Bull," for a long period the time-keeper
+of the world with headquarters at Greenwich, and during that time
+the most pretentious clock-maker, now proposes to move his clocks
+backward and forward several times a year so as to "fool" his workmen
+out of their beds in the mornings! Why not commence work a few
+minutes earlier each fortnight while days are lengthening and the
+reverse when they are shortening?
+
+This reminds me of a habit which was common in Scotland,--"keeping
+the clock half an hour forward." In those days work commenced at six
+o'clock, so the husband left his house at six and after a good walk
+arrived at the factory at six! Don't you see that if his clock had
+been set right he would have found it necessary to leave at half
+past five? But, you say he was simply deceiving himself and acting
+in an unreasonable manner. Certainly, but the average man is not a
+reasonable being, and "John Bull" knows this and is trying to fool
+the average Englishman.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1--Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods
+of Time Keeping]
+
+Now, as to the methods of measuring time, we must use circumstantial
+evidence for the pre-historic period. The rising and the going down
+of the sun--the lengthening shadows, etc., must come first, and we are
+on safe ground here, for savages still use primitive methods like
+setting up a stick and marking its shadow so that a party trailing
+behind can estimate the distance the leaders are ahead by the changed
+position of the shadow. Men notice their shortening and lengthening
+shadows to this day. When the shadow of a man shortens more and
+more slowly till it appears to be fixed, the observer knows it
+is noon, and when it shows the least observable lengthening then
+it is just past noon. Now, it is a remarkable fact that this crude
+method of determining noon is just the same as "taking the sun" to
+determine noon at sea. Noon is the time at which the sun reaches his
+highest point on any given day. At sea this is determined generally
+by a sextant, which simply measures the angle between the horizon
+and the sun. The instrument is applied a little before noon and the
+observer sees the sun creeping upward slower and slower till a little
+tremor or hesitation appears indicating that the sun has reached his
+height,--noon. Oh! you wish to know if the observer is likely to make
+a mistake? Yes, and when accurate local time is important, several
+officers on a large ship will take the meridian passage at the same
+time and average their readings, so as to reduce the "personal
+error." All of which is merely a greater degree of accuracy than that
+of the man who observes his shadow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2--Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of
+Herculaneum]
+
+The gradual development of the primitive shadow methods culminated
+in the modern sundial. The "dial of Ahas," Isa. XXXVIII, 8, on which
+the sun went back 10 "degrees" is often referred to, but in one of
+the revised editions of the unchangeable word the sun went back 10
+"steps." This becomes extremely interesting when we find that in
+India there still remains an immense dial built with steps instead of
+hour lines. Figure 2 shows a pocket, or portable sundial taken from
+the ruins of Herculaneum and now in the Museo National, Naples. It
+is bronze, was silver plated and is in the form of a ham suspended
+from the hock joint. From the tail, evidently bent from its original
+position, which forms the gnomon, lines radiate and across these wavy
+lines are traced. It is about 5 in. long and 3 in. wide. Being in the
+corner of a glass case I was unable to get small details, but museum
+authorities state that names of months are engraved on it, so it
+would be a good guess that these wavy lines had something to do with
+the long and short days.
+
+In a restored flower garden, within one of the large houses in the
+ruins of Pompeii, may be seen a sundial of the Armillary type,
+presumably in its original position. I could not get close to it, as
+the restored garden is railed in, but it looks as if the plane of the
+equator and the position of the earth's axis must have been known to
+the maker.
+
+Both these dials were in use about the beginning of our era and were
+covered by the great eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., which destroyed
+Pompeii and Herculaneum.
+
+Modern sundials differ only in being more accurately made and a few
+"curiosity" dials added. The necessity for time during the night,
+as man's life became a little more complicated, necessitated the
+invention of time machines. The "clepsydra," or water clock, was
+probably the first. A French writer has dug up some old records
+putting it back to Hoang-ti 2679 B.C., but it appears to have been
+certainly in use in China in 1100 B.C., so we will be satisfied
+with that date. In presenting a subject to the young student it
+is sometimes advisable to use round numbers to give a simple
+comprehension and then leave him to find the overlapping of dates and
+methods as he advances. Keeping this in mind, the following table may
+be used to give an elementary hint of the three great steps in time
+measuring:
+
+ Shadow time, 2000 to 1000 B. C.
+
+ Dials and Water Clocks, 1000 B. C. to 1000 A. D.
+
+ Clocks and watches, 1000 to 2000 A. D.
+
+I have pushed the gear wheel clocks and watches forward to 2000 A.D.,
+as they may last to that time, but I have no doubt we will supersede
+them. At the present time science is just about ready to say that
+a time measurer consisting of wheels and pinions--a driving power
+and a regulator in the form of a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy
+contrivance and that we ought to do better very soon; but more on
+this hoped-for, fourth method when we reach the consideration of the
+motion on which we base all our time keeping.
+
+It is remarkable how few are aware that the simplest form of sundial
+is the best, and that, as a regulator of our present clocks, it is
+good within one or two minutes. No one need be without a "noon-mark"
+sundial; that is, every one may have the best of all dials. Take a
+post or any straight object standing "plumb," or best of all the
+corner of a building as in Fig. 3. In the case of the post, or tree
+trunk, a stone (shown in solid black) may be set in the ground;
+but for the building a line may often be cut across a flagstone of
+the footpath. Many methods may be employed to get this noon mark,
+which is simply a north and south line. Viewing the pole star, using
+a compass (if the local variation is known) or the old method of
+finding the time at which the shadow of a pole is shortest. But the
+best practical way in this day is to use a watch set to local time
+and make the mark at 12 o'clock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3--Noon-Mark Sundials]
+
+On four days of the year the sun is right and your mark may be set at
+12 on these days, but you may use an almanac and look in the column
+marked "mean time at noon" or "sun on meridian." For example, suppose
+on the bright day when you are ready to place your noon mark you read
+in this column 11:50, then when your watch shows 11:50 make your noon
+mark to the shadow and it will be right for all time to come. Owing
+to the fact that there are not an even number of days in a year, it
+follows that on any given yearly date at noon the earth is not at
+the same place in its elliptical orbit and the correction of this
+by the leap years causes the equation table to vary in periods of
+four years. The centennial leap years cause another variation of 400
+years, etc., but these variations are less than the error in reading
+a dial.
+
+ SUN ON NOON MARK, 1909
+ -------------------------------------------------------
+           Clock               Clock               Clock
+  Date     Time       Date     Time       Date     Time
+ -------------------------------------------------------
+ Jan.  2   12:04     May   1   11:57     Sep. 30   11:50
+   "   4   12:05       "  15   11:56     Oct.  3   11:49
+   "   7   12:06       "  28   11:57       "   6   11:48
+   "   9   12:07     June  4   11:58       "  10   11:47
+   "  11   12:08       "  10   11:59       "  14   11:46
+   "  14   12:09       "  14   12:00       "  19   11:45
+   "  17   12:10       "  19   12:01       "  26   11:44
+   "  20   12:11       "  24   12:02     Nov. 17   11:45
+   "  23   12:12       "  29   12:03       "  22   11:46
+   "  28   12:13     July  4   12:04       "  25   11:47
+ Feb.  3   12:14       "  10   12:05       "  29   11:48
+   "  26   12:13       "  19   12:06     Dec.  1   11:49
+ Mar.  3   12:12     Aug. 11   12:05       "   4   11:50
+   "   8   12:11       "  16   12:04       "   6   11:51
+   "  11   12:10       "  21   12:03       "   9   11:52
+   "  15   12:09       "  25   12:02       "  11   11:53
+   "  18   12:08       "  28   12:01       "  13   11:54
+   "  22   12:07       "  31   12:00       "  15   11:55
+   "  25   12:06     Sep.  4   11:59       "  17   11:56
+   "  28   12:05       "   7   11:58       "  19   11:57
+ Apr.  1   12:04       "  10   11:57       "  21   11:58
+   "   4   12:03       "  12   11:56       "  23   11:59
+   "   7   12:02       "  15   11:55       "  25   12:00
+   "  11   12:01       "  18   11:54       "  27   12:01
+   "  15   12:00       "  21   11:53       "  29   12:02
+   "  19   11:59       "  24   11:52       "  31   12:03
+   "  24   11:58       "  27   11:51
+ -------------------------------------------------------
+ The above table shows the variation of the sun from "mean"
+ or clock time, by even minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4--12-Inch Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude
+40�-43�]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5--The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to
+Axis]
+
+The reason that the table given here is convenient for setting clocks
+to mean time is that a minute is as close as a dial can be read, but
+if you wish for greater accuracy, then the almanac, which gives the
+"equation of time" to a second for each day, will be better. The
+reason that these noon-mark dials are better than ordinary commercial
+dials is that they are larger, and still further, noon is the only
+time that any dial is accurate to sun time. This is because the
+sun's rays are "refracted" in a variable manner by our atmosphere,
+but at noon this refraction takes place on a north and south line,
+and as that is our noon-mark line the dial reads correctly. So,
+for setting clocks, the corner of your house is far ahead of the
+most pretentious and expensive dial. In Fig. 4 is shown a modern
+horizontal dial without the usual confusing "ornamentation," and in
+Fig. 5 it is shown set up on the latitude of New York City for which
+it is calculated. This shows clearly why the edge FG of the style
+which casts the shadow must be parallel to the earth's axis and why
+a horizontal dial must be made for the latitude of the place where
+it is set up. Figure 6 is the same dial only the lines are laid
+out on a square dial plate, and it will give your young scientific
+readers a hint of how to set up a dial in the garden. In setting up a
+horizontal dial, consider only noon and set the style, or 12 o'clock
+line, north and south as described above for noon-mark dials.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6--Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden]
+
+A whole issue of Popular Mechanics could be filled on the subject
+of dials and even then only give a general outline. Astronomy,
+geography, geometry, mathematics, mechanics, as well as architecture
+and art, come in to make "dialing" a most charming scientific and
+intellectual avocation.
+
+During the night and also in cloudy weather the sundial was useless
+and we read that the priests of the temples and monks of more modern
+times "went out to observe the stars" to make a guess at the time
+of night. The most prominent type after the shadow devices was the
+"water clock" or "clepsydra," but many other methods were used, such
+as candles, oil lamps and in comparatively late times, the sand
+glass. The fundamental principle of all water clocks is the escape
+of water from a vessel through a small hole. It is evident that such
+a vessel would empty itself each time it is filled in very nearly
+the same time. The reverse of this has been used as shown in Fig. 7,
+which represents the "time-boy" of India. He sits in front of a large
+vessel of water and floats a bronze cup having a small hole in its
+bottom in this large vessel, and the leakage gradually lowers this
+cup till it sinks, after which he fishes it up and strikes one or
+more blows on it as a gong. This he continues and a rude division of
+time is obtained,--while he keeps awake!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7--"Time-Boy" of India]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8--"Hon-woo-et-low" or "Copper Jars Dropping
+Water"--Canton, China]
+
+The most interesting of all water clocks is undoubtedly the "copper
+jars dropping water," in Canton, China, where I saw it in 1897.
+Referring to the simple line sketch, which I make from memory, Fig.
+8, and reading four Chinese characters downwards the translation is
+"Canton City." To the left and still downwards,--"Hon-woo-et-low,"
+which is,--"Copper jars dropping water." Educated Chinamen inform me
+that it is over 3,000 years old and had a weather vane. As they
+speak of it as "the clock of the street arch" this would look quite
+probable; since the little open building, or tower in which it stands
+is higher than surrounding buildings. It is, therefore, reasonably
+safe to state that the Chinese had a _weather and time station_
+over 1,000 years before our era. It consists of four copper jars
+partially built in masonry forming a stair-like structure. Commencing
+at the top jar each one drops into the next downward till the water
+reaches the solid bottom jar. In this lowest one a float, "the bamboo
+stick," is placed and indicates the height of the water and thus in
+a rude way gives the time. It is said to be set morning and evening
+by dipping the water from jar 4 to jar 1, so it runs 12 hours of
+our time. What are the uses of jars 2 and 3, since the water simply
+enters them and drips out again? No information could be obtained,
+but I venture an explanation and hope the reader can do better, as
+we are all of a family and there is no jealousy. When the top jar is
+filled for a 12-hour run it would drip out too fast during the first
+six hours and too slow during the second six hours, on account of
+the varying "head" of water. Now, the spigot of jar 2 could be set
+so that it would gain water during the first six hours, and lose
+during the second six hours and thus equalize a little by splitting
+the error of jar 1 in two parts. Similarly, these two errors of jar 2
+could be again split by jar 3 making four small variations in lowest
+jar, instead of one large error in the flow of jar 1. This could
+be extended to a greater number of jars, another jar making eight
+smaller errors, etc., etc. But I am inclined to credit our ancient
+Chinese inventor with the sound reasoning that a human attendant,
+being very fallible and limited in his capacity, would have all he
+could properly do to adjust four jars, and that his record would
+average better than it would with a greater number. Remember, this
+man lived thousands of years before the modern mathematician who
+constructed a bell-shaped vessel with a small hole in the bottom,
+and proportioned the varying diameter in such a manner that in
+emptying itself the surface of the water sank equal distances in
+equal times. The sand glass, Fig. 9, poetically called the "hour
+glass," belongs to the water-clock class and the sand flows from one
+bulb into the other, but it gives no subdivisions of its period, so
+if you are using one running an hour it does not give you the half
+hour. The sand glass is still in use by chairmen, and when the oldest
+inhabitant gets on his feet, I always advise setting a 20-minute
+glass "on him."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9--Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10--"Tower of the Winds"--Athens, Greece]
+
+In the "Tower of the Winds" at Athens, Greece (Fig. 10), we have a
+later "weather bureau" station. It is attributed to the astronomer
+Andronicos, and was built about 50 B. C. It is octagonal in plan
+and although 27 ft. in diameter and 44 ft. high, it looks like a
+sentry box when seen from one of the hills of Athens. It had a
+bronze weather vane and in later times sundials on its eight sides,
+but all these are gone and the tower itself is only a dilapidated
+ruin. In making the drawing for this cut, from a photograph of the
+tower, I have sharpened the weathered and chipped corners of the
+stones so as to give a view nearly like the structure as originally
+built; but nothing is added. Under the eaves it has eight allegorical
+sculptures, representing wind and weather. Artists state that
+these sculptures are inferior as compared with Grecian art of an
+older period. But the most interesting part is inside, and here
+we find curious passages cut in solid stone, and sockets which
+look as if they had contained metal bearings for moving machinery.
+Circumstantial evidence is strong that it contained a complicated
+water clock which could have been kept running with tolerable
+accuracy by setting it daily to the dials on the outside. Probably
+during a few days of cloudy weather the clock would "get off quite a
+little," but business was not pressing in those days. Besides, the
+timekeeper would swear by his little water wheel, anyway, and feel
+safe, as there was no higher authority wearing an American watch.
+
+Some very interesting engravings of Japanese clocks and a general
+explanation of them, as well as a presentation of the Japanese mental
+attitude towards "hours" and their strange method of numbering them
+may be expected in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+JAPANESE CLOCKS
+
+ Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying
+ length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line
+ dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for
+ same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock
+ movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. --
+ Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials
+ founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics
+ and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3.
+ -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of
+ striking hours and half hours.
+
+
+The ancient methods of dividing day and night in China and Japan
+become more hazy as we go backwards and the complications grow. The
+three circles in Fig. 1 (Chapter I) are all taken from Japanese
+clocks, but the interpretation has been obtained from Chinese and
+Japanese scholars. The Japanese obtained a great deal from the
+Chinese, in fact nearly everything relating to the ancient methods of
+time keeping and the compiling of calendars. I have not been able to
+find any Chinese clocks constructed of wheels and pinions, but have a
+number of Japanese. These have a distinct resemblance to the earlier
+Dutch movements, and while made in Japan, they are practically Dutch,
+so far as the "works" are concerned, but it is easy to see from the
+illustrations that they are very Japanese in style and ornamentation.
+The Dutch were the leaders in opening Japan to the European nations
+and introduced modern mathematics and clocks from about 1590 A. D.
+The ancient mathematics of Japan came largely from China through
+Corea. In Fig. 11 are given the Japanese figures beside ours, for the
+reader's use as a key. The complete day in Japan was divided into
+twice six hours; that is, six for daylight and six for night, and
+the clocks are set, as the days vary in length, so that six o'clock
+is sunrise and sunset. The hour numerals on Fig. 12 are on little
+plates which are movable, and are shown set for a long day and a
+short night.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12 Fig. 13.
+
+Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days]
+
+In Fig. 13 they are set for short days and long nights. The narrow
+plates shown in solid black are the half-hour marks. In this type
+the hand is stationary and always points straight upward. The dial
+rotates, as per arrow, once in a full day. This style of dial is
+shown on complete clocks, Fig. 14 being a weight clock and Fig. 15 a
+spring clock with chain and fusee. The hours are 9 to 4 and the dials
+rotate to make them read backwards. The six hours of daylight are 6,
+5, 4, 9, 8, 7, 6 and the same for night, so these hours average twice
+as long as ours. Note that nine is mid-day and mid-night, and as
+these do not change by long and short days they are stationary on the
+dial, as you can easily see by comparing Figs. 12 and 13, which are
+the same dial set for different seasons. Between these extremes the
+dial hours are set as often as the owner wishes; so if he happens to
+correspond with our "time crank" he will set them often and dispute
+with his neighbors about the time. Figure 16 shows a clock with the
+hour numerals on a vertical series of movable plates and it is set
+for uniform hours when day and night are equal at the equinox. The
+ornamental pointer is fastened to the weight through the vertical
+slit, plainly visible in illustration, and indicates the time as it
+descends. This clock is wound up at sunset, so the six on the top of
+the dial is sunset the same as the six on the bottom. Figure 17 shows
+how this type of dial is set for long and short days and explains
+itself, but will become plainer as we proceed. This dial is virtually
+a continuation of the old method of marking time by the downward
+motion of the water in the clepsydras and will be noticed later.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14--Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short
+Pendulum]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15--Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and
+Balance]
+
+Figure 18 represents a clock which is a work of art and shows great
+refinement of design in providing for the varying lengths of days.
+The bar lying across the dial is fastened to the weight through the
+two slits running the whole length of the dial. On this cross bar
+is a small pointer, which is movable by the fingers, and may be set
+to any one of the thirteen vertical lines. The numerous characters
+on the top space of dial indicate the dates on which the pointer is
+to be set. This clock is wound up at sunset, and it is easy to see
+that as the little pointer is set towards the right, the night hours
+at the top of the dial become shorter and the day hours longer on
+the lower part. The left edge of the dial gives the hours, reading
+downwards, and as the pointer touches any one of the curved lines the
+hour is read at the left-hand end. The curved lines formed of dots
+are the half-hours. The right-hand edge of the dial has the "twelve
+horary characters" which will be explained later. For dividing the
+varying days into six hours' sunshine it would be difficult to
+think of a more artistic and beautiful invention than this. It is
+a fine example of great ingenuity and constant trouble to operate
+a system which is fundamentally wrong according to our method of
+uniform hours at all seasons. Clocks having these curved lines for
+the varying lengths of days--and we shall find them on circular dials
+as we go on--must be made for a certain latitude, since the days vary
+more and more as you go farther from the equator. This will become
+plain when you are reminded that a Japanese clock at the equator
+would not need any adjustment of hour numerals, because the days and
+nights are equal there all the year. So after such infinite pains in
+forming these curved lines the clock is only good in the latitude
+for which it was made and must not be carried north or south! Our
+clocks are correct from pole to pole, but all clocks must be set to
+local time if they are carried east or west. As this is a rather
+fascinating phase of the subject it might be worth pointing out that
+if you go north till you have the sun up for a month in the middle
+of summer--and there are people living as far up as that--the Japanese
+system would become absurd and break down; so there is no danger of
+any of our polar expeditions carrying Japanese clocks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and
+Balance.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17--Japanese Vertical Dials]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having
+Curved Lines, Weight and Balance.]
+
+Figure 19 shows a very fine clock in which the dial is stationary and
+the hand moves just as on our dials. This hour hand corresponds to
+the single hand of the old Dutch clocks. When the Japanese reached
+the point of considering the application of minute and second hands
+to their clocks they found that these refinements would not fit their
+old method and they were compelled to lay aside their clocks and
+take ours. On this dial, Fig. 19, nine is noon, as usual, and is on
+top side of dial. Hand points to three quarters past _seven_, that
+is, a quarter to _six_, near sunset. Between the bell and the top of
+the clock body two horizontal balances, having small weights hung on
+them, are plainly shown, and the clock has two verge escapements--one
+connected with each balance, or "foliot." Let us suppose a long
+day coming to a close at sunset, just as the hand indicates. The
+upper balance, which is the slow one, has been swinging backwards
+and forwards measuring the long hours of the day. When the clock
+strikes six, at sunset, the top balance is thrown out of action and
+the lower one, which is the fast one, is thrown into action and
+measures the short night hours. At sunrise this is thrown out and
+the top one in again to measure the next day's long hours. As the
+days vary in length, the balances, or foliots, can be made to swing
+faster or slower by moving the weights inwards or outwards a notch
+or two. The balance with small weights for regulation is the oldest
+known and was used in connection with the verge escapement, just
+as in this clock, by the Dutch about 1364. All the evidence I can
+find indicates that the Japanese clocks are later than this date. In
+design, ornamentation and methods for marking varying days, however,
+the Japanese have shown great artistic taste and inventiveness.
+It is seen that this dial in addition to the usual six hours,
+twice over, has on the outside circle of dial, the "twelve horary
+branches" called by the Japanese the "twelve honorary branches," thus
+indicating the whole day of twelve Japanese hours, six of them for
+day and six for night. By this means they avoided repeating the same
+hours for day and night. When it is pointed out that these "twelve
+horary branches" are very old Chinese, we are not in a position to
+boast about our twenty-four hour system, because these branches
+indicate positively whether any given hour is day or night. When we
+print a time table in the twenty-four hour system so as to get rid
+of our clumsy A. M. and P. M., we are thousands of years behind the
+Chinese. More than that, for they got the matter right without any
+such pressure as our close running trains have brought to bear on
+us. These branches have one syllable names and the "ten celestial
+stems" have also one syllable names, all as shown on Fig. 20. Refer
+now to Fig. 21 where two disks are shown, one having the "twelve
+horary branches" and the other the "ten celestial stems." These disks
+are usually put behind the dial so that one "branch" and one "stem"
+can be seen at the same time through two openings. The clock moves
+these disks one step each night, so that a new pair shows each day.
+Running in this manner, step by step, you will find that it takes
+sixty moves, that is sixty days, to bring the same pair around again.
+Each has a single syllable name, as shown on Fig. 20, and we thus get
+sixty names of two syllables by reading them together to the left.
+The two openings may be seen in the dials of Figs. 15 and 19. So the
+Japanese know exactly what day it is in a period of sixty which they
+used in their old calendars. These were used by the Chinese over four
+thousand years ago as the names of a cycle of sixty years, called the
+"sexagenary." The present Chinese year 4606 is YU-KI which means the
+year 46 of the 76th "sexagenary." That is, 76�60+46 = 4,606. In Fig.
+20, we read TSU-KIAH, or the first year. If you will make two disks
+like Fig. 21 and commence with TSU-KIAH and move the two together
+you will come to YU-KI on the 46th move. But there is another way
+which you might like better, thus: Write the twelve "branches,"
+or syllables, straight downwards, continuously five times; close
+to the right, write the ten "stems" six times. Now you have sixty
+words of two syllables and the 46th, counting downwards, will be
+YU-KI. Besides, this method gives you the whole sixty names of the
+"sexagenary" at one view. Always read _left_, that is, pronounce the
+"stem" syllable first.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19--Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and
+Two Escapements; Dial Stationary, Hand Moves]
+
+Calendars constitute a most interesting and bewildering part of time
+measuring. We feel that we have settled the matter by determining
+the length of the year to within a second of time, and keeping the
+dates correctly to the nearest day by a leap year every fourth and
+every fourth century, established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, and
+known as the "Gregorian Calendar." In simple words, our "almanac" is
+the "Gregorian." We are in the habit of saying glibly that any year
+divisible by four is a leap year, but this is far from correct. Any
+year leaving out the _even hundreds_, which is divisible by four
+is a leap year. _Even hundreds_ are leap when divisible by four.
+This explains why 1900 was a common year, because _19 hundreds_ is
+not divisible by four; 2000 will be a leap because _20 hundreds_
+is divisible by four; therefore 2100, 2200 and 2300 will be common
+years and 2400 a leap, etc., to 4000 which must be made common, to
+keep things straight, in spite of the fact that it is divisible by
+four both in its hundreds and thousands. But for practical purposes,
+during more than two thousand years to come, we may simplify the
+rule to: _Years_ and _even hundreds_ divisible by four are leaps.
+But great confusion still exists as a result of several countries
+holding to their own old methods. The present Chinese year has 384
+days, 13 months and 13 full moons. Compared with our 1909 it begins
+on January 21st and will end on February 8, 1910. Last year the
+China-Japan calendar had 12 months, or moons, but as that is too
+short they must put in an extra every thirtieth month. We only allow
+the error to reach one day and correct it with our leap years, but
+they are not so particular and let the error grow till they require
+another "moon." The Old Testament is full of moons, and even with all
+our "modernity" our "feasts" and holy days are often "variable" on
+account of being mixed up with moons. In Japan the present year is
+the 42nd of Meiji, that is, the 42nd of the present Emperor's reign.
+The present is the Jewish 5669. These and others of varying lengths
+overlap our year in different degrees, so that in trade matters great
+confusion exists. The Chinese and Japanese publish a trade almanac
+in parallel columns with ours to avoid this. It is easy to say that
+we ought to have a uniform calendar all over the world, but the same
+remark applies just as much to money, weights, measures, and even to
+language itself. Finally, the difficulty consists in the facts that
+there are not an even number of days in a year--or in a moon--or moons
+in a year. "These many moons" is a survival in our daily speech of
+this old method of measuring by moons. Just a little hint as to the
+amount of superstition still connected with "new moon" will be enough
+to make clear the fact that we are not yet quite so "enlightened" as
+we say we are. While our calendar, or almanac, may be considered as
+final, we must remember that custom and religion are so mixed up with
+the matter in the older countries of the East that they will change
+very slowly. Strictly, our "era" is arbitrary and Christian; so we
+must not expect nations which had some astronomical knowledge and a
+working calendar, thousands of years before us, to change suddenly to
+our "upstart" methods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20--Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial
+Stems"]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21--"12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems"
+as Used in Clocks]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22--Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock]
+
+In Fig. 22 we have the dial of a very complicated astronomical
+clock. This old engraved brass dial did not photograph well, so I
+made a copy by hand to get clean lines. Commencing at the centre,
+there is a small disk, B, numbered from 1 to 30, giving days of the
+moon's age. The moon rises at A and sets at AA, later each day, of
+course. Her age is shown by the number she touches on disk B, as
+this disk advances on the moon one number each day. Her phases are
+shown by the motion of a black disk over her face; so we have here
+three motions for the moon, so differentiated as to show _phase_,
+_ascension_ and _age_. Still further, as she is represented on the
+dial when below the horizon, it can be seen when she will rise, and
+"moonlight" parties may be planned. Just outside the moon's course
+is an annulus having Japanese numbers 1 to 12, indicating months.
+Note the recurring character dividing the months in halves, which
+means "middle," and is much used. If you will carefully read these
+numbers you will find a character where _one_ would come; this means
+"beginning" or "primary" and is often used instead of one. The clock
+hand is the heavy arrow and sweeps the dial once in a whole day, same
+direction as our clocks. This circle of the months moves along with
+the hand, but a little faster, so as to gain one number in a month.
+As shown on the figure it is about one week into the sixth month.
+Next outward is the broad band having twelve curved lines for the
+hours ending outwardly in a ring divided into 100 parts, marked off
+in tens by dots. These curved lines are numbered with the Japanese
+numerals for hours which you must now be able to read easily. These
+hour lines, and the dotted lines for half hours, are really the same
+as the similar lines on Fig. 18 which you now understand. As the
+hand sweeps the dial daily it automatically moves outward a little
+each day, so it shortens the nights and lengthens the days, just as
+previously explained for Fig. 18. But there is one difference, for
+you will notice that the last night hour, on which the arrow hand
+now stands, is longer than the other night hours before it, and that
+it is divided into _three_ by the dotted lines. The last day hour,
+on the left of dial, is also long and divided into _three_. That is,
+while all the dials previously described have equal hours for any
+given day, or night, this dial has a _last long hour_ in each case,
+divided into three instead of the usual half-hours. This is a curious
+and interesting point having its origin long before clocks. In the
+early days of the clepsydra in China, a certain time was allowed
+to dip up the water from the lowest jar, each morning and evening
+about five o'clock of our time, see Fig. 8 (Chapter 1). During this
+operation the clepsydra was not marking time, and the oriental
+mind evidently considered it in some sense outside of the regular
+hours, and like many other things was retained till it appeared
+absurdly on the earlier clocks. This wonderful feat of putting an
+interval between two consecutive hours has always been impossible to
+modern science; yet President Roosevelt performed it easily in his
+"constructive" interregnum! Referring to the Canton clepsydra, Fig.
+8, we find that the float, or "bamboo stick," was divided into 100
+parts. At one season 60 parts for the day and 40 parts for the night,
+gradually being changed to the opposite for short days. The day hours
+were beaten on a drum and the night hours blown on a trumpet.
+
+Later the hour numerals were made movable on the "bamboo stick."
+This is virtually a vertical dial with movable hour plates, so their
+idea of time measuring at that date, was of something moving up or
+down. This was put on the first clocks by the Japanese; so that the
+dial of Fig. 16 is substantially the float of the Chinese clepsydra.
+Further, in this "bamboo stick" of 100 parts, we have our present
+system of decimal numbers, so we can afford to be a little modest
+here too. Before leaving Fig. 22 note the band, or annulus, of stars
+which moves with the month circle. I cannot make these stars match
+our twelve signs of the Zodiac, but as I have copied them carefully
+the reader can try and make order out of them. The extreme outer edge
+of the dial is divided into 360 parts, the tens being emphasized, as
+in our decimal scales.
+
+As we are getting a little tired of these complicated descriptions,
+let us branch off for a few remarks on some curiosities of Eastern
+time keeping. They evidently think of an hour as a _period of time_
+more specifically than we do. When we say "6 o'clock" we mean a
+point of time marked by the striking of the clock. We have no names
+for the hour periods. We must say "from 5 to 6" or "between 5 and
+6" for an hour period. The "twelfth hour" of the New Testament, I
+understand to mean a whole hour ending at sunset; so we are dealing
+with an oriental attitude of mind towards time. I think we get that
+conception nearly correct when we read of the "middle watch"
+and understand it to mean _during_ the middle third of the night.
+Secondly, why do the Japanese use no 1, 2, 3 on their dials? These
+numbers were sacred in the temples and must not be profaned by use on
+clocks, and they mentally deducted these from the clock hours, but
+ultimately became accustomed to 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Thirdly, why this
+reading of the hours backwards? Let us suppose a toiler commencing
+at sunrise, or six. When he toiled one hour he felt that there was
+one less to come and he called it five. This looks quite logical, for
+the diminishing numbers indicated to him how much of his day's toil
+was to come. Another explanation which is probably the foundation
+of "secondly" and "thirdly" above, is the fact that mathematics and
+superstition were closely allied in the old days of Japan. If you
+take the numbers 1 to 6, Fig. 23, and multiply them each into the
+uncanny "yeng number," or nine, you will find that the last digits,
+reading downwards, give 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Stated in other words:
+When 1 to 6 are multiplied into "three times three" the last figures
+are 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and _1, 2, 3, have disappeared_; so the common
+people were filled with fear and awe. Some of the educated, even now,
+are mystified by the strange results produced by using three and nine
+as factors, and scientific journals often give space to the matter.
+We know that these results are produced by the simple fact that nine
+is one less than the "radix" of our decimal scale of numbers. Nine is
+sometimes called the "indestructible number," since adding the digits
+of any of its powers gives an even number of nines. But in those days
+it was a mystery and the common people feared the mathematicians, and
+I have no doubt the shrewd old fellows took full advantage of their
+power over the plebeians. In Japan, mathematics was not cleared of
+this rubbish till about 700 A. D.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23--Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of
+Hours]
+
+On the right-hand side of Fig. 23 are given the animal names of
+the hours, so the day and night hours could not be mistaken. In
+selecting the _rat_ for night and the _horse_ for day they showed
+good taste. Their forenoon was "before horse" and their afternoon
+"after horse." Japanese clocks are remarkable for variety. It looks
+as if they were always made to order and that the makers, probably
+urged by their patrons, made extreme efforts to get in wonderful
+motions and symbols relating to astronomy and astrology. Anyone
+examining about fifty of them would be likely to conclude that it was
+almost hopeless to understand them all. Remember, this is the old
+Japanese method. Nearly all the clocks and watches I saw in Japan
+were American. It will now be necessary to close this chapter with a
+few points on the curious striking of Japanese clocks.
+
+In those like Figs. 14, 15, 19, the bell and hammer can be seen. In
+the type of Fig. 16, the whole striking mechanism is in the weight.
+In fact, the striking part of the clock is the weight. On each of the
+plates, having the hour numerals, Fig. 16, a pin projects inwards and
+as the weight containing the striking mechanism, descends, a little
+lever touches these and lets off the striking just when the pointer
+is on the hour numeral. Keeping this in mind, it is easy to see that
+the clock will strike correctly when the hour is indicated by the
+pointer, no matter how the hour plates are set for long or short
+days. Similar pins project inwards from movable plates on Figs. 12,
+13, 14, 15, so they strike correctly as each hour plate comes to the
+top just under the point of the fixed hand. In Fig. 19, the striking
+is let off by a star wheel just as in old Dutch clocks. Clocks
+like Figs. 18-22 do not strike. In all cases the hours are struck
+backwards, but the half-hours add another strange feature. The _odd_
+numbered hours, 9, 7, 5, are followed by one blow at the half hour;
+and the _even_ hours, 8, 6, 4 by two blows, or stated altogether--
+
+ 9_{1} 8_{2} 7_{1} 6_{2} 5_{1} 4_{2}.
+
+Here the large figures are the hours and the small ones the
+half-hours. Only one bell is used, because there being no one and
+two among the hours, the half-hours cannot be mistaken. This is not
+all, for you can tell what half hour it is within two hours. For
+example, suppose you know approximately that it is somewhere between
+9 and 7 and you hear the clock strike 2, then you know it is half
+past 8. See the large and small figures above. This is far superior
+to our method of one at each half-hour.
+
+By our method the clock strikes _one_ three times consecutively,
+between 12 and 2 o'clock and thus mixes up the half hours with one
+o'clock. Some interesting methods of striking will be explained in
+the third chapter when we deal with modern time keeping.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MODERN CLOCKS
+
+ DeVick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. --
+ "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock.
+ -- The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with
+ earliest application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct
+ designs for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. --
+ Twenty-four hour watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. --
+ Correct method of striking hours and quarters. -- Design for
+ twenty-four hour dial and hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions
+ of the old clockmakers.
+
+[Illustration: Public Dial by James Arthur Dial of Philadelphia City
+Hall Clock
+
+Fig. 24]
+
+
+Modern clocks commence with De Vick's of 1364 which is the first
+unquestioned clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing the
+fundamental features of our present clocks. References are often
+quoted back to about 1000 A. D., but the words translated "clocks"
+were used for bells and dials at that date; so we are forced to
+consider the De Vick clock as the first till more evidence is
+obtained. It has been pointed out, however, that this clock could
+hardly have been invented all at once; and therefore it is probable
+that many inventions leading up to it have been lost to history. The
+part of a clock which does the ticking is called the "escapement"
+and the oldest form known is the "verge," Fig. 25, the date of which
+is unknown, but safely 300 years before De Vick. The "foliot" is on
+the vertical verge, or spindle, which has the pallets A B. As the
+foliot swings horizontally, from rest to rest, we hear one tick, but
+it requires two of these single swings, or two ticks, to liberate
+one tooth of the escape wheel; so there are twice as many ticks
+in one turn of the escape wheel as it has teeth. We thus see that
+an escapement is a device in which something moves back and forth
+and allows the teeth of an "escape wheel" to escape. While this
+escapement is, in some respects, the simplest one, it has always
+been difficult to make it plain in a drawing, so I have made an
+effort to explain it by making the side of the wheel and its pallet
+B, which is nearest the eye, solid black, and farther side and its
+pallet A, shaded as in the figure. The wheel moves in the direction
+of the arrow, and tooth D is very near escaping from pallet B. The
+tooth C on the farther side of wheel is moving left, so it will fall
+on pallet A, to be in its turn liberated as the pallets and foliot
+swing back and forth. It is easy to see that each tooth of the wheel
+will give a little push to the pallet as it escapes, and thus keep
+the balance swinging. This escapement is a very poor time-keeper,
+but it was one of the great inventions and held the field for about
+600 years, that is, from the days when it regulated bells up to the
+"onion" watches of our grandfathers. Scattered references in old
+writings make it reasonably certain that from about 1,000 to 1,300
+bells were struck by machines regulated with this verge escapement,
+thus showing that the striking part of a clock is older than the
+clock itself. It seems strange to us to say that many of the earlier
+clocks were strikers, only, and had no dials or hands, just as if
+you turned the face of your clock to the wall and depended on the
+striking for the time. Keeping this action of the verge escapement
+in mind we can easily understand its application, as made by De
+Vick, in Fig. 26, where I have marked the same pallets A B. A tooth
+is just escaping from pallet B and then one on the other side of
+the wheel will fall on pallet A. Foliot, verge and pallets form one
+solid piece which is suspended by a cord, so as to enable it to
+swing with little friction. For the purpose of making the motions
+very plain I have left out the dial and framework from the drawing.
+The wheel marked "twelve hours," and the pinion which drives it, are
+both outside the frame, just under the dial, and are drawn in dash
+and dot. The axle of this twelve-hour wheel goes through the dial
+and carries the hand, which marks hours only. The winding pinion and
+wheel, in dotted lines, are inside the frame. Now follow the "great
+wheel"--"intermediate"--"escape wheel" and the two pinions, all in
+solid lines, and you have the "train" which is the principal part
+of all clocks. This clock has an escapement, wheels, pinions, dial,
+hand, weight, and winding square. We have only added the pendulum,
+a better escapement, the minute and second hands in over 500 years!
+The "anchor" escapement, Fig. 27, came about 1680 and is attributed
+to Dr. Hooke, an Englishman. It gets its name from the resemblance of
+the pallets to the flukes of an anchor. This anchor is connected to
+the pendulum and as it swings right and left, the teeth of the escape
+wheel are liberated, one tooth for each two swings from rest to rest,
+the little push on the pallets A B, as the teeth escape, keeping the
+pendulum going. It is astonishing how many, even among the educated,
+think that the pendulum drives the clock! The pendulum must always be
+driven by some power.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25--Verge Escapement]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26--De Vick's Clock of 1364]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27--Anchor Escapement]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28--American Anchor Escapement]
+
+This escapement will be found in nearly all the grandfather clocks in
+connection with a seconds pendulum. It is a good time-keeper, runs
+well, wears well, stands some rough handling and will keep going
+even when pretty well covered with dust and cobwebs; so it is used
+more than all the numerous types ever invented. Figure 28 gives the
+general American form of the "anchor" which is made by bending a
+strip of steel; but it is not the best form, as the acting surfaces
+of the pallets are straight. It is, therefore, inferior to Fig. 27
+where the acting surfaces are curved, since these curves give an
+easier "recoil." This recoil is the slight motion _backwards_ which
+the escape wheel makes at each tick. The "dead beat" escapement is
+shown in Fig. 29, and is used in clocks of a high grade, generally
+with a seconds pendulum. It has no recoil as you can easily see that
+the surfaces O O on which the teeth fall, are portions of a circle
+around the center P. The beveled ends of these pallets are called the
+impulse surfaces, and a tooth is just giving the little push on the
+right-hand pallet. It is found in good railroad clocks, watch-makers'
+regulators and in many astronomical clocks. These terms are merely
+comparative, a "regulator" being a good clock and an "astronomical,"
+an extra good one. Figure 30 gives the movement of a "remontoir"
+clock in which the dead beat shown is used. The upper one of the
+three dials indicates seconds, and the lever which crosses its center
+carries the large wheel on the left.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29--Dead Beat Escapement]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31--Remontoir Clock by James Arthur]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30--Remontoir Clock Movement]
+
+This wheel makes the left end of the lever heavier than the right,
+and in sinking it drives the clock for one minute, but at the
+sixtieth second it "remounts" by the action of the clock weight;
+hence the name, "remontoir." Note here that the big weight does
+not directly drive the clock; it only rewinds it every minute. The
+minutes are shown on the dial to the right and its hand jumps forward
+one minute at each sixtieth second as the lever remounts; so if you
+wish to set your watch to this clock the proper way is to set it to
+the even minute "on the jump." The hour hand is on the dial to the
+left. By this remounting, or rewinding, the clock receives the same
+amount of driving force each minute. The complete clock is shown
+in Fig. 31, the large weight which does the rewinding each minute
+being plainly visible. The pendulum is compensated with steel and
+aluminum, so that the rate of the clock may not be influenced by hot
+and cold weather. Was built in 1901 and is the only one I can find
+room for here. It is fully described in "Machinery," New York, for
+Nov., 1901. I have built a considerable number, all for experimental
+purposes, several of them much more complicated than this one, but
+all differing from clocks for commercial purposes. Pallets like O
+O in Fig. 29 are often made of jewels; in one clock I used agates
+and in another, running thirteen months with one winding, I used
+pallets jeweled with diamonds. This is done to avoid friction and
+wear. Those interested in the improvement of clocks are constantly
+striving after light action and small driving weights. Conversely,
+the inferior clock has a heavy weight and ticks loud. The "gravity
+escapement" and others giving a "free" pendulum action would require
+too much space here, so we must be satisfied with the few successful
+ones shown out of hundreds of inventions, dozens of them patented.
+The pendulum stands at the top as a time measurer and was known to
+the ancients for measuring short periods of time just as musicians
+now use the metronome to get regular beats. Galileo is credited with
+noticing its regular beats, but did not apply it to clocks, although
+his son made a partially successful attempt. The first mathematical
+investigation of the pendulum was made by Huyghens about 1670, and
+he is generally credited with applying it to clocks, so there is a
+"Huyghens" clock with a pendulum instead of the foliot of De Vick's.
+Mathematically, the longer and heavier the pendulum the better is
+the time-keeping, but nature does not permit us to carry anything to
+the extreme; so the difficulty of finding a tower high enough and
+steady enough, the cumbersomeness of weight, the elasticity of the
+rod, and many other difficulties render very long and heavy pendulums
+impracticable beyond about 13 ft. which beats once in two seconds.
+"Big Ben" of Westminster, London, has one of this length weighing 700
+lb. and measuring, over all, 15 ft.
+
+It runs with an error under one second a week. This is surpassed
+only by some of the astronomical clocks which run sometimes two
+months within a second. This wonderful timekeeping is done with
+seconds pendulums of about 39 in., so the theoretical advantage of
+long pendulums is lost in the difficulties of constructing them.
+Fractions are left out of these lengths as they would only confuse
+the explanations. At the Naval observatory in Washington, D. C.,
+the standard clocks have seconds pendulums, the rods of which are
+nickel steel, called "Invar," which is little influenced by changes
+of temperature. These clocks are kept in a special basement, so
+they stand on the solid earth. The clock room is kept at a nearly
+uniform temperature and each clock is in a glass cylinder exhausted
+to about half an atmosphere. They are electric remontoirs, so no
+winding is necessary and they can be kept sealed up tight in their
+glass cylinders. Nor is any adjustment of their pendulums necessary,
+or setting of the hands, as the correction of their small variations
+is effected by slight changes in the air pressure within the glass
+cylinders. When a clock runs fast they let a little air into its
+cylinder to raise the resistance to the pendulum and slow it down,
+and the reverse for slow. Don't forget that we are now considering
+variations of less than a second a week.
+
+The clock room has double doors, so the outer one can be shut before
+the inner one is opened, to avoid air currents. Visitors are not
+permitted to see these clocks because the less the doors are opened
+the better; but the Commander will sometimes issue a special permit
+and detail a responsible assistant to show them, so if you wish
+to see them you must prove to him that you have a head above your
+shoulders and are worthy of such a great favor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34--Triple-Case Turkish Watches]
+
+The best thing the young student could do at this point would be
+to grasp the remarkable fact that the clock is not an old machine,
+since it covers only the comparatively short period from 1364 to the
+present day. Compared with the period of man's history and inventions
+it is of yesterday. Strictly speaking, as we use the word clock, its
+age from De Vick to the modern astronomical is only about 540 years.
+If we take the year 1660, we find that it represents the center of
+modern improvements in clocks, a few years before and after that date
+includes the pendulum, the anchor and dead beat escapements, the
+minute and second hands, the circular balance and the hair spring,
+along with minor improvements. Since the end of that period, which
+we may make 1700, no fundamental invention has been added to clocks
+and watches. This becomes impressive when we remember that the last
+200 years have produced more inventions than all previous known
+history--but only minor improvements in clocks! The application
+of electricity for winding, driving, or regulating clocks is not
+fundamental, for the timekeeping is done by the master clock with
+its pendulum and wheels, just as by any grandfather's clock 200
+years old. This broad survey of time measuring does not permit us to
+go into minute mechanical details. Those wishing to follow up the
+subject would require a large "horological library"--and Dr. Eliot's
+five-foot shelf would be altogether too short to hold the books.
+
+A good idea of the old church clocks may be obtained from Fig.
+32 which is one of my valued antiques. Tradition has followed it
+down as the "English Blacksmith's Clock." It has the very earliest
+application of the pendulum. The pendulum, which I have marked by a
+star to enable the reader to find it, is less than 3 in. long and
+is hung on the verge, or pallet axle, and beats 222 per minute.
+This clock may be safely put at 250 years old, and contains nothing
+invented since that date. Wheels are cast brass and all teeth
+laboriously filed out by hand. Pinions are solid with the axles, or
+"staffs," and also filed out by hand. It is put together, generally
+by mortise, tenon and cotter, but it has four original screws all
+made by hand with the file. How did he thread the holes for these
+screws? Probably made a tap by hand as he made the screws. But the
+most remarkable feature is the fact that no lathe was used in forming
+any part--all staffs, pinions and pivots being filed by hand. This is
+simply extraordinary when it is pointed out that a little dead center
+lathe is the simplest machine in the world, and he could have made
+one in less than a day and saved himself weeks of hard labor. It is
+probable that he had great skill in hand work and that learning to
+use a lathe would have been a great and tedious effort for him. So we
+have a complete striking clock made by a man so poor that he had only
+his anvil, hammer and file. The weights are hung on cords as thick
+as an ordinary lead pencil and pass over pulleys having spikes set
+around them to prevent the cords from slipping. The weights descend
+7 ft. in 12 hours, so they must be pulled up--not wound up--twice a
+day. The single hour hand is a work of art and is cut through like
+lace. Public clocks may still be seen in Europe with only one hand.
+Many have been puzzled by finding that old, rudely made clocks often
+have fine dials, but this is not remarkable when we state that art
+and engraving had reached a high level before the days of clocks.
+It is worthy of note that clocks in the early days were generally
+built in the form of a church tower with the bell under the dome
+and Figs. 32, 33 show a good example. It is highly probable that the
+maker of this clock had access to some old church clock--a wonderful
+machine in those days--and that he laboriously copied it. It strikes
+the hours, only, by the old "count wheel" or "locking plate" method.
+Between this and our modern clocks appeared a type showing quarter
+hours on a small dial under the hour dial. No doubt this was at that
+time a great advance and looked like cutting time up pretty fine. As
+the hand on the quarter dial made the circuit in an hour the next
+step was easy, by simply dividing the circle of quarters into sixty
+minutes. The old fellows who thought in hours must have given it up
+at this point, so the seconds and fifths seconds came easily.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35--Triple-Case Turkish Watch]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36--Double-Case Watch of Repouss� Work]
+
+The first watches, about 1500, had the foliot and verge escapement,
+and in some early attempts to govern the foliot a hog's bristle was
+used as a spring. By putting a ring around the ends of the foliot
+and adding the hair spring of Dr. Hooke, about 1640, we have the
+verge watches of our grandfathers. This balance wheel and hair spring
+stand today, but the "lever" escapement has taken the place of the
+verge. It is a modification of the dead beat, Fig. 29, by adding
+a lever to the anchor, and this lever is acted on by the balance,
+hence the name "lever watch." All this you can see by opening your
+watch, so no detailed explanation is necessary. Figure 34 shows two
+triple-cased Turkish watches with verge escapements, the one to the
+left being shown partly opened in Fig. 35. The watch with its inner
+case, including the glass, is shown to the right. This inner case
+is complete with two hinges and has a winding hole in the back. The
+upper case, of "chased" work, goes on next, and then the third, or
+outer case, covered with tortoise shell fastened with silver rivets,
+goes on outside the other two. When all three cases are opened and
+laid on the table, they look like a heap of oyster shells, but they
+go easily together, forming the grand and dignified watch shown to
+the left in Fig. 34. Oliver Cromwell wore an immense triple-case
+watch of this kind, and the poor plebeians who were permitted to
+examine such a magnificent instrument were favored!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37--Watches Showing Art Work]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38--Watch Showing Dutch Art Work]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39--Antique Watch Cock]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40--"Chinese" Watch]
+
+Our boys' watches costing one dollar keep much better time than this
+type of watch. Comparing the Syrian dial, Fig. 42, with that on
+Fig. 35, it is evident that the strange hour numerals on both are a
+variation of the same characters. These, so-called, "Turkish watches"
+were made in Europe for the Eastern trade. First-class samples of
+this triple-case type are getting scarce, but I have found four, two
+of them in Constantinople. Figure 36 shows the double-case style,
+called "pair cases," the outer case thin silver, the figures and
+ornaments being hammered and punched up from the inside and called
+"repouss�." Before we leave the old watches, the question of art work
+deserves notice, for it looks as if ornamentation and time-keeping
+varied inversely in those days--the more art the worse the watch. I
+presume, as they could not make a good time-keeper at that date, the
+watch-maker decided to give the buyer something of great size and
+style for his money. In Fig. 37 four old movements are shown, and
+there is no doubt about the art, since the work is purely individual
+and no dies or templates used. In examining a large number of these
+watches, I have never found the art work on any two of them alike.
+Note the grotesque faces in these, and in Fig. 39 which is a fine
+example of pierced, engraved work. Figure 38 is a fine example of
+pierced work with animals and flowers carved in relief. Figure 40
+is a "Chinese" watch but made in Europe for the Chinese market. In
+Fig. 41 we have what remains of a quarter repeater with musical
+attachment. Each of the 24 straight gongs, commencing with the
+longest one, goes a little nearer the center of the large wheel,
+so a circle of pins is set in the wheel for each gong, or note,
+and there is plenty of room for several tunes which the wearer can
+set off at pleasure. Figure 43 is a modern watch with Hebrew hour
+numerals. Figure 44 is a modern 24-hour watch used on some railroads
+and steamship lines. I have a pretty clean-cut recollection of one
+event in connection with the 24-hour system, as I left Messina
+between 18 and 19 o'clock on the night of the earthquake! Dials and
+hands constitute an important branch of the subject. The general
+fault of hands is that they are too much alike; in many instances
+they are the same, excepting that the minute hand is a little longer
+than the hour. The dial shown on the left of Fig. 24 was designed by
+me for a public clock and can be read twice as far away as the usual
+dial. Just why we should make the worst dials and hands for public
+clocks in the United States is more than I can find out, for there
+is no possible excuse, since the "spade and pointer" hands have been
+known for generations. Figure 45 is offered as a properly designed
+dial for watches and domestic clocks, having flat-faced Gothic
+figures of moderate height, leaving a clear center in the dial, and
+the heavy "spade" hour hand reaching only to the inner edges of the
+figures. For public clocks the Arabic numerals are the worst, for at
+a distance they look like twelve thumb marks on the dial; while the
+flat-faced Roman remain distinct as twelve clear marks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41--Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters]
+
+Do you know that you do not read a public clock by the figures, but
+by the position of the hands? This was discovered long ago. Lord
+Grimthorp had one with twelve solid marks on the dial and also speaks
+of one at the Athen�um Club, both before 1860. The Philadelphia City
+Hall clock has dials of this kind as shown on right side of Fig. 24.
+It has also good hands and can be read at a great distance. Very few
+persons, even in Philadelphia, know that it has no hour numerals on
+its dials. Still further, there is no clock in the tower, the great
+hands being moved every minute by air pressure which is regulated by
+a master clock set in a clock room down below where the walls are 10
+ft. thick. Call and see this clock and you will find that the City
+Hall officials sustain the good name of Philadelphia for politeness.
+Generally, we give no attention to the hour numerals, even of our
+watches, as the following proves. When you have taken out your watch
+and looked at the time, for yourself, and put it back in your pocket,
+and when a friend asks the time you take it out again to find the
+time for him! Why? Because, for yourself, you did not read hours and
+minutes, but only got a mental impression from the position of the
+hands; so we only read hours and minutes when we are called on to
+proclaim the time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42--Syrian Dial]
+
+We must find a little space for striking clocks. The simplest is one
+blow at each hour just to draw attention to the clock. Striking the
+hours and also one blow at each half hour as well as the quarter
+double blow, called "ting tong" quarters, are too well known to need
+description. The next stage after this is "chiming quarters" with
+three or more musical gongs, or bells. One of the best strikers I
+have has three trains, three weights and four bells. It strikes
+the hour on a large bell and two minutes after the hour it strikes
+it again, so as to give you another chance to count correctly. At
+the first quarter it repeats the last hour followed by a musical
+chord of three bells, which we will call _one triple blow_: at the
+second quarter the hour again and two triple blows and at the third
+quarter, the hour again and three triple blows. Suppose a sample
+hour's striking from four o'clock, this is what you hear, and there
+can be no mistake. "Four" and in two minutes "four"--"four and one
+quarter"--"four and two quarters"--"four and three quarters," and the
+same for all other hours. This is definite, for the clock proclaims
+the hour, or the hour and so much past. It can be set silent, but
+that only stops it from striking automatically, and whether so set
+or not, it will repeat by pulling a cord. You awake in the night
+and pull the cord, and then in mellow musical tones, almost as if
+the clock were speaking, you hear--"four and two quarters." This I
+consider a perfect striking clock. It is a large movement of fine
+workmanship and was made in the department of the Jura, France.
+When a clock or watch only repeats, I consider the old "five-minute
+repeater" the best. I used this method in a clock which, on pulling
+the cord, strikes the hour on a large bell and if that is all it
+strikes, then it is less than five minutes past. If more than five
+minutes past it follows the hour by one blow on a small bell for
+every five minutes. This gives the time within five minutes. It is
+fully described and illustrated in "Machinery," New York, for March,
+1905. Just one more. An old Dutch clock which I restored strikes the
+hour on a large bell; at the first quarter it strikes one blow on a
+small bell; at the half hour it strikes the last hour over again on
+the small bell; at the third quarter it strikes one blow on the large
+bell. But this in spite of its great ingenuity, only gives definite
+information at the hour and half hour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43--Hebrew Numerals]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44--24-Hour Watch]
+
+Of curious clocks there is no end, so I shall just refer to one
+invented by William Congreve, an Englishman, over one hundred years
+ago, and often coming up since as something new. A plate about 8 in.
+long and 4 in. wide has a long zigzag groove crosswise. This plate
+is pivoted at its center so either end can be tipped up a little.
+A ball smaller than a boy's marble will roll back and forth across
+this plate till it reaches the lower end, at which point it strikes
+a click and the mainspring of the clock tips the plate the other way
+and the ball comes slowly back again till it strikes the disk at the
+other end of the plate, etc. Every time the plate tips, the hands
+are moved a little just like the remontoir clock already described.
+Clocks of this kind are often used for deceptive purposes and those
+ignorant of mechanics are deceived into the belief that they see
+perpetual motion. The extent to which modern machine builders are
+indebted to the inventions of the ancient clock-maker, I think, has
+never been appreciated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45--Domestic Dial by James Arthur]
+
+In its earlier stages the clock was almost the only machine
+containing toothed gearing, and the "clock tooth" is still necessary
+in our delicate machines. It is entirely different from our standard
+gear tooth as used in heavy machines. The clock-makers led for a
+long time in working steel for tools, springs and wearing surfaces.
+They also made investigations in friction, bearings, oils, etc.,
+etc. Any one restoring old clocks for amusement and pleasure will
+be astonished at the high-class mechanics displayed in them--nearly
+always by unknown inventors. Here is an example: The old clock-maker
+found that when he wished to drill a hole in a piece of thick wire
+so as to make a short tube of it, he could only get the hole central
+and straight by rotating the piece and holding the drill stationary.
+By this method the drill tends to follow the center line of
+rotation; and our great guns as well as our small rifles are bored
+just that way to get bores which will shoot straight. The fourth and
+last chapter will deal with the astronomical motions on which our
+time-keeping is founded, our present hour zones of time, and close
+with suggestions for a universal time system over the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME
+
+ Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons
+ for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour
+ day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. --
+ Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform
+ motion known to us. -- Time Stars and Transits. -- Local time.
+ -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of
+ a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal
+ time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement
+ in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of
+ the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for
+ astronomers. -- General conclusions.
+
+
+The mystery of time encloses all things in its folds, and our grasp
+of its infinite bearings is measured by our limitations. As there
+are no isolated facts in the Universe, we can never get to the end
+of our subject; so we know only what we have capacity to absorb.
+In considering the foundation on which all our time measuring
+is based, we are led into the fringe of that Elysian field of
+science--astronomy. A science more poetical than poetry--more charming
+than the optimistic phantasies of youth. That science which leaves
+our imagination helpless; for its facts are more wonderful than our
+extremest mental flights. The science of vastness and interminable
+distances which our puny figures fail to express. "The stars sang
+together for joy," might almost be placed in the category of facts;
+while the music of the spheres may now be considered a mathematical
+reality. Our time keeping is inevitably associated with these
+motions, and we must select one which has periods not too long. That
+is, no _continuous_ motion could be used, unless it passed some
+species of milestones which we could observe. Consequently, our
+clocks do not--in the strict sense--measure time; but are adjusted
+to _divide_ periods which they do not determine. We are constantly
+correcting their errors and never entirely succeed in getting them
+to run accurately to _periods of time_ which exist entirely outside
+of such little things as men and clocks. So a clock is better as it
+approximates or bears a regular _relation_ to some motion in nature.
+The sidereal clock of the astronomer _does_ run to a regular motion;
+but our 24-hour clocks _do not_, as we shall see later. Now consider
+the year, or the sun's apparent motion in the Zodiac, from any given
+star around to the same one again. This is altogether too long to be
+divided by clocks, as we cannot make a clock which could be depended
+on for anywhere near a year. The next shorter period is that of a
+"moon." This is also a little too long, is not easily observed, and
+requires all sorts of corrections. Observations of the moon at sea
+are so difficult and subject to error that mariners use them only
+as a last resort. If a little freedom of language is permissible, I
+would say that the moon has a bad character all around, largely on
+account of her long association with superstition, false theology
+and heathen feasts. She has not purged herself even to this day!
+The ancients were probably right when they called erratic and
+ill-balanced persons "luny." Now we come to the day and find that it
+is about the right practical length--but what kind of a day? As there
+are five kinds we ought to be able to select one good enough. They
+are:--
+
+ 1st. The solar day, or noon to noon by the sun.
+
+ 2nd. An imaginary sun moving uniformly in the ecliptic.
+
+ 3rd. A second imaginary sun moving uniformly parallel to the
+ equator at all seasons of the year.
+
+ 4th. One absolute rotation of the earth.
+
+ 5th. One rotation of the earth measured from the node, or
+ point, of the spring equinox.
+
+The difference between 1st and 2nd is that part of the sun's error
+due to the elliptical orbit of the earth.
+
+The other part of the sun's error--and the larger--between 2nd and 3rd
+is that due to the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator.
+
+The whole error between 1st and 3rd is the "equation of time" as
+shown for even minutes in the first chapter under the heading, "Sun
+on Noon Mark 1909."
+
+Stated simply, for our present purpose, 1st is sundial time, and 3rd
+our 24-hour clock time.
+
+This 2nd day is therefore a refinement of the astronomers to
+separate the two principal causes of the sun's error, and I think we
+ought to handle it cautiously, or my friend, Professor Todd, might
+rap us over the knuckles for being presumptuous.
+
+This 5th day is the sidereal day of the astronomers and is the basis
+of our time, so it is entitled to a little attention. I shall confine
+"sidereal day" to this 5th to avoid confusion with 4th. If you will
+extend the plane of the equator into the star sphere, you have the
+celestial equator. When the center of the sun passes through this
+plane on his journey north, in the Spring, we say, "the sun has
+crossed the line." This is a distant point in the Zodiac which can
+be determined for any given year by reference to the fixed stars. To
+avoid technicalities as much as possible we will call it the point
+of the Spring equinox. This is really the point which determines
+the common year, or year of the seasons. Using popular language,
+the seasons are marked by four points,--Spring equinox--longest day--;
+Autumnal equinox--shortest day. This would be very simple if the
+equinoctial points would stay in the same places in the star sphere;
+but we find that they creep westward each year to the extent of 50
+seconds of arc in the great celestial circle of the Zodiac. This is
+called the precession of the equinoxes. The year is measured from
+Spring equinox to Spring equinox again; but each year it comes 50
+seconds of arc less than a full revolution of the earth around the
+sun. Therefore _if we measured our year by a full revolution_ we
+would displace the months with reference to the seasons till the
+hot weather would come in January and the cold weather in July in
+about 13,000 years; or a complete revolution of the seasons back to
+where we are, in 26,000 years. Leaving out fractions to make the
+illustration plain, we have:--
+
+ (1) 360 degrees of Zodiac                  }
+     ---------------------   = 26,000 years }
+       50 seconds of arc                    }
+                                            }
+ (2) 1 day of time                          }
+     -------------           = 26,000 years }
+     3-1/3 seconds                          }     All
+                                            } Approximate
+ (3) 1 year of time                         }
+     --------------          = 26,000 years }
+     20-1/3 minutes                         }
+                                            }
+ (4) 3-1/3 seconds                          }
+     -------------       = 1/110 of a second}
+     days in a year                         }
+
+In (1) we see that a "precession" of 50 seconds of arc will bring the
+Spring equinox around in 26,000 years.
+
+In (2) we see, as 50 seconds of arc represents the distance the earth
+will rotate in 3-1/3 seconds, a difference of one day will result
+in 26,000 years. That is since the clock regulated by the stars, or
+absolute rotations of the earth, would get behind 3-1/3 seconds per
+year, it would be behind a day in 26,000 years, as compared with a
+sidereal clock regulated by the Spring equinoctial point.
+
+In (3) we see that as 50 seconds of arc is traversed by the earth, in
+its annual revolution, in 20-1/3 minutes, a complete circle of the
+Zodiac will be made in 26,000 years.
+
+In (4) we see that as the difference between the year of the seasons
+and the Zodiacal year is 3-1/3 seconds of the earth's rotation, it
+follows that if this is divided by the number of days in a year
+we have the amount which a sidereal day is less than 4th, or an
+absolute rotation of the earth. That is, any meridian passes the
+Spring equinoctial point 1/110 of a second sooner than the time of
+one absolute rotation. These four equations are all founded on the
+precession of the equinoxes, and are simply different methods of
+stating it. Absolutely and finally, our time is regulated by the
+earth's rotation; but strange as it may appear, we do not take one
+rotation as a unit. As shown above, we take a rotation to a _movable
+point_ which creeps the 1/110 of a second daily. But after all, it is
+the _uniform_ rotation which governs. This is the one "dependable"
+motion which has not been found variable, and is the most easily
+observed. When we remember that the earth is not far from being as
+heavy as a ball of iron, and that its surface velocity at the equator
+is about 17 miles per minute, it is easy to form a conception of its
+uniform motion. Against this, however, we may place the friction
+of the tides, forcing up of mountain ranges, as well as mining and
+building skyscrapers--all tending to slow it. Mathematicians moving in
+the ethereal regions of astronomy lead us to conclude that it _must_
+become gradually slower, and that _it is_ slowing; but the amount may
+be considered a vanishing quantity even compared with the smallest
+errors of our finest clocks; so for uncounted generations past--and to
+come--we may consider the earth's rotation uniform. Having now found
+a uniform motion easily observed and of convenient period, why not
+adopt it as our time unit? The answer has been partially given above
+in the fact that we are compelled to use a year, measured from the
+Spring equinoctial point, so as to keep our seasons in order; and
+therefore as we must have some point where the sidereal clocks and
+the meantime clocks coincide, we take the same point, and that point
+is the Spring equinox. Now we have three days:--
+
+ 1st. A sidereal day 1/110 of a second less than one rotation of
+ the earth.
+
+ 2nd. One rotation of the earth in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4
+ seconds, nearly, of clock time.
+
+ 3rd. One mean time clock day of 24 hours, which has been explained
+ previously.
+
+Now, isn't it remarkable that our 24-hour day is purely artificial,
+and that nothing in nature corresponds to it? Our real day of 24
+hours is a _theoretical_ day. Still more remarkable, this theoretical
+day is the unit by which we express motions in the solar system. A
+lunar month is days--hours--minutes--and seconds of this theoretical
+day, and so for planetary motions. And still more remarkable, the
+earth's rotation which is _itself_ the foundation is expressed in
+this imaginary time! This looks like involution involved, yet our
+24-hour day is as real as reality; and the man has not yet spoken who
+can tell whether a mathematical conception, sustained in practical
+life, is less real than a physical fact. Our legal day of practical
+life is therefore deduced from the day of a fraction _less_ than one
+earth rotation. In practice, however, the small difference between
+this and a rotation is often ignored, because as the tenth of a
+second is about as near as observations can be made it is evident
+that for single observations 1/110 of a second does not count, but
+for a whole year it does, and amounts to 3-1/3 seconds. Now as to
+the setting of our clocks. While the time measured by the point of
+the Spring equinox is what we must find it is found by noting the
+transits of fixed stars, because _the relation_ of star time to
+equinoctial time is known and tabulated. Remember we cannot take
+a transit of the equinoctial point, because there is nothing to
+see, and that _nothing_ is moving! But it can be observed yearly
+and astronomers can tell where it is, at any time of the year, by
+calculation. The stars which are preferred for observation are
+called "time stars" and are selected as near the celestial equator
+as possible. The earth's axis has a little wabbling motion called
+"nutation" which influences the _apparent_ motion of the stars near
+the pole; but this motion almost disappears as they come near the
+equator, because nutation gives the plane of the equator only a
+little "swashplate" motion. The positions of a number of "time stars"
+with reference to the equinoctial point, are known, and these are
+observed and the observations averaged. The distance of any time
+star from the equinoctial point, _in time_, is called its "right
+ascension." Astronomers claim an accuracy to the twentieth part of
+a second when such transits are carefully taken, but over a long
+period, greater exactness is obtained. Really, the time at which any
+given star passes the meridian is taken, _in practical life_, from
+astronomical tables in the Nautical Almanacs. Those tables are the
+result of the labors of generations of mathematicians, are constantly
+subject to correction, and cannot be made simple. Remember, the
+Earth's rotation is the only uniform motion, all the others being
+subject to variations and even compound variations. This very subject
+is the best example of the broad fact that science is a constant
+series of approximations; therefore, nothing is exact, and nothing
+is permanent but change. But you say that mathematics is an exact
+science. Yes, but it is a _logical abstraction_, and is therefore
+only the universal solvent in physical science.
+
+With our imaginary--but real--time unit of 24 hours we are now ready
+to consider "local time." Keeping the above explanation in mind, we
+may use the usual language and speak of the earth rotating in 24
+hours clock time; and since motion is relative, it is permissible to
+speak of the motion of the sun. In the matter of the sun's apparent
+motion we are compelled to speak of his "rising," "setting," etc.,
+because language to express the motion in terms of the earth's
+rotation has not been invented yet. For these reasons we will assume
+that in Fig. 47 the sun is moving as per large arrow and also that
+the annulus, half black and half white, giving the 24 hours, is
+fastened to the sun by a rigid bar, as shown, and moves around the
+earth along with him. In such illustrations the sun must always be
+made small in proportion, but this rather tends to plainness. For
+simplicity, we assume that the illustration represents an equinox
+when the sun is on the celestial equator. Imagine your eye in the
+center of the sun's face at A, and you would be looking on the
+meridian of Greenwich at 12 noon; then in one hour you would be
+looking on 15� west at 12 noon; but this would bring 13 o'clock to
+Greenwich. Continue till you look down on New York at 12 noon, then
+it is 17 o'clock at Greenwich (leaving out fractions for simplicity)
+etc. If you will make a simple drawing like Fig. 47 and cut the
+earth separate, just around the inside of the annulus, and stick a
+pin at the North Pole for a center, you may rotate the earth as per
+small arrow and get the actual motion, but the result will be just
+the same as if you went by the big arrow. We thus see that every
+instant of the 24 hours is represented, at some point, on the earth.
+That is, the earth has an infinity of local times; so it has every
+conceivable instant of the 24 hours at some place on the circle.
+Suppose we set up 1,410 clocks at uniform distances on the equator,
+then they would be about 17 miles apart and differ by minutes. Now
+make it 86,400 clocks, they would be 1,500 feet apart and differ by
+seconds. With 864,000 clocks they would be 150 feet apart and vary
+by tenths of seconds. It is useless to extend this, since you could
+always imagine more clocks in the circle; thus establishing the
+fact that there are an infinity of times at an infinity of places
+always on the earth. It is necessary to ask a little patience here
+as I shall use this local time and its failure later in our talk.
+Strictly, local time has never been used, because it has been found
+impracticable in the affairs of life. This will be plain when we draw
+attention to the uniform time of London, which is Greenwich time; yet
+the British Museum is 30 seconds slow of Greenwich, and other places
+in London even more. This is railroad time for Great Britain; but
+it is 20 minutes too fast for the west of England. This led to no
+end of confusion and clocks were often seen with two minute hands,
+one to local and the other to railroad time. This mixed up method
+was followed by "standard time," with which we are all pretty well
+acquainted. Simply, standard time consists in a uniform time for each
+15� of longitude, but this is theoretical to the extreme, and is not
+even approached in practice. The first zone commences at Greenwich
+and as that is near the eastern edge of the British Islands, their
+single zone time is fast at nearly all places, especially the west
+coast of Ireland. When we follow these zones over to the United
+States we find an attempt to make the middle of each zone correct to
+local time, so at the hour jumping points, we pass from half an hour
+slow to half an hour fast, or the reverse. We thus see that towns
+about the middle of these four United States zones have sunrise and
+sunset and their local day correct, but those at the eastern and
+western edges average half an hour wrong. As a consequence of this
+disturbance of the working hours depending on the light of the day,
+many places keep two sets of clocks and great confusion results. Even
+this is comprehensible; but it is a mere fraction of the trouble
+and complication, because the hour zones are not separated by
+meridians in practice, but by zig-zag lines of great irregularity.
+Look at a time map of the United States and you will see the zones
+divided by lines of the wildest irregularity. Now question one of
+the brightest "scientific chaps" you can find in one of the great
+railroad offices whose lines touch, or enter, Canada and Mexico.
+Please do not tell me what he said to you! So great is the confusion
+that no man understands it all. The amount of wealth destroyed in
+printing time tables, _and failing to explain them_, is immense. The
+amount of human life destroyed by premature death, as a result of
+wear and tear of brain cells is too sad to contemplate. And all by
+attempting the impossible; for local time, _even if it was reduced to
+hourly periods_ is not compatible with any continental system of time
+and matters can only get worse while the attempt continues. For the
+present, banish this zone system from your mind and let us consider
+the beginning and ending of a day, using strictly local time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47--Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and
+Ending of the Day]
+
+A civil, or legal, day ends at the instant of 24 o'clock, midnight,
+and the next day commences. The time is continuous, the last instant
+of a day touching the first instant of the next. This is true for
+all parts of the earth; but something _in addition_ to this happens
+at a certain meridian called the "date line." Refer again to Fig. 47
+which is drawn with 24 meridians representing hours. As we are taking
+Greenwich for our time, the meridians are numbered from 0�, on which
+the observatory of Greenwich stands. When you visit Greenwich you
+can have the pleasure of putting your foot on "the first meridian,"
+as it is cut plainly across the pavement. Degrees of longitude are
+numbered east and west, meeting just opposite at 180�, which is
+the "date line." Our day begins at this line, so far as _dates_ are
+concerned; but the _local day_ begins everywhere at midnight. Let
+us start to go around the world from the date line, westward. When
+we arrive at 90� we are one quarter around and it takes the sun 6
+hours longer to reach us. At 0� (Greenwich) we are half around and
+12 hours ahead of the sun motion. At 90� west, three quarters, or 18
+hours, and when back to 180� we have _added_ to the length of all
+days of our journey enough to make one day; therefore our date must
+be one day behind. Try this example to change the wording:--Let us
+start from an island B, just west of the date line. These islanders
+have their 24-hour days, commencing at midnight, like all other
+places. As we move westward our day commences later and later than
+theirs, as shown above. Suppose we arrive at the eastern edge of
+the 180� line on Saturday at 12 o'clock, but before we cross it we
+call over to the islanders,--what day is it? We would get answer,
+"Sunday;" because all our days have been longer, totalling one day in
+the circuit of the globe. So if we step over the line at 12 o clock
+Saturday, presto, it is 12 o'clock Sunday. It looks like throwing out
+24 hours, but this is not so, since we have lived exactly the same
+number of hours and seconds as the islanders. In this supposition
+we have all the _dates_, however, but have jumped half of Saturday
+and half of Sunday, which equals one day. In practice this would not
+have been the method, for if the ship was to call at the island, the
+captain would have changed date on Friday night and thrown Saturday
+out, all in one piece, and would have arrived on their Sunday; so
+his log for that week would have contained only 6 days. It is not
+necessary to go over the same ground for a circuit of the globe
+eastward, but if you do so you will find that you _shorten_ your days
+and on arriving at the date line would have a day too much; so in
+this case you would _double_ a date and have 8 days in that week. In
+both cases this is caused by compounding your motion with that of the
+sun; going with him westward and lengthening your days, or eastward
+meeting him and shortening them. Figure 47 shows Greenwich noon, we
+will say on Monday, and at that instant, Monday only, exists from 0
+to 24 o'clock on the earth; but the next instant, Tuesday begins at
+180� B. In one hour it is noon of Monday at 15� West, and midnight
+at 165� East; so Tuesday is one hour old and there is left 23 hours
+of Monday. Monday steadily declines to 0 as Tuesday steadily grows
+to 24 hours; so that, except at the instant of Greenwich noon, there
+are always two days on the world at once. If we said that there are
+_always_ two days on the world at once, we could not be contradicted;
+since there is no conceivable time between Monday and Tuesday; it
+is an instantaneous change. As we cannot conceive of _no time_,
+the statement that there is only one day on the earth at Greenwich
+noon is not strictly permissible. Since there are always two days
+on the world at once let us suppose that these two are December
+31st and January 1st; then we have _two years_ on the world at once
+for a period of 24 hours. Nine years ago we had the 19th and 20th
+centuries on the world at once, etc. As a mental exercise, you may
+carry this as far as you please. Suppose there was an impassable sea
+wall built on the 180� meridian, then there would be two days on the
+world, just as explained above; but, _practically_, there would be
+no date line, since in sailing west to this wall we would "lengthen
+our days," and then shorten them the same amount coming around east
+to the other side of the wall, but would never jump or double a date.
+This explanation is founded, as it ought to be, on uniform local
+time, and is the simplest I can give. The date line is fundamentally
+simple, but is difficult to explain. When it is complicated by the
+standard time--or jumping hour system--and also with the fact that
+some islands count their dates from the wrong side of the line for
+their longitudes, scientific paradoxes arise, such as having three
+dates on the world at once, etc.; but as these things are of no more
+value than wasting time solving Chinese puzzles, they are left out.
+Ships change date on the nearest night to the date line; but if they
+are to call at some island port in the Pacific, they may change
+either sooner or later to correspond with its date. Here is a little
+Irish date line wit printed for the first time,--I was telling my
+bright friend about turning in on Saturday night and getting up for
+breakfast on Monday morning. "Oh," said he, "I have known gentlemen
+to do as good as that without leaving New York City!"
+
+As what is to follow relates to the growing difficulties of local
+time and a proposed method of overcoming them, let us recapitulate:--
+
+ 1st. Local time has never been kept, and the difficulties of
+ using it have increased as man advanced, reaching a climax of
+ absurdity on the advent of the railroad; so it broke down and
+ became impractical.
+
+ 2nd. To make the irregular disorder of local time an orderly
+ confusion, the "standard time"--jumping by hours--has helped a
+ little, but only because we can tell how much it is wrong at
+ any given place. This is its only advantage over the first
+ method, where we had no means of knowing what to expect on
+ entering any new territory. That is, we have improved things by
+ throwing out local time to the extent of an hour.
+
+My proposal is to throw local time out _totally_ and establish one,
+invariable, _universal time_. Greenwich time being most in use now,
+and meridians numbered from it, may be taken in preference to any
+other. Still another reason is that the most important timekeepers in
+modern life--ship's chronometers--are set to Greenwich time. Universal
+time--no local time--only local day and night. Our 24-hour system is
+all right, so do not disturb it, as it gets rid of A.M. and P.M. and
+makes the day our unit of time. Our railroad time now throws out
+local time to the extent of one hour; but I propose to throw it out
+entirely and never change the clock hands from Greenwich time. The
+chronometers do that now, so let us conduct all business to that time.
+
+Now refer to Fig. 46, in which Greenwich is taken as universal time.
+The annulus, half white and half black, indicates the average day and
+night, and is a separate ring in the dial which can be set so that
+"noon" is on the meridian of the place, as shown for four places in
+the illustration. It is the same dial in all four cases set to local
+day and night. Strictly, the local time conception is dropped and the
+local day left for regulating working and sleeping time. All business
+would have the same time. In traveling east we would not have the
+short hours; or west, the long hours. All clocks and watches would
+show the same time as ship's chronometers do now. The only change
+would be the names of the hours for the parts of the local day.
+This is just the difficulty, for we are so accustomed to _associate_
+a certain number, as seven, with the morning and breakfast time.
+Suppose breakfast time in London is 7 o'clock, then according to the
+local day it would be 12 o'clock breakfast time in New York; but in
+both cases it would be the same time with reference to the _local
+daylight_. Let it be distinctly understood that our association of
+_12 o'clock_ with _noon_ is not necessary. The Japanese called it
+"horse" and "nine"--the ancient Romans, the New Testament writers,
+and the Turks called it the "sixth hour"--the astronomers now call it
+24 o'clock, and the Chinese represent it by several characters; but,
+in all cases, it is simply the middle of the day at any place. By
+the proposed universal time, morning, noon, and evening would be--_at
+any given place_--the same hours. There would be no necessity of
+establishing legal noon with exactness to the meridian, because that
+would only regulate labor, meals, etc., and would not touch universal
+time. This is an important part of the proposal and is worth
+elaborating a little. Sections in manufacturing districts could make
+their working hours correspond at pleasure and no confusion would
+result. That is, local working hours to convenience but by the same
+universal time. Note how perfectly this would work in traveling,--you
+arrive in Chicago from the effete east and your watch corresponds
+all along with the railroad clocks. As you leave the station you
+glance up at the clock and see that Chicago noon is 17.30, so you
+set the day and night ring of your watch to match the same ring on
+the clock, but no disturbance of the hands. As you register at the
+hotel you ask,--dinner? and get answer, 24.30--then breakfast, 12.30.
+These questions are necessary now, so I do not add complication
+here. When you arrive in a strange city you must ask about meals,
+business hours, theater hours, "doors open" hours, etc., etc.; so
+all this remains the same. Let us put the matter forcibly,--while we
+count days, or _dates_, _something_ must vary with east and west;
+I propose the fixing of hours for business and sleep to suit each
+locality, but an invariable time. Get rid of the idea that a certain
+number, as 7 o'clock, represents the age of the day _at all places_.
+See how this would wipe out the silly proposal to "save daylight"
+by setting the clock back and forward. Suppose workmen commenced at
+12.30 in New York; for the long summer days make it 11.30, but no
+change in universal time. As this is the only difference from our
+present time system, keep the central conception, firmly,--universal
+time--local day and night.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46--Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places]
+
+Suppose Chicago decided that "early to bed and early to rise" was
+desirable; then it could establish its legal noon as 17.30, which
+would be about 20 minutes early for its meridian. You could do
+business with Chicago for a lifetime and not find this out, unless
+you looked up the meridian of Chicago and found that it was 17.50
+o'clock. None of the railroads or steamship lines of the city would
+need to know this, except as a matter of scientific curiosity,
+for the time tables would all be printed in universal time. For
+hiring labor, receiving and delivering goods, etc., they would
+only need to know Chicago _business hours_. To state the matter in
+different words,--Chicago would only need to decide what portion of
+the universal 24 hours would suit it best for its day and which
+for its night, and if it decided, as supposed above, to place its
+working day forward a little to give some daylight after labor,
+nothing would be disturbed and only the scientific would ever
+know. Certainly, "save daylight," but do not make a fool of the
+clock! Having shown the great liberty which localities could take
+without touching the working of the system, the same remarks apply
+to ultra-scientific localities. A city might establish its noon to
+the instant; so it is possible--even if a little improbable--that
+the brilliant and scientific aldermen of New York might appoint
+a commission with proper campfollowers and instrument bearers to
+determine the longitude of the city to the Nth of a second and tell
+us where we "are at." The glory of this achievement--and especially
+its total cost--would be all our own and incorruptible time would be
+untouched! We thus see that great local freedom and great accuracy
+are alike possible. With our present system, accuracy in local time
+is impracticable and has never even been attempted, and is confusion
+confused since we added the railroad hour jumps. Why did we nurse
+this confusion till it has become almost intolerable? Because man
+has always been a slave to _mental associations, and habits_.
+Primitive man divided the local day into parts and gave them names
+and this mental attitude sticks to us after it has served its day.
+The advantages of universal time could hardly be enumerated, yet we
+can have them all by dropping our childish association of 7 o'clock
+with breakfast time! Another example,--you visit a friend for a few
+days and on retiring the first night you ask "what is your breakfast
+hour"--"8 o'clock." You have to ask this question and recollect the
+answer. Now tell me what difference it would make if the answer had
+been 13 o'clock? None whatever, unless, perhaps, that is, you do not
+like thirteen! You ask, how about ships? Ships now carry universal
+time and only change the clock on deck to please the simple minded
+passengers. How about the date line? No change whatever, so long
+as we use _dates_ which means numbering local days. It is useless
+multiplying examples; all difficulties disappear, as if by magic, the
+moment we can free our minds of local time and the association of
+the _same hour_ with the _same portion_ of the day at _all places_.
+The great interest at present manifested in the attempts to reach
+the North Pole calls for some consideration of universal time in
+the extreme north. Commencing at the equator, it is easy to see
+that the day and night ring, Fig. 46, would represent the days and
+nights of 12 hours at all seasons. As we go north, however, this
+ring represents the _average_ day and night. When we reach the Polar
+Circle, still going north, the _daily_ rising and setting of the sun
+gradually ceases till we reach the great one-year day at the Pole,
+consisting of six months darkness and six months light. Let us now
+assume that an astronomical observatory is established here and the
+great equatorial placed precisely on the pole. At this point, _local
+time_, _day and night_, and _the date line_, almost cease to have
+a meaning. For this very reason universal time would be the only
+practical method; therefore, it _more_ than stands the test of being
+carried to the extreme. Universal time would regulate working and
+sleeping here the same as at all other places. Strictly local time in
+this observatory would be an absurdity, because in walking around the
+telescope (pole) you would be in all instants of the 24 hours within
+five seconds! At the pole the day would commence at the same instant
+as at some assumed place, and the day and night ring would represent
+working and sleeping as at that place. Suppose this observatory to
+be in telegraphic communication with New York, then it would be
+best for the attendants to set their day and night to New York, so
+as to correspond with its business hours. Many curious suppositions
+might be made about this polar observatory with its "great night"
+and equally "great day." It is evident that to keep count of itself
+it would be compelled to note _dates_ and 24-hour _days_ to keep in
+touch with us; so it would be forced to adopt the local day of some
+place like New York. This choice would be free, because a polar
+observatory would stand on all the meridians of the earth at once.
+
+We are now in a position to consider the next possible--and even
+probable--improvement in our clocks and watches. To minimize the
+next step it might be well to see what we can do now. Clocks are
+often regulated by electric impulses over wires. Electricians inform
+me that they can do this by wireless; but that owing to the rapid
+attenuation of the impulses it cannot be done commercially, over
+great distances. In the history of invention the first step was _to
+do something_ and then find a way of doing it cheaply enough for
+general use. So far as I know, the watch in the wearer's pocket has
+not yet been regulated by wireless; but I am willing to risk the
+statement that the editor of Popular Mechanics can name more than one
+electrician who can do this. A watch to take these impulses might be
+larger than our present watches, but it would not stay larger and
+would ultimately become much smaller. You know what has happened
+since the days of the big "onions" described in the third chapter.
+Fig. 34; so get your electric watch and make it smaller at your
+leisure. We have made many things commercially practicable, which
+looked more revolutionary than this. Now throw out the mainspring,
+wheels, pinions, etc., of our watches and reduce the machinery part
+to little more than dial and hands and do the driving by wireless,
+say, once every minute. I feel certain that I am restraining the
+scientific imagination in saying that the man lives among us who can
+do this. I repeat, that we now possess the elementary knowledge--which
+if collated and applied--would produce such a watch.
+
+Now I have a big question to ask--the central note of interrogation
+in this little scientific conversation with you,--does the man
+live who can make the earth automatically record its rotation?
+Do not be alarmed, for I am prepared to make a guess as to this
+possibility. A _direct_ mechanical record of the earth's rotation
+seems hopeless, but let us see what can be done. You are aware
+that some of the fixed stars have a distinct spectrum. It is not
+unreasonable to suppose that an instrument could be made to record
+the passage of such a star over the meridian. Ah, but you say, there
+is no mechanical force in this. Do not hurry, for we have long been
+acquainted with the fact that things which, apparently, have no
+force can be made to liberate something which manifests mechanical
+force. We could now start or stop the greatest steam engine by a
+gleam of sunlight, and some day we might be able to do as much by the
+lately discovered pressure of light. That is, we can now liberate
+the greatest forces by the most infinitesimal, by steps; the little
+force liberating one greater than itself, and that one another still
+greater. A good example is the stopping of an electric train, from a
+distance, by wireless. The standard clock in Philadelphia, previously
+referred to, is a delicate instrument and its most delicate part,
+having the least force, moves a little valve every minute, and by
+several steps liberates the air pressure, 200 feet higher in the
+tower, to move the four sets of great hands. I am not traveling
+beyond the record when I say that the invisible actinic rays could be
+used to liberate a great force; therefore what is there unreasonable
+in the supposition that the displacement of the sodium line in the
+spectrum of a star might be made to record the earth's rotation? So
+I say to the electrician--the optician--the photographer--the chemist
+and the mechanic.--get together and produce this watch. Permit me,
+with conventional and intentional modesty, to name the new timepiece
+_Chroncosmic_. For pocket use, it would be _Cosmic watch_. In the
+first chapter I allowed to the year 2,000 for the production of this
+watch, but it is likely we will not need to wait so long.
+
+Having stated my proposal for universal time as fully as space will
+permit and given my guess as to the coming cosmic watch, let us in
+this closing paragraph indulge in a little mental exercise. Suppose
+we copy the old time lecturer on astronomy and "allow our minds to
+penetrate into space." Blessed be his memory, he was a doer of good.
+How impressive as he repeatedly dropped his wooden pointer, and lo!
+It always moved straight to the floor; thus triumphantly vindicating
+universal gravitation!!!
+
+We can think of a time system which would discard months, weeks and
+days. What is the meaning of the financial almanac in which the
+days are numbered from 1 to 365 or 366? Simply a step in the right
+direction, _away from the months and weeks_, so that the distance
+between any two dates may be seen at a glance. We would really be
+better without months and weeks. Now let us consider the year of
+the seasons as a unit--long since proposed by the astronomers--and
+divide it into 3,000 chrons. Clocks regulated by star transits, as
+at present, would divide this decimally, the fourth place being near
+enough to make the new pendulums of convenient length. This would
+throw out months, weeks and days, local time and the date line.
+Each of these chrons would represent the same time in the year,
+permanently. For example, 464.6731 would mark to a _dixmilliemechron_
+(a little more than one second) the point reached in the year; while
+the date does not, as I have shown in the first chapter. But you
+still object that this is a great number of figures to use in fixing
+a point in the year. Let us see what it takes to fix a point in the
+year now, _August 24th, 11-16-32 P. M., New York standard time_. A
+pretty long story, but it does not fix the point of the year even
+then; for it would require the assistance of an astronomer to fix
+such a point in _any given_ year, say 1909. But 464.6731 would be
+eternally right in _absolute time_ of the seasons, and has only one
+meaning, with no qualifications for any year whatever. I believe
+the astronomers should use a method something like this. Ah, but
+there is a difficulty in applying this to the affairs of daily life
+which looks insurmountable. This is caused by the fact that the
+_day_ and _year_ are incommeasurable. One of them cannot be exactly
+expressed in terms of the other. They are like the diagonal and side
+of a square. The day is now the unit and therefore the year has an
+interminable fraction; conversely, if we make the year the unit, then
+the day becomes an endless fraction. This brings us face to face with
+the local day which we ignored in our scientific year unit. We _must_
+regulate our labors, in this world, to day and night and, with the
+year unit, the chrons would bear no fixed relation to day and night,
+even for two days in succession. So the year unit and absolute time
+must be left to the astronomers; but the _day unit_ and the uniform
+world day of _universal time_ as explained in connection with Fig. 46
+I offer as a practical system.
+
+I am satisfied that all attempts to measure the year and the day
+by the same _time yard stick_ must fail and keep us in our present
+confusion. Therefore separate them once for all time. Brought down to
+its lowest terms my final proposal is:--
+
+ 1st. An equinoctial year unit for the astronomers, divided
+ somewhat as suggested, but no attempt to make the divisions
+ even approximate to days and hours. This would fix all
+ astronomical events, absolutely. A variation in the length of
+ the year would not disturb this system, since the year _itself_
+ would be the unit. In translating this astronomical, or year
+ unit time, into clock time, no difficulties would be added, as
+ compared with our present translation of sidereal time into
+ clock time. Deal with the _year unit_ and _day unit_ separately
+ and convert them mutually when necessary.
+
+ 2nd. A universal mean time day of 24 hours, as now kept at
+ Greenwich, all human business being regulated by this time.
+ Dates and the date line as well as leap years all being
+ retained as at present.
+
+ 3rd. Weight and spring clocks and watches to be superseded by
+ the cosmic clocks and watches regulated by wireless impulses
+ from central time stations, all impulses giving the same
+ invariable time for all places.
+
+ 4th. Automatic recording of the earth's rotations to determine
+ this time.
+
+To avoid any possibility of misunderstanding, I would advise never
+counting a unit till it is completed. We do this correctly with our
+hours, as we understand 24 o'clock to be the same as 0 o'clock. But
+we do not carry this out logically, for we say 24.30. How can this
+be so, since there is nothing more than 24 o'clock? It ought to be
+simply 30 minutes, or 0 hour 30 minutes. How can there be any _hour_
+when a new day is only 30 minutes old? This brings up the acrimonious
+controversy, of some years ago, as to whether there was any "year
+one." One side insisted that till one year was completed there could
+only be months and days. The other side argued that the "year one"
+commenced at 0 and that the month and date showed how much of it had
+passed. Test yourself,--is this the year 1909, of which only 8 months
+have passed; or is it 1909 and 8 months more? Regarding the centuries
+there appears to be no difference of opinion that 1900 is completed,
+and that we are in the 20th century. But can you tell whether we are
+8 years and 8 months into the 20th century or 9 years and 8 months?
+It ought to be, logically 1909 years _complete_ and 8 months of the
+next year, which we must not count till it is completed. Take a
+carpenter's rule, we say 1/4 in.--1/2 in.--3/4 in., but do not count
+an inch till we complete it. When the ancients are quoted,--"about
+the middle of the third hour" there is no mistake, because that means
+2-1/2 hours since sunrise. If we said the 1909th year that would be
+definite too, and mean some distance into that year. Popular language
+states that Greenwich is on the "first meridian"; strictly, it is on
+the zero meridian, or 0�. These matters are largely academic and I do
+not look on them as serious subjects of discussion; but they are good
+thought producers. Bidding you good-bye, for the present, it might
+be permissible to state that this conversational article on Time was
+intended to be readable and somewhat instructive; but especially to
+indicate the infinity of the subject, that thought and investigation
+might be encouraged.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Original spelling and grammar have mostly been retained. However, on
+page 31, "clepsydral" was changed to "clepsydra".
+
+Figures were moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. In
+addition, some figures were originally out of numerical sequence;
+they are now in sequence.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT***
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+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Time and Its Measurement, by James Arthur</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p>
+<p>Title: Time and Its Measurement</p>
+<p>Author: James Arthur</p>
+<p>Release Date: February 7, 2014  [eBook #44838]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, RichardW,<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive<br />
+    (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      <a href="https://archive.org/details/timeitsmeasureme00arth">
+      https://archive.org/details/timeitsmeasureme00arth</a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="body">
+<div id="coverpage" class="figcenter" style="width:600px;">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="600" height="800" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="front">
+<h1 title="Time and Its Measurement">TIME AND ITS<br />MEASUREMENT<br /><br /></h1>
+
+<div class="fsize4">BY</div>
+
+<div class="fsize2">JAMES ARTHUR<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class="fsize4"><small>REPRINTED FROM</small><br />
+POPULAR MECHANICS MAGAZINE</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="fsize4"><small><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1909,
+ by H. H. Windsor</span></small></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="fsize2">CHICAGO, 1909<br /><br /></div>
+</div>
+
+<h2 title="Contents"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div id="toc">
+<div class="fsize2">CHAPTER I</div>
+
+<div class="fsize2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">HISTORIC OUTLINE</a></div>
+
+<table summary="part of toc"><tr><td>Time as an abstraction. — Ancient divisions of day and night. — Night watches of the
+Old Testament. — Quarter days and hours of the New Testament. — Shadow, or
+sun time. — Noon mark dials. — Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. — Modern
+dials. — Equation of time. — Three historic methods of measuring time. — “Time-boy”
+of India. — Chinese clepsydra. — Ancient weather and time stations. — Tower
+of the winds, Athens, Greece</td>
+ <td class="tocpage">Page&#160;13</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="fsize2">CHAPTER II</div>
+
+<div class="fsize2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">JAPANESE CLOCKS</a></div>
+
+<table summary="part of toc"><tr><td>Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. — Hours of varying length. — Setting clocks
+to length of daylight. — Curved line dials. — Numbering hours backwards and
+strange reasons for same. — Daily names for sixty day period. — Japanese clock
+movements practically Dutch. — Japanese astronomical clock. — Decimal numbers
+very old Chinese. — Original vertical dials founded on “bamboo stick” of Chinese
+clepsydra. — Mathematics and superstition. — Mysterious disappearance of hours 1,
+2, 3. — Eastern mental attitude towards time. — Japanese methods of striking hours
+and half hours</td>
+ <td class="tocpage">Page&#160;25</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="fsize2">CHAPTER III</div>
+
+<div class="fsize2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">MODERN CLOCKS</a></div>
+
+<table summary="part of toc"><tr><td>De Vick's clock of 1364. — Original “verge” escapement. — “Anchor” and “dead beat”
+escapements. — “Remontoir” clock. — The pendulum. — Jeweling pallets. — Antique
+clock with earliest application of pendulum. — Turkish watches. — Correct designs
+for public clock faces. — Art work on old watches. — 24-hour watch. — Syrian and
+Hebrew hour numerals. — Correct method of striking hours and quarters. — Design
+for 24-hour dial and hands. — Curious clocks. — Inventions of the old clock-makers</td>
+ <td class="tocpage">Page&#160;37</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="fsize2">CHAPTER IV</div>
+
+<div class="fsize2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME</a></div>
+
+<table summary="part of toc"><tr><td>Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. — Reasons for selecting the
+sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour day. — Year of the seasons shorter than the
+zodiacal year. — Precession of the equinoxes. — Earth's rotation most uniform motion
+known to us. — Time stars and transits. — Local time. — The date line. — Standard
+time. — Beginning and ending of a day. — Proposed universal time. — Clock dial
+for universal time and its application to business. — Next great improvement in
+clocks and watches indicated. — Automatic recording of the earth's rotation. — Year
+of the seasons as a unit for astronomers. — General conclusions</td>
+ <td class="tocpage">Page&#160;53</td>
+</tr></table>
+</div>
+
+<h2 title="Illustrations">
+<a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<div id="loi">
+<table summary="list of illustrations">
+<tr>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">pg</td>
+ <td></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">pg</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#Portrait.of.James.Arthur">Portrait of James Arthur</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">8</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig24">Dial of Philadelphia City Hall Clock</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">37</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-1">Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods of Time Keeping</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">15</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig25">Verge Escapement</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">37</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-2">Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of Herculaneum</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">16</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig26">De Vick's Clock of 1364</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">38</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-3">Noon-Mark Sundials</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">17</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig27">Anchor Escapement</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">38</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-4">Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude 40°-43´</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">18</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig28">American Anchor Escapement</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">39</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-5">The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to Axis</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">18</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig29">Dead Beat Escapement</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">39</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-6">Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">18</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig31">Remontoir Clock by James Arthur</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">40</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-7">"Time-Boy" of India</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">19</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig30">Remontoir Clock Movement</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">40</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-8">"Hon-woo-et-low," or "Copper Jars Dropping <span
+ class="wrapnot">Water"—</span>Canton, China</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">19</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig32">Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">41,&#160;42</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig-9">Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">20</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig36">Double-Case Watch of Repoussé Work</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">42</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig10">Tower of the Winds, Athens, Greece</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">20</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig34">Triple-Case Turkish Watches</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">43</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig11">Key to Japanese Figures</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">25</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig38">Watch Showing Dutch Art Work</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">43</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig12-13">Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">25</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig35">Triple-Case Turkish Watch</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">44</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig14">Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short Pendulum</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">26</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig37">Watches Showing Art Work</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">45</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig15">Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and Balance</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">26</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig39">Antique Watch Cock</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">46</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig16">Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and Balance</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">27</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig40">"Chinese" Watch</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">46</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig18">Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having Curved Lines, Weight and Balance</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">27</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig41">Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">47</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig17">Japanese Vertical Dials</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">28</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig42">Syrian Dial</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">47</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig19">Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and Two Escapements</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">29</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig43-44">Hebrew Numerals</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">48</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig21">"Twelve Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems" as Used in Clocks</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">30</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig43-44">Twenty-four Hour Watch</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">48</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig20">Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems"</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">30</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig45">Domestic Dial by James Arthur</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">49</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig22">Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">31</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig47">Local <span
+ class="wrapnot">Time—</span>Standard <span class="wrapnot">Time—</span>Beginning
+ and Ending of the Day</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">57</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig23">Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of Hours</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">32</td>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig46">Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">61</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="loientry"><a href="#fig24">Public Dial by James Arthur</a></td>
+ <td class="tdrgt">37</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;">
+<a id="Portrait.of.James.Arthur" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS">
+<span class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i007.png" width="370" height="546" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+ <div class="center"><b>James Arthur</b></div>
+ <p>Mr. Arthur is an enthusiastic scientist, a successful inventor and extensive
+ traveler, who has for years been making a study of clocks, watches, and time-measuring
+ devices. He is not only a great authority on this subject, but his collection of
+ over 1500 timepieces gathered from all parts of the globe has been pronounced the finest
+ collection in the world. Mr. Arthur is a pleasing exception to the average business
+ man, for he has found time to do a large amount of study and research along
+ various scientific lines in addition to conducting an important manufacturing business
+ in New York City, of which he is president. Mr. Arthur is 67 years of <span
+ class="wrapnot">age.—</span><span class="wrapnot">H. H. Windsor.</span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h2 title="Chapter I. Historic Outline"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>
+CHAPTER I
+<br />HISTORIC OUTLINE</h2>
+
+<p class="h2subh">
+Time as an abstraction. — Ancient divisions of day and
+night. — Night watches of the Old Testament. — Quarter
+days and hours of the New Testament. — Shadow or sun
+time. — Noon mark dials. — Ancient dials of Herculaneum
+and Pompeii. — Modern Dials. — Equation of time. — Three
+historic methods of measuring time. — “Time-boy” of India. — Chinese
+clepsydra. — Ancient weather and time stations. — Tower
+of the winds, Athens, Greece.
+</p>
+
+<p>Time, as a separate entity, has not
+yet been defined in language. Definitions
+will be found to be merely explanations
+of the sense in which we use
+the word in matters of practical life.
+No human being can tell how long a
+minute is; only that it is longer than a
+second and shorter than an hour. In
+some sense we can think of a longer or
+shorter period of time, but this is
+merely comparative. The difference
+between 50 and 75 steps a minute in
+marching is clear to us, but note that
+we introduce motion and space before
+we can get a conception of time as a
+succession of events, but time, in itself,
+remains elusive.</p>
+
+<p>In time measures we strive for a uniform
+motion of something and this
+implies equal spaces in equal times;
+so we here assume just what we cannot
+explain, for space is as difficult to
+define as time. Time cannot be
+“squared” or used as a multiplier or
+divisor. Only numbers can be so used;
+so when we speak of “the square of the
+time” we mean some number which we
+have arbitrarily assumed to represent
+it. This becomes plain when we state
+that in calculations relating to pendulums,
+for example, we may use seconds
+and <span class="wrapnot">inches—minutes</span> and <span
+class="wrapnot">feet—or</span> seconds
+and meters and the answer will
+come out right in the units which we
+have assumed. Still more, numbers
+themselves have no meaning till they
+are applied to something, and here we
+are applying them to time, space and
+motion; so we are trying to explain
+three abstractions by a fourth! But,
+happily, the results of these assumptions
+and calculations are borne out in
+practical human life, and we are not
+compelled to settle the deep question
+as to whether fundamental knowledge
+is possible to the human mind. Those
+desiring a few headaches on these
+questions can easily get them from
+Kant and <span class="wrapnot">Spencer—but</span> that is all they
+will get on these four necessary assumptions.</p>
+
+<p>Evidently, man began by considering
+the day as a unit and did not include
+the night in his time keeping for
+a long period. “And the evening and
+the morning were the first day” Gen.
+1, 5; “Evening and morning and at
+noonday,” Ps. LV, 17, divides the day
+(“sun up”) in two parts. “Fourth part
+of a day,” Neh. IX, 3, shows another
+advance. Then comes, “are there not
+twelve hours in a day,” John XI, 9.
+The “eleventh hour,” Matt. XX, 1 to
+12, shows clearly that sunset was 12
+o'clock. A most remarkable feature of
+this 12-hour day, in the New Testament,
+is that the writers generally
+speak of the third, sixth and ninth
+hours, Acts II, 15; III, 1; X, 9. This
+is extremely interesting, as it shows
+that the writers still thought in quarter
+days (Neh. IX, 3) and had not yet acquired
+the 12-hour conception given to
+them by the Romans. They thought
+in quarter days even when using the
+12-hour numerals! Note further that
+references are to “hours;” so it is evident
+that in New Testament times they
+did not need smaller subdivisions.
+“About the third hour,” shows the
+mental attitude. That they had no
+conception of our minutes, seconds and
+fifth seconds becomes quite plain when
+we notice that they jumped down from
+the hour to nowhere, in such expressions
+as “in an <span class="wrapnot">instant—in</span> the twinkling
+of an eye.”</p>
+
+<p>Before this, the night had been divided
+into three watches, Judges VII,
+19. Poetry to this day uses the “hours”
+and the “watches” as symbols.</p>
+
+<p>This 12 hours of daylight gave very
+variable hours in latitudes some distance
+from the equator, being long in
+summer and short in winter. The
+amount of human ingenuity expended
+on time measures so as to divide the
+time from sunrise to sunset into 12
+equal parts is almost beyond belief. In
+Constantinople, to-day, this is used,
+but in a rather imperfect manner, for
+the clocks are modern and run 24
+hours uniformly; so the best they can
+do is to set them to mark twelve at
+sunset. This necessitates setting to
+the varying length of the days, so that
+the clocks appear to be sometimes more
+and sometimes less than six hours
+ahead of ours. A clock on the tower
+at the Sultan's private mosque gives
+the impression of being out of order
+and about six hours ahead, but it is
+running correctly to their system.
+Hotels often show two clocks, one of
+them to our twelve o'clock noon system.
+Evidently the Jewish method of
+ending a day at sunset is the same and
+explains the command, “let not the sun
+go down upon thy wrath,” which we
+might read, do not carry your anger
+over to another day. I venture to say
+that we still need that advice.</p>
+
+<p>This simple line of steps in dividing
+the day and night is taken principally
+from the Bible because everyone can
+easily look up the passages quoted and
+many more, while quotations from
+books not in general use would not be
+so clear. Further, the neglect of the
+Bible is such a common complaint in
+this country that if I induce a few to
+look into it a little some good may result,
+quite apart from the matter of
+religious belief.</p>
+
+<p>Some Chinese and Japanese methods
+of dividing the day and night are indicated
+in <a href="#fig-1">Fig. 1</a>. The old Japanese
+method divides the day into six hours
+and the night also into six, each hour
+averaging twice as long as ours. In
+some cases they did this by changing
+the rate of the clock, and in others by
+letting the clock run uniformly and
+changing the hour marks on the dial,
+but this will come later when we reach
+Japanese clocks.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that at the present
+time in England the “saving daylight”
+agitation is virtually an attempt to go
+back to this discarded system. “John
+Bull,” for a long period the time-keeper
+of the world with headquarters at
+Greenwich, and during that time the
+most pretentious clock-maker, now proposes
+to move his clocks backward and
+forward several times a year so as to
+“fool” his workmen out of their beds
+in the mornings! Why not commence
+work a few minutes earlier each fortnight
+while days are lengthening and
+the reverse when they are shortening?</p>
+
+<p>This reminds me of a habit which
+was common in <span class="wrapnot">Scotland,—</span>“keeping
+the clock half an hour forward.” In
+those days work commenced at six
+o'clock, so the husband left his house
+at six and after a good walk arrived at
+the factory at six! Don't you see that
+if his clock had been set right he would
+have found it necessary to leave at half
+past five? But, you say he was simply
+deceiving himself and acting in an unreasonable
+manner. Certainly, but the
+average man is not a reasonable being,
+and “John Bull” knows this and is trying
+to fool the average Englishman.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<a id="fig-1" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i014.png" width="450" height="615" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 1—Interpretation of Chinese and
+Japanese Methods of Time Keeping</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now, as to the methods of measuring
+time, we must use circumstantial
+evidence for the pre-historic period.
+The rising and the going down of the
+<span class="wrapnot">sun—the</span> lengthening shadows, etc.,
+must come first, and we are on safe
+ground here, for savages still use primitive
+methods like setting up a stick and
+marking its shadow so that a party
+trailing behind can estimate the distance
+the leaders are ahead by the
+changed position of the shadow. Men
+notice their shortening and lengthening
+shadows to this day. When the shadow
+of a man shortens more and more
+slowly till it appears to be fixed, the
+observer knows it is noon, and when
+it shows the least observable lengthening
+then it is just past noon. Now, it
+is a remarkable fact that this crude
+method of determining noon is just the
+same as “taking the sun” to determine
+noon at sea. Noon is the time at which
+the sun reaches his highest point on
+any given day. At sea this is determined
+generally by a sextant, which
+simply measures the angle between the
+horizon and the sun. The instrument
+is applied a little before noon and the
+observer sees the sun creeping upward
+slower and slower till a little tremor
+or hesitation appears indicating that
+the sun has reached his <span class="wrapnot">height,—noon.</span>
+Oh! you wish to know if the observer
+is likely to make a mistake? Yes, and
+when accurate local time is important,
+several officers on a large ship will take
+the meridian passage at the same time
+and average their readings, so as to
+reduce the “personal error.” All of
+which is merely a greater degree of
+accuracy than that of the man who observes
+his shadow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 114px;">
+<a id="fig-2" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i015.png" width="114" height="186" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 2—Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of
+Herculaneum</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gradual development of the
+primitive shadow methods culminated
+in the modern sundial. The “dial of
+Ahas,” Isa. XXXVIII, 8, on which the
+sun went back 10 “degrees” is often referred
+to, but in one of the revised
+editions of the unchangeable word the
+sun went back 10 “steps.” This becomes
+extremely interesting when we
+find that in India there still remains an
+immense dial built with steps instead
+of hour lines. <a href="#fig-2">Figure 2</a> shows a pocket,
+or portable sundial taken from the ruins
+of Herculaneum and now in the Museo
+National, Naples. It is bronze, was
+silver plated and is in the form of a ham
+suspended from the hock joint. From
+the tail, evidently bent from its original
+position, which forms the gnomon, lines
+radiate and across these wavy lines
+are traced. It is about 5 in. long and
+3 in. wide. Being in the corner of a
+glass case I was unable to get small
+details, but museum authorities state
+that names of months are engraved on
+it, so it would be a good guess that
+these wavy lines had something to do
+with the long and short days.</p>
+
+<p>In a restored flower garden, within
+one of the large houses in the ruins of
+Pompeii, may be seen a sundial of the
+Armillary type, presumably in its original
+position. I could not get close
+to it, as the restored garden is railed
+in, but it looks as if the plane of the
+equator and the position of the earth's
+axis must have been known to the
+maker.</p>
+
+<p>Both these dials were in use about
+the beginning of our era and were
+covered by the great eruption of Vesuvius
+in 79 A.D., which destroyed Pompeii
+and Herculaneum.</p>
+
+<p>Modern sundials differ only in being
+more accurately made and a few
+“curiosity” dials added. The necessity
+for time during the night, as man's life
+became a little more complicated, necessitated
+the invention of time machines.
+The “clepsydra,” or water
+clock, was probably the first. A French
+writer has dug up some old records
+putting it back to Hoang-ti 2679 B.C.,
+but it appears to have been certainly in
+use in China in 1100 B.C., so we will
+be satisfied with that date. In presenting
+a subject to the young student it
+is sometimes advisable to use round
+numbers to give a simple comprehension
+and then leave him to find the
+overlapping of dates and methods as
+he advances. Keeping this in mind, the
+following table may be used to give an
+elementary hint of the three great steps
+in time measuring:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Shadow time, 2000 to 1000 B. C.</li>
+
+<li>Dials and Water Clocks, 1000 B. C. to 1000 A. D.</li>
+
+<li>Clocks and watches, 1000 to 2000 A. D.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>I have pushed the gear wheel clocks
+and watches forward to 2000 A.D., as
+they may last to that time, but I have
+no doubt we will supersede them. At
+the present time science is just about
+ready to say that a time measurer consisting
+of wheels and <span class="wrapnot">pinions—a</span> driving
+power and a regulator in the form
+of a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy
+contrivance and that we ought to do
+better very soon; but more on this
+hoped-for, fourth method when we
+reach the consideration of the motion
+on which we base all our time keeping.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable how few are aware
+that the simplest form of sundial is the
+best, and that, as a regulator of our
+present clocks, it is good within one or
+two minutes. No one need be without
+a “noon-mark” sundial; that is, every
+one may have the best of all dials. Take
+a post or any straight object standing
+“plumb,” or best of all the corner of
+a building as in <a href="#fig-3">Fig. 3</a>. In the case of
+the post, or tree trunk, a stone (shown
+in solid black) may be set in the
+ground; but for the building a line may
+often be cut across a flagstone of the
+footpath. Many methods may be employed
+to get this noon mark, which is
+simply a north and south line. Viewing
+the pole star, using a compass (if
+the local variation is known) or the old
+method of finding the time at which
+the shadow of a pole is shortest. But
+the best practical way in this day is to
+use a watch set to local time and make
+the mark at 12 o'clock.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;">
+<a id="fig-3" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i016.png" width="260" height="365" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 3—Noon-Mark Sundials</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On four days of the year the sun is
+right and your mark may be set at 12
+on these days, but you may use an almanac
+and look in the column marked
+“mean time at noon” or “sun on meridian.”
+For example, suppose on the
+bright day when you are ready to place
+your noon mark you read in this
+column 11:50, then when your watch
+shows 11:50 make your noon mark to
+the shadow and it will be right for all
+time to come. Owing to the fact that
+there are not an even number of days
+in a year, it follows that on any given
+yearly date at noon the earth is not at
+the same place in its elliptical orbit
+and the correction of this by the leap
+years causes the equation table to vary
+in periods of four years. The centennial
+leap years cause another variation
+of 400 years, etc., but these variations
+are less than the error in reading a dial.</p>
+
+<table id="SunOnNoonMark" summary="">
+<tr>
+ <th colspan="6">SUN ON NOON MARK, 1909</th></tr>
+<tr>
+ <th>Date</th>
+ <th>Clock<br />Time</th>
+ <th>Date</th>
+ <th>Clock<br />Time</th>
+ <th>Date</th>
+ <th>Clock<br />Time</th></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>Jan.&#160;&#160;2</td>
+ <td>12:04</td>
+ <td>May&#160;&#160;&#160;1</td>
+ <td>11:57</td>
+ <td>Sep.&#160;30</td>
+ <td>11:50</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;4</td>
+ <td>12:05</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;15</td>
+ <td>11:56</td>
+ <td>Oct.&#160;&#160;3</td>
+ <td>11:49</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;7</td>
+ <td>12:06</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;28</td>
+ <td>11:57</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;6</td>
+ <td>11:48</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;9</td>
+ <td>12:07</td>
+ <td>June&#160;&#160;4</td>
+ <td>11:58</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;10</td>
+ <td>11:47</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;11</td>
+ <td>12:08</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;10</td>
+ <td>11:59</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;14</td>
+ <td>11:46</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;14</td>
+ <td>12:09</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;14</td>
+ <td>12:00</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;19</td>
+ <td>11:45</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;17</td>
+ <td>12:10</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;19</td>
+ <td>12:01</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;26</td>
+ <td>11:44</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;20</td>
+ <td>12:11</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;24</td>
+ <td>12:02</td>
+ <td>Nov.&#160;17</td>
+ <td>11:45</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;23</td>
+ <td>12:12</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;29</td>
+ <td>12:03</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;22</td>
+ <td>11:46</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;28</td>
+ <td>12:13</td>
+ <td>July&#160;&#160;4</td>
+ <td>12:04</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;25</td>
+ <td>11:47</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>Feb.&#160;&#160;3</td>
+ <td>12:14</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;10</td>
+ <td>12:05</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;29</td>
+ <td>11:48</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;26</td>
+ <td>12:13</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;19</td>
+ <td>12:06</td>
+ <td>Dec.&#160;&#160;1</td>
+ <td>11:49</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>Mar.&#160;&#160;3</td>
+ <td>12:12</td>
+ <td>Aug.&#160;11</td>
+ <td>12:05</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;4</td>
+ <td>11:50</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;8</td>
+ <td>12:11</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;16</td>
+ <td>12:04</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;6</td>
+ <td>11:51</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;11</td>
+ <td>12:10</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;21</td>
+ <td>12:03</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;9</td>
+ <td>11:52</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;15</td>
+ <td>12:09</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;25</td>
+ <td>12:02</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;11</td>
+ <td>11:53</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;18</td>
+ <td>12:08</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;28</td>
+ <td>12:01</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;13</td>
+ <td>11:54</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;22</td>
+ <td>12:07</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;31</td>
+ <td>12:00</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;15</td>
+ <td>11:55</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;25</td>
+ <td>12:06</td>
+ <td>Sep.&#160;&#160;4</td>
+ <td>11:59</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;17</td>
+ <td>11:56</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;28</td>
+ <td>12:05</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;7</td>
+ <td>11:58</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;19</td>
+ <td>11:57</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>Apr.&#160;&#160;1</td>
+ <td>12:04</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;10</td>
+ <td>11:57</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;21</td>
+ <td>11:58</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;4</td>
+ <td>12:03</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;12</td>
+ <td>11:56</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;23</td>
+ <td>11:59</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;&#160;7</td>
+ <td>12:02</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;15</td>
+ <td>11:55</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;25</td>
+ <td>12:00</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;11</td>
+ <td>12:01</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;18</td>
+ <td>11:54</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;27</td>
+ <td>12:01</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;15</td>
+ <td>12:00</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;21</td>
+ <td>11:53</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;29</td>
+ <td>12:02</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;19</td>
+ <td>11:59</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;24</td>
+ <td>11:52</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;31</td>
+ <td>12:03</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;24</td>
+ <td>11:58</td>
+ <td>&#160;&#160;&#8220;&#160;&#160;27</td>
+ <td>11:51</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td colspan="6" class="bt">The above table shows the variation of the
+sun from “mean” or clock time, by even minutes.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 228px;">
+<a id="fig-4" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i017a.png" width="228" height="231" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 4—12-Inch Modern Horizontal Sundial for
+Latitude 40°-43´</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;">
+<a id="fig-5" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i017c.png" width="224" height="227" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 5—The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles
+to Axis</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The reason that the table given here
+is convenient for setting clocks to mean
+time is that a minute is as close as a
+dial can be read, but if you wish for
+greater accuracy, then the almanac,
+which gives the “equation of time” to
+a second for each day, will be better.
+The reason that these noon-mark dials
+are better than ordinary commercial
+dials is that they are larger, and still
+further, noon is the only time that any
+dial is accurate to sun time. This is because
+the sun's rays are “refracted” in
+a variable manner by our atmosphere,
+but at noon this refraction takes place
+on a north and south line, and as that
+is our noon-mark line the dial reads
+correctly. So, for setting clocks, the
+corner of your house is far ahead of the
+most pretentious and expensive dial.
+In <a href="#fig-4">Fig. 4</a> is shown a modern horizontal
+dial without the usual confusing “ornamentation,”
+and in <a href="#fig-5">Fig. 5</a> it is shown set
+up on the latitude of New York City
+for which it is calculated. This shows
+clearly why the edge FG of the style
+which casts the shadow must be parallel
+to the earth's axis and why a horizontal
+dial must be made for the latitude
+of the place where it is set up.
+<a href="#fig-6">Figure 6</a> is the same dial only the lines
+are laid out on a square dial plate, and
+it will give your young scientific readers
+a hint of how to set up a dial in
+the garden. In setting up a horizontal
+dial, consider only noon and set the
+style, or 12 o'clock line, north and
+south as described above for noon-mark
+dials.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 218px;">
+<a id="fig-6" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i017b.png" width="218" height="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 6—Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A whole issue of Popular Mechanics
+could be filled on the subject of dials
+and even then only give a general outline.
+Astronomy, geography, geometry,
+mathematics, mechanics, as well as
+architecture and art, come in to make
+“dialing” a most charming scientific
+and intellectual avocation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 217px;">
+<a id="fig-7" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i018b.png" width="217" height="196" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 7—“Time-Boy” of India</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the night and also in cloudy
+weather the sundial was useless and
+we read that the priests of the temples
+and monks of more modern times
+“went out to observe the stars” to make
+a guess at the time of night. The most
+prominent type after the shadow devices
+was the “water clock” or “clepsydra,”
+but many other methods were
+used, such as candles, oil lamps and in
+comparatively late times, the sand
+glass. The fundamental principle of all
+water clocks is the escape of water from
+a vessel through a small hole. It is
+evident that such a vessel would empty
+itself each time it is filled in very nearly
+the same time. The reverse of this has
+been used as shown in <a href="#fig-7">Fig. 7</a>, which
+represents the “time-boy” of India. He
+sits in front of a large vessel of water
+and floats a bronze cup having a small
+hole in its bottom in this large vessel,
+and the leakage gradually lowers this
+cup till it sinks, after which he fishes
+it up and strikes one or more blows on
+it as a gong. This he continues and a
+rude division of time is <span class="wrapnot">obtained,—while</span>
+he keeps awake!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 230px;">
+<a id="fig-8" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i018a.png" width="230" height="324" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 8—“Hon-woo-et-low” or “Copper Jars Dropping
+Water”—Canton, China</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 108px;">
+<a id="fig-9" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i019a.png" width="108" height="227" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 9—Modern Sand
+Glass or “Hour Glass”</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most interesting of all water clocks is undoubtedly the
+“copper jars dropping water,” in Canton, China, where I saw it in
+1897. Referring to the simple line sketch, which I make from memory,
+<a href="#fig-8">Fig. 8</a>, and reading four Chinese characters downwards the translation
+is “Canton City.” To the left and still <span class="wrapnot">downwards,—</span>“Hon-woo-et-low,”
+which <span class="wrapnot">is,—</span>“Copper jars dropping water.” Educated Chinamen inform
+me that it is over 3,000 years old and had a weather vane. As
+they speak of it as “the clock of the street arch” this would look
+quite probable; since the little open building, or tower in which
+it stands is higher than surrounding buildings. It is, therefore,
+reasonably safe to state that the Chinese had a <em>weather and
+time station</em> over 1,000 years before our era. It consists of
+four copper jars partially built in masonry forming a stair-like
+structure. Commencing at the top jar each one drops into the next
+downward till the water reaches the solid bottom jar. In this lowest
+one a float, “the bamboo stick,” is placed and indicates the height
+of the water and thus in a rude way gives the time. It is said to
+be set morning and evening by dipping the water from jar 4 to jar
+1, so it runs 12 hours of our time. What are the uses of jars 2
+and 3, since the water simply enters them and drips out again? No
+information could be obtained, but I venture an explanation and
+hope the reader can do better, as we are all of a family and there
+is no jealousy. When the top jar is filled for a 12-hour run it
+would drip out too fast during the first six hours and too slow
+during the second six hours, on account of the varying “head” of
+water. Now, the spigot of jar 2 could be set so that it would gain
+water during the first six hours, and lose during the second six
+hours and thus equalize a little by splitting the error of jar 1
+in two parts. Similarly, these two errors of jar 2 could be again
+split by jar 3 making four small variations in lowest jar, instead
+of one large error in the flow of jar 1. This could be extended to
+a greater number of jars, another jar making eight smaller errors,
+etc., etc. But I am inclined to credit our ancient Chinese inventor
+with the sound reasoning that a human attendant, being very fallible
+and limited in his capacity, would have all he could properly do to
+adjust four jars, and that his record would average better than it
+would with a greater number. Remember, this man lived thousands of
+years before the modern mathematician who constructed a bell-shaped
+vessel with a small hole in the bottom, and proportioned the varying
+diameter in such a manner that in emptying itself the surface of the
+water sank equal distances in equal times. The sand glass, <a
+href="#fig-9">Fig. 9</a>,
+poetically called the “hour glass,” belongs to the water-clock class
+and the sand flows from one bulb into the other, but it gives no
+subdivisions of its period, so if you are using one running an hour
+it does not give you the half hour. The sand glass is still in use by
+chairmen, and when the oldest inhabitant gets on his feet, I always
+advise setting a 20-minute glass “on him.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;">
+<a id="fig10" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i019b.png" width="275" height="426" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 10—“Tower of the Winds”—Athens, Greece</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the “Tower of the Winds” at
+Athens, Greece (<a href="#fig10">Fig. 10</a>), we have a
+later “weather bureau” station. It is
+attributed to the astronomer Andronicos,
+and was built about 50 B. C. It is
+octagonal in plan and although 27 ft.
+in diameter and 44 ft. high, it looks like
+a sentry box when seen from one of
+the hills of Athens. It had a bronze
+weather vane and in later times sundials
+on its eight sides, but all these
+are gone and the tower itself is only a
+dilapidated ruin. In making the drawing
+for this cut, from a photograph of
+the tower, I have sharpened the
+weathered and chipped corners of the
+stones so as to give a view nearly like
+the structure as originally built; but
+nothing is added. Under the eaves it
+has eight allegorical sculptures, representing
+wind and weather. Artists state
+that these sculptures are inferior as
+compared with Grecian art of an older
+period. But the most interesting part
+is inside, and here we find curious
+passages cut in solid stone, and sockets
+which look as if they had contained
+metal bearings for moving machinery.
+Circumstantial evidence is strong that
+it contained a complicated water clock
+which could have been kept running
+with tolerable accuracy by setting it
+daily to the dials on the outside. Probably
+during a few days of cloudy
+weather the clock would “get off quite
+a little,” but business was not pressing
+in those days. Besides, the timekeeper
+would swear by his little water wheel,
+anyway, and feel safe, as there was no
+higher authority wearing an American
+watch.</p>
+
+<div>
+<p>Some very interesting engravings of
+Japanese clocks and a general explanation
+of them, as well as a presentation
+of the Japanese mental attitude towards
+“hours” and their strange
+method of numbering them may be expected
+in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 61px;">
+<img src="images/i020.png" width="61" height="61" alt="" />
+</div></div>
+
+<h2 title="Chapter II. Japanese Clocks">
+<a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II
+<br />JAPANESE CLOCKS</h2>
+
+<p class="h2subh">
+Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. — Hours of varying
+length. — Setting clocks to length of daylight. — Curved
+line dials. — Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons
+for same. — Daily names for sixty day period. — Japanese
+clock movements practically Dutch. — Japanese astronomical
+clock. — Decimal numbers very old Chinese. — Original vertical
+dials founded on “bamboo stick” of Chinese clepsydra. — Mathematics
+and superstition. — Mysterious disappearance
+of hours 1, 2, 3. — Eastern mental attitude towards
+time. — Japanese methods of striking hours and half hours.
+</p>
+
+<p>The ancient methods of dividing day
+and night in China and Japan become
+more hazy as we go backwards and
+the complications grow. The three
+circles in <a href="#fig-1">Fig. 1</a> (Chapter I) are all
+taken from Japanese clocks, but the interpretation
+has been obtained from
+Chinese and Japanese scholars. The
+Japanese obtained a great deal from
+the Chinese, in fact nearly everything
+relating to the ancient methods of time
+keeping and the compiling of calendars.
+I have not been able to find any
+Chinese clocks constructed of wheels
+and pinions, but have a number of Japanese.
+These have a distinct resemblance
+to the earlier Dutch movements,
+and while made in Japan, they
+are practically Dutch, so far as the
+“works” are concerned, but it is easy to
+see from the illustrations that they are
+very Japanese in style and ornamentation.
+The Dutch were the leaders in
+opening Japan to the European nations
+and introduced modern mathematics
+and clocks from about 1590 A. D. The
+ancient mathematics of Japan came
+largely from China through Corea. In
+<a href="#fig11">Fig. 11</a> are given the Japanese figures
+beside ours, for the reader's use as a
+key. The complete day in Japan was
+divided into twice six hours; that is,
+six for daylight and six for night, and
+the clocks are set, as the days vary in
+length, so that six o'clock is sunrise
+and sunset. The hour numerals on <a href="#fig12-13">Fig.
+12</a> are on little plates which are movable,
+and are shown set
+for a long day and a short
+night.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 67px;">
+<a id="fig11" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i024a.png" width="67" height="352" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 11</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig12-13">Fig. 13</a> they are set
+for short days and long
+nights. The narrow plates
+shown in solid black are
+the half-hour marks. In
+this type the hand is stationary
+and always points
+straight upward. The
+dial rotates, as per arrow,
+once in a full day. This
+style of dial is shown on
+complete clocks, <a href="#fig14">Fig. 14</a>
+being a weight clock and
+<a href="#fig15">Fig. 15</a> a spring clock with
+chain and fusee. The
+hours are 9 to 4 and the
+dials rotate to make them
+read backwards. The six
+hours of daylight are 6, 5,
+4, 9, 8, 7, 6 and the same
+for night, so these hours
+average twice as long as
+ours. Note that nine is
+mid-day and mid-night, and as these
+do not change by long and short days
+they are stationary on the dial, as you
+can easily see by comparing <a href="#fig12-13">Figs. 12</a>
+and <a href="#fig12-13">13</a>, which are the same dial set for
+different seasons. Between these extremes
+the dial hours are set as often as
+the owner wishes; so if he happens to
+correspond with our “time crank” he
+will set them often and dispute with his
+neighbors about the time. <a href="#fig16">Figure 16</a>
+shows a clock with the hour numerals
+on a vertical series of movable plates
+and it is set for uniform hours when
+day and night are equal at the equinox.
+The ornamental pointer is fastened to
+the weight through the vertical slit,
+plainly visible in illustration, and indicates
+the time as it descends. This
+clock is wound up at sunset, so the
+six on the top of the dial is sunset
+the same as the six on the bottom.
+<a href="#fig17">Figure 17</a> shows how this type of dial
+is set for long and short days and explains
+itself, but will become plainer
+as we proceed. This dial is virtually
+a continuation of the old method of
+marking time by the downward motion
+of the water in the clepsydras and
+will be noticed later.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 477px;">
+<a id="fig12-13" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i024b.png" width="477" height="223" alt="" /> <div
+class="caption">Figs. 12 and 13. <div>Japanese Dials Set for Long and
+Short Days</div></div> </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 204px;">
+<a id="fig14" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i025a.png" width="204" height="502" alt="" /> <div
+class="caption">Fig. 14—Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short
+Pendulum</div> </div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 233px;">
+<a id="fig15" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i025b.png" width="233" height="252" alt="" /> <div
+class="caption">Fig. 15—Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee
+and Balance</div></div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig18">Figure&#160;18</a> represents a clock which
+is a work of art and shows great refinement
+of design in providing for
+the varying lengths of days. The bar
+lying across the dial is fastened to the
+weight through the two slits running
+the whole length of the dial. On this
+cross bar is a small pointer, which is
+movable by the fingers, and may be
+set to any one of the thirteen vertical
+lines. The numerous characters on
+the top space of dial indicate the dates
+on which the pointer is to be set. This
+clock is wound up at sunset, and it is
+easy to see that as the little pointer
+is set towards the right, the night
+hours at the top of the dial become
+shorter and the day hours longer on
+the lower part. The left edge of the
+dial gives the hours, reading downwards,
+and as the pointer touches any
+one of the curved lines the hour is
+read at the left-hand end. The curved
+lines formed of dots are the half-hours.
+The right-hand edge of the dial has
+the “twelve horary characters” which
+will be explained later. For dividing
+the varying days into six hours' sunshine
+it would be difficult to think of
+a more artistic and beautiful invention
+than this. It is a fine example of great
+ingenuity and constant trouble to operate
+a system which is fundamentally
+wrong according to our method of uniform
+hours at all seasons. Clocks
+having these curved lines for the varying
+lengths of <span class="wrapnot">days—and</span> we shall find
+them on circular dials as we go <span class="wrapnot">on—must</span>
+be made for a certain latitude,
+since the days vary more and more as
+you go farther from the equator. This
+will become plain when you are reminded
+that a Japanese clock at the
+equator would not need any adjustment
+of hour numerals, because the
+days and nights are equal there all the
+year. So after such infinite pains in
+forming these curved lines the clock
+is only good in the latitude for which
+it was made and must not be carried
+north or south! Our clocks are correct
+from pole to pole, but all clocks must
+be set to local time if they are carried
+east or west. As this is a rather
+fascinating phase of the subject it
+might be worth pointing out that if
+you go north till you have the sun up
+for a month in the middle of <span class="wrapnot">summer—and</span>
+there are people living as far up
+as <span class="wrapnot">that—the</span> Japanese system would
+become absurd and break down; so
+there is no danger of any of our polar
+expeditions carrying Japanese clocks.</p>
+
+<table id="figs16_17_18" summary="figures 16,17,18">
+<tr>
+ <td><div style="width: 130px;">
+<div class="center"><a id="fig16" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a></div>
+<img src="images/i026a.png" width="98" height="505" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 16—Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and
+Balance.</div>
+</div></td>
+
+ <td><div style="width: 231px;">
+<div class="center"><a id="fig17" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a></div>
+<img src="images/i027.png" width="231" height="375" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 17—Japanese Vertical Dials</div>
+</div></td>
+
+ <td><div style="width: 130px;">
+<div class="center"><a id="fig18" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a></div>
+<img src="images/i026b.png" width="96" height="504" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 18—Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having
+Curved Lines, Weight and Balance.</div>
+</div></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a href="#fig19">Figure 19</a> shows a very fine clock
+in which the dial is stationary and the
+hand moves just as on our dials. This
+hour hand corresponds to the single
+hand of the old Dutch clocks. When
+the Japanese reached the point of considering
+the application of minute and
+second hands to their clocks they found
+that these refinements would not fit
+their old method and they were compelled
+to lay aside their clocks and
+take ours. On this dial, <a href="#fig19">Fig. 19</a>, nine
+is noon, as usual, and is on top side of
+dial. Hand points to three quarters
+past <em>seven</em>, that is, a quarter to <em>six</em>,
+near sunset. Between the bell and the
+top of the clock body two horizontal
+balances, having small weights hung
+on them, are plainly shown, and the
+clock has two verge <span class="wrapnot">escapements—one</span>
+connected with each balance, or “foliot.”
+Let us suppose a long day coming
+to a close at sunset, just as the hand
+indicates. The upper balance, which is
+the slow one, has been swinging backwards
+and forwards measuring the
+long hours of the day. When the
+clock strikes six, at sunset, the top
+balance is thrown out of action and
+the lower one, which is the fast one,
+is thrown into action and measures the
+short night hours. At sunrise this is
+thrown out and the top one in again
+to measure the next day's long hours.
+As the days vary in length, the balances,
+or foliots, can be made to swing
+faster or slower by moving the weights
+inwards or outwards a notch or two.
+The balance with small weights for
+regulation is the oldest known and was
+used in connection with the verge escapement,
+just as in this clock, by the
+Dutch about 1364. All the evidence
+I can find indicates that the Japanese
+clocks are later than this date. In design,
+ornamentation and methods for
+marking varying days, however, the
+Japanese have shown great artistic
+taste and inventiveness. It is seen
+that this dial in addition to the usual
+six hours, twice over, has on the outside
+circle of dial, the “twelve horary
+branches” called by the Japanese the
+“twelve honorary branches,” thus indicating
+the whole day of twelve Japanese
+hours, six of them for day
+and six for night. By this means
+they avoided repeating the same hours
+for day and night. When it is
+pointed out that these “twelve horary
+branches” are very old Chinese, we
+are not in a position to boast about
+our twenty-four hour system, because
+these branches indicate positively
+whether any given hour is day or night.
+When we print a time table in the
+twenty-four hour system so as to get
+rid of our clumsy A. M. and P. M., we
+are thousands of years behind the Chinese.
+More than that, for they got
+the matter right without any such
+pressure as our close running trains
+have brought to bear on us. These
+branches have one syllable names and
+the “ten celestial stems” have also one
+syllable names, all as shown on <a href="#fig20">Fig.
+20</a>. Refer now to <a href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a> where two
+disks are shown, one having the
+“twelve horary branches” and the
+other the “ten celestial stems.” These
+disks are usually put behind the dial
+so that one “branch” and one “stem”
+can be seen at the same time through
+two openings. The clock moves these
+disks one step each night, so that a
+new pair shows each day. Running
+in this manner, step by step, you will
+find that it takes sixty moves, that is
+sixty days, to bring the same pair
+around again. Each has a single
+syllable name, as shown on <a href="#fig20">Fig. 20</a>,
+and we thus get sixty names of two
+syllables by reading them together to
+the left. The two openings may be
+seen in the dials of <a href="#fig15">Figs. 15</a> and <a href="#fig19">19</a>.
+So the Japanese know exactly what
+day it is in a period of sixty which
+they used in their old calendars. These
+were used by the Chinese over four
+thousand years ago as the names of
+a cycle of sixty years, called the “sexagenary.”
+The present Chinese year
+4606 is YU-KI which means the year
+46 of the 76th “sexagenary.” That is,
+76×60+46&#160;=&#160;4,606. In <a href="#fig20">Fig. 20</a>, we
+read TSU-KIAH, or the first year. If
+you will make two disks like <a href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a>
+and commence with TSU-KIAH and
+move the two together you will come
+to YU-KI on the 46th move. But
+there is another way which you might
+like better, thus: Write the twelve
+“branches,” or syllables, straight downwards,
+continuously five times; close
+to the right, write the ten “stems” six
+times. Now you have sixty words of
+two syllables and the 46th, counting
+downwards, will be YU-KI. Besides,
+this method gives you the whole sixty
+names of the “sexagenary” at one view.
+Always read <em>left</em>, that is, pronounce
+the “stem” syllable first.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;">
+<a id="fig19" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i028.png" width="216" height="434" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 19—Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances
+and Two Escapements; Dial Stationary, Hand Moves</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Calendars constitute a most interesting
+and bewildering part of time
+measuring. We feel that we have settled
+the matter by determining the
+length of the year to within a second
+of time, and keeping the dates correctly
+to the nearest day by a leap year
+every fourth and every fourth century,
+established by Pope Gregory XIII in
+1582, and known as the “Gregorian
+Calendar.” In simple words, our “almanac”
+is the “Gregorian.” We are
+in the habit of saying glibly that any
+year divisible by four is a leap year,
+but this is far from correct. Any year
+leaving out the <em>even hundreds</em>, which
+is divisible by four is a leap year.
+<em>Even hundreds</em> are leap when divisible
+by four. This explains why 1900 was
+a common year, because <em>19 hundreds</em>
+is not divisible by four; 2000 will be
+a leap because <em>20 hundreds</em> is divisible
+by four; therefore 2100, 2200 and
+2300 will be common years and 2400
+a leap, etc., to 4000 which must be
+made common, to keep things straight,
+in spite of the fact that it is divisible
+by four both in its hundreds and thousands.
+But for practical purposes, during
+more than two thousand years to
+come, we may simplify the rule to:
+<em>Years</em> and <em>even hundreds</em> divisible by
+four are leaps. But great confusion
+still exists as a result of several countries
+holding to their own old methods.
+The present Chinese year has 384 days,
+13 months and 13 full moons. Compared
+with our 1909 it begins on January
+21st and will end on February 8,
+1910. Last year the China-Japan calendar
+had 12 months, or moons, but
+as that is too short they must put in
+an extra every thirtieth month. We
+only allow the error to reach one day
+and correct it with our leap years, but
+they are not so particular and let the
+error grow till they require another
+“moon.” The Old Testament is full
+of moons, and even with all our “modernity”
+our “feasts” and holy days are
+often “variable” on account of being
+mixed up with moons. In Japan the
+present year is the 42nd of Meiji, that
+is, the 42nd of the present Emperor's
+reign. The present is the Jewish
+5669. These and others of varying
+lengths overlap our year in different
+degrees, so that in trade matters great
+confusion exists. The Chinese and
+Japanese publish a trade almanac in
+parallel columns with ours to avoid
+this. It is easy to say that we ought
+to have a uniform calendar all over the
+world, but the same remark applies just
+as much to money, weights, measures,
+and even to language itself. Finally,
+the difficulty consists in the facts that
+there are not an even number of days
+in a <span class="wrapnot">year—or</span> in a <span
+class="wrapnot">moon—or</span> moons in
+a year. “These many moons” is a
+survival in our daily speech of this
+old method of measuring by moons.
+Just a little hint as to the amount of
+superstition still connected with “new
+moon” will be enough to make clear
+the fact that we are not yet quite so
+“enlightened” as we say we are. While
+our calendar, or almanac, may be considered
+as final, we must remember
+that custom and religion are so mixed
+up with the matter in the older countries
+of the East that they will change
+very slowly. Strictly, our “era” is arbitrary
+and Christian; so we must not
+expect nations which had some astronomical
+knowledge and a working calendar,
+thousands of years before us,
+to change suddenly to our “upstart”
+methods.</p>
+
+<table summary="figures 20,21"><tr><td><div style="width: 153px;">
+<div class="center"><a id="fig20" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a></div>
+<img src="images/i029a.png" width="153" height="223" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 20—Key to “12 Horary
+Branches” and “10 Celestial
+Stems”</div></div></td>
+
+<td><div style="width: 227px;">
+<div class="center"><a id="fig21" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a></div>
+<img src="images/i029b.png" width="227" height="123" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 21—“12 Horary Branches” and “10 Celestial
+Stems” as Used in Clocks</div></div></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
+<a id="fig22" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i030.png" width="313" height="312" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 22—Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig22">Fig. 22</a> we have the dial of a
+very complicated astronomical clock.
+This old engraved brass dial did not
+photograph well, so I made a copy by
+hand to get clean lines. Commencing
+at the centre, there is a small disk, B,
+numbered from 1 to 30, giving days of
+the moon's age. The moon rises at
+A and sets at AA, later each day, of
+course. Her age is shown by the number
+she touches on disk B, as this disk
+advances on the moon one number
+each day. Her phases are shown by
+the motion of a black disk over her
+face; so we have here three motions
+for the moon, so differentiated as to
+show <em>phase</em>, <em>ascension</em> and <em>age</em>. Still
+further, as she is represented on the
+dial when below the horizon, it can
+be seen when she will rise, and “moonlight”
+parties may be planned. Just
+outside the moon's course is an annulus
+having Japanese numbers 1 to
+12, indicating months. Note the recurring
+character dividing the months
+in halves, which means “middle,” and
+is much used. If you will carefully
+read these numbers you will find a
+character where <em>one</em> would come; this
+means “beginning” or “primary” and
+is often used instead of one. The clock
+hand is the heavy arrow and sweeps
+the dial once in a whole day, same
+direction as our clocks. This circle
+of the months moves along with the
+hand, but a little faster, so as to gain
+one number in a month. As shown on
+the figure it is about one week into the
+sixth month. Next outward is the
+broad band having twelve curved lines
+for the hours ending outwardly in a
+ring divided into 100 parts, marked
+off in tens by dots. These curved lines
+are numbered with the Japanese numerals
+for hours which you must now
+be able to read easily. These hour
+lines, and the dotted lines for half
+hours, are really the same as the similar
+lines on <a href="#fig18">Fig. 18</a> which you now
+understand. As the hand sweeps the
+dial daily it automatically moves outward
+a little each day, so it shortens
+the nights and lengthens the days,
+just as previously explained for <a href="#fig18">Fig.
+18</a>. But there is one difference, for
+you will notice that the last night
+hour, on which the arrow hand now
+stands, is longer than the other night
+hours before it, and that it is divided
+into <em>three</em> by the dotted lines. The last
+day hour, on
+the left of dial,
+is also long
+and divided
+into <em>three</em>.
+That is, while
+all the dials
+previously described
+have
+equal hours
+for any given
+day, or night,
+this dial has a
+<em>last long hour</em>
+in each case,
+divided into
+three instead
+of the usual
+half-hours.
+This is a curious
+and interesting
+point
+having its origin
+long before
+clocks. In the early days of the clepsydra
+in China, a certain time was allowed
+to dip up the water from the lowest jar,
+each morning and evening about five
+o'clock of our time, see <a href="#fig-8">Fig. 8</a> (Chapter
+1). During this operation the
+clepsydra was not marking time, and
+the oriental mind evidently considered
+it in some sense outside of the regular
+hours, and like many other things was
+retained till it appeared absurdly on
+the earlier clocks. This wonderful
+feat of putting an interval between
+two consecutive hours has always been
+impossible to modern science; yet
+President Roosevelt performed it
+easily in his “constructive” interregnum!
+Referring to the Canton clepsydra,
+<a href="#fig-8">Fig. 8</a>, we find that the float, or
+“bamboo stick,” was divided into 100
+parts. At one season 60 parts for the
+day and 40 parts for the night, gradually
+being changed to the opposite
+for short days. The day hours were
+beaten on a drum and the night hours
+blown on a trumpet.</p>
+
+<p>Later the hour numerals were made
+movable on the “bamboo stick.” This
+is virtually a vertical dial with movable
+hour plates, so their idea of time
+measuring at that date, was of something
+moving
+up or down.
+This was put
+on the first
+clocks by the
+Japanese; so
+that the dial of
+<a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a> is substantially
+the
+float of the
+Chinese clepsydra.
+Further,
+in this
+“bamboo
+stick” of 100
+parts, we have
+our present
+system of decimal
+numbers,
+so we can afford
+to be a
+little modest
+here too. Before
+leaving
+<a href="#fig22">Fig. 22</a> note the band, or annulus,
+of stars which moves with the month
+circle. I cannot make these stars
+match our twelve signs of the Zodiac,
+but as I have copied them carefully
+the reader can try and make
+order out of them. The extreme outer
+edge of the dial is divided into 360
+parts, the tens being emphasized, as
+in our decimal scales.</p>
+
+<p>As we are getting a little tired of
+these complicated descriptions, let us
+branch off for a few remarks on some
+curiosities of Eastern time keeping.
+They evidently think of an hour as a
+<em>period of time</em> more specifically than
+we do. When we say “6 o'clock” we
+mean a point of time marked by the
+striking of the clock. We have no
+names for the hour periods. We must
+say “from 5 to 6” or “between 5 and 6”
+for an hour period. The “twelfth
+hour” of the New Testament, I understand
+to mean a whole hour ending at
+sunset; so we are dealing with an
+oriental attitude of mind towards
+time. I think we get that conception
+nearly correct when we read of the
+“middle watch” and understand it to
+mean <em>during</em> the middle third of the
+night. Secondly, why do the Japanese
+use no 1, 2, 3 on their dials? These
+numbers were sacred in the temples
+and must not be profaned by use on
+clocks, and they mentally deducted
+these from the clock hours, but ultimately
+became accustomed to 9, 8, 7,
+6, 5, 4. Thirdly, why this reading of
+the hours backwards? Let us suppose
+a toiler commencing at sunrise, or six.
+When he toiled one hour he felt that
+there was one less to come and he
+called it five. This looks quite logical,
+for the diminishing numbers indicated
+to him how much of his day's
+toil was to come. Another explanation
+which is probably the foundation
+of “secondly” and “thirdly” above, is
+the fact that mathematics and superstition
+were closely allied in the old
+days of Japan. If you take the numbers
+1 to 6, <a href="#fig23">Fig. 23</a>, and multiply them
+each into the uncanny “yeng number,”
+or nine, you will find that the last
+digits, reading downwards, give 9, 8,
+7, 6, 5, 4. Stated in other words:
+When 1 to 6 are multiplied into “three
+times three” the last figures are 9, 8,
+7, 6, 5, 4, and <em>1, 2, 3, have disappeared</em>;
+so the common people were filled with
+fear and awe. Some of the educated,
+even now, are mystified by the strange
+results produced by using three and
+nine as factors, and scientific journals
+often give space to the matter. We
+know that these results are produced
+by the simple fact that nine is one less
+than the “radix” of our decimal scale
+of numbers. Nine is sometimes called
+the “indestructible number,” since
+adding the digits of any of its powers
+gives an even number of nines. But
+in those days it was a mystery and
+the common people feared the mathematicians,
+and I have no doubt the
+shrewd old fellows took full advantage
+of their power over the plebeians. In
+Japan, mathematics was not cleared of
+this rubbish till about 700 A. D.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 154px;">
+<a id="fig23" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i031.png" width="154" height="232" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 23—Use of “Yeng Number”
+and Animal Names of Hours</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the right-hand side of <a href="#fig23">Fig. 23</a>
+are given the animal names of the
+hours, so the day and night hours
+could not be mistaken. In selecting
+the <em>rat</em> for night and the <em>horse</em> for day
+they showed good taste. Their forenoon
+was “before horse” and their
+afternoon “after horse.” Japanese
+clocks are remarkable for variety. It
+looks as if they were always made to
+order and that the makers, probably
+urged by their patrons, made extreme
+efforts to get in wonderful motions
+and symbols relating to astronomy and
+astrology. Anyone examining about
+fifty of them would be likely to conclude
+that it was almost hopeless to
+understand them all. Remember, this
+is the old Japanese method. Nearly
+all the clocks and watches I saw in
+Japan were American. It will now be
+necessary to close this chapter with a
+few points on the curious striking of
+Japanese clocks.</p>
+
+<p>In those like <a href="#fig14">Figs. 14</a>,
+<a href="#fig15">15</a>, <a href="#fig19">19</a>, the
+bell and hammer can be seen. In the
+type of <a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a>, the whole striking
+mechanism is in the weight. In fact,
+the striking part of the clock is the
+weight. On each of the plates, having
+the hour numerals, <a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a>, a pin projects
+inwards and as the weight containing
+the striking mechanism, descends,
+a little lever touches these and
+lets off the striking just when the
+pointer is on the hour numeral. Keeping
+this in mind, it is easy to see that
+the clock will strike correctly when
+the hour is indicated by the pointer,
+no matter how the hour plates are set
+for long or short days. Similar pins
+project inwards from movable plates
+on <a href="#fig12-13">Figs. 12</a>, <a href="#fig12-13">13</a>,
+<a href="#fig14">14</a>, <a href="#fig15">15</a>, so they strike
+correctly as each hour plate comes to
+the top just under the point of the
+fixed hand. In <a href="#fig19">Fig. 19</a>, the striking is
+let off by a star wheel just as in old
+Dutch clocks. Clocks like Figs.
+<a href="#fig18">18</a>-<a href="#fig22">22</a>
+do not strike. In all cases the hours
+are struck backwards, but the half-hours
+add another strange feature.
+The <em>odd</em> numbered hours, 9, 7, 5, are
+followed by one blow at the half hour;
+and the <em>even</em> hours, 8, 6, 4 by two blows,
+or stated <span class="wrapnot">altogether—</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<b>9</b><sub>1</sub>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+<b>8</b><sub>2</sub>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+<b>7</b><sub>1</sub>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+<b>6</b><sub>2</sub>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+<b>5</b><sub>1</sub>&#160;&#160;&#160;
+<b>4</b><sub>2</sub>.
+</p>
+
+<p>Here the large figures are the hours
+and the small ones the half-hours.
+Only one bell is used, because there
+being no one and two among the hours,
+the half-hours cannot be mistaken.
+This is not all, for you can tell what
+half hour it is within two hours. For
+example, suppose you know approximately
+that it is somewhere between
+9 and 7 and you hear the clock strike
+2, then you know it is half past 8. See
+the large and small figures above.
+This is far superior to our method of
+one at each half-hour.</p>
+
+<div>
+<p>By our method the clock strikes <em>one</em>
+three times consecutively, between 12
+and 2 o'clock and thus mixes up the
+half hours with one o'clock. Some interesting
+methods of striking will be
+explained in the third chapter when
+we deal with modern time keeping.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 61px;">
+<img src="images/i020.png" width="61" height="61" alt="" />
+</div></div>
+
+<h2 title="Chapter III. Modern Clocks">
+<a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III
+<br />MODERN CLOCKS</h2>
+
+<p class="h2subh">
+DeVick's clock of 1364. — Original “verge” escapement. — “Anchor”
+and “dead beat” escapements. — “Remontoir”
+clock. — The pendulum. — Jeweling pallets. — Antique clock
+with earliest application of pendulum. — Turkish watches. — Correct
+designs for public clock faces. — Art work on old
+watches. — Twenty-four hour watch. — Syrian and Hebrew
+hour numerals. — Correct method of striking hours and
+quarters. — Design for twenty-four hour dial and hands. — Curious
+clocks. — Inventions of the old clockmakers.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 501px;">
+<a id="fig24" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i036a.png" width="501" height="251" alt="" /><div
+class="caption">
+<table summary="fig 24">
+<tr>
+ <td style="width:50%;">Public Dial by
+ James Arthur</td>
+ <td>Dial of Philadelphia City Hall Clock</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div>Fig. 24</div></div></div>
+
+<p>Modern clocks commence with De
+Vick's of 1364 which is the first unquestioned
+clock consisting of toothed
+wheels and containing the fundamental
+features of our present clocks.
+References are often quoted back to
+about 1000 A. D., but the words translated
+“clocks” were used for bells and
+dials at that date; so we are forced to
+consider the De Vick clock as the first
+till more evidence is obtained. It has
+been pointed out, however, that this
+clock could hardly have been invented
+all at once; and therefore it is probable
+that many inventions leading up to it
+have been lost to history. The part of
+a clock which does the ticking is called
+the “escapement” and the oldest form
+known is the “verge,” <a href="#fig25">Fig. 25</a>, the date
+of which is unknown, but safely 300
+years before De Vick. The “foliot”
+is on the vertical verge, or spindle,
+which has the pallets A B. As the
+foliot swings horizontally, from rest to
+rest, we hear one tick, but it requires
+two of these single swings, or two
+ticks, to liberate one tooth of the escape
+wheel; so there are twice as many
+ticks in one turn of the escape wheel as
+it has teeth. We thus see that an escapement
+is a device in which something
+moves back and forth and allows
+the teeth of an “escape wheel” to escape.
+While this escapement is, in
+some respects, the simplest one, it has
+always been difficult to make it plain
+in a drawing, so I have made an effort
+to explain it by making the side of the
+wheel and its pallet B, which is nearest
+the eye, solid black, and farther side
+and its pallet A, shaded as in the
+figure. The wheel moves in the direction
+of the arrow, and tooth D is very
+near escaping from pallet B. The tooth
+C on the farther side of wheel is moving
+left, so it will fall on pallet A, to be
+in its turn liberated as the pallets and
+foliot swing back and forth. It is easy
+to see that each tooth of the wheel will
+give a little push to the pallet as it escapes,
+and thus keep the balance
+swinging. This escapement is a very
+poor time-keeper, but it was one of the
+great inventions and held the field for
+about 600 years, that is, from the days
+when it regulated bells up to the
+“onion” watches of our grandfathers.
+Scattered references in old writings
+make it reasonably certain that from
+about 1,000 to 1,300 bells were struck
+by machines regulated with this verge
+escapement, thus showing that the
+striking part of a clock is older than
+the clock itself. It seems strange to us
+to say that many of the earlier clocks
+were strikers, only, and had no dials or
+hands, just as if you turned the face of
+your clock to the wall and depended on
+the striking for the time. Keeping this
+action of the verge escapement in mind
+we can easily understand its application,
+as made by De Vick, in <a href="#fig26">Fig. 26</a>,
+where I have marked the same pallets
+A B. A tooth is just escaping from pallet
+B and then one on the other side of
+the wheel will fall on pallet A. Foliot,
+verge and pallets form one solid piece
+which is suspended by a cord, so as to
+enable it to swing with little friction.
+For the purpose of making the motions
+very plain I have left out the dial and
+framework from the drawing. The
+wheel marked “twelve hours,” and the
+pinion which drives it, are both outside
+the frame, just under the dial, and are
+drawn in dash and dot. The axle of
+this twelve-hour wheel goes through
+the dial and carries the hand, which
+marks hours only. The winding pinion
+and wheel, in dotted lines, are inside
+the frame. Now follow the
+“great <span class="wrapnot">wheel”—</span><span
+class="wrapnot">“intermediate”—</span>“escape
+wheel” and the two pinions, all in
+solid lines, and you have the “train”
+which is the principal part of all clocks.
+This clock has an escapement, wheels,
+pinions, dial, hand, weight, and winding
+square. We have only added the
+pendulum, a better escapement, the
+minute and second hands in over 500
+years! The “anchor” escapement, <a href="#fig27">Fig.
+27</a>, came about 1680 and is attributed
+to Dr. Hooke, an Englishman. It gets
+its name from the resemblance of the
+pallets to the flukes of an anchor. This
+anchor is connected to the pendulum
+and as it swings right and left, the
+teeth of the escape wheel are liberated,
+one tooth for each two swings from
+rest to rest, the little push on the pallets
+A B, as the teeth escape, keeping
+the pendulum going. It is astonishing
+how many, even among the educated,
+think that the pendulum drives the
+clock! The pendulum must always be
+driven by some power.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 227px;">
+<a id="fig25" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i036b.png" width="227" height="106" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 25—Verge Escapement</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 252px;">
+<a id="fig26" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i037a.png" width="252" height="538" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 26—De Vick's Clock of 1364</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;">
+<a id="fig27" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i037b.png" width="224" height="271" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 27—Anchor Escapement</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 224px;">
+<a id="fig28" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i038b.png" width="224" height="257" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 28—American Anchor Escapement</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This escapement will be found in
+nearly all the grandfather clocks in
+connection with a seconds pendulum.
+It is a good time-keeper, runs well,
+wears well, stands some rough handling
+and will keep going even when
+pretty well covered with dust and cobwebs;
+so it is used more than all the
+numerous types ever invented. <a href="#fig28">Figure
+28</a> gives the general American form of
+the “anchor” which is made by bending
+a strip of steel; but it is not the
+best form, as the acting surfaces of the
+pallets are straight. It is, therefore,
+inferior to <a href="#fig27">Fig. 27</a> where the acting
+surfaces are curved, since these curves
+give an easier “recoil.” This recoil is
+the slight motion <em>backwards</em> which the
+escape wheel makes at each tick. The
+“dead beat” escapement is shown in
+<a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a>, and is used in clocks of a high
+grade, generally with a seconds pendulum.
+It has no recoil as you can easily
+see that the surfaces O O on which the
+teeth fall, are portions of a circle
+around the center P. The beveled ends
+of these pallets are called the impulse
+surfaces, and a tooth is just giving the
+little push on the right-hand pallet. It
+is found in good railroad clocks, watch-makers'
+regulators and in many astronomical
+clocks. These terms are
+merely comparative, a “regulator” being
+a good clock and an “astronomical,”
+an extra good one. <a href="#fig30">Figure 30</a>
+gives the movement of a “remontoir”
+clock in which the dead beat shown is
+used. The upper one of the three dials
+indicates seconds, and the lever which
+crosses its center carries the large
+wheel on the left.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 226px;">
+<a id="fig29" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i038a.png" width="226" height="280" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 29—Dead Beat Escapement</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;">
+<a id="fig30" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i039b.png" width="220" height="279" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 30—Remontoir Clock Movement</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 116px;">
+<a id="fig31" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i039a.png" width="116" height="447" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 31—Remontoir Clock
+by James Arthur</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This wheel makes the left end of the
+lever heavier than the right, and in
+sinking it drives the clock for one
+minute, but at the sixtieth second it “remounts”
+by the action of the clock
+weight; hence the
+name, “remontoir.”
+Note here
+that the big
+weight does not
+directly drive the
+clock; it only rewinds
+it every
+minute. The minutes
+are shown on
+the dial to the
+right and its hand
+jumps forward
+one minute at
+each sixtieth second
+as the lever
+remounts; so if
+you wish to set
+your watch to this
+clock the proper
+way is to set it to
+the even minute
+“on the jump.”
+The hour hand is
+on the dial to the
+left. By this remounting,
+or rewinding,
+the clock
+receives the same
+amount of driving
+force each minute.
+The complete
+clock is shown in
+<a href="#fig31">Fig. 31</a>, the large
+weight which
+does the rewinding each minute being
+plainly visible. The pendulum is compensated
+with steel and aluminum, so
+that the rate of the clock may not be
+influenced by hot and cold weather.
+Was built in 1901 and is the only one
+I can find room for here. It is fully
+described in “Machinery,” New York,
+for Nov., 1901. I have built a considerable
+number, all for experimental purposes,
+several of them much more
+complicated than this one, but all differing
+from clocks for commercial purposes.
+Pallets like O O in <a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a> are
+often made of jewels; in one clock I
+used agates and in another, running
+thirteen months with one winding, I
+used pallets jeweled with diamonds.
+This is done to avoid friction and wear.
+Those interested in the improvement
+of clocks are constantly striving after
+light action and small driving weights.
+Conversely, the inferior clock has a
+heavy weight and ticks loud. The
+“gravity escapement” and others giving
+a “free” pendulum action would require
+too much space here, so we must
+be satisfied with the few successful
+ones shown out of hundreds of inventions,
+dozens of them patented. The
+pendulum stands at the top as a time
+measurer and was known to the ancients
+for measuring short periods of
+time just as musicians now use the
+metronome to get regular beats. Galileo
+is credited with noticing its regular
+beats, but did not apply it to clocks,
+although his son made a partially successful
+attempt. The first mathematical
+investigation of the pendulum was
+made by Huyghens about 1670, and he
+is generally credited with applying it
+to clocks, so there is a “Huyghens”
+clock with a pendulum instead of the
+foliot of De Vick's. Mathematically,
+the longer and heavier the pendulum
+the better is the time-keeping, but
+nature does not permit us to carry anything
+to the extreme; so the difficulty
+of finding a tower high enough and
+steady enough, the cumbersomeness of
+weight, the elasticity of the rod, and
+many other difficulties render very
+long and heavy pendulums impracticable
+beyond about 13 ft. which beats
+once in two seconds. “Big Ben” of
+Westminster, London, has one of this
+length weighing 700 lb. and measuring,
+over all, 15 ft.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 251px;">
+<a id="fig32" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i040.png" width="251" height="511" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 32—Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<a id="fig33" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i041a.png" width="250" height="520" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 33—Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It runs with an error under one
+second a week. This is surpassed only
+by some of the astronomical clocks
+which run sometimes two months
+within a second. This wonderful timekeeping
+is done with seconds pendulums
+of about 39 in., so the theoretical
+advantage of long pendulums is lost
+in the difficulties of constructing them.
+Fractions are left out of these lengths
+as they would only confuse the explanations.
+At the Naval observatory
+in Washington, D. C., the standard
+clocks have seconds pendulums, the
+rods of which are nickel steel, called
+“Invar,” which is little influenced by
+changes of temperature. These clocks
+are kept in a special basement, so they
+stand on the solid earth. The clock
+room is kept at a nearly uniform temperature
+and each clock is in a glass
+cylinder exhausted to about half an atmosphere.
+They are electric remontoirs,
+so no winding is necessary and
+they can be kept sealed up tight in
+their glass cylinders. Nor is any adjustment
+of their pendulums necessary,
+or setting of the hands, as the correction
+of their small variations is
+effected by slight changes in the air
+pressure within the glass cylinders.
+When a clock runs fast they let a little
+air into its cylinder to raise the resistance
+to the pendulum and slow it
+down, and the reverse for slow. Don't
+forget that we are now considering
+variations of less than a second a week.</p>
+
+<p>The clock room has double doors, so
+the outer one can be shut before the
+inner one is opened, to avoid air currents.
+Visitors are not permitted to
+see these clocks because the less the
+doors are opened the better; but the
+Commander will sometimes issue a
+special permit and detail a responsible
+assistant to show them, so if you wish
+to see them you must prove to him
+that you have a head above your shoulders
+and are worthy of such a great
+favor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;">
+<a id="fig34" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i042a.png" width="511" height="345" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 34—Triple-Case Turkish Watches</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best thing the young student
+could do at this point would be to
+grasp the remarkable fact that the
+clock is not an old machine, since it
+covers only the comparatively short
+period from 1364 to the present day.
+Compared with the period of man's
+history and inventions it is of yesterday.
+Strictly speaking, as we use the
+word clock, its age from De Vick to
+the modern astronomical is only about
+540 years. If we take the year 1660,
+we find that it represents the center of
+modern improvements in clocks, a few
+years before and after that date includes
+the pendulum, the anchor and
+dead beat escapements, the minute and
+second hands, the circular balance and
+the hair spring, along with minor improvements.
+Since the end of that
+period, which we may make 1700, no
+fundamental invention has been added
+to clocks and watches. This becomes
+impressive when we remember that
+the last 200 years have produced more
+inventions than all previous known
+<span class="wrapnot">history—but</span> only minor improvements
+in clocks! The application of electricity
+for winding, driving, or regulating
+clocks is not fundamental, for the timekeeping
+is done by the master clock
+with its pendulum and wheels, just as
+by any grandfather's clock 200 years
+old. This broad survey of time measuring
+does not permit us to go into
+minute mechanical details. Those
+wishing to follow up the subject would
+require a large “horological <span class="wrapnot">library”—and</span>
+Dr. Eliot's five-foot shelf would be
+altogether too short to hold the books.</p>
+
+<p>A good idea of the old church clocks
+may be obtained from <a href="#fig32">Fig. 32</a> which is
+one of my valued antiques. Tradition
+has followed it down as the “English
+Blacksmith's Clock.” It has the very
+earliest application of the pendulum.
+The pendulum, which I have marked
+by a star to enable the reader to find it,
+is less than 3 in. long and is hung on
+the verge, or pallet axle, and beats 222
+per minute. This clock may be safely
+put at 250 years old, and contains nothing
+invented since that date. Wheels
+are cast brass and all teeth laboriously
+filed out by hand. Pinions are solid
+with the axles, or “staffs,” and also filed
+out by hand. It is put together, generally
+by mortise, tenon and cotter, but
+it has four original screws all made by
+hand with the file. How did he thread
+the holes for these screws? Probably
+made a tap by hand as he made the
+screws. But the most remarkable
+feature is the fact that no lathe was
+used in forming any <span class="wrapnot">part—all</span> staffs,
+pinions and pivots being filed by hand.
+This is simply extraordinary when it is
+pointed out that a little dead center
+lathe is the simplest machine in the
+world, and he could have made one in
+less than a day and saved himself
+weeks of hard labor. It is probable
+that he had great skill in hand work
+and that learning to use a lathe would
+have been a great and tedious effort for
+him. So we have a complete striking
+clock made by a man so poor that he
+had only his anvil, hammer and file.
+The weights are hung on cords as thick
+as an ordinary lead pencil and pass
+over pulleys having spikes set around
+them to prevent the cords from slipping.
+The weights descend 7 ft. in 12
+hours, so they must be pulled <span class="wrapnot">up—not</span>
+wound <span class="wrapnot">up—twice</span> a day. The single
+hour hand is a work of art and is cut
+through like lace. Public clocks may
+still be seen in Europe with only one
+hand. Many have been puzzled by
+finding that old, rudely made clocks
+often have fine dials, but this is not remarkable
+when we state that art and
+engraving had reached a high level before
+the days of clocks. It is worthy of
+note that clocks in the early days were
+generally built in the form of a church
+tower with the bell under the dome
+and <a href="#fig32">Figs. 32</a>, <a href="#fig33">33</a> show a good example.
+It is highly probable that the maker of
+this clock had access to some old
+church <span class="wrapnot">clock—a</span> wonderful machine in
+those <span class="wrapnot">days—and</span> that he laboriously
+copied it. It strikes the hours, only, by
+the old “count wheel” or “locking
+plate” method. Between this and our
+modern clocks appeared a type showing
+quarter hours on a small dial under
+the hour dial. No doubt this was at
+that time a great advance and looked
+like cutting time up pretty fine. As the
+hand on the quarter dial made the circuit
+in an hour the next step was easy,
+by simply dividing the circle of quarters
+into sixty minutes. The old fellows
+who thought in hours must have
+given it up at this point, so the seconds
+and fifths seconds came easily.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 516px;">
+<a id="fig35" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i043.png" width="516" height="490" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 35—Triple-Case Turkish Watch</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 252px;">
+<a id="fig36" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i041b.png" width="252" height="298" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 36—Double-Case Watch of Repoussé Work</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first watches, about 1500, had
+the foliot and verge escapement, and in
+some early attempts to govern the
+foliot a hog's bristle was used as a
+spring. By putting a ring around the
+ends of the foliot and adding the hair
+spring of Dr. Hooke, about 1640, we
+have the verge watches of our grandfathers.
+This balance wheel and hair
+spring stand today, but the “lever” escapement
+has taken the place of the
+verge. It is a modification of the dead
+beat, <a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a>, by adding a lever to the
+anchor, and this lever is acted on by
+the balance, hence the name “lever
+watch.” All this you can see by opening
+your watch, so no detailed explanation
+is necessary. <a href="#fig34">Figure 34</a> shows
+two triple-cased Turkish watches with
+verge escapements, the one to the left
+being shown partly opened in <a href="#fig35">Fig. 35</a>.
+The watch with its inner case, including
+the glass, is shown to the right.
+This inner case is complete with two
+hinges and has a winding hole in the
+back. The upper case, of “chased”
+work, goes on next, and then the third,
+or outer case, covered with tortoise
+shell fastened with silver rivets, goes
+on outside the other two. When all
+three cases are opened and laid on the
+table, they look like a heap of oyster
+shells, but they go easily together,
+forming the grand and dignified watch
+shown to the left in <a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a>. Oliver
+Cromwell wore an immense triple-case
+watch of this kind, and the poor plebeians
+who were permitted to examine
+such a magnificent instrument were
+favored!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;">
+<a id="fig37" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i044.png" width="509" height="505" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 37—Watches Showing Art Work</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<a id="fig38" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i042b.png" width="250" height="255" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 38—Watch Showing Dutch Art Work</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 248px;">
+<a id="fig39" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i045a.png" width="248" height="283" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 39—Antique Watch Cock</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 245px;">
+<a id="fig40" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i045b.png" width="245" height="244" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 40—“Chinese” Watch</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 243px;">
+<a id="fig41" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i046a.png" width="243" height="245" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 41—Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and
+Quarters</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 247px;">
+<a id="fig42" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i046b.png" width="247" height="247" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 42—Syrian Dial</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our boys' watches costing one dollar
+keep much better time than this type
+of watch. Comparing the Syrian dial,
+<a href="#fig42">Fig. 42</a>, with that on
+<a href="#fig35">Fig. 35</a>, it is evident
+that the strange hour numerals
+on both are a variation of the same
+characters. These, so-called, “Turkish
+watches” were made in Europe for
+the Eastern trade. First-class samples
+of this triple-case type are getting
+scarce, but I have found four, two of
+them in Constantinople. <a href="#fig36">Figure 36</a>
+shows the double-case style, called
+“pair cases,” the outer case thin silver,
+the figures and ornaments being hammered
+and punched up from the inside
+and called “repoussé.” Before we
+leave the old watches, the question of
+art work deserves notice, for it looks as
+if ornamentation and time-keeping
+varied inversely in those <span class="wrapnot">days—the</span>
+more art the worse the watch. I presume,
+as they could not make a good
+time-keeper at that date, the watch-maker
+decided to give the buyer something
+of great size and style for his
+money. In <a href="#fig37">Fig. 37</a> four old movements
+are shown, and there is no doubt about
+the art, since the work is purely individual
+and no dies or templates used.
+In examining a large number of these
+watches, I have never found the art
+work on any two of them alike. Note
+the grotesque faces in these, and in
+<a href="#fig39">Fig. 39</a> which is a fine example of
+pierced, engraved work. <a href="#fig38">Figure 38</a> is
+a fine example of pierced work with
+animals and flowers carved in relief.
+<a href="#fig40">Figure 40</a> is a “Chinese” watch but
+made in Europe for the Chinese market.
+In <a href="#fig41">Fig. 41</a> we have what remains
+of a quarter repeater with musical attachment.
+Each of the 24 straight
+gongs, commencing with the longest
+one, goes a little nearer the center of
+the large wheel, so a circle of pins is
+set in the wheel for each gong, or note,
+and there is plenty of room for several
+tunes which the wearer can set off at
+pleasure. <a href="#fig43-44">Figure 43</a> is a modern watch
+with Hebrew hour numerals. <a href="#fig43-44">Figure
+44</a> is a modern 24-hour watch used on
+some railroads and steamship lines. I
+have a pretty clean-cut recollection of
+one event in connection with the 24-hour
+system, as I left Messina between
+18 and 19 o'clock on the night of the
+earthquake! Dials and hands constitute
+an important branch of the subject.
+The general fault of hands is that
+they are too much alike; in many instances
+they are the same, excepting
+that the minute hand is a little longer
+than the hour. The dial shown on the
+left of <a href="#fig24">Fig. 24</a> was designed by me for
+a public clock and can be read twice as
+far away as the usual dial. Just why
+we should make the worst dials and
+hands for public clocks in the United
+States is more than I can find out, for
+there is no possible excuse, since the
+“spade and pointer” hands have been
+known for generations. <a href="#fig45">Figure 45</a> is
+offered as a properly designed dial for
+watches and domestic clocks, having
+flat-faced Gothic figures of moderate
+height, leaving a clear center in the
+dial, and the heavy “spade” hour hand
+reaching only to the inner edges of the
+figures. For public clocks the Arabic
+numerals are the worst, for at a distance
+they look like twelve thumb
+marks on the dial; while the flat-faced
+Roman remain distinct as twelve clear
+marks.</p>
+
+<p>Do you know that you do not read a
+public clock by the figures, but by the
+position of the hands? This was discovered
+long ago. Lord Grimthorp
+had one with twelve solid marks on the
+dial and also speaks of one at the
+Athenæum Club, both before 1860.
+The Philadelphia City Hall clock has
+dials of this kind as shown on right
+side of <a href="#fig24">Fig. 24</a>. It has also good hands
+and can be read at a great distance.
+Very few persons, even in Philadelphia,
+know that it has no hour numerals on
+its dials. Still further, there is
+no clock in the tower, the great hands
+being moved every minute by air pressure
+which is regulated by a master
+clock set in a clock room down below
+where the walls are 10 ft. thick. Call
+and see this clock and you will find that
+the City Hall officials sustain the good
+name of Philadelphia for politeness.
+Generally, we give no attention to the
+hour numerals, even of our watches, as
+the following proves. When you have
+taken out your watch and looked at the
+time, for yourself, and put it back in
+your pocket, and when a friend asks
+the time you take it out again to find
+the time for him! Why? Because, for
+yourself, you did not read hours and
+minutes, but only got a mental impression
+from the position of the hands; so
+we only read hours and minutes when
+we are called on to proclaim the time.</p>
+
+<p>We must find a little space for striking
+clocks. The simplest is one blow
+at each hour just to draw attention to
+the clock. Striking the hours and also
+one blow at each half hour as well as
+the quarter double blow, called “ting
+tong” quarters, are too well known to
+need description. The next stage after
+this is “chiming quarters” with three
+or more musical gongs, or bells. One
+of the best strikers I have has three
+trains, three weights and four bells. It
+strikes the hour on a large bell and two
+minutes after the hour it strikes it
+again, so as to give you another chance
+to count correctly. At the first quarter
+it repeats the last hour followed by a
+musical chord of three bells, which we
+will call <em>one triple blow</em>: at the second
+quarter the hour again and two triple
+blows and at the third quarter, the
+hour again and three triple blows.
+Suppose a sample hour's striking
+from four o'clock, this is what you
+hear, and there can be no mistake.
+“Four” and in two minutes <span class="wrapnot">“four”—“four</span>
+and one <span class="wrapnot">quarter”—</span>“four and two
+<span class="wrapnot">quarters”—</span>“four and three quarters,”
+and the same for all other hours. This
+is definite, for the clock proclaims the
+hour, or the hour and so much past. It
+can be set silent, but that only stops it
+from striking automatically, and
+whether so set or not, it will repeat by
+pulling a cord. You awake in the
+night and pull the cord, and then in
+mellow musical tones, almost as if the
+clock were speaking, you <span class="wrapnot">hear—“four</span>
+and two quarters.” This I consider a
+perfect striking clock. It is a large
+movement of fine workmanship and
+was made in the department of the
+Jura, France. When a clock or watch
+only repeats, I consider the old “five-minute
+repeater” the best. I used this
+method in a clock which, on pulling the
+cord, strikes the hour on a large bell
+and if that is all it strikes, then it is
+less than five minutes past. If more
+than five minutes past it follows the
+hour by one blow on a small bell for
+every five minutes. This gives the
+time within five minutes. It is fully
+described and illustrated in “Machinery,”
+New York, for March, 1905. Just
+one more. An old Dutch clock which
+I restored strikes the hour on a large
+bell; at the first quarter it strikes one
+blow on a small bell; at the half hour
+it strikes the last hour over again on
+the small bell; at the third quarter it
+strikes one blow on the large bell. But
+this in spite of its great ingenuity, only
+gives definite information at the hour
+and half hour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 515px;">
+<a id="fig43-44" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i047.png" width="515" height="346" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">
+<table summary="fig 43,44">
+<tr><td style="width:50%;">Fig. 43—Hebrew Numerals</td>
+<td>Fig. 44—24-Hour Watch</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of curious clocks there is no end, so
+I shall just refer to one invented by
+William Congreve, an Englishman,
+over one hundred years ago, and often
+coming up since as something new. A
+plate about 8 in. long and 4 in. wide
+has a long zigzag groove crosswise.
+This plate is pivoted at its center so
+either end can be tipped up a little. A
+ball smaller than a boy's marble will
+roll back and forth across this plate
+till it reaches the lower end, at which
+point it strikes a click and the mainspring
+of the clock tips the plate the
+other way and the ball comes slowly
+back again till it strikes the disk at the
+other end of the plate, etc. Every time
+the plate tips, the hands are moved a
+little just like the remontoir clock already
+described. Clocks of this kind
+are often used for deceptive purposes
+and those ignorant of mechanics are
+deceived into the belief that they see
+perpetual motion. The extent to which
+modern machine builders are indebted
+to the inventions of the ancient clock-maker,
+I think, has never been appreciated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 252px;">
+<a id="fig45" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i048a.png" width="252" height="249" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 45—Domestic Dial by James Arthur</div>
+</div>
+
+<div>
+<p>In its earlier stages the clock was almost
+the only machine containing
+toothed gearing, and the “clock tooth”
+is still necessary in our delicate machines.
+It is entirely different from our
+standard gear tooth as used in heavy
+machines. The clock-makers led for a
+long time in working steel for tools,
+springs and wearing surfaces. They
+also made investigations in friction,
+bearings, oils, etc., etc. Any one restoring
+old clocks for amusement and
+pleasure will be astonished at the high-class
+mechanics displayed in <span class="wrapnot">them—nearly</span>
+always by unknown inventors.
+Here is an example: The old clock-maker
+found that when he wished to
+drill a hole in a piece of thick wire so
+as to make a short tube of it, he could
+only get the hole central and straight
+by rotating the piece and holding the
+drill stationary. By this method the
+drill tends to follow the center line of
+rotation; and our great guns as well as
+our small rifles are bored just that way
+to get bores which will shoot straight.
+The fourth and last chapter will deal
+with the astronomical motions on
+which our time-keeping is founded, our
+present hour zones of time, and close
+with suggestions for a universal time
+system over the whole world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 61px;">
+<img src="images/i020.png" width="61" height="61" alt="" />
+</div></div>
+
+<h2 title="Chapter IV. Astronomical Foundation of Time">
+<a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV
+<br />ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME</h2>
+
+<p class="h2subh">
+Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. — Reasons
+for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our
+24-hour day. — Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal
+year. — Precession of the equinoxes. — Earth's rotation most
+uniform motion known to us. — Time Stars and Transits. — Local
+time. — The date line. — Standard time. — Beginning
+and ending of a day. — Proposed universal time. — Clock dial
+for universal time and its application to business. — Next
+great improvement in clocks and watches indicated. — Automatic
+recording of the earth's rotation. — Year of the seasons
+as a unit for astronomers. — General conclusions.
+</p>
+
+<p>The mystery of time encloses all
+things in its folds, and our grasp of its
+infinite bearings is measured by our
+limitations. As there are no isolated
+facts in the Universe, we can never get
+to the end of our subject; so we know
+only what we have capacity to absorb.
+In considering the foundation on which
+all our time measuring is based, we
+are led into the fringe of that Elysian
+field of <span class="wrapnot">science—astronomy.</span> A science
+more poetical than poetry—more
+charming than the optimistic phantasies
+of youth. That science which
+leaves our imagination helpless; for its
+facts are more wonderful than our extremest
+mental flights. The science of
+vastness and interminable distances
+which our puny figures fail to express.
+“The stars sang together for joy,”
+might almost be placed in the category
+of facts; while the music of the spheres
+may now be considered a mathematical
+reality. Our time keeping is inevitably
+associated with these motions, and we
+must select one which has periods not
+too long. That is, no <em>continuous</em> motion
+could be used, unless it passed
+some species of milestones which we
+could observe. Consequently, our
+clocks do <span class="wrapnot">not—in</span> the strict
+<span class="wrapnot">sense—measure</span>
+time; but are adjusted to
+<em>divide</em> periods which they do not determine.
+We are constantly correcting
+their errors and never entirely succeed
+in getting them to run accurately
+to <em>periods of time</em> which exist
+entirely outside of such little things
+as men and clocks. So a clock is
+better as it approximates or bears a
+regular <em>relation</em> to some motion in
+nature. The sidereal clock of the astronomer
+<em>does</em> run to a regular motion;
+but our 24-hour clocks <em>do not</em>, as we
+shall see later. Now consider the year,
+or the sun's apparent motion in the
+Zodiac, from any given star around to
+the same one again. This is altogether
+too long to be divided by clocks, as we
+cannot make a clock which could be
+depended on for anywhere near a year.
+The next shorter period is that of a
+“moon.” This is also a little too long,
+is not easily observed, and requires all
+sorts of corrections. Observations of
+the moon at sea are so difficult and subject
+to error that mariners use them
+only as a last resort. If a little freedom
+of language is permissible, I would say
+that the moon has a bad character all
+around, largely on account of her long
+association with superstition, false theology
+and heathen feasts. She has not
+purged herself even to this day! The
+ancients were probably right when they
+called erratic and ill-balanced persons
+“luny.” Now we come to the day and
+find that it is about the right practical
+<span class="wrapnot">length—but</span> what kind of a day? As
+there are five kinds we ought to be able
+to select one good enough. They <span
+ class="wrapnot">are:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1st. The solar day, or noon to noon
+by the sun.</li>
+
+<li>2nd. An imaginary sun moving uniformly
+in the ecliptic.</li>
+
+<li>3rd. A second imaginary sun moving
+uniformly parallel to the equator
+at all seasons of the year.</li>
+
+<li>4th. One absolute rotation of the
+earth.</li>
+
+<li>5th. One rotation of the earth measured
+from the node, or point, of the
+spring equinox.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The difference between 1st and 2nd
+is that part of the sun's error due to the
+elliptical orbit of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The other part of the sun's <span class="wrapnot">error—and</span>
+the <span class="wrapnot">larger—between</span> 2nd and 3rd
+is that due to the obliquity of the ecliptic
+to the equator.</p>
+
+<p>The whole error between 1st and
+3rd is the “equation of time” as shown
+for even minutes in the first chapter
+under the heading, “Sun on Noon Mark
+1909.”</p>
+
+<p>Stated simply, for our present purpose,
+1st is sundial time, and 3rd our
+24-hour clock time.</p>
+
+<p>This 2nd day is therefore a refinement
+of the astronomers to separate
+the two principal causes of the sun's
+error, and I think we ought to handle
+it cautiously, or my friend, Professor
+Todd, might rap us over the knuckles
+for being presumptuous.</p>
+
+<p>This 5th day is the sidereal day of
+the astronomers and is the basis of our
+time, so it is entitled to a little attention.
+I shall confine “sidereal day” to
+this 5th to avoid confusion with 4th.
+If you will extend the plane of the
+equator into the star sphere, you have
+the celestial equator. When the center
+of the sun passes through this plane on
+his journey north, in the Spring, we
+say, “the sun has crossed the line.”
+This is a distant point in the Zodiac
+which can be determined for any given
+year by reference to the fixed stars.
+To avoid technicalities as much as
+possible we will call it the point of the
+Spring equinox. This is really the
+point which determines the common
+year, or year of the seasons. Using
+popular language, the seasons are
+marked by four <span class="wrapnot">points,—Spring</span> <span class="wrapnot">equinox—longest</span>
+<span class="wrapnot">day—;</span> Autumnal <span class="wrapnot">equinox—shortest</span>
+day. This would be very
+simple if the equinoctial points would
+stay in the same places in the star
+sphere; but we find that they creep
+westward each year to the extent of 50
+seconds of arc in the great celestial
+circle of the Zodiac. This is called the
+precession of the equinoxes. The year
+is measured from Spring equinox to
+Spring equinox again; but each year it
+comes 50 seconds of arc less than a full
+revolution of the earth around the sun.
+Therefore <em>if we measured our year by a
+full revolution</em> we would displace the
+months with reference to the seasons
+till the hot weather would come in
+January and the cold weather in July
+in about 13,000 years; or a complete
+revolution of the seasons back to where
+we are, in 26,000 years. Leaving out
+fractions to make the illustration plain,
+we <span class="wrapnot">have:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="precession" summary="precession of the equinoxes">
+<tr>
+ <td rowspan="2">(1)</td>
+ <td colspan="2">360&#160;degrees&#160;of&#160;Zodiac</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= 26,000 years</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td colspan="2" class="bt center">50 seconds of arc</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td rowspan="2">(2)</td>
+ <td class="center">1 day of time</td><td></td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= 26,000 years</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="bt center">3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> seconds</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td rowspan="2">(3)</td>
+ <td class="center">1 year of time</td><td>&#160;&#160;&#160;</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= 26,000 years</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="bt center">20<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> minutes</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td rowspan="2">(4)</td>
+ <td class="center">3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub> seconds</td><td></td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>110</sub> of a second</td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td class="bt center">days in a year</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+ <td colspan="4" class="center bt">all Approximate</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In (1) we see that a “precession” of 50 seconds of arc will bring
+the Spring equinox around in 26,000 years.</p>
+
+<p>In (2) we see, as 50 seconds of arc represents
+the distance the earth will rotate in <span
+class="wrapnot">3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></span>
+seconds, a difference of one day will result in 26,000
+years. That is since the clock regulated by the stars, or
+absolute rotations of the earth, would get behind <span
+class="wrapnot">3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></span> seconds per year,
+it would be behind a day in 26,000 years, as compared with a sidereal
+clock regulated by the Spring equinoctial point.</p>
+
+<p>In (3) we see that as 50 seconds of arc is traversed
+by the earth, in its annual revolution, in <span
+class="wrapnot">20<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></span> minutes, a
+complete circle of the Zodiac will be made in 26,000 years.</p>
+
+<p>In (4) we see that as the difference between the
+year of the seasons and the Zodiacal year is <span
+class="wrapnot">3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></span> seconds of
+the earth's rotation, it follows that if this is divided by the
+number of days in a year we have the amount which a sidereal
+day is less than 4th, or an absolute rotation of the earth.
+That is, any meridian passes the Spring equinoctial point <span
+class="wrapnot"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>110</sub></span> of a second
+sooner than the time of one absolute rotation. These four equations
+are all founded on the precession of the equinoxes, and are simply
+different methods of stating it. Absolutely and finally, our
+time is regulated by the earth's rotation; but strange as it may
+appear, we do not take one rotation as a unit. As shown above, we
+take a rotation to a <em>movable point</em> which creeps the <span
+class="wrapnot"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>110</sub></span> of a second
+daily. But after all, it is the <em>uniform</em> rotation which
+governs. This is the one “dependable” motion which has not been found
+variable, and is the most easily observed. When we remember that the
+earth is not far from being as heavy as a ball of iron, and that
+its surface velocity at the equator is about 17 miles per minute,
+it is easy to form a conception of its uniform motion. Against
+this, however, we may place the friction of the tides, forcing up
+of mountain ranges, as well as mining and building <span class="wrapnot">skyscrapers—all</span>
+tending to slow it. Mathematicians moving in the ethereal regions
+of astronomy lead us to conclude that it <em>must</em> become
+gradually slower, and that <em>it is</em> slowing; but the amount may
+be considered a vanishing quantity even compared with the smallest
+errors of our finest clocks; so for uncounted generations <span class="wrapnot">past—and</span> to
+<span class="wrapnot">come—we</span> may consider the earth's rotation uniform. Having now found
+a uniform motion easily observed and of convenient period, why not
+adopt it as our time unit? The answer has been partially given above
+in the fact that we are compelled to use a year, measured from the
+Spring equinoctial point, so as to keep our seasons in order; and
+therefore as we must have some point where the sidereal clocks and
+the meantime clocks coincide, we take the same point, and that point
+is the Spring equinox. Now we have three <span class="wrapnot">days:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1st. A sidereal day <span
+class="wrapnot"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>110</sub></span> of a second less
+than one rotation of the earth.</li>
+
+<li>2nd. One rotation of the earth in 23
+hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds, nearly,
+of clock time.</li>
+
+<li>3rd. One mean time clock day of 24
+hours, which has been explained previously.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Now, isn't it remarkable that our 24-hour day is purely
+artificial, and that nothing in nature corresponds to it? Our real
+day of 24 hours is a <em>theoretical</em> day. Still more remarkable,
+this theoretical day is the unit by which we express motions in
+the solar system. A lunar month is <span class="wrapnot">days—hours—minutes—and</span> seconds
+of this theoretical day, and so for planetary motions. And still
+more remarkable, the earth's rotation which is <em>itself</em> the
+foundation is expressed in this imaginary time! This looks like
+involution involved, yet our 24-hour day is as real as reality;
+and the man has not yet spoken who can tell whether a mathematical
+conception, sustained in practical life, is less real than a physical
+fact. Our legal day of practical life is therefore deduced from the
+day of a fraction <em>less</em> than one earth rotation. In practice,
+however, the small difference between this and a rotation is often
+ignored, because as the tenth of a second is about as near as
+observations can be made it is evident that for single observations
+<span class="wrapnot"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>110</sub></span> of a second
+does not count, but for a whole year it does, and amounts to <span
+class="wrapnot">3<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>3</sub></span> seconds. Now as
+to the setting of our clocks. While the time measured by the point
+of the Spring equinox is what we must find it is found by noting
+the transits of fixed stars, because <em>the relation</em> of star
+time to equinoctial time is known and tabulated. Remember we cannot
+take a transit of the equinoctial point, because there is nothing
+to see, and that <em>nothing</em> is moving! But it can be observed
+yearly and astronomers can tell where it is, at any time of the year,
+by calculation. The stars which are preferred for observation are
+called “time stars” and are selected as near the celestial equator
+as possible. The earth's axis has a little wabbling motion called
+“nutation” which influences the <em>apparent</em> motion of the stars
+near the pole; but this motion almost disappears as they come near
+the equator, because nutation gives the plane of the equator only
+a little “swashplate” motion. The positions of a number of “time
+stars” with reference to the equinoctial point, are known, and these
+are observed and the observations averaged. The distance of any time
+star from the equinoctial point, <em>in time</em>, is called its
+“right ascension.” Astronomers claim an accuracy to the twentieth
+part of a second when such transits are carefully taken, but over
+a long period, greater exactness is obtained. Really, the time at
+which any given star passes the meridian is taken, <em>in practical
+life</em>, from astronomical tables in the Nautical Almanacs. Those
+tables are the result of the labors of generations of mathematicians,
+are constantly subject to correction, and cannot be made simple.
+Remember, the Earth's rotation is the only uniform motion, all the
+others being subject to variations and even compound variations. This
+very subject is the best example of the broad fact that science is a
+constant series of approximations; therefore, nothing is exact, and
+nothing is permanent but change. But you say that mathematics is an
+exact science. Yes, but it is a <em>logical abstraction</em>, and is
+therefore only the universal solvent in physical science.</p>
+
+<p>With our <span class="wrapnot">imaginary—but</span> <span class="wrapnot">real—time</span> unit of 24 hours we are now ready
+to consider “local time.” Keeping the above explanation in mind, we
+may use the usual language and speak of the earth rotating in 24
+hours clock time; and since motion is relative, it is permissible to
+speak of the motion of the sun. In the matter of the sun's apparent
+motion we are compelled to speak of his “rising,” “setting,” etc.,
+because language to express the motion in terms of the earth's
+rotation has not been invented yet. For these reasons we will assume
+that in <a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a> the sun is moving as per large arrow and also that
+the annulus, half black and half white, giving the 24 hours, is
+fastened to the sun by a rigid bar, as shown, and moves around the
+earth along with him. In such illustrations the sun must always be
+made small in proportion, but this rather tends to plainness. For
+simplicity, we assume that the illustration represents an equinox
+when the sun is on the celestial equator. Imagine your eye in the
+center of the sun's face at A, and you would be looking on the
+meridian of Greenwich at 12 noon; then in one hour you would be
+looking on 15° west at 12 noon; but this would bring 13 o'clock to
+Greenwich. Continue till you look down on New York at 12 noon, then
+it is 17 o'clock at Greenwich (leaving out fractions for simplicity)
+etc. If you will make a simple drawing like <a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a> and cut the
+earth separate, just around the inside of the annulus, and stick a
+pin at the North Pole for a center, you may rotate the earth as per
+small arrow and get the actual motion, but the result will be just
+the same as if you went by the big arrow. We thus see that every
+instant of the 24 hours is represented, at some point, on the earth.
+That is, the earth has an infinity of local times; so it has every
+conceivable instant of the 24 hours at some place on the circle.
+Suppose we set up 1,410 clocks at uniform distances on the equator,
+then they would be about 17 miles apart and differ by minutes. Now
+make it 86,400 clocks, they would be 1,500 feet apart and differ by
+seconds. With 864,000 clocks they would be 150 feet apart and vary
+by tenths of seconds. It is useless to extend this, since you could
+always imagine more clocks in the circle; thus establishing the
+fact that there are an infinity of times at an infinity of places
+always on the earth. It is necessary to ask a little patience here
+as I shall use this local time and its failure later in our talk.
+Strictly, local time has never been used, because it has been found
+impracticable in the affairs of life. This will be plain when we draw
+attention to the uniform time of London, which is Greenwich time; yet
+the British Museum is 30 seconds slow of Greenwich, and other places
+in London even more. This is railroad time for Great Britain; but
+it is 20 minutes too fast for the west of England. This led to no
+end of confusion and clocks were often seen with two minute hands,
+one to local and the other to railroad time. This mixed up method
+was followed by “standard time,” with which we are all pretty well
+acquainted. Simply, standard time consists in a uniform time for each
+15° of longitude, but this is theoretical to the extreme, and is not
+even approached in practice. The first zone commences at Greenwich
+and as that is near the eastern edge of the British Islands, their
+single zone time is fast at nearly all places, especially the west
+coast of Ireland. When we follow these zones over to the United
+States we find an attempt to make the middle of each zone correct to
+local time, so at the hour jumping points, we pass from half an hour
+slow to half an hour fast, or the reverse. We thus see that towns
+about the middle of these four United States zones have sunrise and
+sunset and their local day correct, but those at the eastern and
+western edges average half an hour wrong. As a consequence of this
+disturbance of the working hours depending on the light of the day,
+many places keep two sets of clocks and great confusion results. Even
+this is comprehensible; but it is a mere fraction of the trouble and
+complication, because the hour zones are not separated by meridians
+in practice, but by zig-zag lines of great irregularity. Look at a
+time map of the United States and you will see the zones divided by
+lines of the wildest irregularity. Now question one of the brightest
+“scientific chaps” you can find in one of the great railroad offices
+whose lines touch, or enter, Canada and Mexico. Please do not tell
+me what he said to you! So great is the confusion that no man
+understands it all. The amount of wealth destroyed in printing time
+tables, <em>and failing to explain them</em>, is immense. The amount
+of human life destroyed by premature death, as a result of wear and
+tear of brain cells is too sad to contemplate. And all by attempting
+the impossible; for local time, <em>even if it was reduced to hourly
+periods</em> is not compatible with any continental system of time
+and matters can only get worse while the attempt continues. For the
+present, banish this zone system from your mind and let us consider
+the beginning and ending of a day, using strictly local time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 302px;">
+<a id="fig47" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i056.png" width="302" height="416" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 47—Local Time—Standard Time—Beginning and
+Ending of the Day</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A civil, or legal, day ends at the instant of 24 o'clock,
+midnight, and the next day commences. The time is continuous, the
+last instant of a day touching the first instant of the next. This is
+true for all parts of the earth; but something <em>in addition</em>
+to this happens at a certain meridian called the “date line.” Refer
+again to <a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a> which is drawn with 24 meridians representing
+hours. As we are taking Greenwich for our time, the meridians are
+numbered from 0°, on which the observatory of Greenwich stands. When
+you visit Greenwich you can have the pleasure of putting your foot
+on “the first meridian,” as it is cut plainly across the pavement.
+Degrees of longitude are numbered east and west, meeting just
+opposite at 180°, which is the “date line.” Our day begins at this
+line, so far as <em>dates</em> are concerned; but the <em>local
+day</em> begins everywhere at midnight. Let us start to go around
+the world from the date line, westward. When we arrive at 90° we are
+one quarter around and it takes the sun 6 hours longer to reach us.
+At 0° (Greenwich) we are half around and 12 hours ahead of the sun
+motion. At 90° west, three quarters, or 18 hours, and when back to
+180° we have <em>added</em> to the length of all days of our journey
+enough to make one day; therefore our date must be one day behind.
+Try this example to change the <span class="wrapnot">wording:—Let</span> us start from an island
+B, just west of the date line. These islanders have their 24-hour
+days, commencing at midnight, like all other places. As we move
+westward our day commences later and later than theirs, as shown
+above. Suppose we arrive at the eastern edge of the 180° line on
+Saturday at 12 o'clock, but before we cross it we call over to the
+<span class="wrapnot">islanders,—what</span> day is it? We would get answer, “Sunday;” because all
+our days have been longer, totalling one day in the circuit of the
+globe. So if we step over the line at 12 o clock Saturday, presto,
+it is 12 o'clock Sunday. It looks like throwing out 24 hours, but
+this is not so, since we have lived exactly the same number of hours
+and seconds as the islanders. In this supposition we have all the
+<em>dates</em>, however, but have jumped half of Saturday and half of
+Sunday, which equals one day. In practice this would not have been
+the method, for if the ship was to call at the island, the captain
+would have changed date on Friday night and thrown Saturday out, all
+in one piece, and would have arrived on their Sunday; so his log for
+that week would have contained only 6 days. It is not necessary to
+go over the same ground for a circuit of the globe eastward, but if
+you do so you will find that you <em>shorten</em> your days and on
+arriving at the date line would have a day too much; so in this case
+you would <em>double</em> a date and have 8 days in that week. In
+both cases this is caused by compounding your motion with that of the
+sun; going with him westward and lengthening your days, or eastward
+meeting him and shortening them. <a href="#fig47">Figure 47</a> shows Greenwich noon, we
+will say on Monday, and at that instant, Monday only, exists from 0
+to 24 o'clock on the earth; but the next instant, Tuesday begins at
+180° B. In one hour it is noon of Monday at 15° West, and midnight
+at 165° East; so Tuesday is one hour old and there is left 23 hours
+of Monday. Monday steadily declines to 0 as Tuesday steadily grows
+to 24 hours; so that, except at the instant of Greenwich noon, there
+are always two days on the world at once. If we said that there
+are <em>always</em> two days on the world at once, we could not be
+contradicted; since there is no conceivable time between Monday and
+Tuesday; it is an instantaneous change. As we cannot conceive of
+<em>no time</em>, the statement that there is only one day on the
+earth at Greenwich noon is not strictly permissible. Since there are
+always two days on the world at once let us suppose that these two
+are December 31st and January 1st; then we have <em>two years</em>
+on the world at once for a period of 24 hours. Nine years ago we
+had the 19th and 20th centuries on the world at once, etc. As a
+mental exercise, you may carry this as far as you please. Suppose
+there was an impassable sea wall built on the 180° meridian, then
+there would be two days on the world, just as explained above; but,
+<em>practically</em>, there would be no date line, since in sailing
+west to this wall we would “lengthen our days,” and then shorten them
+the same amount coming around east to the other side of the wall,
+but would never jump or double a date. This explanation is founded,
+as it ought to be, on uniform local time, and is the simplest I can
+give. The date line is fundamentally simple, but is difficult to
+explain. When it is complicated by the standard <span class="wrapnot">time—or</span> jumping hour
+<span class="wrapnot">system—and</span> also with the fact that some islands count their dates
+from the wrong side of the line for their longitudes, scientific
+paradoxes arise, such as having three dates on the world at once,
+etc.; but as these things are of no more value than wasting time
+solving Chinese puzzles, they are left out. Ships change date on
+the nearest night to the date line; but if they are to call at some
+island port in the Pacific, they may change either sooner or later
+to correspond with its date. Here is a little Irish date line wit
+printed for the first <span class="wrapnot">time,—I </span>was telling my bright friend about
+turning in on Saturday night and getting up for breakfast on Monday
+morning. “Oh,” said he, “I have known gentlemen to do as good as that
+without leaving New York City!”</p>
+
+<p>As what is to follow relates to the growing difficulties of
+local time and a proposed method of overcoming them, let us
+<span class="wrapnot">recapitulate:—</span></p>
+
+<ul> <li>1st. Local time has never been kept, and the difficulties
+of using it have increased as man advanced, reaching a climax of
+absurdity on the advent of the railroad; so it broke down and became
+impractical.</li>
+
+<li>2nd. To make the irregular disorder of local time an orderly
+confusion, the “standard <span class="wrapnot">time”—jumping</span> by
+<span class="wrapnot">hours—has</span> helped a little,
+but only because we can tell how much it is wrong at any given place.
+This is its only advantage over the first method, where we had no
+means of knowing what to expect on entering any new territory. That
+is, we have improved things by throwing out local time to the extent
+of an hour.</li> </ul>
+
+<p>My proposal is to throw local time out <em>totally</em> and
+establish one, invariable, <em>universal time</em>. Greenwich time
+being most in use now, and meridians numbered from it, may be taken
+in preference to any other. Still another reason is that the most
+important timekeepers in modern <span class="wrapnot">life—ship's</span>
+<span class="wrapnot">chronometers—are</span> set
+to Greenwich time. Universal <span class="wrapnot">time—no</span> local <span class="wrapnot">time—only</span> local day and
+night. Our 24-hour system is all right, so do not disturb it, as it
+gets rid of A.M. and P.M. and makes the day our unit of time. Our
+railroad time now throws out local time to the extent of one hour;
+but I propose to throw it out entirely and never change the clock
+hands from Greenwich time. The chronometers do that now, so let us
+conduct all business to that time.</p>
+
+<p>Now refer to <a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a>, in which Greenwich is taken as universal
+time. The annulus, half white and half black, indicates the average
+day and night, and is a separate ring in the dial which can be set
+so that “noon” is on the meridian of the place, as shown for four
+places in the illustration. It is the same dial in all four cases
+set to local day and night. Strictly, the local time conception is
+dropped and the local day left for regulating working and sleeping
+time. All business would have the same time. In traveling east we
+would not have the short hours; or west, the long hours. All clocks
+and watches would show the same time as ship's chronometers do now.
+The only change would be the names of the hours for the parts of the
+local day. This is just the difficulty, for we are so accustomed to
+<em>associate</em> a certain number, as seven, with the morning and
+breakfast time. Suppose breakfast time in London is 7 o'clock, then
+according to the local day it would be 12 o'clock breakfast time in
+New York; but in both cases it would be the same time with reference
+to the <em>local daylight</em>. Let it be distinctly understood that
+our association of <em>12 o'clock</em> with <em>noon</em> is not
+necessary. The Japanese called it “horse” and <span class="wrapnot">“nine”—the</span> ancient
+Romans, the New Testament writers, and the Turks called it the
+“sixth <span class="wrapnot">hour”—the</span> astronomers now call it 24 o'clock, and the Chinese
+represent it by several characters; but, in all cases, it is simply
+the middle of the day at any place. By the proposed universal time,
+morning, noon, and evening would <span
+class="wrapnot">be—</span><em>at any given place—</em>the
+same hours. There would be no necessity of establishing legal noon
+with exactness to the meridian, because that would only regulate
+labor, meals, etc., and would not touch universal time. This is an
+important part of the proposal and is worth elaborating a little.
+Sections in manufacturing districts could make their working hours
+correspond at pleasure and no confusion would result. That is, local
+working hours to convenience but by the same universal time. Note
+how perfectly this would work in <span class="wrapnot">traveling,—you</span> arrive in Chicago
+from the effete east and your watch corresponds all along with the
+railroad clocks. As you leave the station you glance up at the clock
+and see that Chicago noon is 17.30, so you set the day and night ring
+of your watch to match the same ring on the clock, but no disturbance
+of the hands. As you register at the hotel you <span class="wrapnot">ask,—dinner?</span> and get
+answer, <span class="wrapnot">24.30—then</span> breakfast, 12.30. These questions are necessary
+now, so I do not add complication here. When you arrive in a strange
+city you must ask about meals, business hours, theater hours,
+“doors open” hours, etc., etc.; so all this remains the same. Let
+us put the matter <span class="wrapnot">forcibly,—while</span> we count days, or <em>dates</em>,
+<em>something</em> must vary with east and west; I propose the
+fixing of hours for business and sleep to suit each locality, but
+an invariable time. Get rid of the idea that a certain number, as
+7 o'clock, represents the age of the day <em>at all places</em>.
+See how this would wipe out the silly proposal to “save daylight”
+by setting the clock back and forward. Suppose workmen commenced at
+12.30 in New York; for the long summer days make it 11.30, but no
+change in universal time. As this is the only difference from our
+present time system, keep the central conception, <span class="wrapnot">firmly,—universal</span>
+<span class="wrapnot">time—local</span> day and night.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 474px;">
+<a id="fig46" href="#ILLUSTRATIONS"><span
+class="link-loi">LOI</span></a>
+<img src="images/i060.png" width="474" height="474" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Fig. 46—Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Suppose Chicago decided that “early to bed and early to rise”
+was desirable; then it could establish its legal noon as 17.30,
+which would be about 20 minutes early for its meridian. You could do
+business with Chicago for a lifetime and not find this out, unless
+you looked up the meridian of Chicago and found that it was 17.50
+o'clock. None of the railroads or steamship lines of the city would
+need to know this, except as a matter of scientific curiosity, for
+the time tables would all be printed in universal time. For hiring
+labor, receiving and delivering goods, etc., they would only need
+to know Chicago <em>business hours</em>. To state the matter in
+different <span class="wrapnot">words,—Chicago</span> would only need to decide what portion of
+the universal 24 hours would suit it best for its day and which
+for its night, and if it decided, as supposed above, to place its
+working day forward a little to give some daylight after labor,
+nothing would be disturbed and only the scientific would ever
+know. Certainly, “save daylight,” but do not make a fool of the
+clock! Having shown the great liberty which localities could take
+without touching the working of the system, the same remarks apply
+to ultra-scientific localities. A city might establish its noon to
+the instant; so it is <span class="wrapnot">possible—even</span> if a
+little <span class="wrapnot">improbable—that</span>
+the brilliant and scientific aldermen of New York might appoint
+a commission with proper campfollowers and instrument bearers to
+determine the longitude of the city to the Nth of a second and tell
+us where we “are at.” The glory of this <span class="wrapnot">achievement—and</span> especially
+its total <span class="wrapnot">cost—would</span> be all our own and incorruptible time would be
+untouched! We thus see that great local freedom and great accuracy
+are alike possible. With our present system, accuracy in local time
+is impracticable and has never even been attempted, and is confusion
+confused since we added the railroad hour jumps. Why did we nurse
+this confusion till it has become almost intolerable? Because man
+has always been a slave to <em>mental associations, and habits</em>.
+Primitive man divided the local day into parts and gave them names
+and this mental attitude sticks to us after it has served its day.
+The advantages of universal time could hardly be enumerated, yet we
+can have them all by dropping our childish association of 7 o'clock
+with breakfast time! Another <span class="wrapnot">example,—you</span> visit a friend for a few
+days and on retiring the first night you ask “what is your breakfast
+<span class="wrapnot">hour”—“8</span> o'clock.” You have to ask this question and recollect the
+answer. Now tell me what difference it would make if the answer had
+been 13 o'clock? None whatever, unless, perhaps, that is, you do not
+like thirteen! You ask, how about ships? Ships now carry universal
+time and only change the clock on deck to please the simple minded
+passengers. How about the date line? No change whatever, so long as
+we use <em>dates</em> which means numbering local days. It is useless
+multiplying examples; all difficulties disappear, as if by magic,
+the moment we can free our minds of local time and the association
+of the <em>same hour</em> with the <em>same portion</em> of the day
+at <em>all places</em>. The great interest at present manifested in
+the attempts to reach the North Pole calls for some consideration of
+universal time in the extreme north. Commencing at the equator, it is
+easy to see that the day and night ring, <a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a>, would represent the
+days and nights of 12 hours at all seasons. As we go north, however,
+this ring represents the <em>average</em> day and night. When we
+reach the Polar Circle, still going north, the <em>daily</em> rising
+and setting of the sun gradually ceases till we reach the great
+one-year day at the Pole, consisting of six months darkness and six
+months light. Let us now assume that an astronomical observatory is
+established here and the great equatorial placed precisely on the
+pole. At this point, <em>local time</em>, <em>day and night</em>,
+and <em>the date line</em>, almost cease to have a meaning. For
+this very reason universal time would be the only practical method;
+therefore, it <em>more</em> than stands the test of being carried
+to the extreme. Universal time would regulate working and sleeping
+here the same as at all other places. Strictly local time in this
+observatory would be an absurdity, because in walking around the
+telescope (pole) you would be in all instants of the 24 hours within
+five seconds! At the pole the day would commence at the same instant
+as at some assumed place, and the day and night ring would represent
+working and sleeping as at that place. Suppose this observatory to
+be in telegraphic communication with New York, then it would be best
+for the attendants to set their day and night to New York, so as to
+correspond with its business hours. Many curious suppositions might
+be made about this polar observatory with its “great night” and
+equally “great day.” It is evident that to keep count of itself it
+would be compelled to note <em>dates</em> and 24-hour <em>days</em>
+to keep in touch with us; so it would be forced to adopt the local
+day of some place like New York. This choice would be free, because
+a polar observatory would stand on all the meridians of the earth at
+once.</p>
+
+<p>We are now in a position to consider
+the next <span class="wrapnot">possible—and</span>
+even <span class="wrapnot">probable—improvement</span>
+in our clocks and watches.
+To minimize the next step it might be
+well to see what we can do now.
+Clocks are often regulated by electric
+impulses over wires. Electricians inform
+me that they can do this by
+wireless; but that owing to the rapid attenuation
+of the impulses it cannot be done
+commercially, over great distances. In
+the history of invention the first step
+was <em>to do something</em> and then find a way
+of doing it cheaply enough for general
+use. So far as I know, the watch in
+the wearer's pocket has not yet been
+regulated by wireless; but I am willing
+to risk the statement that the editor of
+Popular Mechanics can name more
+than one electrician who can do this.
+A watch to take these impulses might
+be larger than our present watches, but
+it would not stay larger and would
+ultimately become much smaller. You
+know what has happened since the
+days of the big “onions” described in
+the third chapter. <a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a>; so get your
+electric watch and make it smaller at
+your leisure. We have made many
+things commercially practicable, which
+looked more revolutionary than this.
+Now throw out the mainspring, wheels,
+pinions, etc., of our watches and reduce
+the machinery part to little more than
+dial and hands and do the driving by
+wireless, say, once every minute. I
+feel certain that I am restraining the
+scientific imagination in saying that the
+man lives among us who can do this.
+I repeat, that we now possess the elementary
+<span class="wrapnot">knowledge—which</span> if collated
+and <span class="wrapnot">applied—would</span> produce such a
+watch.</p>
+
+<p>Now I have a big question to <span class="wrapnot">ask—the</span>
+central note of interrogation in this
+little scientific conversation with <span class="wrapnot">you,—does</span>
+the man live who can make the
+earth automatically record its rotation?
+Do not be alarmed, for I am prepared
+to make a guess as to this possibility.
+A <em>direct</em> mechanical record of the earth's
+rotation seems hopeless, but let us see
+what can be done. You are aware that
+some of the fixed stars have a distinct
+spectrum. It is not unreasonable to
+suppose that an instrument could be
+made to record the passage of such a
+star over the meridian. Ah, but you say,
+there is no mechanical force in this. Do
+not hurry, for we have long been acquainted
+with the fact that things
+which, apparently, have no force can
+be made to liberate something which
+manifests mechanical force. We could
+now start or stop the greatest steam engine
+by a gleam of sunlight, and some
+day we might be able to do as much by
+the lately discovered pressure of light.
+That is, we can now liberate the greatest
+forces by the most infinitesimal, by
+steps; the little force liberating one
+greater than itself, and that one another
+still greater. A good example is
+the stopping of an electric train, from
+a distance, by wireless. The standard
+clock in Philadelphia, previously referred
+to, is a delicate instrument and
+its most delicate part, having the least
+force, moves a little valve every minute,
+and by several steps liberates the
+air pressure, 200 feet higher in the
+tower, to move the four sets of great
+hands. I am not traveling beyond the
+record when I say that the invisible
+actinic rays could be used to liberate a
+great force; therefore what is there unreasonable
+in the supposition that the
+displacement of the sodium line in the
+spectrum of a star might be made to
+record the earth's rotation? So I say to the
+<span class="wrapnot">electrician—the</span>
+<span class="wrapnot">optician—the</span> <span
+class="wrapnot">photographer—the</span> chemist and the <span
+class="wrapnot">mechanic.—get</span> together and produce this
+watch. Permit me, with conventional
+and intentional modesty, to name
+the new timepiece <em>Chroncosmic</em>. For
+pocket use, it would be <em>Cosmic watch</em>.
+In the first chapter I allowed to the
+year 2,000 for the production of this
+watch, but it is likely we will not need
+to wait so long.</p>
+
+<p>Having stated my proposal for universal
+time as fully as space will permit
+and given my guess as to the coming
+cosmic watch, let us in this closing
+paragraph indulge in a little mental exercise.
+Suppose we copy the old time
+lecturer on astronomy and “allow our
+minds to penetrate into space.” Blessed
+be his memory, he was a doer of good.
+How impressive as he repeatedly
+dropped his wooden pointer, and lo!
+It always moved straight to the floor;
+thus triumphantly vindicating universal
+gravitation!!!</p>
+
+<p>We can think of a time system which
+would discard months, weeks and days.
+What is the meaning of the financial
+almanac in which the days are numbered
+from 1 to 365 or 366? Simply a
+step in the right direction, <em>away from
+the months and weeks</em>, so that the distance
+between any two dates may be
+seen at a glance. We would really be
+better without months and weeks. Now
+let us consider the year of the seasons
+as a <span class="wrapnot">unit—long</span> since proposed by the
+<span class="wrapnot">astronomers—and</span> divide it into 3,000
+chrons. Clocks regulated by star transits,
+as at present, would divide this
+decimally, the fourth place being near
+enough to make the new pendulums of
+convenient length. This would throw
+out months, weeks and days, local time
+and the date line. Each of these chrons
+would represent the same time in
+the year, permanently. For example,
+464.6731 would mark to a <em>dixmilliemechron</em>
+(a little more than one second)
+the point reached in the year; while the
+date does not, as I have shown in the
+first chapter. But you still object that
+this is a great number of figures to use
+in fixing a point in the year. Let us
+see what it takes to fix a point in the
+year now, <em>August 24th, 11-16-32 P. M.,
+New York standard time</em>. A pretty long
+story, but it does not fix the point of
+the year even then; for it would require
+the assistance of an astronomer
+to fix such a point in <em>any given</em> year,
+say 1909. But 464.6731 would be
+eternally right in <em>absolute time</em> of the
+seasons, and has only one meaning,
+with no qualifications for any year
+whatever. I believe the astronomers
+should use a method something like
+this. Ah, but there is a difficulty in
+applying this to the affairs of daily life
+which looks insurmountable. This is
+caused by the fact that the <em>day</em> and <em>year</em>
+are incommeasurable. One of them
+cannot be exactly expressed in terms
+of the other. They are like the diagonal
+and side of a square. The day is now
+the unit and therefore the year has an
+interminable fraction; conversely, if we
+make the year the unit, then the day
+becomes an endless fraction. This
+brings us face to face with the local
+day which we ignored in our scientific
+year unit. We <em>must</em> regulate our labors,
+in this world, to day and night and,
+with the year unit, the chrons would
+bear no fixed relation to day and night,
+even for two days in succession. So
+the year unit and absolute time must
+be left to the astronomers; but the <em>day
+unit</em> and the uniform world day of <em>universal
+time</em> as explained in connection
+with <a href="#fig46">Fig. 46</a> I offer as a practical system.</p>
+
+<p>I am satisfied that all attempts to
+measure the year and the day by the
+same <em>time yard stick</em> must fail and keep
+us in our present confusion. Therefore
+separate them once for all time.
+Brought down to its lowest terms my
+final proposal <span class="wrapnot">is:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1st. An equinoctial year unit for the
+astronomers, divided somewhat as suggested,
+but no attempt to make the
+divisions even approximate to days and
+hours. This would fix all astronomical
+events, absolutely. A variation in the
+length of the year would not disturb
+this system, since the year <em>itself</em> would
+be the unit. In translating this astronomical,
+or year unit time, into clock
+time, no difficulties would be added, as
+compared with our present translation
+of sidereal time into clock time. Deal
+with the <em>year unit</em> and <em>day unit</em> separately
+and convert them mutually when
+necessary.</li>
+
+<li>2nd. A universal mean time day of
+24 hours, as now kept at Greenwich, all
+human business being regulated by
+this time. Dates and the date line as
+well as leap years all being retained as
+at present.</li>
+
+<li>3rd. Weight and spring clocks and
+watches to be superseded by the cosmic
+clocks and watches regulated by wireless
+impulses from central time stations,
+all impulses giving the same invariable
+time for all places.</li>
+
+<li>4th. Automatic recording of the
+earth's rotations to determine this time.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>To avoid any possibility of misunderstanding, I would advise
+never counting a unit till it is completed. We do this correctly
+with our hours, as we understand 24 o'clock to be the same as 0
+o'clock. But we do not carry this out logically, for we say 24.30.
+How can this be so, since there is nothing more than 24 o'clock?
+It ought to be simply 30 minutes, or 0 hour 30 minutes. How can
+there be any <em>hour</em> when a new day is only 30 minutes old?
+This brings up the acrimonious controversy, of some years ago,
+as to whether there was any “year one.” One side insisted that
+till one year was completed there could only be months and days.
+The other side argued that the “year one” commenced at 0 and
+that the month and date showed how much of it had passed. Test
+<span class="wrapnot">yourself,—is</span> this the year 1909,
+of which only 8 months have passed; or is it 1909 and 8 months
+more? Regarding the centuries there appears to be no difference
+of opinion that 1900 is completed, and that we are in the 20th
+century. But can you tell whether we are 8 years and 8 months into
+the 20th century or 9 years and 8 months? It ought to be, logically
+1909 years <em>complete</em> and 8 months of the next year, which
+we must not count till it is completed. Take a carpenter's rule,
+we say <span class="wrapnot"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></span>
+<span class="wrapnot">in.—</span><span
+class="wrapnot"><sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></span>
+<span class="wrapnot">in.—</span><span
+class="wrapnot"><sup>3</sup>⁄<sub>4</sub></span> in., but do
+not count an inch till we complete it. When the ancients are
+<span class="wrapnot">quoted,—</span>“about the middle of the
+third hour” there is no mistake, because that means <span
+class="wrapnot">2<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub></span> hours since
+sunrise. If we said the 1909th year that would be definite too, and
+mean some distance into that year. Popular language states that
+Greenwich is on the “first meridian”; strictly, it is on the zero
+meridian, or 0°. These matters are largely academic and I do not
+look on them as serious subjects of discussion; but they are good
+thought producers. Bidding you good-bye, for the present, it might
+be permissible to state that this conversational article on Time was
+intended to be readable and somewhat instructive; but especially to
+indicate the infinity of the subject, that thought and investigation
+might be encouraged.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="transnote">
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
+
+<div><p>Original spelling and grammar have mostly been retained. However,
+on page 31, “clepsydral” was changed to “clepsydra”.</p>
+
+<p>Figures were
+moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. In addition,
+some figures were originally out of numerical sequence; they are
+now in sequence (all but Fig. 46, which does need to be the last
+illustration).</p>
+
+<p>The transcriber created the cover image,
+and hereby places it into the public domain.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT***</p>
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@@ -0,0 +1,2663 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Time and Its Measurement, by James Arthur
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Time and Its Measurement
+
+
+Author: James Arthur
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 7, 2014  [eBook #44838]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, RichardW, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the numerous original illustrations.
+      See 44838-h.htm or 44838-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44838/44838-h/44838-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44838/44838-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      https://archive.org/details/timeitsmeasureme00arth
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      The notation "_{n}" means that n is a subscript.
+
+      Small capital text has been converted to all uppercase.
+
+
+
+
+
+TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT
+
+by
+
+JAMES ARTHUR
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Reprinted from
+Popular Mechanics Magazine
+
+Copyright, 1909, By H. H. Windsor
+
+Chicago, 1909
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAPTER I
+
+ HISTORIC OUTLINE
+
+ Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night.
+ -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours
+ of the New Testament. -- Shadow, or sun time. -- Noon mark dials.
+ -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern dials. --
+ Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. --
+ "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and
+ time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece          Page 13
+
+
+ CHAPTER II
+
+ JAPANESE CLOCKS
+
+ Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying
+ length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line
+ dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for
+ same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock
+ movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. --
+ Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials
+ founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics
+ and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3.
+ -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of
+ striking hours and half hours                                 Page 25
+
+
+ CHAPTER III
+
+ MODERN CLOCKS
+
+ De Vick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. --
+ "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock. --
+ The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with earliest
+ application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct designs
+ for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. -- 24-hour
+ watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. -- Correct method of
+ striking hours and quarters. -- Design for 24-hour dial and
+ hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions of the old clock-makers
+                                                               Page 37
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV
+
+ ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME
+
+ Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons
+ for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour
+ day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. --
+ Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform
+ motion known to us. -- Time stars and transits. -- Local time.
+ -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of
+ a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal
+ time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement
+ in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of
+ the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for
+ astronomers. -- General conclusions                           Page 53
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+ Portrait of James Arthur                                            8
+
+ Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods of Time Keeping     15
+
+ Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of Herculaneum              16
+
+ Noon-Mark Sundials                                                 17
+
+ Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude 40 deg.-43'                 18
+
+ The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to Axis                 18
+
+ Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden                                    18
+
+ "Time-Boy" of India                                                19
+
+ "Hon-woo-et-low," or "Copper Jars Dropping Water"--Canton, China   19
+
+ Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"                                  20
+
+ Tower of the Winds, Athens, Greece                                 20
+
+ Key to Japanese Figures                                            25
+
+ Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days                         25
+
+ Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short Pendulum             26
+
+ Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and Balance             26
+
+ Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and Balance              27
+
+ Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having Curved Lines, Weight
+ and Balance                                                        27
+
+ Japanese Vertical Dials                                            28
+
+ Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and Two Escapements      29
+
+ "Twelve Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems" as Used in
+ Clocks                                                             30
+
+ Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems"               30
+
+ Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock                                31
+
+ Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of Hours                     32
+
+ Public Dial by James Arthur                                        37
+
+ Dial of Philadelphia City Hall Clock                               37
+
+ Verge Escapement                                                   37
+
+ De Vick's Clock of 1364                                            38
+
+ Anchor Escapement                                                  38
+
+ American Anchor Escapement                                         39
+
+ Dead Beat Escapement                                               39
+
+ Remontoir Clock by James Arthur                                    40
+
+ Remontoir Clock Movement                                           40
+
+ Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made                              41, 42
+
+ Double-Case Watch of Repousse Work                                 42
+
+ Triple-Case Turkish Watches                                        43
+
+ Watch Showing Dutch Art Work                                       43
+
+ Triple-Case Turkish Watch                                          44
+
+ Watches Showing Art Work                                           45
+
+ Antique Watch Cock                                                 46
+
+ "Chinese" Watch                                                    46
+
+ Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters                        47
+
+ Syrian Dial                                                        47
+
+ Hebrew Numerals                                                    48
+
+ Twenty-four Hour Watch                                             48
+
+ Domestic Dial by James Arthur                                      49
+
+ Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and Ending of the Day         57
+
+ Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places                            61
+
+
+[Illustration: James Arthur
+
+Mr. Arthur is an enthusiastic scientist, a successful inventor and
+extensive traveler, who has for years been making a study of clocks,
+watches, and time-measuring devices. He is not only a great authority
+on this subject, but his collection of over 1500 timepieces gathered
+from all parts of the globe has been pronounced the finest collection
+in the world. Mr. Arthur is a pleasing exception to the average
+business man, for he has found time to do a large amount of study and
+research along various scientific lines in addition to conducting an
+important manufacturing business in New York City, of which he is
+president. Mr. Arthur is 67 years of age.--H. H. Windsor.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HISTORIC OUTLINE
+
+ Time as an abstraction. -- Ancient divisions of day and night.
+ -- Night watches of the Old Testament. -- Quarter days and hours
+ of the New Testament. -- Shadow or sun time. -- Noon mark dials.
+ -- Ancient dials of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -- Modern Dials. --
+ Equation of time. -- Three historic methods of measuring time. --
+ "Time-boy" of India. -- Chinese clepsydra. -- Ancient weather and
+ time stations. -- Tower of the winds, Athens, Greece.
+
+
+Time, as a separate entity, has not yet been defined in language.
+Definitions will be found to be merely explanations of the sense in
+which we use the word in matters of practical life. No human being
+can tell how long a minute is; only that it is longer than a second
+and shorter than an hour. In some sense we can think of a longer
+or shorter period of time, but this is merely comparative. The
+difference between 50 and 75 steps a minute in marching is clear to
+us, but note that we introduce motion and space before we can get a
+conception of time as a succession of events, but time, in itself,
+remains elusive.
+
+In time measures we strive for a uniform motion of something and
+this implies equal spaces in equal times; so we here assume just
+what we cannot explain, for space is as difficult to define as time.
+Time cannot be "squared" or used as a multiplier or divisor. Only
+numbers can be so used; so when we speak of "the square of the time"
+we mean some number which we have arbitrarily assumed to represent
+it. This becomes plain when we state that in calculations relating
+to pendulums, for example, we may use seconds and inches--minutes
+and feet--or seconds and meters and the answer will come out right
+in the units which we have assumed. Still more, numbers themselves
+have no meaning till they are applied to something, and here we are
+applying them to time, space and motion; so we are trying to explain
+three abstractions by a fourth! But, happily, the results of these
+assumptions and calculations are borne out in practical human life,
+and we are not compelled to settle the deep question as to whether
+fundamental knowledge is possible to the human mind. Those desiring
+a few headaches on these questions can easily get them from Kant
+and Spencer--but that is all they will get on these four necessary
+assumptions.
+
+Evidently, man began by considering the day as a unit and did not
+include the night in his time keeping for a long period. "And the
+evening and the morning were the first day" Gen. 1, 5; "Evening and
+morning and at noonday," Ps. LV, 17, divides the day ("sun up") in
+two parts. "Fourth part of a day," Neh. IX, 3, shows another advance.
+Then comes, "are there not twelve hours in a day," John XI, 9. The
+"eleventh hour," Matt. XX, 1 to 12, shows clearly that sunset was
+12 o'clock. A most remarkable feature of this 12-hour day, in the
+New Testament, is that the writers generally speak of the third,
+sixth and ninth hours, Acts II, 15; III, 1; X, 9. This is extremely
+interesting, as it shows that the writers still thought in quarter
+days (Neh. IX, 3) and had not yet acquired the 12-hour conception
+given to them by the Romans. They thought in quarter days even
+when using the 12-hour numerals! Note further that references are
+to "hours;" so it is evident that in New Testament times they did
+not need smaller subdivisions. "About the third hour," shows the
+mental attitude. That they had no conception of our minutes, seconds
+and fifth seconds becomes quite plain when we notice that they
+jumped down from the hour to nowhere, in such expressions as "in an
+instant--in the twinkling of an eye."
+
+Before this, the night had been divided into three watches, Judges
+VII, 19. Poetry to this day uses the "hours" and the "watches" as
+symbols.
+
+This 12 hours of daylight gave very variable hours in latitudes some
+distance from the equator, being long in summer and short in winter.
+The amount of human ingenuity expended on time measures so as to
+divide the time from sunrise to sunset into 12 equal parts is almost
+beyond belief. In Constantinople, to-day, this is used, but in a
+rather imperfect manner, for the clocks are modern and run 24 hours
+uniformly; so the best they can do is to set them to mark twelve at
+sunset. This necessitates setting to the varying length of the days,
+so that the clocks appear to be sometimes more and sometimes less
+than six hours ahead of ours. A clock on the tower at the Sultan's
+private mosque gives the impression of being out of order and about
+six hours ahead, but it is running correctly to their system. Hotels
+often show two clocks, one of them to our twelve o'clock noon system.
+Evidently the Jewish method of ending a day at sunset is the same
+and explains the command, "let not the sun go down upon thy wrath,"
+which we might read, do not carry your anger over to another day. I
+venture to say that we still need that advice.
+
+This simple line of steps in dividing the day and night is taken
+principally from the Bible because everyone can easily look up the
+passages quoted and many more, while quotations from books not in
+general use would not be so clear. Further, the neglect of the Bible
+is such a common complaint in this country that if I induce a few
+to look into it a little some good may result, quite apart from the
+matter of religious belief.
+
+Some Chinese and Japanese methods of dividing the day and night are
+indicated in Fig. 1. The old Japanese method divides the day into
+six hours and the night also into six, each hour averaging twice as
+long as ours. In some cases they did this by changing the rate of the
+clock, and in others by letting the clock run uniformly and changing
+the hour marks on the dial, but this will come later when we reach
+Japanese clocks.
+
+It is remarkable that at the present time in England the "saving
+daylight" agitation is virtually an attempt to go back to this
+discarded system. "John Bull," for a long period the time-keeper
+of the world with headquarters at Greenwich, and during that time
+the most pretentious clock-maker, now proposes to move his clocks
+backward and forward several times a year so as to "fool" his workmen
+out of their beds in the mornings! Why not commence work a few
+minutes earlier each fortnight while days are lengthening and the
+reverse when they are shortening?
+
+This reminds me of a habit which was common in Scotland,--"keeping
+the clock half an hour forward." In those days work commenced at six
+o'clock, so the husband left his house at six and after a good walk
+arrived at the factory at six! Don't you see that if his clock had
+been set right he would have found it necessary to leave at half
+past five? But, you say he was simply deceiving himself and acting
+in an unreasonable manner. Certainly, but the average man is not a
+reasonable being, and "John Bull" knows this and is trying to fool
+the average Englishman.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1--Interpretation of Chinese and Japanese Methods
+of Time Keeping]
+
+Now, as to the methods of measuring time, we must use circumstantial
+evidence for the pre-historic period. The rising and the going down
+of the sun--the lengthening shadows, etc., must come first, and we are
+on safe ground here, for savages still use primitive methods like
+setting up a stick and marking its shadow so that a party trailing
+behind can estimate the distance the leaders are ahead by the changed
+position of the shadow. Men notice their shortening and lengthening
+shadows to this day. When the shadow of a man shortens more and
+more slowly till it appears to be fixed, the observer knows it
+is noon, and when it shows the least observable lengthening then
+it is just past noon. Now, it is a remarkable fact that this crude
+method of determining noon is just the same as "taking the sun" to
+determine noon at sea. Noon is the time at which the sun reaches his
+highest point on any given day. At sea this is determined generally
+by a sextant, which simply measures the angle between the horizon
+and the sun. The instrument is applied a little before noon and the
+observer sees the sun creeping upward slower and slower till a little
+tremor or hesitation appears indicating that the sun has reached his
+height,--noon. Oh! you wish to know if the observer is likely to make
+a mistake? Yes, and when accurate local time is important, several
+officers on a large ship will take the meridian passage at the same
+time and average their readings, so as to reduce the "personal
+error." All of which is merely a greater degree of accuracy than that
+of the man who observes his shadow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2--Portable Bronze Sundial from the Ruins of
+Herculaneum]
+
+The gradual development of the primitive shadow methods culminated
+in the modern sundial. The "dial of Ahas," Isa. XXXVIII, 8, on which
+the sun went back 10 "degrees" is often referred to, but in one of
+the revised editions of the unchangeable word the sun went back 10
+"steps." This becomes extremely interesting when we find that in
+India there still remains an immense dial built with steps instead of
+hour lines. Figure 2 shows a pocket, or portable sundial taken from
+the ruins of Herculaneum and now in the Museo National, Naples. It
+is bronze, was silver plated and is in the form of a ham suspended
+from the hock joint. From the tail, evidently bent from its original
+position, which forms the gnomon, lines radiate and across these wavy
+lines are traced. It is about 5 in. long and 3 in. wide. Being in the
+corner of a glass case I was unable to get small details, but museum
+authorities state that names of months are engraved on it, so it
+would be a good guess that these wavy lines had something to do with
+the long and short days.
+
+In a restored flower garden, within one of the large houses in the
+ruins of Pompeii, may be seen a sundial of the Armillary type,
+presumably in its original position. I could not get close to it, as
+the restored garden is railed in, but it looks as if the plane of the
+equator and the position of the earth's axis must have been known to
+the maker.
+
+Both these dials were in use about the beginning of our era and were
+covered by the great eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., which destroyed
+Pompeii and Herculaneum.
+
+Modern sundials differ only in being more accurately made and a few
+"curiosity" dials added. The necessity for time during the night,
+as man's life became a little more complicated, necessitated the
+invention of time machines. The "clepsydra," or water clock, was
+probably the first. A French writer has dug up some old records
+putting it back to Hoang-ti 2679 B.C., but it appears to have been
+certainly in use in China in 1100 B.C., so we will be satisfied
+with that date. In presenting a subject to the young student it
+is sometimes advisable to use round numbers to give a simple
+comprehension and then leave him to find the overlapping of dates and
+methods as he advances. Keeping this in mind, the following table may
+be used to give an elementary hint of the three great steps in time
+measuring:
+
+ Shadow time, 2000 to 1000 B. C.
+
+ Dials and Water Clocks, 1000 B. C. to 1000 A. D.
+
+ Clocks and watches, 1000 to 2000 A. D.
+
+I have pushed the gear wheel clocks and watches forward to 2000 A.D.,
+as they may last to that time, but I have no doubt we will supersede
+them. At the present time science is just about ready to say that
+a time measurer consisting of wheels and pinions--a driving power
+and a regulator in the form of a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy
+contrivance and that we ought to do better very soon; but more on
+this hoped-for, fourth method when we reach the consideration of the
+motion on which we base all our time keeping.
+
+It is remarkable how few are aware that the simplest form of sundial
+is the best, and that, as a regulator of our present clocks, it is
+good within one or two minutes. No one need be without a "noon-mark"
+sundial; that is, every one may have the best of all dials. Take a
+post or any straight object standing "plumb," or best of all the
+corner of a building as in Fig. 3. In the case of the post, or tree
+trunk, a stone (shown in solid black) may be set in the ground;
+but for the building a line may often be cut across a flagstone of
+the footpath. Many methods may be employed to get this noon mark,
+which is simply a north and south line. Viewing the pole star, using
+a compass (if the local variation is known) or the old method of
+finding the time at which the shadow of a pole is shortest. But the
+best practical way in this day is to use a watch set to local time
+and make the mark at 12 o'clock.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3--Noon-Mark Sundials]
+
+On four days of the year the sun is right and your mark may be set at
+12 on these days, but you may use an almanac and look in the column
+marked "mean time at noon" or "sun on meridian." For example, suppose
+on the bright day when you are ready to place your noon mark you read
+in this column 11:50, then when your watch shows 11:50 make your noon
+mark to the shadow and it will be right for all time to come. Owing
+to the fact that there are not an even number of days in a year, it
+follows that on any given yearly date at noon the earth is not at
+the same place in its elliptical orbit and the correction of this
+by the leap years causes the equation table to vary in periods of
+four years. The centennial leap years cause another variation of 400
+years, etc., but these variations are less than the error in reading
+a dial.
+
+ SUN ON NOON MARK, 1909
+ -------------------------------------------------------
+           Clock               Clock               Clock
+  Date     Time       Date     Time       Date     Time
+ -------------------------------------------------------
+ Jan.  2   12:04     May   1   11:57     Sep. 30   11:50
+   "   4   12:05       "  15   11:56     Oct.  3   11:49
+   "   7   12:06       "  28   11:57       "   6   11:48
+   "   9   12:07     June  4   11:58       "  10   11:47
+   "  11   12:08       "  10   11:59       "  14   11:46
+   "  14   12:09       "  14   12:00       "  19   11:45
+   "  17   12:10       "  19   12:01       "  26   11:44
+   "  20   12:11       "  24   12:02     Nov. 17   11:45
+   "  23   12:12       "  29   12:03       "  22   11:46
+   "  28   12:13     July  4   12:04       "  25   11:47
+ Feb.  3   12:14       "  10   12:05       "  29   11:48
+   "  26   12:13       "  19   12:06     Dec.  1   11:49
+ Mar.  3   12:12     Aug. 11   12:05       "   4   11:50
+   "   8   12:11       "  16   12:04       "   6   11:51
+   "  11   12:10       "  21   12:03       "   9   11:52
+   "  15   12:09       "  25   12:02       "  11   11:53
+   "  18   12:08       "  28   12:01       "  13   11:54
+   "  22   12:07       "  31   12:00       "  15   11:55
+   "  25   12:06     Sep.  4   11:59       "  17   11:56
+   "  28   12:05       "   7   11:58       "  19   11:57
+ Apr.  1   12:04       "  10   11:57       "  21   11:58
+   "   4   12:03       "  12   11:56       "  23   11:59
+   "   7   12:02       "  15   11:55       "  25   12:00
+   "  11   12:01       "  18   11:54       "  27   12:01
+   "  15   12:00       "  21   11:53       "  29   12:02
+   "  19   11:59       "  24   11:52       "  31   12:03
+   "  24   11:58       "  27   11:51
+ -------------------------------------------------------
+ The above table shows the variation of the sun from "mean"
+ or clock time, by even minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4--12-Inch Modern Horizontal Sundial for Latitude
+40 deg.-43']
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5--The Earth, Showing Relation of Dial Styles to
+Axis]
+
+The reason that the table given here is convenient for setting clocks
+to mean time is that a minute is as close as a dial can be read, but
+if you wish for greater accuracy, then the almanac, which gives the
+"equation of time" to a second for each day, will be better. The
+reason that these noon-mark dials are better than ordinary commercial
+dials is that they are larger, and still further, noon is the only
+time that any dial is accurate to sun time. This is because the
+sun's rays are "refracted" in a variable manner by our atmosphere,
+but at noon this refraction takes place on a north and south line,
+and as that is our noon-mark line the dial reads correctly. So,
+for setting clocks, the corner of your house is far ahead of the
+most pretentious and expensive dial. In Fig. 4 is shown a modern
+horizontal dial without the usual confusing "ornamentation," and in
+Fig. 5 it is shown set up on the latitude of New York City for which
+it is calculated. This shows clearly why the edge FG of the style
+which casts the shadow must be parallel to the earth's axis and why
+a horizontal dial must be made for the latitude of the place where
+it is set up. Figure 6 is the same dial only the lines are laid
+out on a square dial plate, and it will give your young scientific
+readers a hint of how to set up a dial in the garden. In setting up a
+horizontal dial, consider only noon and set the style, or 12 o'clock
+line, north and south as described above for noon-mark dials.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6--Modern Sundial Set Up in Garden]
+
+A whole issue of Popular Mechanics could be filled on the subject
+of dials and even then only give a general outline. Astronomy,
+geography, geometry, mathematics, mechanics, as well as architecture
+and art, come in to make "dialing" a most charming scientific and
+intellectual avocation.
+
+During the night and also in cloudy weather the sundial was useless
+and we read that the priests of the temples and monks of more modern
+times "went out to observe the stars" to make a guess at the time
+of night. The most prominent type after the shadow devices was the
+"water clock" or "clepsydra," but many other methods were used, such
+as candles, oil lamps and in comparatively late times, the sand
+glass. The fundamental principle of all water clocks is the escape
+of water from a vessel through a small hole. It is evident that such
+a vessel would empty itself each time it is filled in very nearly
+the same time. The reverse of this has been used as shown in Fig. 7,
+which represents the "time-boy" of India. He sits in front of a large
+vessel of water and floats a bronze cup having a small hole in its
+bottom in this large vessel, and the leakage gradually lowers this
+cup till it sinks, after which he fishes it up and strikes one or
+more blows on it as a gong. This he continues and a rude division of
+time is obtained,--while he keeps awake!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7--"Time-Boy" of India]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8--"Hon-woo-et-low" or "Copper Jars Dropping
+Water"--Canton, China]
+
+The most interesting of all water clocks is undoubtedly the "copper
+jars dropping water," in Canton, China, where I saw it in 1897.
+Referring to the simple line sketch, which I make from memory, Fig.
+8, and reading four Chinese characters downwards the translation is
+"Canton City." To the left and still downwards,--"Hon-woo-et-low,"
+which is,--"Copper jars dropping water." Educated Chinamen inform me
+that it is over 3,000 years old and had a weather vane. As they
+speak of it as "the clock of the street arch" this would look quite
+probable; since the little open building, or tower in which it stands
+is higher than surrounding buildings. It is, therefore, reasonably
+safe to state that the Chinese had a _weather and time station_
+over 1,000 years before our era. It consists of four copper jars
+partially built in masonry forming a stair-like structure. Commencing
+at the top jar each one drops into the next downward till the water
+reaches the solid bottom jar. In this lowest one a float, "the bamboo
+stick," is placed and indicates the height of the water and thus in
+a rude way gives the time. It is said to be set morning and evening
+by dipping the water from jar 4 to jar 1, so it runs 12 hours of
+our time. What are the uses of jars 2 and 3, since the water simply
+enters them and drips out again? No information could be obtained,
+but I venture an explanation and hope the reader can do better, as
+we are all of a family and there is no jealousy. When the top jar is
+filled for a 12-hour run it would drip out too fast during the first
+six hours and too slow during the second six hours, on account of
+the varying "head" of water. Now, the spigot of jar 2 could be set
+so that it would gain water during the first six hours, and lose
+during the second six hours and thus equalize a little by splitting
+the error of jar 1 in two parts. Similarly, these two errors of jar 2
+could be again split by jar 3 making four small variations in lowest
+jar, instead of one large error in the flow of jar 1. This could
+be extended to a greater number of jars, another jar making eight
+smaller errors, etc., etc. But I am inclined to credit our ancient
+Chinese inventor with the sound reasoning that a human attendant,
+being very fallible and limited in his capacity, would have all he
+could properly do to adjust four jars, and that his record would
+average better than it would with a greater number. Remember, this
+man lived thousands of years before the modern mathematician who
+constructed a bell-shaped vessel with a small hole in the bottom,
+and proportioned the varying diameter in such a manner that in
+emptying itself the surface of the water sank equal distances in
+equal times. The sand glass, Fig. 9, poetically called the "hour
+glass," belongs to the water-clock class and the sand flows from one
+bulb into the other, but it gives no subdivisions of its period, so
+if you are using one running an hour it does not give you the half
+hour. The sand glass is still in use by chairmen, and when the oldest
+inhabitant gets on his feet, I always advise setting a 20-minute
+glass "on him."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9--Modern Sand Glass or "Hour Glass"]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10--"Tower of the Winds"--Athens, Greece]
+
+In the "Tower of the Winds" at Athens, Greece (Fig. 10), we have a
+later "weather bureau" station. It is attributed to the astronomer
+Andronicos, and was built about 50 B. C. It is octagonal in plan
+and although 27 ft. in diameter and 44 ft. high, it looks like a
+sentry box when seen from one of the hills of Athens. It had a
+bronze weather vane and in later times sundials on its eight sides,
+but all these are gone and the tower itself is only a dilapidated
+ruin. In making the drawing for this cut, from a photograph of the
+tower, I have sharpened the weathered and chipped corners of the
+stones so as to give a view nearly like the structure as originally
+built; but nothing is added. Under the eaves it has eight allegorical
+sculptures, representing wind and weather. Artists state that
+these sculptures are inferior as compared with Grecian art of an
+older period. But the most interesting part is inside, and here
+we find curious passages cut in solid stone, and sockets which
+look as if they had contained metal bearings for moving machinery.
+Circumstantial evidence is strong that it contained a complicated
+water clock which could have been kept running with tolerable
+accuracy by setting it daily to the dials on the outside. Probably
+during a few days of cloudy weather the clock would "get off quite a
+little," but business was not pressing in those days. Besides, the
+timekeeper would swear by his little water wheel, anyway, and feel
+safe, as there was no higher authority wearing an American watch.
+
+Some very interesting engravings of Japanese clocks and a general
+explanation of them, as well as a presentation of the Japanese mental
+attitude towards "hours" and their strange method of numbering them
+may be expected in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+JAPANESE CLOCKS
+
+ Chinese and Japanese divisions of the day. -- Hours of varying
+ length. -- Setting clocks to length of daylight. -- Curved line
+ dials. -- Numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for
+ same. -- Daily names for sixty day period. -- Japanese clock
+ movements practically Dutch. -- Japanese astronomical clock. --
+ Decimal numbers very old Chinese. -- Original vertical dials
+ founded on "bamboo stick" of Chinese clepsydra. -- Mathematics
+ and superstition. -- Mysterious disappearance of hours 1, 2, 3.
+ -- Eastern mental attitude towards time. -- Japanese methods of
+ striking hours and half hours.
+
+
+The ancient methods of dividing day and night in China and Japan
+become more hazy as we go backwards and the complications grow. The
+three circles in Fig. 1 (Chapter I) are all taken from Japanese
+clocks, but the interpretation has been obtained from Chinese and
+Japanese scholars. The Japanese obtained a great deal from the
+Chinese, in fact nearly everything relating to the ancient methods of
+time keeping and the compiling of calendars. I have not been able to
+find any Chinese clocks constructed of wheels and pinions, but have a
+number of Japanese. These have a distinct resemblance to the earlier
+Dutch movements, and while made in Japan, they are practically Dutch,
+so far as the "works" are concerned, but it is easy to see from the
+illustrations that they are very Japanese in style and ornamentation.
+The Dutch were the leaders in opening Japan to the European nations
+and introduced modern mathematics and clocks from about 1590 A. D.
+The ancient mathematics of Japan came largely from China through
+Corea. In Fig. 11 are given the Japanese figures beside ours, for the
+reader's use as a key. The complete day in Japan was divided into
+twice six hours; that is, six for daylight and six for night, and
+the clocks are set, as the days vary in length, so that six o'clock
+is sunrise and sunset. The hour numerals on Fig. 12 are on little
+plates which are movable, and are shown set for a long day and a
+short night.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12 Fig. 13.
+
+Japanese Dials Set for Long and Short Days]
+
+In Fig. 13 they are set for short days and long nights. The narrow
+plates shown in solid black are the half-hour marks. In this type
+the hand is stationary and always points straight upward. The dial
+rotates, as per arrow, once in a full day. This style of dial is
+shown on complete clocks, Fig. 14 being a weight clock and Fig. 15 a
+spring clock with chain and fusee. The hours are 9 to 4 and the dials
+rotate to make them read backwards. The six hours of daylight are 6,
+5, 4, 9, 8, 7, 6 and the same for night, so these hours average twice
+as long as ours. Note that nine is mid-day and mid-night, and as
+these do not change by long and short days they are stationary on the
+dial, as you can easily see by comparing Figs. 12 and 13, which are
+the same dial set for different seasons. Between these extremes the
+dial hours are set as often as the owner wishes; so if he happens to
+correspond with our "time crank" he will set them often and dispute
+with his neighbors about the time. Figure 16 shows a clock with the
+hour numerals on a vertical series of movable plates and it is set
+for uniform hours when day and night are equal at the equinox. The
+ornamental pointer is fastened to the weight through the vertical
+slit, plainly visible in illustration, and indicates the time as it
+descends. This clock is wound up at sunset, so the six on the top of
+the dial is sunset the same as the six on the bottom. Figure 17 shows
+how this type of dial is set for long and short days and explains
+itself, but will become plainer as we proceed. This dial is virtually
+a continuation of the old method of marking time by the downward
+motion of the water in the clepsydras and will be noticed later.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14--Japanese Striking Clock with Weight and Short
+Pendulum]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15--Japanese Striking Clock with Spring, Fusee and
+Balance]
+
+Figure 18 represents a clock which is a work of art and shows great
+refinement of design in providing for the varying lengths of days.
+The bar lying across the dial is fastened to the weight through the
+two slits running the whole length of the dial. On this cross bar
+is a small pointer, which is movable by the fingers, and may be set
+to any one of the thirteen vertical lines. The numerous characters
+on the top space of dial indicate the dates on which the pointer is
+to be set. This clock is wound up at sunset, and it is easy to see
+that as the little pointer is set towards the right, the night hours
+at the top of the dial become shorter and the day hours longer on
+the lower part. The left edge of the dial gives the hours, reading
+downwards, and as the pointer touches any one of the curved lines the
+hour is read at the left-hand end. The curved lines formed of dots
+are the half-hours. The right-hand edge of the dial has the "twelve
+horary characters" which will be explained later. For dividing the
+varying days into six hours' sunshine it would be difficult to
+think of a more artistic and beautiful invention than this. It is
+a fine example of great ingenuity and constant trouble to operate
+a system which is fundamentally wrong according to our method of
+uniform hours at all seasons. Clocks having these curved lines for
+the varying lengths of days--and we shall find them on circular dials
+as we go on--must be made for a certain latitude, since the days vary
+more and more as you go farther from the equator. This will become
+plain when you are reminded that a Japanese clock at the equator
+would not need any adjustment of hour numerals, because the days and
+nights are equal there all the year. So after such infinite pains in
+forming these curved lines the clock is only good in the latitude
+for which it was made and must not be carried north or south! Our
+clocks are correct from pole to pole, but all clocks must be set to
+local time if they are carried east or west. As this is a rather
+fascinating phase of the subject it might be worth pointing out that
+if you go north till you have the sun up for a month in the middle
+of summer--and there are people living as far up as that--the Japanese
+system would become absurd and break down; so there is no danger of
+any of our polar expeditions carrying Japanese clocks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial, Weight and
+Balance.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17--Japanese Vertical Dials]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18--Japanese Clock with Vertical Dial Having
+Curved Lines, Weight and Balance.]
+
+Figure 19 shows a very fine clock in which the dial is stationary and
+the hand moves just as on our dials. This hour hand corresponds to
+the single hand of the old Dutch clocks. When the Japanese reached
+the point of considering the application of minute and second hands
+to their clocks they found that these refinements would not fit their
+old method and they were compelled to lay aside their clocks and
+take ours. On this dial, Fig. 19, nine is noon, as usual, and is on
+top side of dial. Hand points to three quarters past _seven_, that
+is, a quarter to _six_, near sunset. Between the bell and the top of
+the clock body two horizontal balances, having small weights hung on
+them, are plainly shown, and the clock has two verge escapements--one
+connected with each balance, or "foliot." Let us suppose a long
+day coming to a close at sunset, just as the hand indicates. The
+upper balance, which is the slow one, has been swinging backwards
+and forwards measuring the long hours of the day. When the clock
+strikes six, at sunset, the top balance is thrown out of action and
+the lower one, which is the fast one, is thrown into action and
+measures the short night hours. At sunrise this is thrown out and
+the top one in again to measure the next day's long hours. As the
+days vary in length, the balances, or foliots, can be made to swing
+faster or slower by moving the weights inwards or outwards a notch
+or two. The balance with small weights for regulation is the oldest
+known and was used in connection with the verge escapement, just
+as in this clock, by the Dutch about 1364. All the evidence I can
+find indicates that the Japanese clocks are later than this date. In
+design, ornamentation and methods for marking varying days, however,
+the Japanese have shown great artistic taste and inventiveness.
+It is seen that this dial in addition to the usual six hours,
+twice over, has on the outside circle of dial, the "twelve horary
+branches" called by the Japanese the "twelve honorary branches," thus
+indicating the whole day of twelve Japanese hours, six of them for
+day and six for night. By this means they avoided repeating the same
+hours for day and night. When it is pointed out that these "twelve
+horary branches" are very old Chinese, we are not in a position to
+boast about our twenty-four hour system, because these branches
+indicate positively whether any given hour is day or night. When we
+print a time table in the twenty-four hour system so as to get rid
+of our clumsy A. M. and P. M., we are thousands of years behind the
+Chinese. More than that, for they got the matter right without any
+such pressure as our close running trains have brought to bear on
+us. These branches have one syllable names and the "ten celestial
+stems" have also one syllable names, all as shown on Fig. 20. Refer
+now to Fig. 21 where two disks are shown, one having the "twelve
+horary branches" and the other the "ten celestial stems." These disks
+are usually put behind the dial so that one "branch" and one "stem"
+can be seen at the same time through two openings. The clock moves
+these disks one step each night, so that a new pair shows each day.
+Running in this manner, step by step, you will find that it takes
+sixty moves, that is sixty days, to bring the same pair around again.
+Each has a single syllable name, as shown on Fig. 20, and we thus get
+sixty names of two syllables by reading them together to the left.
+The two openings may be seen in the dials of Figs. 15 and 19. So the
+Japanese know exactly what day it is in a period of sixty which they
+used in their old calendars. These were used by the Chinese over four
+thousand years ago as the names of a cycle of sixty years, called the
+"sexagenary." The present Chinese year 4606 is YU-KI which means the
+year 46 of the 76th "sexagenary." That is, 76x60+46 = 4,606. In Fig.
+20, we read TSU-KIAH, or the first year. If you will make two disks
+like Fig. 21 and commence with TSU-KIAH and move the two together
+you will come to YU-KI on the 46th move. But there is another way
+which you might like better, thus: Write the twelve "branches,"
+or syllables, straight downwards, continuously five times; close
+to the right, write the ten "stems" six times. Now you have sixty
+words of two syllables and the 46th, counting downwards, will be
+YU-KI. Besides, this method gives you the whole sixty names of the
+"sexagenary" at one view. Always read _left_, that is, pronounce the
+"stem" syllable first.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19--Japanese Striking Clock with Two Balances and
+Two Escapements; Dial Stationary, Hand Moves]
+
+Calendars constitute a most interesting and bewildering part of time
+measuring. We feel that we have settled the matter by determining
+the length of the year to within a second of time, and keeping the
+dates correctly to the nearest day by a leap year every fourth and
+every fourth century, established by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, and
+known as the "Gregorian Calendar." In simple words, our "almanac" is
+the "Gregorian." We are in the habit of saying glibly that any year
+divisible by four is a leap year, but this is far from correct. Any
+year leaving out the _even hundreds_, which is divisible by four
+is a leap year. _Even hundreds_ are leap when divisible by four.
+This explains why 1900 was a common year, because _19 hundreds_ is
+not divisible by four; 2000 will be a leap because _20 hundreds_
+is divisible by four; therefore 2100, 2200 and 2300 will be common
+years and 2400 a leap, etc., to 4000 which must be made common, to
+keep things straight, in spite of the fact that it is divisible by
+four both in its hundreds and thousands. But for practical purposes,
+during more than two thousand years to come, we may simplify the
+rule to: _Years_ and _even hundreds_ divisible by four are leaps.
+But great confusion still exists as a result of several countries
+holding to their own old methods. The present Chinese year has 384
+days, 13 months and 13 full moons. Compared with our 1909 it begins
+on January 21st and will end on February 8, 1910. Last year the
+China-Japan calendar had 12 months, or moons, but as that is too
+short they must put in an extra every thirtieth month. We only allow
+the error to reach one day and correct it with our leap years, but
+they are not so particular and let the error grow till they require
+another "moon." The Old Testament is full of moons, and even with all
+our "modernity" our "feasts" and holy days are often "variable" on
+account of being mixed up with moons. In Japan the present year is
+the 42nd of Meiji, that is, the 42nd of the present Emperor's reign.
+The present is the Jewish 5669. These and others of varying lengths
+overlap our year in different degrees, so that in trade matters great
+confusion exists. The Chinese and Japanese publish a trade almanac
+in parallel columns with ours to avoid this. It is easy to say that
+we ought to have a uniform calendar all over the world, but the same
+remark applies just as much to money, weights, measures, and even to
+language itself. Finally, the difficulty consists in the facts that
+there are not an even number of days in a year--or in a moon--or moons
+in a year. "These many moons" is a survival in our daily speech of
+this old method of measuring by moons. Just a little hint as to the
+amount of superstition still connected with "new moon" will be enough
+to make clear the fact that we are not yet quite so "enlightened" as
+we say we are. While our calendar, or almanac, may be considered as
+final, we must remember that custom and religion are so mixed up with
+the matter in the older countries of the East that they will change
+very slowly. Strictly, our "era" is arbitrary and Christian; so we
+must not expect nations which had some astronomical knowledge and a
+working calendar, thousands of years before us, to change suddenly to
+our "upstart" methods.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20--Key to "12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial
+Stems"]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21--"12 Horary Branches" and "10 Celestial Stems"
+as Used in Clocks]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22--Dial of Japanese Astronomical Clock]
+
+In Fig. 22 we have the dial of a very complicated astronomical
+clock. This old engraved brass dial did not photograph well, so I
+made a copy by hand to get clean lines. Commencing at the centre,
+there is a small disk, B, numbered from 1 to 30, giving days of the
+moon's age. The moon rises at A and sets at AA, later each day, of
+course. Her age is shown by the number she touches on disk B, as
+this disk advances on the moon one number each day. Her phases are
+shown by the motion of a black disk over her face; so we have here
+three motions for the moon, so differentiated as to show _phase_,
+_ascension_ and _age_. Still further, as she is represented on the
+dial when below the horizon, it can be seen when she will rise, and
+"moonlight" parties may be planned. Just outside the moon's course
+is an annulus having Japanese numbers 1 to 12, indicating months.
+Note the recurring character dividing the months in halves, which
+means "middle," and is much used. If you will carefully read these
+numbers you will find a character where _one_ would come; this means
+"beginning" or "primary" and is often used instead of one. The clock
+hand is the heavy arrow and sweeps the dial once in a whole day, same
+direction as our clocks. This circle of the months moves along with
+the hand, but a little faster, so as to gain one number in a month.
+As shown on the figure it is about one week into the sixth month.
+Next outward is the broad band having twelve curved lines for the
+hours ending outwardly in a ring divided into 100 parts, marked off
+in tens by dots. These curved lines are numbered with the Japanese
+numerals for hours which you must now be able to read easily. These
+hour lines, and the dotted lines for half hours, are really the same
+as the similar lines on Fig. 18 which you now understand. As the
+hand sweeps the dial daily it automatically moves outward a little
+each day, so it shortens the nights and lengthens the days, just as
+previously explained for Fig. 18. But there is one difference, for
+you will notice that the last night hour, on which the arrow hand
+now stands, is longer than the other night hours before it, and that
+it is divided into _three_ by the dotted lines. The last day hour,
+on the left of dial, is also long and divided into _three_. That is,
+while all the dials previously described have equal hours for any
+given day, or night, this dial has a _last long hour_ in each case,
+divided into three instead of the usual half-hours. This is a curious
+and interesting point having its origin long before clocks. In the
+early days of the clepsydra in China, a certain time was allowed
+to dip up the water from the lowest jar, each morning and evening
+about five o'clock of our time, see Fig. 8 (Chapter 1). During this
+operation the clepsydra was not marking time, and the oriental
+mind evidently considered it in some sense outside of the regular
+hours, and like many other things was retained till it appeared
+absurdly on the earlier clocks. This wonderful feat of putting an
+interval between two consecutive hours has always been impossible to
+modern science; yet President Roosevelt performed it easily in his
+"constructive" interregnum! Referring to the Canton clepsydra, Fig.
+8, we find that the float, or "bamboo stick," was divided into 100
+parts. At one season 60 parts for the day and 40 parts for the night,
+gradually being changed to the opposite for short days. The day hours
+were beaten on a drum and the night hours blown on a trumpet.
+
+Later the hour numerals were made movable on the "bamboo stick."
+This is virtually a vertical dial with movable hour plates, so their
+idea of time measuring at that date, was of something moving up or
+down. This was put on the first clocks by the Japanese; so that the
+dial of Fig. 16 is substantially the float of the Chinese clepsydra.
+Further, in this "bamboo stick" of 100 parts, we have our present
+system of decimal numbers, so we can afford to be a little modest
+here too. Before leaving Fig. 22 note the band, or annulus, of stars
+which moves with the month circle. I cannot make these stars match
+our twelve signs of the Zodiac, but as I have copied them carefully
+the reader can try and make order out of them. The extreme outer edge
+of the dial is divided into 360 parts, the tens being emphasized, as
+in our decimal scales.
+
+As we are getting a little tired of these complicated descriptions,
+let us branch off for a few remarks on some curiosities of Eastern
+time keeping. They evidently think of an hour as a _period of time_
+more specifically than we do. When we say "6 o'clock" we mean a
+point of time marked by the striking of the clock. We have no names
+for the hour periods. We must say "from 5 to 6" or "between 5 and
+6" for an hour period. The "twelfth hour" of the New Testament, I
+understand to mean a whole hour ending at sunset; so we are dealing
+with an oriental attitude of mind towards time. I think we get that
+conception nearly correct when we read of the "middle watch"
+and understand it to mean _during_ the middle third of the night.
+Secondly, why do the Japanese use no 1, 2, 3 on their dials? These
+numbers were sacred in the temples and must not be profaned by use on
+clocks, and they mentally deducted these from the clock hours, but
+ultimately became accustomed to 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Thirdly, why this
+reading of the hours backwards? Let us suppose a toiler commencing
+at sunrise, or six. When he toiled one hour he felt that there was
+one less to come and he called it five. This looks quite logical, for
+the diminishing numbers indicated to him how much of his day's toil
+was to come. Another explanation which is probably the foundation
+of "secondly" and "thirdly" above, is the fact that mathematics and
+superstition were closely allied in the old days of Japan. If you
+take the numbers 1 to 6, Fig. 23, and multiply them each into the
+uncanny "yeng number," or nine, you will find that the last digits,
+reading downwards, give 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4. Stated in other words:
+When 1 to 6 are multiplied into "three times three" the last figures
+are 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and _1, 2, 3, have disappeared_; so the common
+people were filled with fear and awe. Some of the educated, even now,
+are mystified by the strange results produced by using three and nine
+as factors, and scientific journals often give space to the matter.
+We know that these results are produced by the simple fact that nine
+is one less than the "radix" of our decimal scale of numbers. Nine is
+sometimes called the "indestructible number," since adding the digits
+of any of its powers gives an even number of nines. But in those days
+it was a mystery and the common people feared the mathematicians, and
+I have no doubt the shrewd old fellows took full advantage of their
+power over the plebeians. In Japan, mathematics was not cleared of
+this rubbish till about 700 A. D.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23--Use of "Yeng Number" and Animal Names of
+Hours]
+
+On the right-hand side of Fig. 23 are given the animal names of
+the hours, so the day and night hours could not be mistaken. In
+selecting the _rat_ for night and the _horse_ for day they showed
+good taste. Their forenoon was "before horse" and their afternoon
+"after horse." Japanese clocks are remarkable for variety. It looks
+as if they were always made to order and that the makers, probably
+urged by their patrons, made extreme efforts to get in wonderful
+motions and symbols relating to astronomy and astrology. Anyone
+examining about fifty of them would be likely to conclude that it was
+almost hopeless to understand them all. Remember, this is the old
+Japanese method. Nearly all the clocks and watches I saw in Japan
+were American. It will now be necessary to close this chapter with a
+few points on the curious striking of Japanese clocks.
+
+In those like Figs. 14, 15, 19, the bell and hammer can be seen. In
+the type of Fig. 16, the whole striking mechanism is in the weight.
+In fact, the striking part of the clock is the weight. On each of the
+plates, having the hour numerals, Fig. 16, a pin projects inwards and
+as the weight containing the striking mechanism, descends, a little
+lever touches these and lets off the striking just when the pointer
+is on the hour numeral. Keeping this in mind, it is easy to see that
+the clock will strike correctly when the hour is indicated by the
+pointer, no matter how the hour plates are set for long or short
+days. Similar pins project inwards from movable plates on Figs. 12,
+13, 14, 15, so they strike correctly as each hour plate comes to the
+top just under the point of the fixed hand. In Fig. 19, the striking
+is let off by a star wheel just as in old Dutch clocks. Clocks
+like Figs. 18-22 do not strike. In all cases the hours are struck
+backwards, but the half-hours add another strange feature. The _odd_
+numbered hours, 9, 7, 5, are followed by one blow at the half hour;
+and the _even_ hours, 8, 6, 4 by two blows, or stated altogether--
+
+ 9_{1} 8_{2} 7_{1} 6_{2} 5_{1} 4_{2}.
+
+Here the large figures are the hours and the small ones the
+half-hours. Only one bell is used, because there being no one and
+two among the hours, the half-hours cannot be mistaken. This is not
+all, for you can tell what half hour it is within two hours. For
+example, suppose you know approximately that it is somewhere between
+9 and 7 and you hear the clock strike 2, then you know it is half
+past 8. See the large and small figures above. This is far superior
+to our method of one at each half-hour.
+
+By our method the clock strikes _one_ three times consecutively,
+between 12 and 2 o'clock and thus mixes up the half hours with one
+o'clock. Some interesting methods of striking will be explained in
+the third chapter when we deal with modern time keeping.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+MODERN CLOCKS
+
+ DeVick's clock of 1364. -- Original "verge" escapement. --
+ "Anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "Remontoir" clock.
+ -- The pendulum. -- Jeweling pallets. -- Antique clock with
+ earliest application of pendulum. -- Turkish watches. -- Correct
+ designs for public clock faces. -- Art work on old watches. --
+ Twenty-four hour watch. -- Syrian and Hebrew hour numerals. --
+ Correct method of striking hours and quarters. -- Design for
+ twenty-four hour dial and hands. -- Curious clocks. -- Inventions
+ of the old clockmakers.
+
+[Illustration: Public Dial by James Arthur Dial of Philadelphia City
+Hall Clock
+
+Fig. 24]
+
+
+Modern clocks commence with De Vick's of 1364 which is the first
+unquestioned clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing the
+fundamental features of our present clocks. References are often
+quoted back to about 1000 A. D., but the words translated "clocks"
+were used for bells and dials at that date; so we are forced to
+consider the De Vick clock as the first till more evidence is
+obtained. It has been pointed out, however, that this clock could
+hardly have been invented all at once; and therefore it is probable
+that many inventions leading up to it have been lost to history. The
+part of a clock which does the ticking is called the "escapement"
+and the oldest form known is the "verge," Fig. 25, the date of which
+is unknown, but safely 300 years before De Vick. The "foliot" is on
+the vertical verge, or spindle, which has the pallets A B. As the
+foliot swings horizontally, from rest to rest, we hear one tick, but
+it requires two of these single swings, or two ticks, to liberate
+one tooth of the escape wheel; so there are twice as many ticks
+in one turn of the escape wheel as it has teeth. We thus see that
+an escapement is a device in which something moves back and forth
+and allows the teeth of an "escape wheel" to escape. While this
+escapement is, in some respects, the simplest one, it has always
+been difficult to make it plain in a drawing, so I have made an
+effort to explain it by making the side of the wheel and its pallet
+B, which is nearest the eye, solid black, and farther side and its
+pallet A, shaded as in the figure. The wheel moves in the direction
+of the arrow, and tooth D is very near escaping from pallet B. The
+tooth C on the farther side of wheel is moving left, so it will fall
+on pallet A, to be in its turn liberated as the pallets and foliot
+swing back and forth. It is easy to see that each tooth of the wheel
+will give a little push to the pallet as it escapes, and thus keep
+the balance swinging. This escapement is a very poor time-keeper,
+but it was one of the great inventions and held the field for about
+600 years, that is, from the days when it regulated bells up to the
+"onion" watches of our grandfathers. Scattered references in old
+writings make it reasonably certain that from about 1,000 to 1,300
+bells were struck by machines regulated with this verge escapement,
+thus showing that the striking part of a clock is older than the
+clock itself. It seems strange to us to say that many of the earlier
+clocks were strikers, only, and had no dials or hands, just as if
+you turned the face of your clock to the wall and depended on the
+striking for the time. Keeping this action of the verge escapement
+in mind we can easily understand its application, as made by De
+Vick, in Fig. 26, where I have marked the same pallets A B. A tooth
+is just escaping from pallet B and then one on the other side of
+the wheel will fall on pallet A. Foliot, verge and pallets form one
+solid piece which is suspended by a cord, so as to enable it to
+swing with little friction. For the purpose of making the motions
+very plain I have left out the dial and framework from the drawing.
+The wheel marked "twelve hours," and the pinion which drives it, are
+both outside the frame, just under the dial, and are drawn in dash
+and dot. The axle of this twelve-hour wheel goes through the dial
+and carries the hand, which marks hours only. The winding pinion and
+wheel, in dotted lines, are inside the frame. Now follow the "great
+wheel"--"intermediate"--"escape wheel" and the two pinions, all in
+solid lines, and you have the "train" which is the principal part
+of all clocks. This clock has an escapement, wheels, pinions, dial,
+hand, weight, and winding square. We have only added the pendulum,
+a better escapement, the minute and second hands in over 500 years!
+The "anchor" escapement, Fig. 27, came about 1680 and is attributed
+to Dr. Hooke, an Englishman. It gets its name from the resemblance of
+the pallets to the flukes of an anchor. This anchor is connected to
+the pendulum and as it swings right and left, the teeth of the escape
+wheel are liberated, one tooth for each two swings from rest to rest,
+the little push on the pallets A B, as the teeth escape, keeping the
+pendulum going. It is astonishing how many, even among the educated,
+think that the pendulum drives the clock! The pendulum must always be
+driven by some power.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25--Verge Escapement]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26--De Vick's Clock of 1364]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27--Anchor Escapement]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28--American Anchor Escapement]
+
+This escapement will be found in nearly all the grandfather clocks in
+connection with a seconds pendulum. It is a good time-keeper, runs
+well, wears well, stands some rough handling and will keep going
+even when pretty well covered with dust and cobwebs; so it is used
+more than all the numerous types ever invented. Figure 28 gives the
+general American form of the "anchor" which is made by bending a
+strip of steel; but it is not the best form, as the acting surfaces
+of the pallets are straight. It is, therefore, inferior to Fig. 27
+where the acting surfaces are curved, since these curves give an
+easier "recoil." This recoil is the slight motion _backwards_ which
+the escape wheel makes at each tick. The "dead beat" escapement is
+shown in Fig. 29, and is used in clocks of a high grade, generally
+with a seconds pendulum. It has no recoil as you can easily see that
+the surfaces O O on which the teeth fall, are portions of a circle
+around the center P. The beveled ends of these pallets are called the
+impulse surfaces, and a tooth is just giving the little push on the
+right-hand pallet. It is found in good railroad clocks, watch-makers'
+regulators and in many astronomical clocks. These terms are merely
+comparative, a "regulator" being a good clock and an "astronomical,"
+an extra good one. Figure 30 gives the movement of a "remontoir"
+clock in which the dead beat shown is used. The upper one of the
+three dials indicates seconds, and the lever which crosses its center
+carries the large wheel on the left.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29--Dead Beat Escapement]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31--Remontoir Clock by James Arthur]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30--Remontoir Clock Movement]
+
+This wheel makes the left end of the lever heavier than the right,
+and in sinking it drives the clock for one minute, but at the
+sixtieth second it "remounts" by the action of the clock weight;
+hence the name, "remontoir." Note here that the big weight does
+not directly drive the clock; it only rewinds it every minute. The
+minutes are shown on the dial to the right and its hand jumps forward
+one minute at each sixtieth second as the lever remounts; so if you
+wish to set your watch to this clock the proper way is to set it to
+the even minute "on the jump." The hour hand is on the dial to the
+left. By this remounting, or rewinding, the clock receives the same
+amount of driving force each minute. The complete clock is shown
+in Fig. 31, the large weight which does the rewinding each minute
+being plainly visible. The pendulum is compensated with steel and
+aluminum, so that the rate of the clock may not be influenced by hot
+and cold weather. Was built in 1901 and is the only one I can find
+room for here. It is fully described in "Machinery," New York, for
+Nov., 1901. I have built a considerable number, all for experimental
+purposes, several of them much more complicated than this one, but
+all differing from clocks for commercial purposes. Pallets like O
+O in Fig. 29 are often made of jewels; in one clock I used agates
+and in another, running thirteen months with one winding, I used
+pallets jeweled with diamonds. This is done to avoid friction and
+wear. Those interested in the improvement of clocks are constantly
+striving after light action and small driving weights. Conversely,
+the inferior clock has a heavy weight and ticks loud. The "gravity
+escapement" and others giving a "free" pendulum action would require
+too much space here, so we must be satisfied with the few successful
+ones shown out of hundreds of inventions, dozens of them patented.
+The pendulum stands at the top as a time measurer and was known to
+the ancients for measuring short periods of time just as musicians
+now use the metronome to get regular beats. Galileo is credited with
+noticing its regular beats, but did not apply it to clocks, although
+his son made a partially successful attempt. The first mathematical
+investigation of the pendulum was made by Huyghens about 1670, and
+he is generally credited with applying it to clocks, so there is a
+"Huyghens" clock with a pendulum instead of the foliot of De Vick's.
+Mathematically, the longer and heavier the pendulum the better is
+the time-keeping, but nature does not permit us to carry anything to
+the extreme; so the difficulty of finding a tower high enough and
+steady enough, the cumbersomeness of weight, the elasticity of the
+rod, and many other difficulties render very long and heavy pendulums
+impracticable beyond about 13 ft. which beats once in two seconds.
+"Big Ben" of Westminster, London, has one of this length weighing 700
+lb. and measuring, over all, 15 ft.
+
+It runs with an error under one second a week. This is surpassed
+only by some of the astronomical clocks which run sometimes two
+months within a second. This wonderful timekeeping is done with
+seconds pendulums of about 39 in., so the theoretical advantage of
+long pendulums is lost in the difficulties of constructing them.
+Fractions are left out of these lengths as they would only confuse
+the explanations. At the Naval observatory in Washington, D. C.,
+the standard clocks have seconds pendulums, the rods of which are
+nickel steel, called "Invar," which is little influenced by changes
+of temperature. These clocks are kept in a special basement, so
+they stand on the solid earth. The clock room is kept at a nearly
+uniform temperature and each clock is in a glass cylinder exhausted
+to about half an atmosphere. They are electric remontoirs, so no
+winding is necessary and they can be kept sealed up tight in their
+glass cylinders. Nor is any adjustment of their pendulums necessary,
+or setting of the hands, as the correction of their small variations
+is effected by slight changes in the air pressure within the glass
+cylinders. When a clock runs fast they let a little air into its
+cylinder to raise the resistance to the pendulum and slow it down,
+and the reverse for slow. Don't forget that we are now considering
+variations of less than a second a week.
+
+The clock room has double doors, so the outer one can be shut before
+the inner one is opened, to avoid air currents. Visitors are not
+permitted to see these clocks because the less the doors are opened
+the better; but the Commander will sometimes issue a special permit
+and detail a responsible assistant to show them, so if you wish
+to see them you must prove to him that you have a head above your
+shoulders and are worthy of such a great favor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33--Antique Clock, Entirely Hand-Made]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34--Triple-Case Turkish Watches]
+
+The best thing the young student could do at this point would be
+to grasp the remarkable fact that the clock is not an old machine,
+since it covers only the comparatively short period from 1364 to the
+present day. Compared with the period of man's history and inventions
+it is of yesterday. Strictly speaking, as we use the word clock, its
+age from De Vick to the modern astronomical is only about 540 years.
+If we take the year 1660, we find that it represents the center of
+modern improvements in clocks, a few years before and after that date
+includes the pendulum, the anchor and dead beat escapements, the
+minute and second hands, the circular balance and the hair spring,
+along with minor improvements. Since the end of that period, which
+we may make 1700, no fundamental invention has been added to clocks
+and watches. This becomes impressive when we remember that the last
+200 years have produced more inventions than all previous known
+history--but only minor improvements in clocks! The application
+of electricity for winding, driving, or regulating clocks is not
+fundamental, for the timekeeping is done by the master clock with
+its pendulum and wheels, just as by any grandfather's clock 200
+years old. This broad survey of time measuring does not permit us to
+go into minute mechanical details. Those wishing to follow up the
+subject would require a large "horological library"--and Dr. Eliot's
+five-foot shelf would be altogether too short to hold the books.
+
+A good idea of the old church clocks may be obtained from Fig.
+32 which is one of my valued antiques. Tradition has followed it
+down as the "English Blacksmith's Clock." It has the very earliest
+application of the pendulum. The pendulum, which I have marked by a
+star to enable the reader to find it, is less than 3 in. long and
+is hung on the verge, or pallet axle, and beats 222 per minute.
+This clock may be safely put at 250 years old, and contains nothing
+invented since that date. Wheels are cast brass and all teeth
+laboriously filed out by hand. Pinions are solid with the axles, or
+"staffs," and also filed out by hand. It is put together, generally
+by mortise, tenon and cotter, but it has four original screws all
+made by hand with the file. How did he thread the holes for these
+screws? Probably made a tap by hand as he made the screws. But the
+most remarkable feature is the fact that no lathe was used in forming
+any part--all staffs, pinions and pivots being filed by hand. This is
+simply extraordinary when it is pointed out that a little dead center
+lathe is the simplest machine in the world, and he could have made
+one in less than a day and saved himself weeks of hard labor. It is
+probable that he had great skill in hand work and that learning to
+use a lathe would have been a great and tedious effort for him. So we
+have a complete striking clock made by a man so poor that he had only
+his anvil, hammer and file. The weights are hung on cords as thick
+as an ordinary lead pencil and pass over pulleys having spikes set
+around them to prevent the cords from slipping. The weights descend
+7 ft. in 12 hours, so they must be pulled up--not wound up--twice a
+day. The single hour hand is a work of art and is cut through like
+lace. Public clocks may still be seen in Europe with only one hand.
+Many have been puzzled by finding that old, rudely made clocks often
+have fine dials, but this is not remarkable when we state that art
+and engraving had reached a high level before the days of clocks.
+It is worthy of note that clocks in the early days were generally
+built in the form of a church tower with the bell under the dome
+and Figs. 32, 33 show a good example. It is highly probable that the
+maker of this clock had access to some old church clock--a wonderful
+machine in those days--and that he laboriously copied it. It strikes
+the hours, only, by the old "count wheel" or "locking plate" method.
+Between this and our modern clocks appeared a type showing quarter
+hours on a small dial under the hour dial. No doubt this was at that
+time a great advance and looked like cutting time up pretty fine. As
+the hand on the quarter dial made the circuit in an hour the next
+step was easy, by simply dividing the circle of quarters into sixty
+minutes. The old fellows who thought in hours must have given it up
+at this point, so the seconds and fifths seconds came easily.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35--Triple-Case Turkish Watch]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36--Double-Case Watch of Repousse Work]
+
+The first watches, about 1500, had the foliot and verge escapement,
+and in some early attempts to govern the foliot a hog's bristle was
+used as a spring. By putting a ring around the ends of the foliot
+and adding the hair spring of Dr. Hooke, about 1640, we have the
+verge watches of our grandfathers. This balance wheel and hair spring
+stand today, but the "lever" escapement has taken the place of the
+verge. It is a modification of the dead beat, Fig. 29, by adding
+a lever to the anchor, and this lever is acted on by the balance,
+hence the name "lever watch." All this you can see by opening your
+watch, so no detailed explanation is necessary. Figure 34 shows two
+triple-cased Turkish watches with verge escapements, the one to the
+left being shown partly opened in Fig. 35. The watch with its inner
+case, including the glass, is shown to the right. This inner case
+is complete with two hinges and has a winding hole in the back. The
+upper case, of "chased" work, goes on next, and then the third, or
+outer case, covered with tortoise shell fastened with silver rivets,
+goes on outside the other two. When all three cases are opened and
+laid on the table, they look like a heap of oyster shells, but they
+go easily together, forming the grand and dignified watch shown to
+the left in Fig. 34. Oliver Cromwell wore an immense triple-case
+watch of this kind, and the poor plebeians who were permitted to
+examine such a magnificent instrument were favored!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37--Watches Showing Art Work]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38--Watch Showing Dutch Art Work]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39--Antique Watch Cock]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40--"Chinese" Watch]
+
+Our boys' watches costing one dollar keep much better time than this
+type of watch. Comparing the Syrian dial, Fig. 42, with that on
+Fig. 35, it is evident that the strange hour numerals on both are a
+variation of the same characters. These, so-called, "Turkish watches"
+were made in Europe for the Eastern trade. First-class samples of
+this triple-case type are getting scarce, but I have found four, two
+of them in Constantinople. Figure 36 shows the double-case style,
+called "pair cases," the outer case thin silver, the figures and
+ornaments being hammered and punched up from the inside and called
+"repousse." Before we leave the old watches, the question of art work
+deserves notice, for it looks as if ornamentation and time-keeping
+varied inversely in those days--the more art the worse the watch. I
+presume, as they could not make a good time-keeper at that date, the
+watch-maker decided to give the buyer something of great size and
+style for his money. In Fig. 37 four old movements are shown, and
+there is no doubt about the art, since the work is purely individual
+and no dies or templates used. In examining a large number of these
+watches, I have never found the art work on any two of them alike.
+Note the grotesque faces in these, and in Fig. 39 which is a fine
+example of pierced, engraved work. Figure 38 is a fine example of
+pierced work with animals and flowers carved in relief. Figure 40
+is a "Chinese" watch but made in Europe for the Chinese market. In
+Fig. 41 we have what remains of a quarter repeater with musical
+attachment. Each of the 24 straight gongs, commencing with the
+longest one, goes a little nearer the center of the large wheel,
+so a circle of pins is set in the wheel for each gong, or note,
+and there is plenty of room for several tunes which the wearer can
+set off at pleasure. Figure 43 is a modern watch with Hebrew hour
+numerals. Figure 44 is a modern 24-hour watch used on some railroads
+and steamship lines. I have a pretty clean-cut recollection of one
+event in connection with the 24-hour system, as I left Messina
+between 18 and 19 o'clock on the night of the earthquake! Dials and
+hands constitute an important branch of the subject. The general
+fault of hands is that they are too much alike; in many instances
+they are the same, excepting that the minute hand is a little longer
+than the hour. The dial shown on the left of Fig. 24 was designed by
+me for a public clock and can be read twice as far away as the usual
+dial. Just why we should make the worst dials and hands for public
+clocks in the United States is more than I can find out, for there
+is no possible excuse, since the "spade and pointer" hands have been
+known for generations. Figure 45 is offered as a properly designed
+dial for watches and domestic clocks, having flat-faced Gothic
+figures of moderate height, leaving a clear center in the dial, and
+the heavy "spade" hour hand reaching only to the inner edges of the
+figures. For public clocks the Arabic numerals are the worst, for at
+a distance they look like twelve thumb marks on the dial; while the
+flat-faced Roman remain distinct as twelve clear marks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41--Musical Watch, Repeating Hours and Quarters]
+
+Do you know that you do not read a public clock by the figures, but
+by the position of the hands? This was discovered long ago. Lord
+Grimthorp had one with twelve solid marks on the dial and also speaks
+of one at the Athenaeum Club, both before 1860. The Philadelphia City
+Hall clock has dials of this kind as shown on right side of Fig. 24.
+It has also good hands and can be read at a great distance. Very few
+persons, even in Philadelphia, know that it has no hour numerals on
+its dials. Still further, there is no clock in the tower, the great
+hands being moved every minute by air pressure which is regulated by
+a master clock set in a clock room down below where the walls are 10
+ft. thick. Call and see this clock and you will find that the City
+Hall officials sustain the good name of Philadelphia for politeness.
+Generally, we give no attention to the hour numerals, even of our
+watches, as the following proves. When you have taken out your watch
+and looked at the time, for yourself, and put it back in your pocket,
+and when a friend asks the time you take it out again to find the
+time for him! Why? Because, for yourself, you did not read hours and
+minutes, but only got a mental impression from the position of the
+hands; so we only read hours and minutes when we are called on to
+proclaim the time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42--Syrian Dial]
+
+We must find a little space for striking clocks. The simplest is one
+blow at each hour just to draw attention to the clock. Striking the
+hours and also one blow at each half hour as well as the quarter
+double blow, called "ting tong" quarters, are too well known to need
+description. The next stage after this is "chiming quarters" with
+three or more musical gongs, or bells. One of the best strikers I
+have has three trains, three weights and four bells. It strikes
+the hour on a large bell and two minutes after the hour it strikes
+it again, so as to give you another chance to count correctly. At
+the first quarter it repeats the last hour followed by a musical
+chord of three bells, which we will call _one triple blow_: at the
+second quarter the hour again and two triple blows and at the third
+quarter, the hour again and three triple blows. Suppose a sample
+hour's striking from four o'clock, this is what you hear, and there
+can be no mistake. "Four" and in two minutes "four"--"four and one
+quarter"--"four and two quarters"--"four and three quarters," and the
+same for all other hours. This is definite, for the clock proclaims
+the hour, or the hour and so much past. It can be set silent, but
+that only stops it from striking automatically, and whether so set
+or not, it will repeat by pulling a cord. You awake in the night
+and pull the cord, and then in mellow musical tones, almost as if
+the clock were speaking, you hear--"four and two quarters." This I
+consider a perfect striking clock. It is a large movement of fine
+workmanship and was made in the department of the Jura, France.
+When a clock or watch only repeats, I consider the old "five-minute
+repeater" the best. I used this method in a clock which, on pulling
+the cord, strikes the hour on a large bell and if that is all it
+strikes, then it is less than five minutes past. If more than five
+minutes past it follows the hour by one blow on a small bell for
+every five minutes. This gives the time within five minutes. It is
+fully described and illustrated in "Machinery," New York, for March,
+1905. Just one more. An old Dutch clock which I restored strikes the
+hour on a large bell; at the first quarter it strikes one blow on a
+small bell; at the half hour it strikes the last hour over again on
+the small bell; at the third quarter it strikes one blow on the large
+bell. But this in spite of its great ingenuity, only gives definite
+information at the hour and half hour.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43--Hebrew Numerals]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44--24-Hour Watch]
+
+Of curious clocks there is no end, so I shall just refer to one
+invented by William Congreve, an Englishman, over one hundred years
+ago, and often coming up since as something new. A plate about 8 in.
+long and 4 in. wide has a long zigzag groove crosswise. This plate
+is pivoted at its center so either end can be tipped up a little.
+A ball smaller than a boy's marble will roll back and forth across
+this plate till it reaches the lower end, at which point it strikes
+a click and the mainspring of the clock tips the plate the other way
+and the ball comes slowly back again till it strikes the disk at the
+other end of the plate, etc. Every time the plate tips, the hands
+are moved a little just like the remontoir clock already described.
+Clocks of this kind are often used for deceptive purposes and those
+ignorant of mechanics are deceived into the belief that they see
+perpetual motion. The extent to which modern machine builders are
+indebted to the inventions of the ancient clock-maker, I think, has
+never been appreciated.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45--Domestic Dial by James Arthur]
+
+In its earlier stages the clock was almost the only machine
+containing toothed gearing, and the "clock tooth" is still necessary
+in our delicate machines. It is entirely different from our standard
+gear tooth as used in heavy machines. The clock-makers led for a
+long time in working steel for tools, springs and wearing surfaces.
+They also made investigations in friction, bearings, oils, etc.,
+etc. Any one restoring old clocks for amusement and pleasure will
+be astonished at the high-class mechanics displayed in them--nearly
+always by unknown inventors. Here is an example: The old clock-maker
+found that when he wished to drill a hole in a piece of thick wire
+so as to make a short tube of it, he could only get the hole central
+and straight by rotating the piece and holding the drill stationary.
+By this method the drill tends to follow the center line of
+rotation; and our great guns as well as our small rifles are bored
+just that way to get bores which will shoot straight. The fourth and
+last chapter will deal with the astronomical motions on which our
+time-keeping is founded, our present hour zones of time, and close
+with suggestions for a universal time system over the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+ASTRONOMICAL FOUNDATION OF TIME
+
+ Astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- Reasons
+ for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our 24-hour
+ day. -- Year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. --
+ Precession of the equinoxes. -- Earth's rotation most uniform
+ motion known to us. -- Time Stars and Transits. -- Local time.
+ -- The date line. -- Standard time. -- Beginning and ending of
+ a day. -- Proposed universal time. -- Clock dial for universal
+ time and its application to business. -- Next great improvement
+ in clocks and watches indicated. -- Automatic recording of
+ the earth's rotation. -- Year of the seasons as a unit for
+ astronomers. -- General conclusions.
+
+
+The mystery of time encloses all things in its folds, and our grasp
+of its infinite bearings is measured by our limitations. As there
+are no isolated facts in the Universe, we can never get to the end
+of our subject; so we know only what we have capacity to absorb.
+In considering the foundation on which all our time measuring
+is based, we are led into the fringe of that Elysian field of
+science--astronomy. A science more poetical than poetry--more charming
+than the optimistic phantasies of youth. That science which leaves
+our imagination helpless; for its facts are more wonderful than our
+extremest mental flights. The science of vastness and interminable
+distances which our puny figures fail to express. "The stars sang
+together for joy," might almost be placed in the category of facts;
+while the music of the spheres may now be considered a mathematical
+reality. Our time keeping is inevitably associated with these
+motions, and we must select one which has periods not too long. That
+is, no _continuous_ motion could be used, unless it passed some
+species of milestones which we could observe. Consequently, our
+clocks do not--in the strict sense--measure time; but are adjusted
+to _divide_ periods which they do not determine. We are constantly
+correcting their errors and never entirely succeed in getting them
+to run accurately to _periods of time_ which exist entirely outside
+of such little things as men and clocks. So a clock is better as it
+approximates or bears a regular _relation_ to some motion in nature.
+The sidereal clock of the astronomer _does_ run to a regular motion;
+but our 24-hour clocks _do not_, as we shall see later. Now consider
+the year, or the sun's apparent motion in the Zodiac, from any given
+star around to the same one again. This is altogether too long to be
+divided by clocks, as we cannot make a clock which could be depended
+on for anywhere near a year. The next shorter period is that of a
+"moon." This is also a little too long, is not easily observed, and
+requires all sorts of corrections. Observations of the moon at sea
+are so difficult and subject to error that mariners use them only
+as a last resort. If a little freedom of language is permissible, I
+would say that the moon has a bad character all around, largely on
+account of her long association with superstition, false theology
+and heathen feasts. She has not purged herself even to this day!
+The ancients were probably right when they called erratic and
+ill-balanced persons "luny." Now we come to the day and find that it
+is about the right practical length--but what kind of a day? As there
+are five kinds we ought to be able to select one good enough. They
+are:--
+
+ 1st. The solar day, or noon to noon by the sun.
+
+ 2nd. An imaginary sun moving uniformly in the ecliptic.
+
+ 3rd. A second imaginary sun moving uniformly parallel to the
+ equator at all seasons of the year.
+
+ 4th. One absolute rotation of the earth.
+
+ 5th. One rotation of the earth measured from the node, or
+ point, of the spring equinox.
+
+The difference between 1st and 2nd is that part of the sun's error
+due to the elliptical orbit of the earth.
+
+The other part of the sun's error--and the larger--between 2nd and 3rd
+is that due to the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator.
+
+The whole error between 1st and 3rd is the "equation of time" as
+shown for even minutes in the first chapter under the heading, "Sun
+on Noon Mark 1909."
+
+Stated simply, for our present purpose, 1st is sundial time, and 3rd
+our 24-hour clock time.
+
+This 2nd day is therefore a refinement of the astronomers to
+separate the two principal causes of the sun's error, and I think we
+ought to handle it cautiously, or my friend, Professor Todd, might
+rap us over the knuckles for being presumptuous.
+
+This 5th day is the sidereal day of the astronomers and is the basis
+of our time, so it is entitled to a little attention. I shall confine
+"sidereal day" to this 5th to avoid confusion with 4th. If you will
+extend the plane of the equator into the star sphere, you have the
+celestial equator. When the center of the sun passes through this
+plane on his journey north, in the Spring, we say, "the sun has
+crossed the line." This is a distant point in the Zodiac which can
+be determined for any given year by reference to the fixed stars. To
+avoid technicalities as much as possible we will call it the point
+of the Spring equinox. This is really the point which determines
+the common year, or year of the seasons. Using popular language,
+the seasons are marked by four points,--Spring equinox--longest day--;
+Autumnal equinox--shortest day. This would be very simple if the
+equinoctial points would stay in the same places in the star sphere;
+but we find that they creep westward each year to the extent of 50
+seconds of arc in the great celestial circle of the Zodiac. This is
+called the precession of the equinoxes. The year is measured from
+Spring equinox to Spring equinox again; but each year it comes 50
+seconds of arc less than a full revolution of the earth around the
+sun. Therefore _if we measured our year by a full revolution_ we
+would displace the months with reference to the seasons till the
+hot weather would come in January and the cold weather in July in
+about 13,000 years; or a complete revolution of the seasons back to
+where we are, in 26,000 years. Leaving out fractions to make the
+illustration plain, we have:--
+
+ (1) 360 degrees of Zodiac                  }
+     ---------------------   = 26,000 years }
+       50 seconds of arc                    }
+                                            }
+ (2) 1 day of time                          }
+     -------------           = 26,000 years }
+     3-1/3 seconds                          }     All
+                                            } Approximate
+ (3) 1 year of time                         }
+     --------------          = 26,000 years }
+     20-1/3 minutes                         }
+                                            }
+ (4) 3-1/3 seconds                          }
+     -------------       = 1/110 of a second}
+     days in a year                         }
+
+In (1) we see that a "precession" of 50 seconds of arc will bring the
+Spring equinox around in 26,000 years.
+
+In (2) we see, as 50 seconds of arc represents the distance the earth
+will rotate in 3-1/3 seconds, a difference of one day will result
+in 26,000 years. That is since the clock regulated by the stars, or
+absolute rotations of the earth, would get behind 3-1/3 seconds per
+year, it would be behind a day in 26,000 years, as compared with a
+sidereal clock regulated by the Spring equinoctial point.
+
+In (3) we see that as 50 seconds of arc is traversed by the earth, in
+its annual revolution, in 20-1/3 minutes, a complete circle of the
+Zodiac will be made in 26,000 years.
+
+In (4) we see that as the difference between the year of the seasons
+and the Zodiacal year is 3-1/3 seconds of the earth's rotation, it
+follows that if this is divided by the number of days in a year
+we have the amount which a sidereal day is less than 4th, or an
+absolute rotation of the earth. That is, any meridian passes the
+Spring equinoctial point 1/110 of a second sooner than the time of
+one absolute rotation. These four equations are all founded on the
+precession of the equinoxes, and are simply different methods of
+stating it. Absolutely and finally, our time is regulated by the
+earth's rotation; but strange as it may appear, we do not take one
+rotation as a unit. As shown above, we take a rotation to a _movable
+point_ which creeps the 1/110 of a second daily. But after all, it is
+the _uniform_ rotation which governs. This is the one "dependable"
+motion which has not been found variable, and is the most easily
+observed. When we remember that the earth is not far from being as
+heavy as a ball of iron, and that its surface velocity at the equator
+is about 17 miles per minute, it is easy to form a conception of its
+uniform motion. Against this, however, we may place the friction
+of the tides, forcing up of mountain ranges, as well as mining and
+building skyscrapers--all tending to slow it. Mathematicians moving in
+the ethereal regions of astronomy lead us to conclude that it _must_
+become gradually slower, and that _it is_ slowing; but the amount may
+be considered a vanishing quantity even compared with the smallest
+errors of our finest clocks; so for uncounted generations past--and to
+come--we may consider the earth's rotation uniform. Having now found
+a uniform motion easily observed and of convenient period, why not
+adopt it as our time unit? The answer has been partially given above
+in the fact that we are compelled to use a year, measured from the
+Spring equinoctial point, so as to keep our seasons in order; and
+therefore as we must have some point where the sidereal clocks and
+the meantime clocks coincide, we take the same point, and that point
+is the Spring equinox. Now we have three days:--
+
+ 1st. A sidereal day 1/110 of a second less than one rotation of
+ the earth.
+
+ 2nd. One rotation of the earth in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4
+ seconds, nearly, of clock time.
+
+ 3rd. One mean time clock day of 24 hours, which has been explained
+ previously.
+
+Now, isn't it remarkable that our 24-hour day is purely artificial,
+and that nothing in nature corresponds to it? Our real day of 24
+hours is a _theoretical_ day. Still more remarkable, this theoretical
+day is the unit by which we express motions in the solar system. A
+lunar month is days--hours--minutes--and seconds of this theoretical
+day, and so for planetary motions. And still more remarkable, the
+earth's rotation which is _itself_ the foundation is expressed in
+this imaginary time! This looks like involution involved, yet our
+24-hour day is as real as reality; and the man has not yet spoken who
+can tell whether a mathematical conception, sustained in practical
+life, is less real than a physical fact. Our legal day of practical
+life is therefore deduced from the day of a fraction _less_ than one
+earth rotation. In practice, however, the small difference between
+this and a rotation is often ignored, because as the tenth of a
+second is about as near as observations can be made it is evident
+that for single observations 1/110 of a second does not count, but
+for a whole year it does, and amounts to 3-1/3 seconds. Now as to
+the setting of our clocks. While the time measured by the point of
+the Spring equinox is what we must find it is found by noting the
+transits of fixed stars, because _the relation_ of star time to
+equinoctial time is known and tabulated. Remember we cannot take
+a transit of the equinoctial point, because there is nothing to
+see, and that _nothing_ is moving! But it can be observed yearly
+and astronomers can tell where it is, at any time of the year, by
+calculation. The stars which are preferred for observation are
+called "time stars" and are selected as near the celestial equator
+as possible. The earth's axis has a little wabbling motion called
+"nutation" which influences the _apparent_ motion of the stars near
+the pole; but this motion almost disappears as they come near the
+equator, because nutation gives the plane of the equator only a
+little "swashplate" motion. The positions of a number of "time stars"
+with reference to the equinoctial point, are known, and these are
+observed and the observations averaged. The distance of any time
+star from the equinoctial point, _in time_, is called its "right
+ascension." Astronomers claim an accuracy to the twentieth part of
+a second when such transits are carefully taken, but over a long
+period, greater exactness is obtained. Really, the time at which any
+given star passes the meridian is taken, _in practical life_, from
+astronomical tables in the Nautical Almanacs. Those tables are the
+result of the labors of generations of mathematicians, are constantly
+subject to correction, and cannot be made simple. Remember, the
+Earth's rotation is the only uniform motion, all the others being
+subject to variations and even compound variations. This very subject
+is the best example of the broad fact that science is a constant
+series of approximations; therefore, nothing is exact, and nothing
+is permanent but change. But you say that mathematics is an exact
+science. Yes, but it is a _logical abstraction_, and is therefore
+only the universal solvent in physical science.
+
+With our imaginary--but real--time unit of 24 hours we are now ready
+to consider "local time." Keeping the above explanation in mind, we
+may use the usual language and speak of the earth rotating in 24
+hours clock time; and since motion is relative, it is permissible to
+speak of the motion of the sun. In the matter of the sun's apparent
+motion we are compelled to speak of his "rising," "setting," etc.,
+because language to express the motion in terms of the earth's
+rotation has not been invented yet. For these reasons we will assume
+that in Fig. 47 the sun is moving as per large arrow and also that
+the annulus, half black and half white, giving the 24 hours, is
+fastened to the sun by a rigid bar, as shown, and moves around the
+earth along with him. In such illustrations the sun must always be
+made small in proportion, but this rather tends to plainness. For
+simplicity, we assume that the illustration represents an equinox
+when the sun is on the celestial equator. Imagine your eye in the
+center of the sun's face at A, and you would be looking on the
+meridian of Greenwich at 12 noon; then in one hour you would be
+looking on 15 deg. west at 12 noon; but this would bring 13 o'clock to
+Greenwich. Continue till you look down on New York at 12 noon, then
+it is 17 o'clock at Greenwich (leaving out fractions for simplicity)
+etc. If you will make a simple drawing like Fig. 47 and cut the
+earth separate, just around the inside of the annulus, and stick a
+pin at the North Pole for a center, you may rotate the earth as per
+small arrow and get the actual motion, but the result will be just
+the same as if you went by the big arrow. We thus see that every
+instant of the 24 hours is represented, at some point, on the earth.
+That is, the earth has an infinity of local times; so it has every
+conceivable instant of the 24 hours at some place on the circle.
+Suppose we set up 1,410 clocks at uniform distances on the equator,
+then they would be about 17 miles apart and differ by minutes. Now
+make it 86,400 clocks, they would be 1,500 feet apart and differ by
+seconds. With 864,000 clocks they would be 150 feet apart and vary
+by tenths of seconds. It is useless to extend this, since you could
+always imagine more clocks in the circle; thus establishing the
+fact that there are an infinity of times at an infinity of places
+always on the earth. It is necessary to ask a little patience here
+as I shall use this local time and its failure later in our talk.
+Strictly, local time has never been used, because it has been found
+impracticable in the affairs of life. This will be plain when we draw
+attention to the uniform time of London, which is Greenwich time; yet
+the British Museum is 30 seconds slow of Greenwich, and other places
+in London even more. This is railroad time for Great Britain; but
+it is 20 minutes too fast for the west of England. This led to no
+end of confusion and clocks were often seen with two minute hands,
+one to local and the other to railroad time. This mixed up method
+was followed by "standard time," with which we are all pretty well
+acquainted. Simply, standard time consists in a uniform time for each
+15 deg. of longitude, but this is theoretical to the extreme, and is
+not even approached in practice. The first zone commences at Greenwich
+and as that is near the eastern edge of the British Islands, their
+single zone time is fast at nearly all places, especially the west
+coast of Ireland. When we follow these zones over to the United
+States we find an attempt to make the middle of each zone correct to
+local time, so at the hour jumping points, we pass from half an hour
+slow to half an hour fast, or the reverse. We thus see that towns
+about the middle of these four United States zones have sunrise and
+sunset and their local day correct, but those at the eastern and
+western edges average half an hour wrong. As a consequence of this
+disturbance of the working hours depending on the light of the day,
+many places keep two sets of clocks and great confusion results. Even
+this is comprehensible; but it is a mere fraction of the trouble
+and complication, because the hour zones are not separated by
+meridians in practice, but by zig-zag lines of great irregularity.
+Look at a time map of the United States and you will see the zones
+divided by lines of the wildest irregularity. Now question one of
+the brightest "scientific chaps" you can find in one of the great
+railroad offices whose lines touch, or enter, Canada and Mexico.
+Please do not tell me what he said to you! So great is the confusion
+that no man understands it all. The amount of wealth destroyed in
+printing time tables, _and failing to explain them_, is immense. The
+amount of human life destroyed by premature death, as a result of
+wear and tear of brain cells is too sad to contemplate. And all by
+attempting the impossible; for local time, _even if it was reduced to
+hourly periods_ is not compatible with any continental system of time
+and matters can only get worse while the attempt continues. For the
+present, banish this zone system from your mind and let us consider
+the beginning and ending of a day, using strictly local time.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47--Local Time--Standard Time--Beginning and
+Ending of the Day]
+
+A civil, or legal, day ends at the instant of 24 o'clock, midnight,
+and the next day commences. The time is continuous, the last instant
+of a day touching the first instant of the next. This is true for
+all parts of the earth; but something _in addition_ to this happens
+at a certain meridian called the "date line." Refer again to Fig. 47
+which is drawn with 24 meridians representing hours. As we are taking
+Greenwich for our time, the meridians are numbered from 0 deg., on
+which the observatory of Greenwich stands. When you visit Greenwich you
+can have the pleasure of putting your foot on "the first meridian,"
+as it is cut plainly across the pavement. Degrees of longitude are
+numbered east and west, meeting just opposite at 180 deg., which is
+the "date line." Our day begins at this line, so far as _dates_ are
+concerned; but the _local day_ begins everywhere at midnight. Let
+us start to go around the world from the date line, westward. When
+we arrive at 90 deg. we are one quarter around and it takes the sun 6
+hours longer to reach us. At 0 deg. (Greenwich) we are half around and
+12 hours ahead of the sun motion. At 90 deg. west, three quarters, or
+18 hours, and when back to 180 deg. we have _added_ to the length of
+all days of our journey enough to make one day; therefore our date must
+be one day behind. Try this example to change the wording:--Let us
+start from an island B, just west of the date line. These islanders
+have their 24-hour days, commencing at midnight, like all other
+places. As we move westward our day commences later and later than
+theirs, as shown above. Suppose we arrive at the eastern edge of
+the 180 deg. line on Saturday at 12 o'clock, but before we cross it
+we call over to the islanders,--what day is it? We would get answer,
+"Sunday;" because all our days have been longer, totalling one day in
+the circuit of the globe. So if we step over the line at 12 o clock
+Saturday, presto, it is 12 o'clock Sunday. It looks like throwing out
+24 hours, but this is not so, since we have lived exactly the same
+number of hours and seconds as the islanders. In this supposition
+we have all the _dates_, however, but have jumped half of Saturday
+and half of Sunday, which equals one day. In practice this would not
+have been the method, for if the ship was to call at the island, the
+captain would have changed date on Friday night and thrown Saturday
+out, all in one piece, and would have arrived on their Sunday; so
+his log for that week would have contained only 6 days. It is not
+necessary to go over the same ground for a circuit of the globe
+eastward, but if you do so you will find that you _shorten_ your days
+and on arriving at the date line would have a day too much; so in
+this case you would _double_ a date and have 8 days in that week. In
+both cases this is caused by compounding your motion with that of the
+sun; going with him westward and lengthening your days, or eastward
+meeting him and shortening them. Figure 47 shows Greenwich noon, we
+will say on Monday, and at that instant, Monday only, exists from 0
+to 24 o'clock on the earth; but the next instant, Tuesday begins at
+180 deg. B. In one hour it is noon of Monday at 15 deg. West, and
+midnight at 165 deg. East; so Tuesday is one hour old and there is left
+23 hours of Monday. Monday steadily declines to 0 as Tuesday steadily
+grows to 24 hours; so that, except at the instant of Greenwich noon,
+there are always two days on the world at once. If we said that there are
+_always_ two days on the world at once, we could not be contradicted;
+since there is no conceivable time between Monday and Tuesday; it
+is an instantaneous change. As we cannot conceive of _no time_,
+the statement that there is only one day on the earth at Greenwich
+noon is not strictly permissible. Since there are always two days
+on the world at once let us suppose that these two are December
+31st and January 1st; then we have _two years_ on the world at once
+for a period of 24 hours. Nine years ago we had the 19th and 20th
+centuries on the world at once, etc. As a mental exercise, you may
+carry this as far as you please. Suppose there was an impassable sea
+wall built on the 180 deg. meridian, then there would be two days on
+the world, just as explained above; but, _practically_, there would be
+no date line, since in sailing west to this wall we would "lengthen
+our days," and then shorten them the same amount coming around east
+to the other side of the wall, but would never jump or double a date.
+This explanation is founded, as it ought to be, on uniform local
+time, and is the simplest I can give. The date line is fundamentally
+simple, but is difficult to explain. When it is complicated by the
+standard time--or jumping hour system--and also with the fact that
+some islands count their dates from the wrong side of the line for
+their longitudes, scientific paradoxes arise, such as having three
+dates on the world at once, etc.; but as these things are of no more
+value than wasting time solving Chinese puzzles, they are left out.
+Ships change date on the nearest night to the date line; but if they
+are to call at some island port in the Pacific, they may change
+either sooner or later to correspond with its date. Here is a little
+Irish date line wit printed for the first time,--I was telling my
+bright friend about turning in on Saturday night and getting up for
+breakfast on Monday morning. "Oh," said he, "I have known gentlemen
+to do as good as that without leaving New York City!"
+
+As what is to follow relates to the growing difficulties of local
+time and a proposed method of overcoming them, let us recapitulate:--
+
+ 1st. Local time has never been kept, and the difficulties of
+ using it have increased as man advanced, reaching a climax of
+ absurdity on the advent of the railroad; so it broke down and
+ became impractical.
+
+ 2nd. To make the irregular disorder of local time an orderly
+ confusion, the "standard time"--jumping by hours--has helped a
+ little, but only because we can tell how much it is wrong at
+ any given place. This is its only advantage over the first
+ method, where we had no means of knowing what to expect on
+ entering any new territory. That is, we have improved things by
+ throwing out local time to the extent of an hour.
+
+My proposal is to throw local time out _totally_ and establish one,
+invariable, _universal time_. Greenwich time being most in use now,
+and meridians numbered from it, may be taken in preference to any
+other. Still another reason is that the most important timekeepers in
+modern life--ship's chronometers--are set to Greenwich time. Universal
+time--no local time--only local day and night. Our 24-hour system is
+all right, so do not disturb it, as it gets rid of A.M. and P.M. and
+makes the day our unit of time. Our railroad time now throws out
+local time to the extent of one hour; but I propose to throw it out
+entirely and never change the clock hands from Greenwich time. The
+chronometers do that now, so let us conduct all business to that time.
+
+Now refer to Fig. 46, in which Greenwich is taken as universal time.
+The annulus, half white and half black, indicates the average day and
+night, and is a separate ring in the dial which can be set so that
+"noon" is on the meridian of the place, as shown for four places in
+the illustration. It is the same dial in all four cases set to local
+day and night. Strictly, the local time conception is dropped and the
+local day left for regulating working and sleeping time. All business
+would have the same time. In traveling east we would not have the
+short hours; or west, the long hours. All clocks and watches would
+show the same time as ship's chronometers do now. The only change
+would be the names of the hours for the parts of the local day.
+This is just the difficulty, for we are so accustomed to _associate_
+a certain number, as seven, with the morning and breakfast time.
+Suppose breakfast time in London is 7 o'clock, then according to the
+local day it would be 12 o'clock breakfast time in New York; but in
+both cases it would be the same time with reference to the _local
+daylight_. Let it be distinctly understood that our association of
+_12 o'clock_ with _noon_ is not necessary. The Japanese called it
+"horse" and "nine"--the ancient Romans, the New Testament writers,
+and the Turks called it the "sixth hour"--the astronomers now call it
+24 o'clock, and the Chinese represent it by several characters; but,
+in all cases, it is simply the middle of the day at any place. By
+the proposed universal time, morning, noon, and evening would be--_at
+any given place_--the same hours. There would be no necessity of
+establishing legal noon with exactness to the meridian, because that
+would only regulate labor, meals, etc., and would not touch universal
+time. This is an important part of the proposal and is worth
+elaborating a little. Sections in manufacturing districts could make
+their working hours correspond at pleasure and no confusion would
+result. That is, local working hours to convenience but by the same
+universal time. Note how perfectly this would work in traveling,--you
+arrive in Chicago from the effete east and your watch corresponds
+all along with the railroad clocks. As you leave the station you
+glance up at the clock and see that Chicago noon is 17.30, so you
+set the day and night ring of your watch to match the same ring on
+the clock, but no disturbance of the hands. As you register at the
+hotel you ask,--dinner? and get answer, 24.30--then breakfast, 12.30.
+These questions are necessary now, so I do not add complication
+here. When you arrive in a strange city you must ask about meals,
+business hours, theater hours, "doors open" hours, etc., etc.; so
+all this remains the same. Let us put the matter forcibly,--while we
+count days, or _dates_, _something_ must vary with east and west;
+I propose the fixing of hours for business and sleep to suit each
+locality, but an invariable time. Get rid of the idea that a certain
+number, as 7 o'clock, represents the age of the day _at all places_.
+See how this would wipe out the silly proposal to "save daylight"
+by setting the clock back and forward. Suppose workmen commenced at
+12.30 in New York; for the long summer days make it 11.30, but no
+change in universal time. As this is the only difference from our
+present time system, keep the central conception, firmly,--universal
+time--local day and night.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46--Universal Time Dial Set for Four Places]
+
+Suppose Chicago decided that "early to bed and early to rise" was
+desirable; then it could establish its legal noon as 17.30, which
+would be about 20 minutes early for its meridian. You could do
+business with Chicago for a lifetime and not find this out, unless
+you looked up the meridian of Chicago and found that it was 17.50
+o'clock. None of the railroads or steamship lines of the city would
+need to know this, except as a matter of scientific curiosity,
+for the time tables would all be printed in universal time. For
+hiring labor, receiving and delivering goods, etc., they would
+only need to know Chicago _business hours_. To state the matter in
+different words,--Chicago would only need to decide what portion of
+the universal 24 hours would suit it best for its day and which
+for its night, and if it decided, as supposed above, to place its
+working day forward a little to give some daylight after labor,
+nothing would be disturbed and only the scientific would ever
+know. Certainly, "save daylight," but do not make a fool of the
+clock! Having shown the great liberty which localities could take
+without touching the working of the system, the same remarks apply
+to ultra-scientific localities. A city might establish its noon to
+the instant; so it is possible--even if a little improbable--that
+the brilliant and scientific aldermen of New York might appoint
+a commission with proper campfollowers and instrument bearers to
+determine the longitude of the city to the Nth of a second and tell
+us where we "are at." The glory of this achievement--and especially
+its total cost--would be all our own and incorruptible time would be
+untouched! We thus see that great local freedom and great accuracy
+are alike possible. With our present system, accuracy in local time
+is impracticable and has never even been attempted, and is confusion
+confused since we added the railroad hour jumps. Why did we nurse
+this confusion till it has become almost intolerable? Because man
+has always been a slave to _mental associations, and habits_.
+Primitive man divided the local day into parts and gave them names
+and this mental attitude sticks to us after it has served its day.
+The advantages of universal time could hardly be enumerated, yet we
+can have them all by dropping our childish association of 7 o'clock
+with breakfast time! Another example,--you visit a friend for a few
+days and on retiring the first night you ask "what is your breakfast
+hour"--"8 o'clock." You have to ask this question and recollect the
+answer. Now tell me what difference it would make if the answer had
+been 13 o'clock? None whatever, unless, perhaps, that is, you do not
+like thirteen! You ask, how about ships? Ships now carry universal
+time and only change the clock on deck to please the simple minded
+passengers. How about the date line? No change whatever, so long
+as we use _dates_ which means numbering local days. It is useless
+multiplying examples; all difficulties disappear, as if by magic, the
+moment we can free our minds of local time and the association of
+the _same hour_ with the _same portion_ of the day at _all places_.
+The great interest at present manifested in the attempts to reach
+the North Pole calls for some consideration of universal time in
+the extreme north. Commencing at the equator, it is easy to see
+that the day and night ring, Fig. 46, would represent the days and
+nights of 12 hours at all seasons. As we go north, however, this
+ring represents the _average_ day and night. When we reach the Polar
+Circle, still going north, the _daily_ rising and setting of the sun
+gradually ceases till we reach the great one-year day at the Pole,
+consisting of six months darkness and six months light. Let us now
+assume that an astronomical observatory is established here and the
+great equatorial placed precisely on the pole. At this point, _local
+time_, _day and night_, and _the date line_, almost cease to have
+a meaning. For this very reason universal time would be the only
+practical method; therefore, it _more_ than stands the test of being
+carried to the extreme. Universal time would regulate working and
+sleeping here the same as at all other places. Strictly local time in
+this observatory would be an absurdity, because in walking around the
+telescope (pole) you would be in all instants of the 24 hours within
+five seconds! At the pole the day would commence at the same instant
+as at some assumed place, and the day and night ring would represent
+working and sleeping as at that place. Suppose this observatory to
+be in telegraphic communication with New York, then it would be
+best for the attendants to set their day and night to New York, so
+as to correspond with its business hours. Many curious suppositions
+might be made about this polar observatory with its "great night"
+and equally "great day." It is evident that to keep count of itself
+it would be compelled to note _dates_ and 24-hour _days_ to keep in
+touch with us; so it would be forced to adopt the local day of some
+place like New York. This choice would be free, because a polar
+observatory would stand on all the meridians of the earth at once.
+
+We are now in a position to consider the next possible--and even
+probable--improvement in our clocks and watches. To minimize the
+next step it might be well to see what we can do now. Clocks are
+often regulated by electric impulses over wires. Electricians inform
+me that they can do this by wireless; but that owing to the rapid
+attenuation of the impulses it cannot be done commercially, over
+great distances. In the history of invention the first step was _to
+do something_ and then find a way of doing it cheaply enough for
+general use. So far as I know, the watch in the wearer's pocket has
+not yet been regulated by wireless; but I am willing to risk the
+statement that the editor of Popular Mechanics can name more than one
+electrician who can do this. A watch to take these impulses might be
+larger than our present watches, but it would not stay larger and
+would ultimately become much smaller. You know what has happened
+since the days of the big "onions" described in the third chapter.
+Fig. 34; so get your electric watch and make it smaller at your
+leisure. We have made many things commercially practicable, which
+looked more revolutionary than this. Now throw out the mainspring,
+wheels, pinions, etc., of our watches and reduce the machinery part
+to little more than dial and hands and do the driving by wireless,
+say, once every minute. I feel certain that I am restraining the
+scientific imagination in saying that the man lives among us who can
+do this. I repeat, that we now possess the elementary knowledge--which
+if collated and applied--would produce such a watch.
+
+Now I have a big question to ask--the central note of interrogation
+in this little scientific conversation with you,--does the man
+live who can make the earth automatically record its rotation?
+Do not be alarmed, for I am prepared to make a guess as to this
+possibility. A _direct_ mechanical record of the earth's rotation
+seems hopeless, but let us see what can be done. You are aware
+that some of the fixed stars have a distinct spectrum. It is not
+unreasonable to suppose that an instrument could be made to record
+the passage of such a star over the meridian. Ah, but you say, there
+is no mechanical force in this. Do not hurry, for we have long been
+acquainted with the fact that things which, apparently, have no
+force can be made to liberate something which manifests mechanical
+force. We could now start or stop the greatest steam engine by a
+gleam of sunlight, and some day we might be able to do as much by the
+lately discovered pressure of light. That is, we can now liberate
+the greatest forces by the most infinitesimal, by steps; the little
+force liberating one greater than itself, and that one another still
+greater. A good example is the stopping of an electric train, from a
+distance, by wireless. The standard clock in Philadelphia, previously
+referred to, is a delicate instrument and its most delicate part,
+having the least force, moves a little valve every minute, and by
+several steps liberates the air pressure, 200 feet higher in the
+tower, to move the four sets of great hands. I am not traveling
+beyond the record when I say that the invisible actinic rays could be
+used to liberate a great force; therefore what is there unreasonable
+in the supposition that the displacement of the sodium line in the
+spectrum of a star might be made to record the earth's rotation? So
+I say to the electrician--the optician--the photographer--the chemist
+and the mechanic.--get together and produce this watch. Permit me,
+with conventional and intentional modesty, to name the new timepiece
+_Chroncosmic_. For pocket use, it would be _Cosmic watch_. In the
+first chapter I allowed to the year 2,000 for the production of this
+watch, but it is likely we will not need to wait so long.
+
+Having stated my proposal for universal time as fully as space will
+permit and given my guess as to the coming cosmic watch, let us in
+this closing paragraph indulge in a little mental exercise. Suppose
+we copy the old time lecturer on astronomy and "allow our minds to
+penetrate into space." Blessed be his memory, he was a doer of good.
+How impressive as he repeatedly dropped his wooden pointer, and lo!
+It always moved straight to the floor; thus triumphantly vindicating
+universal gravitation!!!
+
+We can think of a time system which would discard months, weeks and
+days. What is the meaning of the financial almanac in which the
+days are numbered from 1 to 365 or 366? Simply a step in the right
+direction, _away from the months and weeks_, so that the distance
+between any two dates may be seen at a glance. We would really be
+better without months and weeks. Now let us consider the year of
+the seasons as a unit--long since proposed by the astronomers--and
+divide it into 3,000 chrons. Clocks regulated by star transits, as
+at present, would divide this decimally, the fourth place being near
+enough to make the new pendulums of convenient length. This would
+throw out months, weeks and days, local time and the date line.
+Each of these chrons would represent the same time in the year,
+permanently. For example, 464.6731 would mark to a _dixmilliemechron_
+(a little more than one second) the point reached in the year; while
+the date does not, as I have shown in the first chapter. But you
+still object that this is a great number of figures to use in fixing
+a point in the year. Let us see what it takes to fix a point in the
+year now, _August 24th, 11-16-32 P. M., New York standard time_. A
+pretty long story, but it does not fix the point of the year even
+then; for it would require the assistance of an astronomer to fix
+such a point in _any given_ year, say 1909. But 464.6731 would be
+eternally right in _absolute time_ of the seasons, and has only one
+meaning, with no qualifications for any year whatever. I believe
+the astronomers should use a method something like this. Ah, but
+there is a difficulty in applying this to the affairs of daily life
+which looks insurmountable. This is caused by the fact that the
+_day_ and _year_ are incommeasurable. One of them cannot be exactly
+expressed in terms of the other. They are like the diagonal and side
+of a square. The day is now the unit and therefore the year has an
+interminable fraction; conversely, if we make the year the unit, then
+the day becomes an endless fraction. This brings us face to face with
+the local day which we ignored in our scientific year unit. We _must_
+regulate our labors, in this world, to day and night and, with the
+year unit, the chrons would bear no fixed relation to day and night,
+even for two days in succession. So the year unit and absolute time
+must be left to the astronomers; but the _day unit_ and the uniform
+world day of _universal time_ as explained in connection with Fig. 46
+I offer as a practical system.
+
+I am satisfied that all attempts to measure the year and the day
+by the same _time yard stick_ must fail and keep us in our present
+confusion. Therefore separate them once for all time. Brought down to
+its lowest terms my final proposal is:--
+
+ 1st. An equinoctial year unit for the astronomers, divided
+ somewhat as suggested, but no attempt to make the divisions
+ even approximate to days and hours. This would fix all
+ astronomical events, absolutely. A variation in the length of
+ the year would not disturb this system, since the year _itself_
+ would be the unit. In translating this astronomical, or year
+ unit time, into clock time, no difficulties would be added, as
+ compared with our present translation of sidereal time into
+ clock time. Deal with the _year unit_ and _day unit_ separately
+ and convert them mutually when necessary.
+
+ 2nd. A universal mean time day of 24 hours, as now kept at
+ Greenwich, all human business being regulated by this time.
+ Dates and the date line as well as leap years all being
+ retained as at present.
+
+ 3rd. Weight and spring clocks and watches to be superseded by
+ the cosmic clocks and watches regulated by wireless impulses
+ from central time stations, all impulses giving the same
+ invariable time for all places.
+
+ 4th. Automatic recording of the earth's rotations to determine
+ this time.
+
+To avoid any possibility of misunderstanding, I would advise never
+counting a unit till it is completed. We do this correctly with our
+hours, as we understand 24 o'clock to be the same as 0 o'clock. But
+we do not carry this out logically, for we say 24.30. How can this
+be so, since there is nothing more than 24 o'clock? It ought to be
+simply 30 minutes, or 0 hour 30 minutes. How can there be any _hour_
+when a new day is only 30 minutes old? This brings up the acrimonious
+controversy, of some years ago, as to whether there was any "year
+one." One side insisted that till one year was completed there could
+only be months and days. The other side argued that the "year one"
+commenced at 0 and that the month and date showed how much of it had
+passed. Test yourself,--is this the year 1909, of which only 8 months
+have passed; or is it 1909 and 8 months more? Regarding the centuries
+there appears to be no difference of opinion that 1900 is completed,
+and that we are in the 20th century. But can you tell whether we are
+8 years and 8 months into the 20th century or 9 years and 8 months?
+It ought to be, logically 1909 years _complete_ and 8 months of the
+next year, which we must not count till it is completed. Take a
+carpenter's rule, we say 1/4 in.--1/2 in.--3/4 in., but do not count
+an inch till we complete it. When the ancients are quoted,--"about
+the middle of the third hour" there is no mistake, because that means
+2-1/2 hours since sunrise. If we said the 1909th year that would be
+definite too, and mean some distance into that year. Popular language
+states that Greenwich is on the "first meridian"; strictly, it is on
+the zero meridian, or 0 deg. These matters are largely academic and I
+do not look on them as serious subjects of discussion; but they are good
+thought producers. Bidding you good-bye, for the present, it might
+be permissible to state that this conversational article on Time was
+intended to be readable and somewhat instructive; but especially to
+indicate the infinity of the subject, that thought and investigation
+might be encouraged.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Original spelling and grammar have mostly been retained. However, on
+page 31, "clepsydral" was changed to "clepsydra".
+
+Figures were moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. In
+addition, some figures were originally out of numerical sequence;
+they are now in sequence.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIME AND ITS MEASUREMENT***
+
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