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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44771 ***
+
+Perpetual Motion
+
+
+  Comprising a History of the Efforts to Attain Self-Motive
+  Mechanism with a Classified, _ILLUSTRATED_ Collection and
+  Explanation of the Devices Whereby it Has Been Sought and Why
+  They Failed, and Comprising Also a Revision and Re-Arrangement of
+  the Information Afforded by "Search for Self-Motive Power During
+  The 17th, 18th and 19th Centuries," London, 1861, and "A History
+  of the Search for Self-Motive Power from the 13th to The 19th
+  Century," London, 1870, by Henry Dircks, C. E., LL. D., Etc.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+    BY
+
+    PERCY VERANCE
+
+
+
+
+    Copyright 1916
+    By
+    20th Century Enlightenment Specialty Co.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+For Summarized Table of Contents, see page 358 _et seq._
+
+                                                                    Page
+    Introduction                                                       3
+
+    Preface                                                         7-10
+
+    Introductory Essay                                             11-21
+
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+
+    Devices by Means of Wheels and Weights                         22-67
+
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+
+    Devices by Means of Rolling Weights and Inclined Planes        68-75
+
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+
+    Hydraulic and Hydro-Mechanical Devices                        76-117
+
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+
+    Pneumatic Siphon and Hydro-Pneumatic Devices                 118-162
+
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+
+    Magnetic Devices                                             163-174
+
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+
+    Devices Utilizing Capillary Attraction and Physical
+        Affinity                                                 175-194
+
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+
+    Liquid Air as a Means of Perpetual Motion                    195-196
+
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+
+    Radium and Radio-Active Substances Considered as a
+        Conceived Source of Perpetual Motion                     197-199
+
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+
+    Perpetual Motion Devices Attempting Its Attainment by a
+        Misconception of the Relation of Momentum and Energy     200-211
+
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+
+    The Alleged Inventions of Edward Sommerset, Sixth Earl and
+      Second Marquis of Worcester, and of Jean Ernest
+      Eli-Bessler (Councillor) Orffyreus                         212-255
+
+
+    CHAPTER XI.
+
+    Conservation of Energy. A Discussion of the Relation of the
+      Doctrine of Conservation of Energy, and the Possibility
+      of Perpetual Motion                                        256-269
+
+
+    CHAPTER XII.
+
+    Will Perpetual Motion Ever Be Accomplished? A Discussion by
+      the Author, with a Review of the Opinions of Eminent
+      Scientists on the Subject                                  270-357
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The author has no apology to offer for the production of this book. He
+has spent his life in environments that have brought him into constant
+contact with mechanics, artisans and laborers as well as professional
+men, engineers, chemists and technical experts of various types. He
+knows a great many men--young men, for the most part--are constantly
+working on the old, old problem of Perpetual Motion; that much money,
+and much time are being spent in search of a solution for that problem
+which all scientific and technical men tell us is impossible of
+solution.
+
+It is believed by the author that a classification and presentation of
+selected groups of the devices produced in the past by which it was by
+the inventor believed, self-motive power had been attained, will save
+much work in fields already thoroughly exploited.
+
+So far as the author knows no book on the subject has appeared since
+1870. The various encyclopedias published contain articles on the
+subject, but they are necessarily brief, and not satisfying to young
+men who have become interested in the subject.
+
+In 1861, Henry Dircks, a civil engineer, of London, published a
+work entitled "Perpetuum Mobile; or, Search for Self-Motive Power,
+During the Seventeenth, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries." The book
+contains 599 pages, and was followed in 1870, by a second series by the
+same author entitled "Perpetuum Mobile, or a History of the Search for
+Self-Motive Power from the Thirteenth, to the Nineteenth Century." In
+these two books there is amassed a wonderful amount of material showing
+on the part of the author diligence, great patience and wide and
+thorough search.
+
+The author of these works was not enamoured of his subject, and his
+books clearly show that he was not writing them because of any interest
+he had in the subject of Perpetual Motion. On the contrary, they appear
+to have been written because of a deep detestation entertained by the
+author for the subject of Perpetual Motion, and a contemptuous pity for
+any one seriously interested in the subject. Mr. Dircks's works may
+be said to be the works of a scold. His sentiments were deep, and his
+impulses strong, which accounts for the vast amount of labor he did in
+the preparation of his books. Those books are now out of print, and it
+is believed by the author of this book that they may well remain so.
+They contain much material that no one would be justified in wading
+through. The most complicated mechanisms devised by enthusiastic
+dreamers are shown in the same detail with which the inventors
+described them in presenting them to the public, or to the patent
+offices. Little is to be gained by this.
+
+So complicated are many of the devices that only technically trained
+engineers could read them understandingly, and few technically trained
+engineers are now greatly interested in self-motive power devices. We
+believe that every useful or interesting purpose is served if enough
+devices are collected, classified and presented to show the various
+principles relied upon by the inventors; with an explanation of why
+they failed--i. e., wherein the principles relied upon are wrong, and
+while possibly not out of harmony with any mechanical principles then
+known, are entirely out of harmony with principles since discovered and
+now well known.
+
+In the preparation of this volume a vast amount of the information
+furnished by the two works of Mr. Dircks has been rearranged,
+reclassified, and used.
+
+Everyone who has to any extent, by environment, associated with the
+mass of people who are not technically educated, knows that the
+persons who are still interested in the subject of Perpetual Motion,
+and who still seek its attainment, are not technically trained
+engineers or mathematicians, but for the greater part untrained people
+of naturally strong mechanical sense, and of natural mechanical and
+mathematical adaptation.
+
+This book is written for the perusal of that large class of people. It
+is not designed as an argument either for or against the possibility of
+the attainment of Perpetual Motion.
+
+The author is content to classify and present--clearly, it is
+hoped--the leading endeavors that have been known in that field of
+effort, and to explain their failure.
+
+It is believed by the author that the perusal of the present volume by
+anyone whose mind has been attracted by the subject of Perpetual Motion
+will result in an enlightenment, and, it is also believed, will have
+a tendency to direct his mind from a struggle with theories long ago
+exploded, and may result in directing his efforts to things practical,
+and not without hope of attainment.
+
+This work is offered only to minds mechanically or mathematically
+inclined. It is not even hoped that it will interest people who prefer
+fiction to fact, nor people who read simply for idle entertainment.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY ESSAY
+
+
+Perpetual Motion as used in this book is to be taken in its
+conventional, and not in its strict literal sense. The strict literal
+analysis of the two words implies unceasing motion. Of this we have
+many illustrations--the tides, the waves of the ocean, the course of
+the earth around the sun, and in the movements of all heavenly and
+astronomical bodies. In fact, it is difficult to conceive in a strictly
+scientific sense of any substance having an entire absence of motion.
+
+Perpetual Motion as used in this book means what it is usually
+understood to mean--Self-Motive Power--a machine that furnishes the
+power to keep its parts going as a machine. In this sense Perpetual
+Motion has always engaged the minds of many, many people--and what is
+more natural? As soon as a boy begins to take an interest in moving
+parts of machinery, vehicles, locomotives, and what not, he perceives
+that the application of power results in the motion of bodies, and
+again that bodies in motion are productive of power. A wheel moved by
+muscular, or other mechanical power, is made by machinery to elevate
+water, and elevated water can be made in descending to run machinery.
+The windlass, or other wheel, turned by applied force, lifts buckets
+from wells--raises stone, and elevates heavy bodies, if desired. Heavy
+bodies descending can be, and are used through means of machinery to
+make machinery run.
+
+A great many similar illustrations could be given. What, then, is more
+natural than that a boy with an active mind who is at all mechanically
+turned, as most boys are, begins to wonder why, if wheels lift stones,
+and if stones descending make wheels run, cannot a machine be made that
+will lift stones, or other weights, and in turn be run by the descent
+of the lifted stones, or other weights? Why, if the turning of wheels
+lift water, and if descending water makes wheels go, should not an
+adaptation be made by which the same machine will elevate water, and be
+run by the descent of the elevated water?
+
+That it cannot be done is now the consensus of opinion of all
+technically trained mechanics, but, that it can not be done, and why it
+can not be done, is sure not to occur to the boy, nor to the man who
+has only a strong natural mechanical sense to guide him, and has not
+the advantage of technical training.
+
+Again, it is well known that many, many men have spent considerable
+sums of money and given hours and hours, and days, and months, and
+years of close and careful thought, and experiment to the production
+of a machine that will accomplish Perpetual Motion, and that many have
+announced to the world that they had succeeded in its accomplishment,
+but that all their devices so far have turned out failures.
+
+It is to no purpose to tell the Perpetual Motion worker that he is
+seeking to attain the impossible; that the attainment of self-motive
+power has been demonstrated to be an impossibility. He will answer,
+or, at least, he will reason to himself that many things once
+pronounced impossibilities and claimed to be so demonstrated, have
+since been attained. The Perpetual Motion worker is usually a person
+of active intelligence, and being enamoured of mechanical projects
+is likely to read extensively along mechanical lines, and knows as
+every well-informed person knows, that there are many instances in
+the history of the discovery and development of the most important
+mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries where the persistent
+efforts of so-called enthusiastic dreamers and cranks finally triumphed
+over the settled and conventional "impossibilities" of dignified
+scientists.
+
+When, less than a century ago, it was proposed to propel a ship across
+the Atlantic ocean by steampower, Ignatius Lardner, a scientific
+teacher, lecturer and interpreter of real note and merit wrote a
+book "demonstrating" the physical impossibility of a vessel carrying
+enough fuel to propel itself through that distance of water. The book
+was actually printed, but was scarcely off the press until the first
+steamship had successfully crossed the Atlantic with steampower, and
+steamed triumphantly into port.
+
+After communication by electric telegraph was well established and
+had been in successful commercial use for decades, it was proposed to
+converse by long distance over a wire. The idea was hooted and declared
+impossible, and it did seem so, and yet today, there is scarcely a farm
+house in the nation but what has an instrument by which the occupants
+can talk over wires not only to their near-by neighbors, but to remote
+cities.
+
+Prof. Samuel P. Langley, less than two decades ago undertook in a
+thoroughly scientific manner to accomplish what is called "heavier than
+air flight." His scientific ideas on the subject were entirely correct,
+but he did not have the advantage of engine refinement as it is known
+today, by which high energy development can be attained with an engine
+or motor of small weight. Nevertheless, Prof. Langley succeeded
+in flying a considerable distance, and in fact, made a number of
+successful demonstrations of the _physical possibility_ of heavier than
+air flight. Prof. Simon Newcomb, who is to be ranked as the greatest
+astronomer, mathematician and scientist the United States has ever
+produced, and with the possible exception of Benjamin Franklin, the
+most original thinker along scientific lines, wrote an article which
+was published generally in scientific journals, in which he warned
+Prof. Langley of the folly of his attempts, not claiming, however, the
+scientific impossibility of heavier than air flight, but claiming that
+it could never be of any real practical value; that the instability of
+the air, etc., limited flight by man to a daredevil show performance.
+A child then born would now be scarcely grown, and yet, aeroplanes are
+in use in every civilized country in the world for observation and
+military purposes, and even for carrying mail to places not otherwise
+easily accessible.
+
+Thousands of flights are undertaken every day with the confident
+expectation of a successful trip and return. How many, many boys
+and mechanics, prior to the achievement of human flight, have been
+attracted by the problem, only to have their ambitions and dreams
+discouraged and suppressed by being told that the scientific world
+knows that human flight is impossible--"God made man to walk on the
+ground, and the birds to fly, and if Nature had intended that we should
+fly we would have been equipped with wings," and probably to be dubbed
+"Darius Green," as a reminder of the inglorious fate of the pseudo hero
+of that name in Trowbridge's clever and immortal poem about Darius
+Green and his Flying Machine.
+
+The announcement of the discovery of rays by means of which views may
+be made and photographs taken through substances supposedly opaque to
+all light rays was scouted as a ridiculously visionary dream; but the
+discoverers were not dismayed by scout and ridicule, but persisted in
+their dreams and enthusiasm. There is not a village of any considerable
+size in the civilized world but has its X-Ray Machine by which foreign
+substances in the flesh may be viewed and photographed and located with
+exactitude, fractures examined and all surgical operations aided to the
+benefit and health and recovery of the sick and wounded. Mankind is the
+recipient of the benefits resulting from the fact that enthusiastic
+cranks were not deterred by ridicule and supposed demonstrations of
+their folly.
+
+The above are only a few of the many like instances recorded in
+scientific progress. While not accurately true, and while less true
+during the last two decades than formerly, it is, nevertheless, a
+general truth that scientific progress has been made in spite of, and
+in the face of discouragement and ridicule from the multitudes who were
+destined to be benefited by the discoveries made by the persistent
+so-called cranks.
+
+These facts are all well known to the Perpetual Motion enthusiast. It
+is, therefore, of no avail to tell him that the scientific world has
+pronounced his aspirations and attempts but dreams, and that Perpetual
+Motion workers are by the scientific world denominated cranks.
+
+If it be admitted that Perpetual Motion is, as scientific men tell
+us, a chimerical dream, it is still to be very greatly doubted if the
+world at large is to be benefited by dissuading minds from working
+on the problem. There is no doubt that many persons who have become
+more intensely interested in mechanics by thinking and working on the
+problem of Perpetual Motion, have thereby been lead to study more
+and more generally into mechanical subjects, and became not merely
+tyros, but useful men in various mechanical pursuits. Many doubtless
+have followed mechanical subjects to which they were introduced by
+labors toward Perpetual Motion, to the making of useful and valuable
+inventions and discoveries.
+
+Notwithstanding the fact that a countless number of devices for the
+attainment of Perpetual Motion have been proclaimed and exhibited, it
+is to be supposed that those actually proclaimed and brought to light
+constitute but an infinitesimally small proportion of those actually
+made. It is to be supposed that the Perpetual Motion worker has some
+sense, and that the great majority of them before proclaiming his
+apparatus would want to know himself that it was not a failure, and
+would not, when ushered before the public, bring upon him humiliation
+and jeers. It is to be believed that in nearly every instance the
+produced device was tested before being proclaimed and ushered into the
+light of day. It goes without saying that all that were so tested were
+failures, and were never heard of except by the inventor and a very few
+intimate friends or co-laborers. Those that have been heralded to the
+world represent only that small proportion where over-confidence in the
+operation, or a disregard for the truth, or some other unexplainable
+something caused the inventor and his friends to make the announcement
+and disclosure of the device before the test.
+
+It is almost impossible to conceive of a person of any intelligence
+exposing himself to the ridicule resulting from the failure of a
+pompously heralded device, when a simple test would have saved the
+exposure, and yet the civilized world has been filled with Perpetual
+Motion devices proclaimed and heralded with trumpet blast, which, when
+tested, "didn't work."
+
+It is not, however, the purview, or purpose of this book, to incite
+people to work on the problem of Perpetual Motion, neither is it its
+purview or purpose to dissuade them from it.
+
+In the works of Mr. Dircks, mentioned in the preface of this work, the
+devices for Perpetual Motion are classified somewhat with reference to
+the time each was produced. In some instances with reference to whether
+or not patents were applied for and obtained, or as to the source of
+information concerning them.
+
+A careful examination of the devices presented in Mr. Dirck's two
+works, and of those, information concerning which has been obtained
+elsewhere, leads the author to believe that nothing is to be gained by
+an attempted classification along those lines.
+
+In countless instances Perpetual Motion seekers of different races and
+living in separate countries, and, indeed, on different continents,
+centuries apart, have sought the attainment of Perpetual Motion by
+practically the same devices, and inventor after inventor has brought
+forth alleged inventions depending upon precisely the same underlying
+mechanical principle.
+
+The author has attempted to classify the various devices presented in
+this book according to the underlying mechanical principles upon which
+the inventor chiefly relied for the success of his invention. Even this
+classification is extremely difficult and not well distinguished. Many
+of them, indeed most of them, depend for their success upon more than
+one mechanical principle, and the classifications thereby inevitably
+intermingle and overlap what otherwise would be their distinguishing
+boundaries. Still it is believed by the author that it is the best
+that could be adopted, and that no better or clearer classification is
+possible than the one here presented.
+
+The various devices are classified by the author under the following
+heads:
+
+Devices by Means of Wheels and Weights.
+
+Devices by Means of Rolling Weights and Inclined Planes.
+
+Hydraulic and Hydro-Mechanical Devices.
+
+Pneumatic Siphon and Hydro-Pneumatic Devices.
+
+Magnetic Devices.
+
+Devices Utilizing Capillary Attraction and Physical Affinity.
+
+Liquid Air as a Means of Perpetual Motion.
+
+Radium and Radio-Active Substances Considered as a Conceived Source of
+Perpetual Motion.
+
+Perpetual Motion Devices Attempting Its Attainment by a Misconception
+of the Relation of Momentum and Energy.
+
+to which is added--
+
+  "A Discussion of the Alleged Inventions of the very eminent
+    Edward Sommerset, Sixth Earl and Second Marquis of Worcester,
+    and Jean Ernest Eli-Bessler Orffyreus.
+
+Also--
+
+  "A Discussion by the Author of the 'Doctrine of Conservation
+    of Energy, and Its Relation to the Possibility of Perpetual
+    Motion.'"
+
+And--
+
+  "A Discussion by the Author of 'Will Perpetual Motion Ever Be
+    Accomplished?'"
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+DEVICES BY MEANS OF WHEELS AND WEIGHTS
+
+
+Wilars de Honecort
+
+While attempts at Perpetual Motion are as old as the human race,
+not many of the more ancient devices have been preserved, either by
+engraving or by explanation.
+
+Among the very earliest of these attempts of which we have detailed
+information is the device of Wilars de Honecort. He was an architect,
+and lived in the thirteenth century. The information is preserved in "A
+Sketch Book" by him which was deposited and remains in the Ecole des
+Chartes at Paris. About the middle of the nineteenth century comments
+were published in France on this ancient device. Some of these were
+translated into English. The following account is an extract from a
+translation made by Professor Willis, of Cambridge.
+
+"_Many a time have skilful workmen tried to contrive a wheel that shall
+turn of itself: here is a way to make such a one, by means of an uneven
+number of mallets, or by quicksilver._"
+
+Wilars de Honecort presents to us a device for a perpetual motion;
+it is not clear whether he intends to claim the contrivance of it, or
+whether he had met with it in the course of his travels. It differs
+very little from a well-known contrivance for this purpose which has
+been so often published, and its fallacy so fully explained in popular
+books, that it is unnecessary to dwell at length upon the mechanical
+principles which it involves. It is extremely curious in this place,
+because it shows the great antiquity of the problem, the solution of
+which has wasted the time, the brains, and the means of many an unhappy
+artisan or philosopher.
+
+In the drawing we have now before us, the two upright posts, which are
+framed together and skilfully braced so as to ensure their steadiness,
+support between them a long horizontal axle, to the center of which
+is fixed a wheel with four spokes. The absence of perspective in this
+drawing makes the wheel appear as if it were parallel to the frame,
+instead of being, as it is, at right angles to it.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Seven mallets, or arms, each loaded with a heavy weight at the end, are
+jointed at equal distances to the circumference of the wheel, so that
+those which happen to have their joints below the diameter of the wheel
+will hang freely down, but if the wheel be turned round by hand or
+otherwise, the weights of those which are on the ascending side will,
+in succession, rest on its circumference, and will, in that position,
+be carried over the highest part of the wheel and downwards on the
+descending side, until the arms that bear them are brought into a
+vertical position and a little beyond it, and then the weight will fall
+suddenly over and rest on the opposite position on the circumference
+of the wheel, until its further descent enables it to dangle freely
+as before. The effect of this mechanism upon the position of the
+weights is not truly represented, for the upper mallet has fallen over
+too soon. In the modern form of this contrivance a pin, or stop, is
+introduced, by which the mallet, when it falls over, is compelled to
+rest so that its arm shall point to the center of the wheel, and thus
+the descending weight be held at a greater distance from the center
+than when ascending. It is extremely probable that this difference is a
+mere error of the artist, for the drawing has the appearance of having
+been made from a model of the wheel at rest; a condition in which, of
+course, it would always be found, unless moved by some external force.
+The inventor seems to have thought that the action above described
+would always place four weights on the descending side, and leave but
+three on the ascending side, each weight as it rises to the top being
+intended to leap suddenly over to the descending side, in the manner
+just explained; or perhaps, as M. Lassus suggests, the contriver
+imagined that the blows given to the wheel in succession by the falling
+mallets would help it forward. It is surprising that although the
+slightest model would show the failure of devices of this class to
+persons incapable of mathematical reasoning, yet such machines have
+been seriously proposed in books, and are continually recontrived by
+ingenious workmen. The allusion to quicksilver in the manuscript shows
+that Wilars was acquainted with the well-known contrivance described
+in the books already referred to, in which portions of that metal
+inclosed in channels are used instead of the falling weights.
+
+
+A Repetition of Wilars de Honecort's Plan
+
+This device was brought forth in 1831 in England, and illustrates what
+we say in the Introductory Essay to the effect of inventors working on
+the same plan in different parts of the earth and centuries apart.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+We are unable to give the inventor's name. He was a correspondent to
+Mechanics' Magazine, and the description furnished by the inventor as
+published in Mechanics' Magazine, is as follows:
+
+Description.--A A A is a ring of thin wood; B B B, several spokes,
+movable round the fixed points C C C, and only allowed to move one way
+by the construction of the openings D D D; E E E, heavy weights fixed
+to the ends of the spokes.
+
+From the position in which the wheel is at present, it is evident
+that the weights on the right-hand side (1 and 2) acting at a greater
+distance from the center than those (4 and 5) on the other side, will
+cause that side to descend until the spoke 1 reaches the position 3,
+when it will exert no moving influence, but by which time the weight 8
+will have fallen into the position 1, when a similar effect will take
+place, and so on with the rest.
+
+
+Leonardo da Vinci
+
+It is with a mingled feeling of sorrow and exaltation that we note the
+Perpetual Motion labors of the great Leonardo da Vinci. Of all of the
+men who ever gave the subject more than a passing notice he is the most
+famous.
+
+Leonardo da Vinci was an Italian, born in 1452, and died in 1519. He
+was the illegitimate son of Florentine, lawyer. His mother has been
+variously described as a peasant, and as of gentle birth. Little about
+her is known. The father belonged to a family of lawyers, and never
+repudiated the son, but took him, educated him, and cared for him. It
+is well for the world that he did, for Leonardo da Vinci has perhaps
+contributed more to art and learning in the world than any other single
+individual that ever lived. He was a painter, a sculptor, an architect,
+a musician, a mechanician, engineer and natural philosopher. Each
+subject in art or science that he touched he not only mastered, but
+improved and embellished. He painted the original of the well-known
+picture of the Christ and His twelve Apostles, known as the "Last
+Supper," or the "Last Supper of Our Lord." This, and Mona Lisa, are
+perhaps the paintings by which he is known to the greatest number of
+people, and are considered by many connoisseurs the highest perfection
+in art ever attained by mortal man.
+
+But, as painter and sculptor, he is to be regarded as among the
+greatest, if not the very greatest that ever lived. In art he ranks
+beside, if not ahead of Michelangelo and Raffael, and yet they are
+known only as artists, while he was preeminent in both art and science.
+The work he did in natural science was entirely original and emanated
+from an inherent initiative and originality, and as a scientist, he is
+entitled to rank below only Newton, Gallileo and Copernicus, and very
+few others. In all the history of the world he is the only man of whom
+it can be said that he attained the apex of eminence in both art and
+science.
+
+The information concerning Leonardo da Vinci's devices for obtaining
+Perpetual Motion is extremely meager. There does not seem to be extant
+any detailed explanation of just how he expected his different designs
+to work.
+
+All that is known concerning his efforts is sufficiently illustrated by
+the following cuts and language from Dircks:
+
+  Fig. 1 may be taken as a scheme belonging to the fifteenth
+  century. It seems to be placed at the head as a simple or
+  elementary design for future improvement. It is a chambered drum
+  wheel, containing balls or weights, which, being always farthest
+  from the center on one side, as compared to the other, are
+  expected to keep the wheel constantly rotating.
+
+  Fig. 2. Failing in this scheme, the inventor next offers one with
+  weighted levers, which are to fall outwards on one side, but to
+  fall inwards on the opposite side, the weight at the same time
+  sliding up the lever when vertical at the bottom, so as to be
+  nearer the center throughout on the ascending side. But how
+  the weight is to be made to ascend _at the bottom_ remains to be
+  shown.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Fig. 3. The difficulty of elevating the weight would appear to
+  have suggested its immersion in a trough of water, as here shown.
+  The weights seem to be attached to some contrivance to float them
+  _upwards_; but we are perplexed, and so no doubt was da Vinci,
+  how to sink them, or being sunk, how to render them again buoyant
+  by any self-motive process.
+
+  Fig. 4. It would appear as though the difficulties observable in
+  Fig. 3 were attempted to be met here, in a plan which evidently
+  combines several views of the case, yet without removing the main
+  difficulty; for although the weight at the end of the long arm
+  may be quite capable of sinking in the liquid, we still inquire,
+  How is it ever to be raised again?
+
+  Fig. 5 seems to be an incomplete sketch, and a mere variation
+  on the preceding designs, with the addition either of machinery
+  below to be worked by it, or to give it motion. Possibly it was
+  proposed to have a magnet at the bottom of the vessel.
+
+  Fig. 6 appears to be two designs in one sketch. On one side we
+  have long single levers, with a single weight at their ends, and
+  a weight between each at the periphery; on the other end, double
+  or forked levers and double weights. Its mixed character renders
+  it probable that it was merely some preliminary sketch.
+
+  The great value of the present exhibition of these early
+  contrivances of misdirected mechanical ingenuity consists in the
+  convincing evidence which they afford, that all young inventors
+  who occupy themselves in the search for self-motive machines,
+  do little more than reproduce the blunders of a past age.
+  After a lapse of five centuries modern inventors often become
+  patentees of contrivances which are only more complicated than
+  the assumed-to-be overweight wheel of Wilars de Honecort, or the
+  six similar ones of Leonardo da Vinci. But such has hitherto
+  been the ignorance of mechanics on this subject, that Fig. 1 of
+  the annexed diagrams has frequently been adduced by writers on
+  the subject, as the veritable wheel invented by the Marquis of
+  Worcester, in the seventeenth century!
+
+
+A. Capra's Device
+
+In 1678, A Capra, of Italy, revived the ancient, but still favorite
+scheme that dates back to the 13th century. (See page 22 ante.) He
+illustrates his idea with the following figure and the following
+comment:
+
+On the wheel A (of the facsimile engraving opposite), which
+must be hung well equipoised between two uprights, are appended
+counter-weights, eighteen in number, all precisely at the same
+distance from each other, and all exactly of the same weight. The
+counter-weights are provided with a small ring by which they are hung.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Whilst the counter-weights B are farther from the center C of the
+wheel, they weigh more than the counter-weights I, because these
+are low and nearer to the center C of the wheel, so that the
+counter-weights B descend and the weight I drops; and whilst the
+weight B is alternately descending and the weight I ascending, the
+wheel will revolve continually. But it must be understood that it is
+necessary to make the wheel perfectly true in equilibrium, so that
+it do not weigh more on one side than on the other on account of the
+counter-weights.
+
+
+The Device of Dixon Vallance. England, 1825
+
+This inventor was certain he had overtaken and captured the
+ever-illusive Perpetual Motion. He gives a description of his happiness
+and his machine in the following effusively joyous language:
+
+  The annexed drawing shows how I have at length taken this
+  enticing jilt (perpetual motion), though after a long and weary
+  chase--
+
+    Through pleasant and delightful fields,
+    Through barren tracts and lonely wilds;
+    'Mongst quagmires, mosses, muirs and marshes,
+    Where deil or spunkie never scarce is!
+    By chance I happened on her den,
+    And took her when she didna ken.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  W W W W represents a wheel with twelve hollow spokes, in each
+  of which there is a rolling weight or ball. C C C C is a chain
+  passing over two pulleys P P. There is an opening round the
+  wheel from the nave to the circumference, so as to allow the
+  chain to pass freely and to meet the weights. The weights are
+  met by the chain as the wheel revolves, and are raised from
+  the circumference till they are at last brought close to the
+  nave, where they remain till, by the revolution of the wheel,
+  they are allowed to roll out to the circumference. By this
+  arrangement the weights are, on one side of the wheel, always at
+  the circumference, so that that side is more powerful than the
+  other, which causes the wheel continually to revolve. F F F F
+  is the frame of the machine; M M M M the mortices for joining
+  the two sides of the frame by cross rails. The arrows point out
+  the direction in which the wheel turns.--I am, yours, &c., Dixon
+  Vallance. Liberton, Lanarkshire, Nov. 10, 1825.
+
+
+Furman's Device
+
+Strange as it may seem, the patent office of the U. S. government as
+late as 1884 and 1886, received and filed, seriously considered and
+granted Letters Patent on Perpetual Motion Devices as appears from the
+description of Furman's Device following, and from Schirrmeister's
+"Mechanical Movement," and Enbom & Anderson's "Improvement in Pumps,"
+appearing on pages 38 and 76 respectively, supra.
+
+These were not denominated Perpetual Motion Devices by the inventors,
+but the specifications show them to be simply that and nothing more.
+
+July 15, 1884, George H. Furman, of Rochester, Ohio, U. S. A., was
+granted U. S. Patent No. 301979, on
+
+    "A New and Improved Motor."
+
+The essentials are sufficiently shown by the following excerpt from
+the specifications and the following figure. We have omitted Figure 2,
+mentioned in the specifications:
+
+  UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE.
+
+  George H. Furman, of Rochester, Ohio.
+
+  MOTOR.
+
+    Specification forming part of Letters Patent
+    No. 301979, dated July 15, 1884.
+    Application filed March 6, 1884. (No model.)
+
+  The action of the motor is as follows: A suitable quantity of the
+  small weights _d_ being placed in the outer drum, F, through the
+  door _f_, the machine being at rest, they will accumulate at the
+  lower part of the drum F in the pockets _c´ c´_. Now, to run the
+  machine a person will apply his hands to the rim H and revolve
+  the outer drum, F, in the direction of the arrow shown in Fig.
+  1. This movement of the outer drum will cause the weights _d_ to
+  be carried in the pockets _c´ c´_ to the upper side of the drum,
+  at which point they will roll from the pockets _c´ c´_ into the
+  pockets _b b_ of the inner drum, G, where their weight will cause
+  the drum G and shaft E to revolve. _As the pockets_ b _of the
+  inner drum pass below the shaft E they empty the weights into the
+  troughs_ c´ _of the outer wheel, F, to be again carried above the
+  shaft and dropped into the pockets_ b, _so that the inner wheel,
+  G, and shaft E will be revolved continuously._
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+Schirrmeisters Mechanical Movement
+
+July 6, 1886, Charles Schirrmeister, of Brooklyn, Kings County, State
+of New York, U. S. A., obtained Letters Patent No. 345077, on a new and
+useful
+
+"Mechanical Movement."
+
+The essentials of the patented device appear from the following
+excerpts from the specifications, and the following figures
+accompanying the specifications. (Figs. 2, 3 and 4 we do not show.)
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The object of my invention is to furnish a cheap and simple
+  _means for imparting mechanical power_; and I accomplish this by
+  means of a series of radial arms placed at right angles to and
+  projecting from the axis of motion where power is first applied,
+  and so arranged that each arm is in a different vertical plane,
+  said arms being weighted at each end with a ball of metal. Some
+  of these arms are also made hollow and inclose sliding or rolling
+  weights, which move back and forth as the axis revolves, and the
+  motion is still further re-enforced by a series of springs which
+  are attached to the axis by a lever and eccentric.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Taking the simplest form of my device, I illustrate the same by
+  the accompanying drawings, in which--
+
+  Figure 1 is a side elevation of the entire apparatus. Fig. 2 is a
+  sectional view showing the hollow arm with a rolling weight. Fig.
+  3 is an end view showing the operation of a re-enforcing spiral
+  spring. Fig. 4 is a detailed view showing still further the
+  method of re-enforcing motion by springs. Fig. 5 is a view of the
+  driving-pulley with its hollow arms.
+
+  Similar letters refer to similar parts in the several views.
+
+  A is the axis to which the power first imparting motion is
+  applied.
+
+  N are the bearings supporting the same.
+
+  B is the driving-pulley attached to said axis, and from which
+  motion is imparted by means of the driving belt _b_ to any point
+  desired.
+
+  C are the hollow arms of the driving-pulley B.
+
+  D are the solid arms radiating from the axis A.
+
+  E are the hollow arms radiating from the axis A.
+
+  F are the solid balls or weights secured to the ends of the arms
+  D and E.
+
+  _a_ are the sliding or rolling weights, which are inclosed within
+  the hollow arms C and E.
+
+  _c_ are the slots cut into the hollow arms E, to relieve the
+  air-pressure formed by the backward and forward motion of the
+  weights _a_.
+
+  G are springs so arranged as to expend their force upon the axis
+  A by means of the connecting rods H, both attached to the springs
+  and one attached to the axis A by means of the eccentric I and
+  the other to the wheel J at one end of the axis.
+
+  K is a balanced lever, upon which the springs G may rest, said
+  lever being supported at each end upon the springs L.
+
+  M is a crank attached to one end of the axis A, and serves to
+  show the place and manner in which the power may be applied.
+
+  The manner of constructing and operating my invention is as
+  follows: The entire apparatus is made of steel or iron, and
+  the shaft, bearings, arms, springs and connecting-rods are of
+  ordinary form. The main or driving pulley is cast with four
+  hollow arms, in which round weights are inclosed, which move
+  back and forth within the arms when the wheel is set in motion.
+  The solid arms, as well as the hollow arms, which are used
+  in addition to those forming a part of the driving-pulley,
+  are arranged by means of set-screws a suitable distance apart
+  upon the axis and in different perpendicular planes, so as to
+  give steadiness in motion. A thread is cut upon each end of
+  these arms, and the fixed weights are then screwed on. When
+  the shaft or axis revolves, the weights which move toward the
+  ends of the arms above the center accelerate the motion, and
+  the momentum of the machine aids in overcoming the resistance
+  caused by the weights, which are below the center. At the same
+  time the revolution of the eccentric and crank-pin upon the
+  axis depresses the connecting-rods, which in turn depress the
+  springs, which, being released as soon as the eccentric and
+  crank-pin have reached their lowest point, contribute a lifting
+  power to overcome the resistance above mentioned. As shown in the
+  drawings, these springs joined to the connecting-rods may be
+  supported and assisted by other springs.
+
+  The power is applied by hand, operating upon a crank at the end
+  of the axis, or may be imparted by steam, hot air, electricity,
+  or in any other known method, and is conducted to any desired
+  point by means of the belt _b_.
+
+  Having fully described my invention, what I claim as new, and
+  desire to secure by Letters Patent, is:
+
+  1. The combination, in apparatus for increasing mechanical
+  power, of an axis, as A, supported upon bearings N, with a
+  driving-pulley, as B, having hollow arms, as C, with movable
+  weights, as _a_, and radial arms, both solid and hollow, the
+  latter having movable weights, together with fixed weights
+  attached to the end of each arm, all substantially as and for the
+  purpose described.
+
+
+Ferguson's Device
+
+James Ferguson was an eminent Scotch mechanician and astronomer. He
+was born in 1710, and died in 1776. He was reared in very humble
+circumstances, and is known as the Peasant Boy Philosopher. A most
+interesting story of his life was written by Henry Mayhew, and
+published in England in 1857, entitled "The Story of the Peasant Boy
+Philosopher."
+
+He prepared astronomical tables of great value and lectured on
+astronomical and mechanical subjects. His lectures were edited by a no
+less eminent man than Sir David Brewster.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+While Perpetual Motion seemed to have received considerable time and
+attention from him, and while his writings show that he examined
+a great many mechanical devices, he seems all the time to have
+entertained serious doubt of the possibility of a machine having
+self-motive power. However, in 1770, he devised a machine for the
+purpose of producing Perpetual Motion. It does not appear that he
+ever offered the machine to the public, or sought publicity for it.
+A description of it is to be found in his Common Place Book in the
+University Library, Edinburg. The description there furnished is as
+follows:
+
+  The axle at A is placed horizontally, and the spokes B, C, D,
+  etc., turn in a vertical position. They are jointed at _s_, _t_,
+  _u_, etc., as a common sector is, and to each of them is fixed a
+  frame as R, S, T, etc., in which the weights 7, 8, 9, 1, 2, etc.,
+  have liberty to move. When any spoke as D is in a horizontal
+  position, the weight I in it falls down and pulls the part _b_
+  of the then vertical spoke B straight out, by means of a cord
+  going over the pulleys K and k to the weight I. The spoke C _c_
+  was pulled straight out before, when it was vertical, by means
+  of the weight 2, belonging to the spoke E _e_ which is in the
+  horizontal position D _d_; and so of all the others on the right
+  hand. But when these spokes come about to the left hand, their
+  weights 4, 5, 6 fall back, and cease pulling the parts _f_, _g_,
+  _h_, _i_; so that the spokes then bend at their joints X, _y, z_,
+  and the balls at their ends come nearer the center A, all on the
+  left side. Now, as the balls or weights at the right hand side
+  are farther from the center A than they are on the left, it might
+  be supposed that this machine would turn round perpetually. I
+  have shown it to many who have declared it would; and yet for all
+  that, whoever makes it, will find it to be only a mere balance. I
+  leave them to find out the reason.
+
+
+B. Belidor's Device
+
+This device was incubated in the brain of an American. His name is
+unknown. We have denominated it "B. Belidor's Device," not because B.
+Belidor was the inventor, but because the account of the invention was
+furnished by him. This device seems to the author to have possessed
+originality, though, of course, it failed to work for reasons clearly
+apparent.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+An account of it was given in the Journal of Franklin's Institute,
+Philadelphia, in 1828. The article contributed by B. Belidor is as
+follows:
+
+  Even the pursuit after perpetual motion, hopeless as it is, may
+  not be considered entirely vain, in occasionally leading to
+  useful modifications of machinery. As an instance of this, I
+  here submit to you a plan suggested by an ingenious friend of
+  mine, several years ago, as in the diagrams annexed, Fig. 1, a
+  perpendicular, and Fig. 2 a horizontal view.
+
+  A A, two vertical wheels, placed diagonally, and revolving on the
+  axes X X. The levers B B and C C are hinged at the peripheries
+  of the wheels. By rotation the arms B B are projected from the
+  center of motion, while the arms C C are drawn in.
+
+  It is plain that a series of arms as shown in Fig. 2, will
+  produce an eccentric motion, causing the weights at their ends
+  apparently to preponderate on the side B.--BELIDOR.
+
+
+Desagulier's Proposition on the Balance
+
+This so-called problem is of doubtful classification. The author of
+the problem did not claim that the discovery of the problem discloses
+any means for attaining Perpetual Motion, and, yet, it is apparent
+that if the author of the problem was correct in his solution of it,
+Perpetual Motion was thereby already within his grasp. The difficulty
+about it all is that while the problem is quite interesting, the
+author's solution shows that he was not familiar with even fundamental
+mechanics. The name of the author was J. T. Desagulier, LL.D., F. R. S.
+He was a minister of the gospel, but evidently gave considerable
+attention to mechanical questions. He is mentioned in chapter X of this
+work.
+
+Rev. Desagulier presented two problems of the balance. One he calls "A
+Proposition on the Balance, not taken notice of by Mechanical Writers,
+explained and confirmed by an Experiment." The article under this
+heading is as follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  In the last papers I published in "Philosophical Transaction"
+  against this perpetual motion, described in No. 177, I intreated
+  the author to permit me to say nothing as to what alterations he
+  might make in his engine, resolving to leave it to others to show
+  him that upon that principle all he can do signifies nothing. But
+  I find since, in the "Nouvelles de la Republique" for December
+  last, that he still persists to urge some new contrivances,
+  which being added, he conceives his engine must succeed. To this
+  I answer, that I undertook only to shew that his first device
+  would faile, which yet I should scarce have done if I had thought
+  a dispute of this nature could have lasted so long. To come,
+  therefore, to the point where he saith that this engine may well
+  succeed without alteration, because he hath tryed with liquors
+  put into bellows immersed in water; I again say that I grant
+  him the truth of the experiments, but deny the consequences he
+  would draw from them. I have already given the reasons of my
+  dissent, which this gentleman is not pleased to understand. But
+  to end all controversies, he may please to consult Mr. Perrault,
+  De la Hire, or any other at Paris well known to be skilled in
+  hydraulicks, and I doubt not but he will find them of the same
+  opinion with Mr. Boyle, Mr. Hook, and other knowing persons here,
+  who all agree that our author is in this matter under a mistake.
+
+
+  A Proposition on the Balance, not taken notice of by Mechanical
+    Writers, explained and confirmed by an Experiment.
+
+A B is a balance, on which is supposed to hang at one end, B, the scale
+E, with a man in it, who is counterpoised by the weight W hanging at A,
+the other end of the balance. I say, that if such a man, with a cane
+or any rigid straight body, pushes upwards against the beam anywhere
+between the points C and B (provided he does not push directly against
+B), he will thereby make himself heavier, or overpoise the weight W,
+though the stop G G hinders the scale E from being thrust outwards from
+C towards G G. I say likewise, that if the scale and man should hang
+from D, the man, by pushing upwards against B, or anywhere between
+B and D (provided he does not push directly against D), will make
+himself lighter, or be overpoised by the weight W, which before did
+only counterpoise the weight of his body and the scale.
+
+If the common center of gravity of the scale E, and the man supposed
+to stand in it, be at _k_, and the man, by thrusting against any part
+of the beam, cause the scale to move outwards so as to carry the said
+common center of gravity to _k_ _x_, then, instead of B E, L _l_ will
+become the line of direction of the compound weight, whose action
+will be increased in the ratio of L C to B C. This is what has been
+explained by several writers of mechanics; but no one, that I know of,
+has considered the case when the scale is kept from flying out, as here
+by the post G G, which keeps it in its place, as if the strings of the
+scale were become inflexible. Now, to explain this case, let us suppose
+the length B D of half of the brachium B C to be equal to 3 feet, the
+line B E to 4 feet, the line E D of 5 feet to be the direction in which
+the man pushes, D F and F E to be respectively equal and parallel to
+B E and B D, and the whole or absolute force with which the man pushes
+equal to (or able to rise) 10 stone. Let the oblique force E D (= 10
+stone) be resolved into the two E F and E B (or its equal F D) whose
+directions are at right angles to each other, and whose respective
+quantities (or intensities) are as 6 and 8, because E F and B E are in
+that proportion to each other and to E D. Now, since E F is parallel
+to B D C A, the beam, it does no way affect the beam to move it
+upwards; and therefore there is only the force represented by F D,
+or 8 stone, to push the beam upwards at D. For the same reason, and
+because action and reaction are equal, the scale will be pushed down
+at E with the force of 8 stone also. Now, since the force at E pulls
+the beam perpendicularly downwards from the point B, distant from C
+the whole length of the brachium B C, its action downwards will not be
+diminished, but may be expressed by 8 × BC; whereas the action upwards
+against D will be half lost, by reason of the diminished distance
+from the center, and is only to be expressed by 8 × B C/2; and when
+the action upwards to raise the beam is subtracted from the action
+downwards to depress it, there will still remain 4 stone to push down
+the scale; because 8 × B C - 8 × B C/2 = 4BC. Consequently, a weight
+of 4 stone must be added at the end A to restore the æquilibrium.
+Therefore a man, &c., pushing upwards under the beam between B and D,
+becomes heavier. Q. E. D.
+
+On the contrary, if the scale should hang at F, from the point D, only
+3 feet from the center of motion C, and a post G G hinders the scale
+from being pushed inwards towards C, then, if a man in this scale F
+pushes obliquely against B with the oblique force above mentioned, the
+whole force, for the reasons before given (in resolving the oblique
+force into two others acting in lines perpendicular to each other)
+will be reduced to 8 stone, which pushes the beam directly upwards at
+B, while the same force of 8 stone draws it directly down at D towards
+F. But as C D is only equal to half of C B, the force at D, compared
+with that at B, loses half its action, and therefore can only take off
+the force of 4 stone from the push upwards at B; and consequently the
+weight W at A will preponderate, unless an additional weight of 4 stone
+be hanged at B. Therefore, a man, &c., pushing upwards under the beam
+between B and D, becomes lighter.
+
+The other problem presented by Rev. Desagulier is denominated by him
+"An Experiment explaining a Mechanical Paradox, that two bodies of
+equal weight suspended on a certain sort of balance do not lose their
+equilibrium by being removed, one farther from, the other nearer to,
+the center."
+
+The article concerning this problem is as follows:
+
+  If the two weights P W hangs at the ends of the balance A B,
+  whose center of motion is C, those weights will act against each
+  other (because their directions are contrary) with forces made
+  up of the quantity of matter in each multiplied by its velocity;
+  that is, by the velocity which the motion of the balance turning
+  about C will give to the body suspended. Now, the velocity of
+  a heavy body is its perpendicular ascent or descent, as will
+  appear by moving the balance into the position _a b_, which
+  shews the velocity of P to be the perpendicular line _e a_, and
+  the velocity of B will be the perpendicular line _b g_; for if
+  the weights P and W are equal, and also the lines _e a_ and
+  _b g_, their momenta, made up of _e a_ multiplied into W, and
+  _b g_ multiplied into P, will be equal, as will appear by their
+  destroying one another in making an equilibrium. But if the body
+  W was removed to M, and suspended at the point D, then, its
+  velocity being only _f d_, it would be overbalanced by the body
+  P, because _f d_ multiplied into M would produce a less momentum
+  than P multiplied into _b g_.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  As the arcs A _a_, B _b_, and D _d_, described by the ends of
+  the balance or points of suspension, are proportionable to their
+  sines _e a_, _g b_, and _d f_, as also the radii or distances
+  C A, C B, and C D; in the case of this common sort of balance,
+  the arcs described by the weights, or their points of suspension,
+  or the distances from the center, may be taken for velocities of
+  the weights hanging at A, B, or D, and, therefore, the acting
+  force of the weights will be reciprocally as their distances from
+  the center.
+
+  Scholium.--The distances from the center are taken here for the
+  velocities of the bodies, only because they are proportionable to
+  the lines _e a_, _b g_, and _f d_, which are the true velocities;
+  for there are a great many cases wherein the velocities are
+  neither proportionable to the distances from the center of
+  motion of a machine, nor to the arcs described by the weights or
+  their points of suspension. Therefore, it is not a general rule
+  that weights act in proportion to their distances from the center
+  of motion; but a corollary of the general rule that weights act
+  in proportion to their velocities, which is only true in some
+  cases. Therefore, we must not take this case as a principle,
+  which most workmen do, and all those people who make attempts
+  to find the perpetual motion, as I have more amply shewn in the
+  Phil. Trans., No. 369.
+
+  But to make this evident even in the balance, we need only take
+  notice of the following experiment:--A C B E K D is a balance in
+  the form of a parallelogram passing through a slit in the upright
+  piece N O standing on the pedestal M, so as to be moveable upon
+  the center pins C and K. To the upright pieces A D and B E of
+  this balance are fixed at right angles the horizontal pieces
+  F G and H I. That the equal weights P W must keep each other
+  in æquilibrio, is evident; but it does not at first appear so
+  plainly, that if W be removed to V, being suspended at 6, yet it
+  shall still keep P in æquilibrio, though the experiment shews it.
+  Nay, if W be successively moved to any of the points 1, 2, 3, E,
+  4, 5, or 6, the æquilibrium will be continued; or if, W hanging
+  at any of those points, P be successively moved to D, or any of
+  the points of suspension on the cross-piece F G, P will at any of
+  those places make an æquilibrium with W. Now, when the weights
+  are at P and V, if the least weight that is capable to overcome
+  the friction at the points of suspension C and K be added to V,
+  as u, the weight V will overpower, and that as much at V as if it
+  was at W.
+
+  From what we have said above, the reason of this experiment will
+  be very plain.
+
+  As the lines A C and K D, C B and K E, always continue of the
+  same length in any position of the machine, the pieces A D
+  and B E will always continue parallel to one another, and
+  perpendicular to the horizon. However, the whole machine turns
+  upon the points C and K, as appears by bringing the balance to
+  any other position, as _a b e d_; and therefore, as the weights
+  applied to any part of the pieces F G and H I can only bring
+  down the pieces A D and B E perpendicularly, in the same manner
+  as if they were applied to the hooks D and E, or to X and Y, the
+  centers of gravity of A D and B E, the force of the weights (if
+  their quantity of matter is equal) will be equal, because their
+  velocities will be their perpendicular ascent or descent, which
+  will always be as the equal lines 4 _l_ and 4 L, whatever part
+  of the pieces F G and H I the weights are applied to. But if to
+  the weight at V be added the little weight _u_, those two weights
+  will overpower, because in this case the momentum is made up of
+  the sum of V and _u_ multiplied by the common velocity 4 L.
+
+  Hence follows, that it is not the distance C 6 multiplied into
+  the weight V which makes its momentum, but its perpendicular
+  velocity L 4 multiplied into its mass. Q. E. D.
+
+  This is still further evident by taking out the pin at K; for
+  then the weight P will overbalance the other weight at V, because
+  then their perpendicular ascent and descent will not be equal.
+
+The Rev. Dr. Desagulier was evidently a man of scientific turn and
+capacity. It is unusual to find ministers deeply interested in
+scientific matters, and yet, he seems to have been. The net result of
+his experiments can be succinctly stated as follows:
+
+In the first problem there is _no change in the distance of the center
+of gravity from the support_, and, therefore, there could be no
+disturbance of the equilibrium.
+
+In the second problem there _is a change in the distance in the center
+of gravity from the support_, and there must have been a disturbance of
+the equilibrium.
+
+
+John Haywood's Device
+
+In 1790, John Haywood, of Long Acre, Middlesex, draftsman and mechanic,
+obtained British patent on:
+
+  "A machine for working mills and engines without the aid of fire,
+  water, or wind, or in aid of all or any of those or any other
+  powers."
+
+  The specification describes the device as follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  "The machine acts on a rotative principle, or, in other words,
+  has a revolving circular or circulating motion round an axis,
+  center, or centers. It may be made or constructed of any
+  materials or matter whatsoever, so it be of sufficient strength
+  to sustain the power of action when applied to any mill, engine,
+  or machine to which action or motion can or may be communicated
+  by a wheel. The size or dimensions of this machine are by no
+  means confined, but may be varied or altered as circumstances may
+  require.
+
+  "References to the drawings of the machine hereunto
+  annexed:--Fig. 1 is the section of the machine. A, A, B, a
+  cranked or double center, fixed to the stand or frame D by the
+  bolts E. C, C, the wheel which turns or revolves round that part
+  of the cranked center mark A. F, levers which turn or revolve
+  round the cranked center B. G, G, rollers or weights which
+  revolve in the circular guides or grooves by means of the leavers
+  F. H, H, circular grooves or guides which are affixed to the
+  inner sides of the wheel. N. B.--the distance from A to B is the
+  radius in all cases to determine the space between the center
+  of the guide or groove H and the center of the roller or weight
+  G. The distance of the two concentric circles which form the
+  guides or grooves H must be equal to the diameter of the roller
+  or weight G. I, I, springs which stop the rollers or weights G
+  from returning when at the horizontal diameter of the wheel. K,
+  weights, which may be increased or diminished at pleasure. L,
+  ledges which connect the sides of the wheel together. N. B.--By
+  fixing cogs or teeth on the rim of the wheel, so as to connect it
+  with any mill, machine, or engine to which motion can be given by
+  a wheel, the power of this machine may be communicated."
+
+
+Explanation of the Failure of the Preceding Wheels and Weights Devices
+
+It must not be presumed that the preceding devices shown in this
+chapter constitute any considerable part of the Wheels and Weights
+Devices that have been constructed through the hope of attaining
+Perpetual Motion. Of all the means whereby Perpetual Motion has been
+sought wheels and weights have been by far the most prolific. There is
+scarcely a village or a rural community in the civilized world that
+cannot point out its Perpetual Motion worker, and he generally starts
+with wheels and weights, though often, after long labor and final
+failure with wheels and weights, he still exploits other attractive
+fields of hopeless endeavor. Of the devices of that kind, accounts of
+which have appeared in scientific journals, or application for patents
+upon which have been made, and, indeed, patents often granted, it would
+be possible to write a book of thousands of pages, but to do so would
+be to no purpose.
+
+It is believed by the author that the preceding devices are sufficient
+to illustrate, and show the controlling features of all the various
+mechanical contrivances for the utilization of wheels and weights as
+a means of Self-Motive Power. Countless others could be shown of more
+or less complicated mechanism, but an examination would disclose the
+fact that each gets back to some combination of parts well illustrated
+in the preceding. Also, in endeavoring to express why all wheels and
+weights devices have failed to work, each essential point of weakness
+is disclosed in the preceding. Now, why have they failed to work, and
+wherein are they inherently wrong and unscientific?
+
+A cursory examination of the preceding devices shows that each depends
+ultimately on the supposition:
+
+1. That a descending weight elevates an equal weight through a distance
+equal to the descent, and at the same time overcomes the frictional
+resistance of mechanism, both ascent and descent being measured on
+perpendicular lines, or
+
+2. That weights affixed to an axis and caused to have a longer leverage
+on the descending side than on the ascending side, and consequently the
+downward pull on the long lever side is supposed to be greater than the
+downward pull or resistance on the short lever side of the axis.
+
+If the fallacy of these supposed principles is explained and fully
+understood, it disposes, and disposes effectually, of the possibility
+of obtaining Perpetual Motion by means of wheels, weights and the force
+of gravity.
+
+It should be remembered that a wheel is a lever, or rather it is a
+continuous series of levers--nothing more--nothing less.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+We first refer to the figure shown in A. Capra's device, page 33
+ante. The left side of this wheel is, of course, supposed to be the
+descending side on which the weights are farthest from the center
+of the wheel. It is apparent that only five weights are having any
+leverage advantage whatever, while a much greater number are being made
+to ascend. The advantage which a few of the weights have by virtue of
+the leverage pulling downward is always exactly counterbalanced by an
+_increased number_ of weights being drawn upward. It should be borne in
+mind that the direction of the force of gravity is toward the center
+of the earth, and not in the direction of the motion of the wheel,
+except at the extreme left side of the wheel.
+
+Again, consider the figure appearing on page 63. It is manifest that
+the weights on the right hand are further out, and have a leverage
+advantage of the weights on the left hand side, but it is also manifest
+that there is, and always must be, a greater _number_ of weights on the
+left hand side. The _greater leverage_ of the weights on one side is
+exactly balanced by the greater number of weights on the other side.
+
+For a further illustration, take the figure shown on sheet 65, ante.
+The weight "1" has a distinct advantage over weight "5." Weight "2"
+has a distinct advantage over weight "6." But here we have only three
+weights: 1, 2 and 8, tending to pull the wheel from left to right,
+whereas there are five weights, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, tending to prevent
+its going to the right.
+
+In other words, if weights 1, 2 and 8 were removed, it is clear that
+the wheel would turn back to the left by reason of the action of the
+weights 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Here again the _leverage advantage_ which
+weights have descending is counterbalanced by the _increased number of
+weights_ on the opposite side acted on by the force of gravity, tending
+to prevent the descent of those having the greater leverage.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+All the simpler devices failed, of course, to work. The more
+complicated devices are simply efforts to overcome the elementary
+principles that prevented the simpler devices from working. Among
+these that of Dixon Vallance (see page 34, ante), is best adapted
+to illustrate the folly and the fallacy of these various devices to
+overcome elementary principles.
+
+We here refer to the figure appearing on page 35, ante, shown in
+connection with Dixon Vallance's Device. The obvious purpose was to
+keep all the weights close to the hub, except those depended upon to
+produce continuous motion by their greater leverage.
+
+To the untrained and untechnical person it would perhaps not be
+manifest at first just why the Vallance machine failed to work. Here is
+its failure: Weight "c" must be raised toward the hub of the wheel. To
+raise that weight requires the application of force. That force must be
+supplied. The belt "cc" would work more freely if it were not elevating
+a weight, and the force required from "w" to turn the wheel so as to
+elevate the weight at "c" is counterbalanced by the resistance the
+weight "c" offers to being raised, and consequently to the motion of
+the belt and in turn to the progress of the wheel.
+
+It should always be remembered that, omitting friction, the energy
+exerted by a descending body is the _perpendicular distance_ of its
+descent multiplied by its weight. For, notwithstanding what its course
+may be from an elevated point to a lower point the energy accumulated
+in the descent is still the product of the perpendicular distance and
+the mass, or weight.
+
+In all of these devices it is apparent that every weight is brought
+back by some force from the lowest point it reaches to the same
+elevation from which it started to descend. It is axiomatic, therefore,
+that the perpendicular ascent is equal to the perpendicular descent.
+The ascending weight and the descending weight are, of course, the
+same. Therefore, the product of the weight and the perpendicular
+distance of _ascent_ is exactly equal to the product of the weight
+and the perpendicular distance of _descent_. Hence, there is an exact
+balancing of energies, and no motion results. Any motion imparted by
+wind, water or steam will, if the moving force be withdrawn, soon be
+overcome by unavoidable friction, and a state of rest follows. There
+can be no doubt that any attempt to attain Self-Motive Power by means
+of wheels, weights, levers, and the force of gravity must result in
+failure. The thing itself is physically impossible.
+
+In addition to what is above stated, read carefully Chapter XI, on
+Conservation of Energy; also read Chapter XIV, entitled "The Seeming
+Probability of Effecting a Continual Motion by Solid Weights in a
+Hollow Wheel or Sphere" at page 290 of this book.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+DEVICES BY MEANS OF ROLLING WEIGHTS AND INCLINED PLANES
+
+
+Device by Mercury in Inclined Glass Tube and Heavy Ball on Inclined
+Plane
+
+Neither the inventor's name nor his nativity can we give. An account of
+the invention was furnished by a correspondent to Mechanics' Magazine
+in 1829. The account is as follows:
+
+  To the curious who delight in mechanical intricacies, to whom
+  ingenuity of contrivance is the goal for which they run, nothing
+  seems to afford and require such endless resources as that
+  most puzzling thing--perpetual motion. The unfortunate name
+  "perpetual motion," if changed for "mechanical experiment," would
+  eventually, perhaps, remove the real cause of censuring it, by
+  the different idea of the object aimed at.
+
+  I now beg leave to offer some account of a combination of
+  movements, which, from its originality, and seeming to possess
+  every requisite for retaining it in action, may possibly be
+  acceptable.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  This diagram shows a side view. On the stand A are raised two
+  supports B, each having a center hole at _a_, to receive the
+  axle of the balanced apparatus, consisting of C, a glass tube
+  containing a portion of mercury G; and D, a grooved scaleboard,
+  in which a ball, E, can roll backwards and forwards. F F are two
+  jointed levers, which are to serve, when struck by the ball, to
+  reverse the position of the compound balance: the whole centred
+  at _a_, the tube at _b_, and the grooved board at _c_. In its
+  present position, the mercury (it is supposed), having flowed to
+  the end C, will depress D, and cause the ball E to roll to D, and
+  depress the end G F D; and so on continually.
+
+
+Series of Inclined Planes
+
+This scheme is of English origin, and was promulgated in 1864. The
+name of the inventor is unknown, but he described his invention in a
+communication to a scientific publication in the following language:
+
+  The accompanying diagram represents a series of inclined
+  semi-tubes connected together in the form of a rectangle.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The ball A, is placed at the top of an incline in such a
+  position that it shall descend to B, at which point it will have
+  sufficient velocity or gravity to carry it up the ascent to C;
+  and so supposing the inclines and ascents to be endless, the
+  repetition of the movement must be also endless. I think it is
+  not unreasonable to suppose that a perpetual movement of the
+  ball will take place, from the fact that the velocity imparted
+  to it by its _first_ descent is sufficient to carry it from A to
+  C, _those two points being at the same level_. I think the only
+  thing to guard against is the ball rushing over the point C,
+  and thus accelerating the velocity at each descent. The incline
+  on road upon which the ball runs can be made either circular,
+  square, octagonal, or, in fact, almost of any form.
+
+
+Device by Oscillating Trough and Cannon Balls
+
+(Name of inventor unknown)
+
+An adaptation from a "Perpetual Pump" substituting cannon-balls for
+water.
+
+An account of this invention was published in London in 1825, in the
+language of the inventor, who says:
+
+  The description of the perpetual pump has suggested to me
+  whether the long-sought "perpetual motion" may not be found by a
+  simple mechanical alteration of that machine, and substituting
+  a cannon-ball as a _primum mobile_, in lieu of the water, not
+  always obtainable. I would recommend that in the bottom of
+  the trough be inserted at each end two dropping-boards, of a
+  triangular form, moving on an axis at one corner, one of which
+  falling below the level of the trough at the elevated end, the
+  other shall be raised by the stop affixed to the standard-post,
+  which, throwing the ball again back to the former end, shall
+  depress that, until the same process is repeated in perpetual
+  activity.
+
+  DESCRIPTION.--Fig. 1. A, the trough, swinging on an axis at B. C,
+  the cannon-ball, raised by one of the dropping-boards, D, whilst
+  the other falls through the opening at E, into the trough. F, the
+  support or stop, raising the dropping-board D. The center of the
+  trough ought to be pierced, leaving the sides as a support to the
+  ball, which ought not to be wider than the ball may travel freely
+  through.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Fig. 2. D D, the dropping-boards, which pass through the center
+  so as to leave a sufficiency of the trough as a resting place for
+  the ball to give a momentum, and depress the trough, previously
+  to its being again raised by the dropping-board.
+
+We meekly venture to call the attention of this inventor, if he is
+still living, and to any others who may be working along the same
+line, that to our certain knowledge water is more generally obtainable
+than cannon-balls. We, therefore, suggest the use of water instead of
+cannon-balls.
+
+
+Unpublished Incline Plane and Weights Devices Noted by the Author
+
+Except the preceding three devices the author does not remember ever
+to have seen reported in any book, patent, application for patent,
+or report, the account of a device for obtaining self-motive power
+by means of weights and inclined planes, and yet, it is believed by
+the author from the use that has been made of inclined planes and
+rolling weights in demonstrating mechanical principles by many natural
+philosophers, and also from devices that have from time to time been
+brought to the attention of the author during thirty years last past,
+that the inclined plane with rolling weights has been a fertile field
+of folly among Perpetual Motion seekers.
+
+On a number of occasions the author has been asked to view and inspect
+mechanical devices of that kind, which it was claimed by the confident
+inventor and his friends "would surely work when just one little thing
+could be overcome." The phraseology was sometimes varied a little from
+the preceding quotation, but the substance was always there.
+
+In one instance the device attracted the enthusiastic attention
+and elicited breathless interest from a doctor and surgeon of much
+more than ordinary skill and intelligence in his profession, and
+was hopefully regarded by a number of other persons who had had
+schooling advantages and were supposed to be versed in the rudiments of
+mechanics, and, it would seem to the author, ought at first sight to
+have perceived the fallacy and hopelessness of the inventor's dreams.
+
+All of these claimed inventions relying on the inclined plane with
+rolling weights were so nearly alike in the principle involved that all
+may be illustrated by the following explanation:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The above figure shows a vertical section of a device that illustrates
+the controlling principle in all of these devices. It is manifest that
+the balls between A and C are hanging equally between A D and C D, the
+points of suspension A and C being in a horizontal line. It is also
+manifest that there will be a greater number of balls on the sloping
+incline A B than on the sloping incline B C. The Perpetual Motion
+seeker has always argued to himself that the _four_ balls between A and
+B should pull stronger to the left at B than the _two_ balls between
+B and C can pull. Sometimes this device has been varied whereby the
+balls would roll freely down the incline from B to A and then roll back
+toward C down another incline where they would be supposed to strike a
+lever and impel a ball from C to B, which ball would then roll down the
+incline B A, and so on indefinitely.
+
+The error of all this lies in the fact that the four balls between B
+and A will not elevate the two balls between B and C for the reason
+that they are on a less inclined slope. As we would ordinarily state
+it, B C is a "steeper" incline. One ball between B and C by force of
+gravity pulls stronger toward C than one ball on B A will pull toward
+A. It is manifest, therefore, that an equilibrium requires a greater
+number of balls on B A than B C.
+
+B A is longer and accommodates a greater number of balls than can be
+accommodated on B C. The number of balls that can be accommodated
+on the respective sides is always found to be such that the small
+number of balls between B C pull in the aggregate toward C the same as
+the greater number of balls between B and A pull toward A, and thus
+equilibrium is established.
+
+It is manifest, therefore, that with the pull from B toward C equal to
+the pull from B toward A, the mechanism finds its balance and motion
+ceases. This is true of all similar devices.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HYDRAULIC AND HYDRO-MECHANICAL DEVICES
+
+
+Enbom & Anderson's Pump
+
+"June 13, 1882 U. S. Patent, No. 259514 was granted to Andro Enbom and
+John A. Anderson, of Augusta, Kansas, U. S. A., on
+
+"Improvements in Pumps."
+
+It seems probable that the inventors did not suspect, and that the
+patent office examiners did not discover that the device had in
+the claimed "Improvement" the essentials of self-motive power. An
+examination of the specifications clearly shows, however, that the
+claim of the inventors that "the water lifted by the pump is caused in
+its passage over the wheel A² to give power to the same and thus lessen
+the labor required," presupposes the principle of self-motive power.
+The following figure taken from the specifications and the following
+excerpt from the specifications illustrate the intended operation:
+
+The operation is substantially as follows: By the application of power
+to the crank a revolution is given to the main shaft A, and by means
+of this the pump-handle is properly actuated through the intermediate
+mechanism described. The water lifted by the pump is discharged
+through the spout _e´_ to the buckets of the wheel _a_², and by these
+is delivered to the trough F. By means of the construction described
+the water lifted by the pump is caused, in its passage over the wheel
+_a_², to give power to the same, and thus lessen the labor required to
+produce a given result.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+We suggest to the inventors that if instead of elevating the water to
+the place of discharge E´ they discharge it at the level of the trough
+"F" they will lessen the distance of elevation and will save many times
+the energy that can be realized by the descent of the water from the
+level of E´ to the level of "F."
+
+
+Device of "Ed. Vocis Rationis"
+
+In 1831 Mechanics' Magazine printed an article contributed by a
+correspondent who signed himself "Ed. Vocis Rationis." He claimed to
+have invented a very powerful Perpetual Motion Machine.
+
+His enthusiasm is as interesting as his device is absurd. We give the
+article as published in full:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  I propose to endeavor to show how my plan of perpetual motion
+  could be applied to practical and useful purposes. With a
+  view to this, I give the prefixed sketch, with the following
+  description of its construction and use: Let A represent the
+  side-wall or gable-end of a house, from 40 to 50 feet in
+  elevation; B, a cistern, filled with water, having an orifice
+  near its bottom, and another open at the top, for the ready
+  escape of waste water, as before; C, a reservoir, so far filled
+  with water as not to come in contact with the bottom of the
+  water-wheel D, which, being an undershot wheel, may, of course,
+  be of such radius as is suitable for the power required to raise
+  the water. Let E be another cistern, filled with water, equal
+  to and provided with orifices as in cistern B, both orifices
+  together discharging water faster than it escapes from the
+  lower orifice of the cistern B; F, two (or more, as the case
+  may require) pumps, or expressing-fountains, supported against
+  the walls by ties _d d_, and having their cylinders inserted in
+  the reservoir C, and their lower suckers fixed at a little less
+  than 32 feet above the surface of the fluid in the reservoir
+  C. These expressing-fountains discharging their water into
+  the cistern E a trifle faster than it escapes from its lower
+  orifice, at an elevation of at least 33 or 34 feet above the
+  surface of the water in the reservoir C, will afford space for
+  water-wheels, supported against the wall by the upright K, say
+  three water-wheels, G H I, of at least eight feet in diameter
+  each, or two only of greater diameter. The upper wheel G being an
+  undershot one, if not of greater radius than four feet, which it
+  might be, may have its axle fixed at an altitude of at least 30
+  feet, and allowing the space of a foot between each water-wheel
+  for the troughs a and b, which collect and convey the water from
+  wheel to wheel, will give a space of 22 feet, occupied by the
+  three water-wheels, leaving 10 feet for the descent of the water
+  by the trough _c_ to the cistern B (which may be four or five
+  feet in depth), and thence to the reservoir C, which may be three
+  or four feet in depth; also the cistern E may be four or five
+  feet in depth, and all of other corresponding dimensions _ad
+  libitum_. To produce the motion, remove the plugs or stoppers
+  from the lower orifices of the cisterns E and B; the water
+  rushing from the latter turns the great water-wheel D, which
+  works the expressing-fountains into the upper cistern E; from the
+  orifices of which, the water escaping turns the undershot wheel
+  G (which may be of larger diameter, if required); whence being
+  collected by the spout _a_, it shoots over and turns the wheel H;
+  being collected by the spout _b_, it turns the overshot wheel I;
+  whence being collected by the spout _c_, it is conveyed into the
+  cistern B, from thence to the water wheel D, and, finally, into
+  the reservoir C, from which it is raised again by the fountains
+  into the upper cistern E; and so on as long as you please, or
+  as long as the whole keeps in repair and in good order. The
+  apparatus may, with facility, be stopped for convenience at any
+  time without fear of derangement, because the fountains carrying
+  water faster than it escapes from the lower orifices, the
+  cisterns will be always full; and it may be again set in motion
+  with equal facility. With the above proviso, it cannot stop till
+  the prevailing natural causes which gave it motion--viz., the
+  pressure of the atmosphere and the descent of water, which in
+  their nature and tendency are of themselves perpetual--shall be
+  diverted. Thus you may have the power, free and disposable, of
+  three water-wheels in perpetual motion, to be applied to such
+  useful purposes of machinery within the building as its inmates
+  may require. A supply of water-mills might be thus provided in
+  any situation--in the center of the metropolis or other large
+  towns--in places subject to a deficiency of rivulets suitable for
+  mills on the common system. Neither would there be any necessity
+  for resorting to rivers, or raising immense buildings upon their
+  banks; wherever there was a convenient house, it might be readily
+  appropriated with little further expense than machinery.
+
+      Yours, etc.,
+      ED. "VOCIS RATIONIS."
+
+    Jan. 10, 1831.
+
+
+Böckler's Plates
+
+In 1662 George Andrew Böckler published a work on mechanics. The work
+is replete with fine drawings. Not a great deal of space is devoted
+to Perpetual Motion devices, but the following three plates which are
+numbered 150, 151 and 152 in his work are shown as Perpetual Motion
+devices.
+
+These devices do not appear to have been the inventions of Böckler
+himself, but are devices noticed by him. They are not explained with
+any considerable detail.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Figure 150 is "A Water Screw," and it is stated that the inventor
+intends it for a Perpetual Motion device, and it is further stated that
+he has scarcely worked out his purpose. The author states that the
+excellence consists in the proportion and distribution of the wheel,
+balls and weights, and says further that he does not describe it in
+detail, and that it is his intention to publish at a future time a
+separate treatise on Perpetual Motion in which this and other similar
+machines will be considered.
+
+He gives the first as Fig. 150, "A Water Screw," the purpose of which
+is not quite so obvious as to be understood at the first view of the
+figure; for the inventor intimates that he intends it for a perpetuum
+mobile. He has, however, scarcely worked out his purpose, as we may,
+nevertheless, say without any prejudice to the inventor. Nor will
+we here describe how the excellence of this work consists in the
+proportion and distribution of the wheel, and the balls or weights,
+because it is our intention to publish, at a future time, a separate
+treatise on the perpetuum mobile, in which we shall consider this and
+several similar machines.
+
+Figure 151 is "A Water Screw," having a grindstone for cutlery. The
+author remarks concerning this machine as follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  This machine also is intended for a perpetuum mobile. The
+  inventor discharges water from the reservoir A, by the canal B,
+  on the water-wheel C, which turns the open screw-cylinder D, by
+  means of the toothed wheel E, the cog-wheel F, the spoked wheel
+  G, together with the cylinder H, and the spoked wheel I, whilst
+  this spoked wheel I, catching the small cog-wheel L, together
+  with the cylinder M, and the handle R, turns the small spoked
+  wheel of the screw-cylinder H, and the screw-cylinder itself,
+  and thus draws up again the water discharged from the reservoir
+  A through the spiral screw Q. In order to render this machine
+  useful, a couple of grindstones are placed on the cylinder D.
+  Concerning this machine, it is particularly to be considered,
+  whether a sufficient amount of water can be raised again, as has
+  been frequently remarked before about similar works.
+
+Figure 152 is said to represent "A Double Water Screw, with Double
+Pump," and the author observes:
+
+  This machine is, on the whole, similar to the preceding ones.
+  The water is discharged from the round or square reservoir A,
+  by B, on the water-wheel C. A continual supply of water for the
+  water-wheel is provided as follows: The crown wheel H is fixed
+  on the upright cylinder M, and is turned by the revolutions of
+  the cylinder, whilst it turns at the same time the upper wheel L,
+  which, acting on the spokes of the double screw K, K, draws up
+  sufficient water by I, I, and then, as stated, discharges it by
+  B, on the wheel C.
+
+  The machine may be rendered useful by furnishing the cylinder D
+  with the double crank E, to drive the two pistons of the tubes
+  F, F, which lift the water through the pipes G, G, into the
+  reservoir N, whence it may be carried off for service.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+John Linley's Hydraulic Device. 1831
+
+An account of this was published in 1831 in Mechanics' Magazine, and is
+as follows:
+
+  32. Perpetual Water-wheels and Pumps (vol. 14, 1831).--A
+  correspondent gives a description of a plan which he says he
+  believes to be entirely original, and not without considerable
+  claims to plausibility, thus:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Let _a b c d_ represent a wooden cistern, or trough, half filled
+  with water; E F G, three overshot water-wheels, supported by the
+  upright piece; K is another cistern, or trough, filled with water
+  up to the dotted lines; P is a syphon to convey water from the
+  lower to the upper cistern K; R is a beam supported from the
+  cistern; S T U are moveable cranks attached to the horizontal
+  shafts through the center of the water-wheels--each crank has a
+  connecting-rod to the beam R; V W are two curved spouts to convey
+  water from one wheel to another. It may be well here to premise
+  that each water-wheel has a pump and beam, as only one is seen in
+  the section.
+
+  Now, in order to put the machine in motion, it is only necessary
+  to draw a portion of water from the syphon over the wheel E,
+  which immediately revolves, consequently the pump L M draws water
+  from the lower to the upper cistern K. Now, the water passing
+  over the wheel E is collected by means of the curved spout V,
+  and is conveyed upon the middle wheel F, which also gives motion
+  to another pump, and draws in like manner. Again, the water
+  passing over the middle wheel, is collected as before by another
+  curved spout W; consequently, the lower wheel is put in action,
+  accompanied with another pump. Hence it is obvious that three
+  water-wheels and three pumps are worked by one stream of water
+  from the syphon. What more is required to perpetuate its motion?
+
+      John Linley.
+
+    Wicker Sheffield, May 28, 1830.
+
+
+Device of Author of the "Voice of Reason"
+
+In 1831 a contributor who signed himself Author of the "Voice of
+Reason," furnished to the scientific journals of England an account
+of what he claimed was a Perpetual Motion Device invented by him. It
+should be said to his credit that he claimed no surplus power for his
+device--only that it would run itself. He, in fact, stated that his
+machine could not perform more than the simple operation of pumping its
+own water.
+
+The principle upon which he relied is sufficiently shown by the
+following figure, and the following excerpt from the contributed
+article:
+
+  Observing that persons no less distinguished than Bishop Wilkins,
+  the Marquis of Worcester, etc., have amused themselves with
+  such things as perpetual motion, it may be some apology for a
+  humble individual residing as I do in a very retired part of
+  the country--scarcely within reach of much society--to confess
+  that by way of a little rational amusement and relief to the
+  mind, I have at times, amid a variety of other investigations
+  and inventions, amused myself amongst the rest, with this of
+  perpetual motion. The result I will, with your permission, lay
+  before your readers. That I trespass upon your pages, you are
+  indebted to your correspondent, Mr. Linley, whose invention
+  I thought might partially lead to an anticipation of one of
+  my own, a model of which I constructed a short time ago. The
+  system which first came to my mind, as likely to lead to the
+  accomplishment of perpetual motion, was that of the syphon;
+  experimenting with which, opened discoveries that might prove
+  useful in hydrostatics. Amongst these was a mode of equalizing
+  the horizontal surface of the water in two separate vessels of
+  different altitudes. The following sketch will afford an idea of
+  my invention.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Let A be a vessel, having two orifices, one at the bottom of it,
+  _a_, and the other open at the top for waste water _b_, filled to
+  the brim. B, a reservoir, so far filled with water as not to come
+  in contact with the bottom of the great wheel C, whose axle turns
+  in the wood _c_, attached to the side of the reservoir; _d_, a
+  crank fixed to the axle of the great water-wheel, which turning
+  moves up and down the rod _e_, attached to the beam E, which
+  works the pump D, having its cylinder inserted in the reservoir
+  B; _f_, an upright attached to the upper vessel A, to form a
+  support for the beam E; the whole, together with the cylinder
+  of the pump, being supported and tied together by the woodwork
+  _g g g_.
+
+  To produce the motion, draw the plug from the orifice _a_,
+  from which the water gushing out with considerable force will
+  immediately turn the water-wheel, which communicating motion, by
+  the crank _d_ and rod _e_, to the beam E, will cause the pump D
+  to be worked, the water from the spout passing into the upper
+  vessel A. Now, the cylinder of the pump, if one only be used,
+  must be of suitable dimensions, or the velocity of its movement
+  so increased by means of a multiplying-wheel as to enable it to
+  discharge water into the upper vessel A faster than the same
+  escapes through the lower orifice _a_; consequently, the vessel
+  A will soon overflow from the capacious opening at _b_, to which
+  a trough is attached, which collecting the waste water, causes
+  it to descend also upon the circumference of the water-wheel;
+  thus contributing to its movement, and at the same time tending
+  to preserve an uniform supply of water in the reservoir for the
+  continued action of the pump. Hence you have a perpetual motion,
+  so long as the whole keeps in repair and in good order, which is
+  all that can be expected of any perpetual motion, constructed as
+  it must be of perishable materials.
+
+  But of what use are all the perpetual motion machines, if they
+  can perform no other work than that of keeping themselves in
+  motion? For it is evident, in the case of my machine, that if I
+  wish to increase the power of the wheel, fixed as it is in size,
+  radius, etc., I must increase the jet of water, and consequently
+  the pumps must be made of corresponding dimensions, or exert a
+  corresponding increase of force or velocity to replace the water;
+  so that it is evident, neither Mr. Linley's machine nor mine,
+  in their present fixed state, can perform more than the simple
+  operation of pumping their own water.
+
+  And this is the case with all the perpetual motion machines I
+  have ever observed--they can exert no useful or disposable power
+  beyond that of keeping up an equilibrium, or getting beyond the
+  point of equilibrium.
+
+        Yours, etc.,
+      AUTHOR OF THE "VOICE OF REASON."
+
+
+An Italian Device
+
+In 1825 there was published in London in Mechanics' Magazine the
+account of a very ancient invention by an Italian. He had written an
+account of his invention in Latin. It had been translated and furnished
+to Mechanics' Magazine by a correspondent of that Magazine. The
+communication so furnished as published is as follows:
+
+  The underwritten is translated from an ancient Latin book * * *
+  (entitled "De Simia Naturæ," Autore Roberto Fludd), which treats
+  of every science known at the time it was published, and largely
+  of the science of mechanics. What followed I have extracted
+  merely to show that the discovery of the perpetual motion was as
+  nearly attained then, perhaps, as it is now.--I am, &c., P.
+
+  _Of another useful invention for raising water easily, by
+    the which a certain Italian ventured to boast that he had
+    discovered the Perpetual Motion._
+
+  DESCRIPTION OF THE INSTRUMENT.--A is an exhauster, or pump.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  B, a little wheel placed at the bottom of the exhauster, about
+  which pestils, or circular flaps of prepared leather, revolve
+  lightly, so that they rise easily: they are connected by crooked
+  iron.
+
+  C C C, pestils, or circular leathers, by means of which the water
+  is raised in the pump.
+
+  D, a wheel, by which the said circular leathers are raised up.
+
+  E, a pinion, moving the wheels D and B.
+
+  F is a wheel, continued from the wheel G, whose teeth the pinion
+  E propels circularly.
+
+  H, a pinion moving the wheel G.
+
+  USE OF THE INSTRUMENT.--This instrument is classed with those
+  of the first sort, on which account it is absolutely necessary
+  for a multitude of purposes, because it bears upward a large
+  quantity of water with the least labor; for the number of wheels
+  is not variable; but the length of the receiver A is about the
+  proportion of 35 feet, and its breadth one foot and one-third.
+  The concavities of it should be made exactly round, that they
+  may not lose any water by contracting in their ascension; the
+  concavity of the pump, therefore, should be perfectly round. The
+  great water-wheel should be 24 feet diameter, and the wheel G 20
+  feet.
+
+  The Italian, deceived by his own thoughts, conceived that as
+  much water would be raised by this pump as would keep the wheel
+  perpetually in motion; because he said that more force was
+  required at the extremity of this machine than at the centre;
+  but because he calculated the proportions of power wrong, he was
+  deceived in practice.
+
+
+P. Valentine Stansel's Device. Prior to 1657
+
+(Exact date not known):
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  A, B, C is a large cistern of water, above which is another
+  cistern D, E, which is supplied from the lower cistern by the
+  pump X, operated by the water-wheel M, N, the crank L of which is
+  attached by a rod K to the horizontal beam H, I, K, which swings
+  at H, from the side of the upper cistern, as shown at F, G, H.
+  The force-pump X, on the depression of the plunger O, causes
+  the water to rise up the vertical pipe P, Q, R, S, and thence
+  discharge itself into the cistern D, from which a small portion
+  is allowed to escape through the short pipe T, V, whence it falls
+  on the water-wheel, and so on continuously.
+
+
+Vogel's Device
+
+In 1847, A. F. Vogel, of Leipzig, invented what he called
+
+"Hydrostatic General Mobile."
+
+It was described at the time in a pamphlet, and its operation
+is sufficiently illustrated by the following annexed figure and
+explanation:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  A water-wheel, A, B, C, D, raising the water by means of which it
+  is to be operated. This is effected, he supposes, by the wheel
+  acting at A, by the pressure of one of six pins D, on a vertical
+  rod, attached to a horizontal beam, working on a centre, and its
+  opposite end being secured to the pump-rod of the barrel M, N.
+  The projector has an idea that by means of flaps, which close the
+  cells of the wheel as they pass under rollers at B, while at C
+  there is a similar contrivance to open the flaps and let out the
+  water, and therefore by its retention on the descending side it
+  will become more effective in turning the wheel.
+
+
+A Water Wheel-Driven Pump
+
+This device is claimed by the writer to be an adaptation of Rangely's
+Patent Roller Pump. A description by the writer, whose name is not
+given, was published in Mechanics' Magazine, 1823, in the following
+language:
+
+  I think it possible to produce a self-moving power by such a
+  machine as that, a drawing of which is now prefixed. From its
+  very simple construction, a very brief description is necessary.
+  A represents a pump immersed in a reservoir B; the pump is worked
+  by the rotary motion of the water-wheel C, which is four feet
+  in diameter. On the shaft of the water-wheel is the drum-wheel
+  D, working by a small cord the wheel E, on the axis of the pump
+  discharging the water by the pipe F into a reservoir G over the
+  water-wheel. In this reservoir is a cock to regulate the quantity
+  of water to be discharged on the wheel. The wheel on the shaft of
+  the water-wheel being nine inches diameter, and the wheel on the
+  axis of the pump three in diameter, the latter will consequently
+  make three revolutions for one of the water-wheel. As the pump
+  is not required to turn with great velocity, the speed might be
+  regulated by the quantity of water thrown on the water-wheel, the
+  latter being four feet in diameter, and the wheel on its shaft
+  nine inches; consequently the radius or arm of the wheel has near
+  4½ powers to counteract the friction of the axis of the pump and
+  water-wheel, and of a fine cord passed over the wheels D and E.
+  If necessary, the friction of the machine might be still farther
+  reduced by the axes of the pump and water-wheel being made to run
+  in gudgeons with friction rollers.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The pipe H is intended to convey the surplus water from the
+  reservoir over the wheel to the reservoir below.
+
+  The pump might easily be turned by a cog-wheel; but this is
+  unnecessary, as the cord passing over the drum-wheels will do
+  equally well, and is, besides, a more simple method.
+
+
+"A Journeyman Mechanic's" Device
+
+The gentleman, whose real name is unknown, but who styled himself "A
+Journeyman Mechanic," made an invention, an account of which appeared
+in "Mechanics' Magazine," in 1831. It was an attempted adaptation of
+the wellknown principles of Barker's Mill.
+
+The inventor undoubtedly thought he had successfully solved the long
+sought problem of Self-Motive Power, and he benevolently and graciously
+offered to contribute his valuable invention to the world, having "no
+wish to profit by monopoly."
+
+We cannot but contrast the plenary benevolence of his heart with the
+mechanical paucity of his head. He describes his invention with the
+following language and figure:
+
+The inventor offers the accompanying sketch, with description of an
+Hydraulic Mover, for communicating power to machinery, and recently
+invented by him:--
+
+  A is a hollow cylinder or pipe, forming the upright shaft of a
+  mill on Barker's well-known and effective centrifugal principle.
+
+  B B, the lateral pipes from ditto; _a a_, the jets of water,
+  whose centrifugal force gives the motion.
+
+  C, beam to support the machinery, built at each end into the wall
+  D D.
+
+  E E, two cog-wheels to communicate the motion to
+
+  P, the rod of a pump (on Shalder's principle), which derives
+  its supply from the well into which the water from the pipes is
+  conducted, which it raises to
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  H, a cistern into which one end of a syphon, I I, is introduced,
+  the other end of which is soldered with an air-tight joint into
+  the top of pipe A, to which it thus supplies the water which is
+  continually running from the pipes B B, producing a constant
+  motion which may be given by carrying the horizontal rod F
+  through the wall D, to machinery for any purpose. And, if the
+  statement in the pamphlet on Hydrostatics, by the Society for
+  the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, as to the effect of Barker's
+  Centrifugal Mill, be correct, the power gained must be very great.
+
+  The advantages of the invention are obvious. The whole of the
+  machinery for a large factory may be contained underground,
+  which, indeed, will be the most desirable situation for it,
+  and valuable room will thus be saved; the expense of erection
+  will not be great; and the saving in coals, &c., necessary for
+  a steam-engine of the like powers, will be immense. I might,
+  perhaps, have secured much benefit to myself by taking out
+  a patent for the discovery, but I have no wish to profit by
+  monopoly. All I desire is, that it may be recollected that the
+  machine was invented by one who is
+
+      A JOURNEYMAN MECHANIC.
+
+
+James Black's Device
+
+In 1858, James Black, Machine Maker, of Edinburgh, Scotland, applied
+for a British patent on
+
+"An improved mode or means of obtaining, applying, and transmitting
+motive power."
+
+The expected operation is sufficiently illustrated by the following
+figure and excerpt from the specifications:
+
+  A face plate or disc is fixed on an axis, and has formed in it
+  a number of wipers, eccentrics, or curved paths, which receive
+  (in the space taken out) a pulley or roller, free to revolve
+  on its own axis, and attached to an adjustable lever in equal
+  balance with the desired lift or pressure. On rotary motion being
+  communicated to the plate (by a band or otherwise), the pulley or
+  roller moves round the eccentrics or paths, imparting a rocking
+  motion to the lever (similar to the action of a beam), wherefrom
+  motion may be transmitted or applied, as desired, or converted by
+  suitable appliances into any description of motion.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  In connection herewith, a pump may be set in a tank of water,
+  and a tank added above; on the same shaft with the face plate
+  is a water-wheel driven by the water from above; when it passes
+  the centre, the water falls into the lower tank and is pumped up
+  again; whatever weight of water is in each stroke is equalized by
+  a balance weight on the lever; the number of eccentrics and size
+  of water-wheel may be increased to correspond with the quantity
+  of water required to secure a desired power.
+
+  One means of imparting rotary motion from my arrangement is by
+  attaching at the end of the lever a crank and connecting rod of
+  same radius as the lift of the lever, carried over the centre by
+  a fly wheel.
+
+  The invention is applicable to the actuating of pumps, mincing
+  machines, and other machinery, instruments, and apparatus, and to
+  parts thereof; to propelling on land and water, and to various
+  motive purposes.
+
+  Fig. 1 is an elevation, showing an arrangement for obtaining
+  power according to my invention. X is the general framework
+  of the apparatus; A, a disc or plate, mounted on a shaft E,
+  and formed with curved paths B; the same shaft E also carries
+  a water-wheel W, provided with vanes or blades _w w_, as is
+  usual; C is a roller, working in the paths B, and connected to
+  a lever D, attached to rods _d d_ of pumps G G. G¹ is a balance
+  weight at the further end of the lever, which is supported in
+  the bearing _f_; H H are tanks fixed below the water-wheel, and
+  I is a tank set above it; _i i_ are supply pipes, for conveying
+  the water from tanks H H to the tank I; _j j_, escape water
+  pipes. The water falling from the tank I on the wheel W, drives
+  that wheel in the usual manner; and when it passes the centre,
+  the water falls into the lower tanks H, from which it is pumped
+  up again into the upper tank I by the pumps G, actuated by the
+  levers E, driven by the rollers C, in the pathways B of the face
+  plate A, as the latter is caused to revolve by the revolution of
+  the water-wheel W on the same shaft with it, thus producing a
+  continuous motive power.
+
+
+Archimedean Screw and Liquid
+
+This device was made public by a communication from a correspondent to
+"Mechanics' Magazine" in England, in 1823. The device is described as
+follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  A is the screw turning on its two pivots G G; B is a cistern to
+  be filled above the level of the lower aperture of the screw
+  with mercury (which I conceive to be preferable to water on many
+  accounts, and principally because it does not adhere or evaporate
+  like water); C is a reservoir, which, when the screw is turned
+  round, receives the mercury which falls from the top; D is a
+  pipe, which by the force of gravity conveys the mercury from
+  the reservoir C on to (what, for want of a better term, may be
+  called) the float-board E, fixed at right angles to the centre
+  of the screw, and furnished at its circumference with ridges
+  or floats to intercept the mercury, the moment and weight of
+  which will cause the float-board and screw to revolve, until,
+  by the proper inclination of the floats, the mercury falls into
+  the receiver F, from whence it again falls by its spout into the
+  cistern G, where the constant revolution of the screw takes it up
+  again as before.
+
+  To overcome this (the power of the fluid in the screw to turn
+  it backwards), I thought of placing a metallic ball, or some
+  mercury, on the ledge above the floats (as at H in the drawing),
+  of just so much weight, and no more, as would exactly neutralize
+  this backward endeavor; whether or no this would increase the
+  difficulty of raising the mercury in the screw I cannot say,
+  having never tried the experiment.
+
+
+John Sims's Problem. 1830
+
+John Sims, a Welshman, furnished the following suggested device to
+"Mechanics' Magazine" in 1830:
+
+  Let us suppose an apparatus to be constructed of the description
+  represented in the annexed engraving: _a_ is a water cistern,
+  whence water is to be raised by the pump _b_, to supply the
+  cistern; _c d_ is a small pipe with a stop-cock at _e_, which
+  lets the water from cistern _c_ into a strong water-tight bellows
+  _f_. The bellows have no valve, but a cock _g_ to let out the
+  water into cistern _a_; _h_ is a weight, and _i_ a rack on the
+  top of the bellows which works in the cogs on the axle of the
+  large cog-wheel _j_; _j_ turns the little cog-wheel _k_, that
+  gives motion to the arm _l_, and works the pump-handle _m_; _n_
+  is an upright rod on the end of the lever _o_, which rod has a
+  turn at _p_ and _q_ for the top of the bellows to press against
+  in ascending and descending. The water being let into the bellows
+  from the pipe _d_, will cause the top of the bellows, with the
+  weight and rack, to ascend till the former reaches and presses
+  _p_, which will move the lever _o_ and the arm or rod _r_; by
+  which means the stop-cock _e_ of the pipe will be shut, and the
+  cock _g_ opened, and the water let in from the bellows into the
+  cistern _a_. The top of the bellows will now descend till it
+  comes down and presses the turn _q_, which will again shut the
+  cock _g_ and open _e_, on which the water will again flow from
+  the pipe into the bellows, and cause the top with the rack to
+  ascend.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Now it is generally known that the power of an hydrostatic
+  bellows is thus calculated:--
+
+  As the area of the orifice or section of the pipe,
+
+  To the area of the bellows:
+
+  The weight of water in the pipe is,
+
+  To the weight the bellows will sustain on the top-board.
+
+  We will suppose, therefore, the pipe _d_ to be 10 feet high, with
+  a bore equal to 1 square inch, which would give 120 cubic inches,
+  and about 4¼ lbs. of water. Let us suppose, also, the boards
+  of the bellows to be 20 inches square, which gives 400 square
+  inches. When the water is let from the pipe into the bellows,
+  there will be a pressure of 4¼ lbs. on every square inch, which
+  on the whole will amount to 1,700 lbs. Now take half of this
+  force and place it on the top of the bellows; there will then be
+  a working power of 850 lbs. up and down, and allowing the bellows
+  to raise one foot, it will contain about 20 gallons of water.
+  Now the question is, will not the machinery, with a moving power
+  of 2 feet and 850 lbs., raise 20 gallons of water 10 feet, which
+  would, of course, cause the motion to be perpetual?--JOHN SIMS.
+
+    Pwllheli, North Wales, Dec. 11, 1829.
+
+The foregoing device brought from another correspondent the following:
+
+  Had Mr. Sims gained the power exerted by the descending weight
+  on his bellows, he would have been fortunate indeed; but it
+  unfortunately happens that its returning power (or an equivalent)
+  was expended in raising it.
+
+  With respect to his question, whether a circulation of water
+  would be kept up by the arrangement, I answer, no; as the
+  velocities will be in the inverse ratios to the forces, and the
+  descending column of 120 inches must expend itself forty times
+  to raise the ascending one to the height of twelve inches, as
+  proposed:--
+
+  10 ft. or 120 in. × 40 = 4,800, lifting force or power.
+
+  400 in. × 12 = 4,800, opposing force, resistance, or weight.
+
+  Here is an equilibrium, and nothing gained to overcome friction
+  or the weight of the atmosphere on the piston of the pump. Were
+  it possible to annihilate both friction and atmospheric weight,
+  even then, unless the power exceed the weight, the power would
+  not be a moving one.
+
+
+A Perpetual Pump, by an Unknown Inventor
+
+In Volume I of "Mechanics' Magazine," 1823, appears an account by a
+correspondent of a Perpetual Motion device which is illustrated by the
+figure, and the quotations following:
+
+  _a b c d_ is the section of the reservoir, &c., showing the
+  wheel, the pump, &c. A B is an overshot water-wheel; C D the
+  working beam; E the pump; F a pipe from the top of the pump,
+  through which the water was to fall upon the wheel; C G an arm,
+  communicating, by means of a crank attached to an horizontal
+  shaft through the centre of the wheel, motion to the lever or
+  working beam, and so raising water from the reservoir by means of
+  the pump; H I the water. It was supposed that the water which had
+  fallen upon the wheel into the reservoir would be raised by means
+  of the pump, fall through the horizontal pipe, and so produce a
+  continued rotary motion.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+The persistence of Perpetual Motion workers is amusingly illustrated
+by the inventions of William Willcocks Sleigh and Burrowes Willcocks
+Arthur Sleigh. Their devices were so extremely complicated and not
+susceptible of being understood, and hence are mentioned rather than
+shown in this work.
+
+In 1845, William Willcocks Sleigh, a doctor of medicine and surgery,
+of Chiswick, Middlesex, England, applied for and obtained British
+Patent on what he called
+
+"A Hydro-mechanic apparatus for producing motive power."
+
+He took out other patents on hydro-mechanical devices in 1853, 1856,
+and 1860. Then in 1864, his son, Burrowes Willcocks Arthur Sleigh took
+out two patents on similar devices, and then in 1866, still another
+patent.
+
+The specifications for each of the above mentioned patents are lengthy
+and detailed. The inventors evidently had the greatest confidence in
+their efforts, though surely they never put them to actual test. They
+seemed to have been mechanically stupid, and incapable of correct
+mechanical thinking, but their efforts were so tireless and so earnest
+that we submit that the Sleigh family had done its full, fair share in
+the efforts to accomplish Self-Motive power.
+
+Equally amusing are the efforts of James Smith of Seaforth, Liverpool,
+and Sidney Arthur Chease, Liverpool, gentlemen: These two co-laborers
+applied for British patents on four different Hydro-mechanical
+devices--one in 1858, two in 1863, and one in 1865. On three they
+obtained patents, and on the other one provincial protection. One of
+them seems to have been a capitalist, and the other one a machinist.
+Their models were complicated beyond understanding, and apparently
+they were laboring in the dark without intelligent plan. They seemed to
+have thought that when a complicated mess of machinery parts and fluid
+were assembled Perpetual Motion must somehow result.
+
+Nothing could be gained by setting forth their inventions fully, but
+their labors were so great, and their efforts so intense that we feel
+like preserving their names from oblivion, and hence we give them
+mention here.
+
+
+Why Hydraulic and Hydro-Mechanical Devices for Obtaining Perpetual
+Motion Failed to Work
+
+Next to wheels and weights, the use of liquids in a hydraulic,
+hydrostatic, or hydro-mechanical manner have been sought to be utilized
+by Perpetual Motion seekers as a means of obtaining energy from the
+machine not supplied to the machine. The foregoing are only a few of
+the many devices of that kind, but they are the most simple of those
+that have been brought to light, and consequently better illustrate
+the manner in which it has been sought to utilize the interesting
+properties of liquid pressure and mobility in the solution of the
+problem.
+
+An examination of the preceding devices discloses that in each case the
+inventor sought by the energy of the descent of a liquid to elevate
+through the same distance of ascent the same or a greater quantity of
+the same liquid, or in some cases to obtain from the pressure of a
+liquid a greater force than is required to expand a bag, bellows or
+vessel, submerged the same distance below the level.
+
+The impossibility of all of these schemes is apparent from the same
+reasoning that is applied to illustrate and show the impossibility of
+obtaining Perpetual Motion by the use of wheels, weights, levers and
+the force of gravity.
+
+In each case the basic idea and error was in supposing that by some
+possibility the descent of a liquid through a given distance could be
+made to deliver more energy than would be required to elevate the same
+quantity of liquid the same distance. As a matter of fact, the descent
+of a liquid, the same as any other weight, through a given distance
+represents exactly the amount of energy necessary to elevate the same
+weight of liquid through the same distance measured vertically. Some
+loss by friction of the liquid in the containing tubes is inevitable as
+well as from friction in the working parts of the mechanism. Therefore,
+as this loss continues, some outside energy must be supplied. If all
+friction could be eliminated (which is an impossibility) and if the
+liquid were started in motion, the motion would be constant, but no
+energy could be taken from it for running other machinery without
+reducing the motion.
+
+There have been many arguments on this subject. We select one which was
+elicited by the publication in "Mechanics' Magazine" of an account of
+the device of the author of the "Voice of Reason." This argument was
+published in "Mechanics' Magazine" in 1831, and is as follows:
+
+  I am induced to make an attempt to demonstrate the utter
+  impossibility, under any circumstances, of making a water-wheel
+  that will supply itself instead of having any surplus power.
+
+  The accompanying drawing represents part of an overshot wheel
+  in section, the buckets only part filled, by which the whole of
+  the water expended continues to act through a greater portion of
+  the circumference than it otherwise would do. The area of the
+  vertical section of the complement of water to each bucket is
+  made 40 inches; and taking the breadth of the wheel at, say 28
+  2/3 inches, gives 40 lbs. as the weight of water in each bucket;
+  therefore, as there are 12 buckets containing 40 lbs. each, No.
+  13 30 lbs., and No. 14 only 20 lbs., altogether making a total of
+  530 lbs. acting on the wheel at the same time;--to show clearly
+  all the effect that can be expected from this, I have divided the
+  horizontal radius into a scale of 40 equals parts (there being
+  40 lbs. in each bucket); and from the gravitating centre of the
+  fluid contained in each is drawn a perpendicular to the scale,
+  where the effective force, or weight in each bucket, may be read
+  off as on the arm of a common steelyard. The weights will be
+  found as follows, viz:--
+
+    No.   Lbs.
+    1     21½
+    2     26¼
+    3     30½
+    4     33¾
+    5     36¾
+    6     38¾
+    7     39¾
+    8     40
+    9     39½
+    10    38
+    11    35¾
+    12    32½
+    13    21
+    14    12
+
+  It is therefore quite evident that, although we have 530 lbs.
+  acting on one side of the wheel, a column of water weighing
+  446 lbs. reacting at the same distance from the centre, on the
+  opposite side, will exactly balance the whole 530 lbs. contained
+  in the buckets; so that about a sixth of the expenditure rests on
+  the axis without producing any useful effect, and the wheel so
+  loaded must remain in a state of rest. Now, in spite of friction
+  and the _vis inertia_ of matter, if we suppose the wheel at
+  work, it can raise only 446 lbs. at the expense of 530 lbs.; but
+  even if it could raise the whole 530 lbs., we should then be but
+  little nearer the mark, for we must remember that the gravitating
+  centre of our power falls through a space of only 8 ft. 11 in.,
+  while the water must be raised at least 11 ft. before it could be
+  laid on and delivered clear of the wheel.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  As a further means of coming at the end I had in view at the
+  commencement of this letter, I will conclude with a simple rule
+  for calculating the quantity of water a wheel of this kind will
+  raise:--Multiply the number of pounds expended in a minute by
+  the height or diameter of the wheel in feet, divide the product
+  by the height (also in feet) of the reservoir to be filled, and
+  two-thirds of the quotient will be the answer required. Example,
+  for the wheel above described, making six revolutions per
+  minute:--
+
+          42 buckets on wheel.
+           6 revolutions per minute.
+         ---
+         252 buckets filled per minute.
+          40 the weight of water in each bucket.
+       -----
+       10080 lbs. expended per minute.
+          10 feet height of wheel.
+      ------
+  11) 100800 momentum, dividing by 11 feet as the height of reservoir.
+      ------
+     3) 9163.636 divided by 3.
+        --------
+        3054.545 multiplying by 2.
+               2
+        --------
+        6109.09  answer in lbs.
+
+  So that for every 1008 gallons expended on the wheel, we only
+  gain sufficient power to supply 611 nearly.
+
+        See also Chap. XV, Bishop Wilkin's Work, appearing at page
+        297 et seq. supra.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PNEUMATIC, SIPHON AND HYDRO-PNEUMATIC DEVICES
+
+
+The Hydrostatical Paradox
+
+Next to the wheel with levers and weights, we believe this simple
+Hydrostatical Paradox has more frequently occurred to mechanical and
+scientific tyros as a means whereby it was hoped to attain Perpetual
+Motion. There is no record that we know of of the name of anyone who
+has ever attempted it, and, yet, the instances are doubtless myriads.
+
+The author believes he has heard dozens of young persons mention it as
+a means of obtaining a continuous flow of water.
+
+In 1828, Niel Arnott, M. D., published the third edition of his
+"Elements of Physics, or Natural Philosophy." At page 141 under
+the subject of "Mechanics" he comments generally on the subject of
+Perpetual Motion, and says:
+
+  What an infinity of vain schemes--some of them displaying great
+  ingenuity--for perpetual motions, and new mechanical engines
+  of power, etc., would have been checked at once, had the great
+  truth been generally understood, that no form or combination of
+  machinery ever did or ever can increase, in the slightest degree,
+  the quantity of power applied. Ignorance of this is the hinge on
+  which most of the dreams of mechanical projectors have turned. No
+  year passes, even now, in which many patents are not taken out
+  for such supposed discoveries; and the deluded individuals, after
+  selling perhaps even their household goods to obtain the means
+  of securing the supposed advantages, often sink in despair, when
+  their attempts, instead of bringing riches and happiness to their
+  families, end in disappointment and utter ruin. The frequency and
+  eagerness and obstinacy with which even talented individuals,
+  owing to their imperfect knowledge of this part of natural
+  philosophy, have engaged in such undertakings, is a remarkable
+  phenomenon in human nature.
+
+At page 270 in treating on "Hydrostatics," he says:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  A projector thought that the vessel of his contrivance,
+  represented here, was to solve the renowned problem of the
+  perpetual motion. It was goblet-shaped, lessening gradually
+  towards the bottom until it became a tube, bent upwards at _c_,
+  and pointing with an open extremity into the goblet again. He
+  reasoned thus: A pint of water in the goblet _a_ must more than
+  counterbalance an ounce which the tube _b_ will contain, and must
+  therefore be constantly pushing the ounce forward into the vessel
+  again at _a_, and keeping up a stream or circulation, which will
+  cease only when the water dries up. He was confounded when a
+  trial showed him the same level in _a_ and in _b_.
+
+
+Pickering's Device
+
+In 1858, Peter Pickering, Landed Proprietor of Danzig, Prussia, applied
+for a British patent on
+
+"An Atmospheric Engine."
+
+It may be described as follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are cylinders 18 feet long or high and 3 feet
+  diameter, so that the surface of each piston has 1,296 square
+  inches acting with an atmospheric pressure of 15 lbs. to the
+  square inch, causes a pressure of 19,440 lbs. to each cylinder
+  (saying nothing of friction, which will be accounted for later);
+  6, 7, 8, 9, 10, pistons of each cylinder, as they must be placed
+  when the engine begins to work; 6, 7, 8, 9, causing a vacuum
+  under each piston (as they have for the first time been brought
+  into their present situation by main force), afterwards, when the
+  engine is permitted to start, they will regulate themselves; No.
+  10 lies flat on the bottom of the cylinder; 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
+  piston rods acting on shaft No. 16; 17, wheel to communicate the
+  engine's power to the machinery of the engine itself; 18, wheel
+  to communicate the engine's power to the wheel or propelling
+  screw of a ship, manufactory, locomotive, etc.
+
+
+Stuckey's Device
+
+In 1842, William Henry Stuckey, Esquire, of St. Petersburgh, applied
+for a British patent on
+
+"A Pneumatic Engine for Producing Motive Power."
+
+His specifications describe his alleged invention as follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Fig. 1 is a front view of my said pneumatic engine, partly in
+  section. A¹ and B¹ two horizontal cylinders, united at their
+  inner extremities a, a, which rotate on gudgeons that have
+  their bearings C, C, in the upright standards D, D; A² and B²
+  two pistons which work to and fro in these cylinders; E¹ and E³
+  two hollow arms or tubes which radiate from the cylinder A¹,
+  and E², E⁴, two similar arms or tubes which radiate in opposite
+  directions from the cylinder B¹, each cylinder having an open
+  communication with the arms or tubes attached to it. F¹, F²,
+  F³, and F⁴, four other cylinders, affixed to a circular ring
+  R, R, open at top to the atmosphere, and open at bottom to the
+  radial tubes E¹, E², E³, E⁴, connected with them at their outer
+  extremities. G¹, G², G³, G⁴, pistons working in the cylinders F¹,
+  F², F³, and F⁴, and H¹, H², H³, and H⁴, caps screwed on to the
+  flanges of the cylinders. The different parts described form a
+  wheel, which, on being set in motion, rotates on the gudgeons in
+  the bearing C, C. The motion is produced as follows:--I adjust
+  the wheel so that the tubes E¹ and E³ shall be in a vertical
+  position; and pour into the tube E¹, through the cylinder F¹,
+  withdrawing the piston G¹, as much mercury or other suitable
+  fluid body (previously determined by calculation) as will fill
+  the tube from the point of its connection with the inner cylinder
+  A¹ up to the bottom (_a_, _a_,) of the outer cylinder F¹. The
+  mercury thus introduced flows into the cylinder A¹ at the back of
+  the piston A², and presses that piston forward to the extremity
+  of its range, the piston G¹ being then restored to its place in
+  the cylinder F¹, and pressed close down on the mercury in the
+  tube E¹. I next turn the wheel till the tubes E² and E⁴ are in a
+  vertical position, by which turning the mercury therein is forced
+  into the tube E³, flowing down which it drives the piston G³ of
+  the cylinder F³ forward to the extremity of its range, leaving a
+  vacuum in the cylinder A¹ at O, equal to the difference between
+  the heights from which the mercury descends in the tubes E¹ and
+  E³. I then fill the tube E² and cylinder B² with mercury, to the
+  same extent and in the same way as I previously filled the tube
+  E¹ and cylinder A¹, after which I turn the wheel till the tubes
+  E¹ and E³ are once more in a vertical position, whereby I produce
+  a vacuum in each pair of tubes, and their intermediate cylinder,
+  to the degree of the difference before explained. To the four
+  tubes there are attached four cocks K¹, K², K³, K⁴, which, after
+  the vacua have been obtained, are closed; and to the four rods
+  of the pistons of the outer cylinders F¹, F², F³, F⁴, there are
+  attached four hanging or balance weights L¹, L², L³, L⁴, in such
+  manner that they shall co-operate with the atmospheric pressure
+  on the said vacua in giving rotation to the wheel. M¹, M², M³,
+  M⁴, are jointed levers, by which these weights are connected at
+  one end with the pistons G¹, G², G³, G⁴; and N¹, N², are cords
+  or bands, by which they are suspended at the other end from
+  standards P, P, projecting from the ring R, and bearing pulleys,
+  over which the cords or bands pass, each cord or band serving to
+  suspend the two weights which are opposite to each other, for
+  which purpose it is passed internally across the wheel and over
+  the exterior of one of the cylinders A¹ or B¹. The cords or bands
+  are attached to the weights at the lower ends thereof, and pass
+  over small pulleys close to the points of connection, so that
+  the cords or bands, when pulled, may act the more effectually on
+  the weights. It will be readily understood that when any two of
+  the tubes are in a vertical position, and the mercury or other
+  suitable fluid has descended to the bottom of the lower tube,
+  its pressure on the piston of the outer cylinder G¹, or G², or
+  G³, or G⁴, will cause the weight connected with that piston to
+  turn inwards towards the centre of the wheel, by which movement
+  a strain is exerted on the connecting cord or band N¹ or N²,
+  which throws up the opposite weight at top, and causes it to
+  force down the piston of the top cylinder, or the surface of the
+  mercury in the upper tube, whereby any excess of pressure at
+  the bottom of the lower tube is transferred to the top piston,
+  where it acts in aid of the atmospheric pressure on the vacua
+  obtained in manner aforesaid. The four cocks K, have regulating
+  rods connected to them in the way common in steam and other
+  engines, so that as each tube comes into a vertical position
+  the cock attached to it is opened, and as it passes from that
+  position towards the horizontal, is shut, so that the mercury
+  always retains its proper position in the tubes or cylinders, and
+  is acted on by the pressure of the atmosphere at those points
+  only where such pressure can be of service. The power of this
+  wheel will be, of course, in proportion to the vacua produced in
+  manner aforesaid, and to the altitude of the columns of mercury
+  employed. The inner cylinders might be dispensed with, and the
+  tubes be made to communicate directly with each other, but I
+  prefer, for most purposes, the arrangement which I have before
+  described, with the two intermediate cylinders A¹, B¹; where the
+  inner cylinders are dispensed with, I make use of eccentrics
+  instead of the joined levers before described, to enable the
+  weights to turn to the extent of about half a circle. The number
+  of tubes also need not be limited to four, but increased to any
+  convenient extent.
+
+
+Prof. George Sinclair's Device
+
+This device was invented by George Sinclair, who was a professor of
+philosophy at Glasgow University. He died in 1696. In 1669 he published
+a work on Pneumatics, and in that work claimed to have discovered
+Perpetual Motion. Explanations of his device consumed eighteen pages of
+a Latin work on Pneumatics. It very absurdly depended for its operation
+upon the delivery of water from the short leg of a siphon, instead of
+the long leg. The figure illustrates the contemplated operation.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Jacob Brazill's Device
+
+In 1839 Jacob Brazill, of Deptford, Kent, Governor of Trinity Ground,
+applied for a British patent on
+
+"Improvements in Obtaining Motive Power."
+
+In his application he describes his alleged invention as follows:
+
+  My invention consists in a certain arrangement or combination
+  of mechanism wherein the atmospheric air is employed as the
+  impelling agent, being brought to bear in such a manner as by
+  exerting a constant urging pressure, to produce a continuous
+  rotary motion, and applies to all the purposes where a prime
+  mover is required.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Fig. 1 is an end view of the apparatus _a_, _a_, are the
+  bearings, top and bottom, for the vertical shaft _b_, which
+  bearings are to be so constructed as to produce the least
+  possible amount of friction. _c_ is a large drum furnished with
+  radial plates or fans, some of the plates being so arranged as to
+  slope down towards the bottom plate, thus forming, as it were,
+  a series of boxes decreasing in their transverse dimensions as
+  they approach the boss. This drum is to be put in motion by means
+  of a current of air directed through the pipes _d_ and _e_,
+  from the two pairs of double bellows _f_ and _g_. _h_ is a worm
+  fixed on the vertical shaft by means of a tightening screw, or
+  in any other convenient way, taking into the worm wheel _i_ on
+  the horizontal crankshaft _j_, supported in bearings _k_, _k_.
+  The cranks _l_, _l_, work the bellows by connecting rods _m_,
+  _m_; _n_ is a spur wheel taking into a pinion _o_, on the axle of
+  which is a winch handle _p_, for starting the apparatus.
+
+  What I claim as my peculiar right is, the impulsion of a current
+  of air against the fans of a drum (as that at _c_) through
+  pipes, as at _d_ and _e_, for the purposes of a motive power,
+  together with a certain arrangement of mechanism, by means of
+  which the action first induced shall be kept up.
+
+
+Läserson's Device
+
+In 1860 Marc Antoine F. Mennons, of Paris, applied on behalf of Louis
+Diodor Läserson of Moscow, Russia, for, and obtained, a British patent
+on
+
+"Certain Improvements in the Production of Motive Power, and in the
+Apparatus Connected Therewith."
+
+He described the essentials of his device as follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The invention consists in the application of the ascensional
+  force of air or gases developed under water to the generation
+  of motive power, and in the combination of apparatus, by means
+  of which the power thus produced is accumulated, transmitted
+  and applied. The principal element of this combination is a
+  wheel or disc (shown in plan and section, Figs. 1, 2), the
+  dimensions of which are proportioned to the power required. On
+  the circumference of this wheel are fixed at equal distances
+  a given number (say sixteen) of flexible air reservoirs _a_,
+  communicating with an equal number of tubular passages _b_,
+  which open in the nave _c_. In the length of the fixed shaft
+  _d_, on which this wheel is mounted, are formed two cylindrical
+  cells E by which the air is admitted to and discharged from
+  the flexible reservoirs _a_ by the tubular passages _b_, with
+  which they correspond. The hydro-atmospheric wheel thus mounted
+  and immersed to the required depth in a suitable reservoir as
+  in _f_, is placed in communication by its hollow shaft with an
+  air-compressing apparatus of any convenient form, which in its
+  turn is connected with the shaft of an ordinary hydraulic wheel.
+  The latter being set in motion acts on the forcing apparatus, by
+  which a jet of compressed air is thrown into the hollow shaft
+  of the hydro-atmospheric wheel by the entry cell corresponding
+  with the orifices of the fourth quadrant or lowest immersed
+  section of the latter. The air injected following the tubular
+  passages within its range enters and inflates the corresponding
+  flexible reservoirs, which thus acquiring an ascensional
+  force proportioned to their displacing capacity and degree of
+  immersion, carry forward the wheel in their movement towards
+  the surface. On reaching the water line the tubular passage
+  come into communication by the nave orifices with the discharge
+  cell of the fixed shaft, and give egress to the air compressed
+  in the flexible reservoirs, which collapse simultaneously with
+  the inflation of the succeeding series by which they have in
+  the meantime been replaced in the fourth quadrant. The latter
+  following the ascensional movement of their predecessors give
+  place to a third series, and collapse in the same way on passing
+  the surface, so that each air reservoir on re-entering the water
+  in the continued revolution of the wheel presents comparatively
+  little resistance until it arrives at the turning point, when
+  the communication with the entry cell of the axle being again
+  established the movements above described are reproduced. The
+  force thus developed by the hydro-atmospheric wheel, which
+  represents about three times that of the prime motor, may be at
+  this stage applied to the required transmissions of movement.
+  When natural watercourses are not to be had within a reasonable
+  distance of the locality in which the force is to be applied, it
+  becomes necessary to replace them by an artificial fall.
+
+
+Von Rathen and Ellis's Device
+
+In 1866 Anthony Bernhard Baron Von Rathen and George Henry Ellis, both
+of London, applied for and obtained British patent on
+
+"A New or Improved Mode of Constructing a Motive-power Wheel Whereby to
+Obtain Permanent Motion by the Application of Compressed Air or any
+other Elastic Fluid."
+
+In the specifications for patent the essentials of their invention are
+described as follows:
+
+  This invention may be considered supplementary to an invention
+  of the Baron Von Rathen of an elementary motive-power engine,
+  for which a patent has been granted to him, No. 818, and dated
+  March 23, 1865, and consisting in a newly-discovered plan for the
+  construction of a motive-power wheel or engine, on the principle
+  that the motor, consisting of compressed air or other elastic
+  fluid, is maintained in permanent activity and without removal
+  or renewal, and the useful resistance of the air in the chambers
+  is on the surface of a fixed cylinder, the motion is regular and
+  direct, the wheel rotating on its fixed central axis.
+
+  The nature of our present invention consists principally in our
+  providing, instead of that a motive-power wheel having its axis
+  upon fixed bearings in an eccentric position and turning in an
+  oscillating cylinder. The motor being brought through a hollow
+  shaft, or any convenient channel, is introduced into one or more
+  closed chambers formed upon the longest arm of the power wheel
+  for the purpose of driving it round; by this means, according to
+  the uniform pressure of the elastic fluid upon all surfaces, we
+  obtain not only a continuous but an additional degree of driving
+  power from the leverage given by the position of the wheel. There
+  is, as shown in Fig. 1 of the accompanying drawing, a fixed arm
+  or driving rod fixed upon the cylinder by which to impart motion
+  to a crank, piston, or other apparatus. We propose to obtain
+  the motor by pumps worked by or in connection with the power
+  wheel, and having other suitable and necessary appliances for
+  regulating, storing, transmitting, and manipulating the force
+  supplied to or communicated by the power wheel, as have been
+  described, to be applied with the plan for working the elementary
+  motive-power engine hereinbefore referred to.
+
+  Fig. 1 is a vertical section of the power wheel revolving inside
+  and moving the oscillating cylinder.
+
+  A¹ and A² are air-tight chambers, the former being the driving
+  chamber and the latter intended to check or counterbalance its
+  wedging or binding effect upon the cylinder, owing to the extra
+  leverage obtained and the pressure upon the surface of the rod
+  B, the wheel will revolve in that direction by the action of the
+  elastic force which finds its useful resistance on the internal
+  surface of the cylinder C. D¹, D², D³, D⁴, are packings to render
+  the two chambers air-tight and to afford bearings for the four
+  arms of the wheel upon the cylinder; E, E, are two tubes for
+  conducting the motor into the chambers, and F is the axle, upon
+  which the wheel is firmly fixed and driven round with it.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Fig. 2 is a side elevation of the power wheel. F is the hollow
+  shaft or axle through which the motor passes from the pumps or
+  reservoir in connection therewith, and upon which the wheel
+  rotates; G is the rod or arm fixed at one end to the cylinder C,
+  and attached at the other end by a joint or coupling H to the rod
+  I, acting within a cylinder to give motion to the piston K; L is
+  one of the side covers of the power wheel, and N the support or
+  framework for the wheel.
+
+
+Richard Varley's Device
+
+In 1797 Richard Varley, of Damside, Lancashire, England, a merchant,
+applied for and obtained a British patent on
+
+"A New Perpetual Moving Power."
+
+His device is explained by the following excerpt from his application:
+
+  "My invention consists of a method of applying the weight of the
+  atmosphere upon a wheel in any other fluid, and by that means
+  destroying its spring or reaction, the manner of doing which I
+  describe as follows, agreeable to the drawing (Fig. 6) annexed:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  "A is a circular vessel, made of copper or any other substance,
+  capable of containing water, and covered with a top part so as
+  to be perfectly air-tight. B is a wheel placed in the inside of
+  the vessel, with its axle perpendicular, the uppermost part of
+  which comes through the top of the vessel, and is made to work
+  air-tight; the lower end runs in a step within the vessel, and
+  no part of the wheel is to touch the vessel but its axis. C is a
+  cylinder placed firmly upon the wheel. D is the piston, suspended
+  by a chain to a strong spring fixed on the wheel. This spring
+  is to be made of such strength as that when the whole weight
+  of the atmosphere is upon the piston the air will only move it
+  about one inch down. E is the tube leading from the axle, which
+  is hollow from the top to the level of the wheel, so as to admit
+  the external air by this tube to the piston D, which piston is a
+  circular vessel, made air-tight, and exactly fits the cylinder.
+  There is a joint in the tube E at F, which is made air-tight by
+  leathers, so that when the piston descends the tube may give way
+  to it. G is a small tube leading from the bottom of the cylinder
+  to the center of the axle, and from thence brought out at the
+  end of it, and by which the air is extracted from the cylinder
+  by means of an air pump and a vacuum formed in it. On the top
+  part or any other convenient place of the vessel, are fixed two
+  cylinders or tubes of a proportional size to the cylinders on
+  the wheel, one of which is a condensing cylinder, by means of a
+  screw and piston, and by which the water in the vessel may be
+  compressed; the other has its piston suspended at the bottom,
+  and the top part of the cylinder being filled with air as the
+  other piston is screwed down this rises, and condenses the air in
+  the cylinder, the spring of which keeps the water in the vessel
+  pressed to all parts alike; and when the air is extracted from
+  the cylinder C and the piston D is forced down by the external
+  atmosphere into the cylinder, this pressure is continued, and the
+  condensed air expands in proportion and prevents any tendency
+  to a vacuum being formed, which would cause a cohesion of all
+  the parts. By this means the external air is suspended upon the
+  wheel by the chain, the same as a weight, and the spring of the
+  atmosphere being taken from the cylinder there is nothing to
+  oppose this weight, there being no spring in water; and this
+  power may be increased in proportion to the size and number of
+  cylinders on the wheel and its diameter."
+
+
+Siphon and Funnel Device
+
+This was the work of an Englishman whose name is unknown. An account of
+it appeared in "Mechanics' Magazine," 1828, in the following language:
+
+  _a_ is a circular glass vessel 1 foot 6 inches diameter; _b b_ a
+  tube fixed thereunto; _c c_ are funnels containing valves; _d_,
+  a float of hollow copper, or any light substance; _e_, an open
+  mouth; _f_, an open vessel filled with mercury as high as the
+  dotted line.
+
+  It is well known that several experiments were made by M.
+  Venturi, Sir Isaac Newton, etc., demonstrating that a vessel
+  shaped thus--
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  will emit water with a much greater rapidity than a vessel shaped
+  thus--
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  say, with more than a third as much speed. I propose, then, to
+  have the mouth of the vessel _a_ of the former shape, being the
+  natural form of flowing water. The vessel _a_, and tube _b_,
+  must be completely filled with mercury, by means of the funnels
+  _c c_, which will also contain mercury. In order to set the fluid
+  in motion, the valve in the large vessel _c_ is to be raised;
+  the mercury (which was hitherto held up by a greater weight of
+  atmosphere) will instantly run out of the mouth _e_, and must
+  be suffered to do so till the mercury in _c_ is level with the
+  dotted line; by this time the mercury in _a_ will have obtained
+  a momentum which will be more than equivalent to the pressure of
+  the atmosphere: consequently, the mercury will run out of the
+  large vessel _a_, till it falls as low as the dotted line; the
+  float _d_, resting on the mercury, of course, falls with it,
+  opens the valve, and admits a proportionable quantity of mercury
+  through the tube _b_, driven by the pressure of the atmosphere
+  (the height from the mercury in _f_, to the top of the tube
+  _b_, being only 26 inches, which is 2 inches less than what the
+  atmosphere will at all times raise mercury in a vacuum).
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  By this means will there not be a continual circulation of
+  mercury?
+
+
+Orchard's Vacuum Engine
+
+In 1826 there was published in "Mechanics' Magazine," London, a
+communication from a Mr. Orchard, concerning an invention he considered
+himself as having made. The account is published in his own words, and
+is as follows:
+
+  A is an iron reservoir nearly filled with mercury; B, a tube
+  twenty-four inches long, having its lower end inserted in that
+  reservoir; and C and D, two cocks for the convenience of filling
+  the tube B. From this another tube M proceeds at right angles, to
+  the vessel G. In this latter tube is the cock F, to admit of, or
+  shut off, a communication between the tube and the vessel G. This
+  communication being closed, the tube B is carefully filled with
+  mercury; after which the cock D is closed and the cap E screwed
+  on.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The vessel G is to be filled with mercury through the cock H,
+  the pipe I being open to allow of the escape of air. When this
+  vessel has been filled, the cock H should be closed and its cap
+  screwed on; and the pipe I be also closed by a valve, which is
+  to be pressed tight by the cap on the head of the pipe. I is a
+  vent-pipe, open at the top. The space represented by the double
+  lines is a panel of thick plate glass having two horizontal lines
+  described on its surface, whereby the attendant may observe the
+  quantity of mercury within the vessel.
+
+  The cock F being closed, a quantity of mercury must be allowed
+  to run out of the vessel G, equal to the space 1, 2, 3, 4,
+  which space will become a vacuum. If, therefore, the cock L be
+  then opened, to allow of the discharge of a certain quantity of
+  mercury on the wheel, and the cocks C and L also opened, the
+  mercury will continually rise from the reservoir A into the
+  vessel G, and thence be discharged on the wheel, whence it will
+  again fall into the vessel A, to keep up the supply. The cock F
+  must be so adjusted as to admit into the vessel G a quantity of
+  mercury equal to that which is discharged by the cock L. This can
+  be ascertained and regulated by means of the panel of glass above
+  described.
+
+  The specific gravity of mercury being 7½ ounces, it is evident
+  that but a small quantity of it is required to turn the wheel,
+  which has no friction but that of the axis on which it turns.
+
+
+Robert Copland's Device
+
+In 1819 Robert Copland applied for a British patent on
+
+"A New or Improved Method or Methods of Gaining Power by New or
+Improved Combinations of Apparatus, Applicable to Various Purposes."
+
+His specifications describe in great detail his invention in the
+following language:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Figure 1 is a view of a machine by which I purpose to derive a
+  disposable force or power from the action, weight or pressure
+  of the atmosphere, through the medium of the column of water
+  or other heavy liquid descending on one side of the enclosed
+  vertical wheel, and from thence through the centrifugal wheel,
+  being returned into the same reservoir from which the pressure
+  of the atmosphere raises it to be again delivered on the top of
+  the vertical wheel to supply the discharge on the descending
+  side, arising from the centrifugal force communicated to it by
+  the rotary velocity of the centrifugal wheel, and the pressure of
+  the descending column overbalancing the reaction or resistance of
+  the atmosphere at the discharging apertures of the centrifugal
+  wheel. Thus a small quantity of water or other liquid (according
+  to the size of the machine required) being continually returned
+  onto the top of the vertical wheel by the pressure or action of
+  the atmosphere, and acting by its unbalanced gravity or impetus
+  in its descent, will produce a disposable force or power of
+  any required magnitude, by increasing the size or number of
+  the machines, provided the height the fluid is required to be
+  raised is not quite so high as the column which the atmosphere,
+  when lightest, will raise of that fluid, and allowing for the
+  requisite velocity on the vertical wheel. In Fig. 1, A is the
+  feeding pipe through which the fluid is raised by the pressure
+  or action of the atmosphere on the fluid in the lowest reservoir
+  in which the lower end of the pipe is immersed, closed by a
+  cock, sliding plate, valve or shutter, to allow the machine
+  to be filled at the commencement, and which may be under the
+  surface of the fluid, also to keep it air-tight. The other end
+  is inserted air-tight into the top reservoir, or by a curve, as
+  shown by the dotted line _a_, joined to pipe C, and delivering
+  upon the vertical wheel, without any top reservoir. In this case,
+  if water is used, the highest part of the bend or curve inside
+  should not exceed thirty feet above the level of the water in
+  lowest reservoir. B is the top reservoir, the lowest internal
+  part of which should never exceed twenty-nine or thirty feet
+  above the water in lowest reservoir, but it will admit the top
+  of the reservoir, if wished, to be rather higher than when the
+  curved tube _a_ only is used. It must be quite air-tight, and
+  supported as convenient. C is a pipe, joined air-tight to top
+  reservoir, or forming part of A, _a_, C. C is a movable flap
+  of strong leather, or other substance, which may be joined to
+  the lowest part of C, where the water is delivered so high on
+  the wheel and where floats with hinges are used on the wheel to
+  prevent its going down on the ascending side; but not necessary
+  when water is delivered lower on the wheel. D, D, D, D, is the
+  fixed and immovable waterway, and the fixed case or cover (of
+  the vertical wheel), of which it is a part, joining also the
+  stuffing boxes, through which the axle of the vertical wheel
+  moves air-tight, thus entirely enclosing and surrounding every
+  part of the wheel but the projections of the axle, and allowing
+  the float boards and wheel just to turn freely in it without
+  touching in any part except the axle in turning in the packing
+  of the stuffing boxes; the float boards are fastened on to the
+  iron rim or sole of the vertical wheel by very strong hinges or
+  movable joints just within the fixed waterway D. E is a pipe or
+  pipes joined air-tight to the fixed cover or case enclosing the
+  vertical wheel where the water is to be taken off it, having
+  their lower ends inserted air-tight also into the bottom of
+  the fixed and immovable top of the centrifugal wheel in such
+  a direction that they may deliver the water into the moveable
+  waterway of the centrifugal wheel as near as possible in the
+  same direction as the water circulates in the wheel. F, F, is
+  the centrifugal wheel, of any diameter convenient, according to
+  the size of the machine, placed horizontally above the fluid
+  in the lowest reservoir, so as to move on its axis as near as
+  possible to the surface of the fluid without touching it, having
+  an immovable cover or top, leaving a hollow waterway round the
+  rim, into which the fluid is discharged from E in the direction
+  of the wheels' motion. G, G, are the discharging apertures of the
+  centrifugal wheel. H, H, is the surface of the fluid in I, I,
+  the lowest reservoir, containing a sufficient quantity of water
+  when the machine is put to work, to allow the bottom of feeding
+  pipe A to be immersed in it at least two feet below the surface,
+  or a greater depth may be given to that part of the reservoir
+  under the mouth of pipe A, forming a sort of well in which A may
+  be inserted any required depth, better to exclude any particles
+  of air or bubbles mixed with the water nearer its surface from
+  ascending in pipe A. This reservoir should be large enough to
+  contain the whole of the water used before the machine is filled.
+  K, K, are the ends of the axle of vertical wheel outside of the
+  stuffing boxes of the fixed case, and are the only parts of the
+  vertical wheel seen, and turning air-tight through the packing
+  or stuffing boxes, or in any other manner the external air is
+  entirely excluded from the vertical wheel when at work; _e_ is
+  an air-tight cock to discharge the air out of the machine when
+  filling. L is an aperture into top reservoir, or into highest
+  part of pipe A, _a_ when no top reservoir, closed air-tight by
+  a screw cap; by this the whole machine is filled in every part
+  with the fluid used before it can be set to work, the bottom of
+  pipe A and apertures G (as well as cock to bottom of pipe E
+  when required) being previously closed. P is part of the axle on
+  which the centrifugal wheel revolves. Before the machine can be
+  put to work everything being previously arranged as directed, the
+  apertures at G and bottom of A (and at E if required also), must
+  be closed by sliding plates, valves, cocks, or other methods, as
+  most convenient, and every part of the machine must be filled
+  with the water or fluid used by the aperture L, or any other
+  convenient method by which the highest parts may be filled, the
+  air allowed to discharge by opening E and O, the latter to be
+  shut as soon as the centrifugal wheel is filled, and the cock at
+  E closed where required, when the water is above it a little, _e_
+  continuing open so as to allow the air to be entirely discharged
+  from every part, which being done, and the machine entirely
+  filled with water, this cock and aperture L must be carefully
+  closed; having then fixed upon the most convenient method for
+  giving the required assistance to set the machine to work, by
+  giving the centrifugal wheel motion, and assisting it till
+  arrived at the velocity fixed, it must be put in motion and the
+  apertures G opened; after it has got a little into motion, and as
+  soon as the velocity of the wheel has given a centrifugal force
+  to the water sufficient to overbalance the slight difference in
+  the height of the feeding and descending columns, the pipe A must
+  be opened; a discharge from the apertures G will now take place,
+  which is supplied from top reservoir B over the loaded side of
+  vertical wheel, where, by its gravity and impetus acting on
+  the float boards, it causes the wheel to turn till it descends,
+  so as to be discharged through E, on the rim or waterway W, of
+  the centrifugal wheel, which it strikes with the velocity of
+  its descent in nearly the direction of the wheel's motion, and
+  is discharged through apertures G into the water contained at
+  commencement in lower reservoir I, from whence this discharge
+  is again supplied by the pressure of the atmosphere, returning
+  it through pipe A into top reservoir, or through _a_, C, and
+  the part intended of the vertical wheel. As the velocity of the
+  centrifugal wheel is accelerated, the velocity of the descending
+  column over the vertical wheel will also be accelerated, and,
+  consequently, the vertical wheels, when having arrived at their
+  respective fixed velocities, the assisting force being no longer
+  necessary, may be withdrawn, and the centrifugal wheel may now
+  receive what assistance is required to support its velocity from
+  the vertical wheel through the connecting shafts and wheelwork,
+  or in any other manner.
+
+
+Eaton's Perpetual Siphon. London. 1850
+
+The account of this is taken from Dircks's great work, mentioned in the
+preface, and is as follows:
+
+  This is a plan proposed by Mr. Eaton in 1850, and consists in
+  providing two water cisterns A, B; the short leg of a siphon C
+  enters the upper cistern, and terminates in three escape pipes,
+  capable of being rotated by the pulley _a_, connected by a
+  band with the pulley _b_, affixed to the vertical shaft _c_,
+  rotated by the inverted Barker's mill D, constructed on the short
+  leg of the inverted siphon E, supplied from the bottom of the
+  upper water cistern. By this means it was expected to keep up a
+  continual flow down the pipes C and up E, as shown by the arrows.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+Legge's Hydro-Pneumatic Power Device. 1850
+
+This is an English production, and the inventor claims that it is the
+result of fourteen years' study. We take the description from Dircks.
+It is as follows:
+
+  It is a dome-shaped vessel; its upper part A filled with air,
+  and the lower half with water, as at B. This vessel contains two
+  apparatus for returning the water which is worked through C D,
+  apparently like pump barrels. The air is to be at from 250 to 500
+  pounds pressure on the square inch. When once started it will (it
+  is stated) go on as long as it is oiled. The inventor estimates a
+  one thirty-second share at one thousand pounds value.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+Waterblowing Machine
+
+In 1827 "Mechanics' Magazine," London, published an account of an
+invention which was furnished to it by some correspondent. The
+invention, it seems from the communication, had previously been
+described in an appendix by Dr. Brewster to a volume of Ferguson's
+lectures, and it also seems that the description furnished "Mechanics'
+Magazine" was copied from such appendix. The following is the article
+as it appeared in "Mechanics' Magazine":
+
+  I am encouraged to send you the following attempt at perpetual
+  motion, because I think it is upon a principle that has not yet
+  been examined in your pages.
+
+  In Dr. Brewster's appendix to Ferguson's lectures, the following
+  description is given of what is called a "Water Blowing Machine":
+  "Let A B (see Fig.) be a cistern of water, with the bottom of
+  which is connected the bended leaden pipe B C H. The lower
+  extremity H, of the pipe is inserted into the top of a cask or
+  vessel, D E, called the condensing vessel, having the pedestal P
+  fitted to its bottom, which is perforated with two openings, M N.
+  When the water which comes from the cistern A is falling through
+  the part, C H of the pipe, it is supplied by the openings or
+  tubes, _m_ _n_ _o_ _p_, with a quantity of air which it carries
+  along with it. This mixture of air and water, issuing from the
+  aperture H, and impinging upon the surface of the stone pedestal
+  P, is driven back and dispersed in various directions. The air
+  being thus separated from the water, ascends into the upper part
+  of the vessel, and rushes through the opening F, whence it is
+  conveyed to the fire, while the water falls to the lower part
+  of the vessel, and runs out by the openings M N." The author
+  then goes on to describe the construction of the pipe B C H,
+  in the curve of which some nicety is required, and to explain
+  some atmospherical phenomena upon the principle of this machine,
+  adding that "Franciscus Tertius de Lanis observes that he has
+  seen a greater wind generated by a blowing machine of this kind
+  than could be produced by bellows ten or twelve feet long."
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Now, if, instead of the pedestal P, a wheel were placed in the
+  condensing vessel, as in the figure, would not the water, in
+  falling upon the wheel, be sufficiently dispersed to disengage
+  the air at the same time that it drove the wheel, and would
+  not the motion of the wheel be retarded by the density of the
+  internal air?
+
+  I do not apprehend that any considerable resistance would be
+  offered by the internal air, and the motion of the wheel can be
+  regulated by its load, so as to offer a sufficient resistance to
+  the descending stream of water; and I, therefore, assume that
+  the water, in its descent, would produce by means of the wheel,
+  a power capable of raising a part of the water expended back
+  again to the cistern; and this is the extent of the power of
+  most of those machines which have been mistaken for perpetual
+  motions by their projectors. But I have a blast of wind which
+  is described as being of great force. Can this blast be in any
+  way applied to raise the surplus water? I think I see the smile
+  which the proposal will produce in those who deny the possibility
+  of a perpetual motion. "A mere puff of wind!" is doubtless
+  ejaculated from all sides. But let me tell these gentlemen
+  that, though I may not know any method by which such blast can
+  produce that effect, it does not, by any means, follow that the
+  impossibility of the thing is thence to be presumed. Far from
+  it; for such a conclusion rests upon the supposition that the
+  powers and application of a blast of wind are fully known, and
+  that no research or experience can add to our knowledge on that
+  subject--assumptions which appear to me somewhat ridiculous.
+  Allow me, for the sake of argument, to suppose that this blast
+  instead of wind, had been a blast of steam. Time was when wise
+  men would have smiled and said, "A puff of steam--a mere puff of
+  steam!"--and had some one, more sanguine than the rest, attempted
+  by its application to produce a motion, he would have applied it
+  to the floatboards of a wheel, as in Branca's engine, and have
+  been disappointed. It is not given to man to know when the powers
+  of any great agent have been fully developed; and those who act
+  upon such presumptions throw the greatest obstacles in the way of
+  inquiry. But, to show the anti-perpetualists that within their
+  own time since the commencement of the "Mechanics' Magazine," an
+  addition has been made to our knowledge of the powers of a blast
+  of wind, I have added a tube, G, to my figure, the proposed use
+  of which I shall now describe.
+
+  In a part of the "Mechanics' Magazine," published some time ago,
+  there was described a novel mode of raising water in a tube by
+  directing a stream of air over its mouth, thereby destroying the
+  pressure of the atmosphere.
+
+  I do not suppose it will rise to the height of the cistern as I
+  have figured it; but it may still be a question whether it may
+  not be accomplished by a series of short tubes, the bottom of
+  the one being placed in the cistern into which the next below
+  discharges its water, each being constructed with a blast and two
+  valves, in the same manner as the single tube--namely, the valves
+  _x_ (under water) and _y_, worked in such a manner by the arms
+  K L, that the one may shut when the other opens. Presuming that
+  the water will rise to the top of the tube when the blast is in
+  action (_x_ open and _y_ shut), the water in the part of the tube
+  between the blast and _y_ will be discharged into the cistern at
+  the next motion of the valves--namely, when _x_ is shut and _y_
+  opened, the blast, at the same time, being discontinued.
+
+
+Device by Means of Buoyancy Through Media of Different Densities
+
+An account of this appeared in "Mechanics' Magazine," 1825. The author
+apparently had no great faith in the accomplishment of Perpetual
+Motion, and yet it is manifest that he had not abandoned hope of
+accomplishing it, and is still thinking along some line of attaining
+it. It goes without saying that the device failed. The account
+furnished, however, is as follows:
+
+  The unsuccessful (but far from fruitless) search made to discover
+  the "philosopher's stone," and the "elixir vitæ," were productive
+  of most important and beneficial results in the kingdom of
+  chemistry; so, by a parity of consequence, I am disposed to
+  believe that from inquiry after the "perpetual motion" (though
+  equally unsuccessful), a similar good will result to the
+  mechanical world. * * I beg leave to offer the prefixed device.
+  The point at which, like all the rest, it fails, I confess I
+  did not (as I do now) plainly perceive at once, although it is
+  certainly very obvious. The original idea was this--to enable a
+  body which would float in a heavy medium and sink in a lighter
+  one, to pass successively through the one to the other, the
+  continuation of which would be the end in view. To say that
+  valves cannot be made to act as proposed will not be to show the
+  _rationale_ (if I may so say) upon which the idea is fallacious.
+
+  The figure is supposed to be tubular, and made of glass, for the
+  purpose of seeing the action of the balls inside, which float or
+  fall as they travel from air through water and from water through
+  air. The foot is supposed to be placed in water, but it would
+  answer the same purpose if the bottom were closed.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGRAVING.--No. 1, the left leg, filled with
+  water from B to A. 2 and 3, valves, having in their centers very
+  small projecting valves; they all open upwards. 4, the right
+  leg, containing air from A to F. 5 and 6, valves, having very
+  small ones in their centers; they all open downwards. The whole
+  apparatus supposed to be air- and water-tight. The round figures
+  represent hollow balls, which will sink one-fourth of their bulk
+  in water (of course will fall in air); the weight, therefore, of
+  three balls resting upon one ball in water, as at E, will just
+  bring this top even with the water's edge; the weight of four
+  balls will sink it under the surface until the ball immediately
+  over it is one-fourth its bulk in water, when the under ball will
+  escape round the corner at C, and begin to ascend.
+
+  The machine is supposed (in the figure) to be in action, and
+  No. 8 (one of the balls) to have just escaped round the corner
+  at C, and to be, by its buoyancy, rising up to valve No. 3,
+  striking first the small projecting valve in the center, which,
+  when opened, the large one will be raised by the buoyancy of the
+  ball; because the moment the small valve in the center is opened
+  (although only the size of a pin's head), No. 2 valve will have
+  taken upon itself to sustain the whole column of water from A to
+  B. The said ball (No. 8) having passed through the valve No. 3,
+  will, by appropriate weights or springs, close; the ball will
+  proceed upwards to the next valve (No. 2), and perform the same
+  operation there. Having arrived at A, it will float upon the
+  surface three-fourths of its bulk out of water. Upon another
+  ball in due course arriving under it, it will be lifted quite
+  out of the water and fall over the point D, pass into the right
+  leg (containing air), and fall to valve No. 5, strike and open
+  the small valve in its center, then open the large one and pass
+  through; this valve will then, by appropriate weights or springs,
+  close, the ball will roll on through the bent tube (which is made
+  in that form to gain time as well as to exhibit motion) to the
+  next valve (No. 6), where it will perform the same operation,
+  and then, falling upon the four balls at E, force the bottom one
+  round the corner at C. This ball will proceed as did No. 8, and
+  the rest in the same manner successively.
+
+
+Device by Compressible and Distensible Bags in Liquid
+
+In the year 1823, an account of a Perpetual Motion device was sent
+to "Mechanics' Magazine" by some correspondent. This appears to have
+considerable claim to ingenuity, though the correspondent states that
+"it failed from friction." The figure and account furnished are as
+follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  A A A A is a cistern of water, filled as high as B B. C C C C C C
+  are six bladders, communicating by the tubes D D D D D D with
+  the hollow axle E, which axle is connected with the bellows F by
+  the pipe G. H is a crank connected with the crank I by the rod
+  K. L is a saucer-wheel, M a pinion, N its shaft. O is a crank
+  attached to the bellows F by the rod P. Q Q Q Q Q Q are valves
+  with a projecting lever. R and S are two projecting knobs. T
+  is a hole in the axle E, forming a communication with it and
+  the lowermost bladder. The axle B being put in motion carried
+  round the bladders and tables, and by the cranks H and I, and
+  the connecting-rod K, caused the wheel L to revolve, which
+  communicating a similar but accelerated motion to the pinion M,
+  shaft N, and crank O, worked or blew the bellows F by the rod P;
+  the air entered the axle E by the tube G, and passing through the
+  hole in it at T, entered the lower bladder C by the tube D; this
+  bladder being thus rendered lighter than the space it occupied,
+  ascended, bringing the bladder behind it over the hole in the
+  axle T in like manner, and which thereby gained an ascending
+  power, producing a similar effect on the one behind it. When one
+  of the bladders arrived at the knob S, the lever of the valve Q
+  struck against it and opened the valve; when the bladder arrived
+  at U and began to descend, its pressure on the water drove out
+  the air and gave it a descending power; the knob R then closed
+  the valve Q and prevented the entrance of any water into the
+  bladder; by this contrivance three of the bladders were full and
+  empty, according as they passed over the hole T or the knob S.
+
+
+George Cunningham's Mercurial Pneumatic Device. Ireland. 1729
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Among the papers in the British Museum is one which purports to relate
+to the Royal Society, and in that Royal Society volume it is number
+32. It is quite amusing. The author explains that he is withholding
+many precise details and measurements "such as workmen should follow in
+making the engine. Intending no more here than the endeavor to satisfy
+some others as well as myself, that there is really such a thing to be
+found as that long-sought for Perpetual Motion, which is looked upon by
+every one to be the true parent of the Longitude.--Description of the
+Perpetual Motion":
+
+  A, a cup nearly full of mercury.
+
+  B, the height the mercury will rise by its own weight in--
+
+  K, the main pipe, when--
+
+  C, the lower cock is open.
+
+  E, a hollow globe which must be capable of a greater quantity
+  than the whole pipe K.
+
+  F, the upper cock by which the mercury is filled into the engine
+       and about 27 inches higher than the line B.
+
+  D, the middle cock which, when open, lets the mercury fall upon
+       the buckets of the wheel--
+
+  G, and then passing down--
+
+  I, a funnel which contracts itself at
+
+  L, into a pipe which directs the mercury into the cup A.
+
+  H, a case which entirely covers the wheel (being of the same
+       metal, and of a piece with the pipe), through which the axis
+       of the wheel passes to set another wheel agoing; so becom [ing]
+       the principal mover in the clock or engine to be contrived.
+
+
+_The Manner of Setting It to Work_
+
+Stop the cock at C and fill mercury into the cup A, higher than the
+line B; then stop the cock at D and turn in mercury at the cock F,
+till K and E are full; stop the cock at F, very close, open C, first,
+and then D, out of which the mercury will fall upon the buckets of the
+wheel G, down the funnel I, L, into the cup A, and be pressed up K, by
+the weight of the air, as in the barometer.
+
+
+Why the Devices Described in this Chapter Failed to Work
+
+The devices explained in the preceding chapter are of such complicated
+and ridiculous structure that it is impossible to explain anything from
+them. It is better to abandon them all and to discuss in a general way
+why Perpetual Motion has not been, and cannot be, attained by devices
+constructed on similar plans. An examination of the preceding devices
+in this chapter shows that they depended ultimately upon the fact:
+
+1. That air or some other gas is to be compressed by work done upon it
+and that upon expanding it will do a greater amount of work than was
+required for the compression, or
+
+2. That a bag empty, or partially filled with air, or other gas, can be
+easily immersed, and that if blown full of gas while immersed it will,
+in its tendency to float, do more work than was required to immerse it,
+or
+
+3. That the weight of the atmosphere and its consequent pressure upon
+vacua can be utilized to drive a piston, or compress a bag and by
+some sort of means at the same time produce another vacua ready for a
+similar operation, the loss of the driven piston, or the compressed bag
+being utilized to drive machinery, if desired.
+
+It is now believed by all scientific men that none of these things are
+possible. In the first place, it is well known that compressed air
+will do exactly the same work in regaining its former volume that was
+expended upon it to compress it, and this with absolute exactness.
+In compressing the gas with a piston the force exerted upon the rod
+to drive the piston must be sufficient not only to compress the gas
+but also to overcome the friction of the tight fitting piston, and
+further, if the pressure on the rod be removed, the expanding gas will
+deliver against the face of the piston exactly the force and energy
+required to drive the piston for the compression, but not all of this
+can be returned to any machinery driven by the piston-rod, for a part
+will be lost in the friction of the tight-fitting parts. Thus here, as
+elsewhere, there is an exact equivalent of energy a part of which is
+consumed in friction, and only a part available for returned motion.
+The same thing is true in compressing a bag, except that possibly
+the bending of the fabric is less resistance than the friction of
+the tight-fitting piston. Still, the bending of the fabric is some
+resistance, and consequently the bag so expanding cannot return all
+the energy required for its compression, the difference being the loss,
+however slight, in the bending of the fabric of which the bag is made.
+
+Again, let us admit that a dilated bag is easily immersed in water,
+and that if inflated with air there will be considerable tendency to
+rise, but how much energy is required for the inflation? It is manifest
+that if it is immersed the weight of the water and its consequent
+pressure will resist the attempted inflation, and must be overcome
+before the inflation is complete. The deeper the immersion the more the
+compression, and consequently the more work required for the inflation.
+If a bag having a contents of one cubic foot were immersed a mile in
+fresh water, and if it should be attempted to inflate it, the reader
+will perhaps be surprised to know that the inflation would have to be
+done against a pressure of substantially 2,400 pounds to the square
+inch. It is simple that the deeper the bag is immersed the more work
+it will do in rising to the surface, but it is equally plain that the
+deeper it is immersed the more energy is required for its inflation. In
+each case the work of inflating is exactly equal to the work returned
+in rising to the surface, and there is not one whit to spare for
+running machinery of any kind.
+
+The third classes of devices above mentioned assume atmospheric
+pressure, and a piston driven by atmospheric pressure. This is easily
+attained, but in order for atmospheric pressure to drive a piston it
+must only be on one side of the piston, and when the piston has been
+driven what force and energy will be required to put it in a position
+again such that there will be atmosphere on only one side, and a vacuum
+into which it can retire, on the other side? It is easily answered. The
+same work must be done, and the same work exactly, to put the piston
+again in the position with the vacuum with equal dimensions into which
+it can be driven by atmospheric pressure, that first drove it to occupy
+the vacuum--exactly the same work, and no less and no more, except that
+the amount lost by friction must be supplied in addition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MAGNETIC DEVICES
+
+
+A Magnetic Pendulum
+
+Here we present a device for Perpetual Motion by magnetism, but we are
+unable to give the inventor's name or his nativity. It seems to have
+been brought forth in the early part of the nineteenth century, prior
+to 1828. The description is as follows:
+
+  Let A A, in the prefixed engraving, represent two magnets
+  revolving on axes. Let B represent a larger magnet, hanging on
+  an axis, pendulum fashion, between the two former. As the poles
+  of the two smaller magnets lie in the same direction, the effect
+  will be to draw the larger magnet towards that on the left hand,
+  while it is at the same time repelled by that on the right; but
+  while this is going on, the upper end of the large magnet raises
+  by means of a guide wire, the tumbler D, which, just before the
+  magnets come in contact, passes the perpendicular and falls over,
+  carrying with it the lever connected with the two wheels C C, and
+  causing them to perform a quarter revolution; these wheels are
+  connected by lines with two small wheels fixed on the axles of
+  the two magnets A A. While the former make a quarter revolution,
+  the latter turn half round; consequently, the position of the
+  magnets is reversed, and the same motions are then performed by
+  the pendulum magnet being attracted and repelled in the opposite
+  direction; and just before the magnets touch each other the
+  arrangement is again instantly reversed.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+Magnetic-Driven Wheel
+
+Another plan for Perpetual Motion by magnetism appeared in the public
+journals of England in 1828. The inventor states in effect that he
+desires to get before the readers an
+
+"Attempt at Perpetual Motion by Means of Magnetism, Applied in a New
+Way."
+
+His attempt as published is as follows:
+
+  The object of the present communication is to lay before your
+  readers an attempt at perpetual motion by means of magnetism
+  applied somewhat differently to any that has yet been published
+  in your Magazine.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The above is a wheel of light construction, moving on friction
+  wheels _in vacuo_; the rim is furnished with slips of
+  steel--pieces of watch-spring will do. N N are two magnets,
+  which, attracting the rim of the wheel, will render one side
+  lighter and the other heavier, causing it to revolve _ad
+  infinitum_: or to render it more powerful, let the steel rims
+  be magnetized and fixed on the wheel with their north poles
+  towards its center. Let two more magnets be added, as shown by
+  the dotted lines: let these two, S S, be placed with their south
+  poles nearest the rim of the wheel; and the other two, N N, with
+  their north poles in that position. Now, as similar poles repel
+  and opposite poles attract, the wheel will be driven round by
+  attraction and repulsion acting conjointly on four points of its
+  circumference. B B are blocks of wood to keep off the attraction
+  of the magnets from that part of the wheel which has passed them.
+
+
+Mackintosh's Experiment
+
+F. S. Mackintosh, of England, in 1823, sought to accomplish Perpetual
+Motion, and made the attempt here described. It was not made public
+until 1836, when it was published in "Mechanics' Magazine." In the
+meantime, the inventor had become convinced of the impossibility
+of perpetual motion, as his comments on his own alleged invention
+discloses.
+
+(The classification in this book of Mackintosh's invention is somewhat
+doubtful. The article as contributed in 1836 would as aptly be
+classified under arguments against Perpetual Motion, Chapter XII. But,
+in view of the fact that at the time of the invention the inventor
+was seriously working at a scheme for the accomplishment of Perpetual
+Motion, it has been decided to classify it under Magnetic Perpetual
+Motion Devices.)
+
+The published article was in the nature of a contribution from the
+inventor, and is as follows:
+
+  I herewith forward you a description of a machine which was
+  constructed by me in the year 1823, with a view to produce a
+  perpetual motion. With this machine and the studies necessarily
+  connected with it, first originated the suspicion that the
+  planets could not continue in motion unless they gradually
+  approached the center of the attraction.
+
+  In the first place, let us describe the machine. Fig. 1: A is
+  a sectional view of the interior of the wheel, which is formed
+  in two halves upon one shaft; each half or section is furnished
+  with a projecting ledge and an opening is left between the two
+  ledges sufficiently wide to admit of a magnet being introduced
+  between them, by which arrangement the magnet may be brought as
+  near to the ball as may be necessary (see Fig. 2). B is a magnet
+  whose line of attraction acts at right angles with the line of
+  gravity. C is an iron ball under the action of two forces. The
+  magnet continually drawing the ball up the inclined plane within
+  the wheel, and gravity continually drawing it to the bottom,
+  by their united action it was supposed the wheel would revolve
+  forever, or till it was worn out; upon the same principle that a
+  wheel revolves by the animal force or muscular action of a mouse
+  or squirrel, which carries it up the inclined plane, whilst it is
+  continually drawn to the bottom by the action of gravity, thereby
+  causing the wheel to revolve by the weight of its body. The
+  model was taken from the earth's motion round the sun; and the
+  following process of reasoning seemed to justify the assumption
+  that the wheel would move on till it was worn out:
+
+  "The earth is carried round the sun by the action of two forces,
+  one of which is momentum, which is not, in reality, a force
+  or cause of motion, but an effect derived from an original
+  impulse; and that impulse or the momentum derived from it is
+  not destroyed, because there is no resistance to the moving
+  body--that is, there is no friction. Well, I cannot make this
+  machine without having resistance to the motion--that is,
+  friction; but to compensate for this I have two real forces, two
+  causes of motion, each of them capable of imparting momentum to
+  a body: they are both constant forces; and from one of them,
+  the magnet, I can obtain any power that may be required within
+  certain limits."
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  This reasoning appeared conclusive, and the wheel was made; but
+  when the magnet was applied instead of the ball rolling up the
+  inclined plane, the wheel moved backwards upon its center. It
+  occurred to me that by placing a small ratchet upon the wheel,
+  as shown at D, this backward motion of the wheel on its center
+  might be prevented, in which case the ball must roll up the
+  inclined plane, and that a perpetual motion might then ensue;
+  but this ratchet I never tried, having about that time begun to
+  perceive that the idea of a perpetual mechanical motion, either
+  on the earth or in the heavens, involves an absurdity; and that,
+  therefore, the motions of the planets must necessarily carry them
+  continually nearer and nearer to the center of attraction.
+
+The above described device by Mr. Mackintosh brought forth the
+following comment from R. Munro, which was published in 1836:
+
+  The result of Mr. Mackintosh's essay at perpetual motion might
+  be attributed to the avoidable friction caused by the manner in
+  which the iron ball is placed in the wheel. Curious to try the
+  experiment, I proceeded, and, with the view of diminishing the
+  friction, I placed two wheels on the axis of the ball, but the
+  result was precisely that described by Mr. Mackintosh. I next
+  applied the ratchet, as suggested, but with no better effect; the
+  ball rolled towards the magnet, but did not give the required
+  motion to the wheel. It is not unlikely, then, that the present
+  ingenious attempt will not be realized.
+
+
+Spence's Device
+
+John Spence, of Linlithgow, Scotland, was a shoemaker, but possessed
+great mechanical ingenuity. He could not keep his mind from the subject
+of mechanics. He devoted a great deal of time to designing mechanical
+schemes for Perpetual Motion. An account of his efforts is taken from
+"Percy Anecdotes."
+
+The device was exhibited in Edinburgh and amazing to state it attracted
+the attention of one of the greatest and most original scientists that
+ever lived, Sir David Brewster.
+
+It is from a letter written by Brewster, in 1818, to the "Annales de
+Chimie," that we get a description of the Spence invention. The editor
+of "Annales de Chimie," was evidently reluctant to publish any article
+concerning Perpetual Motion, and only the great fame of Sir David
+induced him to give space to the contribution. The article was first
+published in France, but it has, with an introductory statement by the
+editor, been translated into English, as follows:
+
+  The reader will readily conclude that in publishing this article
+  we are influenced solely by the great reputation of the learned
+  contributor. Sir David writes from Edinburgh:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  I am almost afraid to inform you that at this moment in Edinburgh
+  may be seen a machine, made by a shoemaker at Linlithgow, which
+  realizes the perpetual motion. This effect is produced by two
+  magnets A and B, acting alternately upon a needle _m n_, of which
+  the point of attachment _n_ corresponds exactly with the axis
+  around which turns the movable lever C D. When the needle _m n_
+  has been attracted into the position _m´ n_ by the action of the
+  magnet B, and C D is in consequence found in C´ D´, a _substance_
+  connected with m n is interposed by mechanism between _m´ n_ and
+  B. This substance has the property of intercepting, or rather of
+  modifying the action of the magnet B, and this permits the other
+  magnet A to draw the needle into the position _m´´ n_; but no
+  sooner has it reached this point than a second plate or layer of
+  the same substance places itself before magnet, and immediately B
+  attracts anew the needle.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The annexed figure exhibits a second form of the machine. A
+  and B are two horse-shoe magnets, _a_ and _b_ the _mysterious
+  substance_, and _m n_ the needle, which turns constantly with
+  great rapidity. Mr. Playfair and Capt. Kater have inspected
+  both of these machines, and are satisfied that they resolve the
+  problem of _perpetual motion_.
+
+
+Joannis Theisneri's Semi-Circle
+
+An account of this invention has been preserved by Gaspar Schott in a
+work entitled "Thaumaturgus Physicus, sive Magiae Universalis Naturae
+et Artis," published in 1859. It is illustrated by the following figure:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The inventor expected the operation of his device to be as follows: "A"
+is a large magnet, elevated on a short pillar at the foot of which is a
+straight inclined tube, "C" "F" the ends of which are connected with a
+curved or semicircular tube "C", "D", "E", "F", as shown in the figure.
+
+The weight at the lower extremity is supposed to ascend through the
+curved tube by the attraction of the magnet "A" and upon reaching the
+point "C" the supposition was that upon passing the point "C" the
+attraction of the magnet "A" would be sufficient to hold it there * *
+* back to the point "F" through the straight tube, and then be drawn
+by the magnet through the curved tube to the point "C" and so on
+perpetually.
+
+The impracticability of the above device is manifest. At a point
+between "D" and "E" it is plain the ball would have to ascend
+perpendicularly and if the magnet exerts sufficient attraction to
+elevate the weight at that point it would surely hold the weight at the
+point "C", for at "C" the weight would be much nearer the magnet and
+consequently much more strongly attracted.
+
+
+Device of Dr. Jacobus
+
+In the same work by Gaspar Schott from which an account of the
+preceding device is obtained he gives an account of the device of Dr.
+Jacobus.
+
+Dr. Jacobus's scheme is illustrated by the following figure:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It will be observed that the above figure shows a string of iron
+balls "A" suspended on a grooved wheel "E" on an axle "C" between two
+uprights "FF". At "H" lies a large lodestone, which is to attract the
+balls at "D" and was expected by the inventor to cause the wheel to
+rotate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DEVICES UTILIZING CAPILLARY ATTRACTION AND PHYSICAL AFFINITY
+
+
+Ludeke and Wilckens's Device
+
+In 1864, Johann Ernst Friedrich Ludeke, of London, and Daniel Wilckens,
+of Surrey, applied for British patent on "Improvements in Motive Power
+by Capillary Attraction." They describe their invention as follows:
+
+  Our invention consists of improvements in motive power by
+  capillary attraction constructed as follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Figure 1 of the accompanying drawings represents in horizontal
+  section a square case or cistern; this cistern is filled with
+  water nearly to the top, and two wheels marked _a_, _a_, and
+  _b_, _b_, are placed in the water in the cistern. By capillary
+  attraction the water rises between the two wheels marked _x_,
+  _x_, to a height above the level of the water in proportion to
+  the distance of the wheels from each other at _x_, _x_. As the
+  water rises between the wheels marked _x_, _x_, above its level,
+  the weight of water between the wheels at _x_, _x_, will cause
+  the wheels to continually revolve.
+
+  Figure 2 represents the same as Figure 1, but in a vertical
+  section. The said power may be obtained by wheels moved on axis,
+  or by other apparatus by rise and fall in the water by vertical
+  motion.
+
+
+The Jurin Device
+
+The device which we have designated "The Jurin Device," was not, in
+fact, invented by Jurin. James Jurin furnished an account of the
+invention to The Royal Society of London, and it appears in the reports
+of that society published in 1720. The invention was by a friend of
+Jurin's whose name he does not give in the account.
+
+Jurin's account of his friend's invention is as follows:
+
+  Some days ago a method was proposed to me by an ingenious friend
+  for making a perpetual motion, which seemed so plausible, and
+  indeed so easily demonstrable from an observation of the late Mr.
+  Hawksbee, said to be grounded upon experiment, that though I am
+  far from having any opinion of attempts of this nature, yet, I
+  confess, I could not see why it should not succeed. Upon trial
+  indeed I found myself disappointed. But as searches after things
+  impossible in themselves are frequently observed to produce other
+  discoveries, unexpected by the Inventor; so this Proposal has
+  given occasion not only to rectify some mistakes into which we
+  had been led, by that ingenious and useful member of the Royal
+  Society above named, but likewise to detect the real principle,
+  by which water is raised and suspended in capillary tubes, above
+  the level.
+
+  My friend's proposal was as follows:
+
+  Fig. 1. Let A B C be a capillary siphon, composed of two legs
+  A B, B C, unequal both in length and diameter; whose longer and
+  narrower leg A B having its orifice A immersed in water, the
+  water will rise above the level, till it fills the whole tube
+  A B, and will then continue suspended. If the wider and shorter
+  leg B C, be in like manner immersed, the water will only rise to
+  same height as F C, less than the entire height of the tube B C.
+
+  This siphon being filled with water and the orifice A sunk below
+  the surface of the water D E, my friend reasons thus:
+
+  Since the two columns of water A B and F C, by the supposition,
+  will be suspended by some power acting within the tubes they are
+  contained in, they cannot determine the water to move one way, or
+  the other. But the column B F, having nothing to support it, must
+  descend, and cause the water to run out at C. Then the pressure
+  of the atmosphere driving the water upward through the orifice A,
+  to supply the vacuity, which would otherwise be left in the upper
+  part of the tube B C, this must necessarily produce a perpetual
+  motion, since the water runs into the same vessel, out of which
+  it rises. But the fallacy of this reasoning appears upon making
+  the experiment.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Exp. 1. For the water, instead of running out at the orifice C
+  rises upwards towards F, and running all out of the leg B C,
+  remains suspended in the other leg to the height A B.
+
+  Exp. 2. The same thing succeeds upon taking the siphon out of
+  the water, into which its lower orifice A had been immersed, the
+  water then falling in drops out of the orifice A, and standing
+  at last at the height A B. But in making these two experiments
+  it is necessary that A G the difference of the legs exceed F C,
+  otherwise the water will not run either way.
+
+  Exp. 3. Upon inverting the siphon full of water, it continues
+  without motion either way.
+
+  The reason of all which will plainly appear, when we come to
+  discover the principle, by which the water is suspended in
+  capillary tubes.
+
+  Mr. Hawksbee's observation is as follows:
+
+  Fig. 2. Let A B F C be a capillary siphon, into which the water
+  will rise above the level to the height C F, and let B A be the
+  depth of the orifice of its longer leg below the surface of the
+  water D E. Then the siphon being filled with water, if B A be
+  not greater than C F, the water will not run out at A, but will
+  remain suspended.
+
+  This seems indeed very plausible at first sight. For since the
+  column of water F C will be suspended by some power within the
+  tube, why should not the column B A, being equal to, or less
+  than the former, continue suspended by the same power.
+
+  Exp. 4. In fact, if the orifice C be lifted up out of the water
+  D E, the water in the tube will continue suspended, unless B A
+  exceed F C.
+
+  Exp. 5. But when C is never so little immersed in the water
+  immediately the water in the tube runs out in drops at the
+  orifice A, though the length A B be considerably less than the
+  height C F.
+
+  Mr. Hawksbee, in his book of Experiments, has advanced another
+  observation, namely, that the shorter leg of a capillary siphon,
+  as A B F C, must be immersed in the water to the depth F C, which
+  is equal to the height of the column, that would be suspended in
+  it, before the water will run out of the longer leg.
+
+  Exp. 6. From what mistake this has proceeded, I cannot imagine;
+  for the water runs out at the longer leg, as soon as the orifice
+  of the shorter leg comes to touch the surface of the stagnant
+  water, without being at all immersed therein.
+
+Jurin's attitude concerning his friend's discovery is pleasing. He
+appears to have had better judgment than to rush into print, or herald
+forth that Perpetual Motion had been accomplished. Indeed, the account
+as given to the Royal Society was that of an experiment and a failure.
+Nevertheless, it presents an interesting point. Capillary Attraction,
+however, creates no new energy. Adhesion is a force, and is often
+quite a strong force in nature.
+
+If a rod or tube be held by the hand at one end, and the other end
+inserted in a liquid, it will be observed that in some instances,
+depending upon the nature of the material of the rod or tube, and the
+liquid, at the point of contact the liquid will slightly rise in the
+tube and on the outside edges of the tube. In other instances it will
+be depressed slightly at the same point. Whether it will be elevated or
+depressed depends on whether the adhesion of the liquid to the material
+of which the tube or rod is composed is greater than the cohesion of
+the particles of the liquid.
+
+If there be a depression it is manifest that the entire surface of the
+liquid will be slightly elevated by reason of the depression. On the
+contrary, if the liquid adheres to and creeps slightly upward on the
+tube or rod, then it is manifest that the surface of the liquid will
+come to rest slightly lower than though it did not so creep.
+
+The net result finally gets back to the principle of flotation. The
+immersion or insertion is a little more difficult in the case of
+depression, and a little easier in the case of elevation. There is no
+gain or loss of energy. It simply increases in one case, and diminishes
+in the other case the amount of displacement, with all the resulting
+mechanical phenomena.
+
+
+Sir William Congreve
+
+As stated in the preface of this work, pursuit of Perpetual Motion has
+by no means been confined to mechanics and tradesmen. Many men eminent,
+and even famous in professions, art and science have devoted much time
+and thought to the subject. Among such eminent men is to be mentioned
+Sir William Congreve, of England, a baronet. He was born 1772, and
+died in 1828. He was an artillerist and an inventor, and was a son
+of Lieutenant General Sir William Congreve; was distinguished as a
+military man, as a member of parliament, and as a business man; was an
+inventor of note, having invented a war rocket, a gun-recoil mounting,
+a time-fuse, a parachute attachment for rockets, a hydro-pneumatic
+canal lock sluice, a process for color painting, a new form of steam
+engine, a method of consuming smoke, a clock which measured time
+by a ball rolling down an inclined plane, besides other inventions
+and discoveries. He published a large number of works on scientific
+subjects.
+
+It is not, therefore, surprising that whatever Sir William Congreve
+said or did concerning any scientific or mechanical subject should have
+attracted general attention.
+
+He devised and made a Perpetual Motion Machine, which, like all others,
+failed to work. We submit that his plan is peculiarly ingenious,
+and we fail to see how, without a knowledge of the principles of
+Conservation of Energy, the Congreve idea should not have appealed to
+any one as reasonable, and its failure puzzling.
+
+An account of the Congreve device and an explanation of his ideas
+appeared in "The Atlas" in 1827, and the following description is taken
+from the article appearing in "The Atlas":
+
+  The celebrated Boyle entertained an idea that perpetual motion
+  might be obtained by means of capillary attraction; and, indeed,
+  there seems but little doubt that nature has employed this force
+  in many instances to produce this effect.
+
+  There are many situations in which there is every reason to
+  believe that the sources of springs on the tops and sides of
+  mountains depend on the accumulation of water created at certain
+  elevations by the operation of capillary attraction, acting in
+  large masses of porous material, or through laminated substances.
+  These masses being saturated, in process of time become the
+  sources of springs and the heads of rivers; and thus, by an
+  endless round of ascending and descending waters, form, on the
+  great scale of nature, an incessant cause of perpetual motion, in
+  the purest acceptance of the term, and precisely on the principle
+  that was contemplated by Boyle. It is probable, however, that any
+  imitation of this process on the limited scale practicable by
+  human art would not be of sufficient magnitude to be effective.
+  Nature, by the immensity of her operations, is able to allow for
+  a slowness of process which would baffle the attempts of man in
+  any direct and simple imitation of her works. Working, therefore,
+  upon the same causes, he finds himself obliged to take a more
+  complicated mode to produce the same effect.
+
+  To amuse the hours of a long confinement from illness, Sir
+  William Congreve has recently contrived a scheme of perpetual
+  motion, founded on this principle of capillary attraction, which,
+  it is apprehended, will not be subject to the general refutation
+  applicable to those plans in which the power is supposed to be
+  derived from gravity only. Sir William's perpetual motion is as
+  follows:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Let A B C be three horizontal rollers fixed in a frame; _a a a_,
+  etc., is an endless band of sponge, running round these rollers;
+  and _b b b_, etc., is an endless chain of weights, surrounding
+  the band of sponge, and attached to it, so that they must move
+  together; every part of this band and chain being so accurately
+  uniform in weight that the perpendicular side A B will, in all
+  positions of the band and chain, be in equilibrium with the
+  hypothenuse A C, on the principle of the inclined plane. Now, if
+  the frame in which these rollers are fixed be placed in a cistern
+  of water, having its lower part immersed therein, so that the
+  water's edge cuts the upper part of the rollers B C, then, if the
+  weight and quantity of the endless chain be duly proportioned to
+  the thickness and breadth of the band of sponge, the band and
+  chain will, on the water in the cistern being brought to the
+  proper level, begin to move round the rollers in the direction
+  A B, by the force of capillary attraction, and will continue so
+  to move. The process is as follows:
+
+  On the side A B of the triangle, the weights _b b b_, etc.,
+  hanging perpendicularly alongside the band of sponge, the band
+  is not compressed by them, and its pores being left open, the
+  water at the point _x_, at which the band meets its surface,
+  will rise to a certain height, _y_, above its level, and thereby
+  create a load, which load will not exist on the ascending side
+  C A, because on this side the chain of weights compresses the
+  band at the water's edge, and squeezes out any water that may
+  have previously accumulated in it; so that the band rises in a
+  dry state, the weight of the chain having been so proportioned
+  to the breadth and thickness of the band as to be sufficient to
+  produce this effect. The load, therefore, on the descending side
+  A B, not being opposed by any similar load on the ascending
+  side, and the equilibrium of the other parts not being disturbed
+  by the alternate expansion and compression of the sponge, the
+  band will begin to move in the direction A B; and as it moves
+  downwards, the accumulation of water will continue to rise, and
+  thereby carry on a constant motion, provided the load at _x y_ be
+  sufficient to overcome the friction on the rollers A B C.
+
+  Now, to ascertain the quantity of this load in any particular
+  machine, it must be stated that it is found by experiment that
+  the water will rise in a fine sponge about an inch above its
+  level; if, therefore, the band and sponge be one foot thick and
+  six feet broad, the area of its horizontal section in contact
+  with the water would be 864 square inches, and the weight of the
+  accumulation of water raised by the capillary attraction being
+  one inch rise upon 864 square inches, would be 30 lbs., which, it
+  is conceived, would be much more than equivalent to the friction
+  of the rollers.
+
+  The deniers of this proposition, on the first view of the
+  subject, will say, it is true the accumulation of the weight on
+  the descending side thus occasioned by the capillary attraction
+  would produce a perpetual motion, if there were not as much power
+  lost on the ascending side by the change of position of the
+  weights, in pressing the water out of the sponge.
+
+  The point now to be established is, that the change in the
+  position of the weights will not cause any loss of power. For
+  this purpose, we must refer to the following diagram.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  With reference to this diagram, suppose _a a a_, etc., an endless
+  strap, and _b b b_, etc., an endless chain running round the
+  rollers; A B C not having any sponge between them, but kept
+  at a certain distance from each other by small and inflexible
+  props, _p p p_, etc., then the sides A B and C A would, in all
+  positions of this system, be precisely an equilibrium, so as
+  to require only a small increment of weight on either side to
+  produce motion. Now, we contend that this equilibrium would still
+  remain unaffected, if small springs were introduced in lieu of
+  the inflexible props _p p p_, so that the chain _b b b_ might
+  approach the lower strap _a a a_, by compressing these small
+  springs with its weight on the ascending side; for although
+  the centre of gravity of any portion of chain would move in a
+  different line in the latter case--for instance, in the dotted
+  line--still the quantity of the actual weight of every inch of
+  the strap and chain would remain precisely the same in the
+  former case, where they are kept at the same distance in all
+  positions, as in the latter case, where they approach on the
+  ascending side; and so, also, these equal portions of weights,
+  notwithstanding any change of distance between their several
+  parts which may take place in one case and not in the other,
+  would in both cases rise and fall, though the same perpendicular
+  space, and consequently the equilibrium, would be equally
+  preserved in both cases, though in the first case they may rise
+  and fall through rather more than in the second. The application
+  of this demonstration to the machine described in Fig. 1, is
+  obvious; for the compression of the sponge by the sinking of
+  the weights on the ascending side, in pressing out the water,
+  produces precisely the same effect as to the position and ascent
+  of the weights, as the approach of the chain to the lower strap
+  on the ascending side, in Fig. 2, by the compression of the
+  springs; and consequently, if the equilibrium is not affected in
+  one case--that is, in Fig. 2, as above demonstrated--it will not
+  be affected in the other case, Fig. 1; and, therefore, the water
+  would be squeezed out by the pressure of the chain without any
+  loss of power. The quantity of weight necessary for squeezing
+  dry any given quantity of sponge must be ascertained and duly
+  apportioned by experiment. It is obvious, however, that whether
+  one cubic inch of sponge required one, two, or four ounces
+  for this purpose, it would not affect the equilibrium, since,
+  whatever were the proportion on the ascending side, precisely
+  the same would the proportion be on the descending side.
+
+  This principle is capable of application in various ways, and
+  with a variety of materials. It may be produced by a single
+  roller or wheel. Mercury may also be substituted for water, by
+  using a series of metallic plates instead of sponges; and, as the
+  mercury will be found to rise to a much greater height between
+  these plates, than water will do in a sponge, it will be found
+  that the power to be obtained by the latter materials will be
+  from 70 to 80 times as great as by the use of water. Thus, a
+  machine, of the same dimensions as given above, would have a
+  constant power of 2,000 lbs. acting upon it.
+
+  We now proceed to show how the principle of perpetual motion
+  proposed by Sir William Congreve may be applied upon one centre
+  instead of three.
+
+  In the following figure, _a b c d_ represents a drum-wheel or
+  cylinder, moving on a horizontal axis surrounded with a band
+  of sponge 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8, and immersed in water, so that the
+  surface of the water touches the lower end of the cylinder. Now
+  then, if, as in Fig. 2, the water on the descending side _b_
+  be allowed to accumulate in the sponge at _x_, while, on the
+  ascending side D, the sponge at the water's edge shall, by any
+  means not deranging the equilibrium, be so compressed that it
+  shall quit the water in a dry state, the accumulation of water
+  above its level at _x_, by the capillary attraction, will be a
+  source of constant rotary motion; and, in the present case, it
+  will be found that the means of compressing the sponge may be
+  best obtained by buoyancy, instead of weight.
+
+  For this purpose, therefore, the band of sponge is supposed to
+  be divided into eight or more equal parts, 1 2 3 4, etc., each
+  part being furnished with a float or buoyant vessel, _f_ 1,
+  _f_ 2, etc., rising and falling upon spindles, _s s s_, etc.,
+  fixed in the periphery of the drum; these floats being of such
+  dimensions that, when immersed in water, the buoyancy or pressure
+  upwards of each shall be sufficient to compress that portion of
+  the sponge connected with it, so as to squeeze out any water it
+  may have absorbed. These floats are further arranged by means of
+  levers _l l l_, etc., and plates _p p p_, etc., so that, when
+  the float _f_ No. 1 becomes immersed in the water, its buoyant
+  pressure upwards acts not against the portion of the sponge No.
+  1, immediately above it, but against No. 2, next in front of it;
+  and so, in like manner, the buoyancy of _f_ No. 2 float acts on
+  the portion of the sponge No. 3, and _f_ No. 3 float upon No. 4
+  sponge.
+
+  Now, from this arrangement it follows, that the portion of sponge
+  No. 4, which is about to quit the water, is pressed upon by
+  that float, which, from acting vertically, is most efficient in
+  squeezing the sponge dry; while that portion of the sponge No. 1,
+  on the point of entering the water, is not compressed at all from
+  its corresponding float No. 8, not having yet reached the edge
+  of the water. By these means, therefore, it will be seen that
+  the sponge always rises in a dry state from the water on the
+  ascending side, while it approaches the water on the descending
+  side in an uncompressed state, and open to the full action of
+  absorption by the capillary attraction.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The great advantage of effecting this by the buoyancy of light
+  vessels instead of a burthen of weights, as in Fig. 2, is that,
+  by a due arrangement of the dimensions and buoyancy of the floats
+  immersed, the whole machine may be made to float on the surface
+  of the water, so as to take off all friction whatever from the
+  centre of suspension. Thus, therefore, we have a cylindrical
+  machine revolving on a single centre without friction, and having
+  a collection of water in the sponge on the descending side,
+  while the sponge on the ascending side is continually dry; and
+  if this cylinder be six feet wide, and the sponge that surrounds
+  it one foot thick, there will be a constant moving power of
+  thirty pounds on the descending side, without any friction to
+  counteract it.
+
+  It has been already stated, that to perpetuate the motion of
+  this machine, the means used to leave the sponge open on the
+  descending side, and press it dry on the ascending side, must
+  be such as will not derange the equilibrium of the machine when
+  floating in water. As, therefore, in this case the effect is
+  produced by the ascent of the buoyant floats _b_, to demonstrate
+  the perpetuity of the motion, we must show that the ascent of the
+  floats _f_ No. 1 and _f_ No. 3 will be equal in all corresponding
+  situations on each side of the perpendicular; for the only
+  circumstance that could derange the equilibrium on this system,
+  would be that _f_ No. 1 and _f_ No. 3 should not in all such
+  corresponding situations approach the centre of motion equally;
+  for it is evident that in the position of the floats described in
+  the above figure, if _f_ No. 1 float did not approach the centre
+  as much as _f_ No. 3, the equilibrium would be destroyed, and the
+  greater distance of _f_ No. 1 from the centre than that of f No.
+  3 would create a resistance to the moving force caused by the
+  accumulation of the water at _x_.
+
+  It will be found, however, that the floats _f_ No. 1 and _f_ No.
+  3 do retain equal distances from the centre in all corresponding
+  situations, for the resistance to their approach to the centre
+  by buoyancy is the elasticity of the sponge at the extremity
+  of the respective levers; and as this elasticity is the same
+  in all situations, while this centrifugal force of the float
+  _f_ No. 1 is equal to that of the float _f_ No. 3, at equal
+  distances from the perpendicular, the floats _f_ No. 1 and _f_
+  No. 3 will, in all corresponding situations on either side of
+  the perpendicular, be at equal distances from the centre. It is
+  true, that the force by which these floats approach the centre
+  of motion varies according to the obliquity of the spindles on
+  which they work, it being greatest in the perpendicular position;
+  but, as the obliquity of these spindles is the same at all equal
+  distances from the perpendicular, and as the resistance of
+  the ascent of the floats is equal in all cases, the center of
+  buoyancy will evidently describe a similar curve on each side
+  of the perpendicular; and consequently the equilibrium will be
+  preserved, so as to leave a constant moving force at _x_, equal
+  to the whole accumulation of water in the sponge. Nor will
+  this equilibrium be disturbed by any change of position in the
+  floats not immersed in the water, since, being duly connected
+  with the sponge by the levers and plates, they will evidently
+  arrange themselves at equal distances from the center, in all
+  corresponding situations on either side.
+
+  It may be said that the equilibrium of the band of sponge may be
+  destroyed by its partial compression; and it must be admitted
+  that the centre of gravity of the part compressed, according
+  to the construction above described, does approach the center
+  of motion nearer than the center of gravity of the part not
+  compressed. The whole weight of the sponge is, however, so
+  inconsiderable, that this difference would scarcely produce any
+  sensible effect; and if it did, a very slight alteration in the
+  construction, by which the sponge should be compressed as much
+  outwards as inwards, would retain the center of gravity of the
+  compressed part at the same distance from the center of motion as
+  the center of gravity of the part not compressed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+Liquid Air as a Means of Perpetual Motion
+
+
+A few years ago air was liquefied. This was accomplished by a very high
+compression accompanied by a very low temperature.
+
+It is manifest that when liquid air is removed from the extremely
+low temperature necessary for its liquefaction, and introduced into
+ordinary atmospheric temperatures, it will exert a most tremendous
+expansive force which can be utilized for driving machinery and thereby
+producing heat or electricity, or for any other purpose for which force
+is required. But, by the law of Conservation of Energy, the liquefied
+air by expansion can yield no more energy than was required to extract
+the heat from the air and compress it into the liquid state.
+
+One enthusiastic individual who had worked in a plant for liquefying
+air announced throughout the United States of America, and perhaps
+throughout the civilized world, that he had a device by which the
+expansive force of three pounds of liquid air could be made to liquefy
+ten pounds, and that seven of the ten could be utilized for driving
+machinery, or for any other purpose for which force is required, the
+remaining three being utilized in the production of another ten pounds
+of liquid air, and so on ad infinitum. He boldly announced that thereby
+he had discovered an inexhaustible supply of energy at a nominal cost,
+whereby we could all be warmed and have our machinery of all kinds
+driven without the expense of gas, coal, fuel of any kind, wind, waves,
+tides or streams. This enthusiastic individual produced considerable
+excitement for a time, and then the public ceased to hear about either
+him or his device. He dropped out of sight and his name sank into
+oblivion. His claims were absurd, and the absurdity is readily apparent
+to anyone versed in thermodynamics or familiar with the principles of
+Conservation of Energy.
+
+There was little excuse for his ever having made such pretentions or
+for his pretentions ever to have been seriously listened to by any one;
+for the principle of Conservation of Energy had years before been fully
+established and heralded throughout the world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+Radium and Radio-Active Substances Considered as a Conceived Source of
+Perpetual Motion
+
+
+A few years ago when the remarkable properties of radium were
+discovered it was thought by many that here at last was the long sought
+solution of the problem of Perpetual Motion. Radium seemed to have the
+power of maintaining its own temperature _permanently_ above that of
+surrounding bodies. Many versed in the science of thermodynamics (heat
+power) shook their heads in doubt. If, indeed, it were really true
+that the substance, radium, or any other substance had the quality of
+remaining permanently warmer than surrounding bodies without having
+heat supplied to it, then, indeed, there was an inexhaustible supply of
+heat, and consequently power.
+
+Hon. R. J. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh), devised a radium clock to run on
+this principle, consisting of a vacuum vessel in which was suspended
+a radio-active substance contained in a tube. At the lower end of the
+tube are two gold leaves as in an electroscope. Platinum wires extended
+through the glass and touched the gold leaves. The other end of the
+platinum wires are extended to connect with the earth. The radio-active
+substance electrifies the gold leaves and causes them to be extended,
+and upon being extended they come in contact with the platinum wires
+and their charge of electricity is lost, being conducted through the
+wires and dispersed in the earth, and the leaves losing their charge
+fall by the force of gravity from the wires back to their position near
+the tube containing the radio-active substance to be again charged,
+to again move to and touch the platinum wires, and again lose their
+charge; this process to go on indefinitely.
+
+Here, indeed, was Perpetual Motion, except for the fact that further
+and more refined experiments and investigations demonstrated that
+radio-active substances are not permanently radio-active, but
+gradually, though very slowly, lose their radio-activity just as a fire
+will finally burn out, no matter how slowly it burns, or just as an
+electric battery will finally lose its charge and become exhausted.
+
+This loss, however, of radio-active energy in radio-active substances
+is so slow that it is said the Strutt clock will run for over one
+thousand years. But the fact that it will not run permanently, and
+that the motion is the result of energy supplied by the radio-active
+substance, and is not supplied by the mechanism itself, deprives it of
+any right to be called a solution of the problem of self-motive power.
+
+It should be noted that Hon. R. J. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) of England,
+who devised the radium clock, above mentioned, is not to be classed
+with the ordinary Perpetual Motion enthusiast. He was, and is, in fact,
+a man of very great scientific ability and attainments, and has to his
+credit many actual and splendid achievements demonstrating him to be a
+genius of the rarest and most exalted type. His radium clock is founded
+on correct principles, and surely a clock that will run one thousand
+years without having power supplied from an outside source is worth
+while. It should be here also mentioned that the force derived from
+radio-activity in the manner it is applied in the Strutt clock is very
+slight, and the instrument necessarily extremely delicate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Perpetual Motion Devices Attempting Its Attainment by a Misconception
+of the Relation of Momentum and Energy
+
+
+The author, within twenty years last past, has had his attention
+called by two different persons, each ignorant of the efforts of
+the other, who were seeking to obtain Perpetual Motion by utilizing
+certain physical facts concerning Momentum and Energy. These facts
+and the principles out of which they grow are familiar to all who
+understand thoroughly, even the rudiments of physics; but to persons
+who are inclined to mechanics, but who have never had the advantages
+of the presentation of clear principles, they are confusing, and it is
+surprising that they have not become more fertile fields for Perpetual
+Motion workers. However, we are unable to find any written or printed
+account or description of a plan or device of that kind, and our
+information is confined to instances that have been brought to our
+personal observation, and concerning which the advice and counsel of
+the author was sought.
+
+The worker in each case was a man of more than ordinary natural
+intelligence, and with a bent for mechanical pursuits and reflection.
+Each had taken a course in what is conventionally called High School
+Physics.
+
+The idea in each case was so novel and interesting that we deem the
+presentation worth while. They were so nearly alike that instead of
+attempting to narrate what they said, we will endeavor in our own way
+to present the idea, and then to give our explanation, showing wherein
+lay their error.
+
+The following definitions and laws of physics may be regarded as
+established:
+
+
+Momentum
+
+_Momentum_ is the quantity of motion of a moving body, and is the
+velocity multiplied by the weight.
+
+Thus, a body weighing two pounds, moving at four feet per second, may
+be represented as having a momentum of eight.
+
+A body weighing two pounds moving at the rate of six feet per second
+may be said to have a momentum of twelve.
+
+A body weighing ten pounds moving at the rate of ten feet per second
+will have a momentum of one hundred--and so on.
+
+Now, a step further. A body in motion striking another body free to
+move will lose part of its motion, and will impart some of its motion
+to the body moved against. The aggregate momentum after the striking
+is the same as before--that is to say--if a body weighing ten pounds
+have a velocity of twenty feet per second, its momentum we will call
+two hundred. Now, if in moving it strike another body either larger or
+smaller its motion will be somewhat retarded, and the body struck will
+possess some motion.
+
+Multiply the weight of each by its motion after the striking, and it
+will be found that the sum of the products is two hundred. This may
+be illustrated by swinging balls like pendulums to cords of equal
+length from a beam, having the arrangement such that balls of different
+materials and sizes can be substituted at liberty. If a body be drawn
+back parallel to the beam, and released so as to swing against another
+swinging body, both will have motion. This motion will, in some cases
+be a rebounding motion, as in the case of a small elastic body swinging
+against and striking a larger elastic body, but in all cases the sum
+total of the momentum after the impingement is the same as before.
+
+The following statement of the law then, is deducible:
+
+  _The Momentum_ of one body in motion may be made to impart
+  momentum to another body, the amount of momentum lost by the
+  former being exactly equal to that thus acquired by the latter.
+
+Before leaving these remarks on momentum the reader should observe
+carefully what momentum is and bear in mind it is the _quantity of
+motion_ possessed by a moving body, and has to do only with _mass_ and
+_velocity_--and takes no account of distance passed through.
+
+
+Energy
+
+Energy is the _capacity to do work_, and the energy of a moving body
+is the amount of _work_ it will do, i. e., the _distance_ it will move
+against a resistance by virtue of its tendency to move, before being
+brought to a state of rest.
+
+Now note, and note carefully, that the amount of _energy is
+proportional_ to the mass, and to the _square_ of the velocity.
+
+Note this carefully: Any body in motion _has both momentum and energy_.
+Its momentum is proportional to its velocity; its energy to the
+_square_ of its velocity. If the velocity be doubled, the momentum will
+be doubled, but its energy quadrupled. If the velocity be trebled, its
+momentum will be trebled, but its energy increased nine-fold.
+
+It is important that the student get clearly what is meant by saying
+that Energy is the _capacity to do work_, and is proportional to the
+square of the velocity.
+
+The capacity to do work means the capacity to move against resistance,
+i. e., to overcome resistance. The word "work" being used in a purely
+mechanical sense and in that sense it is used whether the result
+accomplished is destructive or beneficial.
+
+A revolving fly wheel will run machinery for some time after the
+application of force has ceased. This is doing work, and represents
+energy.
+
+A bullet fired from a gun will accomplish destruction before having its
+motion arrested. This is work--energy.
+
+If a boy throw a ball into a snow bank, its motion will sink it into
+the snow, but not far, the resistance of the snow will soon bring the
+ball to rest. The ball overcomes resistance in passing through the snow
+until it is brought to rest, and thus it does the _work_ of forcing
+itself through the snow, and possesses the _energy_ necessary to do
+that work.
+
+The overcoming of the resistance of the air by a moving body is work.
+A steamboat will move for some time in water after the steam has been
+turned off. The overcoming of the resistance of the water is work, and
+by virtue of the motion of the boat when the steam was turned off it
+possessed the energy to do the work of forcing itself for some time
+through the resistance of the water.
+
+The Perpetual Motion worker in each case had reasoned himself into this
+conclusion: That the same energy will impart the same _acceleration_
+of velocity, regardless of the velocity at the beginning of the
+application of energy. That the same amount of energy or work necessary
+to impart to a body a velocity of ten feet per second will increase
+that velocity to twenty feet per second, or from twenty feet per second
+to thirty feet per second. In other words, that the same amount of
+energy, and only the same amount of energy is required for a given
+_increase_ in velocity without regard to the initial velocity. This
+appears plausible, and almost self-evident. We believe the great
+majority of people, other than mechanical engineers would, upon
+presentation of the theory accept it as axiomatic, and as a matter of
+course. The fallacy becomes manifest only from a critical and technical
+examination of the Laws of Momentum and Energy.
+
+The Perpetual Motion worker had learned from his text-books that if the
+velocity be _doubled_, the energy would be _multiplied by four_. His
+idea was to so arrange his mechanism that he would apply the amount of
+energy to move a fly wheel free to revolve, from a position of rest to
+a revolving velocity of ten revolutions per second. Then apply again
+the _same amount of energy_, and accelerate that velocity from ten
+revolutions per second to twenty revolutions per second. Thus, the
+energy at the end of the second second would be four times what it was
+at the end of the first second. But to make it so, only double the
+amount of energy had been applied that had been expended at the end of
+the first second. Thus, he reasoned, his machine was by virtue of its
+structure, accumulating energy, and this energy could be used one-half
+to continue the motion of his machine, and the other half to run other
+machinery, or for any other purpose for which energy might be desired.
+
+Wherein lies the fallacy of this supposition?
+
+We will now endeavor to explain. And for the young student to get the
+explanation fully, it will be necessary for him to pay the closest
+attention to what we here state.
+
+A force, for instance the pressure of the finger or the hand, equal to
+one pound against a body free to move, will, we will say, move that
+body in one second of time through a space of ten feet, and at the end
+of that second the body will have a velocity of twenty feet. It is
+manifest that at the end of the second the velocity will be twenty feet
+per second for its initial velocity is zero, and its average velocity
+ten feet per second, the acceleration being, of course, presumed
+uniform.
+
+Now, it is _not_ true as the Perpetual Motion worker had assumed that
+the same energy--i. e., the same work that is required to increase
+the velocity from zero to ten feet per second will increase the
+velocity from ten feet per second to twenty feet per second, and _in
+that assumption_ lay the fallacy of our friends who were thus seeking
+Perpetual Motion.
+
+The greater the velocity, the more energy is required to impart a given
+acceleration. To increase the velocity from ten feet per second to
+twenty feet per second, the applied force must continue through one
+second of time, and more energy is required to follow a rapidly moving
+body, and continue to apply to it a given force for one second than
+would be required to follow and maintain the application of the same
+force to a body moving more slowly--the _distance_ traveled is greater
+in one case than in the other.
+
+It must be plain that if the moving body have a velocity at the end of
+the first second of twenty feet per second, it will, at the end of the
+second second, with the same pressure (force) continued against the
+same resistance, have a velocity of forty feet per second, and at the
+end of three seconds have a velocity of sixty feet, and at the end of
+four seconds a velocity of eighty feet, and so on.
+
+Now, at the beginning of the second second it had a velocity of
+twenty feet, and at the end of that second a velocity of forty feet.
+It therefore, traveled through that second with an average velocity
+of thirty feet and, of course, during the second second traveled
+exactly thirty feet. It traveled ten feet the first second, and if it
+traveled thirty feet the second, then in the two seconds it traveled
+forty feet--four times as far as it traveled the first second. At the
+beginning of the third second it had a velocity of forty feet, and
+at the end of the third second a velocity of sixty feet. The average
+velocity then for the third second would be one-half the sum of forty
+feet and plus sixty feet--that is to say, it would be fifty feet, and
+that would be the distance traveled during the third second. The first
+second it traveled ten feet, the second second thirty feet, and the
+third second fifty feet, making a total in three seconds of ninety
+feet--that is to say, in three seconds it traveled nine times as far as
+in one second.
+
+It will be noticed from the above that the velocity is proportional to
+the number of seconds, but that the distance traveled is proportional
+to the _square_ of the number of seconds, and also proportional to the
+square of the velocity.
+
+Momentum is mass multiplied by velocity; energy is measured by the
+distance through which a body will move against a given resistance.
+
+Should you prop up one wheel of a carriage and revolve the wheel, then
+with the pressure of the finger or the thumb on the hub as a brake,
+stop it, it will be found that (omitting the effect of atmospheric
+resistance), the wheel will make four times as many revolutions before
+stopping with a doubled velocity; nine times as many with a trebled
+velocity.
+
+Falling bodies afford the most perfect illustration of the principle
+of Momentum and Energy, and are so commonly used to illustrate those
+principles that many students get the idea that the application of
+those principles is confined to falling bodies, and do not realize that
+they extend generally through the field of mechanics.
+
+A falling body is, of course, acted upon by gravity with uniform force
+equal to the weight of the falling body, and that force continues
+to follow the falling body and to be applied uniformly and equally,
+however slowly, or rapidly the body may be falling. And, omitting
+atmospheric resistance, the body is absolutely free to move except
+for its natural tendency to remain at rest, or at uniform velocity.
+It is well known that a body falls (almost exactly) sixteen feet in
+one second, and at the end of one second has a velocity of thirty-two.
+During the second second it falls through a distance of forty-eight
+feet, and during the third second a distance of eighty feet. In two
+seconds it falls sixty-four feet, and in three seconds one hundred
+twenty-eight feet, and so on. Thus, it will be observed that the
+_velocity_ is proportional to the time during which it has fallen, but
+that the distance fallen in any number of seconds is proportional to
+the _square_ of the time.
+
+This, indeed, is a property of numbers, and results from mathematical
+law. If the reader will form a series of numbers, setting down any
+number for the first term of the series, adding to it its double for
+the second term, and adding to the second term double the first term
+for the third, and adding double the first term to the third term for
+the fourth, and so on--in other words, form any increasing arithmetical
+series with double the first term for the common difference, he will
+discover that the _sum of all the terms is equal to the first term
+multiplied by the square of the number of terms_. Thus:
+
+    1st Term   2nd Term   3rd Term   4th Term   5th Term
+         5         15         25         35         45
+
+In the above series the sum of the first two terms is 20, which is 4
+times the first term. The sum of the first three terms, i. e., 5 + 15
++ 25 = 45-nine times the first term. The sum of the first four terms,
+i. e., 5 + 15 + 25 + 35 = 80, sixteen times the first term, and so on.
+
+It will thus be seen that Momentum and Energy are entirely different,
+although co-related; that momentum relates to velocity, which includes
+the element of time, whereas energy relates to the amount of work
+done, and may be represented by a force operating against a certain
+resistance, through a certain distance, entirely irrespective of time.
+The energy is the same with the same force operating against the same
+resistance, through the same distance whether the time consumed be
+great or small. It takes as much energy in the aggregate to wind up a
+bucket from the bottom of the well if done slowly as if done quickly.
+
+It would seem hardly necessary to do so, and yet it is worth while
+remarking that the amount of energy necessary to impart a given motion
+is exactly the amount of Energy that will be required to arrest that
+motion, and represents the amount of Energy possessed by the moving
+body by virtue of its motion. Work done, i. e., Energy applied in
+giving motion is there in that motion, ready to be returned in exactly
+an equal quantity--no more--no less.
+
+In all the considerations in this chapter no notice is taken of loss by
+friction or atmospheric resistance. We are considering pure mechanics
+and the laws governing them only. In actual mechanical devices it is
+always necessary to make allowance for atmospheric, frictional and
+other unavoidable resistances.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+The Alleged Inventions of Edward Sommerset, Sixth Earl and Second
+Marquis of Worcester, and of Jean Ernest Eli-Bessler (Councillor)
+Orffyreus
+
+
+More interest has been taken, and more has been said and written
+concerning the claimed inventions of the men forming the subject of
+this chapter than of all other Perpetual Motion devices known to
+history. The reason is not difficult to explain. It was the rank and
+eminence of the inventors and of others whom they induced to take
+an interest in their inventions, and to proclaim them to the world.
+Intrinsically, neither their claims nor their devices are entitled
+to any more notice than are those of the humblest mechanic that ever
+labored to attain Perpetual Motion. However, so much has been said
+and written concerning them that they have an historical value and
+interest. Then, too, the interest taken in their inventions brought
+forth some splendid discussions which necessarily involve in a general
+way, at least, the entire question of Self-Motive Power. The historical
+interest attaching to their inventions and the discussions concerning
+them, entitles them to more than a passing notice in this book.
+
+They were not co-laborers; they were not even compatriots, nor
+contemporaries. Worcester was an Englishman and Orffyreus a Frenchman,
+though most of his labors were in what is now Germany. The former died
+thirteen years before the latter was born.
+
+Edward Sommerset, of England, Sixth Earl and Second Marquis of
+Worcester, was born in the year 1601, and died in 1667. He was famous
+not only for his noble birth and family rank, but for personal
+attainments. He was the author of a work entitled "Century of Names
+and Scantlings of Such Inventions as at Present I Can Call to Mind
+Have Tried and Perfected" (1663), which has often been reprinted,
+and is usually referred to simply as "Century Inventions." He was
+very prominent in public life; was greatly interested in mechanical
+experiments, and made valuable suggestions, inventions and improvements
+in connection with the use of steam as a motive power.
+
+Henry Dircks, who is so frequently mentioned in this book, wrote a
+book which was published in 1865, entitled "Life, Times and Scientific
+Labors of the Second Marquis of Worcester." The Marquis appears to
+have been all his life greatly interested in science, mechanics and
+mathematical contrivances. His first wife died in 1635, and it seems
+probable that thenceforth he became and remained more than ever
+devoted to mechanics, and sometime after that period announced a
+successful Perpetual Motion machine, the gist of all known information
+concerning which appears from the articles and discussions hereinafter
+set forth in this chapter.
+
+Jean-Ernest Eli-Bessler (Councillor) Orffyreus was born in 1680, near
+Zittan, Alsace, France. He was a man of great ability and attained an
+eminent place in public life. The title "Councillor," he acquired by
+having been selected Councillor to the Prince of Hesse Castle. The
+best information concerning him indicates that he was of very erratic
+temperament, given to fits of melancholy and extreme anger. In early
+life he was a student of theology and medicine, but his penchant was
+really for mechanics. He claimed that in his search for whatever might
+prove curious and valuable he had discovered Perpetual Motion, and that
+between the years 1712 and 1719 he had made two successfully working
+machines on his system. The following discussions disclose all that is
+known of the claimed inventions of these two distinguished Perpetual
+Motion workers.
+
+The alleged inventions of the Marquis of Worcester is stated by him in
+the 56th article of his book entitled "Century of Names and Scantlings
+of Such Inventions as at Present I Can Call to Mind to Have Tried and
+Perfected," and translated from the ancient English style in which his
+book is written into modern style of English, reads as follows:
+
+The inventor offers the accompanying sketch, with description of an
+Hydraulic Mover, for communicating power to machinery, and recently
+invented by him:--
+
+  "To provide and make that all the weights of the descending side
+  of a wheel, shall be perpetually farther from the center, than
+  those of the mounting side, and yet equal in number and heft to
+  the one side as the other. A most incredible thing, if not seen;
+  but tried before the late King (of blessed memory) in the Tower
+  by my directions, two extraordinary ambassadors accompanying his
+  Majesty, and the Duke of Richmond, and Duke of Hamilton, with
+  most of the Court attending him. The wheel was fourteen foot
+  over, and had forty weights of fifty pounds apiece. Sir William
+  Balfore, then Lieutenant of the Tower, can justify it, with
+  several others. They all saw, that no sooner these great weights
+  passed the diameter line of the lower side, but they hung a foot
+  farther from the center; nor no sooner passed the diameter line
+  of the upper side, but they hung a foot nearer. Be pleased to
+  judge of the consequence."
+
+In October of 1719, Orffyreus published a small book, or pamphlet,
+both in German and Latin, entitled "Perpetual Motion Triumphant, by
+Orffyreus." The book commences:
+
+  It is a notorious fact that Perpetual Motion has not only been
+  sought after by ingenious mathematicians and artists with more
+  or less expense, but many have arisen here and there pretending
+  that they have made the discovery. Nevertheless, it appears
+  that to carry out this most subtle mechanical idea, namely, to
+  make a dead material not only move itself, but lift weights and
+  perform work, even the most profound mathematicians and the most
+  learned people have continually fallen into error. It is no
+  less notorious that those who have so sought, not only refuse
+  their consent, but have set their seal on the discovery as an
+  unsolvable problem.
+
+On a subsequent page he proceeds thus:
+
+  When I, at last, an unworthy man, was made an instrument in God's
+  hands to solve this long-looked-for and valuable secret, and to
+  give a representation, proposition and instruction on this rare
+  invention; also to publish and propound it to all the world,
+  no longer do I doubt, nay I presume, that as the discoverer I
+  possess it, after many years of scrupulous doubts, much calumny
+  and exasperation from all my enemies.
+
+He speaks of his opponents under four divisions: First, the scientific
+world; second, persons in high authority; third, the public in general;
+and fourth, the press;--observing--
+
+  Now my wish was to convince the world that this illiberal,
+  rude and inhuman treatment was false, yet God's providence has
+  brought to my help, protection and succour the mighty Prince Lord
+  Charles, Landgrave of Hesse.
+
+On a subsequent page he indulges in the following sycophantic
+adulation of the Prince of Hesse Castle, and suggestion of the
+description of his claimed device:
+
+  It has not only pleased this mighty Prince to protect me against
+  my numerous enemies, but also to give me house-room in his
+  princely Castle of Weissenstein, near Cassel; to name me one of
+  his most honored servants, and restore me in a measure all the
+  honor and means that I had lost in my native country; wishing
+  no doubt to give to Hessin Cassel the high honor which belonged
+  to Saxony by right. In gratitude for all these gracious acts, I
+  consented to give another example of my Perpetuum Mobile machine.
+  I put all in fresh order, and began work in all possible haste,
+  doing everything in the manner of those I had already made and
+  destroyed, with only a few changes in the dimensions of the
+  so-named turning-wheel. For as a grindstone may be called a
+  wheel, so may the principal part of my machine be named. The
+  outward part of this wheel is drawn over or covered with waxed
+  linen in the form of a drum. This cylindrical basis was 12
+  Rhenish feet in diameter, the thickness from 15 to 18 inches,
+  the middle axle 6 feet long and 8 inches in thickness. It is
+  supported in its movement on two pointed steel balance-pegs,
+  each 1 inch thick; and the wheel is vertically suspended. The
+  movement is modified by two pendulums, as shown in the engraving
+  at the end of this book. The inward structure of the wheel is of
+  a nature according to the laws of mechanical perpetual motion,
+  so arranged that by disposed weights once in rotation they
+  gain force from their own swinging, and must continue their
+  movement as long as their structure does not lose its position
+  and arrangement. Unlike all other automata, such as clocks or
+  springs or other hanging weights which require winding up or
+  whose duration depends on the chain which attaches them, on the
+  contrary, these weights are the essential parts and constitute
+  perpetuum mobile itself; as from them is received the universal
+  movement which they must exercise so long as they remain out of
+  the center of gravity; and when they come to be placed together,
+  and so arranged one against another that they can never obtain
+  equilibrium, or the _punctum quietus_ which they unceasingly seek
+  in their wonderous speedy flight, one or other of them must apply
+  its weight vertically to the axis, which in its turn will also
+  move.
+
+The author and inventor then suggests the following uses of his
+machine: "raising weights, raising stampers, water," etc. He criticises
+all critics of his scheme and denounces them as cunning rogues, and
+fools who are contemptibly endeavoring to overthrow an incontestable
+fact. He makes a quadrupled dedication of his device:
+
+    1. To God,
+    2. To the Public in General,
+    3. To Men of Learning,
+    4. To Himself as Discoverer,
+
+and he very modestly suggests a method by which he could be approached
+on the subject of selling the secret of his machine for one hundred
+thousand rix-thalers, and points out the great importance to the public
+of such an acquisition. The book contains a cut of his device with the
+following very brief explanation:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Number 1 shows the entire size of the wheel; 2, a cord wound
+  round the principal axle; 3, the wheel or pulley to guide the
+  cord; 4, the cord passed through a window and over 5, another
+  pulley; 6, the box of stones raised or lowered; 7, the lock
+  to prevent motion; 8, the pendulum with three weights; 9, a
+  winch-handle acting on the pendulum; and 10, shows above and
+  below transparent, so that the machine stands clear and can be
+  moved about.
+
+In 1720 the following article was contributed to and published in the
+"Gentleman's Magazine," concerning the Orffyrean Wheel:
+
+  MR. URBAN: Being an admirer of improvements in mechanics and
+  desirous of seeing the perpetual motion discovered, I was much
+  pleased on reading, some time ago, an account of the automaton
+  constructed by Orffyreus in two letters, one from Professor 's
+  Gravesande to Sir Isaac Newton, the other from Baron Fischer
+  to Dr. Desaguliers, with the testimonial of the Landgrave of
+  Hesse-Cassel (who had seen the inside of it) in favor of its
+  construction. To which are added some remarks by William Kenrick,
+  the writer of the pamphlet, who takes that opportunity to propose
+  a subscription for a similar machine, which he says he has
+  contrived and denominated a Rotator.
+
+  It is much to be lamented that the learned did not examine
+  more strictly into the merit of Orffyreus's wheel; but,
+  on the contrary, being prepossessed with a notion of the
+  impracticability of the perpetual motion, suffered it to be
+  neglected, and at last destroyed by the hands of a disappointed
+  mechanic, who, with unwearied application and steady
+  perseverance, had brought it to perfection. I wish we may not
+  again let slip an opportunity of becoming acquainted with an
+  invention, which, when made public, will reflect honor on the
+  inventor, and be of the utmost utility to the world. Such, I
+  would hope, is the rotator mentioned by W. Kenrick; for, unless
+  his discovery were real, I cannot think that he would have taken
+  the liberty to express himself as he does in p. 26, etc., "The
+  inventor flatters himself that, if the contents of the foregoing
+  pages are seriously attended to, and it be farther considered,
+  that not a penny of the proposed premium is required, till the
+  subscribers are fully satisfied of the reality and utility of the
+  invention, his proposal will not be treated with so mortifying
+  a neglect as that of Orffyreus." Again he says, "If it does not
+  supply the place of a first mover, at the expense only of the
+  construction and repair of a simple wheel subject to very little
+  friction, and that in all such engines and machines, even from
+  the slightest piece of clockwork to the waterworks of Marli or
+  London-bridge, he expects nothing for his discovery, but to stand
+  exposed to the contempt that will be justly thrown on him for
+  having so miserably misspent his time, and frivolously engaged
+  the attention of the public."
+
+  Now, I think that W. Kenrick's proposals are very fair; and
+  should be glad to be informed, whether any attention has been
+  paid to them, and whether Sir Isaac Newton took any notice of the
+  letter addressed to him by Professor Gravesande. I shall consider
+  it as a favor if any correspondent will oblige me with an answer
+  to these particulars.
+
+      A CONSTANT READER.
+
+In 1721 Rev. Dr. J. T. Desaguliers, LL.D., F.R.S., contributed to an
+English periodical entitled "Philosophical Transactions," the following
+article concerning the device of the Marquis of Worcester, and the
+Orffyrean Wheel:
+
+  REMARKS ON SOME ATTEMPTS MADE TOWARDS A PERPETUAL MOTION; BY THE
+    REVEREND DR. DESAGULIERS, F.R.S.
+
+  The wheel at Hesse-Cassel, made by Monsieur Orffyreus, and by
+  him called a perpetual motion, has, of late, been so much talked
+  of on account of its wonderful phenomena, that a great many
+  people have believed it to be actually a self-moving engine;
+  and accordingly have attempted to imitate it as such. Now, as a
+  great deal of time and money is spent in those endeavours, I was
+  willing (for the sake of those that try experiments with that
+  view) to show that the principle which most of them go upon is
+  false, and can by no means produce a perpetual motion.
+
+  They take it for granted that if a weight descending in a wheel
+  at a determined distance from the center, does, in its ascent,
+  approach nearer to it; such a weight in its descent will always
+  preponderate and cause a weight equal to it to rise, provided it
+  comes nearer the center in its rise; and accordingly as itself,
+  rises, will be overbalanced by another weight equal to it; and,
+  therefore, they endeavour by various contrivances to produce that
+  effect as if the consequence of it would be a perpetual motion.
+
+  But I shall show that they mistake one particular case of a
+  general theorem, or rather a corollary of it, for the theorem
+  itself. The theorem is as follows:
+
+  THEOR.--If one weight in its descent does, by means of any
+  contrivance, cause another weight to ascend with a less momentum
+  or quantity of motion than itself, it will preponderate and raise
+  the other weight.
+
+  COR. 1.--Therefore, if the weights be equal, the descending
+  weight must have more velocity than the ascending weight, because
+  the momentum is made up of the weight multiplied into the
+  quantity of matter.
+
+  COR. 2.--Therefore, if a leaver or balance have equal weights
+  fastened or hanging at its ends, and the brachia be ever so
+  little unequal that weight will preponderate which is farthest
+  from the center.
+
+  SCHOLIUM.--This second corollary causes the mistake; because
+  those who think the velocity of the weight is the line it
+  describes, expect that that weight shall be overpoised, which
+  describes the shortest line, and, therefore, contrive machines to
+  cause the ascending weight to describe a shorter line than the
+  descending weight. As for example, in the circle A D B _a_ (Fig.
+  3) the weights A and B being supposed equal, they imagine that if
+  (by any contrivance whatever) whilst the weight A describes the
+  arc A _a_, the weight B is carried in any arc, as B _b_, so as to
+  come nearer the center in its rising than if it went up the arc
+  B D; the said weight shall be overpoised, and consequently, by a
+  number of such weights a perpetual motion will be produced.
+
+  This is attempted by several contrivances, which all depend
+  upon this false principle; but I shall only mention one which
+  is represented by Fig. 4, where a wheel having two parallel
+  circumferences, has the space between them divided into cells,
+  which being curved, will (when the wheel goes round) cause
+  weights placed loose in the said cells to descend on the side A
+  at the outer circumference of the wheel, and on the side D to
+  ascend in the line B _b b b_, which comes nearer the center and
+  touches the inner circumference of the wheel. In a machine of
+  this kind the weights will indeed move in such a manner if the
+  wheel be turned round, but will never be the cause of the wheel's
+  going round. Such a machine is mentioned by the Marquis of
+  Worcester in his "Century of Inventions," in the following words,
+  No. 56:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  "To provide and make that all the weights of the descending side
+  of a wheel shall be perpetually farther from the center than
+  those of the mounting side, and yet equal in number and heft to
+  the one side as the other. A most incredible thing, if not seen;
+  but tried before the late King (of blessed memory) in the Tower
+  by my directions, two extraordinary ambassadors accompanying his
+  Majesty, and the Duke of Richmond, and Duke of Hamilton, with
+  most of the court attending him. The wheel was fourteen foot
+  over and had forty weights of fifty pounds a piece. Sir William
+  Balfore, then Lieutenant of the Tower, can justify it with
+  several others. They all saw that no sooner these great weights
+  passed the diameter line of the lower side, but they hung a foot
+  farther from the center; nor no sooner passed the diameter line
+  of the upper side, but they hung a foot nearer. Be pleased to
+  judge of the consequence."
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Now the consequence of this and such like machines, is nothing
+  less than a perpetual motion; and the fallacy is this: The
+  velocity of any weight is not the line which it describes in
+  general, but the height that it rises up to or falls from, with
+  respect to its distance from the center of the earth. So that
+  when the weight (Fig. 3) describes the arc A _a_, its velocity is
+  the line A C, which shows the perpendicular descent (or measures
+  how much it is come nearer to the center of the earth), and
+  likewise the line B C denotes the velocity of the weight B, or
+  the height that it rises to when it ascends in any of the arcs
+  B _b_, instead of the arc B D: so that in this case whether the
+  weight B in its ascent be brought nearer the center or not, it
+  loses no velocity which it ought to do in order to be raised up
+  by the weight A. Nay, the weight in rising nearer the center of
+  a wheel may not only lose of its velocity, but be made to gain
+  velocity in proportion to the velocity of its counterpoising
+  weights that descend in the circumference of the opposite side
+  of the wheel; for if we consider two radii of the wheel, one
+  of which is horizontal, and the other (fastened to and moving
+  with it) inclined under the horizon in an angle of 60 degrees
+  (Fig. 5) and by the descent of the end B of the radius B C, the
+  radius C D by its motion causes the weight at D to rise up the
+  line _p_ P, which is in a plane that stops the said weight from
+  rising in the curve D A, that weight will gain velocity, and in
+  the beginning of its rise it will have twice the velocity of the
+  weight at B; and consequently, instead of being raised, will
+  overpoise, if it be equal to the last mentioned weight. And this
+  velocity will be so much the greater in proportion as the angle
+  A C D is greater, or as the plane P _p_ (along which the weight
+  D must rise) is nearer to the center. Indeed, if the weight at B
+  (Fig. 3) could, by any means, be lifted up to β, and move in the
+  arc β _b_, the end would be answered; because then the velocity
+  would be diminished and become β C.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  EXPERIMENT (Fig. 5).--Take the leaver B C D, whose brachia
+  are equal in length, bent in an angle of 120 degrees at C and
+  moveable about that point as its center: in this case a weight of
+  two pounds hanging at the end of B of the horizontal part of the
+  leaver will keep in equilibrio a weight of four pounds hanging
+  at the end D. But if a weight of one pound be laid upon the end
+  D of the leaver, so that in the motion of D along the arc _p_ A,
+  this weight is made to rise up against the plane P _p_ (which
+  divides in half the line A C equal to C B) the said weight will
+  keep in equilibrio two pounds at B, as having twice the velocity
+  of it when the leaver begins to move. This will be evident, if
+  you let the weight 4 hang at D, whilst the weight 1 lies above
+  it: for if then you move the leaver the weight 1 will rise four
+  times as fast as the weight 4.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+In 1770 Dr. William Kenrick published "A Lecture on the Perpetual
+Motion." In it he has the following to say concerning the alleged
+inventions of the Marquis of Worcester, and Councillor Orffyreus, and
+Perpetual Motion in general. The following excerpts of and comments on
+the lecture are taken verbatim from Dircks:
+
+  The mere exhibition of a self-moving machine without a display
+  of its mechanism, or the principles on which its motion is
+  begun and continued, could produce no conviction. The fate of
+  Orffyreus and his machine is a proof of this. Scarce fifty years
+  ago that whimsical mechanician exhibited a perpetual motion at
+  Hesse Cassel, the constancy of whose operation was experienced
+  for many weeks under the most exact caution of the Landgrave of
+  that Principality, whose testimony of such operation, as well
+  as in favor of its construction (to the secret of which he was
+  admitted), was given in the most explicit and determinate form.
+  And yet, because Orffyreus could not display the mechanism
+  without the previous assurance of a premium of 200,000 florins
+  (near twenty thousand pounds), or because he would not or could
+  not discover the principles on which it acted, his pretensions
+  were neglected, his machine was destroyed by his own hands,
+  and his life made a sacrifice to the chagrin attending his
+  disappointment. Twenty years had he racked his brains for
+  invention, and expended a patrimonial competence with parsimony
+  in prosecuting his design. And when success inspired the hope of
+  reward, he found his ingenuity suspected of imposture, and his
+  industry rewarded with contempt.
+
+  Whether any of his successors in the same pursuit will meet with
+  a better fate is at length to be determined. One species of our
+  predecessor's merit, however, I (adds Dr. Kenrick) presume myself
+  at least entitled to, that of perseverance; it being now fifteen
+  years since I first engaged in this undertaking, which I have
+  since pursued with almost unremitted assiduity, and that not
+  only at a considerable waste of time and expense, but under the
+  constant mortification of hearing it equally ridiculed by those
+  who do know, and by those who do not know, anything of the matter.
+
+  It is, indeed, generally supposed, and as confidently affirmed,
+  that the mathematicians have published demonstrations of the
+  impossibility of a perpetual motion. But I can safely take upon
+  me to affirm that no such demonstration was ever published by
+  any. Within these twelve years past the mathematicians who deny
+  the possibility of a perpetual motion have been repeatedly and
+  publicly called upon, both in the foreign and English prints, to
+  produce a single instance of these demonstrations. They have not
+  done it. They might have produced, indeed, the demonstrations of
+  Huygens, De la Hire, and others to prove, as Desaguliers very
+  properly expresses it the fallacy of the schemes of most of the
+  pretenders to the perpetual motion. They proved nothing more;
+  and this was so far unnecessary in that the fallacy evidently
+  appeared in the discovery of the principle on which they were
+  founded.
+
+  This was done in the last century by the celebrated Marquis
+  of Worcester, in the presence of the King and his Court, at
+  the Tower, by the exhibition of a wheel so contrived that in
+  revolving on its axis it carried up several weights nearer its
+  center on one side than they descended on the other. The scheme
+  was plausible and to appearance practicable; but, though the
+  wheel was polite enough to turn about while his Majesty was
+  present, it could not be prevailed upon to be so complaisant
+  in his absence. The mathematicians avenged themselves of the
+  short triumph of the mistaken Marquis, but were equally mistaken
+  themselves in thinking they had routed the problem or that
+  in hunting down the jackal they had destroyed the lion. The
+  perpetual motion survived; it had still its advocates; Professor
+  Gravesande and John Bernouille maintained its practicability,
+  the former giving his testimony in favor of Orffyreus's machine,
+  after a long and scrutinous examination. It is not twelve
+  years since this testimony was republished by Dr. Allaman, the
+  present Professor of Natural Philosophy at Leyden, whose own
+  opinion, given at the same time, is also greatly in favor of
+  the discovery. It is even some years later that a dissertation
+  still more in its favor, written, if I am not mistaken, by
+  the celebrated De Gorter of Petersburg, appeared in the
+  "Philosophical Transactions" of Haarlem. My end is not to amuse
+  or persuade, but, with due deference, to inform and convince. To
+  remove every cause of objection, I must beg leave to expatiate
+  somewhat at large on the theory of this discovery. It is with
+  the more propriety I presume on this method, as the discovery
+  to which I pretend has not been (as frequently happens) the
+  effect of mechanical accident, but the premeditated result of
+  mathematical reasoning and physical experiment. I shall proceed
+  to elucidate the principal arguments _a priori_, that prove
+  the practicability of a perpetual motion to be the necessary
+  consequence of the known and established laws of nature.
+
+Having proceeded thus far, he opens his lecture at page 7 with the
+introduction; and first "On the Nature of Motion in General," which,
+in fourteen pages, being more metaphysical than mechanical, affords
+no extractable matter for our present object. Part I is "On the Cause
+and Effect of Motion." This elementary part is needlessly labored and
+elaborated through 27 pages. In the course of his remarks he states:
+
+  The discovery of a perpetual motion, says De la Hire, would be to
+  discover a body at once heavier and lighter than itself. But this
+  is not a fair state of the question. It is not necessary that
+  all the parts of a perpetually-moving machine should be attached
+  to, and inseparable from each other; which they must be, to
+  constitute one gravitating body of a determinate weight.
+
+He proceeds to consider the nature of the circulation of the blood,
+pneumatic pressure, the steel-yard, real and relative weight, and
+spiral action. Again, we have Hobbes, Locke, and Stewart, in the same
+sentence with such language as--"I could almost as readily impute
+ingenuity to vegetables and fossils--to the sensitive plant and the
+loadstone--as mediation to muscles, or cogitabundity to cockles,
+periwinkles and rock oysters!" In conclusions he says:
+
+  I have endeavoured to make it appear that motion is the
+  mechanical effect of the physical action of the primary elements;
+  that the direction of motion only comes within the province of
+  animal intellect; that the vital system is supported by mere
+  mechanic motion, kept up by the elasticity of the solids and
+  the gravity of the fluids composing the animal body; that by
+  the same means a more simple inanimate system or machine may be
+  framed which may have the same property of continued action (or,
+  as it is called, self-motion). And this is all that is, or can
+  be, expected of a perpetual motion; the momentum of which may be
+  increased to any degree, according to the weight of the bodies
+  employed and the work required to be done.
+
+The second part of this lecture commences with a Proem of thirteen
+pages:
+
+  I am induced (he says) to trespass farther by extending in like
+  manner the subsequent divisions of it; making the second and
+  third parts of my printed syllabus the topics of the present
+  reading, and reserving the last part, with the concluding
+  experiment, to the third and final lecture.
+
+  I pretend merely to the investigation of the general principles
+  of mechanics, and even to illustrate these so far only as I
+  conceive they relate to the immediate object of my lecture,
+  the discovery of an artificial perpetual motion; leaving the
+  application of such principles, in the solution of particular
+  phenomena, or the construction of particular machines, to such as
+  make the different arts and sciences their peculiar study.
+
+He very prudently ends, observing:
+
+  But I beg pardon, gentlemen, for the length of this digressive
+  introduction, and shall proceed to the more immediate subject of
+  my lecture.
+
+Section 1 of this lecture is "On the Composition and Combination of
+Motion." After discussing, in his own peculiar style, mechanical
+principles of motion, he adds:
+
+  It would require a volume, and that not a small one, to
+  illustrate these subjects and support them by the necessary
+  demonstrations and experiments. Should Providence give me life
+  and health, therefore, they (his auditors) shall have it. Indeed,
+  I have already spent some years in preparing such a volume for
+  the press.
+
+He is very prolix on gravity and motion, then commences Section 2 "On
+the Communication and Dissipation of Motion." Five pages are occupied
+in discussing motion, in popular language, in the course of which he
+remarks:
+
+  And as to the imperfectly elastic bodies, their power of
+  retaining or communicating motion depends entirely on their
+  _vis inertiae_ and weight; nor can they on any occasion
+  whatever communicate a greater momentum to another body than
+  they themselves possess. It is sufficient for the purpose of a
+  perpetual motion that they can do this. And, indeed, here all the
+  difficulty lies, viz., in the means of communicating the momentum
+  or moving force of a heavy body to a light one. Now, the most
+  virulent opponents to the practicability of perpetual motion
+  have never pretended to demonstrate the impracticability of this
+  communication. The _quomodo_, or means of effecting it, being
+  the point in dispute. It is to this discovery that I pretend; and
+  to show that my pretensions are well grounded, have taken the
+  liberty to invite you to this lecture.
+
+The lectures appear to have been illustrated by a plate having two
+figures of a simple apparatus used to demonstrate the action of a
+spring and two unequal weights; also an inflexible ruler suspended
+between two unequal balls--with both he experimented before his
+auditors; but the engraving is wanting in the edition now used. In
+conclusion, he observes:
+
+  You see, gentlemen, I am purposely provided here with a very
+  simple and clumsy apparatus. The perpetual motion does not need
+  the assistance of friction wheels, or depend on the niggling
+  nicety of tooth and pinion. If the practical part of my discovery
+  be not superior to the manual dexterity of a village carpenter or
+  country smith, I am satisfied. There will be no great discernment
+  required to comprehend the design they are to put in execution.
+  You will permit me, however, at present, to defer what I have
+  farther to offer on the subject to another opportunity.
+
+In 1770 Dr. Kenrick published a quarto-pamphlet concerning the
+Orffyrean Wheel, and in the pamphlet appears the following regarding
+a letter from Prof. Gravesande to Sir Isaac Newton, and a letter from
+Baron Fischer to Dr. Desaguliers:
+
+  _A Letter from Professor 's Gravesande to Sir Isaac Newton,
+    Concerning Orffyreus's Wheel_
+
+SIR: Doctor Desaguliers has doubtless shown you the letter that Baron
+Fischer wrote to him some time ago about the wheel of Orffyreus; which
+the inventor affirms to be a perpetual motion. The landgrave, who is
+a lover of the sciences and fine arts, and neglects no opportunity to
+encourage the several discoveries and improvements that are presented
+him, was desirous of having this machine made known to the world, for
+the sake of public utility. To this end he engaged me to examine it;
+wishing that, if it should be found to answer the pretensions of the
+inventor, it might be made known to persons of greater abilities, who
+might deduce from it those services which are naturally to be expected
+from so singular an invention. You will not be displeased, I presume,
+with a circumstantial account of this examination; I transmit you,
+therefore, a detail of the most particular circumstances observable
+on an exterior view of a machine, concerning which the sentiments of
+most people are greatly divided, while almost all the mathematicians
+are against it. The majority maintain the impossibility of a perpetual
+motion, and hence it is that so little attention has been paid to
+Orffyreus and his invention.
+
+For my part, however, though I confess my abilities inferior to those
+of many who have given their demonstrations of this impossibility;
+yet I will communicate to you the real sentiments with which I
+entered on the examination of this machine. It is now more than
+seven years since I conceived I discovered the paralogism of those
+demonstrations, in that, though true in themselves, they were not
+applicable to all possible machines; and have ever since remained
+perfectly persuaded it might be demonstrated that a perpetual motion
+involved no contradiction; it appearing to me that Leibnitz was wrong
+in laying down the impossibility of the perpetual motion as an axiom.
+Notwithstanding this persuasion, however, I was far from believing
+Orffyreus capable of making such a discovery, looking upon it as an
+invention not to be made (if ever) till after many other previous
+discoveries. But since I have examined the machine, it is impossible
+for me to express my surprise.
+
+The inventor has a turn for mechanics, but is far from being a profound
+mathematician, and yet his machine has something in it prodigiously
+astonishing, even though it should be an imposition. The following
+is a description of the external parts of the machine, the inside of
+which the inventor will not permit to be seen, lest any one should
+rob him of his secret. It is a hollow wheel, or kind of drum, about
+fourteen inches thick and twelve feet diameter; being very light, as
+it consists of several crosspieces of wood framed together; the whole
+of which is covered over with canvas, to prevent the inside from being
+seen. Through the center of this wheel or drum runs an axis of about
+six inches diameter, terminated at both ends by iron axes of about
+three-quarters of an inch diameter upon which the machine turns. I
+have examined these axes and am firmly persuaded that nothing from
+without the wheel in the least contributes to its motion. When I turned
+it but gently, it always stood still as soon as I took away my hand;
+but when I gave it any tolerable degree of velocity, I was always
+obliged to stop it again by force; for when I let it go, it acquired in
+two or three turns its greatest velocity, after which it revolved for
+twenty-five or twenty-six times in a minute. This motion it preserved
+some time ago for two months, in an apartment of the castle: the door
+and windows of which were locked and sealed so that there was no
+possibility of fraud. At the expiration of that term indeed his serene
+highness ordered the apartment to be opened, and the machine to be
+stopped, lest, as it was only a model, the parts might suffer by so
+much agitation. The landgrave being himself present on my examination
+of this machine, I took the liberty to ask him, as he had seen the
+inside of it, whether after being in motion for a certain time no
+alteration was made in the component parts; or whether none of those
+parts might be suspected of concealing some fraud: on which his serene
+highness assured me to the contrary, and that the machine was very
+simple.
+
+You see, sir, I have not had any absolute demonstration, that the
+principle of motion which is certainly within the wheel, is really a
+principle of perpetual motion; but at the same time it cannot be denied
+me that I have received very good reasons to think so, which is a
+strong presumption in favor of the inventor. The landgrave hath made
+Orffyreus a very handsome present, to be let into the secret of the
+machine, under an engagement nevertheless not to discover, or to make
+any use of it before the inventor may procure a sufficient reward for
+making his discovery public.
+
+I am very sensible, sir, that it is in England only the arts and
+sciences are so generally cultivated as to afford any prospect of the
+inventor's acquiring a reward adequate to this discovery. He requires
+nothing more than the assurance of having it paid him in case his
+machine is found to be really a perpetual motion; and as he desires
+nothing more than this assurance till the construction of the machine
+be displayed and fairly examined before such assurance be given him.
+Now, sir, as it would conduce to public utility as well as to the
+advancement of science, to discover the reality or the fraud of this
+invention, I conceive the relation of the above circumstances could not
+fail of being acceptable. I am, etc.
+
+In the same book appear the following animadversions by Prof. Allaman,
+on the neglect of Orffyreus's invention:
+
+  We see that the testimony of M. 's Gravesande was as advantageous
+  as possible to Orffyreus, not having seen the interior of
+  the machine, he could form no other judgment; however, that
+  extraordinary man was not contented, for in consequence of the
+  examination Orffyreus broke the machine into pieces. By the
+  accounts of M. 's Gravesande, Baron Fischer and the testimony
+  of the Landgrave it appears clear that the wheel was not moved
+  by any exterior agent. Orffyreus is, however, accused of being
+  an impostor, of having imposed on the good faith of the prince,
+  deceived M. 's Gravesande and all those who examined his machine.
+  His own servant deposed against him and said that she was made
+  to turn the wheel, and thus he has fallen into contempt; and
+  everyone who protected him, is ashamed of him. M. de Crousaz, who
+  was at that time at the court of Cassel, writes a letter to M.
+  's Gravesande dated February 3, 1729, in these terms:--'First,
+  Orffyreus is a fool; Second, It is impossible that a fool can
+  have discovered what such a number of clever people have searched
+  for without success; Third, I do not believe in impossibilities;
+  Fourth, One can easily imagine that persons keep a secret from
+  which they are to receive benefit, but this fellow, hoping
+  only to receive reputation, allows it to be tarnished by an
+  accusation which he has in his power to disprove, if false;
+  Fifth, The servant who ran away from his house, for fear of being
+  strangled, has in her possession, in writing, the terrible oath
+  that Orffyreus made her swear; Sixth, He only had to have asked,
+  in order to have had this girl imprisoned, until he had time
+  to finish his machine; Seventh, They publish that the machine
+  is going to be exhibited, when suddenly those who advertise it
+  become silent; Eighth, It is true there is a machine at his
+  house, to which they give the name of perpetual motion, but that
+  cannot be removed; it is much smaller, and differs from the
+  first, inasmuch as it only turns one way.
+
+  This is what makes Orffyreus and his machine to be suspected; can
+  it be that M. 's Gravesande was so mistaken as to be his dupe?
+  Let us read what he himself says in answer to M. Crousaz, which
+  I have found among my papers, without date:--"I have deferred
+  replying to you until I had found a paper which I wrote the day
+  after I examined Orffyreus' machine, for although I remember well
+  all that passed, I believe that a paper, written the day after
+  the examination, and communicated to my Lord and all those who
+  were with him, must have more weight.
+
+  "This is what I heard; they say that a servant under oath, turned
+  Orffyreus' machine, being placed in an adjoining room.
+
+  "I know well that Orffyreus is a fool, but I ignore that he is
+  an impostor; I have never decided whether his machine is an
+  imposture or not, but this I know as certainly as anything in
+  the world, that if the servant says the above, she tells a great
+  falsehood.
+
+  "My Lord the Landgrave in the presence of the Baron Fischer,
+  Architect of the Emperor, and other persons at my request,
+  showed the supports of the machine; we saw the axles uncovered;
+  I examined the plates or brasses on which the axles rested and
+  in that examination there did not appear the slightest trace of
+  communication with the adjoining room. I remember very distinctly
+  the whole of the circumstances of that examination, which put
+  Orffyreus in such a rage with me, that the day after he broke
+  his machine in pieces, and wrote on the wall that, it was the
+  impertinent curiosity of Professor 's Gravesande which was the
+  cause. I read this myself the following year, and the result of
+  the examination is clearly explained in the paper of which I
+  spoke to you.
+
+  "They told me several circumstances on the testimony of the
+  servant, but I pay little attention to what a servant can say
+  about machines, perhaps in turning her master's roast-jack
+  she thought she saw a perpetual motion. If you know anything
+  concerning this matter I shall feel much pleasure if you would
+  communicate it."
+
+  It is difficult to determine what to believe about this machine.
+  It seems to me, however, that on examining minutely the for and
+  against Orffyreus we can come to these conclusions: 1. That
+  Orffyreus was evidently mad, as M. 's Gravesande and M. de
+  Crousaz both affirm; his machinery broken at different times
+  without either reason or necessity prove this. But his was a
+  sort of madness we do not often see: a folly fixed only on
+  certain objects, and merits more the name of fantasticalness or
+  whimsicalness; this kind of folly is often accompanied by much
+  genius, and when persons of this disposition apply themselves
+  solely to one subject, as it appears he did, it is not surprising
+  to find them making discoveries which had escaped the sagacity
+  of wiser people. Thus I do not wish to agree with M. de Crousaz,
+  that it is incredible that a madman, such as Orffyreus should
+  have found out something that learned men have searched for
+  unsuccessfully. Added to this he is mistaken in saying that
+  Orffyreus could hope for no other reward for his secrets than
+  mere reputation: for he expected a considerable profit seeing
+  that he demanded for it 200,000 florins. 2. No exterior agent
+  moved the machine; if it were a servant that moved it, would it
+  not have been apparent to eyes so searching as those that made
+  the examination, or to the Landgrave, who had seen the interior
+  of the machine? Besides how can any one imagine that a wheel
+  of so great a volume could have been moved by such a cause,
+  a cause which would act simply on the axle in crossing the
+  supports, and which must have been so small as to have escaped
+  the most rigorous examination? 3. If the servant has not been
+  paid to depose against Orffyreus, what does her testimony prove?
+  Only that her master made her believe that by turning a little
+  wheel, she moved the whole machine, and we can fancy a singular
+  character, such as he was might have done this to prevent the
+  curiosity of those who sought to penetrate his secret; M. 's
+  Gravesande's opinion of this strange character is such that he
+  doubts not his whimsicalness prevented him from making a new
+  machine. 4. It must be confessed that this wheel was a very
+  remarkable mechanical phenomenon, and this is all we can say,
+  not knowing more than the preceding details; it were too much
+  temerity to say that this invention was a perpetual motion, as
+  much as it would be wrong to call it an imposture, seeing that no
+  exterior agent was employed.
+
+  Dr. Kenrick proceeds to state that:--The celebrated John
+  Bernoulli, speaking of the above demonstration, in a letter
+  to the author, remarks that it is very just; the principle
+  assumed necessarily involving an augmentation of force, _viz._,
+  a perpetual motion. But this, continues he, is no more than
+  Leibnitz had long before demonstrated in his dispute with Papin
+  and others.
+
+  Having thus occupied twenty-three pages in fencing himself
+  with a screen against the ridicule he appears to have so much
+  dreaded, and reasonably anticipated from the many authors he
+  had himself similarly treated in the "London Review," we are
+  informed that,--An accidental conversation, many years ago, on
+  the spot where Orffyreus exhibited his machine, awakened the
+  author's curiosity and directed his attention to an object which
+  he has ever since occasionally pursued. The experiments he has
+  made, even so long since as the year 1761, convinced him so far
+  of the reality of Orffyreus' discovery, that he applied for
+  letters-patent to secure an exclusive right to the construction
+  of a similar machine; which he had contrived and denominated A
+  ROTATOR. Before his patent, however, was expedited, he reflected
+  that, though the model he had constructed might serve to remove
+  the prejudices of the public, it was not so well calculated as
+  it might be, to answer the practical purposes of so important
+  a discovery. To the improvement of the Rotator, therefore, has
+  he long since dedicated all the time and attention he could
+  possibly spare from his other, more immediately necessary,
+  pursuits.
+
+  Nothing can be more flimsy than the statement here made, and the
+  next sentence would seem to explain the true state of the case.
+  He proceeds: "Not that he believes he has contrived quite so many
+  different machines as Orffyreus did, though he has been almost as
+  many years engaged in the like undertaking; he has, nevertheless,
+  both contrived and constructed a considerable number, many of
+  them useless as costly, except indeed as they served to assist
+  him in completing his invention."
+
+  His invention, however, was _not_ complete; the very model of it
+  was unsatisfactory. Like Orffyreus, he had spent nearly twenty
+  years, making numerous, and some costly, machines. He no doubt
+  had his own misgivings, and wished to reimburse himself for the
+  great outlay he must have incurred during that long period,
+  before the bubble finally burst! However, poor man, he died nine
+  years after publishing this elaborate advertising prospectus,
+  which concludes: "Such bodies corporate, private companies or
+  individuals, as are interested in the construction or use of
+  considerable mechanical engines, or are disposed to encourage
+  the present discovery, may receive any further information they
+  require, on applying to the inventor, WILLIAM KENRICK, Charles
+  street, St. James's Square, March 1, 1770."
+
+In 1803, Dr. Charles Hutton, LL.D., and F. R. S., contributed in
+a brief work entitled, "Recreations in Mathematics and Natural
+Philosophy," gave the following notice to the Orffyrean Wheel:
+
+  The perpetual motion has been the quicksand of mechanicians, as
+  the quadrature of the circle, the trisection of an angle, etc.,
+  have been that of geometricians: and as those who pretend to have
+  discovered the solution of the latter problems are in general
+  persons scarcely acquainted with the principles of geometry,
+  those who search for, or imagine they have found, the perpetual
+  motion, are always men to whom the most certain and invariable
+  truths of mechanics are unknown.
+
+  It may be demonstrated, indeed, to all those capable of reasoning
+  in a sound manner on those sciences, that a perpetual motion
+  is impossible: for, to be possible, it is necessary that the
+  effect should become alternately the cause, and the cause the
+  effect. It would be necessary, for example, that a weight raised
+  to a certain height by another weight, should in its turn
+  raise the second weight to the height from which it descended.
+  But, according to the laws of motion, all that a descending
+  weight could do, in the most perfect machine which the mind
+  can conceive, is to raise another in the same time to a height
+  reciprocally proportional to its mass. But it is impossible to
+  construct a machine in which there shall be neither friction nor
+  the resistance of some medium to be overcome; consequently at
+  each alternation of ascent and descent, some quantity of motion,
+  however small, will always be lost: each time, therefore, the
+  weight to be raised will ascend to a less height; and the motion
+  will gradually slacken, and at length cease entirely.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  A moving principle has been sought for, but without success,
+  in the magnet, in the gravity of the atmosphere, and in the
+  elasticity of bodies. If a magnet be disposed in such a manner
+  as to facilitate the ascension of a weight, it will afterwards
+  oppose its descent. Springs, after being unbent, require to be
+  bent by a new force equal to that which they exercise; and the
+  gravity of the atmosphere, after forcing one side of the machine
+  to the lowest point, must be itself raised again, like any other
+  weight, in order to continue its action.
+
+  We shall, however, give an account of various attempts to obtain
+  a perpetual motion, because they may serve to show how much some
+  persons have suffered themselves to be deceived on this subject.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Fig. 52, plate 12, represents a large wheel, the circumference of
+  which is furnished, at equal distances, with levers, each bearing
+  at its extremity a weight, and movable on a hinge, so that in
+  one direction they can rest upon the circumference, while on the
+  opposite side, being carried away by the weight at the extremity,
+  they are obliged to arrange themselves in the direction of the
+  radius continued. This being supposed, it is evident that when
+  the wheel turns in the direction _a b c_, the weights A B and C
+  will recede from the centre; consequently, as they act with more
+  force, they will carry the wheel towards that side; and as a new
+  lever will be thrown out, in proportion as the wheel revolves, it
+  thence follows, say they, that the wheel will continue to move in
+  the same direction. But, notwithstanding the specious appearance
+  of this reasoning, experience has proved that the machine will
+  not go; and it may indeed be demonstrated that there is a
+  certain position in which the centre of gravity of all these
+  weights is in the vertical plane passing through the point of
+  suspension, and that therefore it must stop.
+
+  The case is the same with the following machine, which it would
+  appear ought to move also incessantly. In a cylindric drum, in
+  perfect equilibrium on its axis, are formed channels as seen in
+  Fig. 53, which contain balls of lead, or a certain quantity of
+  quicksilver. In consequence of this disposition, the balls or
+  quicksilver must, on the one side, ascend by approaching the
+  centre; and on the other must roll towards the circumference. The
+  machine then ought to turn incessantly towards that side.
+
+  A third machine of this kind is represented in Fig. 54. It
+  consists of a kind of wheel formed of six or eight arms,
+  proceeding from a centre, where the axis of motion is placed.
+  Each of these arms is furnished with a receptacle in the form
+  of a pair of bellows, but those on the opposite arms stand in
+  contrary directions, as seen in the figure. The movable top of
+  each receptacle has affixed to it a weight, which shuts it in
+  one situation and opens it in the other. In the last place, the
+  bellows of the opposite arms have a communication by means of a
+  canal, and one of them is filled with quicksilver.
+
+  These things being supposed, it is visible, that the bellows
+  on the one side must open, and those on the other must shut;
+  consequently the mercury will pass from the latter into the
+  former, while the contrary will be the case on the opposite side.
+
+  It might be difficult to point out the deficiency of this
+  reasoning; but those acquainted with the true principles of
+  mechanics will not hesitate to bet a hundred to one that the
+  machine, when constructed, will not answer the intended purpose.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The description of a pretended perpetual motion, in which
+  bellows, to be alternately filled with and emptied of
+  quicksilver, were employed, may be seen in the "Journal des
+  Savans" for 1685. It was refuted by Bernouilli and some others,
+  and it gave rise to a long dispute. The best method which the
+  inventor could have employed to defend his invention would have
+  been to construct it, and show it in motion; but this was never
+  done.
+
+  We shall here add another curious anecdote on this subject. One
+  Orffyreus announced, at Leipsic, in the year 1717, a perpetual
+  motion, consisting of a wheel which would continually revolve.
+  This machine was constructed for the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel,
+  who caused it to be shut up in a place of safety, and the door to
+  be sealed with his own seal. At the end of forty days, the door
+  was opened, and the machine was found in motion. This, however,
+  affords no proof in favor of a perpetual motion; for as clocks
+  can be made to go a year without being wound up, Orffyreus's
+  wheel might easily go forty days, and even more.
+
+  The result of this pretended discovery is not known. We are
+  informed that an Englishman offered 80,000 crowns for this
+  machine; but Orffyreus refused to sell it at that price: in this
+  he certainly acted wrong, as there is reason to think he obtained
+  by his invention, neither money, nor even the honor of having
+  discovered the perpetual motion.
+
+  The Academy of Painting at Paris possessed a clock which had
+  no need of being wound up, and which might be considered as
+  a perpetual motion, though it was not so. But this requires
+  some explanation. The ingenious author of this clock employed
+  the variations in the state of the atmosphere for winding up
+  his moving weight. Various artifices might be devised for this
+  purpose; but this is no more a perpetual motion than if the
+  flux and reflux of the sea were employed to keep the machine
+  continually going; for this principle of motion is exterior to
+  the machine, and forms no part of it.
+
+  But enough has been said on this chimera of mechanics. We
+  sincerely hope that none of our readers will ever lose themselves
+  in the ridiculous and unfortunate labyrinth of such a research.
+
+  To conclude, it is false that any reward has been promised by the
+  European Powers to the person who shall discover the perpetual
+  motion; and the case is the same in regard to the quadrature of
+  the circle. It is this idea, no doubt, that excites so many to
+  attempt the solution of these problems; and it is proper they
+  should be undeceived.
+
+The foregoing, we believe, are sufficient to disclose the gist of
+all that is known, and all that has been said concerning the claimed
+inventions of the distinguished Marquis and the distinguished
+Councillor. It is manifest from reading the above that Dircks himself,
+as well as nearly all the other eminent persons quoted above, felt
+an extreme delicacy in stating their honest belief concerning the
+claims of the distinguished inventors. That delicacy arose from their
+deference to the rank and prominence of the Marquis and the Councillor.
+The author of this book is not thus encumbered, and has no such regard
+for family or official rank, and feels at liberty to say exactly what
+he thinks.
+
+No one now actually believes that either the Marquis or the Councillor
+ever made a wheel or machine that actually furnished its own
+motive-power. Those who believe in the impossibility of Perpetual
+Motion, of course, do not admit the possibility of such a thing. Those
+who may still believe in the possibility of Perpetual Motion devices
+admit, as they must, that had either of these discoveries actually
+been made it would have supplanted steam, electricity, wind, water
+and all other forms of power for driving machinery, and, indeed, for
+furnishing heat. And, yet, the above articles and comments show that
+the contemporaries of the Marquis and the Councillor, and subsequent
+writers on their claims sought to find excuses and explanations
+consistent with their good faith and their claims. We do not accuse
+either one of them of vicious falsehood, but the truth is that when the
+Marquis of Worcester wrote that "all the weights of the descending side
+of a wheel shall be perpetually farther from the centre than those of
+the mounting side, and yet equal in number and heft to the one side as
+the other. A most incredible thing, if not seen; but tried before the
+late King (of blessed memory) in the Tower by my directions," etc., he
+meant, if he meant anything, to convey the idea that he had constructed
+such a machine, and had exhibited it before King Charles I, and when
+Orffyreus wrote "The inward structure of the wheel is of a nature
+according to the laws of mechanical perpetual motion, so arranged that
+by disposed weights once in rotation they gain force from their own
+swinging and must continue their movement as long as their structure
+does not lose its position and arrangement," he meant, as clearly
+appears from the entire context of what he wrote, to convey the idea
+that he had constructed a wheel capable of moving perpetually by virtue
+of the arrangement of its own parts until it should wear out. Neither
+one spoke the truth. Each knew that he had done no such thing as he
+claimed to have done. He probably thought the solution so near at hand
+that he could safely announce it to the world, and when called upon for
+a demonstration could produce the finished working article.
+
+The author of this book has known many Perpetual Motion workers so
+confident and so enthusiastic that unhampered with extreme discretion,
+they announced that they were near enough to the solution of this
+ages-old puzzle that they were certain of success. A little less
+discretion, with the slightest disregard or even carelessness about
+the absolute truth could have easily led them to announce that they
+had such a working machine. The author has indeed known a few such
+announcements. It is therefore, not surprising that in the history of
+Perpetual Motion labors, instances can be found where the tireless, but
+enthusiastic worker being full of confidence, and not secretive, and
+with the least bit of human carelessness about the truth have announced
+the actual discovery and successful operation of the machine. We will
+undertake to say that there have been thousands of just such instances
+during the last three or four centuries, probably tens of thousands. It
+is probable that such an instance could be found in every township in
+the United States. It is not, therefore, surprising that two instances
+can be found in persons of sufficient personal eminence to give
+credence and weight to their stories. Such we conceive the facts with
+reference to the Marquis and the Councillor. Each thought what he told
+when telling it to be a harmless stretch of the truth, and felt sure
+that he could protect himself by a very little added perfection to his
+device. How many many Perpetual Motion devices have been perfect and
+ready for successful operation except for "one little thing," which the
+inventor felt sure of finding.
+
+The Marquis and Councillor by their little indiscretion, and their
+puerile carelessness about the truth, each made himself neither famous,
+nor infamous, but ridiculous in history.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+Conservation of Energy--A Discussion of the Relation of the Doctrine of
+Conservation of Energy, and the Possibility of Perpetual Motion
+
+
+_Conservation of Energy_ is a doctrine to the effect that energy, like
+matter, is indestructible, and, except by the infinite, can neither be
+created nor destroyed; that the sum total of all Energy in the world
+remains constant; that it may manifest itself in different forms, as
+heat, magnetism, electricity, mechanical motion, vaporization, but that
+the sum total remains the same.
+
+Nothing could be more satisfactorily proved than this doctrine, and,
+yet, like Newton's theory of universal gravitation the proof does
+not amount to a mathematical demonstration. Mathematics demonstrates
+the conformity of the doctrine of universal gravitation, and of
+Conservation of Energy with all known natural processes and observed
+phenomena; but mathematics does not otherwise prove the Universality of
+Gravitation nor Conservation of Energy.
+
+Writing on this subject of proof, with reference to gravitation, the
+late and eminent Simon Newcomb says:
+
+  "It may be inquired, is the induction which supposes gravitation
+  universal so complete as to be entirely beyond doubt? We reply
+  that within the solar system it certainly is. The laws of motion
+  as established by observation and experiment at the surface of
+  the earth must be considered as mathematically certain. Now, it
+  is an observed fact that the planets in their motion deviate from
+  straight lines in a certain way. By the first law of motion, such
+  deviation can be produced only by a force; and the direction
+  and intensity of this force admit of being calculated once that
+  the motion is determined. When thus calculated, it is found to
+  be exactly represented by one great force constantly directed
+  toward the sun, and smaller subsidiary forces directed toward
+  the several planets. Therefore, no fact in nature is more firmly
+  established than is that of universal gravitation, as laid down
+  by Newton, at least within the solar system."
+
+It will thus be observed that the theory of Universal Gravitation is
+not by scientific men claimed to have been mathematically demonstrated,
+but its proof is regarded as resting upon its conformity with known
+natural phenomena. The same thing is true of Conservation of Energy.
+Scientists and mathematicians do not claim proof of this doctrine other
+than by its universal coincidence with all natural manifestations, and,
+yet its proof rests upon such a solid structure of coincidence and
+conformity with all known things in nature, that now all scientific
+research begins with its assumption, and with the exclusion of the
+possibility of Perpetual Motion.
+
+It is not within the purview of this work to give a history of the
+origin and establishment in science of the doctrine. While, as
+heretofore noted in this book, a number of scientists of the past few
+centuries are shown by their reflections to have had a measure of
+appreciation of its ultimate effect, and to have applied that effect
+in their scientific researches, there is no evidence that they ever
+dreamed of its establishment as a basic fact of science. The real
+establishment and acceptance of the doctrine dates not much over a
+half century back. Since that time many scientists have in their
+researches and writings contributed to its evolution and formation. The
+experiments of Joule, of England, and the generalizations of Helmholtz,
+of Germany, are entitled to special mention.
+
+Scientists are naturally and necessarily conservative. So many
+startling pseudo-scientific facts are announced, that every startling
+scientific theory, before it is accepted, is submitted to the most
+careful and crucial tests. No modern scientist will announce a
+scientific fact as having been demonstrated until the demonstration is
+complete and fortified with repeated tests of mathematical rigidity,
+and as long as there remains a phenomenon that does not conform to the
+supposed theory, acceptance and promulgation will be withheld. It is,
+therefore, not surprising that the doctrine of Conservation of Energy
+has been thoroughly intrenched as an established indisputable and
+accepted fact of science, less than a single generation.
+
+The student of natural science should be warned against the common
+error of supposing that the discovery of a scientific fact or theory,
+means demolition of the old theories. The rule is the other way. New
+theories are additional information to the world, and usually conform
+to, and are built upon what was known before. Conservation of Energy
+was generalized from previously known facts conformed to them and
+reflexively elucidated them, and left them standing clearer than before.
+
+The proof that Conservation of Energy conforms to all other known
+phenomena of nature has been aided, and hastened by the refinement
+of scientific instruments by which forms of energy such as heat,
+electricity, and magnetism can be more delicately measured and
+determined than ever before, and if instruments for measuring and
+determining the amount of energy in its various forms were as crude
+as they were even a single century ago, it is probable Conservation
+of Energy would still be the undiscovered foundation of all natural
+phenomena.
+
+Let us now consider a few well-known facts which it has been determined
+positively by the most delicate instruments, prove and illustrate the
+doctrine of Conservation of Energy.
+
+Resistance to motion, or which is the same thing, motion against
+resistance, is always accompanied by heat. This developed heat is not
+always readily perceptible to our sense of touch. A stone, ball or
+other object thrown through the air has its motion gradually arrested
+by the air. Heat is developed, but the heat is distributed through
+so much air and the object thrown is heated so little that this
+development of heat was not known until scientifically discovered.
+Where the resistance is friction, the development of heat is quite
+perceptible, and has always been well known. Suppose a coin be
+rubbed on a cloth or blotter. Heat is developed both in the coin and
+the blotter--the more vigorous the rubbing--i. e., the more energy
+expended, the greater the heat. Science has determined that the
+developed heat is exactly proportional to the expended energy. Every
+machinist knows that in turning a tap on a bolt where the threads are
+rusty so that it turns only with the application of great force, a
+considerable amount of heat is readily developed. The heat developed is
+proportional to the energy expended in turning the tap.
+
+A wheel revolving on a spindle will develop heat exactly proportional
+to the resistance the spindle offers to the wheel turning upon it.
+Thus, we often see smoke and a blaze rising from the spindles of the
+car wheels where oil is lacking, and they turn with difficulty.
+
+Every farmer knows that if a buggy wheel turns with difficulty for want
+of lubrication, or for any other reason, the spindle will heat, expand
+and lock the wheel, so that it will often either grind out the boxing
+or slide on the ground. Whereas, if the parts be kept lubricated so
+that less energy is required to turn the wheel on the spindle, there
+is no perceptible heat developed, but in all cases heat is developed
+to some extent, and the heat developed is exactly proportional to the
+energy necessary to force the revolution.
+
+With heat we can boil water and make steam under a pressure, and with
+the steam under a pressure we can run an engine, and with the engine
+make heat by friction, or make electric current that can produce heat.
+Carry this proposition back to the fuel box, and knowing the amount
+of heat developed by the burning of a certain quantity of fuel, it is
+found that, counting the heat that rises in the air through the smoke
+stack, the heat that is radiated from the boiler, the heat that is
+carried away in warmed ashes, the heat that exists in the steam after
+it is exhausted from the cylinder, and all other heat expended whether
+utilized in driving the machinery or going to waste, the sum total is
+in every case equal to the heat developed by the fuel box combustion.
+The most striking thing about all this is that when the steam goes into
+the cylinder where it is cooled as it expands and drives the pistons,
+the heat _thus lost by the expanding steam is the exact equivalent of
+the mechanical energy realized against the piston head_. Not all of the
+energy that is realized at the piston head is delivered to the driving
+shaft. Some of it is lost in the friction of the piston rings wearing
+against the cylinder lining; some, of course, is lost in friction at
+the journals connecting with the driving shaft. It is usual in counting
+engine efficiency to count the amount of energy delivered to the belt,
+or to the driving shaft, and because of the frictional resistance of
+the pistons working in the cylinder, there is always found a little
+discrepancy between the energy represented by the cooling of the steam
+in the cylinder and the energy delivered to the belt, or the driving
+shaft.
+
+It is quite surprising how much energy a small amount of heat
+represents if it could all be converted into the obvious forms of
+energy. Owing to the great waste suffered in all modern machinery, heat
+represents much more energy than is ordinarily supposed, in the absence
+of exact knowledge. One would hardly think it possible that the amount
+of heat that will raise the temperature of one pound (almost exactly
+one pint) of water, one single degree (Fahrenheit) is the equivalent of
+energy required to elevate one pound seven hundred seventy-eight feet
+high against the force of gravity. Yet, such is the case. This was one
+of the demonstrations of the immortal Joule. It was he who enabled us
+to cross the bridge with calculations from mechanical force and motion
+to heat. He stated the equivalent to be seven hundred seventy-two feet,
+but more delicate instruments than could be had in his day have shown
+a slight discrepancy in his calculations, and it is now known to be
+almost exactly seven hundred seventy-eight feet. Thus, if the Falls of
+Niagara be considered as being one hundred sixty feet high, the energy
+developed by the descent is only the equivalent of the heat necessary
+to raise the temperature of the water about one-fifth of one degree. A
+modern railroad locomotive does well to realize to the driving rod two
+per cent of the total energy developed in the fuel box. An ordinary
+thrasher engine realizes no more than one per cent. The very best steam
+engines known in large stationary plants do not realize as much as
+fifteen per cent.
+
+The amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of
+water one degree is taken as a standard for heat measurement, and is
+known as a British Thermal Unit--nearly always in scientific works
+abbreviated to B. T. U. The common standard of energy is the amount
+of energy or work necessary to elevate one pound one foot against the
+force of gravity. This in scientific works is usually referred to as
+the foot-pound.
+
+From what is said above it is manifest that one B. T. U. is the
+equivalent of seven hundred seventy-eight foot-pounds, and vice versa.
+
+The _amount_ of energy must not be confused with the _rate_ of
+expending energy, or doing work. The horse-power is the common
+measurement of the rate of delivery of energy or of doing work and is
+equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. It is what one horse can
+do, and continue doing several hours with reasonable ease. For a short
+time a horse can exert several horse-power.
+
+Remember, and remember always that heat and electricity are just as
+much forms of energy as the motion of concrete objects.
+
+We have introduced the above statement of equivalents for the purpose
+of enabling us to present a few fundamental facts more clearly than
+could otherwise be done.
+
+Everyone knows that if paddles be revolved rapidly in a vessel
+containing a liquid, such as a churn, or the like, the liquid will
+offer considerable resistance to their motion, the amount of
+resistance depending upon the nature of the liquid, and the rapidity of
+the motion.
+
+Our scientific instruments have determined the fact to be that the
+B. T. U. developed in the liquid and on the paddles is the exact
+equivalent to the foot-pounds of energy required to drive the paddles,
+i. e., the number of B. T. U. is 778 times the number of foot-pounds.
+
+An engine is run with steam--the engine drives an electric generator.
+Electricity is developed. This electricity is conducted over a wire to
+a motor. It is always found that not as much energy can be derived from
+the motor as is supplied from the generator to the wire. Where is the
+loss?
+
+It is found that the loss is in the resistance of the wire to the
+current, and that the wire is warmed--possibly not sufficient to be
+perceptible to the ordinary sense of touch, and, yet, it is warmed to
+some extent, and the B. T. U., developed in, and radiated away by the
+wire, amounts precisely and exactly to the difference in foot-pounds
+between the energy supplied to the wire at one end of the wire, and the
+energy supplied by the wire at its other end.
+
+Capillary Attraction is one form of motion by which liquids are
+elevated and carried considerable distance. The moisture is taken from
+the earth and carried up the trunks of trees, and out through their
+limbs to their leaves. This cannot be done without force and energy,
+but where is the heat? It has been determined and proven that there is
+an expenditure of heat in doing that work, and that the expenditure of
+heat is precisely equivalent to the work done. It is hardly believable
+that there is a loss of heat by coal oil or water, or other liquid
+performing the work of ascending the wick, and yet, science has
+determined that that work is only done at the expense of that other
+form of energy--heat.
+
+If an object falls a distance of twenty feet, and it strikes one end of
+a lever having two arms of equal length, and at the other end of the
+lever there be a ball of equal weight, the other ball will be thrown
+upward twenty feet, less an allowance for the resistance of the air
+in the descent and ascent, and for the frictional resistance of the
+motion of the lever. It would throw a ball of twice the weight half the
+height by adjusting the levers properly. Or, it would throw a ball of
+one-third the weight three times as high, and so on.
+
+A ball rolling down an inclined plane is found to have a velocity, and
+consequently a striking force, and an energy equal to that acquired
+in falling the vertical distance of its descent, due allowance being
+made for the resistance offered to its rolling motion. It makes no
+difference whether the incline be great or small, the velocity, the
+energy are the same as though it had fallen perpendicularly through the
+same vertical distance.
+
+Instances and illustrations can be multiplied indefinitely. Millions
+of tests have been made by scientific men, and the basic fact of
+Conservation of Energy is found true everywhere. That fact is that
+energy cannot be created. So much as is given is returned in some other
+form, or else in the form of heat, but in some form, precisely the
+equivalent is always found to exist.
+
+One of the most beautiful experiments is with the pendulum. Imagine
+a nail or peg driven into a wall and projecting out--say six inches
+from the wall. Hang a pendulum four feet long--let the pendulum swing
+parallel to the wall in the annexed figure. Let "A" represent the
+point from which the pendulum is suspended. Draw the pendulum back to
+C, and release it. Its lowest descent in the swing will be at B. It
+will swing to D, and a line connecting D & C is exactly horizontal,
+showing that the energy represented by the motion of the pendulum at
+B was sufficient to elevate it to the point D. Now, on a line on the
+wall downward from where the nail or peg is driven into the wall, let
+there be made holes into which a nail or peg can be inserted, and
+suppose a peg be driven at the point F. If now pendulum be released
+at C, it will be found that when the cord strikes F the pendulum will
+swing to the point J, which is on the horizontal line D C. It makes no
+difference where the interrupting peg or nail be placed, the pendulum
+will rise to the same horizontal from which it was released. It is
+said that this was one of Gallileo's experiments. If so, it is another
+example of the masterly force and originality of his genius, and shows
+that he subconsciously had some appreciation of the basic facts of the
+now accepted doctrine of Conservation of Energy.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+We believe it is useless to multiply instances further, to illustrate
+the doctrine of Conservation of Energy, and show the character of proof
+upon which it rests. There is no fact in nature, but what in the hands
+of modern science appears to conform to this doctrine. A few years ago
+when radio-active properties were first discovered it was thought that
+it was an exception, but even that has been found to conform to this
+wonderful generalized doctrine.
+
+If the doctrine of Conservation of Energy be true about which there
+seems to be no doubt, then all hopes of ever attaining Perpetual Motion
+must cease, for the idea of Perpetual Motion is predicated and has
+its foundation upon the creation of energy. The mechanism must give
+more energy than is imparted to it. It must make energy, and this in
+the light of the generalized truth of Conservation of Energy is an
+impossibility. We might as well talk about making substance, and the
+creation of substance, or the creation of energy either one is not
+an attribute of man. It is an attribute to be accredited only to the
+infinite, and can not be conceived as an attribute of the finite.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+Will Perpetual Motion Ever Be Accomplished?
+
+
+The antiquity of the problem of Perpetual Motion, and the countless
+attempts by clever and ingenious minds to accomplish its solution, and
+the uniform failure of such attempts is no proof at all, scientifically
+speaking, that Perpetual Motion is an impossibility. If there be
+scientific proof that Perpetual Motion is unattainable, that proof must
+be found elsewhere than in the number of attempts and the universality
+of failures, or in the number or eminence of the people who believe it
+to be impossible.
+
+Dircks in his work printed in 1861, being "A History of the Search for
+Self-Motive Power, During the 17th 18th and 19th Centuries," says on
+the subject:
+
+"The subject of Perpetual Motion opposes paradox to paradox. It is
+viewed both as being most simple and most difficult to find. The
+learned justify both its possibility and impossibility. Many mechanics
+believe it possible * * * Its pursuit always commences in confidence,
+only to end in doubt. * * *
+
+We think a careful perusal of all that has been gathered respecting
+Perpetual Motion clearly establishes that much remains to be done to
+prove the impossibility of practically solving this knotty problem; and
+that a full demonstration of the difficulties that environ it is worthy
+of being attempted, even by the most exalted mathematicians. It is not
+requisite that they should descend to the level of the most ordinary
+minds, but leave it for others to reduce their elaborated reasonings on
+the subject to some generally comprehensible form. We fear the proposal
+partakes too much of the difficulty of proving a negative; but still,
+as the attempt has been made by celebrated savants, and is generally
+considered insufficient; and as data may have been wanting, which we
+conceive a collection of the chief known examples will supply; we
+recommend the consideration of this matter to all geometers. * * *
+
+In a mathematical point of view, we think this subject is far
+from being exhausted; and, after what has been advanced, may very
+properly be considered as claiming grave considerations. And that,
+scientifically examined, it is a mark of mere shallowness and
+querulousness to attempt the substitution of ridicule and satire for
+the more difficult, but consistent course of sound, close reason and
+argument, such as the wonted sobriety and severity of scientific
+criticism accords to its investigations generally."
+
+At the time of the publication of Dircks's work from which the above
+quotation is taken (1861), the doctrine of Conservation of Energy
+had not been announced and accepted as an established generalization
+of a scientific fact, and it is apparent was not understood by him.
+Dircks's statement "as data may have been wanting, which we conceive
+a collection of the chief known examples will supply," shows that he
+misconceived the nature of the problem of proving the impossibility of
+Perpetual Motion. If, however, the principle of Conservation of Energy
+is a true scientific fact, the impossibility of self-motive power
+follows as an inevitable scientific corollary, and the ignis fatuus
+hope of attaining Perpetual Motion which has deluded so many bright
+minds is forever destroyed and demolished.
+
+A perusal of the arguments against Perpetual Motion made by thinking
+men with scientific minds even though long before the thorough
+establishment of the doctrine of transmutation and Conservation of
+Energy, discloses the fact that those arguments in fact depend finally
+on the principle now known and designated Conservation of Energy.
+
+It is amusing to note in reading the arguments on the subject by our
+greatest philosophers, Newton, Gallileo, Huyghens, and Descartes, that
+while they lived and labored long before Conservation of Energy in
+its generalized form was known, or announced, they seemed to have a
+perception that energy could not be created; that energy must produce
+an effect commensurate with its own activity; that the existence of
+energy in one body is proof positive that some agency furnished and
+lost an exact equivalent of that energy. In other words, these men in
+reasoning on specific problems presented to them, and on the problem of
+Perpetual Motion in particular, appear to have appreciated and applied
+in their reasonings, the principle of Conservation of Energy.
+
+Men who have worked at the problem of Perpetual Motion before the
+establishment of the doctrine of Conservation of Energy, and men
+who still work at the problem, who, through lack of opportunity
+have not become familiar with that doctrine, are not to be blamed
+or thought stupid because of that folly, but those who knowing that
+principle, or being in a situation to know it, must be mechanically
+and mathematically stupid not to realize that Perpetual Motion and
+Conservation of Energy are irreconcilable, and that both cannot be
+possibilities. In this day when the principle of Conservation of Energy
+is taught in the High Schools of the United States, and in every other
+civilized country in the world, it is not surprising that fewer people
+work on Perpetual Motion than formerly, and that public interest in
+the subject is waning, as waning it surely is.
+
+A generation ago, however, this principle was not known and taught, and
+the state of the world's learning was at such a stage that many even
+scientific minds thought Perpetual Motion possible, and worked for its
+attainment.
+
+The principle of Conservation of Energy as applied to all Perpetual
+Motion devices can be stated as follows: There can be no mechanical
+effect without an equal mechanical cause. Energy--i. e., the capacity
+to do work, can only be imparted by an equal amount of work done. It
+therefore follows axiomatically that Perpetual Motion is possible only
+if and when a machine be produced that runs absolutely without friction
+and absolutely without atmospheric resistance, or the resistance of
+bending of cords, or other like mechanical resistance. If there be such
+resistance, then the energy imparted to the machine will be diminished
+by that resistance, with the result that the machine can only yield the
+amount of energy imparted, less the energy required to overcome such
+resistance. That no machine can be built free of such resistance is
+patent to even a tyro in mechanics.
+
+It will be interesting here, and perhaps more interesting than useful,
+to add some of the arguments quoted by Dircks and reproduced in his
+work for and against the possibility of Perpetual Motion. They have
+little scientific value at this time, as they were all made by men who
+were unfamiliar with the decisive principle of Conservation of Energy.
+Nevertheless, for their historical interest we offer a few:
+
+
+The Possibility of Perpetual Motion Denied Remarks of Dr. Papin on a
+French Contrivance
+
+In 1665, Dr. Papin, Fellow of the Royal Society, brought before the
+Royal Society of London, a paper concerning a French contrivance for
+Perpetual Motion. The following excerpt will illustrate and explain the
+contrivance:
+
+  The paper printed in French, and containing contrivance for
+  perpetual motion, being set down in such a manner that can hardly
+  be understood but by those that are much acquainted with such
+  descriptions, I have endeavored to explain it as follows:
+
+  Let D E F be a pair of bellows forty inches long, that may be
+  opened by removing the part F from E; let them be exactly shut
+  everywhere but at the aperture E; and let a pipe E G, twenty
+  or twenty-two inches long, be soldered to the said aperture E,
+  having its other end in a vessel G, full of mercury, and placed
+  near the middle of the bellows.
+
+  A is an axis for the bellows to turn upon.
+
+  B, a counterpoise fastened to the lower end of the bellows.
+
+  C, a weight with a clasp to keep the bellows upright.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Now, if we suppose the bellows opened only to one-third or
+  one-fourth, standing upright, and full of mercury, it is plain
+  that the said mercury, being forty inches high, must fall, as in
+  the Torricellian experiment, to the height of about twenty-seven
+  inches, and, consequently, the bellows must open towards F, and
+  leave a vacuity there. This vacuity must be filled with the
+  mercury ascending from G through the pipe G E, the said pipe
+  being but twenty-two inches long; by this means the bellows must
+  be opened more and more, till the mercury continuing to ascend
+  makes the upper part of the bellows so heavy that the lower part
+  must get loose from the clasp C, and the bellows should turn
+  quite upside down; but the vessel G being set in a convenient
+  place, keeps them horizontal, and the part F engageth there in
+  another clasp C; then the mercury, by its weight, runs out from
+  the bellows into the vessel G through the pipe E G, and the
+  bellows must shut closer and closer until the part E F comes to
+  be so light that the counterpoise B is able to make the part F
+  get loose from the clasp C; then the bellows come to be upright
+  again; the mercury left in them falls again to the height of
+  twenty-seven inches, and, consequently, all the other effects
+  will follow as we have already seen, and the motion will continue
+  forever. Thus much for the French author.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Upon this it is to be observed, that the bellows can never be
+  opened by the internal pressure, unless the said pressure be
+  stronger then the external; now, in this case, the weight of the
+  atmosphere doth freely press up the outward part of the bellows,
+  but it cannot come at the inward part but through the pipe G E,
+  which, containing twenty-two perpendicular inches of mercury,
+  does counterpoise so much of the weight of the atmosphere, so
+  that this being supposed to be twenty-seven inches of mercury,
+  it cannot press the inward part of the bellows but with weight
+  equivalent to five perpendicular inches of mercury. From this
+  we may conclude, that the pressure of the atmosphere, being
+  weakened within the bellows more then it can be helped by the
+  mercury contained in the same, as may easily be computed, the
+  said bellows standing upright must rather shut then open. Thus,
+  without losing any labor and charges in trying, people may be
+  sure that the thing can never do.
+
+
+Two "Certain" Plans for (Not) Producing Perpetual Motion
+
+In 1834, the following article was contributed to "Mechanics'
+Magazine." The contributor was very frank, and presents some splendid
+suggestions for Perpetual Motion workers. His article is as follows:
+
+  Very few young mechanicians escape being seduced into an attempt
+  to produce a perpetual movement, by making gravitation counteract
+  itself. They are not contented with being told by older men,
+  that a cause can never be made to exceed its own power; yet
+  gravitation is expected by them to lift up on one side more
+  weight than sinks on the other, with some percentage of friction
+  into the bargain. Nature, however, is too true to itself to be
+  so taken in by all or any of the multitudes of various ways
+  the inventive genius of man has contrived, and still keeps
+  contriving, to circumvent her immutable laws, with no other
+  effect than to render the case so complicated as to puzzle the
+  judgment of the inventors, which ends usually in their firm
+  belief that they have outwitted nature instead of themselves. I
+  acknowledge that in my youth I was one of this class, and, for
+  the benefit of the young, I beg to present you with two _certain_
+  plans for producing perpetual motion, and compelling gravity to
+  be frolicsome, and do more work than she ought.
+
+  Let A (Fig. 1) be a cistern full of oil or water, above 4 feet
+  deep. Let B be a wheel; freely suspended within it, on its axle,
+  let there be four wide glass tubes, 40 inches long, _c c c c_,
+  having large bulbs, holding, say a pint, blown at the closed
+  end. Fill these tubes with mercury, fix on an Indian-rubber ball
+  or bladder, that will hold a pint, to each of them at the open
+  end, and let them be attached round the wheel, as exhibited in
+  the figure. As the pressure of 40 inches of mercury will exceed
+  the atmospheric pressure, and also that of the four-foot column
+  of water, when the Indian-rubber bottle is lowest, and the tube
+  erect, at D, the mercury will fill it, leaving a vacuum in the
+  glass bulb above. On the opposite side the mercury will fill the
+  glass bulb, and the Indian-rubber bottle will be pressed flat,
+  as will also be the case in the two horizontal tubes. Now, it is
+  evident that the two horizontal tubes exactly balance each other;
+  but the tube D, with its bulb swelled out, displaces a pint of
+  water more than its opposite tube, and hence will attempt to rise
+  with the force of about one pound; and each tube, when it arrives
+  at the same position, must produce the same result, the wheel
+  must have a continual power, equal to about one pound, with a
+  radius of two feet.--Q. E. D.
+
+  Let Fig. 2 represent a light drum of wood--one-half of which is
+  inserted into a cleft in a water-cistern A, which fits it, and
+  from which the water is prevented from escaping by a strip of
+  leather, which the water presses against the drum, and which thus
+  operates as a valve, without much friction (especially if oil be
+  substituted for water in the cistern). Now, as this drum is much
+  lighter than water, it must ever attempt to swim, and thus, in
+  perpetually rising, cause the drum to revolve forcibly round its
+  axle.--Q. E. D.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  I tried this last method thirty years ago, but it was so
+  obstinate as not to move one inch at my bidding, though it
+  obviously is proved, to demonstration, that it ought to have
+  gone on swimmingly. I have just heard that an Italian gentleman
+  has hit upon the same plan; so it seems that the mania is not
+  confined to England.
+
+The article above quoted elicited a varied correspondence on the
+subject of self-motive power. The editor finally made the following apt
+and happy remark concerning the two "Certain" plans:
+
+  We think our correspondent, S. F., has entirely misconceived the
+  scope of the playful account, given in our last number, of two
+  plans of perpetual motion. The object of the writer seems to have
+  been, to impress on the minds of young mechanicians the folly of
+  wasting their time in vain endeavors to render the effects of
+  causes greater than the causes themselves; or, in other words,
+  to gain power out of nothing--a process without limit or value,
+  were it not cut short by the want of all limit to its folly; and
+  this he could not, perhaps, have done in any way so well, as by
+  exhibiting a couple of infallible perpetual movers that would
+  not stir at all, though they bade as fair for it as any of their
+  kindred.
+
+
+Article by Rev. John Wilkins
+
+Rev. John Wilkins of England, born 1614; died 1672, published a work
+called "Mathematical Magic," in which he discoursed scientifically and
+technically on efforts that had been made up to that time to attain
+Perpetual Motion. His work shows great scholarship, diligent search,
+and a thorough knowledge of mathematics and mechanics. Considering the
+state of scientific knowledge at the time when he lived and worked, his
+insight into scientific subjects is truly remarkable.
+
+Considering the state of scientific learning in his day, his
+observations on the subject of Perpetual Motion show him to have
+possessed really a great scientific and analytical mind. Of all those
+who wrote or thought extensively on the subject in that century we
+regard what he had to say as being the most worthy of reproduction.
+The following excerpt from "Mathematical Magic," will give the reader
+an idea of his course of reasoning and conclusions on the subject of
+self-motive power:
+
+  CHAP. IX.--_Of a Perpetual Motion--The seeming facility and real
+    difficulty of any such contrivance--The several ways whereby it
+    hath been attempted, particularly by Chemistry._
+
+  It is the chief inconvenience of all the automata
+  before-mentioned, that they need a frequent repair of new
+  strength, the causes whence their motion does proceed being
+  subject to fail, and come to a period; and, therefore, it
+  would be worth our enquiry to examine whether or no there may
+  be made any such artificial contrivance, which might have the
+  principle of moving from itself so that the present motion should
+  constantly be the cause of that which succeeds.
+
+  This is that great secret in art which, like the Philosopher's
+  Stone in Nature, has been the business and study of many more
+  refined wits for divers ages together; and it may well be
+  questioned whether either of them as yet have ever been found
+  out; though if this have, yet like the other, it is not plainly
+  treated of by any author.
+
+  Not but there are sundry discourses concerning this subject, but
+  they are rather _conjectures_ than _experiments_. And though many
+  inventions in this kind may at first view bear a great show of
+  probability, yet they will fail, being brought to trial, and will
+  not answer in practice what they promised in speculation. Any one
+  who has been versed in these experiments must needs acknowledge
+  that he has been often deceived in his strongest confidence;
+  when the imagination has contrived the whole frame of such an
+  instrument, and conceives that the event must infallibly answer
+  its hopes, yet then does it strangely deceive in the proof and
+  discovers to us some defect which we did not before take notice
+  of.
+
+  Hence it is that you shall scarce talk with any one who has never
+  so little smattering in these arts, but he will instantly promise
+  such a motion as being but an easy achievement, till further
+  trial and experience has taught him the difficulty of it. There
+  being no enquiry that does more entice with the _probability_ and
+  deceive with the _subtilty_.
+
+  I shall briefly recite the several ways whereby this has been
+  attempted, or seems most likely to be effected, thereby to
+  contract and facilitate the enquiries of those who are addicted
+  to these kind of experiments; for when they know the defects of
+  other inventions, they may the more easily avoid the same or the
+  like in their own.
+
+  The ways whereby this has been attempted may be generally reduced
+  to these three kinds:
+
+  1. By Chemical Extractions. 2. By Magnetical Virtues. 3. By the
+  Natural Affection of Gravity.
+
+  1. The discovery of this has been attempted by chemistry.
+  Paracelsus and his followers have bragged that by their
+  separations and extractions they can make a little world which
+  shall have the same perpetual motions with this microcosm, with
+  the representation of all meteors, thunder, snow, rain, the
+  courses of the sea in its ebbs and flows, and the like. But these
+  miraculous promises would require as great a faith to believe
+  them as a power to perform them; and though they often talk of
+  such great matters:
+
+  At nusquam totos inter qui talia curant, Apparet ullus, qui re
+  miracula tanta Comprobet--
+
+  yet we can never see them confirmed by any real experiment; and
+  then, besides, every particular author in that art has such
+  a distinct language of his own (all of them being so full of
+  allegories and affected obscurities), that 'tis very hard for any
+  one (unless he be thoroughly versed amongst them) to find out
+  what they mean, much more to try it.
+
+  One of these ways (as I find it set down) is this: Mix five
+  ounces of ☿ with an equal weight of ♃; grind them together with
+  ten ounces of sublimate; dissolve them in a cellar upon some
+  marble for the space of four days, till they become like oil
+  olive; distil this with fire of chaff, or driving fire, and it
+  will sublime into a dry substance; and so, by repeating of these
+  dissolvings and distillings, there will be at length produced
+  divers small atoms, which, being put into a glass well luted and
+  kept dry, will have a perpetual motion.
+
+  I cannot say anything from experience against this; but I think
+  it does not seem very probable, because things that are forced
+  up to such vigorousness and activity as these ingredients seem to
+  be by their frequent sublimings and distillings, are not likely
+  to be of any duration. The more any thing is stretched beyond
+  its usual nature, the less does it last; violence and perpetuity
+  being no companions. And then, besides, suppose it is true, yet
+  such a motion could not well be applied to any use, which will
+  needs take much from the delight of it.
+
+  Amongst the chemical experiments to this purpose may be reckoned
+  up that famous motion invented by Cornelius Dreble, and made for
+  King James; wherein was represented the constant revolutions of
+  the sun and moon, and that without the help either of springs
+  or weights. Marcellus Vranckhein, speaking of the means whereby
+  it was performed, he calls it _Scintillula animae magneticae
+  mundi, seu astralis et insensibilis spiritus_; being that grand
+  secret for the discovery of which those dictators of philosophy,
+  Democritus, Pythagoras, Plato, did travel unto the Gymnosophists
+  and Indian Priests. The author himself, in his discourse upon
+  it, does not at all reveal the way how it was performed. But
+  there is one Thomas Tymme who was a familiar acquaintance of his,
+  and did often pry into his works (as he professes himself), who
+  affirms it to be done thus: By extracting a fiery spirit out of
+  the mineral matter, joining the same with his proper air, which
+  included in the axletree (of the first moving wheel), being
+  hollow, carried the other wheels, making a continual rotation,
+  except issue or vent be given in this hollow axletree, whereby
+  the imprisoned spirit may get forth.
+
+  What strange things may be done by such extractions I know not,
+  and, therefore, dare not condemn this relation as impossible;
+  but I think it sounds rather like a chemical dream than a
+  philosophical truth. It seems this imprisoned spirit is now
+  set at liberty, or else is grown weary, for the instrument
+  (as I have heard) has stood still for many years. It is here
+  considerable that any force is weakest near the center of a
+  wheel; and therefore, though such a spirit might of itself have
+  an agitation, yet 'tis not easily conceivable how it should
+  have strength enough to carry the wheels about with it. And
+  then, the absurdity of the author's citing this, would make one
+  mistrust his mistake. He urges it as a strong argument against
+  Copernicus; as if, because Dreble did thus contrive in an engine
+  the revolution of the heavens and the immovableness of the earth,
+  therefore it must needs follow that 'tis the heavens which are
+  moved, and not the earth. If his relation were no truer than his
+  consequence, it had not been worth the citing.
+
+
+  CHAP. XIII.--_Concerning several attempts of contriving a
+    Perpetual Motion, by Magnetical Virtues._
+
+  The second way whereby the making of a perpetual motion has
+  been attempted, is by Magnetical Virtues, which are not without
+  some strong probabilities of proving effectual to this purpose;
+  especially when we consider that the heavenly revolutions (being
+  as the first pattern imitated and aimed at in these attempts)
+  are all of them performed by the help of these qualities. This
+  great orb of earth, and all the other planets, being but as so
+  many magnetical globes, endowed with such various and continual
+  motions as may be most agreeable to the purposes for which they
+  were intended. And, therefore, most of the authors who treat
+  concerning this invention, do agree that the likeliest way to
+  effect it, is by these kind of qualities.
+
+  It was the opinion of Pet. Peregrinus, and there is an example
+  pretended for it in Bettinus (apiar. 9, progym. 5, pro. 11) that
+  a magnetical globe, or terella, being rightly placed upon its
+  poles, would of itself have a constant rotation, like the diurnal
+  motion of the earth. But this is commonly exploded as being
+  against all experience.
+
+  Others think it possible so to contrive several pieces of steel
+  and loadstone that, by their continual attraction and expulsion
+  of one another, they may cause a perpetual revolution of a wheel.
+  Of this opinion were Taisner, Pet. Peregrinus, and Cardan, out
+  of Antonius de Fantis. But D. Gilbert, who was more especially
+  versed in magnetical experiments, concludes it to be a vain and
+  groundless fancy.
+
+  But amongst all these kinds of inventions, that is most likely,
+  wherein a loadstone is so disposed that it shall draw unto it on
+  a reclined plane a bullet of steel, which steel, as it ascends
+  near to the loadstone, may be contrived to fall down through
+  some hole in the plane, and so to return unto the place from
+  whence at first it began to move; and, being there, the loadstone
+  will again attract it upwards till coming to this hole, it will
+  fall down again; and so the motion shall be perpetual, as may be
+  more easily conceivable by this figure:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Suppose the loadstone to be represented at A B, which, though it
+  have not strength enough to attract the bullet C directly from
+  the ground, yet may do it by the help of the plane E F. Now, when
+  the bullet is come to the top of this plane, its own gravity
+  (which is supposed to exceed the strength of the loadstone) will
+  make it fall into that hole at E; and the force it receives in
+  this fall will carry it with such a violence unto the other end
+  of this arch, that it will open the passage which is there made
+  for it, and by its return will again shut it; so that the bullet
+  (as at the first) is in the same place whence it was attracted,
+  and, consequently, must move perpetually.
+
+  But, however, this invention may seem to be of such strong
+  probability, yet there are sundry particulars which may prove it
+  insufficient; for--
+
+  1. This bullet of steel must first be touched, and have its
+  several poles, or else there can be little or no attraction
+  of it. Suppose C in the steel to be answerable unto A in the
+  stone, and to B; in the attraction C D must always be directed
+  answerable to A B, and so the motion will be more difficult; by
+  reason there can be no rotation or turning round of the bullet,
+  but it must slide up with the line C D, answerable to the axis
+  A B.
+
+  2. In its fall from E to G, which is _motus elementaris_, and
+  proceeds from its gravity, there must needs be a rotation of it;
+  and so 'tis odds but it happens wrong in the rise, the poles
+  in the bullet being not in the same direction to those in the
+  magnet; and if in this reflux it should so fall out, that D
+  should be directed towards B, there should be rather a flight
+  than an attraction, since those two ends do repel, and not draw
+  one another.
+
+  3. If the loadstone A B have so much strength, that it can
+  attract the bullet in F, when it is not turned round, but does
+  only slide upon the plane, whereas its own gravity would rowl
+  it downwards; then it is evident the sphere of its activity
+  and strength would be so increased when it approaches much
+  nearer, that it would not need the assistance of the plane,
+  but would draw it immediately to itself without that help; and
+  so the bullet would not fall down through the hole, but ascend
+  to the stone, and, consequently, cease its motion: for, if the
+  loadstone be of force enough to draw the bullet on the plane, at
+  the distance F B, then must the strength of it be sufficient to
+  attract it immediately unto itself, when it is so much nearer
+  as E B. And if the gravity of the bullet be supposed so much
+  to exceed the strength of the magnet, that it cannot draw it
+  directly when it is so near, then will it not be able to attract
+  the bullet up the plane, when it is so much further off.
+
+  So that none of all these magnetical experiments, which have
+  been as yet discovered, are sufficient for the effecting of
+  a perpetual motion, though these kind of qualities seem most
+  conducible unto it; and perhaps, hereafter, it may be contrived
+  from them.
+
+
+  CHAP. XIV.--_The seeming probability of effecting a Continual
+  Motion by Solid Weights in a Hollow Wheel or Sphere._
+
+  The third way whereby the making of a perpetual motion has been
+  attempted is by the Natural Affection of Gravity; when the
+  heaviness of several bodies is so contrived, that the same motion
+  which they give in their descent, may be able to carry them up
+  again.
+
+  But (against the possibility of any such invention) it is thus
+  objected by Cardan:--All sub-lunary bodies have a direct motion
+  either of ascent or descent; which, because it does not refer to
+  some term, therefore cannot be perpetual, but must needs cease
+  when it is arrived at the place unto which it naturally tends.
+
+  I answer, though this may prove that there is no natural motion
+  of any particular heavy body which is perpetual, yet it does not
+  hinder, but that it is possible from them to contrive such an
+  artificial revolution as shall constantly be the cause of itself.
+
+  Those bodies which may be serviceable to this purpose are
+  distinguishable into two kinds:
+
+  1. Solid and consistent; as weights of metal, or the like.
+
+  2. Fluid or sliding; as water, sand, etc.
+
+  Both these ways have been attempted by many, though with very
+  little or no success. Other men's conjectures in this kind you
+  may see set down by divers authors. It would be too tedious to
+  repeat them over, or set forth their draughts.
+
+  I shall only mention two new ones, which (if I am not
+  over-partial) seem altogether as probable as any of these kinds
+  that have been yet invented; and, till experience had discovered
+  their defect and insufficiency, I did certainly conclude them to
+  be infallible.
+
+  The first of these contrivances was by solid weights being placed
+  in some hollow wheel or sphere, unto which they should give a
+  perpetual revolution; for, as the philosopher has largely proved,
+  only a circular motion can properly be perpetual.
+
+  But, for the better conceiving of this invention, it is requisite
+  that we rightly understand some principles in Trochilicks, or the
+  art of wheel instruments; as, chiefly, the relation betwixt the
+  parts of a wheel and those of a balance; the several proportions
+  in the semi-diameter of a wheel being answerable to the sides
+  in a balance, where the weight is multiplied according to its
+  distance from the center.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Thus, suppose the center to be at A, and the diameter of
+  the wheel, D C, to be divided into equal parts (as is here
+  expressed), it is evident, according to the former ground, that
+  one pound at C will equiponderate to five pound at B, because
+  there is such a proportion betwixt their several distances from
+  the center. And it is not material whether or no these several
+  weights be placed horizontally; for though B do hang lower than
+  C, yet this does not at all concern the heaviness; or though the
+  plummet C were placed much higher than it is at E, or lower at
+  F, yet would it still retain the same weight which it had at C;
+  because these plummets (as in the nature of all heavy bodies),
+  do tend downwards by a straight line; so that their several
+  gravities are to be measured by that part of the horizontal
+  semi-diameter, which is directly either below or above them.
+  Thus, when the plummet C shall be moved either to G or H, it will
+  lose one-third of its former heaviness, and be equally ponderous
+  as if it were placed in the balance at No. 3; and if we suppose
+  it to be situated at I or K, then the weight of it will lie
+  wholly upon the center, and not at all conduce to the motion of
+  the wheel on either side; so that the straight lines which pass
+  through the divisions of the diameter may serve to measure the
+  heaviness of any weight in its several situations.
+
+  These things thoroughly considered, it seems very possible and
+  easy for a man to contrive the plummets of a wheel, that they may
+  be always heavier in their fall, than in their ascent; and so,
+  consequently, that they should give a perpetual motion to the
+  wheel itself; since it is impossible for that to remain unmoved
+  as long as one side in it is heavier than the other.
+
+  For the performance of this, the weights must be so ordered: 1.
+  That in their descent they may fall from the center, and in their
+  ascent may rise nearer to it. 2. That the fall of each plummet
+  may begin the motion of that which should succeed it, as in the
+  following diagram:
+
+  Where there are sixteen plummets, eight in the inward circle,
+  and as many in the outward. (The inequality being to arise from
+  their situation, it is therefore most convenient that the number
+  of them be even.) The eight inward plummets are supposed to be
+  in themselves so much heavier than the other, that in the wheel
+  they may be of equal weight with those above them, and then the
+  fall of these will be of sufficient force to bring down the
+  other. For example, if the outward be each of them four ounces,
+  then the inward must be five; because the outward is distant from
+  the center five of those parts whereof the inward is but four.
+  Each pair of these weights should be joined together by a little
+  string or chain, which must be fastened about the middle, betwixt
+  the bullet and the center of that plummet which is to fall first,
+  and at the top of the other.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  When these bullets, in their descent, are at their farthest
+  distance from the center of the wheel, then shall they be
+  stopped, and rest on the pins placed to that purpose; and
+  so, in their rising, there must be other pins to keep them
+  in a convenient posture and distance from the center, lest,
+  approaching too near unto it, they thereby become unfit to fall
+  when they shall come to the top of the descending side.
+
+  This may be otherwise contrived with some different
+  circumstances, but they will all redound to the same effect. By
+  such an engine it seems very probable that a man may produce
+  perpetual motion; the distance of the plummets from the center
+  increasing with weight on one side, and their being tied to one
+  another, causing a constant succession in their falling.
+
+  But now, upon experience, I have found this to be fallacious;
+  and the reason may sufficiently appear by a calculation of the
+  heaviness of each plummet, according to its several situation;
+  which may easily be done by those perpendiculars that cut
+  the diameter (as was before explained, and is here expressed
+  in five of the plummets on the descending side). From such a
+  calculation it will be evident, that both the sides of this
+  wheel will equiponderate; and so consequently, that the supposed
+  inequality whence the motion should proceed, is but imaginary
+  and groundless. On the descending side, the heaviness of each
+  plummet may be measured according to these numbers (supposing the
+  diameter of the wheel to be divided into twenty parts, and each
+  of those sub-divided into four):
+
+  _The Outward Plummets._    _The Inward Plummets._
+
+       7.0  }                    1.0  }
+      10.0  }  The sum 24.       7.2  }  The sum 19.
+       7.0  }                    7.2  }
+                                 3.0  }
+
+  On the ascending side, the weights are to be reckoned according
+  to these degrees:
+
+  _The Outward._               _The Inward._
+
+       1.3  }                  4.1  }
+       7.2  }                  7.0  }  The sum 19.
+       9.0  }  The sum 24.     5.2  }
+       5.3  }                  2.1  }
+       0.0  }
+
+  The sum of which last numbers is equal with the former, and
+  therefore both the sides of such a wheel in this situation will
+  equiponderate.
+
+  If it be objected, that the plummet A should be contrived to pull
+  down the other at B, and then the descending side will be heavier
+  than the other; for answer to this, it is considerable--
+
+  1. That these bullets towards the top of the wheel, cannot
+  descend till they come to a certain kind of inclination.
+
+  2. That any lower bullet hanging upon the other above it, to pull
+  it down, must be conceived, as if the weight of it were in that
+  point where its string touches the upper; at which point this
+  bullet will be of less heaviness in respect of the wheel, than if
+  it did rest in its own place; so that both the sides of it, in
+  any kind of situation, may equiponderate.
+
+
+  CHAP. XV.--_Of composing, a Perpetual Motion by Fluid
+    Weights--Concerning Archimedes his Water Screw--The great
+    probability of accomplishing this enquiry by the help of that,
+    with the fallibleness of it upon experiment._
+
+  That which I shall mention as the last way, for the trial of
+  this experiment, is by contriving it in some Water Instrument;
+  which may seem altogether as probable and easy as any of the
+  rest; because that element, by reason of its fluid and subtle
+  nature (whereby, of its own accord, it searches out the lower
+  and more narrow passages), may be most pliable to the mind of
+  the artificer. Now, the usual means for the ascent of water is
+  either by suckers or forces, or something equivalent thereunto;
+  neither of which may be conveniently applied unto such a work as
+  this, because there is required unto each of them so much or more
+  strength, as may be answerable to the full weight of the water
+  that is to be drawn up; and then, besides, they move for the most
+  part by fits and snatches, so that it is not easily conceivable,
+  how they should conduce unto such a motion, which, by reason of
+  its perpetuity, must be regular and equal.
+
+  But, amongst all other ways to this purpose, that invention of
+  Archimedes is incomparably the best, which is usually called
+  _Cochlea_, or the Water Screw; being framed by the helical
+  revolution of a cavity about a cylinder. We have not any
+  discourse from the author himself concerning it, nor is it
+  certain whether he ever writ anything to this purpose; but if he
+  did, yet, as the injury of time hath deprived us of many other of
+  his excellents works, so likewise of this amongst the rest.
+
+[Near five pages are occupied in describing the use of this screw, and
+the form and manner of making it; then follows:]
+
+  The true inclination of the screw being found, together with
+  the certain quantity of water which every helix does contain;
+  it is further considerable, that the water by this instrument
+  does ascend naturally of itself, without any violence or labor;
+  and that the heaviness of it does lie chiefly upon the centers
+  or axis of the cylinder, both its sides being of equal weight
+  (said Ubaldus); so that, it should seem, though we suppose each
+  revolution to have an equal quantity of water, yet the screw
+  will remain with any part upwards, according as it shall be
+  set, without turning itself either way; and, therefore, the
+  least strength being added to either of its sides should make
+  it descend, according to that common maxim of Archimedes--any
+  addition will make that which equiponderates with another to tend
+  downwards.
+
+  But now, because the weight of this instrument and the water
+  in it does lean wholly upon the axis, hence is it (said
+  Ubaldus) that the grating and rubbing of these axes against the
+  sockets wherein they are placed, will cause some ineptitude
+  and resistency to that rotation of the cylinder; which would
+  otherwise ensue upon the addition of the least weight to any one
+  side; but (said the same author) any power that is greater than
+  this resistency which does arise from the axis, will serve for
+  the turning of it round.
+
+  These things considered together, it will hence appear how a
+  perpetual motion may seem easily contrivable. For, if there were
+  but such a water-wheel made on this instrument, upon which the
+  stream that is carried up may fall in its descent, it would turn
+  the screw round, and by that means convey as much water up as is
+  required to move it; so that the motion must needs be continual,
+  since the same weight which in its fall does turn the wheel is,
+  by the turning of the wheel, carried up again.
+
+  Or, if the water, falling upon one wheel, would not be forcible
+  enough for this effect, why then there might be two or three, or
+  more, according as the length and elevation of the instrument
+  will admit; by which means the weight of it may be so multiplied
+  in the fall that it shall be equivalent to twice or thrice that
+  quantity of water which ascends; as may be more plainly discerned
+  by the following diagram:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Where the figure L M, at the bottom, does represent a wooden
+  cylinder with helical cavities cut in it, which at A B is
+  supposed to be covered over with tin plates, and three
+  water-wheels upon it, H I K; the lower cistern, which contains
+  the water, being C D. Now, this cylinder being turned round, all
+  the water which from the cistern ascends through it, will fall
+  into the vessel at E, and from that vessel being conveyed upon
+  the water-wheel H, shall consequently give a circular motion to
+  the whole screw. Or, if this alone should be too weak for the
+  turning of it, then the same water which falls from the wheel H,
+  being received into the other vessel F, may from thence again
+  descend on the wheel I, by which means the force of it will be
+  doubled. And if this be yet unsufficient, then may the water
+  which falls on the second wheel I, be received into the other
+  vessel G, and from thence again descend on the third wheel at
+  K; and so for as many other wheels as the instrument is capable
+  of. So that, besides the greater distance of these three streams
+  from the center or axis by which they are made so much heavier,
+  and besides that the fall of this outward water is forcible and
+  violent, whereas the ascent of that within is natural--besides
+  all this, there is thrice as much water to turn the screw as is
+  carried up by it.
+
+  But, on the other side, if all the water falling upon one wheel
+  would be able to turn it round, then half of it would serve with
+  two wheels, and the rest may be so disposed of in the fall as to
+  serve unto some other useful delightful ends.
+
+  When I first thought of this invention, I could scarce forbear,
+  with Archimedes, to cry out εὕρηκα, εὕρηκα {heurêka, heurêka};
+  it seeming so infallible a way for the effecting of a perpetual
+  motion that nothing could be so much as probably objected
+  against it; but, upon trial and experience, I find it altogether
+  insufficient for any such purpose, and that for these two reasons:
+
+  1. The water that ascends will not make any considerable stream
+  in the fall.
+
+  2. This stream, though multiplied, will not be of force enough to
+  turn about the screw.
+
+  1. The water ascends gently, and by intermissions; but it falls
+  continually, and with force; each of the three vessels being
+  supposed full at the first, that so the weight of the water in
+  them might add the greater strength and swiftness to the streams
+  that descend from them. Now, this swiftness of motion will cause
+  so great a difference betwixt them that one of these little
+  streams may spend more water in the fall than a stream six times
+  bigger in the ascent, though we should suppose both of them to
+  be continuate; how much more, then, when as the ascending water
+  is vented by fits and intermissions, every circumvolution voiding
+  so much as is contained in one helix; and, in this particular,
+  one that is not versed in these kind of experiments may be easily
+  deceived.
+
+  But, secondly, though there were so great a disproportion, yet,
+  notwithstanding, the force of these outward streams might well
+  enough serve for the turning of the screw, if it were so that
+  both its sides would equiponderate the water being in them (as
+  Ubaldus had affirmed). But now, upon farther examination, we
+  shall find this assertion of his to be utterly against both
+  reason and experience. And herein does consist the chief mistake
+  of this contrivance; for the ascending side of the screw is made,
+  by the water contained in it, so much heavier than the descending
+  side, that these outward streams, thus applied, will not be of
+  force enough to make them equiponderate, much less to move the
+  whole, as may be more easily discerned by this figure:
+
+  Where A B represents a screw covered over, C D E one helix or
+  revolution of it, C D the ascending side, E D the descending
+  side, the point D the middle; the horizontal line C F showing how
+  much of the helix is filled with water, viz., of the ascending
+  side, from C the beginning of the helix, to D the middle of it;
+  and on the descending side, from D the middle, to the point G,
+  where the horizontal does cut the helix. Now, it is evident that
+  this latter part, D G, is nothing near so much, and consequently
+  not so heavy as the other, D C; and thus is it in all the other
+  revolutions, which, as they are either more or larger, so will
+  the difficulty of this motion be increased. Whence it will appear
+  that the outward streams which descend must be of so much force
+  as to countervail all that weight whereby the ascending side in
+  every one of these revolutions does exceed the other. And though
+  this may be effected by making the water-wheels larger, yet then
+  the motion will be so slow that the screw will not be able to
+  supply the outward streams.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  There is another contrivance to this purpose, mentioned by
+  Kircher de Magnete, 1, 2, p. 4, depending upon the heat of the
+  sun and the force of winds; but it is liable to such abundance of
+  exceptions that it is scarce worth the mentioning, and does by no
+  means deserve the confidence of any ingenious artist.
+
+  Thus have I briefly explained the probabilities and defects of
+  those subtle contrivances whereby the making of a perpetual
+  motion has been attempted. I would be loath to discourage the
+  enquiry of any ingenious artificer by denying the possibility
+  of effecting it with any of these mechanical helps; but yet (I
+  conceive) if those principles which concern the slowness of the
+  power in comparison to the greatness of the weight were rightly
+  understood and thoroughly considered, they would make this
+  experiment to seem, if not altogether impossible, yet much more
+  difficult than otherwise, perhaps, it will appear. However, the
+  inquiring after it cannot but deserve our endeavors, as being one
+  of the most noble amongst all these mechanical subtilties. And,
+  as it is in the fable of him who dug the vineyard for a hidden
+  treasure, though he did not find the money, yet he thereby made
+  the ground more fruitful, so, though we do not attain to the
+  effecting of this particular, yet our searching after it may
+  discover so many other excellent subtilties as shall abundantly
+  recompense the labor of our inquiry.
+
+  And then, besides, it may be another encouragement to consider
+  the pleasure of such speculations, which do ravish and sublime
+  the thoughts with more clear angelical contentments. Archimedes
+  was generally so taken up in the delight of these mathematical
+  studies of this familiar siren (as Plutarch styles them) that he
+  forgot both his meat and drink, and other necessities of nature;
+  nay, that he neglected the saving of his life, when that rude
+  soldier, in the pride and haste of victory, would not give him
+  leisure to finish his demonstration. What a ravishment was that,
+  when, having found out the way to measure Hiero's crown, he
+  leaped out of the bath, and (as if he were suddenly possessed)
+  ran naked up and down, crying εὕρηκα, εὕρηκα {Greek: heurêka,
+  heurêka}! It is storied of Thales that, in his joy and gratitude
+  for one of these mathematical inventions, he went presently
+  to the Temple, and there offered up a solemn sacrifice; and
+  Pythagoras, upon the like occasion, is related to have sacrificed
+  a hundred oxen; the justice of Providence having so contrived
+  it, that the pleasure which there is in the success of such
+  inventions should be proportioned to the great difficulty and
+  labor of their inquiry.
+
+
+The Paradoxical Hydrostatic Balance
+
+The following was contributed to an English scientific journal in 1831,
+the name of the author of the article is unknown to us, but here is
+what he wrote:
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  This hydrostatic balance, like the compound balance of
+  Desaguliers, may be introduced to illustrate the impossibility of
+  perpetual motion by a weight removed from the centre of a wheel.
+
+  Take the hollow-rimmed wheel A B; let it be air-tight and half
+  filled with water. Let C be the axle; at B place a hollow ball
+  loaded to near sinking. Such a wheel, however fine its axle
+  may be, or however well lubricated, will not make a single
+  revolution, though the weight B occupies that part at which every
+  deluded perpetual-motionist is desirous it should be placed;
+  concluding that, by such an arrangement, the production of
+  another Orffyrean wheel must be inevitable.
+
+
+Discussion by P. Gregorio Fontana
+
+P. Gregorio Fontana was professor of higher mathematics at the Royal
+University of Pavia, in the Province of Lombardy, Italy. In 1786 he
+published what he designated "Examination of a New Argument in Favor of
+Perpetual Motion." In part he says:
+
+  1. A vertical wheel (Fig. 2) divided in two halves by a vertical
+  plane which passes through its diameter F O, has the half F P O
+  immersed in water under the level M N, and the other half wholly
+  out of the water, being cut off in F O by a peculiar mechanism
+  from all communication with the reservoir, the exterior half
+  of the wheel being F Q O; this turns freely round on an axle
+  passing through the centre C. Now the wheel being specifically
+  lighter than the water, the immersed part F P O comes with a
+  continual rotation to the top with a force equal to the excess
+  of the weight of a volume of water corresponding to the immersed
+  portion, over the weight of the immersed portion; which rotation
+  passing through the centre of gravity of the exterior part, and
+  consequently out of the centre C, obliges the wheel to turn
+  around C.
+
+  Such being the case, the question to be asked is whether the
+  wheel has itself a perpetual motion, as may be judged at first
+  sight.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  2. To reply adequately, it is at first necessary to know what
+  effect is produced on the wheel by the horizontal pressure which
+  the water exercises on the semi-circumference F L O.
+
+  Having taken for this purpose, a part P _p_, and having drawn to
+  the diameter the ordinate P. R, _p r_, and marked the radius P C,
+  and from it P G perpendicular to the radius C L, which determines
+  the quadrant O L, the distance of the lowest point O from the
+  level of the water will be = _b_, the semi-diameter of the wheel
+  = _a_, C R = _x_, and the specific gravity of the water = 1; the
+  perpendicular pressure against the part P _p_ = P _p_ . R D,
+  which resolved in two, one horizontal P R, the other vertical
+  P G, gives the proportion
+
+    PG : PR :: P_p_ . RD : (P_p_ . PR . RD) / (PG).
+
+  Thence the horizontal pressure against P _p_, and = (P _p_ .
+  P R . R D .) / (P G), that is to say P _p_ . P R = R _r_ . P G,
+  the given horizontal pressure is found to be = R _r_ . R D =
+  (_b_ - _x_) _d_ _x_, and which, multiplied by R D, giving _b_
+  - _x_, becomes the momentum of the pressure relatively to M N
+  = (_b_ - _x_)² _d_ _x_, and the sum of the momenta of pressure
+  exercised upon the indefinite arc, O P = _f_ (_b_ - _x_)² _d_ _x_
+  = -(1/3)(_b_ - _x_)³ + the side. And since acting together such
+  momenta equal _x_, there comes the side = (1/3)_b_³; and as the
+  already-given sum of the momenta = (1/3)(_b_³ - (_b_ - _x_)³) =
+  _b² x_ - _b x_² + (1/3)_x_³. Whence, taking _x_ = 2_a_, the sum
+  of all the momenta of the horizontal pressure exercised on the
+  whole semi-circumference O L F of the wheel, will be = 2_b_²_a_
+  - 4_b_ _a_² + (8/3)_a_³, and dividing that sum by the whole
+  horizontal pressure, that is to say by _f_(_b_ - _x_)_d_ _x_ =
+  (1/2)(_b_² - (_b_ - _x_)²) = _b_ _x_ - (1/2)_x_² = 2_b_ _a_ -
+  2_a_², gives _x_ = 2_a_, we have the formula
+
+    (2_b_² - 4_b_ _a_ + (8/3)_a_³) / (2_b_ _a_ - 2_a_²) =
+    (_b_² - 2_b_ _a_ + (4/3)_a_²) / (_b_ - _a_) =
+    ((_b_ - _a_)² + (1/3)_a_²) / (_b_ - _a_) =
+    _b_ - _a_ + ((2/3)_a_²) / (_b_ - _a_),
+
+  which represents the distance of the level M N from the result
+  of all the horizontal pressure against the circumference, which
+  distance exceeds D C, and consequently the direction of the
+  result passes from below the centre C of the wheel to a distance
+  from the said centre, which is = ((1/3)_a_²)/(_b_ - _a_).
+
+  If this distance be multiplied by the result of all the
+  horizontal pressure, that is, by 2_a_.(_b_ - _a_); there is
+  obtained (2/3)_a_³ for the momentum of the force which tends to
+  make the wheel revolve from L towards O. This being established,
+  it is known that the force which causes the half of the wheel
+  F L G to revolve vertically to the top (calling _g_ the specific
+  gravity of the wheel) is = (1 - _g_) F C O L, and which force
+  passes through the center of gravity of F L O. And consequently
+  the gravity of any circular segment divided by the half of the
+  radius, is distant from the centre of the circle by a quantity
+  equal to the twelfth of the cube of the chord divided by the
+  segment; and therefore the centre of gravity of the semicircle
+  F C O L, will be distant from the centre C by the quantity
+  (1/12)8_a_³/(E C O L) = (2/3)_a_³/(E C O L). Consequently the
+  momentum of this force tending to make the wheel revolve from O
+  towards L will
+
+    be = (2/3_a_³)/(E C O L) . (1 - _g_)(E C O L) = 2/3(1 - _g_)_a_³.
+
+  But moreover a certain momentum will be derived from the other
+  half F Q O of the wheel, which being out of the water, tends by
+  its own weight downwards with a force = _g_ . (E C O Q) = _g_ .
+  (E C O L), which multiplied by the distance (2/1_a_³)/(E C O L)
+  of the centre of gravity of the semicircle F Q O from the centre
+  of the wheel gives as a momentum of force tending to turn the
+  wheel from O to L the quantity 2/3_g_ _a_³. Thus the whole
+  momentum to make the wheel turn from O to L, will be 2/3(1 -
+  _g_)_a_³, + 2/3_g_ _a_³ = 2/3_a_³, that is to say the same that
+  is found to turn the wheel in the opposite direction, viz., from
+  L to O, and thence the wheel remains perfectly motionless.
+
+  3. Cor. I. If the wheel were specifically heavier than the water,
+  one would not be able to conceive in that case any motion from L
+  to O, as seemed probable in the former supposition. Since, then,
+  the momentum of the force, which turns vertically downwards the
+  portion of the wheel F C O L, and tends to make it revolve from L
+  to O is = 2/3(_g_ - 1)_a_³ to which momentum should be added a
+  certain portion of the horizontal pressure, that is to say 2/3,
+  and thus is obtained the whole momentum 2/3_g_ _a_³, tending
+  to cause the wheel to turn from L to O; and to which momentum
+  precisely, is equal such of the weight of the half F C O Q as
+  tends to give to the wheel a contrary revolution, that is, from O
+  to L.
+
+  3. Cor. II. If the wheel in place of being a circular plane were
+  a zone bounded by two concentric peripheries (Fig. 3), then
+  from the sum of the horizontal pressure of the water against
+  the exterior periphery should be taken the sum of the opposite
+  horizontal pressure against the other interior semi-periphery
+  of the zone. So calling _a_ the greater radius of the zone, and
+  λ its breadth, the sum of the first horizontal pressure is =
+  2_a_(_b_ - _a_) and the sum of the second = 2(_a_ - λ)(_b_ - λ) -
+  (_a_ - λ) = 2(_a_ - λ)(_b_ - _a_). Then subtract the latter from
+  the former and there remains 2(_b_ - _a_)λ for the sum of the
+  whole pressure, which acts upon the zone (_sic_) of the half of
+  the wheel immersed in the fluid in a direction tending from the
+  outside to the interior of the wheel.
+
+  Moreover the sum of the momenta of all the horizontal pressure on
+  the exterior circumference relatively to the level
+
+  M N is = 2_b_ _a_ - 4_b_ _a_ + 8/3_a_³.
+
+  And similarly the sum of the momenta of the horizontal pressure
+  opposite, on the interior semi-circumference, relatively to the
+  given level is = 2(_b_ - λ)² - (_a_ - λ) - 4(_b_ - λ) × (_a_ -
+  λ)² + 8/3(_a_ - λ)³.
+
+  Subtracting this sum from the preceding, there remains the sum
+  of the momenta acting on the zone of the half-wheel from the
+  exterior to the interior = 2_b_² _a_ - 4_b_ _a_² + 8/3_a_³ -
+  2(_b_ - λ)² (_a_ - λ) + 4(_b_ - λ) (_a_ - λ)² - 8/3(_a_ - λ)³ -
+  2_b_² λ - 4_b_ _a_ λ + 4_a_² λ - 2_a_ λ² + 2/3λ³ = 2λ (_b_(_b_
+  - _a_) - _b_ _a_ + 2_a_² - _a_λ + 1/3λ²) = 2λ ((_b_ - _a_)(_b_
+  - _a_) + _a_² - _a_λ + 1/3λ²) Then dividing this sum of the
+  momenta by the sum of the pressure there will be 2λ(((_b_ -
+  _a_)(_b_ - _a_) + _a_² - _a_λ + 1/3λ²)/(2λ(_b_ - _a_))) = _b_
+  + _p_ (_a_(_a_² - _a_λ + 1/3λ²)/(_b_ - _a_)) the distance of
+  the center of the pressure from the level of the fluid, that
+  is, to the distance of the result of all the pressure from that
+  level. From this it is evident that the center of pressure falls
+  under the center of the wheel, C, to the distance (_a_² - _a_λ +
+  1/3λ²)/(_b_ - _a_) .
+
+  Whence multiplying this distance by the result of the pressure,
+  or by 2λ(_b_ - _a_), we obtain 2λ(_a_² - _a_λ + 1/3λ²) to express
+  the momentum of the horizontal pressure of the water, directed to
+  make the wheel turn from L to O.
+
+  Now the momentum with which the vertical impulse of the fluid
+  tends to make the semicircle F C O L turn from O to L (supposing
+  the wheel not with a simple zone, but with a circular plane) is
+  = 2/3_a_³. Likewise the momentum of the impulse of the fluid to
+  cause the internal semicircle V C I G from O to L is - 2/3(_a_
+  - λ)³. Then taking this second momentum from the first, the
+  momentum of the zone from the fluid V G I O L F to give the wheel
+  an impulse from O to L will be = 2/3(_a_³ - (_a_ - λ)³) = 2λ(_a_²
+  - _a_λ + 1/3λ²) which is precisely the momentum with which the
+  horizontal pressure of the fluid to impress on the wheel an
+  impulse in the opposite direction, that is to say from L to O.
+  Consequently from the pressure of the fluid the wheel cannot
+  have any motion around its center.
+
+  The weight of the wheel itself, by which the half-zone immersed
+  in the water tends to make the wheel turn from L to O, and the
+  half which is out of the water, to make it turn in the reverse
+  direction, such a weight, I say, cannot induce any motion of
+  rotation, and both halves remain in equilibrium around the center
+  C.
+
+
+Article by William Nicholson
+
+William Nicholson was born in London in 1753; died in 1815. He was a
+scientist of note, and a writer of scientific subjects. In 1797 he
+established in London and continued publishing until 1814, a periodical
+entitled "Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts,"
+known, however, throughout the civilized world as "Nicholson's Journal."
+
+A Perpetual Motion device of Dr. Conradus Schwiers, in 1790, and the
+Richard Varley device, in 1797, described at page 132 et seq., ante,
+had attracted a great deal of attention, and were the occasion of
+much discussion. A consequent increased interest in the subject of
+self-moving mechanism was thus created.
+
+Mr. Nicholson, whose scientific attainments were recognized by all, was
+asked to publish an article on the subject. His article appeared in
+his publication, "Nicholson's Journal," and is as follows:
+
+
+  _On the Mechanical Projects for Affording a Perpetual Motion_
+
+  In consequence of the notice taken of Mr. Varley's attempt to
+  produce a perpetual motion, I have been requested by several
+  correspondents to state how far the mechanical scheme for which
+  Dr. Conrad Schwiers took out a patent in the year 1790, for
+  the same object may be worthy of attention. I have, on that
+  occasion, mentioned the difficulties which have prevented any
+  clear general demonstration of the absurdity of this pursuit
+  from being produced, though it has not been difficult to show
+  the fallacy of the individual plans. It does not, indeed, seem
+  easy to enunciate the scheme itself. What in universal terms is
+  the thing proposed to be done? Is it to cause a body to act in
+  such a manner that the reaction shall be greater than the action
+  itself, and by that means generate force by the accumulation of
+  the surplus? Or, can the motion communicated be greater than
+  that lost by the agent? Since these positions are evidently
+  contrary to the physical axioms called the laws of nature, and
+  frictions and resistances would speedily destroy all motions of
+  simple uniformity, it may be presumed that 's Gravesande, who
+  thought that all the demonstrations of the absurdity of schemes
+  for perpetual motion contained paralogism, would have stated the
+  proposition under different terms. But without entering upon this
+  apparently unprofitable disquisition, it may be useful, as well
+  as entertaining, to make a few observations on the mechanical
+  contrivances which depend on a mistaken deduction from the
+  general theorem respecting the balance, among which that of Dr.
+  Schwiers must be classed.
+
+  There is no doubt but numerous arrangements have been made, and
+  still are labored at by various individuals, to produce a machine
+  which shall possess the power of moving itself perpetually,
+  notwithstanding the inevitable loss by friction and resistance of
+  the air. Little, however, of these abortive exertions has been
+  entered upon record. The plans of Bishop Wilkins, the Marquis of
+  Worcester, and M. Orffyreus, are all which at this time occur to
+  my recollection.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  There is no doubt but the celebrated Wilkins was a man of
+  learning and ability. His essay towards a real character and a
+  philosophical language is sufficient to render his name immortal.
+  Twenty years before the appearance of that work he published
+  his "Mathematical Magic," namely, in the year 1648, containing
+  295 pages, small octavo, which, from the number of copies still
+  in being, I suppose to have been a very popular treatise. It is
+  in this work that I find, among other contrivances for the same
+  purpose, a wheel carrying sixteen loaded arms, similar to that
+  delineated in Fig. 4, plate 15, in which, however, for the sake
+  of simplicity, I have drawn but six. Each lever, A B C D E F,
+  is movable through an angle of 45 degrees, by a joint near the
+  circumference of the wheel, and the inner end or tail of each
+  is confined by two studs or pins, so that it must either lie in
+  the direction of a radius, or else in the required position of
+  obliquity. If the wheel be now supposed to move in the direction
+  E F, it is evident that the levers A B C D, by hanging in the
+  oblique position against the antecedent pins, will describe a
+  less circle in their ascent than when, on the other side, they
+  come to descend in the positions E F. Hence, it was expected that
+  the descending weights, having the advantage of a longer lever,
+  would always predominate. Dr. Wilkins, by referring the weights
+  to an horizontal diameter, has shown that in his machine they
+  will not. A popular notion of this result may also be gathered
+  from the figure, where there are three weights on the ascending
+  and only two on the descending side; the obliquity of position
+  giving an advantage in point of number, equal to what the other
+  side may possess in intensity. Or, if this contrivance were to be
+  strictly examined, on the supposition that the levers and weights
+  were indefinitely numerous, the question would be determined by
+  showing that the circular arcs A K, H I, are in equilibrio with
+  the arcs A G, G L.
+
+  The simplest method of examining any scheme of this kind with
+  weights, consists in inquiring whether the perpendicular ascents
+  and descents would be performed with equal masses in equal times.
+  If so, there will be no preponderance, and, consequently, no
+  motion. This is clearly the case with the contrivance before us.
+
+  The Marquis of Worcester, who will ever be remembered as the
+  inventor of the steam engine, has described a perpetual motion in
+  the fifty-sixth number of his "Century of Inventions," published
+  in the year 1655, and since reprinted in 1767 by the Foulis's at
+  Glasgow. His words were as follows:
+
+  "To provide and make, that all the weights of the descending side
+  of a wheel shall be perpetually further from the center than
+  those of the mounting side, and yet equal in number and heft to
+  the one side as the other. A most incredible thing if not seen,
+  but tried before the late King (of blessed memory) in the Tower
+  by my directions, two extraordinary ambassadors accompanying his
+  Majesty, and the Duke of Richmond and Duke Hamilton, with most of
+  the Court attending him. The wheel was fourteen feet over, and
+  forty weights of fifty pounds apiece. Sir William Balfour, then
+  Lieutenant of the Tower, can justify it with several others. They
+  all saw that no sooner these great weights passed the diameter
+  line of the lower side, but they hung a foot further from the
+  center; nor no sooner passed the diameter line of the upper side,
+  but they hung a foot nearer. Be pleased to judge the consequence."
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  Desaguliers, in his "Course of Experimental Philosophy," Vol.
+  I, page 185, has quoted this passage, and given a sketch of a
+  pretended self-moving wheel, similar to Fig. 5, plate 15, as
+  resembling the contrivance mentioned by the Marquis of Worcester.
+  The description of this last engineer agrees, however, somewhat
+  better with the contrivance Fig. 4. It must, of course, be a
+  mistake in terms, when he says the weight receded from the center
+  at the lower diameter and approached towards it at the upper:
+  the contrary being, in fact, necessary to afford any hope of
+  success; and accordingly in the quotation it is so stated. I am,
+  therefore, disposed to think that Fig. 5 represents the wheel
+  of Orffyreus at Hesse Cassel, much talked of about the year
+  1720, and which probably was made to revolve, during the time
+  of exhibition, by some concealed apparatus. It consists of a
+  number of cells or partitions, distinguished by the letters of
+  the alphabet, which are made between the interior and exterior
+  surfaces of two concentric cylinders. The partitions being
+  placed obliquely with respect to the radius, a cylindrical or
+  spherical weight placed on each, it is seen from the figure,
+  that these weights will lie against the inner surface of the
+  larger cylinder whenever the outer end of the bottom partition
+  of any cell is lowest; and, on the contrary, when that extremity
+  is highest, the weight will rest on the surface of the interior
+  cylinder. Let the wheel be made to revolve in the direction
+  A B C; the weights in C D E F G H I being close to the external
+  circle, and the weights K L M A B close to the inner, for the
+  reasons last mentioned. As the cell B descends, its weight
+  will likewise run out, at the same time that the weight in
+  the cell I will run in in consequence of its partition being
+  elevated. By the continuation of this process, since all the
+  weights on the descending side pass down at a greater distance
+  from the center, while those of the ascending side rise for a
+  considerable part of their ascent at a less distance from the
+  same point, it is concluded that the wheel will continue to
+  maintain its motion. On this, however, it is to be remarked that
+  the perpendicular ascent and descent are alike, both in measure
+  and in time of performance; and that the familiar examination,
+  even to those who know little of such subjects, is sufficient
+  to show that the preponderance is not quite so palpable as at
+  first it appears. For the weights G and F, H and E, I and D
+  are evidently in equilibrio, because at the same horizontal
+  distance from the center; and if the favorable supposition that
+  the weight B has already run out be admitted, it will then
+  remain a question whether these two exterior weights, B and C,
+  can preponderate over the four inner weights, K L M A. The more
+  accurate examination of this particular contrivance will lead to
+  the following theorem: In two concentric circles, if tangents be
+  drawn at the extreme points of a diameter of the smaller, and
+  continued till they intersect the larger, the common center of
+  gravity of the arc of the greater circle included between the
+  tangents and of the half periphery of the smaller circle on the
+  opposite side of the diameter, will be the common center of the
+  circles. If, therefore, the balls were indefinitely numerous and
+  small, the supposed effective parts of the wheel (Fig. 5) would
+  be in equilibrio, as well as the parts beneath the horizontal
+  tangent of the inner circle.
+
+  Fig. 6 represents the contrivance of Dr. Schwiers, which, in
+  a periodical publication, in other particulars respectable,
+  has been said to continue in motion for weeks and even months
+  together. There is not the smallest probability that it should
+  continue in motion for half a minute, or nearly as long as
+  a simple wheel would retain part of its first impulse. The
+  external circle denotes a wheel carrying a number of buckets,
+  A B I L, etc. C represents a toothed wheel, on the same axis
+  which drives a pinion D; and this last drives another pinion
+  E upon the axis of a lanthorn, or wheel intended to work a
+  chain-pump with the same number of buckets as in the larger wheel
+  A B I. The lanthorn G is made of such a size as to receive the
+  buckets _a b i l_ with a due velocity. K represents a gutter
+  through which a metallic ball, contained in the bucket _m_, may
+  run and lodge itself in the bucket A of the wheel. Each of the
+  buckets of the wheel, B I L M, which are below the gutter, is
+  supplied with a metallic ball, and so likewise are the ascending
+  buckets, _a b i l m_, of the chain-pump. As the pump supplies
+  the wheel, it is again supplied at M, where the balls fall into
+  its ascending buckets. Now, it is presumed that the balls in the
+  wheel I suppose on account of their distance from the center of
+  motion, will descend with more than sufficient force to raise
+  those on the chain, and, consequently, that the motion will be
+  perpetual.
+
+  The deception in this contrivance has much less seduction than
+  in the two foregoing, because it is more easily referred to the
+  simple lever. This, like the others, exhibits no prospect of
+  success, when tried by the simple consideration of the quality
+  of the ascent and descent in the whole time of the rotation
+  of a single ball. It may also be shown from the principles of
+  wheel-work, which are familiar to artisans, that whatever is
+  gained by the excess of the diameter of the great wheel beyond
+  that of the wheel C, is again lost by the excess of the lanthorn
+  A beyond the pinion E.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The fundamental proposition of the simple lever or balance,
+  that equal bodies at an equal distance from the fulcrum will
+  equiponderate, but that at unequal distances the most remote
+  will descend, has, in these and numberless other instances, led
+  mechanical workmen and speculators to pursue this fruitless
+  inquiry with labor and expense often ill-afforded, and with a
+  degree of anxiety and infatuation which can hardly be conceived
+  by those who have never suffered the pain of hope long deferred.
+  For this reason chiefly, it has appeared desirable and useful
+  to treat the subject in a familiar way without descending to
+  those expressions of contempt, which ignorance, harmless to all
+  but itself, is surely not entitled to. If such reasoners were
+  well convinced that the power of a machine is to be estimated
+  by the excess of motion referred to the perpendicular, without
+  any regard to the apparent center of the machine, and that
+  in machines very little compounded it is possible to produce
+  effects directly contrary to the rule which is true of the simple
+  lever, they would probably renounce many flattering projects,
+  grounded only on the supposition of its universality. Desaguliers
+  contrived an apparatus in which two equal weights may be placed
+  at any distance whatever from the center of motion, and still
+  continue in equilibrio. Fig. 3 represents this instrument. A D
+  denotes a balance with equal arms, and E F another of the same
+  dimensions. These move on the centers B and C, and are connected
+  by the inflexible rods A E and D F; the motion being left free
+  by means of joints at the corners. Across the rods A D, E F, are
+  fixed two bars, I K, L M. Now, it is unnecessary to show that the
+  weight G will describe exactly the same line or circular arc,
+  when the levers are moved into the position _a d f e_, or any
+  other position, as it would have described in case it had been
+  suspended at A, or K, or E; and that it is of no consequence in
+  this respect at what part of the line A E or I K it be fixed.
+  The same observations are true of the weight H on the other
+  side. And accordingly it is found that these equal weights may
+  be suspended anywhere on the lines I K and L M without altering
+  their equilibrium.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  By this contrivance it is most evidently proved to those who
+  are totally unacquainted with the theory, that weights do not
+  preponderate in compound engines on account of their distance
+  from the center. Several contrivances may be made to the same
+  effect. The following combination of wheel-work presented
+  itself to me as one which would most probably be mistaken for a
+  perpetual motion. (Fig. 2, plate 15.) The five circles represent
+  the same number of wheels of equal diameter and number of teeth,
+  acting together. The middle wheel A is fixed between two upright
+  pillars, so that it cannot revolve. The other four wheels are
+  pinned in a frame H I, in which they can revolve, and through
+  which the axis of A likewise passes. From the extremity of the
+  axis of D, and also of _d_, proceed the horizontal levers H K and
+  I L, which are equal, and point in the same direction parallel
+  to the plane of the wheels. At the extremity of these arms hang
+  the equal weights P and _p_. Let it now be imagined that the
+  end I of the frame is depressed, the wheel B will turn round by
+  the reaction of the fixed wheel A in the same direction as H I,
+  and it will make one revolution in the same time relative to
+  the frame, or two with regard to absolute space, by reason of
+  its being carried round. The action of B upon D will produce a
+  rotation relative to the frame in the opposite direction during
+  the same time. Instead, therefore, of two revolutions like the
+  wheel B, this wheel D, with regard to absolute space, will not
+  revolve at all, and in every position of the apparatus the arm
+  I L will continue horizontal, and point the same way. For similar
+  reasons the arm H K will retain its position. Consequently, it is
+  seen that the descending weight will move at a great horizontal
+  distance from the center N, while the ascending weight rises
+  very near that center. But there will, not on this account,
+  be a perpetual motion: for the action of the levers H K and
+  I L upon the frame H I, by means of the toothed wheels, will,
+  in the detail, be found precisely alike, and in the general
+  consideration of the motions of P and _p_, the opposite motions
+  in the circle E F G will be accurately the same.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  It has always been considered as essential to a perpetual motion
+  that it should be derived from some energy which is not supposed
+  to vary in its intensity. Such are the inertia, the gravity or
+  magnetism of bodies. For an occasional or periodical variation of
+  intensity in any force is evidently productive of motion, which
+  requires only to be accumulated or applied, and the apparatus
+  for applying it cannot be considered as a machine for perpetual
+  motion. Neither in strictness can any machine whose motion is
+  derived from the rotation of the earth, and the consequent change
+  of seasons and rotation of events, be so considered, because
+  it does not generate, but only communicates. The perpetual
+  flow of rivers; the vicissitudes of the tides; the constant,
+  periodical and variable winds; the expansions and contractions
+  of air, mercury, or other fluids, by daily or other changes of
+  temperature; the differences of expansions in metals, by the
+  same change; the rise and fall of the mercury in the barometer;
+  the hygrometric changes in the remains of organized beings, and
+  every other mutation which continually happens around us, may be
+  applied to give motion to mills, clocks, and other engines, which
+  may be contrived to endure as long as the apparatus retains its
+  figure.
+
+Mr. Nicholson's article, published above, shows, if nothing else
+had ever shown, the fact that he was endowed with a real scientific
+mind. It also shows what is still most interesting--that his mind
+anticipated and that he had a subconscious conception of the principle
+of Conservation of Energy.
+
+In 1824 and 1825 there was published in London a mechanical journal
+called "The Artisan"; or "Mechanic's Instructor." In one of the issues
+the following occurred on the subject of Perpetual Motion:
+
+  Perpetual motion is a motion which is supplied and renewed from
+  itself without the intervention of any external cause: to find
+  a perpetual motion, or to construct a machine which shall have
+  such a motion, is a subject which has engaged the attention of
+  mathematicians for more than 2,000 years; though none perhaps
+  have prosecuted it with so much zeal and hopes of ultimate
+  success as some of the speculative philosophers of the present
+  age.
+
+  Infinite are the schemes, designs, plans, engines, wheels, etc.,
+  to which this longed-for perpetual motion has given birth;
+  and it would not only be endless but ridiculous to attempt to
+  give a detail of them all, especially as none of them deserve
+  particular mention, since they have all equally proved abortive;
+  and it would rather partake of the nature of an affront than a
+  compliment, to distinguish the pretenders of this discovery, as
+  the very attempting of the thing conveys a very unfavorable idea
+  of the mental powers of the operator.
+
+  For among all the laws of matter and motion, we know of none
+  which seems to afford any principle or foundation for such an
+  effect. Action and reaction are allowed to be ever equal; and a
+  body which gives any quantity of motion to another, always loses
+  just so much of its own; but, under the present state of things,
+  the resistance of the air, and the friction of the parts of
+  machines, necessarily retard every motion.
+
+  To keep the motion going on, therefore, there must either be a
+  supply from some foreign cause, which, in a perpetual motion, is
+  excluded.
+
+  Or, all resistance from the friction of the parts of matter must
+  be removed; which necessarily implies a change in the nature of
+  things.
+
+  For by the second law of motion the changes made in the motions
+  of bodies are always proportional to the impressed moving force,
+  and are produced in the same direction with it; no motion, then,
+  can be communicated to any engine, greater than that of the first
+  force impressed.
+
+  But, on our earth, all motion is performed in a resisting fluid,
+  namely, the atmosphere, and must, therefore, of necessity, be
+  retarded; consequently, a considerable quantity of its motion
+  will be spent on the medium. Nor is there any engine or machine
+  wherein all friction can be avoided; there being in nature no
+  such thing as exact smoothness or perfect congruity; the manner
+  of the cohesion of the parts of bodies, the small proportion
+  which the solid matter bears to the vacuities between them, and
+  the nature of those constituent particles not admitting it.
+
+  Friction, therefore, will also, in time, sensibly diminish the
+  impressed or communicated force; so that a perpetual motion can
+  never follow, unless the communicated force be so much greater
+  than the generating force as to supply the diminution occasioned
+  by all these causes; but the generating force cannot communicate
+  a greater degree of motion than it had itself. Therefore, the
+  whole affair of finding a perpetual motion comes to this, viz.,
+  to make a weight heavier than itself, or an elastic force
+  greater than itself; or, there must be some method of gaining a
+  force equivalent to what is lost by the artful disposition and
+  combination of the mechanical powers: to this last point then,
+  all endeavors are to be directed; but how, or by what means such
+  a force can be gained, is still a mystery!
+
+  The multiplication of powers or forces avails nothing; for what
+  is gained in power is lost in time; so that the quantity of
+  motion still remains the same.
+
+  The whole science of mechanics cannot really make a little power
+  equal or superior to a larger; and wherever a less power is found
+  in equilibrio with a greater--as, for example, twenty-five pounds
+  with one hundred--it is a kind of deception of the sense; for
+  the equilibrium is not strictly between one hundred pounds and
+  twenty-five pounds moving (or disposed to move) four times as
+  fast as the one hundred pounds.
+
+  A power of ten pounds moving with ten times the velocity of one
+  hundred pounds would have equalled the one hundred in the same
+  manner; and the same may be said of all the possible products
+  equal to one hundred: but there must still be one hundred pounds
+  of power on each side, whatever way they may be taken, whether in
+  matter or in velocity.
+
+  This is an inviolable law of nature; by which nothing is left to
+  art, but the choice of the several combinations that may produce
+  the same effects.
+
+  The only interest that we can take in the projects which have
+  been tried for procuring a perpetual motion must arise from the
+  opportunity that they afford of observing the weakness of human
+  reason.
+
+  For a better instance of this can scarcely be supplied than to
+  see a man spending whole years in the pursuit of an object,
+  which a single week's application to sober philosophy would have
+  convinced him was unattainable.
+
+  But for the satisfaction of those who may not be convinced of the
+  impossibility of attaining this grand object, we shall add a few
+  observations on the subject of a still more practical nature than
+  the above.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  The most satisfactory confutation of the notion of the
+  possibility of a perpetual motion is derived from the
+  consideration of the properties of the center of gravity; it is
+  only necessary to examine whether it will begin to descend or
+  ascend when the machine moves, or whether it will remain at rest.
+  If it be so placed that it must either remain at rest or ascend,
+  it is clear, from the laws of equilibrium, that no motion derived
+  from gravitation can take place; if it may descend, it must
+  either continue to descend forever with a finite velocity, which
+  is impossible, or it must first descend and then ascend with a
+  vibratory motion, and then the case will be reducible to that of
+  a pendulum, where it is obvious that no new motion is generated,
+  and that the friction and resistance of the air must soon destroy
+  the original motion.
+
+  One of the most common fallacies by which the superficial
+  projectors of machines for obtaining a perpetual motion have
+  been deluded, has arisen from imagining that any number of
+  weights ascending by a certain path on one side of the center of
+  motion, and descending on the other at a greater distance, must
+  cause a constant preponderance on the side of the descent; and
+  for this purpose weights have been made to slide or roll along
+  grooves or planes, which lead them to a more remote part of the
+  wheel, from whence they return as they ascend, as represented in
+  the following figure: Or they have been fixed on hinges which
+  allow them to fall over at a certain point so as to become more
+  distant from the center; but it will appear on the inspection
+  of such a machine that although some of the weights are more
+  distant from the center than others, yet there is always a
+  proportionally smaller number of them on that side on which they
+  have the greater power; so that these circumstances precisely
+  counterbalance each other.
+
+  We have heard it proposed to attach hollow arms to a wheel by
+  joints or hinges at the circumference, and to fill these arms
+  with quicksilver or small balls instead of the plan represented
+  by the above figure; but though we have never heard of it having
+  been tried, we are perfectly convinced that it would end as all
+  other attempts have done; that is, in a total failure.
+
+
+The Possibility of Perpetual Motion Asserted
+
+The enthusiastic earnestness with which the subject of Perpetual
+Motion was formerly discussed is illustrated by the fact that the Holy
+Scriptures were dragged in to support arguments on the proposition.
+
+The following is a verbatim copy of an article published in an English
+scientific magazine in 1829:
+
+  "Notice to Perpetual Motion Seekers."--The following is a literal
+  copy of a communication which we have received under this head.
+  We publish it for the benefit of all concerned: "Perpetual Motion
+  Seekers! see Coloss., ch. ii., v. 8--'Beware lest any man spoil
+  you, through philosophy and vain deceit, after the tradition of
+  men, after the rudiments of the world.' Ye are making the words
+  of God of none effect by your traditions in publishing these
+  things to the world. How can such toys and baubles as these be
+  perpetual? See Malachi, ch. iv., v. 1--'For behold the day cometh
+  that shall burn as an oven; and all the proud, yea, all that do
+  wickedly, shall be as stubble.' Here is the end of them. I, the
+  undersigned, have to inform the public, the model for making
+  perpetual motion is to be found in that too much neglected book
+  of models, the Bible. I called upon the Lord, and he showed it
+  to me. I said, 'Lord, shall I show this unto them? This was the
+  answer to me: See Isaiah, ch. xli., v. 29--'Behold, they are all
+  vanity; their works are nothing.' I said, 'Lord, be pleased to
+  show me some more about it.' 'Bring forth your strong reasons,
+  saith the King of Jacob.'--Isaiah, ch. xli., v. 21. This was the
+  answer: See Isaiah, ch. xli., v. 14--'Fear not, thou worm Jacob.
+  * * Behold, I will make thee a new sharp threshing instrument
+  having teeth; thou shalt thresh the mountains, and beat them
+  small, and shall make the hills as chaff.' See also Jeremiah,
+  ch. vii., v. 9--'The wise men are ashamed; they are dismayed and
+  taken,' etc. See also Jeremiah, ch. ix., v. 12--'Who is the wise
+  man that may understand this?' If there is not a wise and learned
+  man who can show this, there is a deaf and unlearned man that
+  will, by the blessing of God, set it forth to you. I am that deaf
+  and unlearned man, George Lovatt, Stafford.
+
+  "P. S.--Mr. Editor: I have told you what I was commanded to do.
+  See Ezekiel, ch. iii., v. 4 to the end. Now, see thou forget it
+  not; let those models which come from the Word of God have the
+  first place.--Joshua, ch. xxiv., v. 15."
+
+
+John Bernoulli's Dissertation on Perpetual Motion
+
+John Bernoulli was born in 1667, and died in 1748. He belonged to the
+famous Belgian family bearing the name. His family seems to have been
+peculiarly prolific in men of great genius for mathematics and science.
+Almost any encyclopedia with any pretense for thoroughness will
+mention and give the sketch of the life of from five to nine members of
+the Bernoulli family.
+
+John Bernoulli possessed perhaps the greatest genius of any bearing the
+name for pure mathematics and pure mechanics. He was a contemporary
+of such men as Leibnitz, Euler and Newton, a co-laborer with the two
+former, but never conceded the merits of Newton. He was of a peculiar
+disposition, of intense likes and dislikes and among his peculiarities
+it may be mentioned that he harbored an unreasonable hatred toward a
+worthy and deserving son.
+
+In 1742 he wrote a work entitled "Dissertation on Effervescence and
+Fermentation." To this work he added an appendix entitled "Concerning
+Artificial Perpetual Motion." The appendix translated into English and
+as published by Dircks, is as follows:
+
+  Scarcely had I finished this dissertation, when, attentively
+  considering the nature of precipitation and secretion, briefly
+  explained in the last pages, there accidentally occurred to me
+  a mode of constructing, by means of some continually flowing
+  liquid, the much-talked of and long-desired Perpetual Artificial
+  Motion; and this as a completion to my work, on account of the
+  affinity of the subject, I now propose for the consideration of
+  the learned.
+
+  No one need be told how eagerly for a length of time this same
+  Perpetual Motion has been sought after by the most celebrated
+  men, how ardently desired; what indeed have they not contrived?
+  To what expense have they not gone? How many machines have they
+  not constructed? But all in vain.
+
+  The secret desire of this Perpetual Motion still perplexes and
+  torments many, and excites their minds to such a degree that we
+  see the ears and minds of learned men carried away by it; yet
+  many philosophers reject the idea, unanimously asserting that
+  Perpetual Motion cannot be communicated and cannot be invented;
+  which opinion is nevertheless not of any weight, seeing that they
+  rashly judge that no one should be listened to who boasts of
+  having found out such a thing; and their reasons (as I confess)
+  do not suffice to convince me; for I do not hesitate to assert
+  not only that Perpetual Motion may be discovered, but that it has
+  now actually been discovered, as will be confessed by any one
+  who reads these lines; and what is this labor to many? does not
+  Nature herself (who is never said not to operate by mechanical
+  laws) indicate Perpetual Motion to be possible? To recall but one
+  instance, what is the constant flux and reflux of the rivers and
+  seas but Perpetual Motion? Does it not all belong to Mechanics?
+  Therefore, you must confess that it does not exceed the limits of
+  mechanical laws, and is not impossible; what then hinders that
+  following Nature in this, we should be able perfectly to imitate
+  her? as indeed I shall so conclude, by declaring to these the
+  possibility of Perpetual Motion and the manner of obtaining it;
+  and lest thou come to an adverse conclusion, or regard it as a
+  Titanic enterprise, I pray that thou mayest first well weigh the
+  thing, or, if it so please thee, put its truth to the test of
+  experience.
+
+  First of all the following must be premised:
+
+  1. If there are two fluids of different density, the weights of
+  which respectively are in the ratio G to L; the altitudes of
+  cylinders of equal weight, and having the same base, will be in
+  the ratio L to G.
+
+  2. Therefore, if the altitude A C of one fluid contained in the
+  vessel A D to be the altitude E F of the other fluid contained in
+  an open tube, as L to D; the fluids so placed will remain at rest.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  3. Therefore, if A C to E F be in a greater ratio than L to
+  G, the fluid in the tube will ascend; or if the tube be not
+  sufficiently long, the fluid will escape by the orifice E. (These
+  are proved by Hydrostatics.)
+
+  4. It is possible to have two fluids of different gravity, which
+  are capable of being mixed one with the other.
+
+  5. It is possible to have a filter, strainer or other separator,
+  by means of which the lighter fluid may be separated from the
+  heavier.
+
+
+  _Construction_
+
+  These being pre-supposed, I construct Perpetual Motion in the
+  following manner:
+
+  Let two fluids of different gravity and capable of mixing
+  together (which is possible by Hyp. 4) be taken in any
+  quantities, in equal quantities, if desired; let the ratios of
+  their gravities be first determined, which suppose as G to L, the
+  heavier to the lighter; and being mixed, let a vessel, A D, be
+  filled to A.
+
+  This having been done, let a tube be taken, open at both ends
+  E F; and of such a length that A C : E F > 2 L : G + L; and
+  the orifice F stopped, or rather filled with a filter or some
+  substance separating the lighter fluid from the heavier (as is
+  possible also by Hyp. 5); when the tube filled in this manner
+  with fluid is immersed to the bottom of the vessel C D; I say
+  that the fluid will continually ascend by the orifice of the tube
+  F, and by the orifice E will fall into the fluid below.
+
+
+  _Demonstration_
+
+  Because the orifice of the tube F is occupied by a filter (by
+  Constr.) which separates the lighter fluid from the heavier;
+  it follows, that if the tube be immersed to the bottom of
+  the vessel, the fluid lighter by itself, which is mixed with
+  the heavier fluid, must ascend in the tube, and as it will
+  ascend above the surface of the surrounding fluid as A C :
+  E F = 2 L : G + L : which is (by Const.) A C : E F > 2 L :
+  G + L, it necessarily follows (by Hyp. 3) that the lighter
+  liquid, through the orifice E, will fall in the vessel below;
+  there it again mixes with the heavier (by Hyp. 4); and then,
+  penetrating the filter, ascends again into the tube, and escapes
+  by the upper orifice. So, therefore, the flow is continued
+  perpetually.--Q. E. D.
+
+
+  _Corollary_
+
+  Hence a reason may easily be given, why water from the depths of
+  the ocean, ascending into the summits of the mountains, bursts
+  from them in the form of rivers and flows again into the ocean;
+  so does Nature offer to us the spectacle of perpetual motion.
+
+  Hence I say, they do not well explain who allege that the water
+  ascends to these heights through the pores of the earth, as a
+  fluid ascends in narrow tubes above the surface of the fluid
+  surrounding; for if such were the explanation of the thing, they
+  would never be able to demonstrate it; for the water so raised
+  to a height from the bosom of the earth, falls again, whereas
+  we see that the fluid in these narrow tubes, although slightly
+  elevated above the surrounding surface, never issues from their
+  orifices and falls into the fluid below. The following is then
+  the more feasible explanation. It is known that water in which
+  much salt is held in solution is heavier than fresh water; now
+  sea-water, as is sufficiently evident from the taste, contains
+  many saline particles; consequently it is heavier than spring or
+  river water; so that it is credible that the earth acts like a
+  filter through the pores of which only fresh water can pass, the
+  saline particles being left behind, and this increases the weight
+  of the water; the fresh water must ascend much higher on account
+  of the immense profundity of the ocean, as it is forced to the
+  highest peaks of the mountains by the presence of the sea-water;
+  and thence, not being able to ascend any higher, it falls in
+  rivers.
+
+
+P. Christopher Scheiner
+
+That an earnest belief in the possibility of Perpetual Motion has not
+been confined entirely to scientific tyros and enthusiastic dreamers,
+is sufficiently attested by the fact that a respectable number of
+eminent scientists, many of whom had done great service in their
+scientific labors, have believed in such possibility.
+
+Among these is to be mentioned P. Christopher Scheiner, a German,
+born 1575, and died 1650. He was a mechanic of note; in his day made
+valuable additions to what was known of light and optics, invented the
+Pantagraph, discovered solar spots, besides benefiting mankind by many
+other distinguished fruits of his genius.
+
+The subject of Perpetual Motion claimed some of his attention. He
+wrote in defense of its possibility. The substance of what he said,
+translated into English, is as follows:
+
+  Let the centre of the universe then, or of gravity, be A, and the
+  gnomon A B C, of which the extremity A is pierced and traversed
+  by an axis going through the centre of the world, so that it may
+  turn and revolve freely and easily around the said centre; to
+  the other extremity of the gnomon, C, let a phial full of water
+  be attached.
+
+  The weight C will turn around the centre A and will first come
+  to D, thence to E, thence to F and G; then it will return to C,
+  having described a complete circle, C D E F G; then it will again
+  move to D, E, F, etc., and so perpetually, since there is no
+  reason for its stopping in any point of the circle rather than in
+  another.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  That indeed the weight C affixed to the gnomon will move from C
+  to D, is proved by daily experience, by which it is established
+  that a gnomon so contrived and placed erect on any flat space,
+  will not be able to stand, but the arm B C, C preponderating,
+  will move towards D.
+
+  It may in the second place be proved, that if, on the other hand,
+  another arm B G be added to the gnomon, equal in weight and
+  similar to the other, the whole G B C A will remain motionless
+  in equilibrium; therefore the arm B G being taken away and
+  equilibrium being destroyed, the arm B C must move in the
+  opposite direction.
+
+The above, from Scheiner, called forth the following from Schott, who
+was also an eminent mathematician:
+
+  Whether there could be a perpetual artificial motion around the
+  centre of the earth?
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  We have treated this question in our Hydraulico-pneumatic
+  Mechanics, Part 2, Class 2, Machine 13, not however universally,
+  but only in one particular case, that of the Gnomon of Scheiner.
+  For P. Christopher Scheiner, in "Mathematical Disquisitions,"
+  in Number XV., Corollary 4, asserts Perpetual Artificial Motion
+  not to be repugnant to Nature, and attempts to prove it in the
+  following manner. Let a gnomon of a certain weight A B C be
+  suspended around A, the centre of the universe, and bound to the
+  beam D F, which is supported by the columns D F and E G and turns
+  at the pole D or E; or let it be fixed at the poles, but the
+  gnomon revolving at A.
+
+  These being the conditions, I say that the gnomon A B C will
+  revolve from C to H and towards I, thence will return to C,
+  thence to H as before, and so on perpetually. The cause of this
+  continual motion is the forcible suspension; for the whole gnomon
+  preponderates in C on account of the perpendicular tangent B A;
+  which effect becomes more marked if a globe of iron S be supposed
+  suspended at C. As therefore the whole of this mass, as well
+  from the supports of the balance as from the momentary diameter,
+  hangs suspended at C, and the vertex A, on account of the firm
+  beam D E, cannot fall from the centre of the universe; it comes
+  to pass that all points as well of the globe S, as of the gnomon
+  A B C, with a continual motion turn round A; but because, by the
+  line B A in the fixed point A, they are held from falling to the
+  centre; therefore the greatest force of that tendency is exerted
+  in the line B, and induces it to inclination; which inclination
+  on account of the continuous solidity of the gnomon cannot be
+  at all abated, so that the whole impetus is exerted either at
+  the point A about the movable beam or at the movable poles of
+  the beam D and E; which poles being free in their sockets D and
+  E, abandon themselves to the motion of Nature, and thus do not
+  in any wise hinder a perpetual circular motion. What indeed is
+  self-evident in this, reason confirms, and daily experience in
+  statics manifests. For if a short gnomon stand either on the
+  terrestrial superficies M N, O P, or Q R; it will always fall
+  towards the part C, or N, by the preponderating portion M K C;
+  which is manifested in daily experiments.
+
+  Thence it is evident that if the gnomon were entire, the force
+  which it exerts at N would pass into the line B A still hanging
+  over the centre. And this is one argument. The other is from
+  the contrary. For if an equal and similar gnomon were attached
+  towards the part D, then the whole mass hanging on its centre
+  would remain in equilibrium and there would be no motion;
+  consequently the one half being taken away, the other would
+  necessarily move according to the laws and experience of statics.
+  If the shortened gnomon M B C N were bound only to the point M,
+  the rest being left free, it would certainly revolve, and in the
+  same case, the point C would describe almost a semicircular arc
+  till, coming down to a perpendicular position, it would there
+  remain.
+
+  Now as the force of the entire gnomon falls in the vertex A,
+  there would be an entire and perpetual revolution around A. Much
+  more would this be the case if on the centre C stood either the
+  small curve A C L A or the larger one A K C, or finally the globe
+  S alone, hanging from two iron rods A B and B C, or from one
+  arc, A N C. From this, therefore, it may be demonstrated that a
+  perpetual circular motion is possible.
+
+In 1825, the following was contributed to and published in "Mechanics'
+Magazine." We are unable to give the name of the contributor, but he
+writes in encouragement of Perpetual Motion. The gist of his article is
+as follows:
+
+  We can now, however, soar above the clouds, explore the depths of
+  the ocean, and skim over its surface. * * * And be it remembered
+  that we owe these and many other advantages to a few persevering
+  individuals who were, in all probability, stigmatized as
+  chimerical visionaries by those who seem to have an unconquerable
+  propensity to condemn everything above the level of their own
+  understanding.
+
+  If by perpetual motion nothing more is meant than the putting
+  in motion some of the most durable substances with which we
+  are acquainted, in such a manner as to ensure a continuance of
+  motion as long as those substances will resist the effects of
+  time and friction, I do not despair of seeing it accomplished.
+  * * * [He thinks there is] reasonable ground to hope that the
+  time is not far distant when even this impossibility must yield
+  to persevering ingenuity. In the present state of public opinion
+  with regard to its practicability, it would be looked upon as an
+  empty boast, were I to assert that the discovery is already made.
+
+
+T. H. Pasley
+
+T. H. Pasley in 1824, contributed an article to "Mechanics' Magazine,"
+asserting the possibility of Perpetual Motion. The following excerpts
+give the substance of his article:
+
+  I feel no hesitation in standing up in support of this grand
+  desideratum,--this almost forsaken friend of science,--whether
+  the thing be practicable or not.
+
+  On the contrary, "Persevere" should be every one's advice; to do
+  so, or discontinue, every one's own pleasure. And why should the
+  impossibility of anything be pronounced unless it be established
+  wherein the limits of possibility consist?
+
+  It is puerile in the extreme to be foretelling defeat when
+  so many other objects may be gained by the highly laudable
+  pursuit, perhaps of greater advantage to society at large than
+  the discovery in question. * * * In a word, were the perpetual
+  motion discovered tomorrow, it would be wise of all the
+  governments of the world to offer a very high reward for some
+  species of discovery that would be universally sought after,
+  although it might never be found out. * * * The effects of
+  industry are--enlargement of the mind, accumulation of knowledge,
+  and rendering ourselves ignorant of the torments which idleness
+  and dulness always engender. * * * In the next place, there
+  are no solid grounds for the assertion that the discovery of
+  a perpetual motion is an impossibility. In the present state
+  of human knowledge respecting the powers of nature, it is not
+  demonstrable one way or another. * * * The study of what relates
+  to the perpetual motion has this great advantage, that it
+  directs to the discovery of error as well as of truth; whereas,
+  what are they which are called truths of science at present but
+  vacillating human opinions, or erroneous assumptions of what
+  we call natural causes? What are they but such as consist in
+  mere assumption, sanctioned by time, and admitted by existing
+  authorities in science, and of course generally acquiesced in,
+  without previous investigation?
+
+  So far, then, from being guided in our decision respecting what
+  is possible by the "unerring laws of nature," by "mathematical
+  demonstration," and by "experimental proofs," we are continually
+  misled by an erroneous faith in the nonentity, attraction.
+
+  On such an imperfect knowledge of the causes of phenomena, who
+  should say he knows what can or what cannot be discovered?
+
+
+Article From Pamphleteer
+
+In the "Pamphleteer," published in London, the following by a
+correspondent whose name we cannot give was published in March of 1822:
+
+"A few words inducing towards the discovery of Perpetual Motion, perhaps
+the actual discovery thereof:"
+
+      London, March, 1822.
+
+  What is meant by the term "Perpetual Motion?" Is it supposed
+  that there is an undiscovered substance in the world, that will
+  of itself perpetually move, with as little apparent cause as
+  that which actuates the needle in becoming motionless in one
+  particular position? Or, is it to be found in the combined
+  reaction of mechanical powers?
+
+  The first idea is stamped with a degree of probability, by the
+  mystery of the needle; yet I imagine the latter is relied on
+  with the greater confidence of mankind, and is the pith of the
+  following few words:
+
+  It is well known that the weight of a pendulum will almost regain
+  the level from which it descended, losing a little space at every
+  vibration, until it becomes motionless; if of itself it could
+  exceed or even regain the level, doubtless it would become a
+  perpetual motion.
+
+  To find a power that will aid the motion of the pendulum, and
+  in conjunction renew its strength, is what is wanted to create
+  perpetual motion.
+
+  What I shall endeavor to explain will at least induce towards the
+  discovery of this power.
+
+  The principal parts of the machinery about to be shown are in
+  number three:
+
+  A vibrating pendulum.
+
+  A revolving pendulum, and
+
+  A tubular lever.
+
+  A vibrating pendulum in motion describes a segment of a circle,
+  and returns on the same segment, and at every vibration its
+  described segment decreases.
+
+  A revolving pendulum is composed of two or more pendulums, united
+  at their lighter extremities, there revolving on an axis, the
+  heavier extremities being placed at equal distances in the outer
+  circle: this, I believe, is what is termed a fly-wheel when
+  affixed to hand-mills, etc.
+
+  The tubular lever is the chief instigator of the whole, and must
+  contain a weight apportioned to the weights of the two pendulums.
+
+  Fix the lever on a cross axis; thus, on an axis within a circle,
+  the circle on an axis at opposite angles, thereby is given to
+  each extremity of the lever a revolving power of motion; attach
+  one extremity of the lever to the outer circle of a revolving
+  pendulum, the other extremity confine within the bar of the
+  vibrating pendulum; thus combined, the effect to be produced when
+  put in motion will be this:
+
+  The two pendulums will guide the motion of the lever, which
+  then partakes of the power of a pendulum, giving fresh impulse
+  at every vibration of the pendulum, and every half revolution
+  of the revolving pendulum; for, as each extremity of the lever
+  rises, the weight within falls to the opposite extremity, and
+  gives fresh impulse to the whole: thus (if my idea is correct)
+  will be produced motion perpetual--that is to say, perpetual so
+  long as the materials of which it is made will hold together. I
+  have given this short description merely by way of example, as I
+  believe there are several ways of combining these three powers,
+  so as to produce perpetual motion, if my idea on the subject is
+  correct.
+
+  The lever may contain mercury or a solid orb of heavy substance;
+  and if the tube be exhausted of air the weight will pass more
+  freely, and certainly increase the power of the lever.
+
+
+J. Welch
+
+In 1825 the following article was published in "Mechanics' Magazine,"
+having been contributed by J. Welch:
+
+  Those who condemn the notion altogether seem to have taken but
+  a very confined view of the subject. What they say about mere
+  matter is right enough; but they seem to forget that there are
+  other active agents in nature which possess wonderful powers,
+  that have nothing to do with either bulk, weight, or form. Such
+  are electricity, magnetic attraction, capillary attraction,
+  and the irregular pressure of the atmosphere. The powers of
+  electricity are great, and, indeed, it seems to be the _primum
+  mobile_ that gives life and motion to the animated part of the
+  creation. Dr. Franklin shows us how to give a circular coated
+  plate, revolving on an axle, sufficient power to roast a chicken,
+  merely by once changing (charging?) it. Could not a plate of this
+  kind be made to turn a small electrical apparatus, so situated as
+  to keep the charge in the plate always at its maximum? The whole
+  might be kept dry by having it enclosed in a glass case.
+
+  It has often been attempted to give motion to a wheel by the
+  power of a loadstone, but hitherto without effect; no substance
+  in nature being found to have the power, by interposition, of
+  cutting off its attractive property. Still I think it should
+  be further investigated. Is a small piece of steel in the form
+  of a wedge as strongly attracted at the smaller end as at the
+  thicker? And would not twenty or thirty pieces of steel, of that
+  form, placed round the circumference of a circle, the point of
+  one towards the head of the other, cause a magnet placed in the
+  centre, to revolve in the direction in which their points lie? I
+  think, perhaps not; but still such experiments should be tried.
+
+  In capillary attraction we have a power that at once raises
+  fluids above their level. It is this which carries the oil up
+  the wick of a lamp as fast as the flame consumes it. Water and
+  other fluids rise through cotton even quicker than oil; and he
+  who can contrive to collect them as they arrive at the top will
+  discover perpetual motion. Would not water run constantly through
+  a siphon, one leg of which was made of a collection of capillary
+  tubes, and the other in the usual way? or would the water above
+  and below the tubes neutralize and destroy their power?
+
+  I now come to the pressure of the atmosphere, a thing easily
+  understood. * * * Make a cast-iron barometrical tube, with a top
+  sufficiently large to contain 2 cwt. of mercury; invert it in a
+  basin large enough to contain 2 or 3 cwt. more, and let a piece
+  of iron of 10 or 12 stones weight float on the mercury in this
+  basin, so as to rise and fall along with it at every change of
+  the weather. We have here both motion and power. The motion,
+  indeed, will sometimes stand still, but then it can easily be
+  regulated, and made a constant quantity in the machine to be
+  attached. I have no doubt but clocks, etc., may be made to derive
+  their chiming principle from a contrivance of this nature.
+
+
+Article From Mechanics' Magazine
+
+In 1831, the following article was contributed by an unknown
+correspondent to, and published in "Mechanics' Magazine":
+
+    "Yes; we shall conquer! All those dangers past
+    Will serve to enrich the future story."
+
+  The application to the subject, on my part, has been accompanied
+  by continual experimental elucidations of the subjects
+  considered, and comparisons of these with the axioms, theorems,
+  and demonstrations of one of the best authorities, if I may be
+  allowed so to call my favorite author, Emerson, whose _I says_
+  are generally correct.
+
+  I disagree with Mr. B., and do trust that even a perpetual motion
+  seeker might deserve encouragement, if it be found that such a
+  character may exist in a person who is not so ignorant of first
+  principles as Mr. B. supposes _all_ are who have this bias;
+  especially if it be found that the person's researches have been
+  connected with subjects of a more tangible nature, relating to
+  the improvement of the useful arts, and particularly to some
+  modern inventions of high importance that are not perfectly
+  correct in their construction.
+
+  In this article, Mr. B. advises those who are misspending their
+  time in this pursuit, to consider the question in its most simple
+  form, divested of more complicated operations, which simple form
+  is that of a pulley accurately constructed so as to reduce the
+  resistance to motion as much as possible. He says, "it will be
+  found, as long as the weights are equal," there will be no motion
+  produced, but wherever the weights are placed they will remain;
+  and to produce vertical motion in the smallest degree, it will
+  be necessary to add a weight to one of the former to create a
+  preponderancy. This weight he calls the mechanical loss, and an
+  insurmountable bar to perpetual motion, etc. We need not follow
+  Mr. B. to his conclusion, as I think this insurmountable bar
+  can be easily removed; and I shall be able to show that this
+  equilibrium, for such it merely is, can be destroyed without
+  adding to one of the weights, or absolutely taking from the
+  other; though this may virtually be considered to be the case,
+  inasmuch as we can at least produce an effect on the system as
+  if the weight were reduced. Mr. B. says, under this arrangement,
+  "wherever the weights are placed they will remain, unless an
+  addition is made to one of them." We will therefore suppose the
+  following diagram to represent the arrangement on a small scale,
+  delicately constructed.
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  A B are the two weights connected to each other by the string
+  passing over the pulley, and being nicely equalized in their
+  weight, here would, of course, be an equilibrium on the principle
+  of the lever. But take a flat piece of wood, such as a ruler,
+  and place it obliquely in a way so as not to interfere with
+  the pulley _m_ in the direction _d_, and then bring the weight
+  to impinge upon it in a way so as not to move the weight A
+  _m_, C _d_, the least, or alter its position. What will be
+  the consequence? Some would say, why, the weight A would then
+  descend, and cause the weight B to ascend. But I should rather
+  say, the reaction of the plane when acted on by the weight B,
+  having destroyed the equilibrium of the forces, motion takes
+  place. Now, if we attribute this motion to the reaction of the
+  plane on the weight, though we will not go so far as to say
+  motion is generated, yet if we say, by this simple arrangement
+  the equilibrium is destroyed and motion takes place, the least
+  we can admit is, that motion is communicated to the system, and
+  that by the agency of part of the machine itself, the apparatus
+  employed being considered as such. Then, why so much objection
+  to the term self-moving machine in limited sense? But I will not
+  dispute about words, which are but the images of things, and
+  images may be strangely distorted by the medium through which
+  they are received--of which distorting mediums, there is none
+  equal to that of prejudice in favor of abstract notions--which
+  notions perhaps, if rigidly examined, would be found to have no
+  foundation in facts or in common sense.
+
+  Another demonstrator of the impossibility of perpetual motion,
+  is Mr. Mackinnon (see "Mechanical Magazine," Vol. 1, Page 363).
+  As no doubt the different attempts to produce, or communicate,
+  continued and perpetual motion, at least, such as are often
+  brought forward by persons unacquainted with the science of
+  mechanics, are generally to those who are acquainted with that
+  science, if not absolutely ridiculous, yet of a nature to excite
+  a smile at their futility: still there are a few (perhaps a
+  very few) who entertain an opinion that such a thing is not
+  impracticable, and who have, from practical experience as well
+  as study, acquired a tolerable insight into the laws of nature
+  (so far as relate to this subject); who in their turn cannot
+  help smiling at the weak reasoning of some other would-be
+  philosophers, who gravely give their dictum in the case. In
+  this class I include Mr. Mackinnon, who very gravely goes to
+  work to prove, etc., and flatters himself he shall, if rightly
+  understood, help to prevent much future waste of time on the
+  subject. He then goes on to give us his definition of inertia, by
+  which he informs us that a body in a state of rest will remain so
+  until it is moved (wonderful!)--that it cannot move itself--that
+  it has not that power--and that no mechanical contrivance can
+  give it that power. (How profound!)
+
+
+
+
+SUMMARIZED TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                Page
+  Introduction                                                     3
+
+  Contents                                                       5-6
+
+  Preface                                                       7-10
+
+  Introductory Essay                                           11-21
+
+
+  CHAPTER I--DEVICES BY MEANS OF WHEELS AND WEIGHTS--
+
+    Wilars De Honecort; A Repetition of Wilars Honecort's
+      plan; Leonardo da Vinci; A. Capra's Device; The Device
+      of Dixon Vallance; Furman's Device; Schirrmeister's
+      "Mechanical Movement;" James Ferguson's Device; B.
+      Belidor's Device; Desagulier's Proposition on the
+      Balance; John Haywood's Device; Explanation of the
+      Failure of Wheels and Weights Devices to Accomplish
+      Perpetual Motion                                         22-67
+
+
+  CHAPTER II--DEVICES BY MEANS OF ROLLING WEIGHTS AND INCLINED
+    PLANES--
+
+    Device by Mercury in Inclined Glass Tube and Heavy Ball
+      on Inclined Plane; Series of Inclined Planes; Devices
+      by Oscillating Trough and Cannon Balls; Unpublished
+      Inclined Plane and Weights Devices Noted by the Author   68-75
+
+
+  CHAPTER III--HYDRAULIC AND HYDRO-MECHANICAL DEVICES--
+
+    Enbon and Anderson's Pump; Device of "Ed. Vocis
+      Rationis;" Böckler's Plates; John Linley's Hydraulic
+      Device; Device of Author of the "Voice of Reason;" An
+      Italian Device; P. Valentine Stansel's Device; Vogel's
+      Device; A Water Wheel-Driven Pump; "A Journeyman
+      Mechanic's" Device; James Black's Device; Archimedean
+      Screw and Liquid; John Sims's Problem; A Perpetual
+      Pump, by an Unknown Inventor; Explanation of the
+      Failure of Hydraulic and Hydro-Mechanical Devices to
+      Accomplish Perpetual Motion                             76-117
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV--PNEUMATIC, SIPHON AND HYDRO-PNEUMATIC DEVICES--
+
+    The Hydrostatical Paradox; Pickering's Device; Stuckey's
+      Device; Prof. George Sinclair's Device; Jacob Brazill's
+      Device; Läserson's Device; Von Rathen & Ellis' Device;
+      Richard Varley's Device; Siphon and Funnel Device;
+      Orchard's Vacuum Engine; Robert Copland's Device;
+      Eaton's Perpetual Siphon; Legge's Hydro-Pneumatic
+      Power Device; Waterblowing Machine; Device by Means of
+      Buoyancy Through Media of Different Densities; Device
+      by Compressible and Distensible Bags in Liquid; George
+      Cunningham's Mercurial Pneumatic Device; Explanation of
+      the Failure of Pneumatic, Siphon and Hydro-Pneumatic
+      Devices to Accomplish Perpetual Motion                 118-162
+
+
+  CHAPTER V--MAGNETIC DEVICES--
+
+    A Magnetic Pendulum; Magnetic-Driven Wheel; Mackintosh's
+      Experiment; Spence's Device; Joannis Theisneri's
+      Semi-Circle; Device of Dr. Jacobus                     163-174
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI--DEVICES UTILIZING CAPILLARY ATTRACTION AND PHYSICAL
+    AFFINITY--
+
+    Ludeke & Wilcken's Device; the Jurin Device; Sir William
+      Congreve, Notice of; His Perpetual Motion Devices and
+      Writings                                               175-194
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII--LIQUID AIR AS A MEANS OF PERPETUAL MOTION--
+
+    Liquefaction of Air; Explanation of Conservation of
+      Energy Applied to; Perpetual Motion by Means of Liquid
+      Air Pompously Heralded; Failure Explained              195-196
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII--RADIUM AND RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES CONSIDERED AS A
+    CONCEIVED SOURCE OF PERPETUAL MOTION--
+
+    Perpetual Emanation of Energy; Radium Clock by Lord
+      Rayleigh (Hon. R. J. Strutt); Lord Rayleigh Not a
+      Perpetual Motion Worker but Thoroughly Scientific      197-199
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX--PERPETUAL MOTION DEVICES ATTEMPTING ITS ATTAINMENT BY
+    A MISCONCEPTION OF THE RELATION OF MOMENTUM AND ENERGY--
+
+    Works of Tyros Known to Author; Momentum Defined,
+      Differentiated, Measured and Explained; Energy
+      Defined, Differentiated, Measured and Explained;
+      Explanation by Author of Common Misconception of the
+      Relation of Momentum and Energy and Attempts to thus
+      Realize Perpetual Motion; the Fallacy Explained by
+      Illustrations of Energy Required for and Represented
+      by Acceleration and Retardation of Velocity; Property
+      of Numbers Relating to; Arithmetical Progression
+      Illustration                                           200-211
+
+
+  CHAPTER X--THE ALLEGED INVENTIONS OF EDWARD SOMMERSET, SIXTH EARL
+    AND SECOND MARQUIS OF WORCESTER, AND OF JEAN ERNEST ELI-BESSLER
+    (COUNCILLOR) ORFFYREUS--
+
+    Intense Interest Caused by; Notice of Marquis of
+      Worcester and Councillor Orffyreus and Periods in
+      Which They Lived; Description by Marquis of Worcester
+      of the Essentials of His Claimed Inventions; Excerpts
+      From Remarks of Councillor Orffyreus on His Claimed
+      Invention; Dedication by Councillor Orffyreus to God,
+      the Public, to Men of Learning and to Himself as the
+      Discoverer; Article Concerning the Orffyrean Wheel
+      Published 1720 in Gentlemen's Magazine; Criticism by "A
+      Constant Reader" of Attitude of W. Kenrick Concerning
+      the Orffyrean Wheel; Article by Rev. J. T. Desagulier
+      Concerning the Device of Marquis of Worcester and the
+      Orffyrean Wheel; Excerpt from Dr. William Kenrick's
+      Lecture on Perpetual Motion; De la Hire's Remarks
+      Concerning Perpetual Motion; Letter from Prof. 's
+      Gravesande to Sir Isaac Newton; Animadversions of Prof.
+      Alliman on the Neglect of the Orffyrean inventions;
+      Dr. Charles Hutton's Scientific Works and Notice of
+      the Orffyrean Wheel; Remarks by the Author on the
+      Historical Celebrity of These Inventions               212-255
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI--CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. A DISCUSSION OF THE RELATION
+    OF THE DOCTRINE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY, AND THE POSSIBILITY
+    OF PERPETUAL MOTION--
+
+    Statement of Doctrine of Conservation of Energy; Upon
+      What Proof of Doctrine Rests; Not Mathematically
+      Proved; Conforms to Natural Phenomena; Multiplied
+      Illustrations; Inter-changeability and Convertibility
+      of Heat with Mechanical and Other Forms of Energy;
+      Explanation of Heat and Energy Units, and Their
+      Relative Equivalents; British Thermal Unit, Foot-Pound
+      and Horse-Power and Their Mutual Relationship
+      Explained; Further Illustrations; Galileo's Famous
+      Pendulum Experiment; Apparent Anticipation of the
+      Principle of Conservation of Energy                    256-269
+
+
+  CHAPTER XII--WILL PERPETUAL MOTION EVER BE ACCOMPLISHED?--
+
+    The Antiquity of the Problem; Remarks by Dircks, Newton,
+      Galileo, Huyghens and Descartes; Generalizations
+      of; Remarks by Author Concerning the Possibility of
+      Perpetual Motion. Comments from Other Sources:
+
+      1 Denying the Possibility of Perpetual Motion,--Article
+        by Dr. Papin; Article by Rev. John Wilkins; Article
+        Based on Paradoxical Hydrostatical Balance; Article
+        by P. Gregorio Fontana; Article by William Nicholson;
+        Article Published in "The Artisan"; Article Published
+        in "Mechanic's Magazine."
+
+      2 Asserting the Possibility of Perpetual
+        Motion,--Scriptural Argument; Article by John
+        Bernoulli; Article by P. Christopher Scheiner;
+        Article by T. H. Pasley; Article Published in "The
+        Pamphleteer"; Article by J. Welch; Article Published
+        in "Mechanic's Magazine"                             270-357
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                                    Page
+
+  Air (See Liquid Air).
+
+  "A Journeyman Mechanic's" Device,                                   99
+
+  Allaman's Animadversions on the Neglect of Orffyreus's
+      Inventions,                                                    239
+
+  Anderson & Enbom's Pump,                                            76
+
+  Archimedean Screw and Liquid, Device by Means of,                  104
+
+  "Artisan, The," Article Published in,                              329
+
+
+  Bags in Liquid, Compressible and Distensible, Device by Means of,  155
+
+  Bellidor, B., His Account of Perpetual Motion Device,               46
+
+  Bernoulli, John, Notice of,                                        336
+    Arguments Supporting Possibility of Perpetual Motion,            336
+
+  Black, James, His Device,                                          102
+
+  Böckler, George Andrew, His Plates,                                 81
+
+  Buoyancy Through Media of Different Densities,                     151
+
+  Brewster, Sir David, Edited Lectures of James Ferguson,             44
+    In Appendix to Ferguson's Lectures Gives Description of
+        "Water-Blowing Machine",                                     148
+    Is Attracted by Spence's Device, and Writes Letter Affording
+        Description of Same,                                         170
+
+  British Patents,                 58; 120; 121; 125; 127; 129; 132, 140
+
+  British Thermal Unit Defined and Explained,                        264
+
+
+  Cannon Balls and Oscillating Trough,                                71
+
+  Capillary Attraction and Physical Affinity, Devices by Means of
+      (See Table of Contents),                                         5
+
+  Capra, A., His Device,                                              32
+
+  Compressible and Distensible Bags in Liquid,                       155
+
+  Congreve, Sir William, Notice of;
+    His Perpetual Motion Devices,                                    182
+
+  Conservation of Energy, Its Relation to Possibility of Perpetual
+      Motion (See Table of Contents),                                  5
+    Considered with Reference to Perpetual Motion,                   269
+    Proof and Illustration of,                                       200
+    Anticipated by Newton, Galileo, Huyghens and Descartes,          272
+
+  Copland, Robert, His "Improved Method of Gaining Power",           140
+
+  Cunningham, George, His "Mercurial Pneumatic Device",              157
+
+
+  "Darius Green and His Flying Machine",                              16
+
+  Desagulier, Rev. J. T., Proposition on the Balance,                 47
+    Article of, Concerning the Device of Marquis of Worcester and
+        the Orffyrean Wheel,                                         222
+
+  Dircks, Henry, Title Page Mention,                                   3
+    His Books Mentioned,                                               7
+    Comments by Author on His Works,                                   8
+    Information Furnished by, Rearranged,                              9
+    His Classification of Devices,                                    19
+    His "Life, Times and Scientific Labors of the Second Marquis of
+        Worcester",                                                  213
+    Excerpt from,                                                    228
+    His Statement Concerning Arguments For and Against the
+       Possibility of Perpetual Motion,                              270
+    Arguments by Others For and Against the Possibility of Perpetual
+        Motion, Published by Dircks, Copied in This Work,            274
+
+
+  Eaton's Perpetual Siphon,                                          145
+
+  "Ed. Vocis Rationis," His Device,                                   78
+
+  Ellis, George Henry (See Rathen & Ellis).
+
+  Energy (See Momentum and Energy).
+
+  Energy, Conservation of (See Conservation of Energy).
+
+  Energy and Heat Convertible and Commensurable,                     262
+
+  Energy Defined, Explained and Distinguished from Momentum,         203
+
+  Enbom and Anderson's Pump,                                          76
+
+  Explanation by Author of Failure of Hydraulic and Hydro-Mechanical
+        Devices,                                                     112
+    of the Failure of Pneumatic, Siphon and Hydro-Pneumatic
+        Devices,                                                     159
+    of the Failure of Momentum and Energy Devices,                   206
+    of Failure of Wheels and Weights Devices,                         61
+
+
+  Failures (See Explanation of Failures).
+
+  Ferguson, James; "Peasant Boy Philosopher," His Device,             43
+
+  Fontana, P. Gregorio, Notice of; His Arguments on the
+      Impossibility of Perpetual Motion,                             306
+
+  Foot-Pound, Defined and Explained,                                 265
+
+  Furman, George H., "A New and Improved Motor," U. S. Patent,        36
+
+
+  Gallileo, His Pendulum Experiment,                                 267
+
+  Gravesande, Prof. S., Letter to Sir Isaac Newton,                  236
+
+
+  Haywood, John, His Device,                                          58
+
+  Heat and Energy Convertible and Commensurable,                     261
+
+  Helmholtz, Notice of,                                              258
+
+  Honecort, Willars de, Account of His Device,                        22
+
+  Horse-Power, Defined and Explained,                                264
+
+  Hydro-Pneumatic Devices (See Table of Contents),                     5
+
+  Hydrostatical Paradox,                                             118
+
+  Hydrostatical Paradoxical Balance, Article on,                     305
+
+  Hydraulic and Hydro-Pneumatic Devices (See Table of Contents),       5
+
+
+  Inclined Planes and Rolling Weights (See Table of Contents),         5
+
+  Inclined Planes and Weights Devices, Unpublished. Noted by the
+      Author,                                                         73
+
+  Inclined Planes, Series of,                                         69
+
+  Italian Device, An,                                                 92
+
+  Introductory Essay,                                                 11
+
+
+  Jacobus, Dr., His Magnetic Device,                                 173
+
+  Joule, Notice of,                                                  258
+
+  Jurin's Device,                                                    176
+
+
+  Kenrick, Dr. William, His Remarks Concerning the Inventions of the
+      Marquis of Worcester and Councillor Orffyreus and Perpetual
+      Motion in General,                                             228
+
+
+  Langley, Prof. Samuel P., His Attempts and Labors at Heavier Than
+      Air Flight,                                                     14
+
+  Lardner, Ignatius, Attempts to Show Impossibility of Crossing Ocean
+      With Steam Power,                                               14
+
+  Leonardo da Vinci (See Vinci).
+
+  Läserson, Louis Diodor, His "Improvements in Production of Motive
+      Power",                                                        127
+
+  Legge's Hydro-Pneumatic Power Device,                              146
+
+  Linley, John, His Hydraulic Device,                                 87
+
+  Liquid Air, as a Means of Perpetual Motion,                        195
+
+  Lord Rayleigh (See Rayleigh).
+
+
+  Mackintosh, F. S., Experiment by,                                  166
+
+  Magnetic Devices (See Table of Contents),                            5
+
+  Magnetic-Driven Wheel,                                             164
+
+  Magnetic Pendulum,                                                 163
+
+  Magnetic Semi-Circle,                                              172
+
+  Mechanic, A Journeyman (See "A Journeyman Mechanic").
+
+  Mechanics' Magazine, Article Published in,                    278, 353
+
+  Media of Different Densities, Devices by Means of Buoyancy
+      Through,                                                       151
+
+  Mercurial Pneumatic Device (See Cunningham, George).
+
+  Mercury, Inclined Glass Tube and Ball,                              68
+
+  Momentum, Defined, Explained and Distinguished from Energy,        201
+
+  Momentum and Energy, Account and Explanation of Perpetual Motion
+      Devices by Means of,                                           205
+
+  Momentum and Energy, Distinguished and Considered; Attempted
+      Devices for Perpetual Motion by Means of (See Table of
+      Contents),                                                       5
+
+  Munro, R., Comments on Mackintosh's Experiment,                    169
+
+
+  Newcomb, Simeon, Notice of,                                         15
+
+  Newton, Sir Isaac, Mention of,                                135, 220
+      Letter to from Prof. 's Gravesande,                            236
+
+  Nicholson, William, Notice of,                                     315
+    His Article Against the Possibility of Perpetual Motion,         316
+
+
+  Orchard's Vacuum Engine,                                           137
+
+  Orffyreus, Jean Ernest Eli Bessler (Councillor), His Perpetual
+      Motion Labors (See Table of Contents),                           5
+    Remarks of Author Concerning Claims of,                          252
+
+
+  Papin, Dr., Argument by Against the Possibility of Perpetual
+      Motion,                                                        275
+
+  Pasley, T. H., Article by,                                         347
+
+  "Pamphleteer, The," Article Published in,                          349
+
+  Paradox, Hydrostatical,                                            118
+
+  Patents, U. S. (See U. S. Patents); Patents, British (See British
+      Patents).
+
+  "Peasant Boy Philosopher" (See Ferguson, James).
+
+  Pendulum, Gallileo's Experiment with,                              268
+
+  Perpetual Motion Defined,                                           11
+
+  Perpetual Pump,                                                    109
+
+  Perpetual Motion, Its Possibility Considered with Reference to
+      Conservation of Energy,                                        269
+
+  Perpetual Motion, Consideration of Its Possibility,                270
+    Arguments Against Its Possibility--Article by Dr. Papin,         275
+    Article by Rev. John Wilkins,                                    281
+    Article Based on Paradoxical Hydrostatical Balance,              305
+    Article by P. Gregorio Fontana,                                  306
+    Article by William Nicholson,                                    316
+    Article Published in "The Artisan,"                              329
+    Article Published in "Mechanic's Magazine,"                      278
+
+    Arguments Maintaining Its Possibility--Scriptural Arguments,     335
+    Article by John Bernoulli,                                       336
+    Article by P. Christopher Scheiner,                              342
+    Article by T. H. Pasley,                                         347
+    Article Published in "The Pamphleteer,"                          349
+    Article by J. Welch,                                             351
+    Article Published in "Mechanic's Magazine,"                      353
+
+  Physical Affinity and Capillary Attraction, as a Means of Perpetual
+      Motion (See Table of Contents),                                  5
+
+  Pickering, Peter, His "Atmospheric Engine",                        120
+
+  Pneumatic Devices (See Table of Contents),                           5
+
+  Preface,                                                             7
+
+  Proposition on the Balance (See Desagulier, Rev. J. T.)
+
+
+  Radium and Radio-Active Substances as a Means of Perpetual Motion
+      (See Table of Contents),                                         5
+
+  Rayleigh, Lord, His Radium Clock, Notice of,                  197, 199
+
+  Rangley's Patent Roller Pump, Adaptation of,                        97
+
+  Rathen and Ellis's Device,                                         129
+
+  Rationis, Ed. Vocis (See "Ed. Vocis Rationis").
+
+  Rolling Weights and Inclined Planes as a Means of Perpetual Motion
+      (See Table of Contents),                                         5
+
+  Scheiner, P. Christopher, Notice of; Argument by Supporting
+      Possibility of Perpetual Motion,                               342
+
+  Schirrmeister, Charles, His "Mechanical Movement",                  38
+
+  Schott, Gaspar, Mention of in Connection with Perpetual
+      Motion,                                                   172, 173
+
+  Scriptural Argument,                                               335
+
+  Self-Motive Power Defined,                                          11
+
+  Semi-Circle, Magnetic,                                             172
+
+  Siphon Device for Perpetual Motion (See Table of Contents).
+
+  Sims, John, His Perpetual Motion Problem,                          106
+
+  Sinclair, Prof. George, His Pneumatic Device,                      124
+
+  Siphon, Eaton's Perpetual,                                         145
+
+  Siphon and Funnel Device,                                          135
+
+  Sleigh, Burrowes, Willcocks Arthur, His Perpetual Motion Labors,   111
+
+  Sleigh, William Willcocks, His Perpetual Motion Labors,            110
+
+  Sommerset, Edward (Marquis of Worcester) (See Table of Contents),    5
+
+  Spence, John, Notice of; His Magnetic Device,                      170
+
+  Stansel, P. Valentine, Device of,                                   95
+
+  Strutt, Hon. R. J. (See Rayleigh).
+
+  Stuckey, William Henry, His "Pneumatic Engine",                    121
+
+
+  Theisneri, Joannis, His Magnetic Semi-Circle,                      172
+
+  Trough, Oscillating and Cannon Balls,                               71
+
+
+  U. S. Patents,                                              36, 38, 76
+
+
+  Vacuum Engine, Orchard's,                                          137
+
+  Vallance, Dixon, His Device,                                        34
+
+  Varley, Richard, His "New Perpetual Moving Power",                 132
+
+  Vinci, Leonardo da, Notice of,                                      27
+    His Perpetual Motion Labors,                                  29, 32
+
+  "Voice of Reason," Device by Author of,                             88
+
+  Vogel, A. F., His "Hydrostatic General Mobile",                     96
+
+
+  Water Blowing Machine,                                             147
+
+  Water-Wheel Driven Pump,                                            97
+
+  Welch, J., Article by,                                             351
+
+  Wheel, Magnetic Driven (See Magnetic-Driven Wheel).
+
+  Wheels and Weights Devices (See Table of Contents),                  5
+
+  Wilckens (See Ludeke and Wilckens).
+
+  Wilkins, Rev. John, Argument Denying Possibility of Perpetual
+      Motion,                                                        281
+
+  Worcester, Marquis of (Edward Sommerset) (See Sommerset).
+
+
+  X-Ray Machine, Notice of,                                           16
+
+
+
+
+Transcribers' Notes:
+
+
+In Unicode and HTML versions of this eBook, Greek words are shown in
+Greek and then in Transcribers' English transliterations that are
+enclosed in {curly braces}. Only the transliterations are shown in
+Latin-1 and ASCII versions of this eBook. Individual Greek letters used
+in equations and lists are shown either as actual Greek letters or in
+similar Latin characters, depending on the version of this eBook. Also
+see later note about alchemy symbols.
+
+Accent mark errors in Greek text have been remedied.
+
+Inconsistent spelling and punctuation have been retained, as this book
+quotes many sources.
+
+Simple typographical errors were corrected.
+
+Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.
+
+The original book copied illustrations from various sources and did
+not change the Figure numbers. This eBook retains those original
+identifications, so there are duplicate numbers.
+
+Text usually spells "Galileo" as "Gallileo"; both forms have been
+retained here.
+
+Mathematical equations have been expressed here in linear form.
+Accuracy of their transcriptions is questionable. Multiplication was
+indicated in various ways and has not been changed or standardized.
+
+Page 73: "phraseology" was printed as "praseology".
+
+Page 76: "1882" was printed as "182".
+
+Page 222: "misspent" was printed as "mispent".
+
+Page 229: "perseverance" was printed as "perserverance".
+
+Page 220 and others: "'s Gravesande" was the person's name.
+
+Page 241: Removed unmatched double quote mark following "it only turns
+one way."
+
+Page 252: Removed unmatched double quote mark following "should be
+undeceived."
+
+Page 268: "horizontal from which" was printed as "form".
+
+Page 284: ☿ is the alchemy symbol for Mercury; ♃ is the alchemy symbol
+for tin (and for Jupiter).
+
+Page 288: "attracted" was printed as "attraced".
+
+Page 313: The _p_ near the end of the equation shortly before "the
+distance of the" appeared to be only partly printed and may be a
+different symbol.
+
+Page 326: "preponderate" was printed as "perponderate".
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Perpetual Motion, by Percy Verance
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44771 ***