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diff --git a/44750-0.txt b/44750-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..739bb44 --- /dev/null +++ b/44750-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7289 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44750 *** + +THE LIBRARY +OF WORK AND PLAY + + CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK + By Edwin W. Foster + + ELECTRICITY AND ITS EVERYDAY USES + By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D. + + GARDENING AND FARMING + By Ellen Eddy Shaw + + HOME DECORATION + By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D. + + HOUSEKEEPING + By Elizabeth Hale Gilman + + MECHANICS, INDOORS AND OUT + By Fred T. Hodgson + + NEEDLECRAFT + By Effie Archer Archer + + OUTDOOR SPORTS, AND GAMES + By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B. + + OUTDOOR WORK + By Mary Rogers Miller + + WORKING IN METALS + By Charles Conrad Sleffel + + +[Illustration: HANGING A PICTURE + +The wall space is a part of the framing of a picture] + + + + + HOME DECORATION + BY + PROF. CHARLES F. WARNER, Sc.D. + + _For eight years Master of the Rindge Manual Training + School, Mass. Twelve years principal of the Technical + High School and Director of the Evening + School of Trades, Springfield, Mass._ + +[Illustration: Title Page] + + GARDEN CITY NEW YORK + DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY + 1916 + + + + ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION + INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN + + COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY + + + + + TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS OF AMERICA + THIS BOOK + WHICH RECORDS WHAT SOME OF THEM HAVE DONE + IS HOPEFULLY DEDICATED + + + + + Some pure lovers of art discard the formula, _Art for Progress, + the Beautiful Useful_, fearing lest the useful should deform the + beautiful. They tremble to see the drudge's hand attached to the + muse's arm. They are solicitous for the sublime if it descends + as far as to humanity. Ah! they are in error. The useful, far + from circumscribing the sublime, enlarges it.... Is Aurora less + splendid, clad less in purple and emerald--suffers she any + diminution of majesty and of radiant grace, because, foreseeing an + insect's thirst, she carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop + needed by the bee? + Victor Hugo. + + + + + ACKNOWLEDGMENTS + + +This volume is the result of an effort to bring together in close +relation with fundamental principles of design a variety of practical +problems which are more or less closely connected with the general +problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive ability of +boys and girls from twelve to eighteen years of age. While the book +is mainly a record of the author's experience and observation in this +department of educational work, he has received many suggestions from +co-workers in the same field. It will be impossible to give credit to +all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the preparation of +this book: but special acknowledgments are due to Mr. Fred M. Watts, +who furnished the material for the chapter on Pottery and several +drawings for other parts of the book; to Miss Grace L. Bell for the +illustrations and descriptions embodied in the chapter on Block +Printing; to Mr. Burton A. Adams for the problems in metal work; to Mr. +Edwin A. Finch and Mr. Lewis O. Richardson who contributed many of the +specifications for the problems in furniture-making; to Miss Elizabeth +M. Morton for specific suggestions pertaining to the subject of dress +as related to the principles of decoration; and to Mrs. Ruth B. S. +Flower, of Florence, Mass., who supplied several of the photographs and +much of the descriptive matter for the chapter on Weaving. + +Springfield, Mass. + + C. F. W. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. Introductory--The Story of a House 3 + + II. Decorations and Furniture 34 + + III. Pictures 64 + + IV. The Arrangement of Flowers 81 + + V. Decorative Fabrics 95 + + VI. Dress and the Principles of Decoration 121 + + VII. Furniture Making 129 + + VIII. Finishing and Re-finishing 212 + + IX. Hand Weaving 244 + + X. Pottery 280 + + XI. Decorative Work in Leather, Copper, and Other + Materials 321 + + XII. Concluding Suggestions--Country Homes 366 + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Hanging a Picture _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + All the Rough Carpentry was Assigned to the Boys + of the Woodworking Sections of the Vocational + School 22 + + The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical + High School were not Overlooked in the Distribution + of the Work on the House 24 + + A Table Runner of Russian Crash and Pillow + Cover with Geometrical Design 96 + + Window Draperies with Stencilled Border 108 + + Crocheted Panels, a Linen Work Bag with Conventional + Landscape in Darning Stitch, a + Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and + Couching Stitch 118 + + Finishing a Library Table 212 + + Weaving a Rug 244 + + Hand Made Rugs, Hand Made Towels 252 + + An Alcove with Window Draperies, Pillow Covers, + Window Seat and Moss Green Rug, All Hand + Woven 262 + Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover, + Slumber Rug, and Pillow Covers 266 + + Girls at Work on Pottery 280 + + Bowls 294 + + Vases and Fern Dishes 312 + + Tiles 316 + + Pottery: Designed and Made by Schoolgirls 318 + + Decorative Forgings 364 + + + + + HOME DECORATION + + + + +[Illustration: A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys] + + + + +I + +INTRODUCTORY + +THE STORY OF A HOUSE + + +To design, plan, and build a house is a task that rarely falls to the +lot of boys and girls. In fact, it is not the common experience of +men and women to build houses without the aid of architects, masons, +and carpenters. Such a task, however, was recently offered to certain +classes in one of the public schools of a well-known New England city. +It was, indeed, a school problem, and yet there was something about +it that seemed to suggest larger and more interesting things than +are ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. It did not seem at all +like some school work. It was more like real life; for all boys and +girls must some day have homes of their own, and here was a chance +to learn how the house, which is an important part of every home, is +planned and built. It is hardly necessary to say that this work--or +play, if you like that word better--was undertaken with genuine +enthusiasm. It was a task crammed full of the pleasure of interest and +of accomplishment--full of the joy of doing something worth while--from +the beginning to the end. + +_The House a Work of Art._--One of the first lessons learned by these +young builders--perhaps the most important one of all--was that a +great many things have to be thought of in planning a house, if the +thing is to be well done. It is not simply a question of deciding how +many rooms one will have, arranging them in some conventional order, +and building the house around them with whatever external features +style or fancy may dictate. Too many houses, it is true, are planned, +or at least put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever goes +into them in decoration or furniture is generally chosen either for +necessary use or for display--not with any thought of the real comfort +and satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings. People who are +satisfied with such dwellings seem to show less appreciation of art, +the highest product of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who +decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs of their own weaving +and who ornamented their pottery and their utensils and implements +with wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought designs. Modern +cave dwellers in apartment houses with all the conveniences of their +ready-made surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression +in their home belongings that encouraged and delighted even the savage. +The most extreme example of this form of degeneracy is found in the +suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the age of concrete +construction, now at hand, means that we are to have concrete houses +poured into a standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours, and +finished for occupancy in a day or two. + +The boys and girls of this story would not have accepted a +machine-made, standardized house if one had been offered them, ready +for use. There was a special purpose for which their house was to be +planned and built, as there generally is in the case of any real house. +No style A, B, or C, chosen from any series of pattern-built or moulded +houses, could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could, would they +willingly give up all the fun of planning and building and furnishing? +Would they forego the lessons of experience to be learned from all this +work? This is always a large part of the satisfaction which comes to +any one who builds his own house. In the present instance it was the +chief motive, since the boys and girls who were planning this house +were not expecting to make their home there. + +_Why the House Was Built._--What, then, was the purpose for which this +house was to be built; and what were the specific problems involved in +realizing this purpose? It was to be a practice house for the girls +of the household technology course. This meant that it should be, so +far as possible, a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple +one. Economy, always a safe guide, was a most important factor in +determining the character of the design. A limited appropriation--about +$1000--for building material was available. Economy of space as well as +of expense was also important. The only available land was a triangular +lot in the corner of the school yard, 665 square feet in area. This +limited the dimensions of the floor plan to 24 by 35 feet. It was +decided to develop the design within these dimensions, on a rectangular +plan, with one story and a hip roof, because such a design would +present comparatively easy problems in framing and insure a building of +pleasing external proportions. + + +THE GENERAL DESIGN AND THE PLAN + +In attacking the problem of design the method of approach was +determined by the fact that school-girls and school-boys were to be +the architects and builders. House planning, home decoration, and +household management were important subjects of study on the part of +the girls and various forms of drawing and constructive work were +required of all the boys of this school; so they all felt that they +had a right to contribute something out of their study and experience +that might be of value in working out this problem. The design must +therefore be a composite of the best features of many studies. + +_A Composite Design._--The rooms required for a house of this character +were thought to be a hall, a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen, +a pantry, a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen closet. +Nothing short of this outfit of rooms would satisfy the demands of +a house to be used to give practical training in all the essentials +of plain housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests. With these +requirements in mind and with full knowledge of all the limitations +of the problem, the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were +taking the course in household technology, entered into a lively but +friendly competition with each other to produce the most acceptable +design and draw the best plan. So many excellent plans resulted from +this competition that it was difficult to select the best. It was +therefore decided to combine in a new and final plan the best features +of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions of the problem +with equal success. Two of these were selected as having the greatest +number of good points. From these the final floor plan was developed +and the necessary modifications made in the original drawings to make +the general design of the building fit the plan. + +[Illustration: Floor plan of the model house] + +_The Hall._--It may be +of interest to note how some of the details of the problem of design +were worked out for the final plan. Beginning with the hall, it was +easily seen that economy of space required that the room should have +small dimensions. In fact, it did not need to be a separate room +at all. It could easily be a space between the living room and the +dining-room, separated from both by means of portières and joined +upon occasion with either room or with both, thus making possible +a reception room or a dining-room of good size, or one large room. +Of course, the central idea of a hall must not be lost sight of in +providing for a desirable extension of other rooms. It should suggest +a warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the fireplace may +fulfil the double function of giving the cheer of the hearth-stone at +all times and the comfort of fire when warmth is needed. The absence +of a stairway, since none was needed, was a favourable circumstance. +Appropriate decoration and furnishing in due time were to add a few +distinguishing marks so that the house could retain, without any +appreciable sacrifice of space, the dignity of an entrance hall. + +_The Living Room and the Dining-room._--The relative positions of the +living room and the dining-room, as already stated, were determined +by the location of the hall. The purpose of each was distinct and +self-evident, and determined the features of design that lent +themselves most readily to appropriate decoration. In the living room +the floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration with +regard to their final treatment, to give pleasing proportions and +harmonious colouring. The same was true of the dining-room, though its +different purpose suggested a different design. An abundance of light +was important for both rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. Such +windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing drapery effects. + +_The Kitchen and Its Appointments._--No room demanded so much study +as the kitchen. In the first place it was necessary to make provision +for a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily be needed in a +house of this size, because in this case it was designed to be used as +a practice kitchen and must therefore be large enough to accommodate +a considerable number of girls--at least eight--at one time. This +point assumed so much importance in the minds of the young designers +that they were constantly tempted to rob other rooms of the space that +was due them in order to get a "nice, big kitchen." But by clever +adjustments and combinations the necessary floor dimensions were +secured without unduly cramping other features of the plan. The range, +laundry tubs, and sink were conveniently located near each other with +the tubs at such a height that when not in use the cover was flush +with the top of the range, forming a shelf on which kettles and other +kitchen utensils could be easily placed as they were moved back and +forth from the range. It was thought that it would be very desirable, +if not necessary, to have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of +sheet metal. + +It will be noted as a possible fault in the plan that the range is +very near the door into the passageway leading to the bedroom, the +living room, and the hall. This point received due consideration; but +in view of the compensating advantages the arrangement was thought +allowable, inasmuch as the door into the passageway would be used +only occasionally. There seemed to be no more convenient location for +the passageway, which was designed to give privacy to bedroom and +bath room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency requiring it, +easy communication between the kitchen and the bedroom. + +_Special Features._--The pantry was located between the kitchen and the +dining-room for obvious reasons--to give easy communication in serving +and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place. In place of a +kitchen closet a cabinet was provided for as being on the whole the +more serviceable of the two. It is always desirable to have an entry +or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved for the refrigerator; +but the need of providing as much room as possible in the kitchen +itself seemed to justify the omission of the lobby. Another unusual +feature--this time not an omission--is to be found in the window of the +bedroom closet. Such a window, although not common, was thought to be +very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a possible protection against +moths. + +_Early Plans for Decorating and Furnishing._--These were by no means +all the features of design that had to be considered. As already +suggested, there was much study given to the question of interior +decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage. This was simply +necessary forethought; for much of the attractiveness, restfulness, +and homelike atmosphere of any house is created by the architect, who, +in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways, and windows, disposes his wall +areas so that they may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves +naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces for a few choice +pictures and opening up beautiful vistas. Such house-planning, begun +with clear vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every detail, +may often lead to a harmony of effects as pleasing to people of +artistic temperament as a symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical +composition. In fact, the parallel between sympathetic gradations of +form and colour and harmony of musical tones is a very close one, and +the appreciation of it is by no means rare. Any intelligent person, +on seeing a suite of rooms designed and arranged by a real artist, +though he may not understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm +of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack of any jarring +or discordant notes in the decoration, the simplicity, fitness, and +real beauty, not of any particular part, perhaps, but of the whole +combination. We often find ourselves using the same language whether we +are describing the work of an artist-architect or the work of a musical +composer. + + +FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN + +_Adaptation to Purpose._--Our young architects discovered that there +are certain fundamental principles or laws that must be observed at +the very beginning, if a really good and true design is to be made. +The first of these laws is the _law of adaptation to purpose_. The +application of this law was illustrated in the location of the various +rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions agreed upon for +each, and in the details of arrangement, especially in the kitchen +and other rooms connecting with it. But this law is universal in its +application. It determines not only the broad features of the plan but +the details as well. It does not permit anything useless or superfluous +to exist, for that would mean weakness. It aims at efficiency and +strength. It dictates the details of construction all along the line, +from the framing of the building to its finish and its decoration. It +even determines the character of the furniture and the amount of it. +Adaptation to purpose is a ruling principle. + +_Simplicity._--Another great principle that revealed itself as the +plans of the house developed may be called the _law of simplicity_. +This is one of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the realm +of craftsmanship. It is an axiom of geometry that the straight line +is the shortest distance between two points. Not less evident is the +fact that when Nature undertakes to do anything she goes about it in +the simplest and most direct way. The natural tendency of all motion +is along a straight line--so reads the first law of motion. Analyze +the most complex forms and processes of nature and we shall find them +due to the harmonious combination of the simplest elementary lines +and movements. But the same law of simplicity which invariably marks +the works of nature gives strength and beauty also to the works of +man. Thus, in discussing the various problems that developed as the +designing of the house progressed, it was found--as of course it should +have been--that the solution which met the test of simplicity, while +satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the true one. + +_Correlation._--A third great fundamental principle that found +expression in these studies of the house plans was the _principle +of correlation_. Not only must each part of the design be adapted +to its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must support all +other parts and receive support in return. It is like cooperation or +team-work in play or in the practical affairs of life. Every room in +a house bears some natural relation to every other room, and even the +objects in the same room or in adjoining rooms must assist each other, +whether their purpose be utility or decoration or a combination of +both. Only by due attention to the mutual relations of the various +elements that must enter into the composition, can the designer produce +those pleasing space effects, those blendings of colour tones, those +manifest relations between the various objects, useful or decorative, +that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to a complete design. + + +THE COLOUR SCHEME + +_The Floor the Foundation._--Almost unconsciously our young architects +found themselves under the guidance of these three great fundamental +principles of design. When they came to the problem of specifying the +finish for the floors and other wood work of the hall, living room, and +dining-room, they found that this problem was intimately associated +with the larger question of the colour scheme as a whole. The mutual +dependence of all the elements concerned could not be overlooked. +It was evident that the floor, which is the foundation of the room, +should be darker than the walls and ceiling and the general tone of the +furnishings, in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight and +firmness for the support of the entire room and all it might contain. +The effect of solidity could be produced by staining the floor boards +or by providing a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large ones +as well as small ones. There was no question of carpets. These, of +course, are not allowable in a model house. A few rugs were already +available, and others could be procured by buying them or by making +them. A properly toned floor, however, is desirable, even with a most +generous covering of rugs. It was therefore decided to give the floor a +coat of stain when it was ready to be finished. + +_Importance of Colour Schemes._--But what was the colour to be? The +designers were thus brought face to face with that difficult but +important problem which all who plan houses have to solve before they +can hope to bring their work into harmonious adjustment with the +various natural and human conditions that must be satisfied in the +final product, if it be made a good example of the designer's art. +The problem of the colour scheme is fundamental. Upon this depends +not only the tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but +also, to a certain extent, as has already been suggested, the kind of +woods to be used in the interior finishing, and whether they are to be +painted, stained, or left in their natural colours. It will determine +the material and the colours of the portières, curtains, cushions, +lamp shades, picture frames, vases; in fact, it will largely settle +the decorative character of every article placed in the rooms. The +consideration of movable objects, however, may be deferred till the +more substantial and fixed elements are decided upon. + +_Southern Exposures and Cool Colours._--In settling the all-important +question of the colour scheme the first point to be considered was +the location of the rooms with reference to light and to external +surroundings. Rooms that have a southern exposure and nothing to +interfere with their being flooded with sunlight need to be protected +against the glare of too much light. For such rooms dull tones of +colour are the best--dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain blue +tones, and the medium grays--light, cool colours that counteract the +overbrilliancy of direct sunlight and give a positively tempered +feeling to the atmosphere of a room. Incidentally, too, perhaps because +they are the tints associated with distant views, the cool colours make +a room seem larger than it really is. + +_Northern Exposures and Warm Colours._--Northern rooms, on the other +hand, do not generally suffer from excess of sunlight and heat. Warm +colours are needed in such rooms. Deep reds, rich yellows, and golden +browns will seem to bring sunlight into a sunless room. Our designers +noted the fact that many of the rooms in the house they were planning +must be comparatively dark. The house was to face the high brick walls +of the neighbouring school building, not more than twenty-five feet +distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure. A warm colour +treatment, therefore, was unquestionably needed. Should red, brown, or +yellow be the prevailing tone? The deciding point was the location of +the hall and its relations to the other rooms. It was, first of all, +the hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it was dark. Its +walls must have the sunniest of all colours--a rich golden yellow. The +same would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps a brown with +yellow enough in it to be well in tune. The dining-room could safely be +darker and more luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden yellow +of the hall; but it must not be decidedly red. The ceilings of these +three rooms, whether beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the +walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint. This might well be +a light corn yellow. + +The colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath room, and kitchen was +not so important a question as the decoration of the three front +rooms. Utility and sanitary conditions were important things to be +considered. Light tints were decided upon, which in the bedroom might +be relieved, in the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures in +some warm tone. + +_Interior Woodwork._--With the colour scheme settled it was a +comparatively easy matter to decide what should be the general tone +and character of the interior woodwork. The floors of the three front +rooms, since they were to be closely associated, required the same +solid colour, which could well be a walnut brown, darker than any +of the walls. Fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable for the +dining-room and gum wood for the living room, either of which could be +extended to the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the hall, +leaving the oak for the dining-room, found much favour. It was finally +decided, however, to adopt for the three front rooms the combination +of natural woods first suggested. The bedroom and bath room, where +suggestions of cleanliness are peculiarly appropriate, were specified +to be finished in white. Yellow southern pine was decided upon for the +kitchen and its accessory rooms. + + +ORGANIZING THE WORK OF CONSTRUCTION + +As soon as the chief features of design were decided upon, preparations +were made for carrying them out in the actual work of building; for the +house was not to be a "castle in air." The first step was to put these +ideas on paper and work out the details of construction in clearly +executed and accurately dimensioned drawings. These included, as the +first to be used, the working drawings for the framing and other rough +woodwork, blue print copies of which were to be put into the hands of +the boys of the elementary vocational school, who were to carry out +this part of the building plans. + +[Illustration: Front or north elevation of the model house] + +_The Working Drawings._--A considerable number of detailed drawings +had to be made before the work of construction could be wisely begun. +This furnished an interesting set of problems for the mechanical +drawing groups of the technical high school. The material for this work +consisted of rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct dimensions +as determined in the plan accepted as the result of the competition in +design. These preliminary sketches required much study on the part of +both boys and girls, under proper guidance, in order to find out what +the elements of construction should be, what dimensions were required, +and how the various parts should be put together. It was an experience +of great value to all, but especially to those boys who were looking +forward to architectural draughting as a possible vocation. They got +an inside view of the importance, on the one hand, of accurate working +drawings as a basis for good construction and, on the other hand, a +practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough knowledge of +constructive principles, in order to make correct working drawings. +They saw that the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted +with all the detailed processes employed by the carpenter or mason, +informed upon all the conditions to be met, and knowing the best ways +of meeting them. They gained impressions which should help them, in +studying the work of great architects, to look beyond the exterior, +however pleasing it may be, for those elements of strength and beauty +that characterize all good workmanship. + +[Illustration: All the Rough Carpentry Was Assigned to Boys of the +Woodworking Section of the Vocational School. Plate I] + +_How the Work Was Distributed._--It will be recalled that boys and +girls were to be coworkers in the designing, planning, and building +of the house. The boys were to be held responsible for the drawings, +the decorating after designs made by the girls, and the higher grades +of woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms and the making of +the furniture. They were to do the wiring for the electric lights, the +bells, and the interior telephones; and they were to install all the +fixtures in connection with this wiring. Boys from the metal-working +sections were to do the necessary piping for gas and water and some +of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating plumbing are +strict and well enforced, as they should be, it was necessary to keep +this most essential feature of the work under charge of licensed +plumbers. But this requirement did not remove even the plumbing of +the building from the field of public school work; for, fortunately, +this city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the trades school +department, under the direction of licensed plumbers of high standing, +who were glad to have given them, as an exercise for their classes, a +practical problem in house plumbing. The boys in the forging classes +were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. Many +of the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed to be made +in the school forge shop. The girls designed and made rugs, curtains, +portières, and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving and +stencilling; and they contributed many decorative articles in clay, +copper, leather, and other materials. Thus every technical department +of the school was brought into service; for in the building of a house +there is to be found something to enlist the interest of every boy and +girl. + +[Illustration: The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical High +School Were Not Overlooked in the Distribution of the Work on the +House. Plate II] + +_Boy Foremen in Charge._--To bring about the right distribution of +the work and to marshal the working forces effectually required the +oversight and management of an experienced instructor. But much of the +work of direction was delegated to competent boys. The preliminary +tool work in the school shops had revealed those who were especially +observant and capable as leaders, and those who worked best under +specific directions. Thus the twenty boys of the vocational school who +set the posts and framed the house worked sometimes in pairs--one +being the chief foreman and the other the helper--sometimes in gangs +of three or four under a foreman. The plan was varied according to the +nature of the work in hand. When leaders of more technical knowledge +and skill were needed, as was the case in setting the window frames and +directing the shingling, capable boys from the technical high school +were placed in charge of groups of younger boys from the vocational +school. In this way the work was advanced in several directions at the +same time; and the advantage was not all in the advancement of the +house construction. It was a delightful and profitable experience for +all the boys, not unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat +when school days are over and they take their place in the more serious +affairs of life. In after years they may look back upon the first +house that they helped to build and recall the part they took, their +companions in the work, and the good time they had withal. + + +SOME DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION + +_Setting Batter Boards, Posts, and Sills._--The first step in actual +construction was to mark off the lot and set the batter boards. These +were made by driving three stakes to form a right angle about four +feet from the point where each of the four main corners of the house +was to be located. Two rough boards, one for each side of each angle, +were nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes, with their +upper edges all brought to the same level. It is very important to set +these batter boards with accuracy, since their function is to carry the +lines which mark the dimensions and level of the ground floor. In the +present instance their first use was to locate the concrete posts on +which the sills of the house were to rest. Twenty-two of these posts, +which were 4 feet long and 8 inches square, were put in position by +first setting moulds or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were +those of the posts, 3 feet deep in the light soil and filling them with +a mixture of concrete and crushed rock. It was not thought necessary +to remove the moulds after the hardening of the concrete. In fact, the +sills were framed and placed in position resting on these boxes before +sufficient time had been given for the concrete to harden. The sides of +the boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that they could be +easily broken off just below the ground, exposing the projecting ends +of the concrete posts for about one foot. The sills were of 6 by 8-inch +first quality spruce. They were set on the 6-inch face, the two long +sills being spliced over posts, using a long halved joint. Mortise +and tenon joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the corners. The +floor timbers of 2 by 8-inch spruce were gained into the sills with +the top faces flush with the top of the sill and crowning (_i. e._, +bending) upward if at all. The spacing of the floor timbers was taken +off at the sill on a strip of furring--spruce, 7/8 of an inch thick +by 2 inches wide--which was moved out to the centre near the line of +bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked timbers into line. The +bridging was then nailed in, the outside last to prevent springing the +sills. + +[Illustration: Plan A. Framing details] + +Referring to the accompanying sketch (Plan A) it will be noticed that +the corner posts and centres were not mortised into the sills, but were +simply butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. There was a time when +carpenters would have regarded such a method as altogether wrong; but +those were the days of great corner posts and heavy studding, placed +two or three times as far apart as is the practice now. It was thought +that placing the studs 16 inches on centres, which is the common +practice in modern house framing, removed the necessity of mortising +into the sill. Mortising is still recognized, however, as a good thing +to do and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters. Plan A +also shows how the outside walls were trussed over openings; and Plan B +shows how the corners of the building were tied by the lapping of the +double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters were placed on +the top of the plate. + + +[Illustration: Plan B. Details of cornice, sill, and roof + + A SHINGLES + B ROOF BOARDS + C RAFTER 2" × 6" 20" O.C. + D PLATE 4" × 4" + E ROUGH BOARDING + F STUD + G FRIEZE + H CROWN MOLD + I BED MOLD + J CEILING JOIST 2" × 6" + K GROUND + L LATH & PLASTER + M BASE + N FINISHED FLOOR + O LINING FLOOR + P FURRING + Q SILL + R CONCRETE POST 8" × 8" + S CORNER POST + T HIP RAFTER 3" × 8" + U FLOOR JOIST +] + +The window frame details are shown in a series of cuts (Plan C) which +for the sake of completeness are drawn to show also the interior +finish, not usually represented in the framing drawings. A detailed +description of these features of construction is unnecessary, since +the dimensions and relations of the various elements and the technical +terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated in the +illustrations. + +[Illustration: Plan C. Details of interior finish + + A OUTSIDE CASING I HEADER Q SURBASE + B BACK BAND J CORNER BLOCK R SILL 1-3/4" TH'K + C HEAD K ROUGH BOARDING S INSIDE CASING + D STOP 1/2" THICK L SHINGLES T SOFFIT + E SASH 1-3/8" ditto M WEIGHT U BED MOLD + F LATH & PLASTER N PULLEY STYLE V FINISHED FLOOR + G GROUND 3/4" TH'K O PARTING STRIP W BASE + H STUD 2" × 4" P STOOL CAP X LINING FLOOR +] + +In the same series of cuts a detail of the base is shown which includes +the framing, the base board, and the lath and plaster. It should be +stated, however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was recommended +to the student architects--a new product in paper board especially +designed for walls and ceilings, which it was decided to use. The use +of this material removed the necessity of the "grounds" shown in the +drawings and always needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when +the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered. In the detail of the +dado cap, which will be found on the page of construction drawings, +the dotted lines show how the cap was to be expanded into a plate rail, +requiring the addition of brackets with a bed moulding between, in the +finishing of the walls of the dining-room. Among these drawings will +also be found a detail showing a section of the beamed ceiling finish. + +It will be readily understood that none of the finishing work called +for in the detailed drawings was begun until the rough carpentry on the +house was practically completed. All the rough work, which included +framing, boarding, shingling, laying of the lining floors, and putting +up partitions, was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections of the +vocational school. This is an elementary industrial or trade school, +admitting from the grades below the high school boys who have attained +the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some mechanical trade. +It represents a new and promising experiment in American education. +The building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity for the +boys of this school to show the honesty of their purpose in enrolling +themselves to learn the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their +right to have the chance. + +So the house was built by the combined efforts of the boys and +girls of the public schools of this New England city, unassisted by +professional architects or paid labourers. How they carried out with +their own hands the designs for decorating and furnishing the house is +told in the succeeding chapters of this book, which also suggests wider +applications of the principles of household decoration as possible to +be made in the homes of clever boys and girls throughout the country. +To carry out these suggestions will mean work--but work of a kind that +gives pleasure to the worker and to many others. It was work for the +young designers and builders of whom this story tells, but they said +it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure quite equal to +that found in doing with one's own hands an exceptionally good thing. +The true craftsmen of all time have found it so. One of these master +workmen, Stradivarius, the violin maker, so George Eliot tells us, made +his confession thus: + + " ... God be praised! + Antonio Stradivari has an eye + That winces at false work and loves the true, + With hand and arm that play upon the tool, + As willingly as any singing bird + Sets him to sing his morning roundelay, + Because he likes to sing and likes the song." + + + + +II + +DECORATIONS AND FURNITURE + + Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or + believe to be beautiful--_William Morris_ + + +The decorating and furnishing of a house have their true beginning +in good architectural design. It is a mistake to proceed upon the +theory that decoration necessarily implies something added for its +own sake--something beautiful in itself but selected and applied +without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of the room in which +it is to be placed and without considering the relation of this room +to neighbouring rooms and to more remote surroundings. The truth is, +a decorative object may or may not be intrinsically beautiful; but +however beautiful it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in +an appropriate setting. And the decorator who is actuated by the true +spirit looks to the architect for inspiration and finds his greatest +successes in acknowledging that leadership. To attempt to lead when +one should follow is neither good art nor good sense. + +There is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be taken too seriously. +It would also be a mistake to run to the other extreme and adopt at +the outset a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified like +contract work to be carried out and completed on a certain date soon +after the house is built. The problem is one of growing interest, +especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the smaller objects of +use or beauty, and for its best and happiest solution requires time +and study. Only the broad and fundamental features can be settled in +advance. The important thing is to have the main lines, dimensions, +space relations, and colour schemes settled with due regard to utility +and appropriateness and, as the work of construction proceeds, to keep +all details in harmony with this general plan. + + +THE FLOORS, THE WALLS, AND THE CEILINGS + +_Colour Harmony in the Model House._--It will be remembered that +the colour scheme of the hall, living room, and dining-room of our +model house was settled quite early in the development of the design. +Standing near the centre of the living room and looking through the +hall into the dining-room, one may see at a glance how some of the +details of decoration were worked out in keeping with the general +treatment. The walnut brown stain of the floors gives a good foundation +of colour. It flows easily into the lighter browns and yellows of all +the lower wall spaces. The suggestion of olive green in the frieze of +the living room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing browns +and harmonizes well with the woodwork of this room, which, it will be +remembered, was designed to be finished in gum wood. This beautiful +wood, when properly treated, presents a surface of satin-like texture +and soft colour tone. In the dining-room a corner of which is shown +in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of colour where it is +needed and is in keeping with the fumed oak trim. The wide openings +into the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together with the +long, unbroken lines of the beamed ceilings, give the impression of +generous width. The plain wall spaces, though varied in tone and +relieved of monotonous spacings by the location of the necessary doors +and windows, are of great assistance in increasing the apparent size of +the room. Plain walls are also the best of backgrounds for pictures. +_Redecorating Old Houses._--It is, of course, true that the decorating +and furnishing of a house or an apartment cannot always have a new +and original architectural design as the basis for the solution of +the problems involved. As a matter of fact, in the great majority of +cases, the houses in which homes are made are already built and have +been previously occupied. Often they are very old houses, presenting +difficult and even impossible tasks for the decorator. Sometimes, +however, such houses are all the more desirable if they bear the marks +of age that suggest a past of dignity and charm. But the spirit which +inspires the artist in decorating and furnishing a house already built +is the same as that which controls his thought when he can begin with +the foundation of a new and original design. His first thought is to +discover how beauty may be enhanced and at the same time unity of +purpose and harmony of treatment be preserved. His constant care is to +avoid incongruous elements, however beautiful they may be in themselves +or however appropriate in other houses. His general aim is to use his +art to develop the design as it is, if there be any design at all, and +make the most of it. + +_Decoration as a Corrective._--But this does not prevent him from +attempting to counteract the blunders of faulty design and bad +architecture. Such correction, indeed, forms a large part of the work +of decorators and furnishers, both professional and amateur. If the +lines and space divisions of a room be not good, the decoration must +be planned with a view to giving the needed harmony of proportions, +or at least the appearance of it. If the ceiling be too high, it may +be made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling paper or tinting one +or two feet down the walls of the room to meet the picture moulding. +The effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high base board or by +wainscoting. If the ceiling be too low, the depressing effect may be +largely overcome by extending the picture moulding along the top of the +wall spaces close to the ceiling. This is a desirable thing to do in +the living rooms of most modern houses. Striped wall papers of proper +tones may be used in low rooms with good effect in increasing their +apparent height. Bad wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging +door-ways, substituting portières for the doors, and by arranging +the drapery over windows to give the effect either of increasing or +of diminishing their height, as the conditions may require. _Wall +Papers._--Probably no element of decoration furnishes so many pitfalls +to ensnare the unwary as wall papers do. It is easy to fall a victim +to a captivating design as it appears in the few square feet of wall +paper displayed on the dealer's rack. The same interesting figure, +spread out in endless repetition on the four walls of the living room, +may create an atmosphere of unrest and positive discomfort keenly felt +by sensitive persons. A wise choice cannot be made in the absence of +all the conditions that should really determine it. After all, it is +not the paper which is beautiful in the roll that should be selected, +but only that which will become beautiful when hung upon the walls of +a certain room. Papers with large figures should be avoided unless +there is a special reason for using them. They always have the effect +of reducing the apparent size of everything associated with them. +They make a small room appear dwarfish and a large one over decorated +unless well relieved by plain spaces harmonizing in colour with the +large-figured patterns. Strong contrasts in colour values should also +be avoided, not only between the designs and the ground colour of the +wall paper itself, but also between the paper and other objects of +importance in the room. The principle of gradation in colour values, +which does not as a general thing allow the placing together of light +and dark shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony of colour +tones. + +_Nature of Decorative Design._--The one fact never to be lost sight +of by the decorator is the real nature of true decorative design. It +is never a picture. While it may suggest the natural forms of plants +or animals, it does not aim to represent them in a naturalistic way. +Some of the best decorative designs do not even suggest natural forms; +but, whether they do or not, the central idea is the repetition of good +combinations of line and form in closely related colours and values +on a flat surface. If natural forms are used, they should be more or +less highly conventionalized. Anything that destroys the idea of flat +surfaces in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration. In the +nature of the case, a wall can have but one plane. Clusters of flowers +or patterns of any kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or +back of it, are out of place and therefore offend the sense of fitness. +Such incongruities are sometimes so pronounced that they positively +shock the sensibilities of refined people. Extreme examples have been +known to give such pain to sensitive persons as to drive them from the +room. + +_Advantage of Plain Walls._--Decorative designs, however, are not +essential in wall papers. The main point in the treatment of walls is +to secure and preserve a good background. If one is in doubt as to +the kind of figure or pattern to be used, which is often a perplexing +question, it is well to leave them out altogether. Plain walls are +always good if the colour tone is right; for colour is the main thing +in wall decoration. The decorative effects of form may be brought out +in the portières and window draperies, which may easily carry more +elaborate patterns when associated with plain walls than is desirable +with figured wall decorations. In fact, with figured walls plain +portières and curtains are much to be preferred. In our model house, +as has been explained, the wall decorations were designed to offer a +plain background of colour. The figured borders of the portières and +curtains, combined with the careful gradation in the colouring of the +floors, wall spaces, and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this +background that nothing further was needed to avoid monotony. + +_Trial Needed in Doubtful Cases._--It is, indeed, a good rule to omit +whatever is unnecessary. To observe this rule wisely is to escape much +that is positively bad in decoration. Overwrought designs, too great +variety in decorative material, too many decorative objects, however +great their individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture, too +many interesting things in whatever direction one may turn, create an +oppressive and disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest which +it should always be the aim of home decoration to dispel. And yet it +may not always be best to set aside our treasures because they do not +seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of decoration or are not +apparently needed to complete it. It is, in fact, often very difficult +to determine where the line should be drawn between what is needed and +what is not needed. The fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a +final test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things that may be +introduced into a scheme of decoration already well thought out and be +given a trial. Such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected needs +or add a new charm that at once proves its right to be retained. + +To take a step like this, somewhat out of line with accepted rules +as strictly interpreted, is entirely safe if this step is dictated +by good taste and does not lead the young decorator too far afield. +Exceptional treatment of any kind should show proper restraint, and +such restraint, when it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in +itself an attractive feature. + +_Precise Rules not Always Practicable._--The truth is, the rules of +decoration, though founded upon fundamental principles of art, are not +rules of precision like those founded upon mathematical principles. +In the nature of the case they must in their application yield more +or less to circumstances. It is, for example, a good general rule +to determine the colour scheme and background first and accommodate +other decorative features to these as a foundation; and yet it is +possible for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify a complete +reversal of this rule. Here is a concrete case. A young artist was the +fortunate possessor of a considerable number of Japanese and Chinese +embroideries and other Oriental ornaments. He wished to make these the +main decorative materials for one of his rooms. The embroidered figures +were in yellow and white on a deep, strong blue, the general effect +being quite dark. There were in the collection several prints, showing +the typical dull reds, dark blues, and yellows of Japanese art. Now the +room itself happened to be one that, under the general principle of +colour schemes as determined by exposure and other fixed conditions, +would demand warm colours on its walls. It would easily support a rich +red frieze with appropriate combinations in floor, dado, and ceiling. +This would set off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture, +but it would rule out the Oriental decorations. One or the other must +give way; and, since the value of these decorative materials was beyond +question, it was decided to try them, even at the cost of setting aside +the general rule. The whole matter resolved itself into selecting a +proper background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries; and +for these the best colour was a gray blue--the coldest of colours. But +when the whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion and the +cold background was fully employed in setting off the rich colours and +exquisite workmanship of the Oriental prints and draperies, all the +circumstances that ordinarily determine the choice of backgrounds were +forgotten in the charm of originality. No one thought of the exposure +as requiring warm colours, the dark oak trim was not noticed, and the +mahogany furniture was still in keeping. The result was so absolutely +satisfying that no one who saw it could question the good taste +displayed in this very original plan of decoration. + +But such exceptional cases should not shake our confidence in the +fundamental principles of decoration. It is true that these principles +cannot be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably in all cases, +and it is unreasonable to assume that any form of treatment is the only +one possible in any given case. Modifications in the application of +these principles are always possible, but the principles themselves are +as unalterable as the Mosaic law. One is, indeed, tempted to summarize +them thus as the + + +TEN COMMANDMENTS OF DECORATION + + Thou shalt have no household gods except those that be beautiful + or those that be useful. + + Thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in the + heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the + earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in thine house. + + Thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great + masters of decorative art. + + Remember the colour scheme and keep a good background. + + Honour the original design, however old it may be, and make the + most of it. Thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of + faulty design and bad architecture. + + Thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with + over-decorated wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind. + + Thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor permit + insane arrangements of anything that is thine. + + Thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony of thy + decorations. + + Thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything that is + thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator to show + originality but at the same time to acknowledge his dependence + upon those who have preceded him. + + +THE FURNITURE + +_Relation of Furniture to Decoration._--So much for the treatment +of floors, walls, and ceilings. We may now turn to the more special +consideration of those objects of use or beauty that are to be +associated with these backgrounds--furniture, pictures, lamp shades, +and small ornaments. That these are closely related to decoration +has been implied in all that has been said. They are, in fact, in +themselves elements in the decorative scheme and as such must obey +the same laws. Their value, however, depends more or less upon their +utility, and for this reason they seem to require consideration +somewhat apart from their merely decorative functions. This is +especially true of furniture, which would have very little reason for +being if it were not for its usefulness. + +In designing the furniture for the model house the questions that +constantly suggested themselves were: What is this piece of furniture +under consideration to be used for? What form, construction, and finish +will enable it to give the best service? What features of design are +needed to render it suited to its surroundings? In considering the +furniture for the model house it was most natural to apply these tests +to the various rooms in order. + +[Illustration: A library desk in fumed oak] + +_Hall of the Model House._--First, there is the hall. This is the room +into which a visitor is first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets +his first impressions. But in this house it is a very small room and +designed to serve not merely as a place for the formalities of welcome +but also as an expansion of the rooms on either side. Its furniture +must consist largely of the fireplace. There is no room for a hall +settle nor even for a chair. A mirror, simply but richly framed, might +hang on the wall near the front door, balanced by a picture on the +opposite wall behind the door. An umbrella rack should stand outside on +the porch. + +[Illustration: A hall chair] + +[Illustration: A hall settle--simplicity, strength, dignity] + +_Hall Furniture in General._--The halls of modern houses vary greatly +in their relative importance. In some the traditions of the old English +manor houses seem partially to survive. In mediæval England the hall +was the principal room, if not the only one comfortably furnished. When +modern houses combine the living room and library or reception room +with the hall, there is need of something more than hall furniture +of the formal kind. The requirements of comfort must be met. But, +generally speaking, hall furniture is of little real use. Odd chairs, +attractive by reason of their oddity, the richness of the materials +used in their construction, or some other assertive quality, but not +fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable in the hall. The hat +and coat rack of our fathers has been declared insane and no longer +appears in well-regulated houses. In place of it is found the hall +settle, which is of real use. It should be designed on simple lines and +give the impression of strength and dignity. If the hall is to be used +as a waiting room for guests, a few good chairs, conveniently placed, +will be needed for their comfort and a choice picture or two on the +walls will add greatly to their pleasure. + +[Illustration: Two Morris chairs that invite to solid comfort] + +[Illustration: A satisfactory writing desk] + +_Living Room Furniture._--In furnishing living rooms there is bound to +be a wide range for the exercise of good taste because of the variety +of needs to be met and the large facilities afforded in the markets +for meeting these needs with due regard to artistic requirements. It +will be quite impossible to go into detail in discussing so large a +topic. The important thing is to keep in mind the central idea of a +living room--the place of all places where the freedom, comfort, and +protection of home life are to be enjoyed. The very atmosphere of +the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity, and good cheer. Every +article of furniture should be there to serve a genuine need, and it +should be strong enough to do its full duty. Spider-legged, top-heavy +tables; light, weak chairs; chairs on casters or rockers; sofas with +carved backs or couches with none at all,--these have no place in the +living room. The long, straight lines of the craftsman or mission +style of furniture are in the right direction; but if these be used at +all they must be made quite general, since few other styles harmonize +with them. Wicker or reed furniture is a notable exception. When well +designed it will fit in almost anywhere. + +[Illustration: An ample library table] + +[Illustration: A plain but useful magazine stand] + +The frequent combination of the library with the living room requires a +suitable adjustment of the furniture to this use. A plain, serviceable +magazine rack, which may be easily made, will relieve the tables of an +accumulation of weeklies and monthlies. Moderately low bookcases, with +or without doors, are to be preferred to the more ordinary high ones +because this form harmonizes better with the lines of a room, which are +generally longer horizontally than vertically. If doors are used, it +is well to break up the glare of the glass by heavy sash, the spacing +of which may be arranged in a very pleasing manner. Good design in +library tables calls for ample size. Firmness and convenience as well +as satisfactory proportions should control the choice of a writing desk. + +[Illustration: A low bookcase with sash doors] + +_Dining-room Furniture._ Only a few elements enter into the design for +the furnishing of a dining-room; but they are evident and should have a +controlling influence. The table and chairs are for a definite purpose +and this should show itself in good design. Heavy construction is +permissible since the chairs are to be moved but little and the table +is practically stationary. Moreover, weight and generous dimensions +are suggestive of bounty and good service. The rectangular extension +table is most readily adjusted to varied demands, but the round table +is preferable for the family circle; and for a company of twelve or +fifteen a large, round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary +extension table, has been found very attractive. + +[Illustration: A round dining table] + +[Illustration: A sideboard of good proportions. Convenient and generous +but not overdone] + +As comfort is the chief result to be obtained in furnishing a living +room, so richness, within one's means, is an appropriate aim in +furnishing a dining-room. The history of sideboard design might be +cited in proof of this statement, if proof were needed. Probably no +single article of furniture has been subjected to greater elaboration; +but the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience may be secured +without overdoing it. The unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an +interesting study for one who wishes to design and construct his own +in conformity with the architecture of his dining-room. The buffet or +serving table furnishes an equally interesting, though simpler, problem. + +[Illustration: A buffet of simple but effective design] + +For the care of the china, the built-in cabinet as a feature of +the architecture of the room is to be preferred to the movable +cabinet designed for this purpose, because of its richer decorative +possibilities. Large, glazed doors are desirable in either case, not +for the full display of china and glassware but to give a suggestive +glimpse of it. As this cabinet is for decoration and not for show, it +is well to avoid plain glass doors unbroken by sash. Leaded panes are +frequently employed with good effect. The decorative effect of old +and odd pieces of china--not too many of them--is most appropriately +employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is better to leave +the plate rail bare than to load it with commonplace crockery and +inappropriate ornaments. + +[Illustration: A china cabinet. A part of the finish of the room] + +_Chamber Furniture._--The bedroom speaks for itself. A dainty freshness +in all its appointments is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the +distinctive purpose of this room to provide. The necessary articles +of furniture are a bed, a dressing table, a bureau or chiffonier, a +few chairs, and, if there be no bath room attached, a commode or wash +stand. A couch is an appropriate addition; and here, if anywhere, +rocking chairs are allowable. When the bedroom must be used more or +less as a living room or sewing room, as it too often unfortunately +is, furniture to serve such uses must be provided. In selecting or +designing all this furniture, lightness, and simplicity of design, +combined with strength, should be allowed a controlling influence. +The recognition of this idea has given great popularity to the brass +or iron beds; but it is possible to design and construct beds of oak, +maple, or other woods that harmonize with the rest of the furniture, +carry out the idea of daintiness, and have sufficient strength for +service. + +[Illustration: Leaded panes] + +Many of these suggestions on furniture design are being carried out +in fitting up the model house described in our introductory chapter. +A small house like this, limited to one story, does not permit great +variety in its furnishings. Certain standard conditions, however, were +to be met here, as everywhere else, and the young designers found much +pleasure and great profit in working out the furniture problems. Some +of the construction details will be given in the later chapters. + +[Illustration: A Duxbury chair] + + +ARRANGEMENT OF THE FURNITURE + +_Arrangement Follows Selection._--The problem of furnishing a home is +not fully settled when the questions of design have been answered and +the right selections made. After selection comes arrangement, or, to +speak more accurately, after a certain amount of selection a certain +amount of arrangement; for, as has already been suggested, there is +considerable dependence of one upon the other. It is not wise to drop +the arrangement till the selection is complete, for the simple reason +that the happiest choices are often the late ones, determined by the +disposition of the earlier ones. And yet in the main the order as +stated is the true one. It should be noted, too, that in arrangement +there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality and taste. +While artistic principles still hold sway, they yield more readily to +exceptional interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household, to +the demands of style, and to the larger number of possibilities for +pleasing effects when the question is one of the arrangement of things +already well chosen for their usefulness and for their artistic value. + +[Illustration: A dainty bed in white maple] + +_Utility the Controlling Principle._--The problems of arrangement, +however, are by no means vague and uncertain. The natural law of +adaptation to purpose is not difficult to follow. In some rooms +obedience to it has become a settled custom. No one, for example, would +think of placing the dining table in any other place than the centre +of the dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the centre of one +end. The sideboard, serving table, and china closet likewise fall into +their natural places. So also the bedroom and the hall, though perhaps +to a less degree, present comparatively easy problems in furniture +arrangement when due regard is paid to the purposes for which such +rooms are designed. + +_Importance of Appropriateness._--But it is in the library and the +living room that we find the most difficult and at the same time the +most interesting problems. And this is due to the operation of the +same law of adaptation to purpose. It is the variety of uses and the +diversity of useful objects that make the problem somewhat complex. +However refined and beautiful the different units may be, there +must be some arrangement of them into working groups. The important +elements should dominate and those of lesser importance should fall +naturally into related but subordinate places. The easy corner with +its couch, pillows, and its low seats, has a definite function to +perform. So also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases and +library table, the Morris chairs and tabourettes, the window seats and +screens, the writing desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp, +the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort that may belong to +it. The various centres of interest should be accentuated by grouping +around them the most appropriate furnishings and the most suggestive +decorative features. It may be well to add one word of caution, and +that is that a proper balance should be maintained between the various +centres of arrangement in order that no part of the room may seem +neglected and bare. + +_The Danger of Overcrowding._--Finally, the one great danger to +be avoided in meeting the requirements of good arrangement is the +temptation to overcrowding. Many otherwise excellently appointed living +rooms suffer from an embarrassment of riches. Such overcrowded rooms +are worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot topple over and +sink as one might well wish them to. To secure the right things and +just enough of them, arranged with a proper balance between utility +and beauty, is the true aim. It is as true to-day as it ever was in +the arrangement and beautifying of the home, and, for that matter, in +everything that concerns every-day life--just as true as it was in +ancient times when men wrote those famous inscriptions over the doors +of the temple at Delphi: over one, KNOW THYSELF, and over the other, +THE GOLDEN MEAN OF NOT TOO MUCH. + + + + +III + +PICTURES + + I now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me, + not that they dazzle me. Pictures must not be too picturesque. + Nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing. + All great actions have been simple, and all great pictures + are.--_Ralph Waldo Emerson_ + + +The decoration of a room is generally not complete without pictures. +There is, of course, great value in good pictures entirely aside +from their decorative effect; and too great care cannot be exercised +in their selection. But our present purpose is to consider them as +decorative features; for, though a decoration is not a picture, +pictures themselves are properly regarded as important elements in the +general scheme of decoration. And this is especially true as regards +matting and framing, the distribution of pictures upon the wall spaces, +and the method of hanging them. + +_Importance of Space Relations._--A picture mat and frame are simply +elements of finish, and their function is to give the picture a certain +individuality and yet connect it harmoniously with the space in which +it hangs. In fact, the wall space is a part of the framing of the +picture. The importance of giving some study to the relations of all +the spaces involved is evident. The mat and the frame should not be of +equal width. Here is a fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing. +No definite rules can be given; sometimes the one, sometimes the other +should give way. Generally speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical +pictures, and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal pictures. +But variation from this rule is possible and even necessary through the +grouping of several pictures. In grouping, however, there is danger +of being tempted to allow too many pictures. In the houses of the +well-to-do, and even in the homes of those of moderate means, too many +pictures, rather than too few, are often found. The example of one New +England home, known to the author, may be mentioned. The house is new, +of generous proportions, and it is the home of an artist. There are +few pictures on the walls, but they are distributed with rare artistic +effect. There are many good pictures stored in the attic because there +is no suitable space in which to hang them. + +_The Japanese Way._--The Japanese have taught us many valuable lessons +in art, and in the matter of the number of pictures to be displayed +they have a very interesting lesson to teach. It is their practice +to hang a single choice picture for a season in a space where it may +be best enjoyed, and then after a time to replace it with another +picture, and this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit. There +are many conditions that determine the selection of the picture to +be displayed. It may be the preference of a guest, or it may be the +season of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give a certain +picture special significance. There is, in this singular custom, a very +definite service which the picture is made to perform, and it is given +an individuality which perhaps has no parallel in our own practice. + +_Grouping of Small, Simple Pictures._--If a considerable number of +pictures are grouped together, it is quite essential that all the +pictures of the group should be of similar character and tone and +similarly framed. It is hardly possible for them to be all of the same +size, nor, indeed, is such agreement desirable except in so far as is +required to give proper balance to the group. Small pictures in light +frames are, of course, the most desirable for such grouping, and if +possible there should be an evident reason for the grouping. A series +of photographs of a certain locality, for example, might form a group +of four or five or even more pictures so that they could be easily seen +together and so more thoroughly enjoyed. A collection of photographs +in passe-partout bindings, especially if they deal with subjects in +any way related, may form an attractive group. But pictures of any +considerable size or those having decided individuality are generally +not suited to any plan of grouping. They should appear by themselves, +in frames and other surroundings which accentuate their peculiar merits. + +_The Kind of Frame._--The material of the frame, its colour, and the +colour of the mat are determined by the tone of the picture. Oil +paintings easily support gilt frames and should be hung in good light. +Pictures of light values with white mats are well finished in narrow +gilt frames. Carbon photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are +appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium colour, and appear +best when hung against a dark wall. The truth of these statements +will hardly be questioned by any one who has a good sense of colour +harmony. But there are many other elements that enter into a concrete +problem of picture framing that cannot be brought under general rules +or formulas. It is generally best to depend largely upon the tests +of trial. In framing and hanging pictures, as in many other things, +observation and experience are the best teachers. Some suggestions may +be found in the following record of two actual framing problems that +were satisfactorily solved. + + +FRAMING AN OLD-TIME INTERIOR, DRAWN IN COLOURS + +The conditions which had to be met in this problem are plainly shown +in the framed picture as it hangs on the wall. The picture itself is a +small one, 8 inches wide and 13 inches long. It is interesting because +of its representation of a sewing room in one of the high-class homes +of the colonial period. The mistress and her two young daughters are +engaged in sewing and embroidery. Patterns are displayed upon the wall; +the furniture is appropriate and evidently an example of the best of +the period. All these details are suggestive of the delightful home +life of our grandmothers. + +Such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and to properly emphasize +its details; and it requires a simple, narrow frame. The mat was +accordingly made 2-1/2 inches wide and the frame 1 inch wide. The tone +of the mat selected was a light bluish gray, forming a good connecting +link between the bright colours of the picture and the gray of the wall +against which it was to be placed. Since it was to hang directly over +a fine old mahogany table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a +mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown in the picture with +that of the room. + +The frame was made with mitred corners of perfectly plain, square-edged +birch, which readily takes a mahogany finish. The stain was first +applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to dry. A surfacing coat +of shellac, coloured to match the stain, was next put on, allowed to +dry, and then carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to +guard against rounding the edges and corners. A coat of varnish was +next applied, which, after hardening for one week, was rubbed first +with pumice stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil. +A final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put on, which was +lightly rubbed with rotten stone and water to give the half dull effect +required to match the antique mahogany table. + + +FRAMING A CARBON PHOTOGRAPH OF A MASTERPIECE + +The picture is a copy in sepia tones of Murillo's Saint Anthony, 16 +inches in height by 20 inches horizontally. The frame is made of +quartered oak 3 inches wide, slightly convex but smooth; and it is +well joined with mitred corners. A picture of this character needs +no mat. Indeed, it would have been the height of presumption to +strive to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic meaning +and treatment. It must be left to itself as much as possible. The +dimensions of the frame are therefore determined by the size of the +picture itself. + +The picture hangs against a light gray wall in good light, somewhat +apart from other pictures. It was a happy thought thus to recognize its +dignity. It was given further distinction by finishing the oak frame +so that it should not associate itself with the other woodwork in the +room. Since the room in which the picture was to hang has a light ash +trim and most of the furniture a mahogany finish, this requirement was +easily met. + +But there are many ways of finishing a frame to avoid too close +association with the commonplace that would have been anything but +appropriate to such a picture as this. A gilt surface, a silver-gray +tone, or a highly polished golden oak are possible blunders. Nothing +should be done to call attention to the frame of any picture, least +of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one. The frame should +seem to be a part of the picture, repeating its prevailing tones with +a richness in keeping with the composition of the picture itself. The +colour should be a rich, dark brown, but not so dark as to obscure the +figure of the wood. The finish should be dull, but soft and smooth. + +There are several brown stains which, properly applied, would give +the desired effect. For the colour it was thought best to rely upon +Van Dyke brown, which may be used either with alcohol or turpentine. +It is not desirable to use a water stain in a case like this because +it would raise the grain, necessitating sand-papering, which should +be avoided as much as possible on picture frames in order to keep the +edges and corners intact. Ammonia fuming preserves the figure of the +wood better than any other form of staining, but it was thought that +the oak might not take on a tone dark enough to meet the requirements. +It was decided, however, to try the fuming method and to tone up with +a thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not sufficiently dark. +The ammonia process resulted in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour +too light. A thin Van Dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore applied +and when dry this was followed by a very thin coat of shellac--mostly +alcohol--coloured to match the stain. This was to fill partially the +grain of the wood. Finally, it was thoroughly coated with wax finish +and well rubbed to restore the soft, satin-like surface. + +[Illustration: A group of passe-partouts] + + +PASSE-PARTOUTS + +Framing pictures in passe-partout binding is one of the little +arts of home decoration, though it is by no means an unimportant +one. It is easy to learn and it involves small expense in time and +money, but it furnishes a means of preserving many pictures of real +worth in themselves or of value to their owners because of pleasant +associations; and it is in itself a delightful occupation. It offers +the same chances for artistic effects in colour harmony and contrasts, +in spacing, and in the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult +methods of framing do, with the added advantage that one need not be +deterred by the question of expense from discarding an unsuccessful +result and trying again. + +_Varieties of Binding._--Passe-partout binding is made in a great +variety of colours. It costs from ten to twenty cents per roll of +twelve yards, according to colour and quality, and it may be purchased +of dealers in artists' supplies. For general use the ordinary width +of binding--7/8 of an inch--is required; but extra narrow widths are +supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a contrasting colour. +For these margins the gold and silver narrow bindings are, with certain +pictures, very effective; but white and other light colours are often +used for this purpose. + +_Artistic Colour Effects._--The choice of the colour for the principal +binding should be controlled mainly by the tone of the picture, with +which, as a general thing, it should blend. If no mat be used, more +or less of a contrast in colour between the picture and the binding +is permissible; but the most artistic effects are obtained when mats +are used. These should, of course, be in harmony with the colour +tones and general character of the picture. It may be a harmony of +agreement if there is a border of light tone between the picture and +the mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing. Without such a +border it will be necessary to show a pleasing contrast of tone. But +in almost all cases when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat +the predominant colour or some other prominent characteristic of the +picture. For example, if it be a picture of an English hunting scene +with mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be of a light greenish +hue and the binding red. If it be a landscape photograph in sepia +tones, a white or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown binding +is a good combination. A Scotch scene is appropriately framed in a +plaid binding. In this case it is the subject of the picture rather +than the colour that suggests the binding. But in all cases opportunity +is offered for carefully selecting the colour combinations, planning +the spacing, and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character. +Thus one of the simplest of decorative processes presents large +artistic possibilities. + +_An Actual Problem._--The various steps in the process of framing +a picture in passe-partout binding may perhaps be best understood +by giving an example of it. The actual problem is to frame a +silhouette--an original drawing in black India ink on light gray paper, +8 by 10 inches in size, with the longer dimension vertical. + +_Materials and Tools._--The materials and tools required are as +follows: A piece of glass the size of the picture (8 by 10 inches), +since no border is needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may be +cut from an old box cover, the same size as the glass; a generous yard +of black passe-partout binding; two passe-partout rings, which cost +five cents per dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife or a +pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed nail. + +_The Process._--With these materials in hand it will require scarcely +more than twenty minutes to complete the work. The first step is the +setting of the rings. This is accomplished by punching two small holes +in one of the pieces of pasteboard two inches from the edge chosen +for the top and about one inch from each side. Through these holes +the points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close to the +pasteboard. Bending the points over in opposite directions fastens +the ring firmly. This is a comparatively large picture. Had it been +small--say 4 by 5 inches or smaller--only one ring in the centre, +fastened about 1-1/2 inches from the edge, would have been needed. + +The picture is now mounted on the second piece of pasteboard by +fastening it at the upper corners with a little paste. It is desirable +to use as little paste as possible. The two pieces of pasteboard are +then brought together, care being taken that the rings are on the +outside, and the glass laid over the picture. These parts are now +ready to be bound together. The sides are bound first. This is done +by cutting two pieces of the binding 1/4 of an inch longer than the +short edges of the picture, wetting the gummed side and laying it +along the edge of the glass so that it will lap 1/4 of an inch over +the face of the glass. Each end of this binding will extend 1/8 of +an inch beyond the glass. The rest of the binding is now folded over +upon the pasteboard back, taking pains to draw it down close to the +edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is permanently fastened. +The 1/8 of an inch that projects at each end is then folded over the +corner and pressed down as close as possible to the edge of the glass +and pasteboard. The upper and lower edges are bound in the same way, +excepting that the pieces of binding are first cut the same length +as the edges over which they are to be pasted, and, before they are +pasted on, the two corners on the side to be pasted to the glass are +cut off 1/4 of an inch back at an angle of 45 degrees, and the other +corners are also trimmed back to about 1/8 of an inch. The accompanying +drawing shows more clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. The +purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are pasted over the top +and bottom edges of the glass, it is seen that they have been cut to +give the appearance of mitred corners, and that when folded over the +edges upon the back of the pasteboard no rough edges of binding are +left exposed at the corners. + +[Illustration: How the binding strips are trimmed] + +One of the lessons of experience in this work is that it is well to +take great pains in centring the binding strips accurately before +pasting them on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made to +correct a mistake by removing the binding and pasting it on again. +The more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats, borders, and double +bindings, are scarcely more difficult than the simple example just +described, though they will require more time. It is well to begin +with the easier problems. When borders and double bindings are used +the narrow passe-partout strips are pasted on first, with proper care +to cut the mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately before +pasting them down upon the glass. The edges are bound last. This partly +covers the brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along the edge of +the glass, and leaves a narrow line of colour exposed as a border just +inside the binding. + + +HANGING PICTURES + +[Illustration: A correct method of hanging pictures] + +_How to Hang Pictures._--If wire be used for hanging pictures, it +should be as small and inconspicuous as possible. In place of the +braided steel wire, which may be needed for large pictures, a single +brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for those of lighter +weight. In all cases where the wire shows it should appear as two +vertical lines against the wall and not as a single wire bent over +a single hook in the form of an inverted V, so commonly seen and so +manifestly failing to conform with any lines of a room. Levelling +the picture may be easily managed by using only one wire, making it +continuous through the screw eyes on the back of the picture. These +screw eyes should be placed near the top of the frame--about one +sixth the whole vertical width of the picture from the top--so that +the picture may hang nearly flat against the wall. Whenever possible, +however, pictures should be hung without showing the wire at all. This +may be easily managed without seriously marring the finish of some +rooms by driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower wall +which is to come directly behind the top of the picture, allowing them +to project about 1/2 of an inch and bending them up a little with +a pair of pliers so that the wires will not slip off. Choice, small +pictures may be hung in this way on fine upholstery tacks. It is often +possible, when the wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado +cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze. Whenever it is +necessary, as it often is, to suspend wires by means of the so-called +picture hooks from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above the +frieze, some attention should be paid to the colour of these hooks. +Bright metal hooks showing over a delicately coloured moulding are in +bad taste. Some people prefer to use the inverted V suspension in order +to reduce the number of these picture hooks. But it is far better to +retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible wires and colour the +hooks to make them less conspicuous. + +In determining the height of pictures it is only necessary to remember +that they are placed upon the walls to be enjoyed. While monotony +in height is to be avoided, the average eye level should not be +disregarded. The frontispiece illustrates an effective placing of a +picture in the dining-room of the model house. + + + + +IV + +THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS + + "I know not which I love the most, + Nor which the comeliest shows; + The timid, bashful violet, + Or the royal-hearted rose; + + "The pansy in her purple dress, + The pink with cheek of red, + Or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs, + Like a bashful maid, her head." + + --_Phoebe Cary_ + + +Formerly when the furniture, pictures, and draperies had been +arranged in our rooms, with perhaps a few pieces of bric-à-brac, we +considered their decoration quite complete. But we have learned how +much cheerfulness a few simple flowers, properly arranged, impart to +the same rooms; and so flowers have come to be considered as almost +essential to the complete decoration of the home. + +_A Lesson From the Japanese._--If we have learned much from the +Japanese in regard to the arrangement and hanging of pictures, from +them we have learned more about the artistic arrangement of flowers. +They have taught us to value the stem and leaves of the flower as +essential to an artistic arrangement, that flowers of the same kind +should be grouped together, and that harmony and blending of colour are +necessary to secure the most artistic effects. + +_Flowers of a Kind Grouped Together._--We may have been in the habit +of putting several different kinds of flowers together and of being +satisfied with such a composition; but the Japanese would tell us that +when several different kinds of flowers are combined in one grouping +the full beauty of each is lost; and after a few experiments we shall +come to see the truth of this. Here is an illustration: At a summer +camp with which I am familiar it was the daily duty of one of the +younger boys to go for the wild flowers we used for keeping the camp +gay. He often brought home snug little bunches of the flower of the +wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be used together. No pleasing +arrangement could be made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring +long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and gather branches of the +rose, especially those with the buds. The convolvulus we arranged in a +flat dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the vine hang over +the mantel, and he quickly saw that it "looked prettier--more as though +it were growing." When a few of the stalks of the wild rose were +arranged by themselves in a green glass vase he pronounced them much +"prettier than when mixed up with other flowers." + +_The Way of the Garden._--In our gardens we plant the sunshiny +daffodils by themselves, the sweet peas grow in a mass together, and +we have beds of roses. If we follow the same plan in the arrangement +of our flowers indoors we shall realize their decorative qualities to +the utmost. So we may consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging +flowers,--to use only one kind of flower, with its stems and leaves, +arranging them loosely, rather than to have many in a compact grouping. +One single, long-stemmed rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall, +slender glass is more decorative and gives us more pleasure than a +dozen roses stripped of their foliage and crowded into a small vase. + +_Exceptions._--While the above rule should be generally followed, there +are exceptional instances of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of +flowers of two or more kinds together. Among these we may mention the +combining of field daisies and buttercups, or buttercups with the +grasses among which they grow. So, too, the lacy flower of the wild +carrot may sometimes be effectively combined with some other flower. +The spikes of the cardinal flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour, +but very stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a few +sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and makes it more pleasing. + + +COLOUR ARRANGEMENT + +We have just considered the grouping of flowers by themselves. There is +another element to be considered before we can have artistic results, +and that is arrangement as to colour. + +_Colour Grouping._--We may not all be sensitive to colour ourselves, +but in arranging flowers we should always keep in mind the pleasure +that is to be given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour +grouping that will offend those whose colour sense is keen. There are +three colour schemes that can be followed with success and satisfaction +to all. In one we group together only flowers of the same colour, as +red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris, not red, pink, and white +roses, nor all of the various colours of sweet pea. + +Another arrangement calls for shades and tints of the same colour. With +many flowers it is possible to get exquisite effects by following this +scheme. For instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender to deep +purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of damp moss. Sweet peas +have beautiful shades of pink that can be combined, as well as shades +of red and of lavender. Nasturtiums are never so effective as when +the various shades of yellow, orange and brown are used together. The +garden aster of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure in +colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and purples, a variety of pink +tones, beautiful reds, and perfect white ones. + +And the white ones! What shall we do with these? Three or four pure +white asters of the same variety may be used together; or two or three +white ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or pink ones. White +may be combined with any colour with good results. Nature is a good +teacher here for she gives us both the coloured and the white in almost +every variety of flower. For example there are crimson cosmos and white +cosmos, scarlet geraniums and white geraniums, blue violets and white +violets, and so on through a great many varieties. + +_Combination of Complementary Colours._--Another colour grouping +that is sometimes desirable makes use of the complementary colours. +The salpiglossis, a garden flower that ought to be better known than +it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and orange-yellow +flowers that are so effective together. The iris also has flowers of +complementary colours, yellow and violet blue being common among them. + + +THE FLOWER HOLDERS + +_A Flower Composition as a Picture._--Having learned something +about the artistic use of colour, we come to the consideration of +the arrangement of the flowers, and this includes the vase or other +receptacle used for holding them. An artistic flower composition is +a picture; and as the mat and frame give finish to a picture hanging +on the wall, so the vessel holding flowers should give the required +finish to the flower picture. Like the frame, it should be simple in +design, have graceful lines, and serve only as a medium to set off the +flowers to the best advantage. There should be as little decoration as +possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used they must blend or +harmonize with the colour schemes of the flowers placed in them. + +_Receptacles for Flowers._--It often is a problem to find the most +fitting thing for holding flowers; but in the reliable Japanese shops +one can always find some simple holders, and there are very good +designs in the clear and in the green glass that are inexpensive and +appropriate. As a rule the less expensive the article the better +adapted it is as a suitable holder for flowers. One need never mourn +that she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they and their +cheap imitations are among the most unsuitable of holders. + +_Four Typical Flower Holders._--Let us suppose our equipment includes +four simple receptacles,--a small, clear glass fish globe such as may +be had for twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve inches +in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring a little at the top, +costing twenty-five cents; a large cylindrical Japanese jar of a pale +green tint, eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar and +a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight inches in height, which +may be bought for sixty or seventy cents. + +The fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums and their leaves are +loosely arranged in it. The stems show through the water and glass +and form a part of the composition. Short stemmed roses may be most +artistically grouped in it. I have seen a very charming combination +of mignonette and bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as +a harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the various shades of +California poppies and their foliage. + +[Illustration: A fish globe with daisies] + +The tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed roses: and a few +yellow daffodils or the narcissus with their leaves look equally well +in it. Poppies for a day, in the same vase, have given pleasure to +the beholder. At Easter it has joyously borne a stalk of two perfect +lilies, and in the autumn tall spikes of salvia have been equally at +home in it. + +Our tall Japanese jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need +to remember that in tall or vertical compositions the vase should be +about one third the height of the whole combination; so this is adapted +to holding branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if one +is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about three branches +from these are effective in it. Tall-growing golden-rod looks equally +well placed here. It furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and +chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions has been +two or three branches of pine bearing their brown cones. + +The possibilities of the smaller green jar are numerous, and only +a few are given as suggestions. A loose arrangement of jonquils and +their leaves, or of white narcissus, is effective. The shorter stemmed +lilacs, either the purple ones or the white ones, may be placed in +it. An arrangement of white field daisies, and one of yellow roses, +have been found equally successful. One soon discovers the harmony and +balance that exist between the flower and holder. + +[Illustration: A tall vase with narcissus] + + +THE BACKGROUND + +_Space and Harmonious Surroundings._--To obtain the largest decorative +effect we must have not only artistic grouping and harmonious setting +of flowers, but space and background, just as are needed for the +hanging of pictures. Many a floral composition has lost all decorative +effect from being placed in too small a space and surrounded by +distracting objects. A few days ago I stepped into a room on an errand +and forgot my errand in the pleasure I derived from seeing some +beautiful yellow chrysanthemums, three or four, I think, in a yellowish +brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for a background the +upturned leaf of the table. It stood some little distance from anything +else, a shaft of sunlight lay across the whole, and as I looked at it +I thought: Here is all that constitutes a decorative arrangement of +flowers. It was the feature of the room that held one's attention. + +[Illustration: An arrangement for the tall Japanese jar] + +_Flowers for the Dining Table._--If we can have flowers in but one +room in the house, it may be difficult to decide which one it shall +be. Since it often happens that the dining-room is the only room where +a busy family comes together for any length of time, flowers should +certainly be introduced here that all may share their beauty and cheer. +Any arrangement for the home table should be moderately low; and there +are many simple flowers that can be used in this way to advantage. For +instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence or common bluet +(root and all), to be found in any field in the spring, and put them in +a shallow glass dish. Simple and effective decoration for the table is +the result. Flowers with any degree of fragrance should never be used +in the dining-room. The fragrance of some flowers is offensive to many +people, and when combined with the odour of food doubly so. + +[Illustration: An arrangement of roses in a small jar] + +At a luncheon served by the girls in the model house the floral +decoration for the table was a half dozen single, yellow jonquils +with their foliage, placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the +girls. Their dishes being in white with a gold edge and the walls and +furniture in browns, nothing could have been more harmonious than these +few simple flowers. + +_Expensive Flowers not Necessary._--It is evident that for floral +decoration neither expensive nor lavish displays are necessary, that +simplicity is the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of wild +flowers in their season are more truly artistic than many expensive +hot-house flowers. In this country we do not, as the Japanese do, make +a festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we rightly appreciate +and utilize the flowers of each season, we may give a touch of +festivity to the life of every day. + +In the early spring nothing can be more appropriate than an arrangement +of pussy willows or branches of the alder with its tassels, while the +red maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that will brighten +any room. A clump of blood root in a small jardiniere is as decorative +as the expensive plants one may see in the home of some friend. The +flowers of the field and the garden offer so many possibilities for +decorative results that no one's home need lack the cheery touch which +they can give. + +There is a personal element in flowers such as is not found in any +other means of decoration, not even in pictures, with the single +exception of good portraits. They seem to speak to us. We can almost +believe that they feel an interest in all that we have said about them. +If they really could know, would they not approve the principles that +we have laid down? We may fancy that they _would_ approve and that, if +they could really speak and we would listen, they would tell us so in +some such language as the following: + + +WHAT THE FLOWERS SAY ABOUT IT + +Don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our own kind. + +Don't make a confusion of colour with us. + +Don't arrange us in snug, solid masses. + +Don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a part of the decoration. + +Don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills around us. + +Don't crowd us in with an assortment of household goods; we need space +and a background. + +Don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining table. + +_Do_ love us and use us in the home as much as possible. This is well +for you. By so doing not only will your love of us increase, but your +artistic perception of the fitness of things will constantly enlarge. +For truly has it been said, "The poorest woman in the world, if she has +faith in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with light; she +can always place there some flowers." + + + + +V + +DECORATIVE FABRICS + +PORTIÈRES, WINDOW DRAPERIES, CUSHION COVERS, TABLE MATS + + The very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate + discontent with plain, smooth surface--_Lewis F. Day_ + + +No kind of decorative art offers greater possibilities for touching +the right--or the wrong--chord than that which makes use of fabrics. +Portières, curtains, cushion covers, table runners and mats, lamp +shades, and many other furnishings, in which fabrics are involved, +present problems that quickly engage the interest of the amateur +decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and, when well worked +out, add greatly to the attractiveness of artistic surroundings. And +every house becomes a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when the +possibilities of development in this direction are realized. Here, as +everywhere else, decorative art is secondary to architectural design +and must never fail to acknowledge its dependence. Its glory is to +follow. To attempt to lead means miserable failure. + +_Example of the Model House._--The wide doorways connecting the +hall, the living room, and dining-room of our model house made doors +undesirable and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division +between the rooms and to soften the lines of the wood finish. They were +made to harmonize with the colour scheme but were darker and richer +in tone. The multiple windows, with the absence of direct sunshine, +suggested the light style of drapery; and the preference given to +straight-lined, substantial furniture, made in the school shops, led as +a natural consequence to cushions and coverings of leather or coarse +fabric, in order to bear out the idea of simplicity, directness, and +durability in craftsmanship. Velvets and satins would have been out of +place. + +_Utility to be Regarded._--The highly decorative function of such +accessories makes it doubly necessary to exercise care in selecting +materials, designing the ornamental features, and properly placing +the completed article, in order that the requirements of use be +not subordinated to the demands of art. It must never be forgotten +that utility is the basis of all true decoration. Portieres were +originally a substitute for doors--a means of closing an opening +between rooms. It must be possible always for them easily to serve +this purpose. Hence loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole, +should be used. Portières may properly be made of heavy cloth and +they may have a lining harmonizing or in pleasing contrast with the +tone of the principal fabric. They should always be at least opaque. +Window draperies, on the other hand, are not a substitute for shades +or curtains. They should not shut out the light but soften it. They +should, therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable material, +and be hung so that they can be easily taken down for cleaning. The +simplest style of hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets, +is the best. Since there is no need of frequently sliding them over +the rod, it is well to hang them by means of a hem, stitched two or +three inches from the top of the drapery, through which the rod may +be easily pushed. Cushion covers and table runners, made of durable +material and decorated with colours that are washable, are manifestly +more serviceable than those that look fresh only when new, and hence +are more in keeping with the idea of sincerity in household decoration. +There is necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in plumbing if +it is to meet the tests with equal success. + +[Illustration: Pillow Cover With Geometrical Designs Printed on Dyed +Cotton Cloth. Table Runner of Russian Crash with Block Printed and +Embroidered End Panels. Plate III] + +How such decorative features are worked out from beginning to end, is +told in the following directions for a few practical problems which are +known to be practical, because they have been actually carried through +from the design to the completed article. This detailed and complete +explanation, with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest many +similar problems which every home offers. + + +BLOCK PRINTING + +Problem: _Decorating a Table Runner_.--This problem is easily separated +into four distinct parts--making the design, cutting the block, +printing, and finishing. The materials needed are as follows: + + + (1) Making the design + Ordinary drawing paper + Rice paper + Charcoal + Pencil + Japanese or sable brush, medium size + Water-proof India ink + + (2) Cutting the block + Gum wood + Small penknife + Vise + Sand-paper, fine + + (3) Printing the design + Printing board + Sheet of glass + Oil paints + Turpentine + Palette knife + Cotton batting + Cheese cloth + +(4) Finishing the runner +Embroidery silk or mercerized cotton + +[Illustration: The peacock design] + +_The Design._--To carry out the problem as illustrated, it is +necessary, first of all, to make the design. Geometry, nature, and the +imagination are satisfactory sources upon which to draw for the motif. +If the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one should study for +suggestions the figures in Oriental rugs, photographs of early Eastern +art, and the fine old tapestries in museum collections. Some good +geometrical designs, like that used on the pillow cover illustrated +on page 104, were made by school-girls after drawing many figures +found in rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying numerous +reproductions of Coptic designs. In no case was the block pattern in +the least like the designs studied. They served only as ideas to start +with and led to the production of truly original work. It is essential +to keep a few simple principles in mind in working out the design: (1) +Both the dark and light shades in the patterns should be varied in +size and form to avoid a monotonous result and should be as beautiful +in proportion as possible. (2) There should be a centre of interest, +one part of the design dominant--more attractive than any other. (3) +The design must be a unit--_i. e._, the parts must hold together. All +feeling of unity is lost if the parts of the design call attention to +themselves to the exclusion of the whole. + +[Illustration: Block used in printing the peacock design] + +_Preliminary Sketches and the Drawing._--It will be found desirable to +make many preliminary sketches in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a +part of each sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately the dark +and light effect. These should be compared, keeping clearly in mind the +principles stated above. When one possessing the right qualifications +has been found, the next step is to draw on a fresh piece of paper an +accurate 3-inch square and copy upon it the satisfactory design in +pencil outline. This should be done very carefully, that the spirit +of the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. When the drawing is +completed it must be put into shape to be transferred to the block. To +do this we fasten a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace with +very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces with black ink, +using a brush. This brush work may be done directly without the pencil +line if the drawing underneath shows very plainly through the paper. +When the ink has thoroughly dried, the design may be cut out on the +edge of the 3-inch square. + +[Illustration: Bird pattern] + +_Laying the Pattern and Cutting the Block._--A block 3 × 3 × 7/8 +inches will now be required. This should be procured and sand-papered. +One face of it should then be covered with a coating of library paste, +the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down smooth. If the design +is symmetrical it should be pasted on the block, ink side up, but +otherwise with the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon +the cloth. When the paste gets quite dry one may then fasten the block +in the vise and, holding the blade of the knife at a slight angle and +always away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design along the +outlines. These must be kept very smooth and sharp. All of the white +shapes should be cut out, leaving the black ones in relief. Usually +an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background, but it +will be found after practise in printing that the larger spaces should +be cut deeper and that, when the edges or corners of the block form +a part of the background instead of the dark pattern, they also need +a deeper cut. The paper that still adheres to the face of the block +may now be removed by rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper laid upon +something hard and smooth like glass in order that the block may have +an absolutely level surface. + +[Illustration: A flower and leaf design] + +[Illustration: Block used in printing this design] + +_The Padded Board._--All block printing should be done upon a padded +board. A very convenient one can be made by laying upon a bread board +three or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over these several +thicknesses of cheese cloth. In place of these an ironing board may be +used. + +_Material Required._--It is essential to select for the runner a piece +of crash of fine texture and even weave. This is sold under the name of +Russian crash and is from 15 to 16 inches wide but varies considerably +in quality. It is very difficult to print well upon the coarser grades. + +[Illustration: Alternating animal and geometrical design] + +[Illustration: Blocks used in printing this design] + +_Trying the Colours._--After deciding upon a colour which will +harmonize with the general colour scheme of the room in which the +table runner is to be used, it is in order to mix the paint and try +the block upon a small piece of crash. To prepare the paint, squeeze +a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a sheet of glass and +blend thoroughly with the palette knife, thinning with turpentine to +the consistency of cream. It is seldom that a colour right from the +tube will prove a pleasing one to use. Other colours mixed with it will +change its hue and intensity; black or white will alter the value. +Tie a little cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth or +old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove from the raw edges +all ravellings that might drop into the paint. Spread out quite thin +upon the glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press the +pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed all it will. Now +charge the block by lightly pounding its surface with the pad. Press +the block upon the cloth evenly. Only by repeated experiment will it +be possible to determine just the right quantity of paint to mix, its +brilliancy of tone, its consistency, how heavily to charge the block, +etc. A good print shows the texture of the cloth through it, is even +in tone, and has clear-cut edges. If the print looks like a painted +spot, or if, when quite dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the +paint used was too thick or else the block was too heavily charged. +Different materials require different treatment. For a thin silk the +block should be very lightly charged and lightly though evenly pressed +upon the material. In printing upon crash it is necessary to press +the block very firmly upon the material; and frequently, to insure +getting a sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to tap the +block lightly with a hammer or wooden mallet. If one has a steady hand, +the block can easily be lifted at one side to determine just where the +extra pressure is needed. The block should be thoroughly rubbed with +old cloth after each impression is made and occasionally sand-papered +to remove any paint that may adhere to it. The first print made after +sand-papering the block is liable to be a little less distinct than the +others and should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the material. + +_Centring the Work._--A good way to plan the placing of the panel +design is to run a basting thread across the crash between two of the +woven threads. Mark the centre of the runner upon this thread, and, +using these guides, print the design, beginning with one of the central +units. + +_Additional Features._--Considerable charm can be added to the pattern +by filling some of the spaces with a simple darning or running stitch +in some bright colour. The embroidery thread used should be rather +fine. It is well to finish the ends of the runner by button-holing with +ravellings of the crash. Tiny dots of some colour used in the panel +may be embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed edge. + +_Colours._--The following list of oil colours will be found practical: +ivory black, flake white, burnt sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome +yellow, chrome green, permanent blue. + +_Materials._--Linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk pongee, crêpe +de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached muslin are excellent materials +for block printing. Beautiful background tones can be obtained by +dyeing the two latter with easy dyes. + +In place of the gum wood for the block, basswood, maple, or holly may +be used. It is possible to get along without a vise by fastening the +block between two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board. Success +is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks while simply held in the hand. + +_Laundering._--If the material used for the foundation is washable, +block printed articles can be satisfactorily and easily laundered in +soapy, lukewarm water. The colours are not injured in the least. A +liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes used in place of turpentine, +insuring still greater permanency of colour. + +_Other Applications of Block Printing._--Other articles suitable for +decoration by block printing are curtains, pillow covers, table covers, +cushion covers, bureau scarfs, Portieres, table mats, bags of many +sorts, etc. Printing may also be used to ornament articles for personal +use, such as aprons and scarfs. + + +STENCILLING + +Problem: _Window Draperies_.--Making the design, cutting the stencil, +printing, and finishing form the divisions of the problem to be worked +out. A list of necessary materials follows: + + (1) Making the design + Charcoal + Pencil + Reflector + Ordinary drawing paper + Tracing paper + Carbon paper + Stencil paper + + (2) Cutting the stencil + Sheet of glass + Sharp penknife + + (3) Printing + Large board + Blotting paper + Turpentine + Oil paints + Bristle brushes + Pins + +_The Design._--Suggestions as to the method of procedure in making +a design have been already given in the section on block printing. +The principles of design to be considered are outlined there also. +In working out this problem, however, several new things come up for +explanation: (1) The difference between a design to be stenciled and +one to be printed by means of a wood block; (2) the method of +joining units to form a border; (3) the method of turning a corner in a +border design. + +[Illustration: Window Draperies With Stenciled Border. Designed and +Executed by a School Girl. Plate IV] + +_The Stencil Bands._--By studying the illustrations accompanying this +section and by experimenting with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will +be seen that in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the +color in the finished work are completely separated from one another by +bands of varying widths. + +[Illustration: A stencilled pattern--portion of pillow cover] + +These bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve to hold the stencil +together and are connected throughout the design. Though they may be as +wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them much narrower than +one eighth of an inch, as they are easily broken; and, unless carefully +pinned down when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under them and +ruin the work. In a block print design no connection of the light or +separation of the dark parts has to be considered. In the illustration +of the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed as compared +with the stencilled pattern--_i. e._, the dark represents the stencil +paper, the light the openings through which the paint is applied. + +[Illustration: The stencil for this pattern] + +_The Complete Unit._--It will be readily understood that a border may +be made up by repetition of one unit which is a complete thing in +itself. The unit in such a case may be made very long and narrow, so +that in repeating it along the vertical edge of a curtain it produces +a narrow band, while along the horizontal edge the band is broad. A +border worked out in this way, with perfectly straight and practically +continuous margins, is very structural in character, emphasizing, as +it does, the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery. The effect +is strong and dignified. The corner in this kind of border presents no +difficulty. + +_The Subordinate Unit._--By studying the illustration in Plate IV it +will be seen that the unit of the border in this case is not complete +in itself, but that the very conventional flower and stem composing it +are joined to the next unit by what might be called a subordinate unit, +composed, in this case, of a leaf form. The units are so closely spaced +that a structural effect is fairly well obtained--_i. e._, the upper +and lower edges of the border are nearly straight, giving a feeling of +restfulness to the design that never accompanies one with broken or +wavy edges. + +_Designing the Corner._--Having planned a design for the straight +running border of the curtains, take a reflector and experiment with +the corner. The reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old +discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece, 3-1/2 by 6 inches +being a convenient size. The edges should be very straight and the +corners square. Hold the reflector at various points along the border +and always at an angle of 45 degrees. Study these possible corners +which will be reflected in the glass, and when one sufficiently strong +and interesting is found draw a light line along the edge of the +reflector. This line, of course, exactly bisects the corner of the +border to be made. Avoid making a border of this kind too deep or, when +turned for the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and heavy band. + +_The Outline Drawing._--The dark and light design having thus been +worked out in charcoal, the next thing to do is to make a very careful +pencil-outline drawing of the same. It is well to draw the corner +and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. To do the tracing, pin a +piece of very thin paper over the finished part, and trace with a well +sharpened and fairly soft pencil. Turn the tracing paper upside down, +fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing underneath. After tacking +it down, trace the remainder, using a firm, even pressure and being +careful exactly to follow the line. Strengthen the part of the pattern +thus transferred by going over it with a sharp, hard point, and +continue as before until you have a border of which both the vertical +and horizontal sections are from 9 to 12 inches long. + +_Transfer to Stencil Paper._--Now, take a piece of stencil paper and +square up one corner. Fasten the pencil drawing securely to the stencil +paper along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between the two, and +trace the design. + +_Cutting the Stencil._--Before cutting the stencil for the curtain +a beginner should do a little practising upon an extra piece of the +paper. Trace a portion of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a +sheet of glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife cut along +the outline of the pattern. The knife should be held at a slight angle +and the cut made completely through the paper. The pieces of stencil +paper should never be pulled out but will fall out without aid when the +cutting is completed. After a little practice it will be found a simple +matter to cut the design with perfectly smooth edges. + +_Suitable Materials for Stencilling._--For the curtains fine cheese +cloth or batiste will be found excellent. Even unbleached muslin will +make attractive curtains where expense must be carefully considered. +Unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure white materials +will be found less pleasing than those that are quite creamy in tone. +Scrim in a charming, grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good, +soft quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. It is not advisable to +hemstitch this material before stencilling as in case of accident or +failure so much work is lost; but the hems should be carefully planned +and basted, those along the inner edges of the curtains being narrower +than the bottom hems. + +_The Colours._--The color scheme of the room should be carefully +considered in deciding upon the colour or colours to be used in +stencilling. If two colours are chosen, they should be of the same +value--_i. e._, the two colours should form equally dark spots in order +that the pattern of the border may appear in the same dark and light as +the original charcoal sketch. + +_Pinning the Stencil._--When ready for the actual process of +stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting paper upon a board and over +this place the corner of the curtain. Pin the stencil securely to the +curtain so that the edge of the border when printed shall be about +half an inch from the hem and the edges of both shall be absolutely +parallel. Use as few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil +close to the cloth. + +_Testing the Paint._--Having mixed the oil paint with turpentine or +stencil mordant, using an old cup or glass for each colour, practise +stencilling upon a small piece of cloth. Put blotting-paper under +the cloth and pin the stencil down with great care. Use short, stiff +bristle brushes for the stencilling, one for each colour. Remove almost +all the paint from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper. When +it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil the pattern by pounding +the brush upon the exposed portions of the cloth, working close to +the edge of each spot. If, upon removing the stencil, the edges are +blurred, the paint was too thin or the stencil not carefully pinned +down. If, on the other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty, +so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in these places, you +may be sure that the paint used was too thick or that the brush was too +wet. The secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as thin and the +brush as dry as possible. Hold the stencilled sample up to the window +and see whether, when the light shines through it, the colour appears +right. + +_The Real Process._--When confident that the process is understood +and that the colour is satisfactory, proceed to stencil the corner of +the curtain. Always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a clean +piece of cloth to use in case of accident. When removing the pins from +the stencil wipe each one carefully. Clean the stencil, too, handling +it with care that none of the slender bridges may be broken. Replace +the stencil, fitting a section of it to the finished work. Put the +pins in the holes already made, otherwise the paint will get into +them and disfigure the work. Continue the stencilling, a section at a +time, until the border is completed. Do not fold the curtains until +the stencilling is thoroughly dry. If the threads of the material can +be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make the best finish; but +careful hand hemming will look well upon material like fine batiste. + +_The Valance._--The curtains should hang in vertical folds from the top +of the window to a point slightly below the window sill. They should be +drawn back at each side of the window and the space between at the top +filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps deeper if the window is +very high. This valance should have the border stencilled upon it and +should be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains. Sometimes, +as in the illustration in Plate IV, a valance running across +the entire width of the window is used. In this case it is run upon an +extra rod in front of the one from which the curtain hangs. Double +rods for this purpose can be bought. + +_Other Possible Problems._--As stencilling can be employed in +practically the same place and upon the same materials as block +printing, it is only necessary to refer to the lists given at the +end of that section of this chapter for suggestions as to further +possibilities in the way of home decoration by stencilling. + + +EMBROIDERY + +Problem: _Table Mat_.--As in the preceding problems, the first thing to +do is to plan the design roughly in charcoal or soft pencil in order +to get the dark and light relations and the best proportions possible. +If convenient, the mat should be made for use with some special lamp +or vase. By measuring the base of this object it is easy to determine +the size of the plain central space, which may be either circular or +square in shape. The forms in the decorated part may be made of various +shapes, but it is well to keep them very simple in outline. Straight +lines alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated in Plate V, +or a combination of straight and curved lines, as in the one shown in +Plate III. After working out the design very accurately with a +hard pencil, the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of +coarse Russian crash or heavy linen by means of carbon paper, taking +great care to get the straight edges of the design even with the +threads of the crash. + +_Desirable Combinations of Colour and Stitches._--The simple running +or darning stitch should be employed in embroidering the pattern. +Two or more colours may be used. Darning in dull green and outlining +with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive mat. Other good +combinations are green and white, blue and white, blue and green, soft +dull blue, and pinkish orange. This by no means exhausts the pleasing +contrasts that may be found. The brighter colour should always be +employed in the smaller quantities. The mat illustrated in Plate V was +embroidered in dull green and red mercerized cotton. After the darning +was completed it was found that the red used in the small circles alone +was too conspicuous, although it was very dull in tone. This defect +was completely remedied and a perfect unity given to the design by +outlining the forms in a couching stitch, using both colours. This was +done by laying a green thread along the edge of each spot and taking a +stitch of red over it at equal intervals. + +[Illustration: CROCHETED PANELS + +A Linen Workbag With Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch + +A Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and Couching Stitch + +Designed and Executed by School Girls. Plate V] + +After the embroidered pattern is done one may finish the mat with fine, +close hemstitching or by button-holing the edge with ravellings of the +crash. The latter method is usually more pleasing. The simple darning +stitch can also be used to make very attractive borders for table +runners, sofa pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated in +Plate V, besides being used to enrich a great variety of block printed +or stencilled articles. + +_The Satin Stitch._--Another effective and easy embroidery stitch to be +used in decorating articles for the home is the over-and-over or satin +stitch. When planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen in which +the threads can be easily counted, transfer the design, after having +carefully drawn it in pencil outline, to paper marked off into little +squares. This can be bought where kindergarten supplies are sold. +Redraw the outline of the design, following exactly the lines on the +paper, and at the same time keep as close as possible to the original +form. Let a certain number of threads of linen represent a square of +the design and copy the pattern in the satin stitch or even the cross +stitch if preferred. No transferring of the pattern to the cloth is +necessary. + +A pattern worked out on cross section paper in this way can also be +crocheted, as illustrated in Plate V, and set into linen or some of its +many imitations to decorate numberless articles for home or personal +adornment. This crocheted work, if evenly done in fine thread, is quite +suggestive of the Italian filet lace. + + + + +VI + +DRESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DECORATION + + "A foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet + With a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it; + And that the other maidens of the little town might know it, + She thought she'd go to meeting of a Sunday just to show it. + + 'Hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head. + 'Hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she + thought they said." + + +In considering the dress of the person as related to home decoration +one is not so far afield as one may seem to be at first thought. It +is true that dress has a variety of functions to perform that have no +connection with the subject of decoration; and yet there is much that +is common to both. Well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the +design and general make-up of their costumes, must observe the same +laws that govern design wherever it is applied, as an expression of +the artistic sense in the affairs of every-day life. Beauty of line +and proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use and to a great +variety of special conditions, simplicity, symmetry, restraint, are all +involved in personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a room; +and in most cases success or failure in one field has its counterpart +in the other. Have we not often remarked of a house or of a room +that it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him"; and do not +attractive costumes give pleasure to others than those who wear them +for the same reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged rooms +afford similar enjoyment to those who live in them? + +_Art and the Fashions._--In discussing the parallel between art +in clothing and the more stable art of home decoration it must be +admitted, of course, that style in dress introduces some embarrassing +questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer wonderful +changes with every season. And yet people of artistic feeling and good +taste, succeed in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between the +changing demands of fashion and the established principles of art as +applied in dress. + +_How to Be Well Dressed._--The well-dressed woman knows how to select +her clothes and how to wear them. She must study her own figure and +know her defects as well as her good points. With this knowledge she +can learn to subdue the one and bring out the other. She should have a +clear conception of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to +it. To acquire this training the principles of the art of decoration +must be understood and applied. She should never wear a garment of a +certain style simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make it +conform to her individual type. + +_Good Lines._--Decorative design in dress must follow the construction +lines of the figure and not destroy them. These are the much discussed +good lines of which we hear and read so much. Horizontal lines break +the figure and increase the breadth, while vertical lines give the +appearance of height. It is the simple lines, conforming to and +following the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. The +taste of most women leads them to desire simple clothes; but through +ignorance or inexperience many of these women fail to achieve that aim. +A stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen wearing a dress with +lapels or ruffles over the shoulders. This only serves to accentuate +her defect. + +_Unity and Harmony._--In all forms of decoration harmony is +essential--_i. e._, all the parts that are to be combined must agree +with one another and with their surroundings. To secure this in dress +is to give unity to the entire costume. A dress hat with plumes should +not be worn with a tailored suit in the morning; and yet we often see +such a combination. Here the lack of harmony is between the parts of +the costume; but the entire costume must be suited to the peculiarities +of figure. There are women who never look well in the straight lines +of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to them. They must +tone down the effects of the lines by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock, +or some such softening elements of dress. Others do not look well in +fluffy things. Each must know what is becoming and dress accordingly. + +_Importance of Colours._--Every season we hear that certain colours +are to be worn. Many women will choose a colour because they like it +without considering whether it is suitable for them to wear. A little +attention to a few well-known facts will help them to avoid failures +of this kind. It is generally recognized that light colours seem to +increase the size. Striped materials should not be worn by the stout +women unless the stripes are very indistinct. Dots are also very +dangerous for her; but she may choose a pattern with pin-point dots +scattered over the surface at some distance from each other. She is +always safe in a plain, dark colour. + +_Colour and Complexion._--In deciding on a becoming colour one must +take into account the colour of the hair and eyes and the tone of +the complexion. It has been thought that young girls can wear clear, +light shades and that older women should keep to dark, quiet colours; +yet there are older women who wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender +charmingly and many young girls who cannot wear blue or pink. It is +quite impossible to make accurate colour rules, because it would be +hard to find two complexions that require exactly the same colour +setting. It is well, however, to study combinations of different +colours with the idea of finding the right colour, to use in any +costume, the amount of each, and the best arrangement to give a proper +balance. + +_Proportion._--The importance of the principle of proportion is often +overlooked, but beauty of dress is never possible if it be neglected. A +well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must have given consideration +to the relation of the size and shape of the head to the lines of the +entire figure. Strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head, +and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect it, and, through +harmony of colour and proportion of line and mass, to improve the +appearance of the whole costume. The artist, when drawing a figure, +uses the head as the unit of measure. Therefore in choosing a hat +one should select a style that is in good proportion to the size of +the head and to the height of the figure. If the mass of the head is +increased disproportionately by too large a hat, the entire figure is +apparently shortened and the natural proportions destroyed. One often +wonders why photographs of people with hats on look so old-fashioned +and sometimes so ridiculous. It is because the hat is not in good +proportion. The Gainsborough and Reynolds ladies with hats never look +queer. Their hats bear the right relation to the head and the figure. + +_Appropriateness._--The general proportions of a hat or a gown may +be good, but the addition of the decoration may destroy all the good +effect obtained by securing the right relation of line and mass. The +aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and strengthen the whole. +Beauty of dress, therefore, depends upon simplicity and appropriateness +of the material used as well as upon the form and arrangement of the +material. Wherever ornament is used it must fulfil the condition of +fitness to place; otherwise it is not really decorative. In trimming a +hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat before a mirror, +and place the hat comfortably upon her head; then with the aid of a +hand glass she should try the trimming in different positions until +the best effect is obtained. + +The designs in trimming should be appropriate to the garment. The size +of the design and the kind of form used should be considered. Simple +forms are the best for all decorative art work. In fact, there is great +advantage in plain materials. They always work to greater economy than +stripes or plaids. + +_Influence of Occupation._--The well-dressed woman should realize how +great is the influence of occasion and occupation. Some gowns were +intended only for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see them +worn on the street cars or for shopping. I have always approved of the +rule in many shops which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns. +Formerly it was the old finery which was used for every-day wear. Now +the business woman to be successful has to exercise more thought upon +her clothes than the woman at home. Her clothes have harder wear and +must be appropriate for her work. + +The dress of school-girls and children must not be overlooked. It +should be as simple as possible and above all else it should be +comfortable. It should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing should +not interfere with any function of the body. But we often see children +dressed with much lace, with many ruffles, and even with jewellery; +and we have seen school girls wearing net waists, plumed hats, and +high-heeled shoes. What an infraction is this of the principle of +appropriateness in dress! + + + + +VII + +FURNITURE MAKING + + It is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by + thought that labour can be made happy--_John Ruskin_ + + +The chief purpose of this chapter is to outline the most important +general facts upon which good furniture making is based and to give +specific directions for working out a number of typical problems, +following designs which have been proved in completed articles made, +for the most part, by school-boys and tested by use. No attempt is made +to give this great subject complete and systematic treatment; for this +would involve many problems in constructive design and a corresponding +number of working drawings, with specifications for the selection and +preparation of materials and for the work of construction--a subject so +extensive that it would easily overrun the limits of a single chapter. +The aim is rather to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of +experience in constructive work with special reference to our main +subject of household decoration. + +It is taken for granted that the interested reader is familiar with +the use of the common hand tools for woodworking or that he can, with +some assistance, perhaps, easily command their use. It is not thought +necessary, therefore, to describe in detail the proper method of using +tools, but rather to offer practical suggestions on the selection, +preparation and constructive use of woodworking materials and, in the +series of problems which follow, to give some helpful hints on the way +woodworking tools should be used. It is also assumed that in most cases +the very great advantage of woodworking machinery may be utilized, +especially in preparing the materials and bringing them within easy +reach of the hand-tool processes. The true art-craft spirit, which +always honours handwork as the supreme method, may not hesitate +to command the services of machines so long as it does not become +slavishly dependent upon them. + + +SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK + +The first thing that should claim the attention of the artistic +woodworker is the selection and preparation of his materials, commonly +known as the stock. The sculptor selects his marbles with the +greatest care. So should the cabinet-maker make sure that his woods +are taken from the right parts of selected timber and that they are +properly sawed and well seasoned. The importance of this cannot be +overestimated. Hard wood boards, cut from the sides of a tree, will in +drying, invariably curve across their grain. It is only those that are +cut from the centre to the outside of the tree that may be depended +upon to remain approximately true; for, after this cutting, the grain +runs directly through the thickness of the board, or nearly so. Boards +taken from timber in this way are said to be "quarter sawed"; those cut +by sawing through the logs from side to side, as is always done with +soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to be "plain sawed." +This is illustrated in the accompanying drawings. + +_Quartered Oak._--In the case of oak, the quarter sawing not only +maintains a flat surface but greatly improves the appearance of the +stock when finished. The popularity of quartered oak for furniture may +therefore be said to be well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods. +It is as good as it looks. + +[Illustration: Quarter sawed log] + +Quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined to oak because the +appearance of the grain and the strength of most woods is far from +being improved by this method of cutting. Thus ash and gum wood and all +the softer woods sometimes used in furniture making are plain sawed. +We shall, therefore, generally find stock from these woods curved and +twisted badly so that it will be necessary, in selecting material for +large surfaces such as table tops, to pick out the straight parts for +these surfaces and save the remainder to be cut into the smaller pieces +which will always be needed. These pieces can be easily planed without +much loss of thickness. + +[Illustration: End of quarter sawed board] + +[Illustration: Plain sawed log] + +[Illustration: End of plain sawed board] + +_Kiln-dried Lumber._--This bending and twisting of the boards does not +take place as soon as they are sawed out of the log, but gradually +during the process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is kiln-dried, +the more gradual the seasoning the less the bending. Lumber is +kiln-dried by stacking it, with air spaces left between the boards, in +steam-heated closets or kilns, where the process of drying is carried +on evenly though rapidly. Kiln-dried lumber, therefore, retains its +shape quite as well as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile. +But whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed to remain in a +dry place as long as possible before using it so that it will have a +chance to change all that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent +shrinking and warping. A good cabinet-maker never undertakes to make +furniture from stock that he does not know to be perfectly dry and well +seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is more likely to shrink, +warp, and crack, but also because it cannot be depended upon to hold +the glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other methods of +finishing. + +_Planing Down to a Flat Surface._--Since boards are seldom perfectly +flat, even if one has taken the greatest pains to select well-seasoned +stock, it will almost invariably be necessary to work them down to a +plane surface when they are glued up or joined together in any way. +To accomplish this result it is necessary to plan the arrangement of +the pieces in such a way that the concave of the bend shall fall on +the same side, as shown in the illustration, and thus provide for the +final working down with the least possible removal of stock. They can +be arranged on a level bench top or floor with the convex side down so +that they will lie as flat as possible. The boards should then be taken +out one by one and their edges should be carefully planed so that they +will match together in the position in which they are laid. It will +be necessary to take each board from its place and return it several +times in order that this matching may be made as perfect as possible. +The object of all this is to prevent the entire arrangement from +springing--_i. e._, from acquiring any new bend or twist when the parts +are glued up. In joining boards to form large pieces of glued-up work, +like table tops, it is customary to strengthen the joints by means of +dowel pins. Small table tops and similar work may be safely glued up +without dowelling. + +[Illustration: Boards placed for planing to flat surfaces] + +_Fastening Glued-up Work._ It will be readily understood upon a little +reflection that all plain glued-up work should be allowed to move +slightly upon the framework to which it is attached; for even after it +is well seasoned and well finished all woods will swell slightly in a +damp atmosphere and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest +movement being across the grain. Solid table tops, therefore, should +never be fastened down firmly upon the framework with glue or with +screws, but should be secured by means of buttons screwed to the under +side of the top which travel in grooves cut in the framework and thus +allow for expansion and contraction. A drawing is shown to illustrate +the method of attaching the table-top buttons. Much of the warping and +splitting of furniture is due to the failure of the designer or maker +to observe this precaution. + +[Illustration: Method of fastening table tops] + +In planing up stock, whether it be a single piece or several glued +together as just described, the cabinet-maker planes off one side first +and then, using this side as the working face, gauges to the required +thickness and planes off the other side if necessary. If the work be +upon glued-up stock, it is well to plane off the projecting edges of +the concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat easier and may +be all the planing that will be necessary. If it be single pieces of +stock that need to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is first +planed out to a flat working face on one side before putting the plane +to the opposite side. + +_The Surface Plate._--Planing to a flat surface requires some device +to guide the eye. If the surface be very uneven at first, a beginning +may be made in the planing without much assistance; but a point +will finally be reached when neither the unaided eye nor the hand +can determine whether or not a surface is flat. To determine this a +surface plate, as it is called, is needed. This consists of a block of +cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it from being bent--_i. e._, an inch +or more--and with a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on one +side. This surface is well chalked over. When the wood surface which is +being planed down is laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved +it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood will become +marked with the chalk and so indicate to the cabinet-maker what parts +are to be removed. By making several tests of this kind he is able to +plane to a good flat surface. + +[Illustration: Winding sticks] + +_Winding Sticks._--If the amateur's workshop is not provided with +a surface plate, a simple means of testing for a flat surface is +by means of two narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing +them on their narrow edges across each end of the piece, as shown in +the illustration, and sighting across their upper edges. The slight +projections in the surfaces of the board can be determined in this way +and planed off until the two top edges of the sticks are found to be +level. These winding sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made, +with opposite faces parallel. Their dimensions may be 1 × 2-1/2 × 30 +inches. + +_Importance of True Surfaces._--It may be well to add that all this +care to produce flat and parallel surfaces is not merely for the +purpose of giving a good appearance to these surfaces. True surfaces +are necessary for the good of the work as a whole, for they form the +basis from which other surfaces are gauged and other parts "trued +up"--_i. e._, made square or otherwise geometrically correct. When the +main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work are properly shaped, all the +framework and other parts may be brought into line without bending +or twisting. All such strains should be religiously avoided in good +cabinet work. The natural curves, twists, or projections of the stock +used should be removed by the use of the proper tools and never be +strained to force any of the parts into their proper places or shapes. +Such efforts produce strains which are transmitted to other parts, +displacing them, causing new defects or a general failure of the parts +to support each other. + +_A Systematic Plan of Work._--When the cabinet-maker undertakes to make +either a single piece of furniture or several pieces, he goes about +it in a very systematic way. Consulting his working drawing he makes +an accurate list of the different pieces that will be required. For +example, if he is to make a Morris chair he notes the fact that he will +need four legs or posts 2-1/2 inches square by 22-3/4 inches long, a +front rail and a back rail each 7/8 × 2-1/4 × 22 inches, two side rails +7/8 × 2-1/4 × 24 inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is +completed. With this list in hand he makes a careful selection of the +lumber and prepares the pieces in the rough, allowing economically for +the necessary working waste. Economy of time and labour is also secured +by keeping together all parts on which similar work is to be done. +Thus, if several parts are to be sawed to the same width or fashioned +to the same curves, it is generally the best plan to work these parts +out together while the machines and tools are set for this purpose. +Such a plan not only saves time but, partially at least, it obviates +the danger of mistakes. It is important also to follow a systematic +order of work. All sawing to rough dimensions should be done before the +pieces are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the latter operations +should generally all be completed before laying out and cutting the +joints. As the work progresses toward completion great saving of time +and much comfort will result from keeping the completed parts in good +condition and so arranged that they can be easily assembled. + + +GLUING + +_Necessity of Good Joints._--After the selection and preparation of the +material for the stock, the next important general process that demands +attention is gluing; for good cabinet work implies good glue and a +knowledge of how to use it. Prepared glue, such as is sold in bottles, +is unsatisfactory for work of any consequence. A good woodworker +always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it may be made ready +for use on short notice. The glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. It +should be applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to which it is +applied clamped up quickly before the glue chills. It is the glue which +penetrates the wood that holds the parts together and not a layer of +glue between the joined edges or surfaces. It is therefore evident not +only that joints and surfaces should be well smeared with glue, hot +and thin enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the parts should +be clamped up quickly while the glue is still hot so as to prevent any +surplus from remaining in the joint. This is an additional reason for +making close fits in all joints--in those which are to be glued up as +well as in those which are not. It is a common fault of beginners to +be satisfied with loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the +glue to fill up the spaces. Much of the furniture found in the markets +falls to pieces for the same reason. Such work should never be allowed +to pass. It is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of the true +office of glue and is nothing more nor less than a falsehood in wood. + +[Illustration: Method of holding framing parts square while glue is +setting] + +_Systematic Methods Required._--As in the preparation of stock and +working it up, so in gluing, system is all important. The hand screws +or clamps should be made ready and adjusted to the required width so +that they may be quickly placed in position as soon as the glue is +applied. The whole process must be managed as quickly as possible +because the joints must be tested before the glue has had time to +set. A carpenter's large square should be used for testing the right +angles, since it is more reliable than the small try squares. It will +frequently be found necessary to hold framing pieces square while the +glue is hardening. This can easily be done by nailing small strips +of waste stock across the parts, as shown in the drawing. A beginner +should be cautioned not to attempt to glue up too many joints at one +time. Two opposite corners of a framing piece should be glued up +separately and left to set before the attempt is made to glue the whole +rectangle together. The two remaining joints, however, should be glued +and clamped together at the same time. + + +PICTURE FRAMING + +_Inexpensive Framing Stock._--Picture-frame stock can be easily +obtained of dealers in artists' supplies and in furniture stores in a +great variety of styles. Much of it is so well prepared and so nicely +finished that it leaves little to be desired. It is, therefore, often +best to secure the stock for frames in this way. It is, however, +somewhat expensive, so that, when economy is important, it behooves the +young woodworker to prepare his own framing stock. + +Very satisfactory frames 2 inches in width or less may be made from +matched oak flooring, a section of which is here illustrated, by +planing off the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove to +furnish the inset for the glass. Wider flat frames of any thickness +can, of course, be cut out from the ordinary stock. A special tool +for cutting the inset is desirable but not necessary. A 1/4-inch +saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even with a hand saw and +the necessary removal of the wood accomplished by means of careful +chiselling. + +[Illustration: Picture framing stock made from oak flooring] + +[Illustration: The mitre joint] + +_Mitres._--Frames may be joined at the corners in various ways. A +common way is by the mitre joint illustrated in the drawing. To secure +good joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres be cut on an +angle of exactly 45 degrees and that the pieces for the corresponding +sides of the frame be precisely of the same length. Hand sawing is +generally not exact enough to produce angles of sufficient accuracy +even when an ordinary mitre box is used. Hand-sawed mitres, therefore, +will require a little truing with a small plane. Great care must be +exercised also in fitting the corners together. The common bench +square is not large enough to prove the work. A better way is to lay a +carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit the two pieces of the +frame against the sides of the square, testing each corner in that way. + +[Illustration: Clamping mitre joints] + +_Gluing the Joints._--If the corners are unusually well fitted, a +good joint can be made by first sizing the ends with glue and then +firmly pressing the pieces together upon a true surface, leaving them +undisturbed for four or five hours until the glue is hard. By sizing +the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly filling the end pores with +glue, rubbing it into the pores with another block. Generally speaking, +however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping device. If +a special clamping device is not available, one can be easily made +by gluing small soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the +corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing. In a half hour or so +these blocks will become firmly set so that the mitre joints may +be glued together, clamping them up with a hand screw. As already +explained under the general directions on gluing, it is good practice +for a beginner to glue up opposite corners and not attempt to glue up +the two remaining corners until the first two are well set. When the +first two corners are well set they should be nailed; and before the +two remaining corners are glued it is well to try the parts together +to see if they do not require a little correcting before gluing. These +joints also should have light nailing after the glue has been set. In +nailing, small holes should be made with a brad awl or drill in order +to avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails should be used. + +_The Defect of Shrinking._--With proper tools the mitre joint is the +easiest one to make, but it has one unavoidable defect, especially +in wide frames. It is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and +almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so that wide frames, +however well finished, must be expected to shrink a little after they +are joined together. As most of this shrinking is across the width of +the stock it is evident that it will tend to open the mitre joints on +the inside of the corners. This is what happens almost invariably with +joints made in this way from wide stock in picture framing. The same +defect is also frequently observed in the interior finishing around +windows and doors. + +There are three other methods of joining the corners of picture +frames--_viz._, the halved lap joint, the mortise and tenon joint, and +the dowelled joint. A drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds +of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say that no one of +them is open to the same objection that attaches to the mitre joint. +All these joints require accurate cutting and rather more of it than +the mitre joint requires, but they are more easily glued up. The halved +lap joint is easily clamped up with a common hand screw, even when the +frame is a very large one. But the other two require long clamps in +order to pull the joints up well. + +[Illustration: Halved lap joint] + +[Illustration: Mortise and tenon joint] + +_Character of the Frame._--The kind of joint required depends upon the +general character of the frame--whether it is to be heavy or light, +wide or narrow, and whether made of picture frame moulding or of the +plain framing stock with round or flat face; and the character of the +frame is a matter of design, determined by the kind of picture, by +its setting, and by other considerations discussed in Chapter III. +How the plan for the construction of the frame for any given picture +is influenced by such considerations may be seen in the example which +follows: + +[Illustration: Dowelled joint] + + +MAKING A FRAME FOR A LARGE PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION + +This photograph is 60 inches long by 16 inches wide. It is a copy in +brown tones of a classic painting by Otto Kneille--_The Education of +Athenian Youth_, the original of which hangs in the Royal Gymnasium in +Berlin. It represents a spacious hall or court showing three of the +large marble columns and a massive seat in which an old man reclines +while another old man is expounding some doctrine to him and to a +group of younger men gathered around. In the centre of the scene a boy +lies flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript. Near him several +youths under the direction of a master, are contending in feats of +strength. The composition is one that suggests weight and power. It +may appropriately hang in the hall or in the library over a wide, low +bookcase. + +A picture of this character needs no mat and must have a wide, heavy +frame. The stock chosen was oak, 4 inches wide, 1-1/2 inches thick, +and flat faced. The size and weight of such a frame, including the +glass, demand firmness of construction as the first consideration. +The stock is too wide for successful mitring because shrinking would +naturally open and weaken such joints. It was therefore framed together +with mortise and tenon joints, well glued. A dowelled joint might +have sufficed, but it would not have the same strength. The mortises +were cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left on the long +horizontal pieces. This was in conformity with the usual method of +joining framework--for example, door frames, window frames, panel +frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest possible length +is invariably given to the vertical parts. + +The frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating the darkest tones of +the picture. Long screw eyes were fastened to the back 2 inches from +the top, so that the picture might hang nearly flat against the wall. +A strong braided wire about 75 inches long was run through the eyes +and securely looped at each end, so that a little more than an inch +of wire on each side passed through the eyes. Since the picture was to +have a prominent place on a certain wall, two nails 66 inches apart +allowing for the two widths of the frame as well as for the length of +the picture were driven into this wall, and the heavy photograph was +easily hung and balanced without exposing the wire to view. + + +TO MAKE A KNOCK-DOWN BOOKCASE + +[Illustration: A knock-down bookcase] + +_The Design._--The problem of design was to plan a simple, inexpensive +bookcase which could be easily transported and set up in a student's +room and which would hold approximately two hundred books. The drawings +show how these requirements were met in the design. When in use it is +held together by keyed shelves at the top and bottom. The necessary +stiffness is given to it by the base pieces which are fastened both +to the sides and to the bottom shelf by screws. Additional stiffness +is given by drawing up the three middle shelves to the sides by +means of screws. Upon removing the screws and the keys the bookcase +is easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact form for +transportation. It is equally easy to set it up again. It has no back +and may therefore stand away from the wall as well as against it. Its +contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity which will +harmonize with modest surroundings and yet not bar it from keeping +company with more pretentious furnishings. + +The original of this design was actually made up in white wood, stained +and finished to harmonize with black walnut furniture; but it may +be made up in oak, ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for +furniture. For one bookcase the stock required is as follows, the sizes +allowing for finishing to the dimensions as given in the drawing: For +the ends, two pieces 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches × 4 feet 2-1/2 inches; +for the short shelves, three pieces 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches × 3 feet +1 inch; for the long shelves, two pieces, 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches × +3 feet 5 inches; for the base pieces, two pieces 7/8 inch × 6-3/4 × +inches × 3 feet; for the keys, one piece 7/8 inch × 7/8 inch × 1 foot. +In addition to this there should be two dozen No. 10 round-headed +blued screws, and one half dozen 1-1/2 inch No. 10 flat headed blued +screws. + +The tools needed are as follows: Rip saw, cross cut saw, back saw, +compass, jack-plane, smoothing plane, block plane, spokeshave, try +square, steel square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver, 3/4, +1/2, and 3/16 inch bits and bitstock, and 1/2 and 3/4 inch chisels, +gauges, and sand-paper. + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase] + +_Construction._--All the stock should be jointed, planed to width, +and smoothed with sand-paper. The two end pieces should be squared to +length, the top corners rounded, and the curve at the bottom cut as +shown in the drawing. Care should be exercised in sand-papering not +to round the edges. The correct spacing for the shelves should then +be marked off on the end pieces and squared across, care being taken +to have both ends spaced alike. To do this plane the ends together, +with their edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure off each +of the spaces with correct allowance for the thickness of the shelf +and mark these spaces across the edge. Then, separate the end pieces +and with the marks on the edges as a guide, square across each of +the end pieces on the inside and mark with a knife. In allowing for +the thickness of the shelves it should be remembered that the stock, +though originally 7/8 of an inch in thickness, has been planed and +sand-papered, some of the shelves perhaps having been finished down +more than others. It will therefore be necessary to measure and allow +for the thickness of each shelf separately. + +[Illustration: Method of gaining-in the shelves] + +The three middle shelves are "gained" in--_i. e._, set into grooves in +the upright ends--1/4 of an inch deep, as shown in the sketch. It will +be better craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across the full +width of the end pieces but stopped, say, one inch from the edge, the +shelves being cut to fit, as shown in the drawing. If this be done, the +grooves should be cut out carefully with a chisel. If the grooves be +carried across the full width of the end, they may be cut down with a +back saw and then chiselled out. To insure a good fit in either case +care should be exercised not to cut outside the knife lines. Chisel the +bottom of the grooves carefully so that they will be uniformly 1/4 of +an inch deep. + +The next step is to cut the mortises for the top and bottom shelves. +The dimensions for these should first be laid off on the stock by +means of a gauge. They should then be bored well inside the marks and +carefully chiselled out. Before this chiselling is done, however, +knife lines should be marked on the outside of the end pieces exactly +opposite the gauge lines. In mortising, as in cutting the grooves, the +greatest care will need to be exercised that the chisel does not cut +outside the knife lines. In working for a close fit it is better to +err on the side of removing too little stock at first, if one must err +at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little more in the final +fitting. It is quite impossible to replace stock once removed. + +In measuring for the length of the shelves it should not be overlooked +that the top and bottom shelves are to carry the tenons to be keyed +through the end pieces. These tenons should be cut out accurately with +a rip saw, and the stock between them removed with a chisel after +a deep knife line has been made. After fitting these tenons to the +mortises and finishing them, the mortises for the keys should be cut, +using a small chisel. It should not be overlooked that the outside +face of each key mortise is cut on an angle, as illustrated. The three +middle shelves are then cut to length, the ends squared by means of a +block plane, and corners cut out to fit the grooves. + +[Illustration: Details of the keys] + +The parts are now ready to be put together temporarily and squared up +in order to fit in the base pieces more perfectly than could be done by +mere measurement. It will add a pleasing detail to set back these base +pieces 1/4 of an inch from the front and back faces. + +After all the parts are carefully fitted they should be assembled +and the key and screw fastenings inserted. When this is accomplished +the bookcase is ready for finishing. As this is a distinct part of +furniture making it is reserved for treatment in a later chapter. + + +A HANGING BOOK RACK + +[Illustration: A hanging book rack] + +_The Design._--It is designed to plan a light but strong book rack, to +be fastened to the wall of a chamber. Since it is intended to occupy +the space that might be given to pictures it is properly as simple in +construction as a picture frame, depending upon good proportions and +symmetry to give a pleasing effect. The straight lines of the design, +which is illustrated above, meet these requirements and also harmonize +with the general form and outline of books. Both shelves may be used +for books, if desired, but the design permits them to be confined to +the lower shelf, reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a bit +of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of bric-à-brac. The mortise +and tenon joints give the essential stiffness and strength without +requiring the use of heavy stock. + +_Materials and Tools._--Since strength with lightness is an essential +feature to realize in the working out of this design, soft woods should +be avoided. Ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in common +use. Oak is much stronger but heavy and hard to work. White wood is +comparatively light and very strong. Gum wood is classified with ash +excepting that it is closer grained. Since this book rack is to be used +in a chamber in which the wood trim is in enamelled white and most of +the furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally appropriate to +make it of white wood, to be finished in enamelled white, or of bay +wood as a basis for mahogany finish. It was decided to adopt the latter +course. + +The stock requirements for carrying out this design are as follows: 2 +back posts, 1-1/4 inch × 1-1/4 inch × 24 inches; 2 front posts, 1-1/4 +inch × 1-1/4 × 18 inches; 2 centre uprights, 5/8 × 1 × 18 inches; 1 +back rail, 5/8 × 1-1/4 × 37 inches; 1 end rail, 1 × 1-1/4 × 44 inches; +and 2 shelves, 7/8 × 7 by 37 inches. + +[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book +rack (front)] + +The tools needed are much like those required in the previous +problem--_i. e._, the same planes, saws, bitstock, squares, and the +gauge; but there will be needed a 3/8-inch bit, 3/8-inch and 3/4-inch +chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box, and a mallet. + +_Construction._--The details of construction required are as follows: +Dressing the stock pieces, cutting the posts to length, cutting the +points on the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them to +length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving on the end rails, +cutting and fitting the shelves, cutting, fitting, and fastening the +back rail, arranging the clamps and other appliances for gluing up, and +cleaning off the glue after hardening. + +[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book +rack (end)] + +[Illustration: How the tenon is applied to the rail] + +The stock pieces should be first "dressed" down to the drawing +dimensions. This means that they should be planed and sand-papered +preparatory to laying out the cutting dimensions. The front and back +posts should be cut to length in the mitre box, care being taken to +allow an extra 1/2 inch for the pointed ends at the top and bottom. +These pointed ends are cut in the mitre box by raising one end of the +post and sawing to lines squared around the post 1/4 inch from the +other end. The angle of the cut is made uniform by resting the raised +end of the post on a block lightly nailed on the inside of the mitre +box, thus giving the same elevation for all the posts. The 1-inch by +1-1/4-inch piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane designed +for that purpose, and afterward cut to length as called for. The blind +mortises should be made not more than 7/8 of an inch deep, and the +tenons 1/16 of an inch shorter in order not to strike the bottom of the +mortise. One of these rails should be accurately laid out with knife +lines and the rest marked from this as a pattern. The drawing shows the +location of the tenon with reference to the part of the rail on which +the shelf rests. This is the most convenient position for cutting the +tenon and it also gives greater strength. The centre uprights should +be halved on after the end rails are in position, being cut for this +purpose as illustrated in the drawing. They may be allowed to stand out +1/8 of an inch beyond the face of the end rail, and in making the joint +an equal amount of stock is to be taken from the rail and from the +upright. The shelves are then easily cut to length and the ends fitted +with the block plane and dropped into place, being lightly glued and +nailed with brads from the under side of the rabbet. Finally the top +back rail should be halved in, being left to the last in order that the +more important fitting of the shelves may be more easily accomplished. + +[Illustration: How the centre uprights are halved on] + +In gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care must be exercised to +set clamps out ready for use before the glue is applied so that the +parts may be promptly drawn up in position. After gluing they should be +allowed to remain about ten hours in order that the glue may properly +harden before the clamps are taken off. All the extra glue squeezed out +of the joints in clamping must be scraped off with a chisel, after the +glue has hardened a little; and any remaining spots of glue must be +carefully removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave anything to +interfere with the filling and finishing. + + +AN UMBRELLA STAND + +_The Design._--So far as the question of use is concerned, no problem +of design could be more definite than this one, since an umbrella +rack can have but one use. The only elements of beauty possible are +found in simplicity, proportion, and the general effectiveness of +the construction for meeting the demands of use. The drawing shows +four square, straight posts, squared at the ends, which are allowed +to project a little above the top to avoid a box-like effect. All the +joints are mortised except the division bars at the top. The cross +pieces at the base are made wider not only to conceal the drip pan but +to give a more stable appearance to the whole rack. + +_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as perhaps the most appropriate +wood; but other woods, if the surroundings require it, may be used to +good advantage. Oak is one of the strongest and most durable of the +woods used for furniture and takes well a great variety of finish. It +is also quite easily obtained. + +[Illustration: An umbrella stand] + +The stock requirements are as follows: Four corner posts 1-1/4 × 1-1/4 +× 27-1/2 inches; four top rails 1/2 × 1-1/4 × 9 inches; four base rails +7/8 × 3 × 9 inches; two division bars 1/4 × 1-1/4 × 9-1/4 inches; four +cleats 1/2 × 1/2 × 9 inches; and one board 1/2 × 7-1/2 × 7-1/2 inches +to support the pan. + +The same tools in general will be required as in the previous +exercises, but it will be necessary to add a 1/4-inch bit, a 1/4 inch +chisel, a steel scraper, and two short clamps. + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions for umbrella rack] + +_Construction._--All the stock should be planed to size, scraped, and +sand-papered with the exception of the base board for the pan, since +that is hidden from view. The scraper corrects all slight unevenness of +surface and removes scratches and other blemishes. Care should be taken +in sand-papering to rub always with the grain of the wood and to avoid +rounding the corners. The corner posts should first be cut to proper +length and the tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. Mortises are then +to be located, bored, and chiselled up. The top and bottom rails should +be laid off and the tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have +them too long. The inside edges of the tenons have to be pared off +slightly, as illustrated in the drawing, to allow room for each when +they come together. + +[Illustration: Top rail tenons] + +[Illustration: Bottom rail tenons] + +The next step is to assemble the parts, clamp them up, and test them +for accuracy. While these parts are in the clamps, measurements should +be taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made, allowing extra +length of 1/4 of an inch in each end for the tenons to enter the top +rails. These cross pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as +shown in the drawing. The base rails are designed to be thick enough +to take up all the space on the inside of the posts so as to hide the +corner, as illustrated in the sketch showing the bottom construction. + +The next step is to assemble the parts for gluing. It is not necessary +to explain this process in detail, since it has already been thoroughly +explained in the general section on gluing. It is not necessary to glue +on the cleats on which the pan rests; they may be nailed in. When the +base is glued together measurements may be taken for the pan. + + +A MAGAZINE STAND + +_The Design._--This problem calls for an attractive article of +furniture which should also be useful as a receptacle for magazines and +current newspapers. An enclosed portion between two of the shelves is +desired to conceal from view and preserve for a time the more valuable +papers, parts of magazines, or clippings, as may be found convenient. +The perspective sketch on this same page shows how these simple +requirements are met. The overhanging top adds character and strength +to what might otherwise seem too light for the load it is intended to +carry. + +[Illustration: A magazine stand] + +_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as a suitable wood because of +its strength and durability; for this stand is likely to be in almost +constant use. A light wood, delicately finished, would soon show wear. + +The stock list, according to the drawing, may be itemized as follows: +4 corner posts 1-3/4 × 1-3/4 × 36 inches; 4 upright slats 5/8 × 1 × +34 inches; four shelves 7/8 × 10-1/2 × 17 inches; one piece for the +top 7/8 × 14 × 21 inches; 2 top rails 1 × 1-3/4 × 12 inches; 1 piece +for the door 7/8 × 8 × 15-1/2 inches for the ends and the back of the +closet 1 piece 5/8 × 8 × 36 inches; 1 pair 1-1/4-inch brass butts with +screws for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch. + +The tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a smoothing plane, steel +square, try square, knife gauge, fine cross cut saw, 1/2-inch bit and +bit stock, key-hole saw, 1/2-inch chisel, mallet, nail set, hammer, +screw-driver, and steel scraper. + +The principal operations are as follows: Planing to size; scraping and +sand-papering stock; squaring ends and smoothing them to the required +length; laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises for top +rails; making the rails; assembling the main parts; fitting ends and +sides of the closets; hanging the door and putting on the fixtures. + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions for magazine stand] + +_The Construction._--Smoothing with the plane and scraping are very +important and they should be completed before any sand-papering is done +because particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood, will dull +the steel tools. All three operations are needed to remove the marks +of the machine tools of the factory, in order to give a good finish in +the end. The scraper follows the plane, removing the unevenness which +the latter leaves on board surfaces. Sand-papering gives the finishing +touches. + +[Illustration: Method of mortising] + +After the stock is well smoothed, the top and the shelves should be +squared off, cut to length, and block planed. The posts should then be +cut and accurately trimmed to dimensions. They may be marked with a +knife line for the gains into which the corners of the shelves are to +be fastened. Since the posts are perfectly square, no attention will +have to be given to their exact location in marking or cutting the +gains; but when the mortising for the rails is laid out, care must be +exercised to mark them so that the mortises will come on the proper +faces for assembling. In mortising for the top rail it is well not to +work up to the end of the post but to cut back, say 3/4 of an inch, as +shown in one of the details. The rails may now be laid off and the +tenons cut and fitted. It is exactly 8-1/2 inches between the shoulders +of the rails. Since the shelves are 10-1/2 inches wide, one inch is +thus left on each side to be gained into the posts. + +The parts are now ready for the first assembling. To do this it is +convenient to have a clear bench top on which the posts may be laid on +one side, face down. The rails and shelves may then be slipped into +place, the other two posts placed on top, and the whole clamped firmly +together. This is the preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing +the accuracy of the work. If it be found all right, it should be taken +apart again, and, after glue has been applied to the tenons and to +the ends of the shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled +and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true. Before the glue +hardens the shelves should be nailed into the posts, as indicated in +the drawing. In this case it is the nail that is the main stay. The +glue is accessory, adding much to the stiffness of the construction. + +[Illustration: Method of fastening shelf] + +The top may now be set on and fastened by screws or by brads driven +through into the posts and well set so that they may be concealed +by putty, coloured to match the stain used. The end slats should be +fastened on in the same way. The back and ends of the closet are next +cut to size and bradded in. The door is then fitted and, to break the +surface a little, an ornamental design is cut in the centre. Still +further relief is given by setting in the door 1/4 of an inch from the +edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. The door is now hung on brass +hinges, the stop and catch added, and the stand is ready for staining +and finishing. + +[Illustration: Method of fastening posts to the top] + + +A LIGHT LIBRARY TABLE + +_The Design._--This is to be a table designed on simple lines and of +good proportions. It is to have no drawer but as much shelf room as +conveniently possible. The under shelf is designed to be cut out to +allow a chair to be drawn up on either side. The end shelves may be +regarded as designed to combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding +much to its usefulness. + +_Materials and Tools._--For a table of this kind oak is very +appropriate. The following list gives the stock required for one table. +The widths and the thickness are as called for in the drawing, but the +lengths are given a little long to allow for cutting. A board not less +than 9 inches wide and 10 feet long will be needed as stock for the +top, the dimensions of which are 7/8 × 26 × 39 inches. A 10-inch board, +4-1/2 feet in length, will also be required for the shelves. There will +also be needed four legs 1-3/4 × 1-3/4 × 30 inches; eight slats 1/2 × +1-1/2 × 18 inches; two back pieces 1/2 × 2 × 20-1/2 inches; two rails +7/8 × 3 × 32 inches; and two rails 7/8 × 3 × 20 inches. + +[Illustration: A light library table] + +The same tools will be required as in the foregoing problems excepting +that a 1/2-inch bit and a 1/2-inch chisel will be required for +mortising, and two 3-foot clamps. + +_Construction._--The first step in the construction is to dress the +stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering it, and working the +various parts to size. The lengths, however, of all parts excepting +the legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of construction, +these parts are needed. The legs are at once cut to length and the +mortises laid out, bored, and cut. A gain should also be cut in each +leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted, glued, and bradded +from the under side. The end and side rails may then be laid off for +shoulders and tenons, and cut. In this case the tenons should be made +1/2 of an inch wide. + +[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end] + +In gluing up, the top should receive attention first, in order to allow +the longest possible time for testing the work under the inevitable +changes due to continued seasoning. Great care must always be exercised +in making the glued joints. It is often necessary to make them over +on account of the development of cracks. Proper care, however, will +prevent this. The general directions for gluing, given at the beginning +of this chapter, will be of service. + +As soon as the top has been glued the four short side pieces may be +glued to the shelf, taking pains to make good joints before applying +the glue. It should be noted that the inside ends of these short +pieces are to be 15 inches apart, and it is important that the ends +on opposite sides should be exactly squared across, as indicated in +the drawings. This may be accomplished by first locating the centre +of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c in the drawing, +and measuring 7-1/2 inches each way to the line of the back pieces, +which are to run across the whole bottom shelf. As soon as the glue is +hardened the ends should be squared and made true to set into the gains +when the table is assembled. Finally, the legs, the rails, and the +shelf may be assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside to +harden before the clamps are removed. + +It is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under side before +the glue hardens. After standing a few hours the table will be ready +for the 1/2-inch strip which forms the back of the shelf. This is to +be fitted and bradded in. Then the slats may be cut to length. They +project slightly below the shelf, and are fastened in position by +screws. The top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed, after which +it may be fastened on the frame by means of screws and buttons, as +already described in the early part of this chapter. + + +A HEAVY LIBRARY TABLE + +_The Design._--This table, as the illustration shows, is designed to be +of simple style, without a drawer or side shelves, and with the bottom +shelf keyed into the base rail. Heavy, square legs, and mortise and +tenon joints are called for. + +[Illustration: A heavy library table] + +_Materials and Tools._--The mission type of furniture, to which this +design belongs, suggests oak as the fitting wood. The stock for the +top, the dimensions of which are to be 7/8 × 28 × 44 inches, may be +cut in three pieces from a 10-inch board, 12 feet long. For the shelf +a board 7/8 × 12 × 43 inches is required. There are needed also four +legs 2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 30 inches; two side rails 7/8 × 4 × 36 inches; two +end top-rails 7/8 × 4 × 22 inches; two end bottom rails 1-1/2 × 4 × 22 +inches; and for keys a strip 1 × 2 × 28 inches. + +[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (front)] + +The same tools are required as were needed in the foregoing problem. + +_Construction._--Since this table has a larger top than the light +library table, even greater pains must be taken than in the case of the +smaller table to join the boards for gluing up. All like parts should +be laid off together and the necessary mortises and tenons cut and +fitted, as in the previous case. The two end rails may be glued into +the legs first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put in place +last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened in without gluing by +means of the tenons and keys. The latter should be cut somewhat longer +than is really needed so that they may appear to be as effective as +they really are; and they should be tapered at least 1/2 of an inch in +order to drive up well. A small brad may be driven in to keep them from +getting loose when the work shrinks. + +[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (end)] + + +A BOOKCASE WITH GLAZED DOORS + +_The Design._--This is to be an upright bookcase, with five shelves +and an overhanging top. Some variety of surface is afforded by the +arrangement of the sash, as indicated in the drawing. The shelves are +made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other problems. + +_Materials and Tools._--The stock required for one bookcase of this +pattern is as follows: two end pieces 7/8 × 11-1/2 × 48-1/2 inches; for +the top and bottom, two pieces 7/8 × 12 × 40 inches; four shelves 7/8 +× 11 × 40 inches; for the sides of the doors, four pieces 7/8 × 2 × 45 +inches; for the top and bottom rails of the doors, four pieces 7/8 × +2-1/2 × 18 inches; for the middle rail, one piece 7/8 × 2 × 18 inches; +for the sash, one piece 7/8 × 1/2 inch × 6 feet; for the back, enough +1/2 inch stock to cover the space 38 × 46 inches. In addition to this +there will be required four hinges, two catches, a lock, and glass for +the sash as dimensioned in the drawing. It is not necessary, however, +to cut the small lights. One large pane of glass may be set in the full +width of the door so that the small sash divisions may be apparent +rather than real. + +[Illustration: Bookcase with glazed doors] + +The tools for this problem are the same as those used in previous +problems with the addition of a 1/4-inch bit and 1/4-inch chisel, and a +rabbet plane, or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet for the +glass. + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions for bookcase] + +It is not necessary to give directions for the treatment of the +stock, since it is practically the same as that employed in preceding +problems. The details for cutting dimensions are given in the +accompanying drawings. It would be well for the young woodworker to +study these carefully and make out a working plan of procedure similar +to that which has been outlined in other problems. + +_Construction._--The first thing to do is to erect the bookcase--_i.e._, +to cut the sides, the top, the bottom, and the back pieces to proper +form and dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten them. It will +be noticed that the sides and top are rabbeted out, as indicated in one +of the small drawings, so that the edge of the back will not show when +it is nailed in position. The bottom shelf is also made narrow enough +to allow the back boards to be brought down over it and nailed to the +edge. + +[Illustration: Method of concealing ends of back boards] + +After the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to +the drawing for mortises and tenons, and the inside edges rabbeted to +give an inset for the glass. If it is decided to use one large light +at the top of the door instead of six small ones, the sash effect for +this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this +arrangement. When the doors are ready for setting the glass it may +be held in place by small 1/4 round strips, bradded in behind it. +Great care should, of course, be exercised in gluing up the doors to +avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not +be fitted to the case. Careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons +and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is +attempted is a wise precaution. It will also be wise to allow a little +stock for trimming off, both on the sides and on the ends, when the +doors are finally fitted in. + + +A ROUND CENTRE TABLE + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table] + +[Illustration: Detail of top mortise] + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table] + +_The Design._--This problem calls for a table of mission style with +square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the +top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs. Simplicity of +form combined with strength characterizes the design. + +_Materials and Tools._--Quartered oak is recommended for a table of +this design. The stock required for one table is as follows: four legs +2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 27 inches; two cross rails 1-1/4 × 3 × 29 inches; one +piece of 3 × 12 × 20 inches for the curved rails; and stock enough to +make a round top 1-1/8 inches thick and 27 inches in diameter. + +The only tools desirable to provide, in addition to those previously +used, are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane. + +_Construction._--The first step is to join up and glue the top so +that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is +being accomplished. The stock for the legs may then be dressed and the +bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts. Care must be taken +to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be +accurately outlined on the face. Care must also be taken in cutting the +mortises, in order to make good, clean joints. A dimensioned detail of +the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail, +shown on page 180, should be consulted before laying out this work. +It should be noticed that the legs project 1-1/4 inches above the top +rail. After the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be +halved together and the tenons laid off and cut. It will be noticed +that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off, but this +should not be done until the fitting is completed. + +In laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails +the trammel comes into use. With this, mark off carefully the inside +and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with a large steel +square, draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point, making an +exact quarter circle. This is shown in one of the drawings on page +180. Then, parallel with each straight line and on the inside, mark +off other lines one half the thickness of the leg. This locates the +shoulder of the tenon. The pattern should then be carefully cut out +of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock +the form of the curved rails. After these rails are band sawed and +smoothed, the tenons may be cut. + +When the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they +may be assembled and glued. Finally the top is placed face down on +a bench top or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it and +centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs. These +should be laid off with great care, the outline reproduced exactly on +the opposite side, and the stock cut out. The top and frame should then +be fastened together from the under side. After a few finishing touches +have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces, the table +will be ready for the filling and varnishing. + + +A LIBRARY DESK + +This is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making +here suggested. Details are given in the drawings on the opposite page. +If the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command +the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task +to undertake. Most of the operations required in its construction have +already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed +directions. There are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making +called for in this problem which were not required in the others. They +will therefore need explanation. + +[Illustration: A library desk] + +_Panelling._--To avoid the difficulties which would result from the +swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is +common practice to make use of the panel. The design of the panel is +easily understood. It consists of a framework of ordinary thickness, +put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of +this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of +stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between +the sides of the frame. The panel board may be in one piece of wide +stock or it may be glued up. It may be of very thin stock inset on +both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on +one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the +edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the +panel frame. In this problem the panel board is to be made of 1/2-inch +stock, flat on the outside, and inset 1/4 of an inch. The back of the +panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the +necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock +of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and, +if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. The panel, on +account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink +considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so +that its changes may not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish +the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to +the panel board. + +_Danger in the Power Saw._--The panel frame may be constructed by hand, +but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service. +Beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and +not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even +a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The necessary +operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished +stock, with a good square and gauge. A combination plane is quite +essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. Care +should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece, +and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges +of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are +indicated in the drawing. In gluing up, the directions already given in +the section on gluing should be followed. + +_Sand-papering._--There is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the +finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in +almost every kind of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised +in the directions for furniture making. In furniture manufactories +sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be +found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by +their productive value. It is quite impossible to work down large +pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. If a sand-papering +machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will +be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of +tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run +through the machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering by +hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible +and always along the grain. Any movements directly across the grain +or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. The process is +facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about 2 +× 4 inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same +dimensions. + + +A MORRIS CHAIR + +_History of the Design._--Among furniture designs the Morris chair has +become a classic. It takes its name for its originator, William Morris, +the great English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to +any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture +design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in England +but in other European countries and in America. And probably no one of +his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort, +and utility in furniture than the Morris chair. + +[Illustration: A Morris chair] + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions of Morris chair (front)] + +[Illustration: Details and dimensions for Morris chair (side)] + +It may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works +of art, the original design of William Morris has suffered much in +countless imitations. The furniture shops display carved and otherwise +embellished monstrosities under the name of Morris chairs which are +nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. But the life +of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be +short. Only the good and true, which are the original, survive. The +really valuable features of the original Morris chair design, combining +beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken +a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid +comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in this problem are +illustrated on page 50, chapter II. Both are in quartered oak. The one +on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the +seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. The +one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour. +On account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight +than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will +be followed in this problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in +ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a +college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the +three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself. + +By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the +preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should +select his stock according to the following list: 4 legs 2-1/2 × 2-1/2 +× 24 inches; two arms 3 × 5-1/2 × 38 inches; two bottom side rails +1-1/8 × 6 × 26 inches; two top side rails 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 26 inches; +two bottom rails (front and back) 1-1/8 × 6 × 24 inches; one top rail +(back) 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 24 inches; two back uprights 1-1/8 × 1-7/8 × 25 +inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) 3/4 × 2-5/8 × 20 inches; +one cross piece for back (top) 3/4 × 6 × 20 inches; one bracket 1 × 3 × +18 inches; four pins 4-1/2 × 4-1/4 inches square. + +[Illustration: Detail of Morris chair arm] + +[Illustration: Detail of pins] + +In sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for +necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. The arms +are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out +of 3-inch stock. There will be a considerable saving in material and +labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the +curve is very pleasing. The back slats may be sawed to a slight curve, +which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make +and just as serviceable. + +The process of construction does not differ in general from that +already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not +be repeated here in detail. The method of finishing this and all +other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the +following chapter. + +Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be +necessary to provide casters for it. The Acme Pin caster, so-called, +was used in the chair referred to in this problem. It makes use of a +steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so +as to leave only about 1/4 of an inch of the ball exposed. + + +A HALL CLOCK + + +[Illustration: A hall clock + +NOTE.--The original of the hall clock was designed and made by Mr. +Egbert E. MacNary.] + +_Design._--This clock was designed and built to conform to the +requirements of the space allotted to it. The lines of the case are +all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the +top. A hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all +the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc., +are horizontal. If the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then +the top might be spired or pointed. + +[Illustration: Construction detail of a hall clock] + +The construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and +substantial. The long sides extend the entire height of the clock, +being firmly joined into the base and head. The works are supported +between these sides. The wood is 3/4-inch quartered oak, hand dressed, +and stained a warm brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and +weight are of brass. + +_Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter._--The long door has a panel of +transparent leaded glass. This leaded glass work is a most fascinating +process. The lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in +lead specialties. Stained glass window concerns are usually willing +to sell this lead. A full-size drawing was made of the design for +the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. A +ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. One caution, kept in mind, will +enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. _It +should never be used twice in the same cut._ One stroke of a few inches +over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is +not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The glass +should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand, +making a continuous cut against a straight edge. + +_Soldering._--The long lines of the design are in one piece; and +there is a strip around the entire outside edge. To solder the pieces +together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board, +and brads (about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the board close +against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position. +A small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. A small +soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. The +copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping +it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder +wire. The point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say, +"tinned." The iron will need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of +the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result. + +[Illustration: Method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering] + +The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass +into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. The piece of +oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the +centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short arc of the ring had +been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about 1 inch and the +groove continued. + +[Illustration: Method of raising the dial rings] + +The length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the +escape wheel. It was necessary in the case of this clock to take out +the escape wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22 teeth to +accommodate the length of pendulum desired. + +[Illustration: Dimensioned dial piece of clock before edges are turned] + + +OUTDOOR FURNITURE + +The greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found +within the house. This is especially true in the village or in the +country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that +are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a +bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "God's great +out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden, +the touch of nature is not lost. It is possible, however, for art to +assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed. +It is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in +the neighbourhood of the village or city home. If there be a garden, +as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains +taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out +any form of interior decoration. There are problems of design and +construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for +the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings +for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps, +for an out-door dining-room. The more decorative features are found in +the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the +pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily +come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen. + +_General Types._--In the designing of out-door furniture there are +two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression. +On the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest +solidity, weight, and permanence. This idea is embodied in walls of +masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or +in some other kind of heavy construction. On the other hand, there +are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the +growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the +so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens. + +_An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood._--A settle designed for +comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the +garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well +protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion is here given for +such a design, laid out on substantial lines. Ordinary 4 × 4 spruce, +planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest +of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the back pieces and +arms, and 7/8-inch boards for the rails and seat. Mortise and tenon +joints should be used in the framing. The illustration shows also a +simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front +posts. It is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat +successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is +designed to be built. + +[Illustration: A garden settle] + +_Concrete Furniture._--Still more substantial out-door furniture +may be made of concrete cement. This material has come into use for +sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry +in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy +building construction. Concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made +by mixing Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right +proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it +to harden. It is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it +is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of +an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide +range of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals, fountains, +window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety, +tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this +material. Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to +many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in +bold design if occasion requires it. In weight and durability it leaves +nothing to be desired. + +_The Wire Form._--Concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. In +its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. It must be +supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape +and until it has hardened. In general there are two methods of giving +the necessary support: _viz._, by employing an interior framework or +skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the +cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material +in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when +hardened. The latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for +commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number +of marketable results from the same moulds. The simpler wooden moulds +may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience +he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form +successfully. For single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire +forms are to be preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method is +found in the following problem: + + +A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE + +The dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of 10 inches +and a height of 8 inches. The wire form must therefore be made to +approximate quite closely to these dimensions. A good material for +the form is galvanized wire lath of 1/2-inch mesh. This problem will +require a piece about 8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex +side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base. From the square +piece a circle 10 inches in diameter should be cut out. A strong pair +of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. In bending the long +piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order +to produce an evenly curved surface--_i. e._, one free from angular +bends. A good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on +a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. If nothing +better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. When the +bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought +together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends +of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers will be of great assistance. +If this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result +a cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular piece should now +be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the +strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching +them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece +where there are uncut meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for +covering with the cement. + +[Illustration: A garden vase] + +The first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the +scratch coat. This is made by mixing Portland cement with fine, clean +sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. These +ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and +then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked +apart. For the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be +needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole +should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. It +is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. A scratch +coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily +spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together. + +When a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it +should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel +or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side +of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first +coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention +whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the +cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will +be held together firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth coat +as a part of the later finishing process. When the convex surface has +been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement +spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. After the wire +has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat +distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true +cylinder has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for about five +hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. It is then ready for +the finishing coat. + +The next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing +coat. Considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour +and other surface effects that are desired. In this design a light, +sparkling surface when finished is required. To produce this effect a +mixture of one part Portland cement and two parts marble dust will be +needed. This should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that +used for the scratch coat. + +Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly +moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. There are various +methods of applying this coat. The simplest is carefully spreading it +on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. When the +surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve +the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. It is +not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet +the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and +yields very satisfactory results. + +[Illustration: A vase with blocked rim] + +_The Decoration._--A great variety of decorative effects may be +obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this +material for out-door use. In pottery these decorations may take the +form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the +surface, and of inlays in colour. Whatever the form of design, the +necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well +set but not very hard--_i. e._, from 6 to 10 hours after the finishing +coat is applied. A stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool +that will be required. A narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable +for deepening the cuts. The knife should be guided by means of a ruler, +which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth +of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work +similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of 3/16 +or 1/4 of an inch is sufficient. This cutting, of course can be made +after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it +will be much more difficult. + +[Illustration: A square form] + +_The Colours._--Colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the +best quality of white Portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry +mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or +cement-proof colours. Among the pigments suitable for this purpose are +red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives +a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of +copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields +a good brown. These come as dry powders and should be mixed with the +dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before +the water is applied. In order to determine the right colour it is +well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients +until a satisfactory shade has been found. Then with this as a guide a +sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions, +to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which +has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To insure +thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be +well moistened with a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs are +shown in the accompanying drawings. + +_Rustic Furniture._--The lighter out-door furniture can be easily made +up in a great variety of designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs +is determined largely by the material which is available. Very useful +and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops +or from branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily found in the +second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material. +It is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks +and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. Chairs, +settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of +furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material. + +[Illustration: A garden screen] + +_Lattice Work._--Trellises and garden screens have been made in an +almost endless variety of forms. Among the most satisfactory is the +plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity and +evident durability are points in its favour. Experience proves also +that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted +to this form of trellis. The size of the stock required in making +the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of +it. For a garden screen the uprights need to be of 2 × 2 inch stock +and of any convenient length. End posts of 3 × 3 inch stock will be +required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long +one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals +of ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be strips of 7/8-inch +stock, 2 inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights. +Spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is +suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights +it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. The +top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3 +inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set +into the ground at intervals of 6 feet, to which the bottom rail or +the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when +the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green paint will protect the +wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches +which it supports. + + + + +VIII + +FINISHING AND RE-FINISHING + +'Tis toil's reward that sweetens industry--_Ebenezer Elliot_ + + +In the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing +to do with the finishing of his work. This essential part of furniture +making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade. In a +separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of +the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner. +It is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of +woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production; +for, however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the +design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture +or other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in +the finishing. + +[Illustration: Finishing a Library Table. Plate VI] + +But the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher. He should +familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be +applied to the different woods. He should know the object of filling +wood and how it is done. He should understand the processes of fuming, +staining, and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the +results desired. + + +CLEANING, SURFACING, AND FILLING + +_First Steps in Finishing._--The first step in finishing woodwork is +to clean it up and prepare it for the filler. Too great care cannot +be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have +occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired +in any part of the process of construction. Light planing, chiselling, +or scraping, and perhaps a little sand-papering, always with the grain, +may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes. The most serious +of these generally result from gluing. All surplus glue should be +carefully removed, even to the film that soaks into the surface of the +wood. The slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of +the wood and show through any kind of finish. + +_Importance of Filling._--As soon as the furniture is thoroughly +cleaned, if it is to be finished in the natural color, the grain of the +wood must be filled with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance, +known as the filler, which, after standing from five to seven minutes, +should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a +handful of shavings. This process, as its name indicates, fills the +pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture +and the consequent swelling. But this is by no means its chief purpose. +Strictly speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent +finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be said to be the most +important operation connected with wood finishing. If improperly done, +no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault. In +fact, good work is impossible after a bad beginning. Good varnishing or +good finishing of any kind requires that, before the final finishing +processes begin, the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth, +free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind +that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate +the wood. If the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the +subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough +surface will be sure to follow. This may, of course, be rubbed down and +re-finished, but never with that perfection of result which is assured +by laying a good foundation in correct filling. It may be set down as +a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is +obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that +the thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required to produce +the desired result. + +_Liquid Fillers or Surfaces._--There are many kinds of fillers in +common use, but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the +other of two classes. They are either liquid fillers or paste fillers. +Woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain. The +coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close +up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary +as a foundation for good finishing. The close-grained woods, on the +other hand, do not present the same filling problem. They could not +absorb a paste filler. In fact, it is hardly too much to say that the +fine, close-grained woods, like maple, gum wood, and birch, do not need +a filler at all; and there are some coarse-grained woods, like southern +or hard pine and cypress, the pores of which are naturally filled with +gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler. +But all such woods _do_ need to be given a finishing surface which will +prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood. +This is the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which are very +properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers." + +_How to Make a Liquid Filler._--A standard formula for the preparation +of a liquid filler is as follows: Mix four parts by weight of carbonate +of soda with six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in about +eight parts of japan, thinning the product with turpentine or benzine +to the consistency of linseed oil. Laundry starch may be used in place +of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application +than the clay filler because it does not settle. It lacks in +durability, however, especially if it is not well covered. The finest +grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler +to give body. A great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which, +without being mixed with anything, will give the necessary surface. + +Glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades of varnish, thinned if +necessary with benzine or turpentine, are often used for this purpose. +But these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should +be used on the best grades of woodwork. Shellac is always preferred +as a first coater for hard pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the +pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain. If +oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting +coat of shellac, the wood blackens with age. Shellac is an excellent +first coater for other woods also. It is commonly used in house +finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. But it dries rapidly, +and generally with a rough surface. The first coating of shellac, +therefore, requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on. + +_Time Needed for a Shellac Coat to Dry._--It may be well to caution +the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying +of shellac. While it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first +drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming a hard coating +which delays somewhat the drying throughout, so that a shellac filling +is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has +been applied, though it may appear to be. It is a good rule to allow at +least twenty-four hours for thorough drying; and it may be well to add +that all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for the best +results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow. + +_Cost of Surfacing._--A practical question that the amateur finisher +will ask is, how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for +given pieces of work, and what will be its cost? For a good quality +of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight +square yards with one coat. The cost varies greatly, depending upon +the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a +dealer. A good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for $1.50 +per gallon, making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about +2-1/2 cents. A small can costs 15 cents. Good work cannot be done with +the cheaper grades of filler. Shellac, which is, all in all, the best +of surfacers, can be bought for $1.85 a gallon, which would make the +cost of surfacing somewhat under 3 cents a square yard. + +_How to Make a Paste Filler._--A good paste filler, such as is required +for the open-grained woods like oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or +white wood, may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base, +thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine, and japan in equal +parts, with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good +paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste. +If the mixture should prove to be a little too thick, it may easily +be thinned with turpentine. The final mixing of this filler requires +grinding in a hand mill. Unless a considerable quantity of it is needed +it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer +in painters' or finishers' supplies, though commercial fillers are +not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula. They often +contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so +satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica. + +_How a Paste Filler is Applied._--Paste fillers should be spread on the +surface to be filled very liberally with a wide, stiff brush, allowed +to stand from five to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece +of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior. But it must not +all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain. This is an easy mistake +for an inexperienced worker to make. The thing to do is to rub it in +and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth. The surfaces should +then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the +final finishing coats. + + +VARNISHING + +The importance of a good foundation surface--even, smooth, and free +from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat +of varnish--has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing. +If this foundation has been well laid, the amateur finisher may enter +upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but he will +soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the +desired results in this part of the finishing process. The selection, +preparation, and application of varnish is a special calling, and great +skill comes only as the result of experience; but certain main facts +and principles are easily learned. + +_How a Good Varnish is Recognized._--It is hardly necessary to say +that a superior varnish must be clear, transparent, and brilliant. +These qualities are always associated with this kind of finish. But +durability is also a necessary quality. An expert will, with his eyes +shut, recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour, which is +to him an agreeable one. He will at once detect inferior grades by the +rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture. The +range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more +varied than in any other finishing material. For fine, artistic work +only the best varnish is allowable; and this may be bought for $3.00 a +gallon. + +_"Sag" and How Corrected._--A good varnish flows easily from the brush, +spreads evenly, and dries slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its +proper distribution over the surface. And time enough should be taken +to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking +due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening. It is of +the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface +when first applied. Great care should be taken not to brush long in +one place. Re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which +are objectionable. Unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes +the varnish to run or "sag." A tendency to sag may be brushed out if +attended to promptly. But, if it is not noticed until the varnish has +begun to set, the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the +thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush; and this +must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been +put on. By that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will +be beyond repairing by any simple means. + +_Time Required Between Varnish Coats._--The best varnishes, as has +been stated, dry quite slowly, and they seem to dry and harden not, as +shellac does, on the top first, but from the under surface outward. +This peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time +between coats. And it should be added that mere drying is not all +that is required. Each coat must harden; and during the process of +hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat +until it becomes permanently set or hardened. The time required for +this permanent setting or seasoning, as it may be called, varies with +the character of the under coat, with the temperature of the room in +which the finishing is done, and with the thickness of the varnish coat +itself. Five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period. +As many weeks would not be too long for the best results. It is folly +to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing. In the nature of the case +it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results. There is no +other kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with the certainty that +it does in varnishing. Great pains must be taken with each coat. Least +of all should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and depth in +the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty +of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish +coat is applied. All this work should be done in a well-lighted room, +free from dust, and with a good supply of fresh air, kept at an even +temperature, of about 70 degrees--certainly not colder than this, since +a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly. + +_Number of Coats Needed._--The number of coats of varnish required vary +with the character of the work. What is known as piano finish requires +from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish, each +well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the +best brushing can give. In addition to these under coats a final finish +coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre. + +_How to Rub Down Varnish._--Rubbing down varnish is a unique and +important part in the process of finishing. The beginning of the +operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized +pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the work is such that +water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood. +Whichever liquid is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary. +This is a block about 4 inches square, made of thick, loose cloth +like felt or hair cloth. In use it is first moistened in the oil or +water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered +pumice. With this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously, giving +a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces. As +the smoothing progresses, less and less of the pumice powder is used. +Near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or +adhering to the rubbing pad. What remains on the surface is finally +all wiped off carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found that +the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine +scratches due to the grains of the pumice. These are removed by a +second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water. + +_Dull Finish and Flat Varnish._--For many purposes good finishing +requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish +coat; and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural +lustre. For furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred. It is more +durable, it harmonizes better with its surroundings, and it is more +in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness. In working for +a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of +surface as it is when a high lustre is required, and therefore fewer +coats are necessary. In fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture +without any varnish at all. Two or three coats of shellac, each well +rubbed down, give a very satisfactory result. Wax finish, to be +described later, gives beautiful effects. There are varnishes known as +flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing. They are made +by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of +the solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and mixing the +wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish. +What is known as the old Dutch finish is obtained by using over the +proper stain one coat of wax varnish. But there is no kind of dull +finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish, +each well rubbed down. + + +WAX FINISH + +_How to Prepare and Apply Finishing Wax._--The simplest and at the +same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is +rubbing it with finishing wax. This is one of the old processes which +has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and +is becoming deservedly popular. Finishing wax may be purchased ready +for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine +in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine. To do this +the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings, placed in a dish, +and covered with the liquid. The solution may be hastened by heating +in a water bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the water, +care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the +turpentine near, on account of the inflammable character of turpentine +vapor. This mixture, which is too thick to spread with a brush, may +be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth. Soft +cloths, like clean cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. The +rubbing should be continued for a considerable time, but it is by no +means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of +varnish. Less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. One of the +greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied +and immediately rubbed down, after which the furniture is ready for +use. Filling and finishing are accomplished together. It is also easy +to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time. In fact, it is desirable to +re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the +first few months of their use, and after that about once a year. + + +STAINING + +_Object of Staining._--Up to this point the processes of finishing +considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural +colour, excepting that it may darken with age. But it is often +desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork--_i. e._, to dye or +stain it. This is done for a variety of purposes--to reduce to one tone +the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind +of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture, to +give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation +of the more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that will harmonize +with various colour schemes. To accomplish this great variety of +results, scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put +upon the market in almost countless shades and tints, but they are all +easily classified under three heads. They are oil stains, water stains, +or alcohol stains. + +_A Perfect Stain._--A perfect stain, if it could be obtained, would +be a clear, limpid liquid, free from all solid particles or specks of +colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere +with the absorption of the filler--so clear and transparent that it +would in no way obscure the grain of the wood, which in many varieties +is the chief element of beauty--so limpid that it would easily soak +deep into the pores of the wood, carrying to a considerable depth below +the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure. + +_Water, Alcohol, and Oil Stains Compared._--The water and alcohol +stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains +do. They are clear, and without body, and they have great penetration. +But they are not free from faults. Many of the water stains are made +from aniline dyes which are not durable. The alcohol stains, however, +are generally permanent. Both the water stains and the alcohol stains +raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners +and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing. The oil stains, +on the other hand, are free from these faults. They spread easily and +evenly, they do not raise the grain, they do not double up or show +laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have a few defects +which overbalance these good qualities. They have considerable body +which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface, +so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or +the alcohol stains do. Their oily nature causes them partly to close +up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent +process of filling. This is so bad a defect that oil stains are not +to be recommended for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which +depends so much on correct filling. They are more successful with the +close-grained woods, which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the +ordinary liquid filler. + +_How Stain is Applied._--If furniture or any kind of woodwork is to +be artificially coloured, staining is the first of the finishing +operations to be attended to. The stain should be spread upon +well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge, and +allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into +the wood. The surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean, +soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have +soaked into the wood, and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect. +After the stained surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to +match the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into the pores, as +already explained in the section on natural finish. The beginner will +need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or +draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much as possible. He +will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or +grease, which will interfere with good results. + +Excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of +dealers in painters' supplies. They will not always produce the effects +claimed for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible to +find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result. They are +somewhat expensive, however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to +develop his own stain. Following are some suggestions along this line: + +_Asphaltum and Golden Oak Stain._--A good chocolate brown stain may +be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish +made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush. +A considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used, but not enough +to make a sticky liquid. This will need to be finished with shellac +or finishing varnish. When applied to quartered oak it produces the +beautiful effect known as golden oak. It may also be used on white wood +to give an imitation of black walnut; and Georgia pine under this stain +takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of +the wood. + +_Mahogany._--A clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining +birch of the right grain with logwood stain. The stain is made by +boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three +hours. While the mixture is hot, chloride of tin is added gradually +until the right shade of colour is produced. The stain should be +allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several coats may be +needed to secure the right depth of shade. The filler used should be +coloured with burnt umber and sienna. The finish may be a brilliant or +a flat varnish, or wax. + +_Baywood as Mahogany._--Mahogany stain is also applied to baywood, +resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany. The genuine +article, however, is an imported wood coming from South America, +Mexico, and Africa in several varieties; and it is a much harder wood +than the American baywood imitation. Both the birch and the baywood +imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is +difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties. + +_Flemish Oak._--The various oak stains are worthy of special mention. +Flemish oak finish is very dark, almost black. It is prepared by first +applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in +the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water. +The solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush. After +drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain +is applied, made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine. This is +allowed to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when the surface +is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied. After a thorough +drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper +and finished with wax. + +_Mission Oak._--The so-called mission oak finish may be in several +colours, but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly +reddish. The stain is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a +little rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine. The mixture +should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining +brush. Wax finish is invariably used for mission oak. + +_Forest Green Oak._--Forest green oak is among the best of the green +effects in this wood. The stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome +green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material. +This is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw +linseed oil, with a little white japan. The resulting stain should be +somewhat thinner than linseed oil. After this has been applied to the +oak surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat of thin shellac +coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline. This should have +a wax finish. + +_Gray Oak._--A gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron +sulphate, made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure +crystals in water, and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by +adding a little sulphuric acid. This solution is most conveniently +used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of +wood to be stained, as they must soak in the solution until they are +thoroughly saturated. The pieces may be kept separate by stout cords +tied around them, and they may be held under the solution by means of +weights. When taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are +rubbed down. + +_Weathered Oak._--Weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces +of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin, dissolving them +separately in about a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved +mixing them together. When applied to oak it gives it the natural +weathered tone with a slight bluish cast. It may then be oiled, +shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax. + +_Fumed Oak and Chestnut._--But the most satisfactory method of giving +a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork, is without question, by +fuming with ammonia, though this process is limited to two woods, +viz., white oak and chestnut. All other woods, including red oak, are +deficient in tannic acid, the essential element to combine with the +ammonia gas in the production of the stain. This method requires a +fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture +to be fumed. It must be carefully constructed with all its joints +made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering +them with shellac. The top or one side of the box should be fastened +with screws, so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use +and yet easily removed. The operation of fuming consists simply in +placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled +with the strongest ammonia--not the household ammonia, which is too +weak--screwing the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus to stand +from 12 to 24 hours, according to the shade desired. If the fuming box +be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good +light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of +colour may be observed without opening the box. When the desired shade +has been obtained and the furniture removed, it is best to give it a +good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture. + +_Peculiarities of Fumed Finish._--It will be observed that the toning +of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain +far better than any other process of staining; and there should also +be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are +the reverse of those given by staining; _i. e._, the parts that appear +lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other. This gives +a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of +detecting that which is not genuine. + + +WHITE ENAMEL + +A vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the +trim of some rooms is white enamel. It is used on new work and also +in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork. In the latter +case the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed and the +surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. But whether the wood be old or +not, a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the +white varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is somewhat +transparent. It is necessary, first, to coat the wood with flat +white--a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening +and thinned with turpentine. Oil should not be used in any part of +the process. Three coats of this paint will generally be needed to +produce the right surface for the final finish. Each of these coats +should be allowed to dry and become well hardened. Two or three days, +better still a week, should be allowed for hardening between coats, +since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats +and develops a tendency to chip off. When a surface is ready for the +enamel, only one coat of it should be applied, and that should be given +not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear. Enamel +is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish. It +may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is applied with a +brush like any other varnish. + + +PROBLEMS + +Problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of +furniture making problems in Chapter VII. It is only necessary +to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it +the finishing methods outlined in this chapter. Our problems are, +therefore, the following: + +_The Knock-down Bookcase._--If made up in white wood it may, like its +original, be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed. It may, +however, be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize with the +furniture with which it is to be used. + +_The Hanging Book Rack._--In the design for this rack it was suggested +that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish, or +of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish. + +_The Umbrella Stand._--Oak was advised for this piece of furniture. It +needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish, +well rubbed down. + +_The Magazine Stand._--Oak was suggested for this stand. The color will +depend upon the surroundings. Filling and varnishing will be required +if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be fumed. + +_The Light Library Table._--Oak was mentioned as a very appropriate +wood for this table, but some lighter wood like ash may be used. It +will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a +paste filler before they are finished. + +_The Heavy Library Table._--As this was designed in the mission style, +oak was chosen as the most suitable wood. It may be given the so-called +mission oak stain and a wax finish. + +_The Round Centre Table._--This may be made in any of the woods +commonly used for furniture, but quartered oak was mentioned. A golden +oak finish will be found very satisfactory. + +_The Bookcase with Glazed Doors._--This may be made up in ash, in +quartered oak, or in gum wood. The finish will depend upon the kind of +wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated. + +_The Library Desk and the Morris Chair._--The originals were made in +quartered oak, fumed, and waxed. + +_The Hall Clock._--This may be made in quartered oak and given a +weathered oak stain and wax finish. + + +RE-FINISHING OLD FURNITURE + +There is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for +pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of +genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished. Some of the rare old +colonial designs are of exceptional merit. This is proved by the high +prices which they often command. These designs originated in the days +of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention of machine-made, +cheap furniture. The work of the older designers was characterized +by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value; and the +craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care +and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality. It +is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much +desired. + +_Caution as to Repairs._--In the work of renovating old furniture, +problems are met which are very different from those which have to be +considered in the production of new work. All questions of design are +settled. There is generally enough of the original article to show what +the design was. The problem is one of restoration; we must supply +the missing parts and re-finish the whole. The first thing to do, +therefore, with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it +over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its +defects, supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the breaks. It +will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on +account of its age, and that it will therefore need to be handled more +carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it will often be found +desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add +new wood to the old. This is especially true of veneering, which cannot +be well matched in any other way. Old bits of veneer, on the other +hand, may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed +that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing. + +_Scraping._--After the necessary repairs have been made, the next +thing to be done is to remove the old finish. If the varnish is dry +and brittle and somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means of a +well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken, however, not to +injure the wood surface, especially at the corners and edges. If the +scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points, fine +sand-papering may be resorted to. It is generally wise, also, to give +the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for +finishing. + +_The Varnish Remover._--It often happens, however, that the scraper +will not accomplish the desired result. In that case the liquid varnish +remover is necessary. This may be found at the paint stores. The best +formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only +to the manufacturers. It is therefore not wise for the young finisher +to attempt to make his own remover. He should provide himself with a +can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture. +After putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes +and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife. +If it doesn't come off readily, it should stand a little longer. The +amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old +finish. But in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and +effectually removed. A putty knife, however, will not remove it all. +After scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from +the corners, a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean +off what remains. It is of the greatest importance that none of the old +varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain. +Either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad +surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on. + +_Re-finishing._--The re-finishing process is much like that described +for new work, the chief exception being that there is generally no need +of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making +the repairs. Generally speaking, the re-finishing begins with the +surfacing, which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the +stain of the furniture. This is sand-papered lightly before receiving +the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the +desired effect. Very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax +finish. + + +PROBLEM: RE-FINISHING AN ANTIQUE MAHOGANY TABLE + +The table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture +shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but +of poor design; for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful +lines. Much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture. +This table, however, when separated from the rubbish which almost +concealed it, was found to have good proportions, with simple but +graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive. It +was a drop-leaf table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve at +each of the four corners. The legs were of turned stock and fluted, +terminating in brass thimbles with casters. One leg was broken off, one +of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other +was partly broken, the table top had received some hard knocks, and +the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with +difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was +made. It took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay +in this much abused and dilapidated old relic. + +The first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as +possible with a damp sponge. The part of the top that remained on the +frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made. The +broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting +them together with a 3/4-inch dowel, glued in. The brass tips and +casters were removed and set aside to be burnished. The missing parts +of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood, fitted in, glued, +and stained to match the original wood. After the necessary repairs had +been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the +old finish scraped off with a putty knife. This part of the process +was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine, +carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners, cracks, and +openings of any kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish +remover. After carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with +clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with +fine sand-paper. It was found that the wood was well filled, so that +all it now needed was a final finishing with wax. The transformation +from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and +beautiful article of antique furniture was complete. + + + + +IX + +HAND WEAVING + + And Aphrodite came to comfort them + With incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine; + And Heré gave them beauty of face and soul + Beyond all women; purest Artemis + Endowed them with her stature and white grace; + And Pallas taught their hands to flash along + Her famous looms. + + The "Daughters of Pandarus" (from the "Odyssey," Lib. XX). + Translation by Mrs. Browning. + + +Among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have +lately revived, perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater +honour than weaving with the hand loom. Weaving is an ancient art. If +we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when +men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the +skins of animals. That was a great change, for it meant the beginning +not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself. It is no +wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient +mythologies. Not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms +of our grandmothers, which played an important part in the early +beginnings of our own history. The New England colonists spoke with +pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth; +and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable +women. It was a work of necessity, but not without love and devotion. +Many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels +of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths--examples +of unfailing patience, great ingenuity, and marvellous skill--handed +down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud +possessors. + +[Illustration: Weaving a Rug. Plate VII] + +_The Primitive Loom._--In the Orient, where our choicest rugs are made, +two trees growing near each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo, +and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires. This is a +primitive loom. The modern hand loom is the same in principle; and the +looms of our factories do not differ from it essentially. While it is +true that their productive power has been enormously multiplied, this +great improvement, which was actually one of the chief causes of a +great industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive genius of +two men who harnessed the motive powers of nature to the English hand +looms. + +[Illustration: Shuttle and bobbin] + +_Warp and Woof._--The fundamental process in all weaving is essentially +the same; and it is exceedingly simple. It consists in passing one set +of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other +alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage +of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread. The set of threads which +cross each other and which, by being moved up and down, interlock the +thread which is passed between them, is known as the _warp_. The thread +which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called +the _woof_. By careful selection of materials, by skilful design in the +dyeing and arrangement of these materials, and by proper management of +the warp and woof to express the design, the most beautiful Oriental +rugs are fashioned; and, though we may not be able to reproduce these +in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon +the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience. + +[Illustration: The hand loom] + +[Illustration: The reed] + +_What the Hand Loom is._--The hand loom consists of four uprights or +posts, joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces. +Attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each +side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give free play back +and forth. This is the beater. These cross pieces are grooved on their +inner edges, and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a frame +divided into sections by short, stiff wires, making from 10 to 25 or +more sections to the inch. It is called a reed because it was formerly +made from reeds. The sections of the reed are called dents, and through +each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp. From the upper +cross pieces extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a height +of about two feet above the general framework. They are united at +the top by a round piece called the roll, over which, near each end, +are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords +fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across +the width of the loom. These sticks are in pairs and carry cords or +wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread +of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire, as through the +dent of the reed. This is called the harness. There must be at least +two of them, and there may be more. Two are necessary for the simplest +weaving of a plain surface, and more than two if the work is to be more +complex, as is required for scarfs with fancy borders, cushions, or +any figured products of the loom. Near each end of the loom are two +rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the +loom is set up for weaving. These rollers are called beams. Over one of +them the woven product passes as the loom is operated, while the other +holds the unwoven warp. At the back of the loom is still another cross +piece, underneath which pedals are fastened. These pedals connect by +chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed +on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing +the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of +the other set or sets of warp threads. An ingenious device of cogs at +the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let +out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work. + + +THE PROCESS + +_Preparing the Warp._--When the essential parts of the hand loom and +their uses are understood, the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready +the warp and attach it to the machine. The thread or warp is taken +from spools or cones, four threads at one time, which constitute what +is called a bout. After determining how many threads will be required, +allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth, the +operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long. With the +width, the length, and the number of threads to the inch in mind, she +proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount +until she has it all in one great skein. In putting this upon the bars +or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout--_i. e._, each +four threads--so that one bout shall go above and one below, in order +to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks or +leash-sticks. These attachments keep the order of the threads so that +they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are +wound on the beam. + +_Warping the Loom._--To warp the loom the operator loosens one end of +the skein and, passing it from the warping bars to the loom, attaches +it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after carefully +dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed. At this point an +attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a +certain number of threads placed in each division. By the aid of the +lease-sticks, which are inserted, and with the assistance of a second +person to hold the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the beam. The +rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece. + +[Illustration: Warping hook] + +_Drawing in the Warp._--As has already been explained, two harnesses +only will need to be used for simple weaving. Taking the first bout +of four threads, the weaver draws the first thread through the centre +of the first loop in the first harness, or the one to which the +right-hand pedal is attached. The next thread is put through the centre +of the first loop of the second harness, or the one attached to the +left-hand pedal. The third is drawn through the second loop of the +harness connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth, in turn, +through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal. +Great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a single +misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done +over again. A special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the +warp. When the drawing in is completed properly, the operator begins +at the right-hand side of the loom and, measuring the reed, allows +one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each +thread through each dent in regular order. When this is done it is only +necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by +means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom, test the +work, and proceed joyously with the weaving. + +_Beating Up the Woof._--The weaver presses the right-hand pedal, and +every alternate thread separates from the other, leaving a space +between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from +right to left, carrying the woof threads through. The operator then +draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings +home the beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. A sheer fabric +requires a light stroke of the beater, while firm cloth requires more +force. Releasing the right pedal, the operator presses the left, which +causes the warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof threads +just thrown. The shuttle now passes from left to right, carrying +through another woof thread which, in turn, is beaten up as before. So +the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating +from right to left and from left to right, interspersed with the +strokes of the beater. + +[Illustration: Hand-Made Towels. Plate VIII] + + +PROBLEM: MAKING A RUG + +_The Design._--This problem, like all others in house decoration, +involves in its initial stages questions of design. Before +planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to +have--whether it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room, +or a chamber, and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or +with a carpet. This is a question of colours, and of materials; for +the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour, not only in +the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which +it should harmonize, and the materials used must not display glaring +inconsistencies of texture. Unless the beginner has special talent as +a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many +colours in one piece of work. If the warp is dark it is usually better +to use light or medium woof. If several shades are used in the body of +the rug, better results are obtained by using for the border or end +decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with +the principal colours of the body of the rug. + +[Illustration: Hand-Made Rugs. Plate IX] + +_Materials: Denim._--There are many materials suitable for rug making. +Denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen. This should +be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size. In preparing +the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into +strips from 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch wide. The latter width is better. +In cutting, the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut +end along the selvedge, forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of +45 degrees. Crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along +the fold. With a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off +lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width +for the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain a true bias. +When a sufficient amount has been cut, the pieces should be ravelled +or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button +hook. There is a certain knack in this, but it is soon acquired. The +fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means +of overhand stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting corners. The +moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof, as soon as it is +prepared, is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for +filling the shuttle. A special form of shuttle without a bobbin or +spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving. Its simple +construction is shown in the illustration. The woof is wound endwise +and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle. + +[Illustration: Shuttle for woof cloth] + +Another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of +woollen cloth. Warm, durable, and handsome effects may be obtained by +using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the +end decoration, with set figures for the body of the rug. Geometric +designs, arrows, swastika, the pine tree, and many other forms are +possible. Very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber +use. Materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses, +discarded silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully with one or two +plain colours reserved for use in the borders. + +_Combination of Blue and White._--Blue and white is always a happy +combination; and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven, to be +placed perhaps in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old blue with +a white warp, combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe. +A vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and +white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white +or blue between the two. Another happy combination of blue and white +results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel, cut +and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim, with a border of +old blue and figures of the same colour. For a chamber or for a bath +room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired. + +_A Weaving Design._--It has just been said that design in rug making is +a question of colours and of materials. It is already apparent that it +is more than that. It is largely a question of procedure in the process +of weaving. That this is so may be shown in the following account of +the making of a blue and white rug. The thought was to produce a rug +with five stripes of blue running lengthwise, with white figures at +regular intervals through the middle of the rug. To accomplish this +result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness +every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side, thus making +what may be called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will be +easily seen, had to appear to the number of five on each side when the +rug was woven. The white figures were formed by first throwing the +blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle +and, before beating it up, threading into the warp white cloth in the +desired pattern, after which the woof and pattern were beaten up +together. For the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were +used, two of which were 6 inches in length and three 2 inches, the two +longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated. A +space of 7 inches was left between the white figures, the location of +which was carefully determined by counting the threads, both of warp +and of woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right +place. The result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug. + +[Illustration: White figure in blue rug] + +_Another Example of Weaving Design._--This feature of rug designing +is capable of indefinite expansion. Perhaps one more example may be +given. The object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an +8-inch border all around of a darker colour. This effect was produced +by first weaving 8 inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed +goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily. Having reached +the place where the medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this +medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short +pieces of woof of the border colour so that, as the weaving progressed +along the length of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared +in its proper place but 8 inches of border on each side. When the +proper length of the centre had been woven, the rug was finished by +weaving another 8 inches of the border colour. The result was a rug of +individuality and charm. + +_Great Variety of Material._--Endless combinations will occur to any +one who becomes interested in this captivating art. The field for +colour design is almost without limit. No material is so old and +useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker. Old bed ticking +with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable +combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border. A +charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which +was ravelled from an old raw silk portière of a mahogany shade and +wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls being +rewound several times. This was used as the woof for the centre of +the rug. The border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled +mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give thread of a size equal +to that of the tan cloth. Discarded clothing in which the prevailing +colours are red, when made up into woof threads and woven on a white +warp, gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down +by a border combination as desired. Dyes may, of course, be used if the +colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded +clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out. + +_Weaving the Rug._--When the design for the rug has been thoroughly +worked out, determining the colours, materials to be used, and +the method of procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be +prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as already explained in +the discussion of the general process of weaving. Further details of +procedure are not needed here. The thing to do is to weave a rug as +designed. The next thing to do is to design and weave another rug, and +then another and so on. As in most crafts so in weaving, experience +is the great teacher--a teacher who demands faithful work, who finds +lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every +success. Some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated +opposite page 252. + +Rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore +a good problem with which to begin. After serving a satisfactory +apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient +knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more +difficult problems. This will take her out into a large field of +opportunity. Portières, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads, +and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest +themselves to the ambitious worker. In all these, as has been seen in +the case of rug making, design is all important. The management of the +loom is much the same in all plain weaving. What differences there +are will be found, for the most part, in the weaving designs. In the +following problems are described some of the special features involved +in the other forms of weaving. + + +PROBLEM: PORTIÈRES AND COUCH COVERS + +_Suggestions for the Design._--If the loom is wide enough these may +be woven in one piece; but usually it is necessary to weave them in +sections or breadths. In this case, of course, they must be afterward +neatly joined. The possibilities in colour design are naturally varied. +They may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the +colour of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with striped +ends. Harmony of colour effects is always to be sought. Depth and +richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a +generous use of black. Materials may be yarns, bits of silk or velvet, +or pieces of fine, soft woollen goods. The warp may be silk or linen +or mercerized cotton. Beautiful portières have been woven by leaving +out two threads of warp at regular intervals, giving a loose and fluffy +effect. Silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating +with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade; and, if +of the same colour as the warp used, they will impart a very decided +tone to the whole product. In portières, the general appearance is +much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp. The +soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more +suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portières. +Couch covers, however, which will have to resist more wear and tear, +should be beaten up harder. In preparing the silk and wool pieces the +cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by carefully lapping +the ends, and, by cutting away a part of the cloth, making the joint +uniform in size. If the material is cloth of ordinary thickness 1/2 +an inch is quite wide enough for strips. The length of the pieces used +may vary greatly, though they may be somewhat different in colour. They +may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave +an inch in the portière or cover. This makes it very easy to secure +a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short +pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads +for these products of the loom. Almost any household will be able to +save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful +pair of portières or a couch cover which will be durable in quality, +easy to clean, attractive in colour, and satisfactory from every point +of view. + + +PROBLEM: WINDOW DRAPERIES AND CURTAINS + +_The Design._--Curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the +simple loom with two harnesses. They may be of the soft cream tint, +the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which, in +softening the light passing through them, leaves little to be desired. +But if a little colour be required, the weaving design may be easily +changed to secure this result. One may, for example, weave at first 7 +inches of the plain cream. This will give woven material enough for +a 2-inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and 5 inches before the +beginning of a coloured border. The border may consist of two threads +of colour alternating with two threads of the cream, thus making a +stripe of about 7 inches in width. Following this may come 8 to 10 +inches of the plain cream, followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the +same colour as the border, 3 inches wide, in turn followed by another +10 inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and so on, +alternately, until the required length of the curtain has been woven. +If desired, a top border may be woven in, though it is well to make it +somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom--say about 5 inches--and +it must be added so that it will show below the hem. In any case the +top of the curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming, and +also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain. +Vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains, especially if the +room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible +means for making it seem higher. Such stripes may be made by using two +colours for the warp--as, for example, blue and white or green and +white--with one of these colours as woof. + +[Illustration: An Alcove With Window Draperies, Pillow Covers, Window +Seat Cover, Chair Seat and Moss Green Rug. All Hand Woven] + +_Importance of Selecting Good Warp._--The successful working out +of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of +materials. While many things may be used for warp with a certain +degree of success, there are fine points to be observed in weaving as +in all the art-crafts, and the real beauty of the result depends upon +giving due attention to these points. It is always well to remember +that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part. Mercerized +cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a +combination of both, and retains its beauty after being laundered many +times. In the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk, +at a much less cost. But silk may often be obtained at a low price +if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill. Bargains in +small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver +may do wonders; and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed +at small expense. Our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week +or more, boiled them, and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp. +They were, in fact, very particular about their warping threads. Not +everything would suit them. They learned from experience that the +wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and +harder twisted than the filling. It was common for them to spin a +certain thread for this purpose. Exquisite results follow the use of +a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for +filling. Striking and beautiful also, in its way, is the very coarse +linen warp. + +_Variety in Woof Threads._--A very pleasing effect in sash curtains +or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy +threads alternately with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins, +one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one. Two or more +threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer +prompts; and this style of weaving may be confined to borders, leaving +the body of the fabric plain, or the borders may be woven of the solid, +heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the +alternate coarse and fine threads. Such curtains are very beautiful in +cream white; but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the +curtains may be successfully laundered. + + +PATTERN WEAVING + +Before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be +necessary to explain in general two important processes. The first +one is the process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing. Among the +heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white +coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels. No +one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see +these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the +wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they +were once well known; for our grandmothers designated these designs by +such names as Spring Flowers, Governor's Garden, the Path of the Roses, +Flowers of Lebanon, Ladies' Delight, Fairies Ring, and doubtless by +many more names which have been lost. This work in pattern design is +wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses, right and left, as +used in the first three problems, but by the use of several additional +harnesses. + +_To Be Learned by Experimenting._--If the beginner in weaving has +mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible +to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a +pattern weaving loom. But the procedure is too technical and too varied +to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for +amateurs. It is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind +under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step +by step. Nor will it be possible, in a brief description of this +somewhat intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving +designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving. +Copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study +and practice. After a little it will be possible to make variations and +so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate +new patterns. + +[Illustration: Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover, Slumber Robe +and Pillow Covers. Plate X] + +[Illustration: A written pattern with a variety of figures woven from +it] + +_How Patterns Are Written._--Complete working directions for pattern +weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter; but it may be +possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be +of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself +this interesting application of the art of weaving. Patterns for this +work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section +paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration, +each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses +of the loom and the pedal attached to it. If we have a four-harness +loom, as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the +figures illustrated, the right-hand pedal and the harness connected +with it, which is the one farthest from the operator, are designated +by the number 1, and correspond to that harness number in the pattern. +Following in order, the next three pedals and connected harnesses +are numbered 2, 3, and 4 to correspond with the same numbers in the +pattern. Turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern, we shall +find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that when +the pattern is "drawn in"--_i. e._, when the warp for weaving the +pattern is attached to the loom--we shall find the thread of the warp +which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark +on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to +the number of the harness through which it is drawn. Thus, according to +the pattern shown in the illustration, the first thread is to be drawn +into the 3d harness, the 2d thread into the 4th harness, and 3d thread +into the 3d harness, and so on alternately until we reach the 8th +thread, which is drawn into the 2d harness; the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, +and 12th threads are drawn alternately into the 2d and 3d harnesses, +and the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th are drawn alternately into the +1st and 2d harnesses. This process is now continued, as will be clearly +understood by reference to the pattern, up to and including the 42d +thread, when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed. +A further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines 3 and 4 +form a continuously alternating series; and similarly that those on +2 and 3, 1 and 2, and 1 and 4 form also a continuously alternating +series. But these numbers, however paired, correspond to the harnesses +into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers 1 to 42, are +drawn. It thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads +as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the +pattern, we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns. +We must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same +order as those already drawn in, thus repeating the drawing in of the +pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be +woven. The illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern. + +_Operation of the Harnesses._--Having explained the method of drawing +in the pattern, we may now study the movement of the harnesses +necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern. It +has been noted that, with the pattern under consideration, harnesses +1 and 3 hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads, leaving +harnesses 2 and 4 to take up all the intervening warp threads. If +then the operator should throw down pedals 1 and 3 together, and +alternately 2 and 4 also together, the warp threads would be crossed +exactly as in plain weaving. Bringing out a pattern in weaving must, +of course, require a variation of the pedal movement from that used +in plain weaving. Now, upon reference to the illustration it will +also be noted that in writing the pattern, or in drawing it in, no +two threads have ever come together on the same harness. If the 1st +thread has been drawn into the 3d harness, and the 2d thread into the +4th harness, as shown in the pattern illustrated, the operator begins +the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the 3d and 4th pedals +together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread. +This operation is what weavers call a "pick." Each pick of the pattern +thread is represented in the diagram (page 268) by a broken black line +running across the pattern. Thus the diagram of the first design shown +indicates that there are 6 throws of the shuttle alternately over and +back, or 6 picks of the pattern thread, for each corresponding section +of this design. But between every two picks of the pattern thread there +must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring, as has already been +explained, the pressing down of either the 1st and 3d pair of pedals +together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of the 2d +and 4th if thrown from the left side. It is evident, then, that there +must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads. One of +these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern +weave. The shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a +fine thread of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation +according to the design of the weaver. The pattern weaving shuttle +should carry a coarser thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or +mercerized cotton. + +_Variations in Pattern._--From the fact that a carefully written +pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern +weaving, one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely +followed in the weaving process. And so it must if the pattern be woven +as written; but, after the drawing in, it is by no means necessary to +follow the written pattern. As the weaving progresses it is easy to +see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing +in--patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each +other. In fact, one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is +to devise ways of modifying simple patterns, elaborating them into +new weaving designs, producing unique and sometimes very interesting +original figures. We have only to remember that patterns are made by +the order and number of the overshots--_i. e._, the throws of the +shuttle carrying the pattern threads--and that the overshots in the +same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair. In +the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by 2 and 3, by 1 and +2, by 1 and 4, or by 3 and 4, not counting 1 and 3 and 2 and 4, which +are the pairs for plain weaves. We should also remember that the last +end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next. Examples of +two variations in design that may be woven from the original written +pattern, to which we have already referred, are illustrated in the +diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible. + + +PROBLEM: A BORDERED TABLE SCARF + +This problem will require the use of the four-harness loom. The first +thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw +it in. When the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun, the +first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth. +In doing this, however, we shall, of course, find that the pressing +of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not +accomplish the desired result; for it has already been explained that +the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to +produce a plain weave. It will be remembered that to do plain weaving +with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page +268, it is necessary to press pedals 1 and 3 together alternately with +2 and 4--_i. e._, both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same +time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate +movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving. + +When a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven, the written +pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully +consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order +for the weaving of the pattern. The second or weaving shuttle carries +the bobbin, which is filled with the colour required in the pattern. +Any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by +inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour. + +_The Design._--A great variety of design is possible in table scarfs. +It is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have +been chosen, following this by a few threads of white, and this in +turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight +suggestion of the pattern, then more of the plain white and finally +the full pattern of the border. The centre of the table scarf is simply +a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour, +while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and +bands as were woven at first, but in the reverse order. + +_Variations in Design._--One pleasing style of decoration is found +in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between. +Another variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow ones +at short intervals throughout the length. Shadow borders, so-called, +are also common, and may alternate with borders of colour or may +constitute the entire decoration. Shadow borders are heavy borders +woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a +contrasting shade. In order to make them stand out well it is necessary +to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders. A gray +linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect. +There is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders. It +is obtainable in dainty colours, and the heavy thread seems to bring +out the patterns in greater perfection. Darning silks in fast colours +are also employed, but these should be woven double in order to obtain +the best effect. They are found in the market in short lengths and in +such attractive colours as Delft blue, reseda green, pink, and catawba. +The last two colours, used with linen in the natural shade, make a +happy combination. + +Scarfs should be woven from 20 to 24 inches wide and about 1-1/2 yards +long, unless some special use requires that they should be of different +length. Not only do they make pleasing table covers, but they are +useful as tray cloths, and from them charming sewing or embroidery +aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with ribbons, +and arranging pockets to hold the work. One scarf will make two aprons. +Fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs, but +the width needs to be only 8 or 10 inches. These may be woven of the +pattern throughout, or they may be striped with bands or borders. +Lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very much +admired for embroidery and other fancy work. + + +DYEING + +In the discussion of the problem of hand weaving, frequent reference +has been made to the use of coloured materials. While it is possible to +obtain many good colours in the market, it is much more satisfactory +to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot. In former +times, when hand weaving was general, there was no other way; and, +in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered now, as they were +then, sister arts. When the wool was washed, carded into rolls, spun +into yarn, and again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking, +still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before +weaving it into cloth. One notable exception was found in the natural +gray homespun, which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black +and the white sheep carded together. The modern worker with the hand +loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a +knowledge of the art of dyeing. Seldom will she find at hand just the +shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven. Much +of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs, for example, +will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one +for the labour of weaving it up in that condition. And even the new +material, which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving, for +pattern weaving, and for use in borders, will often need a bath in the +dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed. + +_Some Good Points in Dyeing._--Good results in dyeing are obtained by +using the prepared dyes of the markets, mixing together more than +one colour often, after some experimenting, in order to produce the +desired shade. Instead of mixing the dye one may, if she chooses, dye +first in one colour and top off with another. A fine permanent green +is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a +blue bath. Green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue +but a blending of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing. In all +cases it is better to make the dye bath weak, leaving the article to be +dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in +a stronger dye. The advantage is not only greater permanency of colour +but also greater certainty in the result; for one can watch the process +of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark. +The material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically +all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade +nor crock. + +_Some Common Dyes._--The dull, soft colours, made generations ago +from barks and teas with alum as a mordant, had artistic qualities +and were generally permanent. It is well worth while to experiment in +this direction. Straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb +saffron; orange comes from madder and fustic; yellow is obtained +from powdered dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of +copperas give a good black dye, useful also in freshening black yarns +that have acquired a dull or faded colour. White maple bark boiled +in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first +treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum. A +permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a +piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it. In fact, nearly +everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye. Vegetable +substances are generally in themselves more permanent, but most dyes +need to be fixed or "set" by the use of some mordant. All this will +mean much experimenting, of course, unless one is fortunate enough to +possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants, +kettles of brass, and vessels of pewter. The use of the prepared dyes, +which may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is generally +satisfactory and of course somewhat easier; and yet the interest which +inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire +to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and +fascinating home industry. + + + + +X + +POTTERY + +To watch a potter thumping his wet clay--_Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam_ + + +The boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in the sun, and the Indian +who, ages ago, coiled clay in a basket which he burned away, are but +two widely separated links in a continuous chain; for men of all time +have found a fascination in the wet clay that is so easily moulded +and fashioned into all manner of things of beauty and of use. And, +beside the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has also +been the spur of a common need to inspire men of different races, +independently of each other, to develop the primitive household arts, +like pottery and rug making, by the use of methods no less remarkable +for their similarity than for their cleverness. The impressions +that the primitive man received from his natural surroundings were +easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably not long +before he discovered that fire made them permanent and practically +indestructible. Improvement was bound to come in due time. By +washing the grosser impurities from the clay mud through a process in +which the heavier particles settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to +be poured off, some artist of a very early time found a material that +became one of his most valuable helps in adding to the furnishings of +his tribal household. First it was simply burned clay; but in due time +enamel or glazed work found its use in tiles for building purposes, in +grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds of table ware; for the uses of +ancient terra cotta and porcelain were numerous. + +[Illustration: Girls at Work on Pottery. Plate XI] + +The primitive arts, however, were not confined to objects of necessary +use. We find, buried with the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences +of the potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating the +home, for personal adornment, and for religious use, like the rings +and scarabs of Egypt. And in modern decorative art, as applied in the +household, the one final touch which gives that indescribable charm, +which it is the aim of all art to give, is perhaps to be found in a +few--a very few--choice bits of pottery. + +All of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric times to the +finest product of modern skill, is based on a plain scientific fact, +_viz._, that a small quantity of water in the clay, not removable by +any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out by intense heat so as +to cause a permanent change in the character of the clay. This water is +called the water of combination. If the clay is not heated more than +enough to dry it, a later mixing with water restores it to its former +plastic state; but clay once burned has lost its water of combination +and never can return to its original condition. + +Most beginners in clay modelling will expect, perhaps in the early +stages of their work, to be made acquainted with the potter's wheel; +for who has not heard of this interesting device? It is of interest +chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture of pottery; +and yet no one can forget the potter's song with which Longfellow +begins his beautiful poem Keramos, making it a text for a sermon on the +philosophy of life: + + "Turn, turn, my wheel! Turn round and round + Without a pause, without a sound; + So spins the flying world away! + This clay, well mixed with marl and sand, + Follows the motion of my hand; + For some must follow, and some command, + Though all are made of clay!" + +_Potter's Wheel Unnecessary._--The potter's wheel was used in +comparatively early times and has been intimately associated with the +art ever since. But it requires much physical strength and considerable +skill to use it effectively; and its use has been by no means +universal. We find the Indians of our own time and people of other +races, expert in building pottery by hand, using the method of coiling. +It seems best, therefore, to advise beginners to adopt the simpler +method and to forego the use of the potter's wheel. The comparative +inexpensiveness of the hand method of building is another point in its +favour. The tools required are few and simple. Inexpensive and easy +methods are favourable to the experimental stage; and it is well for +the amateur to have every encouragement to experiment freely both with +methods for building and with designs for his ware, keeping in mind +always that the beautiful is generally the simple and strong, not the +fantastic and complicated. + +_The Method of Coiling._--It will be understood, therefore, that in +general the process to be followed consists in building up the bowl or +jar or whatever the design may be by using coils of clay of the right +consistency, welding and shaping them together, and scraping them down, +if necessary, until they are ready to receive the first firing. After +this they may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again. At first +the beginner will find his chief interest simply in experimenting with +the building up process. + + +MATERIALS AND TOOLS + +The materials and tools needed are as follows: Clay; oil-cloth, 18 +inches square; cotton cloth or flannelette, 18 inches square; a few +simple modelling tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, 6 +ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate. + +_Clays._--It will be necessary to add a word of explanation in order +that these materials and tools may be well selected. There is a +great variety in clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for +flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain. The latter +is called kaolin and is very pure. A good modelling clay may be +obtained from dealers in school supplies or from potteries. In some +localities, especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or other +clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be easily found. But, however +obtained, some experimenting will be necessary to test its suitability. +The modelling clay is probably the least liable to yield disappointing +results. + +The cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened and used to wrap +up the clay in order to keep it from drying too rapidly during the +intervals when it is set aside. This will not be necessary during the +early part of the process, for then it is desirable for the clay to +stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural means. + +[Illustration: Simple tools used in pottery] + +Of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled from hard wood. +They are not expensive, however, and the beginner will perhaps find it +well to obtain most of them from a dealer in artists' materials. The +accompanying illustration shows some of these, among them a very useful +tool (F) with brass wire loops which are in turn wound with finer +wire. F and C are especially useful for scraping clay too soft to be +easily managed with smooth edges. The thumb-like tool A is perhaps the +most generally useful of those shown here. + +In this connection it is well to emphasize the fact that _the greatest +of all tools is the human thumb_. Cultivate its use. Most modelling and +building can be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers. + +_The Bat and How Made._--A plaster of paris bat will be found +exceedingly useful. A sheet of thin, unsized paper serves well, +however, for a surface on which to build; but the dry plaster of +the bat absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and hastens +the stiffening process. This bat can be easily made. Take a small +quantity of water (a half pint or more according to the size of +the bat required), sift into this from the hand an equal amount of +plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little dry plaster appears +at the surface. After a little more vigorous stirring let it rest a +few minutes and then pour it into tin pans which are 4 or 5 inches in +diameter by 1 inch deep. The pans should be previously coated on the +inside with a thick soap solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water +to the consistency of a thick cream. The bats will harden in 10 or 15 +minutes and may be easily removed from the pan, ready for use. + + +PROBLEM: A BOWL FOR FLOWERS + +This problem naturally divides itself into six important steps, as +follows: The design or profile; building and shaping; decoration, if +any; firing (bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze. + +[Illustration: Variety in dimensions] + +_The Design or Profile._--As in all problems of decoration the first +step is found in design. For present purposes we may consider a bowl +as having a diameter as great as or greater than the height. The bowl +will be more interesting from the standpoint of variety if there is +a difference between its height and its greatest diameter, and also +between its diameters at the top and at the bottom. The accompanying +drawing shows such differences. + +[Illustration: Suggestive profiles] + +Another example of the value of variety is to be found in the curve +of the profile. A line that is simple but constantly changing in its +degree of curvature--as, for example, an elliptical curve--is more +pleasing than an arc of a circle, which is sometimes called the curve +of limitation. It should be noted that a curved form, in order to be +forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination with others +which are subordinate. The profiles illustrated in the following +drawings have this dominant element and are in no case composed of arcs +of circles. These varied, interesting, yet simple lines--live lines +as they are sometimes called--consisting in each case of only two or +three elements, are given here merely as suggestive material. A little +experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities in strong, forceful +curves, and the young student is advised to make many experiments in +the effort to discover such possibilities. An example of profiles to +be avoided is given in Problem II, on page 309. That these are +vase forms and not bowl contours is immaterial. _A_ is commonplace +because the two parts of the curve are too much alike. _B_ is unrestful +in its three curves of nearly equal size. If the suggestive profiles +illustrated in the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it will be +noted that very few of them seem as pleasing as before. It will be +found also that a different ratio of height to diameter will give very +different effects with the same profile. A bowl having top and bottom +alike may, so far as design is concerned, be classed with the pill +box. We don't know which is the top until we have spilled the pills. +If attractive pieces of pottery are found with the top and bottom of +equal diameter and with curves in themselves objectionable, it will +invariably be found that the attractiveness consists in some beauty of +glaze, colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to conceal the +defects of form. + +_Natural Forms._--It may be well to add a word here in regard to the +imitation of natural forms in designing the general shape of any piece +of pottery; and that word is a very brief one. Avoid them. Nature is a +great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery her suggestions +are to be used as decorative elements rather than for fundamental +shapes. A fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate; +but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not take the form of a fish, +might reasonably have a fish as an element of its decoration. + +_Testing Profiles._--A good way to study the effect of the profile of +both sides of the bowl is to fold the paper on which the profile is +drawn vertically through the centre and transfer the line reversed +by rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other half of the +drawing in exact symmetry. When the general shape of the profile has +been tested in this way one side should be redrawn carefully; then, +with the paper folded along the centre line, so that the pencil line +falls outside, the whole form may be cut out; and then it may be +unfolded. The next step is to begin to build up the design in clay. + +_The Building._--Roll out a coil of clay a little thicker than the +bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps 3/8 or 1/2 of an inch will serve, +since the bottom is to be hollowed slightly by scraping. The roll +should be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible, in +order that it may not become too dry. Upon the piece of paper or the +plaster bat start to coil the roll from the centre until the desired +size is reached, then smear the rolls together, working toward the +centre. Turn the coil over and work the other side together, truing up +the circle and making the bottom of uniform thickness. Avoid the use +of water in smoothing the coils together. It may seem to make the work +easier, but it softens the clay and invites careless work. + +[Illustration: Manipulating the coil] + +With another coil begin to build up the sides, making a complete +circle, and, having pinched off the ends where they meet, join them +carefully. Lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each coil +firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them together as in the +base. The process is illustrated in the drawing. If the clay is very +soft, the work may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning +is made upon other pieces. It is well to have two or three pieces in +the process of construction at the same time. + +_Testing the Work._--A template or gauge will be needed to test the +work as it progresses from the first rough stages to the finish. This +is made of card-board by cutting out an exact copy of the profile, +leaving at the bottom sufficient width to insure rigidity when the +template is held upright on the table or bat. + +[Illustration: A template] + +As the work goes on, if the design requires that the form should be +"brought in" toward the top, the coil must be laid a little inside of +the profile desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the diameter +slightly. In all the building, allowance should be made for this +enlargement. When the coil is high enough and of the shape desired, +it should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough to handle. +With the various modelling tools the surface should then be scraped +wherever it is necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to give a +symmetrical shape to the desired profile. + +[Illustration: Scraping a square form] + +A drawing is shown to illustrate the process of scraping. The surface +should be left smooth and even; and this may be accomplished without +water or sponge. The flat sides of the scraping tool may be used to +polish the clay as soon as it becomes leather hard--_i. e._, hard and +stiff, but before it begins to whiten and dry. + +The lip or top of the bowl will require special attention. It will +probably need to be thinned down and have all sharp edges removed. Then +the bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom hollowed out to +a depth of 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch, leaving a "foot" or rim around the +outside of the circle to give it steadiness. + +_The Decoration._--After the bowl is complete as to its general form, +the problem of its decoration, if there is to be any, must be solved. +This may be studied during the intervals when it is necessary to set +the bowl aside to harden. If the form and colour are good, the bowl may +possess a charm that will not be improved by decoration. On the whole, +less decoration, rather than more, should be the aim. The three vases +illustrated at the top of a following page are examples of pottery +without decoration. (See page 308.) + +[Illustration: Bowls. Plate XII] + +Generally speaking, bowls like the one we are building may be decorated +by one of three methods: By sinking lines or channels in its surface by +means of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (D, page 285); by modelling or +carving the surface; or by painting the surface with coloured "slip" or +with coloured glaze. It should be explained that "slip" is a mixture +of clay and water of the consistency of cream; it may be coloured +or uncoloured. A combination of two or more of these methods is, of +course, possible. Examples of the first two methods are shown in the +illustrations of bowls, vases, and tiles. A combination of the first +and third methods was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row +shown in Plate XIV opposite page 316. + +[Illustration: Spacing in decoration] + +_Classes of Decoration._--The _form_ of the decoration is simply a +matter of space division, as illustrated by two examples shown below. +It is evident, too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned, +divides itself naturally into three general classes: (a) The horizontal +band; (b) the vertical division; (c) a combination of these two. The +last will prove to be the most common of the three. It should be noted +that an all-over pattern, which has been left out of consideration as +tending to monotony, would commonly be a combination of both horizontal +and vertical methods of division. It should be noted also that the +presence of other than vertical and horizontal lines in pottery +decoration does not affect the main classification. Typical examples +of these divisions are illustrated in both bowls and vases, as well +as in the cuts A and B. It will be seen in each case that one scheme +or the other predominates and that there are possibilities for great +variation in treatment. + +Analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations, we find that +the band or horizontal scheme offers a succession of large and small +spaces, giving variety and rhythm. In many of those patterns showing +the combination type there is a concentration or "knotting" of the line +at regular intervals, frequently at the intersection of both horizontal +and vertical elements. This is well illustrated by the left-hand bowl +of the middle row shown in this plate opposite page 294. When +the method of painted decoration is employed the concentration point is +composed of mass instead of line. All this serves to give emphasis and +rhythm. + +For subject matter in decoration natural forms may be used as shown in +the vase at the left of the top row illustrated in Plate XIII, +opposite page 312. Or an abstract arrangement of lines may be employed, +as shown in its nearest neighbour, which may or may not have had its +origin in a very much conventionalized natural motif. The essential +thing to remember is that the divisions of spaces must be varied and +rhythmic and the decoration suited to the method of application. + +_How the Design is Applied to the Clay._--After the design has been +studied as much as possible on paper it should be planned out on the +bowl with a soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised +line or channel to be made. The clay should be leather-hard--_i. e._, +stiff but not dry. The spacing around the circumference should be made +exact, deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing of the paper +drawing. A good way to manage this important step in the process is to +measure the circumference at the point of greatest width with a narrow +strip of paper and then to divide this circumference by folding the +paper evenly into the number of units desired. By wrapping the paper +around the bowl again the points of division may be transferred to the +clay and then projected upward or downward vertically to the belt that +it is desired to meet. It is necessary to make sure that the vertical +lines are true "meridians" and do not swerve to the right or the left. +In order to test the horizontal lines, measurements may be made from +top or bottom. All of this work is best done free-hand; for, aside from +the value of the eye training derived, hand-built pottery is seldom +exact enough to permit of a more mechanical method of planning its +decoration. + +The drawing on the clay having been completed, the next point is to +choose the tool best fitted for the work and carefully make the cuts, +deepening them from time to time as the work progresses. If the design +is to be worked out in line, a chisel, like that illustrated in D (page +285), may be whittled from a pine stick. It is held nearly +upright and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow channel. +Reserve should be exercised in cutting, because, generally speaking, +there is danger of making the design too insistent. Some of the best +designs are very subtle and quiet. Care should be taken, however, to +allow for a slight filling in of the hollow by the glaze when it is +applied. + +_Modelling a Decoration._--If the decoration is to be modelled it would +seem wise to do it, in whole or in part, as the work is built up; but +in this case great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the +relief and unity of the decoration. It will be easy to over-model the +work. + +_How Under-glaze is Applied._--For decoration with under glaze the +colours given under the head of glazing (page 304) are mixed +in different proportions with dry powdered clay and water to form a +colour paste. This is painted on the "green" or moist clay, forming +a smooth and even surface. Experience will teach the proportions of +colour to be mixed with the clay. These proportions vary greatly with +different colours. A very strong colour like cobalt will give a deep +blue if mixed in the ratio of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts +of clay. Colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of medium +strength, and antimony is quite weak. + +Before the work is left to dry it would be well to make sure that +all corners and rough edges are smoothed off as they will show light +and rough through the glaze. The use of sand-paper, however, is not +advised, though it may occasionally be used in the emergency of an +accidental roughness remaining after the piece is dry. The aim should +be to have all clay work show something of the plastic nature of the +material out of which it is made. + +_Firing._--Pottery must be "bone" dry before it is fired. A very +satisfactory portable kiln for firing may be purchased for from $34 to +$175, according to the size. The smallest size, which is illustrated in +the next drawing, will be ample for the needs of one or two persons. +If, however, the amateur does not care to go to the expense of +purchasing a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery factory +in the vicinity that will undertake the firing and perhaps the glazing. + +[Illustration: A portable kiln] + +_Temperature Required._--Pottery is fired at a temperature varying, +according to the clay and the glaze used, from approximately 1800 +to 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. Modelling clay fires at 1958 degrees +Fahrenheit, or what is called "cone 04." This term comes from the fact +that the heat is gauged by pyrometric cones, which can be seen through +a spy hole attached to the kiln. These cones are graded compositions +of various materials and possess different degrees of resistance to +heat. They are usually set up in clay in groups of three or more. When +one of them melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying +drawing, which shows cone 05--the most fusible one--completely "down," +and 04 at a point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat from +the kiln. This must be done gradually and the kiln must be allowed to +cool completely before it is opened. This is especially necessary when +firing the glazes described in the following section, which require +the same temperature as modelling clay. Further details about firing +and caring for the kiln may, of course, be learned from descriptions +accompanying the apparatus. Pottery comes out of the first firing in +the kiln a dull porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or red, +according to the amount of iron in the clay. In this state it is called +"bisque" or "biscuit." + +[Illustration: Pyrometric cones] + +_Glazing._--It is necessary to bring the pottery up to the condition of +bisque before it can be glazed; or, to speak more accurately, before +it can be over-glazed; for it has already been shown how the so-called +under-glaze is put on before the first firing. The subject is somewhat +technical, and it will not be possible in a single chapter to take up +the details extensively. Briefly speaking, the glazes most used for +this class of work are the lead glazes--combinations of "white lead" or +carbonate of lead as a flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and +other ingredients. These are supplied in powdered form and are ground +together in water by means of a mill or a large mortar and pestle; a +mortar 8 inches in diameter will serve. + +_Grinding the Glaze._--The grinding should continue about an hour. It +should be said, however, that there is such a thing as grinding too +fine. After the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity of gum +tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be added as a binder to prevent +flaking and rubbing off in handling. It is also a good plan, though +not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon as it is ground, +through fine muslin. The tools and materials needed for this work may +be itemized as follows: Lead carbonate, whiting, Canadian feldspar, +Florida kaolin, French flint, white oxide of zinc, and various other +oxides and colours noted in the text; earthenware bowls, 10 or 12 +inches in diameter, for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably +aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, 8 inches in diameter. + +_Example of Matt Glaze and Bright Glaze Mixes._--Two mixes are given +below calculated to fuse at cone 04. One has a "matt" or dull velvety +surface, and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface. The matt will +be found more desirable for general work because it harmonizes better +with flowers and foliage. The figures given below refer to units of +weight. Metric weights (grams) are most convenient to use, but any +units will serve so long as the same one is used throughout. The matt +glaze should be of the consistency of thick cream, the bright glaze +somewhat thinner. + + + MATT BASE + Lead carbonate 154 + Whiting 25 + Canadian feldspar 83 + Florida kaolin 51 + + + BRIGHT BASE + Lead carbonate 142 + Whiting 20 + Canadian feldspar 84 + Florida kaolin 8 + White oxide of zinc 8 + French flint 44 + +The bases itemized above are colourless and there must be added to +them from 3 to 6 per cent. of colouring material that will stand +heat. A list of materials with their colours when fired is given on +page 304, together with a few typical combinations of colours in +quantity suitable to be added to the glaze bases given above. The +following lists are by no means complete, and it is expected that the +young decorator will make use of these colour mixtures simply as an +introduction to quite extensive experimenting: + + + COLOUR MATERIALS + + Black oxide of cobalt Blue + Black oxide of copper Blue green + Green oxide of chromium Yellow green + White oxide of antimony Lemon yellow + Red oxide of iron Yellowish brown + Green oxide of nickel Dirty gray (for neutralizing) + White oxide of tin Makes glaze opaque + Black oxide of manganese Purplish brown + Yellow ochre Yellow + Burnt umber Brown + + + COLOUR COMBINATIONS + + Olive green + Iron oxide 5 + Cobalt oxide .5 + + Dark brown + Iron oxide 3 + Nickel oxide 2 + Manganese oxide 5 + + Light gray-blue + Tin oxide 5 + Cobalt oxide .5 + Copper oxide 1.7 + + Blue-green + Cobalt oxide 1 + Copper oxide 7 + Yellow ochre 4 + + Dark gray-blue + Nickel oxide 5 + Yellow ochre 3 + Cobalt oxide 2 + Copper oxide 1 + +_Applying the Glaze._--Before applying the glaze to the piece of +pottery or bisque, the latter should be soaked in clear water for +about five minutes or until the air is expelled from the pores. When +this has been accomplished it should be removed from the water and all +moisture should be wiped from its surface. The piece is then ready to +be dipped into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it, if the +size and shape of the piece make it more convenient to apply the glaze +in this way. It is usually best to glaze the inside first, shaking out +all the superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the outside. +During this process the piece must be held firmly but by as few points +of contact as possible. These points of contact will generally need to +be touched up before it is ready for firing. + +It is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces with a brush, putting +on several coats in order to cover the surface with an even thickness. +The matt glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright glaze +in order to develop its characteristic velvety texture. The greater +thickness may be easily secured, because it flows more slowly than +the thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from the sides of +the piece to which it is being applied; but, on the other hand, it +is at a disadvantage in that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct +inequalities of thickness so readily as the more mobile bright glaze +does. A certain thickness, however, is essential; and if, after firing, +it is found that the glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be +applied and the article again fired. + +_Firing the Glaze._--Before the glazed piece is fired the glaze should +be dried and what runs down and collects about the bottom or foot +should be scraped off. It should then be set in the kiln on a kind of +pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the "stilt," which prevents +the glaze from sticking to the floor or shelves of the kiln. All glazed +ware should be placed in the kiln with at least 1/2 an inch of space +between the pieces to prevent them from sticking together during the +fusing state of the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil." + +The firing of glaze is a process very similar to that employed in the +production of bisque, already described. Greater care, however, must +be taken in controlling the increase in temperature so that it shall +be even and steady--free from all sudden flashes of heat. The cooling +also should be very gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should +be allowed to get cool before it is opened. With this second firing the +pottery is finished unless it should happen that a second coat of glaze +is found to be necessary. If only a few spots need attention, this +second coat is best applied with a brush. + + +PROBLEM: A VASE FOR LONG STEMMED FLOWERS + +The tools required for making this vase are the same as those used +for the bowl, and the process of building is much the same. The chief +difference is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile in +building because the added height and the greater weight tend to +bulge the lower part. To meet this difficulty it will be necessary to +set the work aside quite often in order to let the lower part harden +sufficiently to support the upper part. + +_The Profile._--In preparing the profile the same rules hold as were +applied in working up the problem of the bowl. It will be well to +remember, however, that the curves of a vase must be treated with +greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was necessary in +the case of the bowl--_i. e._, the curve of a vase should be enclosed +within a rectangle narrower in comparison with its height than is the +case with the curve of a bowl. The reason for this, of course, is found +in the greater height of a vase in comparison with its diameter. The +following figure shows three typical vase forms. If these curves be +compared with those shown on page 288, illustrating bowl contours, +it will be observed how the height of the vase is emphasised in the +greater restraint and subtlety of its curves. In the next illustration +we have two "horrible" examples to which attention has already been +called in the suggestions for the design of bowls. The dotted lines in +the illustration show how these curves may be improved if, in either A +or B, one element of the compound curve be made dominant at the expense +of the other. If at the same time the diameter be made smaller in +comparison with its height the attractiveness of the contours will be +still more improved. Indeed, it will be a transformation from a profile +that is positively bad to one that is very good. + +[Illustration: Typical vase forms] + +[Illustration: Profile to be avoided] + +_Decoration._--The problem of decoration is not very different from +that of the bowl. Here again, however, the added height seems to call +for greater accent by means of vertical or panel divisions. Unless this +be understood there is some danger that the larger vertical spaces will +seem to offer simply more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a +barber pole effect. + +_Handles._--If handles or buttresses are desired, care should be taken +that they are designed as an integral part of the vase--_i. e._, that +they continue or reinforce its lines. Two suggestions for the treatment +of the problem of handles are given in the accompanying drawing. +It will be noted how sympathetically these handles conform to the +lines of the vases to which they are attached. Handles that give the +impression of being made for another vase should be avoided. + +[Illustration: Suggestions for handles] + + +PROBLEM: THE FERN DISH + +The process of building the fern dish is not essentially different from +that employed in making the bowl described in the first problem. If the +fern dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used; but if the +dish is to be square or rectangular it is not necessary to use this +method. In place of it the process of "piecing on" may be +employed--_i. e._, one piece of soft clay may be added to another and +the different pieces welded together as the work proceeds. + +[Illustration: Development of the fern dish] + +_The Lining._--The fern dish requires a separate inner dish or lining +with a hole in the bottom of it like that in the ordinary flower +pot. This feature forms the unique part of the problem. Generally +speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call for a little closer +approach to the vertical in the sides of the outer bowl; and yet some +latitude is allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated +in Plate XIII following, which is somewhat similar in profile +to that illustrated in the accompanying drawing. This drawing shows +the development of the problem as applied to a round fern dish. Much +freedom, however, may be used in the plan as either the round or the +rectangular fern dish seems to give satisfaction. The half section +in the drawing shows a very narrow space between the inner and outer +bowls at the top edges. This adds greatly to the good appearance of the +completed fern dish. The sides of the inner dish are made vertical, +since it is necessary for it to be easily removed. + +_Decoration._--The problem of decoration differs very little from +that discussed under the problem of the bowl. Either the fern itself +or its woodland neighbours may easily furnish the motif. Sometimes +there is occasion for designing similar dishes not for ferns but for +other plants. Thus the smaller square dish, illustrated in Plate XIII +opposite, was designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and +the subject matter for its design was found in that flower. + +_Glazing._--The rules already given for glazing apply in this case, but +it will be necessary to glaze the outside fern dish only. It is well, +however, to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the inner +dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed. It hardly needs to +be added that in firing it is necessary to keep the inner and outer +dishes separate. + +[Illustration: Vases and Fern Dishes. Plate XIII] + + +PROBLEM: THE CANDLESTICK + +_The Design._--This problem introduces several points in design that +need to be especially emphasized. The candlestick should be of such +size that it will easily support the average candle without putting the +user to great inconvenience in fitting it by paring it off or melting +it down. It is necessary to provide a lip to catch the stray drops +of wax that will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be a +convenience to have this supplemented by a slight dishing of the base +if the candlestick is to be carried about. If a handle is to be added +it should seem to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as +was explained in the discussion of handles for vases; and it should, +at the same time, offer a place for a firm and comfortable grasp. The +accompanying drawing shows how handles may be designed really to form a +part of the candlestick and at the same time, by means of a sharp bend +or elbow at the top, to provide a natural place for the thumb to assist +in grasping the handle. + +Whether the candlestick is to be high or low depends entirely upon +the use intended for it or upon the preference of the user. Generally +speaking, a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a high +one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on shelf or table. It +is well for some definite idea of utility to manifest itself in the +form chosen. Merely planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without +carefully relating these three different elements according to the +requirements of use, can hardly be called designing a candlestick. + +[Illustration: Suggestive designs for candlesticks] + +The building of the candlestick is started, like the bowl in the +first problem, by coiling from the centre, and the rim may be added +in the same way. Care should be taken, however, to attach the central +tube firmly. This may be coiled or simply modelled from a single lump +of clay. If there is to be a handle it is well to build it at the +time the central tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm +attachment. + + +PROBLEM: TILES + +The varied and extensive uses of tiles make it difficult to limit +the scope of this problem. Tiles are used for paving, wall facings, +ceilings, coverings for stoves, linings and facings for fireplaces, +rests for flower pots and teapots, and for various other purposes. +Tiles figure very prominently in the history of art. They are objects +of interest and study in many public buildings and museums throughout +the civilized world. But this problem will confine itself to two of the +many varieties of tiles, _viz._, tiles designed for bowls or teapots +and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces. + +[Illustration: A tile frame] + +_The Tile Frame._--In building tiles a frame is used measuring about 6 +inches square by 5/8 of an inch thick. The strips forming the frame +may be 1 inch wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that, +if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is +moist. This frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and +the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides, working toward the +centre, until the frame is completely filled. It is then turned over +in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly +welded together. Care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring +both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame, scraping off the +surplus clay with a straight edge. While the clay is moist, one side +is chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to prevent warping. +The hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the +top of Plate XIV, or it may be in the shape of channels 3/4 of an inch +or more in width, separated by ridges 1/2 of an inch wide running +across the back of the tile. Whichever method is used, the depth should +be about 3/16 of an inch and not over 1/4 of an inch. Even when the +utmost precaution is taken, the tile is very liable to warp. It should +therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of +exposure on both sides. The greatest help of all is found in the use of +the so-called "grog." This is made by grinding to a powder clay that +has been fired once and shrunk, but not glazed. It is used by mixing it +with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of one part grog +to three of the clay. It may be added here that grog will be found of +great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware. It +will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the express purpose of +making grog. The occasional failures which develop at the first firing +of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply. + +[Illustration: Tiles. Plate XIV] + +_Decoration._--When the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be +easily taken from the frame, but it should be allowed to get quite +stiff before decoration is applied. While the hardening process is +going on the decoration may be studied. The three general methods +of decoration considered under the flower bowl--_viz._, the sunken +line, the modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze or +over-glaze--are all available for use with the tile. If it is to be +a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable +caution, otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to +rest upon. + +_Firing._--In giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand +it on one edge in the kiln, but not on the floor of the kiln, as the +intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more +than the others. It may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed +on one of the shelves. For the glaze firing the tile should be placed +flat on the stilt. + +_Tea Tiles._--The tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of Plate +XIV were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot, a bowl, +or a vase. It will be noticed that the centre is left free with one +exception, which is given as an interesting variation from the general +rule. The free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design +and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon. +In the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as +to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true. Emphasis +should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design. + +_Fireplace Tiles._--Some of the tiles illustrated in Plate XIV would +be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a +fireplace. This is especially true of the middle design shown at the +top of the plate, on account of the lines which project through the +corner design nearly to the edges of the tile. This makes it especially +adapted to repetition in a facing or border. + +[Illustration: Pottery, Designed and Made by Schoolgirls. Plate XV] + +_Decoration of Tiles._--It is in the field of painted +decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities in +fireplace tile designs are found. The framed tile illustrated in Plate +XV opposite--an example of over-glaze painting--is intended for +use as a colour accent for the wall. This tile is painted in matt glaze +between raised outlines. Three similar tiles are illustrated in the +middle row in Plate XIV. The right-hand one, like the framed +tile of Plate XV, is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead +of being raised was slightly depressed. The other two are examples of +under-glaze painting. They were painted on moist clay, as described in +the problem of the bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze. +In this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding richness to +the colour scheme. The repetition in a tile facing of landscapes, +designed to be complete or nearly so, would be tiresome. It is better +so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of +very simple landscape motifs, each fairly complete in itself, but all +so related to each other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat +conventionalized, landscape. A treatment of this kind lends itself to +many other decorative schemes. + +The fireplace offers a great opportunity for design, not only in +itself, but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which +it is placed. It should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the +focal centre of the room. This fact, together with its comparatively +small size, makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of +colour, accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room. Tiles, +properly designed and applied, offer a rich and varied field for +charming effects in colour and texture. + + + + +XI + +DECORATIVE WORK IN LEATHER, COPPER, AND OTHER MATERIALS + + To become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not + a matter of choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for + a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his + craftsmanship--_Hamilton Wright Mabie_ + + +LEATHER WORK + +Leather work, like weaving and pottery, is of very ancient origin. +The New Testament text concerning "new wine in old bottles" referred +to bottles of leather, or wine skins. We read of leather as having +been used in still earlier times for shields, saddles, harnesses, +parts of chariots, and as an accessory to clothing. In the middle ages +the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined to the shoemakers' +useful productions but included much ornamental work. There were wall +coverings of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or stamped with +hot tools; seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled +leather. Some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt +figures like the celebrated Spanish leather. + +_Why Leather is Suited to Decoration._--Leather seems, therefore, +to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to +decoration. Its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its natural +colour, the ease with which it takes dyes, and the readiness with +which under proper treatment, it receives and retains the marks of the +modelling tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less +than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses. + +_Limited Decoration Desirable._--The tooling of leather is based upon +the fact that, when wet, the fibre yields readily to compression and +receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry. But +the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface +quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it. It is therefore +a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the +peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost. The decorations should +be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined to a small part of +the surface. Calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling. They are +supplied in two general forms, _viz._, the smooth, generally as Russia +calf, and the rough or split cowhides, known as ooze. Leather may be +stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since the natural +colour of leather is brown, brownish tones are more satisfactory than +the blues, greens, violets, grays, etc., because they seem more sincere. + +[Illustration: Leather-working tools] + +_Tools._--The simple tools required for tooling leather may be +purchased at small cost, or they may be made from cheap nut picks +by filing these to shape, polishing them, and buffing them. The +illustrations show two different tools, each double pointed. A and +B are different views of the first tool; C is the second tool. The +narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into +corners. The broad, flat end is for smoothing down and for general use; +the broad tool should be used whenever possible. The round point on +the left end of C is used for outlining and transfering the design to +leather. The right hand end of C is known as the background tool. It is +cupped out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise section just +above and by the end view at the extreme right; in fact, a nail set may +be used for the same purpose. The background tool, however, is to be +used sparingly. If used to excess, especially on large surfaces, the +result is likely to have a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance. + + +PROBLEMS + +TO DESIGN AND TOOL A BELT + +The sizes given in the illustration on page 325 are typical, but it is +expected that in this and other problems, dimensions will be varied to +suit conditions. When the size has been determined the leather should +be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be, +to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle. The strip of leather +should be thoroughly soaked in _cold water_ and then rolled in dry +cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling. It is essential +that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture. If on applying +the tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still too wet. If it +should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on +the back. There is danger of water stains, however, if the entire back +is not wet. + +[Illustration: Two belt designs] + +_The Design._--The illustration shows two treatments. An interlaced +pattern is shown in A which concentrates the interest at the ends and +in the middle of the back. The pattern shown is tooled solid and the +background is left untooled. If the pattern be tooled in outline it is +well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give +relief to the interlaced bands. + +Modelled natural forms are shown in B. In this the background is tooled +down, but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised +forms. This gives the background a richer appearance than it has when +tooled absolutely flat. Both patterns here shown are straight with +parallel sides. Other shapes are possible--for example, those wider in +the middle and tapering toward the ends. + +When a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is +transferred to thin bond paper. The greatest care should be taken not +to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they leave a +dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove. It may +be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any +purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil. + +_The Process._--As soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain +the marks, the pattern should be placed upon it, pencilled side up, +allowance being made for trimming to the desired width. The paper may +be held in position by thumb tacks, which must not, however, pass +through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off. The pattern +may now be traced through the paper, over the lines of the drawing, +with the round pointed tool. Care will have to be exercised to make +sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather. When +this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines, +which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather, should be +immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool. + +[Illustration: Method of using the broad tool] + +The next step is to tool down the design; and in doing this the work +should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the +work, in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge +of the pattern farthest from the hand. This not only insures a correct +and convenient position of the tool, but allows a perfect view of the +work. In this part of the process the broad tool should be used, moved +sidewise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying +cut. In working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if +necessary. The movement may be described as "ironing the leather down." +The surface should not be roughed up or cut up into "shoulders." It +is a process requiring time. One should not try to get the full depth +with the first pressure of the tool. One should coax the surface and +add pressure with each succeeding stroke, taking care that the tool +does not scrape. It should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners +will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble +scratching and patting. A firm, even gliding pressure does the work. +As the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a +dark, glossy surface. When the process is completed the belt may be +trimmed down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a straight edge +wherever straight lines are desired. + + +TO DESIGN AND TOOL A MAT + +[Illustration: Supported and unsupported circles] + +_The Design and the Process._--The purpose for which a mat is used +requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain +surface in the middle. If the general form be square the design at the +corners should be strengthened. If circular, the design should be so +arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle +rather than weaken them. In the three outlines given below, C shows +a form supporting the circle; D and E show forms tending to weaken +the circle. Conditions determining size are more variable in this +problem than in others, because of the great variety of uses which a +mat may serve. In a design like that shown in A of the accompanying +illustration, the portions left untooled--_i. e._, the leaves and +fruit--may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the +back by means of a tool. To do this the leather should be placed face +down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax, which has been +covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin. Then by gently forcing +the leather down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt end of a +nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained. After this +is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct +the modelling. In order to preserve the higher relief it is well to +back it up with cotton batting, soaked in paste, and finally to cover +the entire back with a lining of silk or leather. + +[Illustration: Two mat designs] + + +TO DESIGN AND TOOL A PEN WIPER + +A pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this case must be made of +leather suitable for tooling, and several leaves of soft material like +sheepskin or chamois, which should match the cover in colour. The +process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that +already employed in the foregoing problems. It should, of course, be +carried through to completion before the book is made up. These parts +are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same +colour. + +[Illustration: Steps in tying a knot] + +The series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming +the knot, which should finally take the shape of Figure 5. After it has +been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover +and leaves of the pen wiper, and secured by a second knot formed on the +back, resembling Figure 4 with the ends cut as close as will leave +them securely tied. + +[Illustration: Two designs for pen wipers] + +Another illustration gives two suggestions for the design: A, a +rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end; B, a circular pen +wiper tied with one knot in the middle. In these designs, and indeed +in all others, decoration should recognize (not antagonize!) the outer +form of the article to which it is applied. This point is made in the +illustration. + + +TO MAKE A SLIP COVER FOR A NOTE-BOOK FILLER + +[Illustration: Design for slip cover] + +_Planning the Cover._--The object in this problem is to make a +permanent protection for fillers. It is well known that the fillers +themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are +provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped +into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat +pocket note-book. It is evident that the dimensions of the filler +determine the size of the cover; but, in planning the cover, care +should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width, length, and +thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done. This means that +the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than +called for in the final size. The design illustrated shows both the +outside (A) and the inside (B) of the cover. As it is planned the cover +is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour; but this may be +left out if desired, though it, of course, gives a much better finish +to put it in. + +_Assembling the Parts._--The first step after cutting out the leather +for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it, if it is to have +any decoration. A piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and +the edge (C) shaped. The edges of the lining and the pocket should +next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover. A line is then to be +ruled with a leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to serve as +a guide for stitching. A machine stitch may be employed or it may be +done by hand. If by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce +the leather at equal distances along the tooled line. Hand stitches may +safely be a little longer than the machine stitches. + +[Illustration: Stitching with two needles] + +_Stitching._--A good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand +sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the +required distance. A more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is +possible by making use of a tracing wheel, if one is available of +suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth. The hand +stitching may be done either with one needle or with two. If with +one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then +return, covering the alternate spaces left on the first round. It is +better, however, to use two needles, one on each end of one thread, +selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it, and to +proceed as illustrated in A and B, _i. e._, to draw one needle with its +thread through to the middle of the thread, as shown in A, and then +the other through the next hole, and so on alternately from opposite +directions, producing a stitch like that illustrated in B. It will, +of course, be understood that, in the illustration, the length of the +stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly. + +_Trimming and Finishing._--When the sewing is finished the thread is +fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the +ends inside between the cover and lining. Then a line should be tooled +on the cover about 1/16 of an inch outside of the stitching, and on +this line the cover, lining and pocket are trimmed together. The raw +edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish. Finally +the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in +order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather. + + +TO DESIGN AND MAKE A DESK PAD + +_The Design._--The problem of design in this case is, first of all, +to determine the dimensions of the pad, which depend, of course, upon +the use to be made of it. Then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in +outline, including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the +drawing (A). The only detail that will need elaboration is the corner. +The shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully +laid out on thin paper, from which in due time it may be transferred to +the leather and tooled as in other problems. + +[Illustration: Detail of the leather corner] + +[Illustration: Outline of desk pad] + +_Material and the Process._--For making the pad it will be necessary +to secure a piece of binders' board--_i. e._, heavy pulp or straw +board--of the required size. The medium weight is the best, and it may +generally be obtained at the bookbinder's. If this cannot be obtained, +two sheets of 10-ply card-board may be used instead. The size given in +the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper. The +edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding +of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used; the +strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather +corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board. After +the binding has been put on, the top of the board should be covered +with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and the paper +should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and +yet leave a suitable width of the binding. The so-called "cover papers" +will be found satisfactory. + +_Making the Corners._--The next step in the process is to lay out and +cut the leather corners according to the original design. The form in +which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the +illustration B. The little flap at _x_ should be noted. It is designed +to tuck under and close the corner. The edges of leather at _x_ should +be "skived" or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the +work. Further improvement will result from skiving down the edges S R +S and T V T of the large flaps, which are to be folded over underneath +and pasted down to the back of the board. The ordinary photographers' +paste is satisfactory for this work. When the leather corners are +placed in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses of blotting +paper should be used at each corner, in order to secure the necessary +space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use. After +the corners are pasted on, the back of the board should be covered with +paper in the same way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion +of the binding and leather exposed. Finally a number of blotters of +full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them +in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry. + + +TO DESIGN AND MAKE A CARD-CASE + +_The Design._--In the illustration (A), showing a card-case unfolded, +the dimensions give the finished size. The same card-case is +illustrated in B somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned +in. The design on A is a rectangle broken at the corners. In this case, +as it may be with all similar forms, the design is treated as a sort +of binding, extending across the middle fold. C shows an alternative +design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both +sides of the card-case. The question of which is the top and bottom in +such a design as that in C can be determined only by the owner's habit +of holding a case. Sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner +flaps, as illustrated in A, or on one of the outer surfaces. + +[Illustration: Design for a card-case] + +_The Process._--In cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary +to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in +order to allow for trimming. The design should be transferred, the +line of stitching determined, and the tooling done, according to the +description already given for the other problems. + +_The Lining._--A card-case may be lined either with silk or with +sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize with the outside. If lined with +silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling, great +care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true +and square. Then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly +pasted along the edges to a width of 1/8 of an inch, care being taken, +however, not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible +when the flaps of the cover are turned in, _i. e._, the middle of the +fold B. This precaution should be taken because the paste may strike +through and spot the lining. The flaps should then be moistened a +little and folded down with firm pressure; but before stitching they +should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets. This takes +the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in +the problem of the note-book. If lined with sheepskin, the ooze side +showing, the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching; +then both may be trimmed at once. + + +TO MAKE A LEATHER PURSE + +_The Design._--The details of design and construction are shown in +the accompanying illustrations. In A the outer flap is shown tooled. +It will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the +central point in design. The tooling is done as directed in the other +examples of this class of work. + +[Illustration: Design for a purse] + +The purse is lined throughout with leather. It has bellows ends, as +shown in the perspective at C and in the end view at B. The pattern of +the bellows end shown in D is intended to fold in the middle, bringing +both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double +thickness. With thin leather, such as is used in the present instance, +this pattern is practicable. If thicker leather be used the bellows +must be made of single thickness. In this case the pattern would simply +be like that shown in the lower half of D. + +_The Process._--After the lining is pasted to the cover a snap +fastener should be attached. Proper care, of course, should be taken +to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse +will fold properly. The cover and lining should then be trimmed and the +leather surface ruled for stitching. It is well to fold the inner flap +of the purse while it is moist from pasting. Finally a little paste +is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in +position. + +Stitching is started at the point E shown in the perspective. Hand +stitching is the most practicable. The direction is down one side, +up the other, and around the outside flap to the other bellows end, +stopping at the point F. When the stitching is completed the inside +flap should be folded down. + + +TO MAKE A LIMP LEATHER BOOK COVER + +_The Design._--The first step is to choose the book to be bound. For +the sake of simplicity, as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding +undertaken, it should be a folio or "section." And it should be _worth +binding in leather_. The subject, the paper, and the typography should +be worthy of the distinction. + +[Illustration: Typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers +of books. Details of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other +problems.] + +_The Process._--If the book selected is already bound or "cased" it +is necessary first to remove the binding or casing. Then at least +three fly leaves should be added, made up to match the other leaves of +the folio. A piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the +size of the open folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the fly +leaves and the folio itself, stitched through the back with silk of a +colour to harmonize with the leather. + +The next step is to prepare the leather cover. To do this, first place +the leather in position on the closed folio and, allowing 1/4 of an +inch at the top and bottom and 3/8 of an inch at the fore edge, mark +and cut out the stock for the cover. The decoration, if there is to be +any, may now be tooled on. If the design is heavy enough in relief to +need a backing, it may be at once filled with cotton batting, pasted in +as directed in the problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper. + +Stock for the end papers is now selected. They may be of cover paper, +or of silk, and they should harmonize in colour with the leather. They +are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen, by folding it +over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf. If +of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the +width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen +is pasted in. If the end leaves are to be of silk, an allowance of 1/4 +of an inch must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom and the +fore edge. + +We are now ready to paste the linen to the leather. Strong paste, +with perhaps a little thin glue added, is needed for this part of the +process. Now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of +the cover; and, if silk has been used for these leaves, paste the other +two to the outer fly leaves. Finally, the book should be placed under +very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry. Care should +be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling, +if there is any, so as not to crush it. + + +COPPER WORK + +There is a limited field for metal work in home decoration; but +there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to +a remarkable degree and, in their making, introduce us to most +interesting operations. Beginning with the gate, which may be of +wrought iron, or with the door knocker, which may be of antique brass, +we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals. +Ornamental hinges, key escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds, +andirons, and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card +trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other useful things that +may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves. How some of +these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems: + + +TO MAKE A LETTER RACK + +This is an easy problem. Only four constructive operations are +required, _viz._, cutting out the stock, sawing the design, bending, +and finishing. The illustration shows the form and the dimensions and +suggests a simple design. The material required is 18-gauge soft copper. + +[Illustration: Design for a letter rack] + +The first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper 8 inches +long and 4 inches wide. If necessary the edges may be trimmed even and +then the round corners should be cut. The design is traced on strong, +thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position +by using cold liquid glue. A hole is drilled through each unit of the +design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers' saw inserted, and the +design cut. Time and patience will be required for this operation. Saws +are easily broken, and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and +again applied to the work. After sawing the design it is necessary to +give the edges a smooth finish. This is done with a file. The surface +which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and +polished with water and pumice. + +The copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape. To do this +prepare a block of hard wood 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, grip it +in a bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the +block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of +the block. When this has been done it only remains to clean the outside +surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. If a fine polish is +desired, the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a +Scotch water stone and water. + + +TO MAKE A LETTER OPENER + +This requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same +operations, with the addition of riveting. After the stock is cut out, +trimmed and trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is pasted +on, as in the previous problem, and the design cut out. The top is +then bent over and riveted with a copper tack, having shaped the head +of the tack in the vise before inserting it. While the tack is being +riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead +block. Finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross +section, and the whole cleaned and polished. + +[Illustration: Design for a letter opener] + + +TO MAKE A HAT PIN + +For this problem 12-gauge copper will be needed. The operations +required are cutting out, sawing, and soft soldering. After the +necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed, +the design is outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. It is +desirable to grind with the Scotch stone and water to a good polish. +The head will then be ready to be attached to the pin. + +[Illustration: The hat pin] + +Carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin +is to be attached (shown in the drawing), select a steel pin of desired +length, scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of +it, apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small +stick, and then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit of +soft solder, which should cover the whole disk. Now place the copper, +outside face down, on an asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste +to the central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder on this +portion of the copper, and fuse as before. + +When the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide, which will have +formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid, and polish on the buffing +wheel. + + +TO MAKE A BELT PIN + +[Illustration: The belt pin] + +Eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are +like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary. The +slight bending of the copper, required in this case, is done by means +of a horn mallet and a sand pad. For hard soldering, the surface must +be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water +and applied with a small brush. The belt plate should then be placed +on the asbestos pad, with its convex face down, and blocked up so that +the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal. The catch +should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder +at the base. The solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth +blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame. The hinge is soldered on in the same +way, and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use. + + +TO MAKE A SET OF BOOK ENDS + +This problem is much like the first one described under metal work. +Sixteen-gauge copper is required. It may be bent by placing it between +two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet. + +[Illustration: Design for book ends] + + +TO MAKE A TEAPOT STAND + +[Illustration: Design for a teapot stand] + +Twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are +similar to those already described; but the cutting and bending are +much more difficult. After determining the design it will be necessary +to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as illustrated +in the detail of the corner. The four corners must be marked and cut +exactly as shown in the drawing. A piece of hard wood is then cut to +the size of the top, 5 inches square in this case, to be used as a form +on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges. If the corners +are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place, to be bored +and riveted, as the drawing plainly shows. In order to protect the +tablecloth, the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so +that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the +under surface. As an additional protection, a felt mat may be glued on +the bottom. + +[Illustration: Detail of a corner] + + +TO MAKE A WATCH FOB + +This problem introduces engraving and enamelling, two interesting but +somewhat difficult operations. The process to be carried out is as +follows: Using 12-gauge copper, saw the outline, and apply the design +for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a +pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper. Then strengthen the +pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl. Imbed +this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of +pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table. Using +an engraving tool, remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to +the depth of 1/32 of an inch. It is well to have the bottom of the spot +reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly +undercut. Before applying the flux, clean, by pouring a small quantity +of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off +under the water tap. Flux should be kept in a closed jar under water +after grinding, and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of +copper previously cleaned with acid. Enough flux should be applied to +cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled; but the depth of the spot +must not be filled up. + +[Illustration: Design for a watch fob] + +Now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod, and apply +the flame of the blowpipe to the under side. Heat very slowly until all +the water is driven off, then force the heat until the flux is fused. +Allow it to cool slowly, then remove any flux that may have adhered to +the surface of the fob by grinding with Scotch stone. Clean with acid +as before, fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was +applied, and fuse again. After fusing, the surface should be stoned +again to remove inequalities and again fused, cleaned with water and +buffed on the wheel. + +If it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be +omitted and the enamel applied directly, but the silver should be +cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great care +should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little +above that of enamel. The depth of the engraving on the silver need not +be as great as on the copper. + + +TO MAKE A CARD TRAY + +Eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem, and two new +operations, _viz._, raising and chasing, are introduced. After cutting +out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one +half an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it to red +heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric +acid pickle bath. A circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is +lightly scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the +shape indicated in the sketch, and placed in a vise. Now holding the +copper on the block, it is raised to shape with the round end of the +roughing hammer. It is well to anneal frequently. + +[Illustration: Design for a card tray] + +After shaping, the design may be applied by means of transfer paper +and the lines lightly scratched on the surface. Then imbed the tray +in pitch and outline the design by following the lines with a narrow +chasing tool. Reverse the tray on the pitch and, with a chasing tool +of suitable shape, raise the body of the design to the height desired. +Reverse on the pitch again and with a flat tool true the outlines and +smooth the background. Remove from the pitch, trim the edge of the tray +if it is forced out of line, clean with pumice stone and buff. + +[Illustration: Method of shaping with the hammer] + +All the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured by painting them +with, or immersing them in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of +sulphur. If soft solder has not been used, another pleasing finish +may be secured by applying a thin coat of lubricating oil and heating +gently until the oil is volatilized. An antique green or verdigris +finish may be obtained by painting with a mixture of acetic acid and +copper carbonate. Several coats may be necessary; and it is desirable +to lacquer the surface to ensure permanency. + + +WORK IN OTHER MATERIALS + + +A CANDLE SHADE + +The materials and tools for this problem are six ply card-board in dull +shades of gray, brown or green, and with mat surface; Japanese paper +of average thickness; passe-partout binding a little darker than the +card-board and of harmonizing colour; paste; a penknife with a thin +blade; and a water colour outfit. + +Of the drawings included in the group on the opposite page one shows a +development of the surface of the candle shade which is the subject of +this problem. Referring to the elevation it will be seen that if the +edges AE and DH be continued until they meet at O, OE and OH are really +equal to the radii of the outer arc of the development shown in the +upper part of the group, and OA and OD, to the radii of the inner arc. +This upper developed surface really forms the pattern of the candle +shade. + +[Illustration: Details of candle shade] + +The decoration consists of openings cut through the card-board +segments. These are covered with Japanese paper, thus allowing light to +pass through, but adding the effect of colour. A margin of 3/8 of an +inch is allowed along the openings, the remaining spaces being divided +by partitions of card-board, as shown in the different typical designs +at the right of the illustration. It will be noticed that the group of +openings forming the decoration of one side conforms in the main to the +shape of that side. It will also be noticed that there is a variety of +size and shape in the openings, but that they all show a certain unity +and harmony of space division. + +The openings are cut with a penknife, care being taken to make as +clean a cut as possible. Japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or +some suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings. The process +of pasting is one that requires some care. It is well to paste only a +portion of the pasteboard at a time taking care not to use more paste +than necessary and not to let any get over the edges of the openings. +The paper should be pressed on while the paste is still moist, and the +paper itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. It should be +placed with colour side next to the openings. + +When the paste is dry the card-board should be lightly scored on the +lines AE, BF, etc., and bent on these lines, bringing the sectors +together into the form of the shade and fastening them at the top and +bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout binding. If the binding +is of the ordinary width (7/8 of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise +into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting the edges. No +attempt should be made to run the binding along more than one edge. The +separated strips should then be cut the exact length for each top and +bottom edge and applied one at a time. Then the side edges are bound, +with the apex of the angle at the middle of the binding. When the +binding is firmly fastened it is carefully trimmed off at the top and +bottom. + + +ELECTRIC LIGHT PENDANTS + +[Illustration: A seven-light fixture] + +Two designs for such pendants are illustrated in the accompanying +drawings. They were derived from suggestions in the _Craftsman_, and +were successfully worked out in remodelling a house. The seven-light +fixture consists of a circular pendant-board about 30 inches in +diameter, made from 2-inch plain oak stock, cut into 60-degree segments +and, with splined joints, glued up to form a circular piece which was +turned up on a large lathe. An open space 7 inches in diameter was left +in the larger circle, which was covered by a cup-shaped cap turned +from plain oak stock and attached to the larger circle by screws. The +considerable opening covered by this cap contained the cut out and +the wiring necessary for connecting with each of the seven lights. +Seven medium-sized hooks of composition metal were procured which had +large, coarse threaded screws. A 3/16-inch hole was drilled lengthwise +through the shanks of these hooks. Holes were bored near the centre of +the arc of each segment in the board circle to receive these hooks. +When the fixture was assembled the wires for each light were carried +from the cut out across a channel made for that purpose on the upper +surface of the board, passed down through the hole in the shank of +the hook, woven into the links of the chain pendant and connected with +the corresponding bulb socket after passing through another hook, like +those described above, which linked the socket to the chain. As a +finish around the hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned +over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and oxidized to a tone +somewhat darker than the brown of the oak board. Copper cups in a +conventional petal design were made to place over each of the bulbs. +The chains were also oxidized to conform with the other metal work. The +entire combination was satisfactory. + +[Illustration: A five-light fixture] + +Another design for the dining-room of the same house and much easier to +construct is also illustrated. It will be observed that the square form +instead of the circle is carried out consistently in the woodwork and +metal caps. These caps and the chains are in natural brass of a dull +finish. The shades are of ground glass, decorated with a flower design +in heavy black lines. The central light has a larger shade than the +others, wholly enclosed. In this one is placed a red incandescent bulb +for use whenever such decorative effect is desired. + + +DECORATIVE FORGINGS + +In the story of the designing and building of the model house reference +was made to contributions from the forge shop. Among these were the +andirons, door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles shown in +the accompanying illustrations. + +It should be understood that all wrought iron work that has any reality +in it requires an equipment especially adapted to its production. There +must be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools, all in the +hands of a workman of some experience and skill. Successful forge +work can hardly be considered among the handicrafts easily adapted +to the needs of the amateur working without instruction and with +poor equipment. But with good tools, proper equipment, and a little +experience any clever boy will be able to design and fashion many +useful articles for the home which have real artistic merit. + +[Illustration: Decorative Forgings. Plate XVI] + +For the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there may be made the +shovel, poker, and tongs, and possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot +hooks. Other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks, lantern +brackets for the wall or for lantern posts, standards for the newel +post, the hall lantern or the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker +for the door, and, if the architectural design permits, hinges, plates, +and bolts for the door. This list by no means exhausts the uses of +wrought iron in house decoration. It may be extended to include +draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles and hinges of great +variety, nails with ornamental heads for use with heavy construction, +and many small articles such as trivets for steam kettles, toasting +forks, candle holders, and many other useful articles which have also +decorative value. + + + + +XII + +CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS + +COUNTRY HOMES + + To know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the + world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul + alive.--_Robert Louis Stevenson_ + + +Keen observers of American customs, who have studied the development +of our taste in house designing and furnishing, tell us that the +best expression of our art in architecture and home decoration is to +be found in our country homes. They do not overlook, of course, a +beautiful public building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether, +or an occasional private residence on Millionaire Avenue, which are +monuments to the genius of the men who created them and of which any +country may be proud. What they mean is that as a people we seek and +secure the right combination of utility and beauty in our homes more +frequently in the country than in the city. + +At first thought such a criticism may seem to be an exaggeration. +Is it reasonable, we ask, that people of good sense, such as most +Americans are, really succeed better in planning, building, and +decorating the houses which they are to occupy but a few weeks in the +summer than they do in developing their city homes? We are told that it +is true and that there are good reasons for it. + +_Simplicity of Country Life._--It is the life in the country and at the +seashore that is the simple life, the natural life, the life that sets +us free from the accumulated burden of mere "things." Here we come to +forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the few. Here we are +to feel the joy of living. Nature is all about us, and she gives of +her bounty freely. Our wants are few because we are so well satisfied +with the free gifts. What wants we have keep step with our needs here +as they do nowhere else. We care less for what others have; we are more +individual, more rational. Here we generally demand what we really +need and we more frequently obtain it. And this is true whether it be +something that appeals to the æsthetic side of our natures or whether +it be that which ministers to our material needs. In seeking the +beautiful for the simple home in the country we do not so often forget +the useful; for here, away from the world of museums and studios +and collections, we learn that art is possible without paintings and +statuary. In the exterior form and colouring of the shingled cottage, +set like a gem on the hillside or by the sea, in the harmonious +arrangement of its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen +only for use and comfort and placed where needed, and with decorations, +cheerful but restrained and subordinate, suggestive of more glorious +colours and more interesting things in the world without--in such +surroundings we have beauty and utility combined. Here we have the time +and the opportunity to realize the truth that all art is one and that +it may find in the problems of decoration in the country home, if not +its highest mission, its most open field for giving to appreciative +people the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful. + +_Opportunities for Constructive Art._--If it be true that there is a +more universal recognition of the true principles of art in the better +class of our country homes than in our city homes, it is proof, if +proof be needed, that the elements of art expression are found in the +simple, natural materials of every-day life. It may be that in the +development of art amid simple surroundings "necessity is the mother +of invention," and that, more or less naturally, simplicity is thrust +upon us. The general habit of our time is to extend the vacation +period in the country or at the seashore to the point of making a home +there for every summer season. But only a few can carry wealth and +elegance with them. A great majority must be satisfied with simple and +inexpensive homes. At first we accept them as the only thing possible, +and then we discover that in their very simplicity they offer the best +of opportunities for true æsthetic expression. And this opportunity +is largely for the younger members of the family--for the boys and +girls whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest in the +summer home is perhaps the more vital and whose imagination is the +more susceptible to the art suggestions of nature. We have seen that +it is possible for boys and girls to build and furnish a house under +the exacting requirements of city life. How much easier it must be to +build a cottage for the summer season, decorating and furnishing it in +harmony with the simple needs of a vacation home. + +If such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those who undertake the +work will find much practical help in the problems outlined in the +foregoing chapters. It is not expected, of course, that the directions +there given will always be exactly followed. In the furniture problems, +for example, soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted for +the harder woods specified. Very attractive as well as very useful +simple furniture has been made in this way at a merely nominal +expense. Staining and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with +colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of new pine and spruce +is in itself by no means unattractive. The smooth, exposed beams +of the ceilings and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be stained +a beautiful gray green or a soft brown. A good colour suggestion +may be found in the weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old +buildings. The effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a dado may be easily +obtained by stretching burlap or denim over the studding or over a +backing of inexpensive sheathing. These materials are very durable and +inexpensive, and they may be found in a great variety of beautiful +shades. They make excellent portières. A lighter, thinner material like +scrim is better for window draperies. All these fabrics afford good +surfaces for decoration by stencilling. Stained or painted soft wood +floors, covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty hand woven +rugs like those described in the chapter on weaving, with simple, +useful furniture, a picture or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery, +complete the equipment for a charming living room. If it all be the +product of home industry, the cash outlay for the material need not +be over forty dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount for +better materials would not in the least interfere with such a room +being decorated and furnished by the unaided labours of the amateur +artists and craftsmen of the family. + +[Illustration: A fireplace in field rock] + +The chief expense would naturally be for the living room, dining-room, +and kitchen. The dining-room, however, may well be simply a corner or +alcove of a large living room. Such an arrangement greatly increases +the value of a single fireplace, which will be required to give the +summer home the sense of perfect comfort. This may be of rough field +rock and should be large enough to take one-cut fireplace wood. The +chamber furnishings may be very simple indeed. Furniture dealers make +a point of supplying beds, bureaus, chairs, and cabinets of simple +design, unfinished, so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize +with any desired colour scheme. But such furniture, or good substitutes +for it, can be made very inexpensively. For example, the stock for +a good bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. Cases provided +with shelves and curtains in place of drawers, made at a cash outlay +possibly of one dollar, will serve for bureaus. The cost of materials +for building an eight-room cottage in every way satisfactory need not +exceed five hundred dollars; and such a cottage could be beautifully +furnished by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials of one +hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred dollars. + +[Illustration: An inexpensive bed] + +In the exterior finishing of summer cottages nature generally needs +very little assistance. No colours harmonize so well with the gray +rocks, sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees by the +seashore, as the weathered grays of the shingled cottage. The window +frames, door frames and facings, painted to preserve them, may be +of the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly marking the +outlines of the house but without unpleasant contrasts. A stained roof +in slate gray or creosote brown is also in keeping. The underpinning +and outside chimneys in the field rock of the locality are eminently +fitting. The house among the hills will stand more colour because the +colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn season. But +wherever the house may be, it should repeat in its larger surfaces the +prevailing colour tones of its natural setting. It should seem to fit +into its surroundings as if it belonged there and would always remain +there, a part of the simple, natural beauty all around it. + +[Illustration: A country house] + + +THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. + +[Transcriber's Notes: + Spelling is the same mix of US/UK as others in series (eg color/colour) + Corrected obvious typos: + tell -> tells + arrrangement -> arrangement + CROHETED -> CROCHETED + STENCILING -> STENCILLING + on account -> on account of + will be be -> will be + retain -> and retains + expecially -> especially + Portières/Portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts + (left as in text in each case) + Hyphenation made consistent: + wood-work -> woodwork + outdoor -> out-door +] + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Work and Play: Home +Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44750 *** |