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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Work and Play: Home
+Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Library of Work and Play: Home Decoration
+
+Author: Charles Franklin Warner
+
+Release Date: January 25, 2014 [EBook #44750]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORK AND PLAY: HOME DECORATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Chris Jordan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE LIBRARY
+OF WORK AND PLAY
+
+    CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
+               By Edwin W. Foster
+
+    ELECTRICITY AND ITS EVERYDAY USES
+               By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D.
+
+    GARDENING AND FARMING
+               By Ellen Eddy Shaw
+
+    HOME DECORATION
+               By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D.
+
+    HOUSEKEEPING
+               By Elizabeth Hale Gilman
+
+    MECHANICS, INDOORS AND OUT
+               By Fred T. Hodgson
+
+    NEEDLECRAFT
+               By Effie Archer Archer
+
+    OUTDOOR SPORTS, AND GAMES
+               By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B.
+
+    OUTDOOR WORK
+               By Mary Rogers Miller
+
+    WORKING IN METALS
+               By Charles Conrad Sleffel
+
+
+[Illustration: HANGING A PICTURE
+
+The wall space is a part of the framing of a picture]
+
+
+
+
+                            HOME DECORATION
+                                   BY
+                     PROF. CHARLES F. WARNER, Sc.D.
+
+         _For eight years Master of the Rindge Manual Training
+         School, Mass. Twelve years principal of the Technical
+                High School and Director of the Evening
+                 School of Trades, Springfield, Mass._
+
+[Illustration: Title Page]
+
+                    GARDEN CITY            NEW YORK
+                       DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
+                                  1916
+
+
+
+           ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION
+           INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN
+
+             COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+                    TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS OF AMERICA
+                               THIS BOOK
+               WHICH RECORDS WHAT SOME OF THEM HAVE DONE
+                         IS HOPEFULLY DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+     Some pure lovers of art discard the formula, _Art for Progress,
+     the Beautiful Useful_, fearing lest the useful should deform the
+     beautiful. They tremble to see the drudge's hand attached to the
+     muse's arm. They are solicitous for the sublime if it descends
+     as far as to humanity. Ah! they are in error. The useful, far
+     from circumscribing the sublime, enlarges it.... Is Aurora less
+     splendid, clad less in purple and emerald--suffers she any
+     diminution of majesty and of radiant grace, because, foreseeing an
+     insect's thirst, she carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop
+     needed by the bee?
+                                                         Victor Hugo.
+
+
+
+
+                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
+
+
+This volume is the result of an effort to bring together in close
+relation with fundamental principles of design a variety of practical
+problems which are more or less closely connected with the general
+problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive ability of
+boys and girls from twelve to eighteen years of age. While the book
+is mainly a record of the author's experience and observation in this
+department of educational work, he has received many suggestions from
+co-workers in the same field. It will be impossible to give credit to
+all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the preparation of
+this book: but special acknowledgments are due to Mr. Fred M. Watts,
+who furnished the material for the chapter on Pottery and several
+drawings for other parts of the book; to Miss Grace L. Bell for the
+illustrations and descriptions embodied in the chapter on Block
+Printing; to Mr. Burton A. Adams for the problems in metal work; to Mr.
+Edwin A. Finch and Mr. Lewis O. Richardson who contributed many of the
+specifications for the problems in furniture-making; to Miss Elizabeth
+M. Morton for specific suggestions pertaining to the subject of dress
+as related to the principles of decoration; and to Mrs. Ruth B. S.
+Flower, of Florence, Mass., who supplied several of the photographs and
+much of the descriptive matter for the chapter on Weaving.
+
+Springfield, Mass.
+
+                                                       C. F. W.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+      CHAPTER                                          PAGE
+
+       I. Introductory--The Story of a House              3
+
+      II. Decorations and Furniture                      34
+
+     III. Pictures                                       64
+
+      IV. The Arrangement of Flowers                     81
+
+       V. Decorative Fabrics                             95
+
+      VI. Dress and the Principles of Decoration        121
+
+     VII. Furniture Making                              129
+
+    VIII. Finishing and Re-finishing                    212
+
+      IX. Hand Weaving                                  244
+
+       X. Pottery                                       280
+
+      XI. Decorative Work in Leather, Copper, and Other
+          Materials                                     321
+
+     XII. Concluding Suggestions--Country Homes         366
+
+
+
+
+                             ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    Hanging a Picture                            _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                   FACING PAGE
+
+    All the Rough Carpentry was Assigned to the Boys
+    of the Woodworking Sections of the Vocational
+    School                                                  22
+
+    The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical
+    High School were not Overlooked in the Distribution
+    of the Work on the House                                24
+
+    A Table Runner of Russian Crash and Pillow
+    Cover with Geometrical Design                           96
+
+    Window Draperies with Stencilled Border                108
+
+    Crocheted Panels, a Linen Work Bag with Conventional
+    Landscape in Darning Stitch, a
+    Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and
+    Couching Stitch                                        118
+
+    Finishing a Library Table                              212
+
+    Weaving a Rug                                          244
+
+    Hand Made Rugs, Hand Made Towels                       252
+
+    An Alcove with Window Draperies, Pillow Covers,
+    Window Seat and Moss Green Rug, All Hand
+    Woven                                                  262
+    Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover,
+    Slumber Rug, and Pillow Covers                         266
+
+    Girls at Work on Pottery                               280
+
+    Bowls                                                  294
+
+    Vases and Fern Dishes                                  312
+
+    Tiles                                                  316
+
+    Pottery: Designed and Made by Schoolgirls              318
+
+    Decorative Forgings                                    364
+
+
+
+
+                            HOME DECORATION
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys]
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+THE STORY OF A HOUSE
+
+
+To design, plan, and build a house is a task that rarely falls to the
+lot of boys and girls. In fact, it is not the common experience of
+men and women to build houses without the aid of architects, masons,
+and carpenters. Such a task, however, was recently offered to certain
+classes in one of the public schools of a well-known New England city.
+It was, indeed, a school problem, and yet there was something about
+it that seemed to suggest larger and more interesting things than
+are ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. It did not seem at all
+like some school work. It was more like real life; for all boys and
+girls must some day have homes of their own, and here was a chance
+to learn how the house, which is an important part of every home, is
+planned and built. It is hardly necessary to say that this work--or
+play, if you like that word better--was undertaken with genuine
+enthusiasm. It was a task crammed full of the pleasure of interest and
+of accomplishment--full of the joy of doing something worth while--from
+the beginning to the end.
+
+_The House a Work of Art._--One of the first lessons learned by these
+young builders--perhaps the most important one of all--was that a
+great many things have to be thought of in planning a house, if the
+thing is to be well done. It is not simply a question of deciding how
+many rooms one will have, arranging them in some conventional order,
+and building the house around them with whatever external features
+style or fancy may dictate. Too many houses, it is true, are planned,
+or at least put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever goes
+into them in decoration or furniture is generally chosen either for
+necessary use or for display--not with any thought of the real comfort
+and satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings. People who are
+satisfied with such dwellings seem to show less appreciation of art,
+the highest product of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who
+decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs of their own weaving
+and who ornamented their pottery and their utensils and implements
+with wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought designs. Modern
+cave dwellers in apartment houses with all the conveniences of their
+ready-made surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression
+in their home belongings that encouraged and delighted even the savage.
+The most extreme example of this form of degeneracy is found in the
+suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the age of concrete
+construction, now at hand, means that we are to have concrete houses
+poured into a standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours, and
+finished for occupancy in a day or two.
+
+The boys and girls of this story would not have accepted a
+machine-made, standardized house if one had been offered them, ready
+for use. There was a special purpose for which their house was to be
+planned and built, as there generally is in the case of any real house.
+No style A, B, or C, chosen from any series of pattern-built or moulded
+houses, could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could, would they
+willingly give up all the fun of planning and building and furnishing?
+Would they forego the lessons of experience to be learned from all this
+work? This is always a large part of the satisfaction which comes to
+any one who builds his own house. In the present instance it was the
+chief motive, since the boys and girls who were planning this house
+were not expecting to make their home there.
+
+_Why the House Was Built._--What, then, was the purpose for which this
+house was to be built; and what were the specific problems involved in
+realizing this purpose? It was to be a practice house for the girls
+of the household technology course. This meant that it should be, so
+far as possible, a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple
+one. Economy, always a safe guide, was a most important factor in
+determining the character of the design. A limited appropriation--about
+$1000--for building material was available. Economy of space as well as
+of expense was also important. The only available land was a triangular
+lot in the corner of the school yard, 665 square feet in area. This
+limited the dimensions of the floor plan to 24 by 35 feet. It was
+decided to develop the design within these dimensions, on a rectangular
+plan, with one story and a hip roof, because such a design would
+present comparatively easy problems in framing and insure a building of
+pleasing external proportions.
+
+
+THE GENERAL DESIGN AND THE PLAN
+
+In attacking the problem of design the method of approach was
+determined by the fact that school-girls and school-boys were to be
+the architects and builders. House planning, home decoration, and
+household management were important subjects of study on the part of
+the girls and various forms of drawing and constructive work were
+required of all the boys of this school; so they all felt that they
+had a right to contribute something out of their study and experience
+that might be of value in working out this problem. The design must
+therefore be a composite of the best features of many studies.
+
+_A Composite Design._--The rooms required for a house of this character
+were thought to be a hall, a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen,
+a pantry, a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen closet.
+Nothing short of this outfit of rooms would satisfy the demands of
+a house to be used to give practical training in all the essentials
+of plain housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests. With these
+requirements in mind and with full knowledge of all the limitations
+of the problem, the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were
+taking the course in household technology, entered into a lively but
+friendly competition with each other to produce the most acceptable
+design and draw the best plan. So many excellent plans resulted from
+this competition that it was difficult to select the best. It was
+therefore decided to combine in a new and final plan the best features
+of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions of the problem
+with equal success. Two of these were selected as having the greatest
+number of good points. From these the final floor plan was developed
+and the necessary modifications made in the original drawings to make
+the general design of the building fit the plan.
+
+[Illustration: Floor plan of the model house]
+
+_The Hall._--It may be
+of interest to note how some of the details of the problem of design
+were worked out for the final plan. Beginning with the hall, it was
+easily seen that economy of space required that the room should have
+small dimensions. In fact, it did not need to be a separate room
+at all. It could easily be a space between the living room and the
+dining-room, separated from both by means of portières and joined
+upon occasion with either room or with both, thus making possible
+a reception room or a dining-room of good size, or one large room.
+Of course, the central idea of a hall must not be lost sight of in
+providing for a desirable extension of other rooms. It should suggest
+a warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the fireplace may
+fulfil the double function of giving the cheer of the hearth-stone at
+all times and the comfort of fire when warmth is needed. The absence
+of a stairway, since none was needed, was a favourable circumstance.
+Appropriate decoration and furnishing in due time were to add a few
+distinguishing marks so that the house could retain, without any
+appreciable sacrifice of space, the dignity of an entrance hall.
+
+_The Living Room and the Dining-room._--The relative positions of the
+living room and the dining-room, as already stated, were determined
+by the location of the hall. The purpose of each was distinct and
+self-evident, and determined the features of design that lent
+themselves most readily to appropriate decoration. In the living room
+the floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration with
+regard to their final treatment, to give pleasing proportions and
+harmonious colouring. The same was true of the dining-room, though its
+different purpose suggested a different design. An abundance of light
+was important for both rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. Such
+windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing drapery effects.
+
+_The Kitchen and Its Appointments._--No room demanded so much study
+as the kitchen. In the first place it was necessary to make provision
+for a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily be needed in a
+house of this size, because in this case it was designed to be used as
+a practice kitchen and must therefore be large enough to accommodate
+a considerable number of girls--at least eight--at one time. This
+point assumed so much importance in the minds of the young designers
+that they were constantly tempted to rob other rooms of the space that
+was due them in order to get a "nice, big kitchen." But by clever
+adjustments and combinations the necessary floor dimensions were
+secured without unduly cramping other features of the plan. The range,
+laundry tubs, and sink were conveniently located near each other with
+the tubs at such a height that when not in use the cover was flush
+with the top of the range, forming a shelf on which kettles and other
+kitchen utensils could be easily placed as they were moved back and
+forth from the range. It was thought that it would be very desirable,
+if not necessary, to have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of
+sheet metal.
+
+It will be noted as a possible fault in the plan that the range is
+very near the door into the passageway leading to the bedroom, the
+living room, and the hall. This point received due consideration; but
+in view of the compensating advantages the arrangement was thought
+allowable, inasmuch as the door into the passageway would be used
+only occasionally. There seemed to be no more convenient location for
+the passageway, which was designed to give privacy to bedroom and
+bath room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency requiring it,
+easy communication between the kitchen and the bedroom.
+
+_Special Features._--The pantry was located between the kitchen and the
+dining-room for obvious reasons--to give easy communication in serving
+and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place. In place of a
+kitchen closet a cabinet was provided for as being on the whole the
+more serviceable of the two. It is always desirable to have an entry
+or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved for the refrigerator;
+but the need of providing as much room as possible in the kitchen
+itself seemed to justify the omission of the lobby. Another unusual
+feature--this time not an omission--is to be found in the window of the
+bedroom closet. Such a window, although not common, was thought to be
+very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a possible protection against
+moths.
+
+_Early Plans for Decorating and Furnishing._--These were by no means
+all the features of design that had to be considered. As already
+suggested, there was much study given to the question of interior
+decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage. This was simply
+necessary forethought; for much of the attractiveness, restfulness,
+and homelike atmosphere of any house is created by the architect, who,
+in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways, and windows, disposes his wall
+areas so that they may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves
+naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces for a few choice
+pictures and opening up beautiful vistas. Such house-planning, begun
+with clear vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every detail,
+may often lead to a harmony of effects as pleasing to people of
+artistic temperament as a symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical
+composition. In fact, the parallel between sympathetic gradations of
+form and colour and harmony of musical tones is a very close one, and
+the appreciation of it is by no means rare. Any intelligent person,
+on seeing a suite of rooms designed and arranged by a real artist,
+though he may not understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm
+of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack of any jarring
+or discordant notes in the decoration, the simplicity, fitness, and
+real beauty, not of any particular part, perhaps, but of the whole
+combination. We often find ourselves using the same language whether we
+are describing the work of an artist-architect or the work of a musical
+composer.
+
+
+FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
+
+_Adaptation to Purpose._--Our young architects discovered that there
+are certain fundamental principles or laws that must be observed at
+the very beginning, if a really good and true design is to be made.
+The first of these laws is the _law of adaptation to purpose_. The
+application of this law was illustrated in the location of the various
+rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions agreed upon for
+each, and in the details of arrangement, especially in the kitchen
+and other rooms connecting with it. But this law is universal in its
+application. It determines not only the broad features of the plan but
+the details as well. It does not permit anything useless or superfluous
+to exist, for that would mean weakness. It aims at efficiency and
+strength. It dictates the details of construction all along the line,
+from the framing of the building to its finish and its decoration. It
+even determines the character of the furniture and the amount of it.
+Adaptation to purpose is a ruling principle.
+
+_Simplicity._--Another great principle that revealed itself as the
+plans of the house developed may be called the _law of simplicity_.
+This is one of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the realm
+of craftsmanship. It is an axiom of geometry that the straight line
+is the shortest distance between two points. Not less evident is the
+fact that when Nature undertakes to do anything she goes about it in
+the simplest and most direct way. The natural tendency of all motion
+is along a straight line--so reads the first law of motion. Analyze
+the most complex forms and processes of nature and we shall find them
+due to the harmonious combination of the simplest elementary lines
+and movements. But the same law of simplicity which invariably marks
+the works of nature gives strength and beauty also to the works of
+man. Thus, in discussing the various problems that developed as the
+designing of the house progressed, it was found--as of course it should
+have been--that the solution which met the test of simplicity, while
+satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the true one.
+
+_Correlation._--A third great fundamental principle that found
+expression in these studies of the house plans was the _principle
+of correlation_. Not only must each part of the design be adapted
+to its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must support all
+other parts and receive support in return. It is like cooperation or
+team-work in play or in the practical affairs of life. Every room in
+a house bears some natural relation to every other room, and even the
+objects in the same room or in adjoining rooms must assist each other,
+whether their purpose be utility or decoration or a combination of
+both. Only by due attention to the mutual relations of the various
+elements that must enter into the composition, can the designer produce
+those pleasing space effects, those blendings of colour tones, those
+manifest relations between the various objects, useful or decorative,
+that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to a complete design.
+
+
+THE COLOUR SCHEME
+
+_The Floor the Foundation._--Almost unconsciously our young architects
+found themselves under the guidance of these three great fundamental
+principles of design. When they came to the problem of specifying the
+finish for the floors and other wood work of the hall, living room, and
+dining-room, they found that this problem was intimately associated
+with the larger question of the colour scheme as a whole. The mutual
+dependence of all the elements concerned could not be overlooked.
+It was evident that the floor, which is the foundation of the room,
+should be darker than the walls and ceiling and the general tone of the
+furnishings, in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight and
+firmness for the support of the entire room and all it might contain.
+The effect of solidity could be produced by staining the floor boards
+or by providing a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large ones
+as well as small ones. There was no question of carpets. These, of
+course, are not allowable in a model house. A few rugs were already
+available, and others could be procured by buying them or by making
+them. A properly toned floor, however, is desirable, even with a most
+generous covering of rugs. It was therefore decided to give the floor a
+coat of stain when it was ready to be finished.
+
+_Importance of Colour Schemes._--But what was the colour to be? The
+designers were thus brought face to face with that difficult but
+important problem which all who plan houses have to solve before they
+can hope to bring their work into harmonious adjustment with the
+various natural and human conditions that must be satisfied in the
+final product, if it be made a good example of the designer's art.
+The problem of the colour scheme is fundamental. Upon this depends
+not only the tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but
+also, to a certain extent, as has already been suggested, the kind of
+woods to be used in the interior finishing, and whether they are to be
+painted, stained, or left in their natural colours. It will determine
+the material and the colours of the portières, curtains, cushions,
+lamp shades, picture frames, vases; in fact, it will largely settle
+the decorative character of every article placed in the rooms. The
+consideration of movable objects, however, may be deferred till the
+more substantial and fixed elements are decided upon.
+
+_Southern Exposures and Cool Colours._--In settling the all-important
+question of the colour scheme the first point to be considered was
+the location of the rooms with reference to light and to external
+surroundings. Rooms that have a southern exposure and nothing to
+interfere with their being flooded with sunlight need to be protected
+against the glare of too much light. For such rooms dull tones of
+colour are the best--dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain blue
+tones, and the medium grays--light, cool colours that counteract the
+overbrilliancy of direct sunlight and give a positively tempered
+feeling to the atmosphere of a room. Incidentally, too, perhaps because
+they are the tints associated with distant views, the cool colours make
+a room seem larger than it really is.
+
+_Northern Exposures and Warm Colours._--Northern rooms, on the other
+hand, do not generally suffer from excess of sunlight and heat. Warm
+colours are needed in such rooms. Deep reds, rich yellows, and golden
+browns will seem to bring sunlight into a sunless room. Our designers
+noted the fact that many of the rooms in the house they were planning
+must be comparatively dark. The house was to face the high brick walls
+of the neighbouring school building, not more than twenty-five feet
+distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure. A warm colour
+treatment, therefore, was unquestionably needed. Should red, brown, or
+yellow be the prevailing tone? The deciding point was the location of
+the hall and its relations to the other rooms. It was, first of all,
+the hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it was dark. Its
+walls must have the sunniest of all colours--a rich golden yellow. The
+same would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps a brown with
+yellow enough in it to be well in tune. The dining-room could safely be
+darker and more luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden yellow
+of the hall; but it must not be decidedly red. The ceilings of these
+three rooms, whether beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the
+walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint. This might well be
+a light corn yellow.
+
+The colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath room, and kitchen was
+not so important a question as the decoration of the three front
+rooms. Utility and sanitary conditions were important things to be
+considered. Light tints were decided upon, which in the bedroom might
+be relieved, in the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures in
+some warm tone.
+
+_Interior Woodwork._--With the colour scheme settled it was a
+comparatively easy matter to decide what should be the general tone
+and character of the interior woodwork. The floors of the three front
+rooms, since they were to be closely associated, required the same
+solid colour, which could well be a walnut brown, darker than any
+of the walls. Fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable for the
+dining-room and gum wood for the living room, either of which could be
+extended to the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the hall,
+leaving the oak for the dining-room, found much favour. It was finally
+decided, however, to adopt for the three front rooms the combination
+of natural woods first suggested. The bedroom and bath room, where
+suggestions of cleanliness are peculiarly appropriate, were specified
+to be finished in white. Yellow southern pine was decided upon for the
+kitchen and its accessory rooms.
+
+
+ORGANIZING THE WORK OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+As soon as the chief features of design were decided upon, preparations
+were made for carrying them out in the actual work of building; for the
+house was not to be a "castle in air." The first step was to put these
+ideas on paper and work out the details of construction in clearly
+executed and accurately dimensioned drawings. These included, as the
+first to be used, the working drawings for the framing and other rough
+woodwork, blue print copies of which were to be put into the hands of
+the boys of the elementary vocational school, who were to carry out
+this part of the building plans.
+
+[Illustration: Front or north elevation of the model house]
+
+_The Working Drawings._--A considerable number of detailed drawings
+had to be made before the work of construction could be wisely begun.
+This furnished an interesting set of problems for the mechanical
+drawing groups of the technical high school. The material for this work
+consisted of rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct dimensions
+as determined in the plan accepted as the result of the competition in
+design. These preliminary sketches required much study on the part of
+both boys and girls, under proper guidance, in order to find out what
+the elements of construction should be, what dimensions were required,
+and how the various parts should be put together. It was an experience
+of great value to all, but especially to those boys who were looking
+forward to architectural draughting as a possible vocation. They got
+an inside view of the importance, on the one hand, of accurate working
+drawings as a basis for good construction and, on the other hand, a
+practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough knowledge of
+constructive principles, in order to make correct working drawings.
+They saw that the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted
+with all the detailed processes employed by the carpenter or mason,
+informed upon all the conditions to be met, and knowing the best ways
+of meeting them. They gained impressions which should help them, in
+studying the work of great architects, to look beyond the exterior,
+however pleasing it may be, for those elements of strength and beauty
+that characterize all good workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: All the Rough Carpentry Was Assigned to Boys of the
+Woodworking Section of the Vocational School. Plate I]
+
+_How the Work Was Distributed._--It will be recalled that boys and
+girls were to be coworkers in the designing, planning, and building
+of the house. The boys were to be held responsible for the drawings,
+the decorating after designs made by the girls, and the higher grades
+of woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms and the making of
+the furniture. They were to do the wiring for the electric lights, the
+bells, and the interior telephones; and they were to install all the
+fixtures in connection with this wiring. Boys from the metal-working
+sections were to do the necessary piping for gas and water and some
+of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating plumbing are
+strict and well enforced, as they should be, it was necessary to keep
+this most essential feature of the work under charge of licensed
+plumbers. But this requirement did not remove even the plumbing of
+the building from the field of public school work; for, fortunately,
+this city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the trades school
+department, under the direction of licensed plumbers of high standing,
+who were glad to have given them, as an exercise for their classes, a
+practical problem in house plumbing. The boys in the forging classes
+were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. Many
+of the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed to be made
+in the school forge shop. The girls designed and made rugs, curtains,
+portières, and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving and
+stencilling; and they contributed many decorative articles in clay,
+copper, leather, and other materials. Thus every technical department
+of the school was brought into service; for in the building of a house
+there is to be found something to enlist the interest of every boy and
+girl.
+
+[Illustration: The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical High
+School Were Not Overlooked in the Distribution of the Work on the
+House. Plate II]
+
+_Boy Foremen in Charge._--To bring about the right distribution of
+the work and to marshal the working forces effectually required the
+oversight and management of an experienced instructor. But much of the
+work of direction was delegated to competent boys. The preliminary
+tool work in the school shops had revealed those who were especially
+observant and capable as leaders, and those who worked best under
+specific directions. Thus the twenty boys of the vocational school who
+set the posts and framed the house worked sometimes in pairs--one
+being the chief foreman and the other the helper--sometimes in gangs
+of three or four under a foreman. The plan was varied according to the
+nature of the work in hand. When leaders of more technical knowledge
+and skill were needed, as was the case in setting the window frames and
+directing the shingling, capable boys from the technical high school
+were placed in charge of groups of younger boys from the vocational
+school. In this way the work was advanced in several directions at the
+same time; and the advantage was not all in the advancement of the
+house construction. It was a delightful and profitable experience for
+all the boys, not unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat
+when school days are over and they take their place in the more serious
+affairs of life. In after years they may look back upon the first
+house that they helped to build and recall the part they took, their
+companions in the work, and the good time they had withal.
+
+
+SOME DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+_Setting Batter Boards, Posts, and Sills._--The first step in actual
+construction was to mark off the lot and set the batter boards. These
+were made by driving three stakes to form a right angle about four
+feet from the point where each of the four main corners of the house
+was to be located. Two rough boards, one for each side of each angle,
+were nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes, with their
+upper edges all brought to the same level. It is very important to set
+these batter boards with accuracy, since their function is to carry the
+lines which mark the dimensions and level of the ground floor. In the
+present instance their first use was to locate the concrete posts on
+which the sills of the house were to rest. Twenty-two of these posts,
+which were 4 feet long and 8 inches square, were put in position by
+first setting moulds or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were
+those of the posts, 3 feet deep in the light soil and filling them with
+a mixture of concrete and crushed rock. It was not thought necessary
+to remove the moulds after the hardening of the concrete. In fact, the
+sills were framed and placed in position resting on these boxes before
+sufficient time had been given for the concrete to harden. The sides of
+the boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that they could be
+easily broken off just below the ground, exposing the projecting ends
+of the concrete posts for about one foot. The sills were of 6 by 8-inch
+first quality spruce. They were set on the 6-inch face, the two long
+sills being spliced over posts, using a long halved joint. Mortise
+and tenon joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the corners. The
+floor timbers of 2 by 8-inch spruce were gained into the sills with
+the top faces flush with the top of the sill and crowning (_i. e._,
+bending) upward if at all. The spacing of the floor timbers was taken
+off at the sill on a strip of furring--spruce, 7/8 of an inch thick
+by 2 inches wide--which was moved out to the centre near the line of
+bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked timbers into line. The
+bridging was then nailed in, the outside last to prevent springing the
+sills.
+
+[Illustration: Plan A. Framing details]
+
+Referring to the accompanying sketch (Plan A) it will be noticed that
+the corner posts and centres were not mortised into the sills, but were
+simply butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. There was a time when
+carpenters would have regarded such a method as altogether wrong; but
+those were the days of great corner posts and heavy studding, placed
+two or three times as far apart as is the practice now. It was thought
+that placing the studs 16 inches on centres, which is the common
+practice in modern house framing, removed the necessity of mortising
+into the sill. Mortising is still recognized, however, as a good thing
+to do and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters. Plan A
+also shows how the outside walls were trussed over openings; and Plan B
+shows how the corners of the building were tied by the lapping of the
+double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters were placed on
+the top of the plate.
+
+
+[Illustration: Plan B. Details of cornice, sill, and roof
+
+  A SHINGLES
+  B ROOF BOARDS
+  C RAFTER 2" × 6" 20" O.C.
+  D PLATE 4" × 4"
+  E ROUGH BOARDING
+  F STUD
+  G FRIEZE
+  H CROWN MOLD
+  I BED MOLD
+  J CEILING JOIST 2" × 6"
+  K GROUND
+  L LATH & PLASTER
+  M BASE
+  N FINISHED FLOOR
+  O LINING FLOOR
+  P FURRING
+  Q SILL
+  R CONCRETE POST 8" × 8"
+  S CORNER POST
+  T HIP RAFTER 3" × 8"
+  U FLOOR JOIST
+]
+
+The window frame details are shown in a series of cuts (Plan C) which
+for the sake of completeness are drawn to show also the interior
+finish, not usually represented in the framing drawings. A detailed
+description of these features of construction is unnecessary, since
+the dimensions and relations of the various elements and the technical
+terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated in the
+illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: Plan C. Details of interior finish
+
+  A OUTSIDE CASING     I HEADER          Q SURBASE
+  B BACK BAND          J CORNER BLOCK    R SILL 1-3/4" TH'K
+  C HEAD               K ROUGH BOARDING  S INSIDE CASING
+  D STOP 1/2"   THICK  L SHINGLES        T SOFFIT
+  E SASH 1-3/8" ditto  M WEIGHT          U BED MOLD
+  F LATH & PLASTER     N PULLEY STYLE    V FINISHED FLOOR
+  G GROUND 3/4" TH'K   O PARTING STRIP   W BASE
+  H STUD 2" × 4"       P STOOL CAP       X LINING FLOOR
+]
+
+In the same series of cuts a detail of the base is shown which includes
+the framing, the base board, and the lath and plaster. It should be
+stated, however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was recommended
+to the student architects--a new product in paper board especially
+designed for walls and ceilings, which it was decided to use. The use
+of this material removed the necessity of the "grounds" shown in the
+drawings and always needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when
+the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered. In the detail of the
+dado cap, which will be found on the page of construction drawings,
+the dotted lines show how the cap was to be expanded into a plate rail,
+requiring the addition of brackets with a bed moulding between, in the
+finishing of the walls of the dining-room. Among these drawings will
+also be found a detail showing a section of the beamed ceiling finish.
+
+It will be readily understood that none of the finishing work called
+for in the detailed drawings was begun until the rough carpentry on the
+house was practically completed. All the rough work, which included
+framing, boarding, shingling, laying of the lining floors, and putting
+up partitions, was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections of the
+vocational school. This is an elementary industrial or trade school,
+admitting from the grades below the high school boys who have attained
+the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some mechanical trade.
+It represents a new and promising experiment in American education.
+The building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity for the
+boys of this school to show the honesty of their purpose in enrolling
+themselves to learn the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their
+right to have the chance.
+
+So the house was built by the combined efforts of the boys and
+girls of the public schools of this New England city, unassisted by
+professional architects or paid labourers. How they carried out with
+their own hands the designs for decorating and furnishing the house is
+told in the succeeding chapters of this book, which also suggests wider
+applications of the principles of household decoration as possible to
+be made in the homes of clever boys and girls throughout the country.
+To carry out these suggestions will mean work--but work of a kind that
+gives pleasure to the worker and to many others. It was work for the
+young designers and builders of whom this story tells, but they said
+it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure quite equal to
+that found in doing with one's own hands an exceptionally good thing.
+The true craftsmen of all time have found it so. One of these master
+workmen, Stradivarius, the violin maker, so George Eliot tells us, made
+his confession thus:
+
+        " ... God be praised!
+    Antonio Stradivari has an eye
+    That winces at false work and loves the true,
+    With hand and arm that play upon the tool,
+    As willingly as any singing bird
+    Sets him to sing his morning roundelay,
+    Because he likes to sing and likes the song."
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+DECORATIONS AND FURNITURE
+
+     Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or
+     believe to be beautiful--_William Morris_
+
+
+The decorating and furnishing of a house have their true beginning
+in good architectural design. It is a mistake to proceed upon the
+theory that decoration necessarily implies something added for its
+own sake--something beautiful in itself but selected and applied
+without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of the room in which
+it is to be placed and without considering the relation of this room
+to neighbouring rooms and to more remote surroundings. The truth is,
+a decorative object may or may not be intrinsically beautiful; but
+however beautiful it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in
+an appropriate setting. And the decorator who is actuated by the true
+spirit looks to the architect for inspiration and finds his greatest
+successes in acknowledging that leadership. To attempt to lead when
+one should follow is neither good art nor good sense.
+
+There is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be taken too seriously.
+It would also be a mistake to run to the other extreme and adopt at
+the outset a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified like
+contract work to be carried out and completed on a certain date soon
+after the house is built. The problem is one of growing interest,
+especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the smaller objects of
+use or beauty, and for its best and happiest solution requires time
+and study. Only the broad and fundamental features can be settled in
+advance. The important thing is to have the main lines, dimensions,
+space relations, and colour schemes settled with due regard to utility
+and appropriateness and, as the work of construction proceeds, to keep
+all details in harmony with this general plan.
+
+
+THE FLOORS, THE WALLS, AND THE CEILINGS
+
+_Colour Harmony in the Model House._--It will be remembered that
+the colour scheme of the hall, living room, and dining-room of our
+model house was settled quite early in the development of the design.
+Standing near the centre of the living room and looking through the
+hall into the dining-room, one may see at a glance how some of the
+details of decoration were worked out in keeping with the general
+treatment. The walnut brown stain of the floors gives a good foundation
+of colour. It flows easily into the lighter browns and yellows of all
+the lower wall spaces. The suggestion of olive green in the frieze of
+the living room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing browns
+and harmonizes well with the woodwork of this room, which, it will be
+remembered, was designed to be finished in gum wood. This beautiful
+wood, when properly treated, presents a surface of satin-like texture
+and soft colour tone. In the dining-room a corner of which is shown
+in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of colour where it is
+needed and is in keeping with the fumed oak trim. The wide openings
+into the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together with the
+long, unbroken lines of the beamed ceilings, give the impression of
+generous width. The plain wall spaces, though varied in tone and
+relieved of monotonous spacings by the location of the necessary doors
+and windows, are of great assistance in increasing the apparent size of
+the room. Plain walls are also the best of backgrounds for pictures.
+_Redecorating Old Houses._--It is, of course, true that the decorating
+and furnishing of a house or an apartment cannot always have a new
+and original architectural design as the basis for the solution of
+the problems involved. As a matter of fact, in the great majority of
+cases, the houses in which homes are made are already built and have
+been previously occupied. Often they are very old houses, presenting
+difficult and even impossible tasks for the decorator. Sometimes,
+however, such houses are all the more desirable if they bear the marks
+of age that suggest a past of dignity and charm. But the spirit which
+inspires the artist in decorating and furnishing a house already built
+is the same as that which controls his thought when he can begin with
+the foundation of a new and original design. His first thought is to
+discover how beauty may be enhanced and at the same time unity of
+purpose and harmony of treatment be preserved. His constant care is to
+avoid incongruous elements, however beautiful they may be in themselves
+or however appropriate in other houses. His general aim is to use his
+art to develop the design as it is, if there be any design at all, and
+make the most of it.
+
+_Decoration as a Corrective._--But this does not prevent him from
+attempting to counteract the blunders of faulty design and bad
+architecture. Such correction, indeed, forms a large part of the work
+of decorators and furnishers, both professional and amateur. If the
+lines and space divisions of a room be not good, the decoration must
+be planned with a view to giving the needed harmony of proportions,
+or at least the appearance of it. If the ceiling be too high, it may
+be made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling paper or tinting one
+or two feet down the walls of the room to meet the picture moulding.
+The effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high base board or by
+wainscoting. If the ceiling be too low, the depressing effect may be
+largely overcome by extending the picture moulding along the top of the
+wall spaces close to the ceiling. This is a desirable thing to do in
+the living rooms of most modern houses. Striped wall papers of proper
+tones may be used in low rooms with good effect in increasing their
+apparent height. Bad wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging
+door-ways, substituting portières for the doors, and by arranging
+the drapery over windows to give the effect either of increasing or
+of diminishing their height, as the conditions may require. _Wall
+Papers._--Probably no element of decoration furnishes so many pitfalls
+to ensnare the unwary as wall papers do. It is easy to fall a victim
+to a captivating design as it appears in the few square feet of wall
+paper displayed on the dealer's rack. The same interesting figure,
+spread out in endless repetition on the four walls of the living room,
+may create an atmosphere of unrest and positive discomfort keenly felt
+by sensitive persons. A wise choice cannot be made in the absence of
+all the conditions that should really determine it. After all, it is
+not the paper which is beautiful in the roll that should be selected,
+but only that which will become beautiful when hung upon the walls of
+a certain room. Papers with large figures should be avoided unless
+there is a special reason for using them. They always have the effect
+of reducing the apparent size of everything associated with them.
+They make a small room appear dwarfish and a large one over decorated
+unless well relieved by plain spaces harmonizing in colour with the
+large-figured patterns. Strong contrasts in colour values should also
+be avoided, not only between the designs and the ground colour of the
+wall paper itself, but also between the paper and other objects of
+importance in the room. The principle of gradation in colour values,
+which does not as a general thing allow the placing together of light
+and dark shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony of colour
+tones.
+
+_Nature of Decorative Design._--The one fact never to be lost sight
+of by the decorator is the real nature of true decorative design. It
+is never a picture. While it may suggest the natural forms of plants
+or animals, it does not aim to represent them in a naturalistic way.
+Some of the best decorative designs do not even suggest natural forms;
+but, whether they do or not, the central idea is the repetition of good
+combinations of line and form in closely related colours and values
+on a flat surface. If natural forms are used, they should be more or
+less highly conventionalized. Anything that destroys the idea of flat
+surfaces in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration. In the
+nature of the case, a wall can have but one plane. Clusters of flowers
+or patterns of any kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or
+back of it, are out of place and therefore offend the sense of fitness.
+Such incongruities are sometimes so pronounced that they positively
+shock the sensibilities of refined people. Extreme examples have been
+known to give such pain to sensitive persons as to drive them from the
+room.
+
+_Advantage of Plain Walls._--Decorative designs, however, are not
+essential in wall papers. The main point in the treatment of walls is
+to secure and preserve a good background. If one is in doubt as to
+the kind of figure or pattern to be used, which is often a perplexing
+question, it is well to leave them out altogether. Plain walls are
+always good if the colour tone is right; for colour is the main thing
+in wall decoration. The decorative effects of form may be brought out
+in the portières and window draperies, which may easily carry more
+elaborate patterns when associated with plain walls than is desirable
+with figured wall decorations. In fact, with figured walls plain
+portières and curtains are much to be preferred. In our model house,
+as has been explained, the wall decorations were designed to offer a
+plain background of colour. The figured borders of the portières and
+curtains, combined with the careful gradation in the colouring of the
+floors, wall spaces, and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this
+background that nothing further was needed to avoid monotony.
+
+_Trial Needed in Doubtful Cases._--It is, indeed, a good rule to omit
+whatever is unnecessary. To observe this rule wisely is to escape much
+that is positively bad in decoration. Overwrought designs, too great
+variety in decorative material, too many decorative objects, however
+great their individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture, too
+many interesting things in whatever direction one may turn, create an
+oppressive and disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest which
+it should always be the aim of home decoration to dispel. And yet it
+may not always be best to set aside our treasures because they do not
+seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of decoration or are not
+apparently needed to complete it. It is, in fact, often very difficult
+to determine where the line should be drawn between what is needed and
+what is not needed. The fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a
+final test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things that may be
+introduced into a scheme of decoration already well thought out and be
+given a trial. Such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected needs
+or add a new charm that at once proves its right to be retained.
+
+To take a step like this, somewhat out of line with accepted rules
+as strictly interpreted, is entirely safe if this step is dictated
+by good taste and does not lead the young decorator too far afield.
+Exceptional treatment of any kind should show proper restraint, and
+such restraint, when it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in
+itself an attractive feature.
+
+_Precise Rules not Always Practicable._--The truth is, the rules of
+decoration, though founded upon fundamental principles of art, are not
+rules of precision like those founded upon mathematical principles.
+In the nature of the case they must in their application yield more
+or less to circumstances. It is, for example, a good general rule
+to determine the colour scheme and background first and accommodate
+other decorative features to these as a foundation; and yet it is
+possible for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify a complete
+reversal of this rule. Here is a concrete case. A young artist was the
+fortunate possessor of a considerable number of Japanese and Chinese
+embroideries and other Oriental ornaments. He wished to make these the
+main decorative materials for one of his rooms. The embroidered figures
+were in yellow and white on a deep, strong blue, the general effect
+being quite dark. There were in the collection several prints, showing
+the typical dull reds, dark blues, and yellows of Japanese art. Now the
+room itself happened to be one that, under the general principle of
+colour schemes as determined by exposure and other fixed conditions,
+would demand warm colours on its walls. It would easily support a rich
+red frieze with appropriate combinations in floor, dado, and ceiling.
+This would set off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture,
+but it would rule out the Oriental decorations. One or the other must
+give way; and, since the value of these decorative materials was beyond
+question, it was decided to try them, even at the cost of setting aside
+the general rule. The whole matter resolved itself into selecting a
+proper background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries; and
+for these the best colour was a gray blue--the coldest of colours. But
+when the whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion and the
+cold background was fully employed in setting off the rich colours and
+exquisite workmanship of the Oriental prints and draperies, all the
+circumstances that ordinarily determine the choice of backgrounds were
+forgotten in the charm of originality. No one thought of the exposure
+as requiring warm colours, the dark oak trim was not noticed, and the
+mahogany furniture was still in keeping. The result was so absolutely
+satisfying that no one who saw it could question the good taste
+displayed in this very original plan of decoration.
+
+But such exceptional cases should not shake our confidence in the
+fundamental principles of decoration. It is true that these principles
+cannot be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably in all cases,
+and it is unreasonable to assume that any form of treatment is the only
+one possible in any given case. Modifications in the application of
+these principles are always possible, but the principles themselves are
+as unalterable as the Mosaic law. One is, indeed, tempted to summarize
+them thus as the
+
+
+TEN COMMANDMENTS OF DECORATION
+
+     Thou shalt have no household gods except those that be beautiful
+     or those that be useful.
+
+     Thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in the
+     heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the
+     earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in thine house.
+
+     Thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great
+     masters of decorative art.
+
+     Remember the colour scheme and keep a good background.
+
+     Honour the original design, however old it may be, and make the
+     most of it. Thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of
+     faulty design and bad architecture.
+
+     Thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with
+     over-decorated wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind.
+
+     Thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor permit
+     insane arrangements of anything that is thine.
+
+     Thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony of thy
+     decorations.
+
+     Thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything that is
+     thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator to show
+     originality but at the same time to acknowledge his dependence
+     upon those who have preceded him.
+
+
+THE FURNITURE
+
+_Relation of Furniture to Decoration._--So much for the treatment
+of floors, walls, and ceilings. We may now turn to the more special
+consideration of those objects of use or beauty that are to be
+associated with these backgrounds--furniture, pictures, lamp shades,
+and small ornaments. That these are closely related to decoration
+has been implied in all that has been said. They are, in fact, in
+themselves elements in the decorative scheme and as such must obey
+the same laws. Their value, however, depends more or less upon their
+utility, and for this reason they seem to require consideration
+somewhat apart from their merely decorative functions. This is
+especially true of furniture, which would have very little reason for
+being if it were not for its usefulness.
+
+In designing the furniture for the model house the questions that
+constantly suggested themselves were: What is this piece of furniture
+under consideration to be used for? What form, construction, and finish
+will enable it to give the best service? What features of design are
+needed to render it suited to its surroundings? In considering the
+furniture for the model house it was most natural to apply these tests
+to the various rooms in order.
+
+[Illustration: A library desk in fumed oak]
+
+_Hall of the Model House._--First, there is the hall. This is the room
+into which a visitor is first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets
+his first impressions. But in this house it is a very small room and
+designed to serve not merely as a place for the formalities of welcome
+but also as an expansion of the rooms on either side. Its furniture
+must consist largely of the fireplace. There is no room for a hall
+settle nor even for a chair. A mirror, simply but richly framed, might
+hang on the wall near the front door, balanced by a picture on the
+opposite wall behind the door. An umbrella rack should stand outside on
+the porch.
+
+[Illustration: A hall chair]
+
+[Illustration: A hall settle--simplicity, strength, dignity]
+
+_Hall Furniture in General._--The halls of modern houses vary greatly
+in their relative importance. In some the traditions of the old English
+manor houses seem partially to survive. In mediæval England the hall
+was the principal room, if not the only one comfortably furnished. When
+modern houses combine the living room and library or reception room
+with the hall, there is need of something more than hall furniture
+of the formal kind. The requirements of comfort must be met. But,
+generally speaking, hall furniture is of little real use. Odd chairs,
+attractive by reason of their oddity, the richness of the materials
+used in their construction, or some other assertive quality, but not
+fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable in the hall. The hat
+and coat rack of our fathers has been declared insane and no longer
+appears in well-regulated houses. In place of it is found the hall
+settle, which is of real use. It should be designed on simple lines and
+give the impression of strength and dignity. If the hall is to be used
+as a waiting room for guests, a few good chairs, conveniently placed,
+will be needed for their comfort and a choice picture or two on the
+walls will add greatly to their pleasure.
+
+[Illustration: Two Morris chairs that invite to solid comfort]
+
+[Illustration: A satisfactory writing desk]
+
+_Living Room Furniture._--In furnishing living rooms there is bound to
+be a wide range for the exercise of good taste because of the variety
+of needs to be met and the large facilities afforded in the markets
+for meeting these needs with due regard to artistic requirements. It
+will be quite impossible to go into detail in discussing so large a
+topic. The important thing is to keep in mind the central idea of a
+living room--the place of all places where the freedom, comfort, and
+protection of home life are to be enjoyed. The very atmosphere of
+the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity, and good cheer. Every
+article of furniture should be there to serve a genuine need, and it
+should be strong enough to do its full duty. Spider-legged, top-heavy
+tables; light, weak chairs; chairs on casters or rockers; sofas with
+carved backs or couches with none at all,--these have no place in the
+living room. The long, straight lines of the craftsman or mission
+style of furniture are in the right direction; but if these be used at
+all they must be made quite general, since few other styles harmonize
+with them. Wicker or reed furniture is a notable exception. When well
+designed it will fit in almost anywhere.
+
+[Illustration: An ample library table]
+
+[Illustration: A plain but useful magazine stand]
+
+The frequent combination of the library with the living room requires a
+suitable adjustment of the furniture to this use. A plain, serviceable
+magazine rack, which may be easily made, will relieve the tables of an
+accumulation of weeklies and monthlies. Moderately low bookcases, with
+or without doors, are to be preferred to the more ordinary high ones
+because this form harmonizes better with the lines of a room, which are
+generally longer horizontally than vertically. If doors are used, it
+is well to break up the glare of the glass by heavy sash, the spacing
+of which may be arranged in a very pleasing manner. Good design in
+library tables calls for ample size. Firmness and convenience as well
+as satisfactory proportions should control the choice of a writing desk.
+
+[Illustration: A low bookcase with sash doors]
+
+_Dining-room Furniture._ Only a few elements enter into the design for
+the furnishing of a dining-room; but they are evident and should have a
+controlling influence. The table and chairs are for a definite purpose
+and this should show itself in good design. Heavy construction is
+permissible since the chairs are to be moved but little and the table
+is practically stationary. Moreover, weight and generous dimensions
+are suggestive of bounty and good service. The rectangular extension
+table is most readily adjusted to varied demands, but the round table
+is preferable for the family circle; and for a company of twelve or
+fifteen a large, round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary
+extension table, has been found very attractive.
+
+[Illustration: A round dining table]
+
+[Illustration: A sideboard of good proportions. Convenient and generous
+but not overdone]
+
+As comfort is the chief result to be obtained in furnishing a living
+room, so richness, within one's means, is an appropriate aim in
+furnishing a dining-room. The history of sideboard design might be
+cited in proof of this statement, if proof were needed. Probably no
+single article of furniture has been subjected to greater elaboration;
+but the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience may be secured
+without overdoing it. The unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an
+interesting study for one who wishes to design and construct his own
+in conformity with the architecture of his dining-room. The buffet or
+serving table furnishes an equally interesting, though simpler, problem.
+
+[Illustration: A buffet of simple but effective design]
+
+For the care of the china, the built-in cabinet as a feature of
+the architecture of the room is to be preferred to the movable
+cabinet designed for this purpose, because of its richer decorative
+possibilities. Large, glazed doors are desirable in either case, not
+for the full display of china and glassware but to give a suggestive
+glimpse of it. As this cabinet is for decoration and not for show, it
+is well to avoid plain glass doors unbroken by sash. Leaded panes are
+frequently employed with good effect. The decorative effect of old
+and odd pieces of china--not too many of them--is most appropriately
+employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is better to leave
+the plate rail bare than to load it with commonplace crockery and
+inappropriate ornaments.
+
+[Illustration: A china cabinet. A part of the finish of the room]
+
+_Chamber Furniture._--The bedroom speaks for itself. A dainty freshness
+in all its appointments is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the
+distinctive purpose of this room to provide. The necessary articles
+of furniture are a bed, a dressing table, a bureau or chiffonier, a
+few chairs, and, if there be no bath room attached, a commode or wash
+stand. A couch is an appropriate addition; and here, if anywhere,
+rocking chairs are allowable. When the bedroom must be used more or
+less as a living room or sewing room, as it too often unfortunately
+is, furniture to serve such uses must be provided. In selecting or
+designing all this furniture, lightness, and simplicity of design,
+combined with strength, should be allowed a controlling influence.
+The recognition of this idea has given great popularity to the brass
+or iron beds; but it is possible to design and construct beds of oak,
+maple, or other woods that harmonize with the rest of the furniture,
+carry out the idea of daintiness, and have sufficient strength for
+service.
+
+[Illustration: Leaded panes]
+
+Many of these suggestions on furniture design are being carried out
+in fitting up the model house described in our introductory chapter.
+A small house like this, limited to one story, does not permit great
+variety in its furnishings. Certain standard conditions, however, were
+to be met here, as everywhere else, and the young designers found much
+pleasure and great profit in working out the furniture problems. Some
+of the construction details will be given in the later chapters.
+
+[Illustration: A Duxbury chair]
+
+
+ARRANGEMENT OF THE FURNITURE
+
+_Arrangement Follows Selection._--The problem of furnishing a home is
+not fully settled when the questions of design have been answered and
+the right selections made. After selection comes arrangement, or, to
+speak more accurately, after a certain amount of selection a certain
+amount of arrangement; for, as has already been suggested, there is
+considerable dependence of one upon the other. It is not wise to drop
+the arrangement till the selection is complete, for the simple reason
+that the happiest choices are often the late ones, determined by the
+disposition of the earlier ones. And yet in the main the order as
+stated is the true one. It should be noted, too, that in arrangement
+there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality and taste.
+While artistic principles still hold sway, they yield more readily to
+exceptional interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household, to
+the demands of style, and to the larger number of possibilities for
+pleasing effects when the question is one of the arrangement of things
+already well chosen for their usefulness and for their artistic value.
+
+[Illustration: A dainty bed in white maple]
+
+_Utility the Controlling Principle._--The problems of arrangement,
+however, are by no means vague and uncertain. The natural law of
+adaptation to purpose is not difficult to follow. In some rooms
+obedience to it has become a settled custom. No one, for example, would
+think of placing the dining table in any other place than the centre
+of the dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the centre of one
+end. The sideboard, serving table, and china closet likewise fall into
+their natural places. So also the bedroom and the hall, though perhaps
+to a less degree, present comparatively easy problems in furniture
+arrangement when due regard is paid to the purposes for which such
+rooms are designed.
+
+_Importance of Appropriateness._--But it is in the library and the
+living room that we find the most difficult and at the same time the
+most interesting problems. And this is due to the operation of the
+same law of adaptation to purpose. It is the variety of uses and the
+diversity of useful objects that make the problem somewhat complex.
+However refined and beautiful the different units may be, there
+must be some arrangement of them into working groups. The important
+elements should dominate and those of lesser importance should fall
+naturally into related but subordinate places. The easy corner with
+its couch, pillows, and its low seats, has a definite function to
+perform. So also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases and
+library table, the Morris chairs and tabourettes, the window seats and
+screens, the writing desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp,
+the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort that may belong to
+it. The various centres of interest should be accentuated by grouping
+around them the most appropriate furnishings and the most suggestive
+decorative features. It may be well to add one word of caution, and
+that is that a proper balance should be maintained between the various
+centres of arrangement in order that no part of the room may seem
+neglected and bare.
+
+_The Danger of Overcrowding._--Finally, the one great danger to
+be avoided in meeting the requirements of good arrangement is the
+temptation to overcrowding. Many otherwise excellently appointed living
+rooms suffer from an embarrassment of riches. Such overcrowded rooms
+are worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot topple over and
+sink as one might well wish them to. To secure the right things and
+just enough of them, arranged with a proper balance between utility
+and beauty, is the true aim. It is as true to-day as it ever was in
+the arrangement and beautifying of the home, and, for that matter, in
+everything that concerns every-day life--just as true as it was in
+ancient times when men wrote those famous inscriptions over the doors
+of the temple at Delphi: over one, KNOW THYSELF, and over the other,
+THE GOLDEN MEAN OF NOT TOO MUCH.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PICTURES
+
+     I now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me,
+     not that they dazzle me. Pictures must not be too picturesque.
+     Nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing.
+     All great actions have been simple, and all great pictures
+     are.--_Ralph Waldo Emerson_
+
+
+The decoration of a room is generally not complete without pictures.
+There is, of course, great value in good pictures entirely aside
+from their decorative effect; and too great care cannot be exercised
+in their selection. But our present purpose is to consider them as
+decorative features; for, though a decoration is not a picture,
+pictures themselves are properly regarded as important elements in the
+general scheme of decoration. And this is especially true as regards
+matting and framing, the distribution of pictures upon the wall spaces,
+and the method of hanging them.
+
+_Importance of Space Relations._--A picture mat and frame are simply
+elements of finish, and their function is to give the picture a certain
+individuality and yet connect it harmoniously with the space in which
+it hangs. In fact, the wall space is a part of the framing of the
+picture. The importance of giving some study to the relations of all
+the spaces involved is evident. The mat and the frame should not be of
+equal width. Here is a fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing.
+No definite rules can be given; sometimes the one, sometimes the other
+should give way. Generally speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical
+pictures, and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal pictures.
+But variation from this rule is possible and even necessary through the
+grouping of several pictures. In grouping, however, there is danger
+of being tempted to allow too many pictures. In the houses of the
+well-to-do, and even in the homes of those of moderate means, too many
+pictures, rather than too few, are often found. The example of one New
+England home, known to the author, may be mentioned. The house is new,
+of generous proportions, and it is the home of an artist. There are
+few pictures on the walls, but they are distributed with rare artistic
+effect. There are many good pictures stored in the attic because there
+is no suitable space in which to hang them.
+
+_The Japanese Way._--The Japanese have taught us many valuable lessons
+in art, and in the matter of the number of pictures to be displayed
+they have a very interesting lesson to teach. It is their practice
+to hang a single choice picture for a season in a space where it may
+be best enjoyed, and then after a time to replace it with another
+picture, and this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit. There
+are many conditions that determine the selection of the picture to
+be displayed. It may be the preference of a guest, or it may be the
+season of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give a certain
+picture special significance. There is, in this singular custom, a very
+definite service which the picture is made to perform, and it is given
+an individuality which perhaps has no parallel in our own practice.
+
+_Grouping of Small, Simple Pictures._--If a considerable number of
+pictures are grouped together, it is quite essential that all the
+pictures of the group should be of similar character and tone and
+similarly framed. It is hardly possible for them to be all of the same
+size, nor, indeed, is such agreement desirable except in so far as is
+required to give proper balance to the group. Small pictures in light
+frames are, of course, the most desirable for such grouping, and if
+possible there should be an evident reason for the grouping. A series
+of photographs of a certain locality, for example, might form a group
+of four or five or even more pictures so that they could be easily seen
+together and so more thoroughly enjoyed. A collection of photographs
+in passe-partout bindings, especially if they deal with subjects in
+any way related, may form an attractive group. But pictures of any
+considerable size or those having decided individuality are generally
+not suited to any plan of grouping. They should appear by themselves,
+in frames and other surroundings which accentuate their peculiar merits.
+
+_The Kind of Frame._--The material of the frame, its colour, and the
+colour of the mat are determined by the tone of the picture. Oil
+paintings easily support gilt frames and should be hung in good light.
+Pictures of light values with white mats are well finished in narrow
+gilt frames. Carbon photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are
+appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium colour, and appear
+best when hung against a dark wall. The truth of these statements
+will hardly be questioned by any one who has a good sense of colour
+harmony. But there are many other elements that enter into a concrete
+problem of picture framing that cannot be brought under general rules
+or formulas. It is generally best to depend largely upon the tests
+of trial. In framing and hanging pictures, as in many other things,
+observation and experience are the best teachers. Some suggestions may
+be found in the following record of two actual framing problems that
+were satisfactorily solved.
+
+
+FRAMING AN OLD-TIME INTERIOR, DRAWN IN COLOURS
+
+The conditions which had to be met in this problem are plainly shown
+in the framed picture as it hangs on the wall. The picture itself is a
+small one, 8 inches wide and 13 inches long. It is interesting because
+of its representation of a sewing room in one of the high-class homes
+of the colonial period. The mistress and her two young daughters are
+engaged in sewing and embroidery. Patterns are displayed upon the wall;
+the furniture is appropriate and evidently an example of the best of
+the period. All these details are suggestive of the delightful home
+life of our grandmothers.
+
+Such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and to properly emphasize
+its details; and it requires a simple, narrow frame. The mat was
+accordingly made 2-1/2 inches wide and the frame 1 inch wide. The tone
+of the mat selected was a light bluish gray, forming a good connecting
+link between the bright colours of the picture and the gray of the wall
+against which it was to be placed. Since it was to hang directly over
+a fine old mahogany table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a
+mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown in the picture with
+that of the room.
+
+The frame was made with mitred corners of perfectly plain, square-edged
+birch, which readily takes a mahogany finish. The stain was first
+applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to dry. A surfacing coat
+of shellac, coloured to match the stain, was next put on, allowed to
+dry, and then carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to
+guard against rounding the edges and corners. A coat of varnish was
+next applied, which, after hardening for one week, was rubbed first
+with pumice stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil.
+A final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put on, which was
+lightly rubbed with rotten stone and water to give the half dull effect
+required to match the antique mahogany table.
+
+
+FRAMING A CARBON PHOTOGRAPH OF A MASTERPIECE
+
+The picture is a copy in sepia tones of Murillo's Saint Anthony, 16
+inches in height by 20 inches horizontally. The frame is made of
+quartered oak 3 inches wide, slightly convex but smooth; and it is
+well joined with mitred corners. A picture of this character needs
+no mat. Indeed, it would have been the height of presumption to
+strive to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic meaning
+and treatment. It must be left to itself as much as possible. The
+dimensions of the frame are therefore determined by the size of the
+picture itself.
+
+The picture hangs against a light gray wall in good light, somewhat
+apart from other pictures. It was a happy thought thus to recognize its
+dignity. It was given further distinction by finishing the oak frame
+so that it should not associate itself with the other woodwork in the
+room. Since the room in which the picture was to hang has a light ash
+trim and most of the furniture a mahogany finish, this requirement was
+easily met.
+
+But there are many ways of finishing a frame to avoid too close
+association with the commonplace that would have been anything but
+appropriate to such a picture as this. A gilt surface, a silver-gray
+tone, or a highly polished golden oak are possible blunders. Nothing
+should be done to call attention to the frame of any picture, least
+of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one. The frame should
+seem to be a part of the picture, repeating its prevailing tones with
+a richness in keeping with the composition of the picture itself. The
+colour should be a rich, dark brown, but not so dark as to obscure the
+figure of the wood. The finish should be dull, but soft and smooth.
+
+There are several brown stains which, properly applied, would give
+the desired effect. For the colour it was thought best to rely upon
+Van Dyke brown, which may be used either with alcohol or turpentine.
+It is not desirable to use a water stain in a case like this because
+it would raise the grain, necessitating sand-papering, which should
+be avoided as much as possible on picture frames in order to keep the
+edges and corners intact. Ammonia fuming preserves the figure of the
+wood better than any other form of staining, but it was thought that
+the oak might not take on a tone dark enough to meet the requirements.
+It was decided, however, to try the fuming method and to tone up with
+a thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not sufficiently dark.
+The ammonia process resulted in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour
+too light. A thin Van Dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore applied
+and when dry this was followed by a very thin coat of shellac--mostly
+alcohol--coloured to match the stain. This was to fill partially the
+grain of the wood. Finally, it was thoroughly coated with wax finish
+and well rubbed to restore the soft, satin-like surface.
+
+[Illustration: A group of passe-partouts]
+
+
+PASSE-PARTOUTS
+
+Framing pictures in passe-partout binding is one of the little
+arts of home decoration, though it is by no means an unimportant
+one. It is easy to learn and it involves small expense in time and
+money, but it furnishes a means of preserving many pictures of real
+worth in themselves or of value to their owners because of pleasant
+associations; and it is in itself a delightful occupation. It offers
+the same chances for artistic effects in colour harmony and contrasts,
+in spacing, and in the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult
+methods of framing do, with the added advantage that one need not be
+deterred by the question of expense from discarding an unsuccessful
+result and trying again.
+
+_Varieties of Binding._--Passe-partout binding is made in a great
+variety of colours. It costs from ten to twenty cents per roll of
+twelve yards, according to colour and quality, and it may be purchased
+of dealers in artists' supplies. For general use the ordinary width
+of binding--7/8 of an inch--is required; but extra narrow widths are
+supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a contrasting colour.
+For these margins the gold and silver narrow bindings are, with certain
+pictures, very effective; but white and other light colours are often
+used for this purpose.
+
+_Artistic Colour Effects._--The choice of the colour for the principal
+binding should be controlled mainly by the tone of the picture, with
+which, as a general thing, it should blend. If no mat be used, more
+or less of a contrast in colour between the picture and the binding
+is permissible; but the most artistic effects are obtained when mats
+are used. These should, of course, be in harmony with the colour
+tones and general character of the picture. It may be a harmony of
+agreement if there is a border of light tone between the picture and
+the mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing. Without such a
+border it will be necessary to show a pleasing contrast of tone. But
+in almost all cases when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat
+the predominant colour or some other prominent characteristic of the
+picture. For example, if it be a picture of an English hunting scene
+with mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be of a light greenish
+hue and the binding red. If it be a landscape photograph in sepia
+tones, a white or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown binding
+is a good combination. A Scotch scene is appropriately framed in a
+plaid binding. In this case it is the subject of the picture rather
+than the colour that suggests the binding. But in all cases opportunity
+is offered for carefully selecting the colour combinations, planning
+the spacing, and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character.
+Thus one of the simplest of decorative processes presents large
+artistic possibilities.
+
+_An Actual Problem._--The various steps in the process of framing
+a picture in passe-partout binding may perhaps be best understood
+by giving an example of it. The actual problem is to frame a
+silhouette--an original drawing in black India ink on light gray paper,
+8 by 10 inches in size, with the longer dimension vertical.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--The materials and tools required are as
+follows: A piece of glass the size of the picture (8 by 10 inches),
+since no border is needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may be
+cut from an old box cover, the same size as the glass; a generous yard
+of black passe-partout binding; two passe-partout rings, which cost
+five cents per dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife or a
+pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed nail.
+
+_The Process._--With these materials in hand it will require scarcely
+more than twenty minutes to complete the work. The first step is the
+setting of the rings. This is accomplished by punching two small holes
+in one of the pieces of pasteboard two inches from the edge chosen
+for the top and about one inch from each side. Through these holes
+the points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close to the
+pasteboard. Bending the points over in opposite directions fastens
+the ring firmly. This is a comparatively large picture. Had it been
+small--say 4 by 5 inches or smaller--only one ring in the centre,
+fastened about 1-1/2 inches from the edge, would have been needed.
+
+The picture is now mounted on the second piece of pasteboard by
+fastening it at the upper corners with a little paste. It is desirable
+to use as little paste as possible. The two pieces of pasteboard are
+then brought together, care being taken that the rings are on the
+outside, and the glass laid over the picture. These parts are now
+ready to be bound together. The sides are bound first. This is done
+by cutting two pieces of the binding 1/4 of an inch longer than the
+short edges of the picture, wetting the gummed side and laying it
+along the edge of the glass so that it will lap 1/4 of an inch over
+the face of the glass. Each end of this binding will extend 1/8 of
+an inch beyond the glass. The rest of the binding is now folded over
+upon the pasteboard back, taking pains to draw it down close to the
+edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is permanently fastened.
+The 1/8 of an inch that projects at each end is then folded over the
+corner and pressed down as close as possible to the edge of the glass
+and pasteboard. The upper and lower edges are bound in the same way,
+excepting that the pieces of binding are first cut the same length
+as the edges over which they are to be pasted, and, before they are
+pasted on, the two corners on the side to be pasted to the glass are
+cut off 1/4 of an inch back at an angle of 45 degrees, and the other
+corners are also trimmed back to about 1/8 of an inch. The accompanying
+drawing shows more clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. The
+purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are pasted over the top
+and bottom edges of the glass, it is seen that they have been cut to
+give the appearance of mitred corners, and that when folded over the
+edges upon the back of the pasteboard no rough edges of binding are
+left exposed at the corners.
+
+[Illustration: How the binding strips are trimmed]
+
+One of the lessons of experience in this work is that it is well to
+take great pains in centring the binding strips accurately before
+pasting them on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made to
+correct a mistake by removing the binding and pasting it on again.
+The more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats, borders, and double
+bindings, are scarcely more difficult than the simple example just
+described, though they will require more time. It is well to begin
+with the easier problems. When borders and double bindings are used
+the narrow passe-partout strips are pasted on first, with proper care
+to cut the mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately before
+pasting them down upon the glass. The edges are bound last. This partly
+covers the brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along the edge of
+the glass, and leaves a narrow line of colour exposed as a border just
+inside the binding.
+
+
+HANGING PICTURES
+
+[Illustration: A correct method of hanging pictures]
+
+_How to Hang Pictures._--If wire be used for hanging pictures, it
+should be as small and inconspicuous as possible. In place of the
+braided steel wire, which may be needed for large pictures, a single
+brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for those of lighter
+weight. In all cases where the wire shows it should appear as two
+vertical lines against the wall and not as a single wire bent over
+a single hook in the form of an inverted V, so commonly seen and so
+manifestly failing to conform with any lines of a room. Levelling
+the picture may be easily managed by using only one wire, making it
+continuous through the screw eyes on the back of the picture. These
+screw eyes should be placed near the top of the frame--about one
+sixth the whole vertical width of the picture from the top--so that
+the picture may hang nearly flat against the wall. Whenever possible,
+however, pictures should be hung without showing the wire at all. This
+may be easily managed without seriously marring the finish of some
+rooms by driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower wall
+which is to come directly behind the top of the picture, allowing them
+to project about 1/2 of an inch and bending them up a little with
+a pair of pliers so that the wires will not slip off. Choice, small
+pictures may be hung in this way on fine upholstery tacks. It is often
+possible, when the wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado
+cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze. Whenever it is
+necessary, as it often is, to suspend wires by means of the so-called
+picture hooks from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above the
+frieze, some attention should be paid to the colour of these hooks.
+Bright metal hooks showing over a delicately coloured moulding are in
+bad taste. Some people prefer to use the inverted V suspension in order
+to reduce the number of these picture hooks. But it is far better to
+retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible wires and colour the
+hooks to make them less conspicuous.
+
+In determining the height of pictures it is only necessary to remember
+that they are placed upon the walls to be enjoyed. While monotony
+in height is to be avoided, the average eye level should not be
+disregarded. The frontispiece illustrates an effective placing of a
+picture in the dining-room of the model house.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS
+
+    "I know not which I love the most,
+      Nor which the comeliest shows;
+    The timid, bashful violet,
+      Or the royal-hearted rose;
+
+    "The pansy in her purple dress,
+      The pink with cheek of red,
+    Or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs,
+      Like a bashful maid, her head."
+
+    --_Phoebe Cary_
+
+
+Formerly when the furniture, pictures, and draperies had been
+arranged in our rooms, with perhaps a few pieces of bric-à-brac, we
+considered their decoration quite complete. But we have learned how
+much cheerfulness a few simple flowers, properly arranged, impart to
+the same rooms; and so flowers have come to be considered as almost
+essential to the complete decoration of the home.
+
+_A Lesson From the Japanese._--If we have learned much from the
+Japanese in regard to the arrangement and hanging of pictures, from
+them we have learned more about the artistic arrangement of flowers.
+They have taught us to value the stem and leaves of the flower as
+essential to an artistic arrangement, that flowers of the same kind
+should be grouped together, and that harmony and blending of colour are
+necessary to secure the most artistic effects.
+
+_Flowers of a Kind Grouped Together._--We may have been in the habit
+of putting several different kinds of flowers together and of being
+satisfied with such a composition; but the Japanese would tell us that
+when several different kinds of flowers are combined in one grouping
+the full beauty of each is lost; and after a few experiments we shall
+come to see the truth of this. Here is an illustration: At a summer
+camp with which I am familiar it was the daily duty of one of the
+younger boys to go for the wild flowers we used for keeping the camp
+gay. He often brought home snug little bunches of the flower of the
+wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be used together. No pleasing
+arrangement could be made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring
+long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and gather branches of the
+rose, especially those with the buds. The convolvulus we arranged in a
+flat dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the vine hang over
+the mantel, and he quickly saw that it "looked prettier--more as though
+it were growing." When a few of the stalks of the wild rose were
+arranged by themselves in a green glass vase he pronounced them much
+"prettier than when mixed up with other flowers."
+
+_The Way of the Garden._--In our gardens we plant the sunshiny
+daffodils by themselves, the sweet peas grow in a mass together, and
+we have beds of roses. If we follow the same plan in the arrangement
+of our flowers indoors we shall realize their decorative qualities to
+the utmost. So we may consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging
+flowers,--to use only one kind of flower, with its stems and leaves,
+arranging them loosely, rather than to have many in a compact grouping.
+One single, long-stemmed rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall,
+slender glass is more decorative and gives us more pleasure than a
+dozen roses stripped of their foliage and crowded into a small vase.
+
+_Exceptions._--While the above rule should be generally followed, there
+are exceptional instances of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of
+flowers of two or more kinds together. Among these we may mention the
+combining of field daisies and buttercups, or buttercups with the
+grasses among which they grow. So, too, the lacy flower of the wild
+carrot may sometimes be effectively combined with some other flower.
+The spikes of the cardinal flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour,
+but very stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a few
+sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and makes it more pleasing.
+
+
+COLOUR ARRANGEMENT
+
+We have just considered the grouping of flowers by themselves. There is
+another element to be considered before we can have artistic results,
+and that is arrangement as to colour.
+
+_Colour Grouping._--We may not all be sensitive to colour ourselves,
+but in arranging flowers we should always keep in mind the pleasure
+that is to be given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour
+grouping that will offend those whose colour sense is keen. There are
+three colour schemes that can be followed with success and satisfaction
+to all. In one we group together only flowers of the same colour, as
+red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris, not red, pink, and white
+roses, nor all of the various colours of sweet pea.
+
+Another arrangement calls for shades and tints of the same colour. With
+many flowers it is possible to get exquisite effects by following this
+scheme. For instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender to deep
+purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of damp moss. Sweet peas
+have beautiful shades of pink that can be combined, as well as shades
+of red and of lavender. Nasturtiums are never so effective as when
+the various shades of yellow, orange and brown are used together. The
+garden aster of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure in
+colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and purples, a variety of pink
+tones, beautiful reds, and perfect white ones.
+
+And the white ones! What shall we do with these? Three or four pure
+white asters of the same variety may be used together; or two or three
+white ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or pink ones. White
+may be combined with any colour with good results. Nature is a good
+teacher here for she gives us both the coloured and the white in almost
+every variety of flower. For example there are crimson cosmos and white
+cosmos, scarlet geraniums and white geraniums, blue violets and white
+violets, and so on through a great many varieties.
+
+_Combination of Complementary Colours._--Another colour grouping
+that is sometimes desirable makes use of the complementary colours.
+The salpiglossis, a garden flower that ought to be better known than
+it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and orange-yellow
+flowers that are so effective together. The iris also has flowers of
+complementary colours, yellow and violet blue being common among them.
+
+
+THE FLOWER HOLDERS
+
+_A Flower Composition as a Picture._--Having learned something
+about the artistic use of colour, we come to the consideration of
+the arrangement of the flowers, and this includes the vase or other
+receptacle used for holding them. An artistic flower composition is
+a picture; and as the mat and frame give finish to a picture hanging
+on the wall, so the vessel holding flowers should give the required
+finish to the flower picture. Like the frame, it should be simple in
+design, have graceful lines, and serve only as a medium to set off the
+flowers to the best advantage. There should be as little decoration as
+possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used they must blend or
+harmonize with the colour schemes of the flowers placed in them.
+
+_Receptacles for Flowers._--It often is a problem to find the most
+fitting thing for holding flowers; but in the reliable Japanese shops
+one can always find some simple holders, and there are very good
+designs in the clear and in the green glass that are inexpensive and
+appropriate. As a rule the less expensive the article the better
+adapted it is as a suitable holder for flowers. One need never mourn
+that she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they and their
+cheap imitations are among the most unsuitable of holders.
+
+_Four Typical Flower Holders._--Let us suppose our equipment includes
+four simple receptacles,--a small, clear glass fish globe such as may
+be had for twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve inches
+in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring a little at the top,
+costing twenty-five cents; a large cylindrical Japanese jar of a pale
+green tint, eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar and
+a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight inches in height, which
+may be bought for sixty or seventy cents.
+
+The fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums and their leaves are
+loosely arranged in it. The stems show through the water and glass
+and form a part of the composition. Short stemmed roses may be most
+artistically grouped in it. I have seen a very charming combination
+of mignonette and bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as
+a harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the various shades of
+California poppies and their foliage.
+
+[Illustration: A fish globe with daisies]
+
+The tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed roses: and a few
+yellow daffodils or the narcissus with their leaves look equally well
+in it. Poppies for a day, in the same vase, have given pleasure to
+the beholder. At Easter it has joyously borne a stalk of two perfect
+lilies, and in the autumn tall spikes of salvia have been equally at
+home in it.
+
+Our tall Japanese jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need
+to remember that in tall or vertical compositions the vase should be
+about one third the height of the whole combination; so this is adapted
+to holding branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if one
+is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about three branches
+from these are effective in it. Tall-growing golden-rod looks equally
+well placed here. It furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and
+chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions has been
+two or three branches of pine bearing their brown cones.
+
+The possibilities of the smaller green jar are numerous, and only
+a few are given as suggestions. A loose arrangement of jonquils and
+their leaves, or of white narcissus, is effective. The shorter stemmed
+lilacs, either the purple ones or the white ones, may be placed in
+it. An arrangement of white field daisies, and one of yellow roses,
+have been found equally successful. One soon discovers the harmony and
+balance that exist between the flower and holder.
+
+[Illustration: A tall vase with narcissus]
+
+
+THE BACKGROUND
+
+_Space and Harmonious Surroundings._--To obtain the largest decorative
+effect we must have not only artistic grouping and harmonious setting
+of flowers, but space and background, just as are needed for the
+hanging of pictures. Many a floral composition has lost all decorative
+effect from being placed in too small a space and surrounded by
+distracting objects. A few days ago I stepped into a room on an errand
+and forgot my errand in the pleasure I derived from seeing some
+beautiful yellow chrysanthemums, three or four, I think, in a yellowish
+brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for a background the
+upturned leaf of the table. It stood some little distance from anything
+else, a shaft of sunlight lay across the whole, and as I looked at it
+I thought: Here is all that constitutes a decorative arrangement of
+flowers. It was the feature of the room that held one's attention.
+
+[Illustration: An arrangement for the tall Japanese jar]
+
+_Flowers for the Dining Table._--If we can have flowers in but one
+room in the house, it may be difficult to decide which one it shall
+be. Since it often happens that the dining-room is the only room where
+a busy family comes together for any length of time, flowers should
+certainly be introduced here that all may share their beauty and cheer.
+Any arrangement for the home table should be moderately low; and there
+are many simple flowers that can be used in this way to advantage. For
+instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence or common bluet
+(root and all), to be found in any field in the spring, and put them in
+a shallow glass dish. Simple and effective decoration for the table is
+the result. Flowers with any degree of fragrance should never be used
+in the dining-room. The fragrance of some flowers is offensive to many
+people, and when combined with the odour of food doubly so.
+
+[Illustration: An arrangement of roses in a small jar]
+
+At a luncheon served by the girls in the model house the floral
+decoration for the table was a half dozen single, yellow jonquils
+with their foliage, placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the
+girls. Their dishes being in white with a gold edge and the walls and
+furniture in browns, nothing could have been more harmonious than these
+few simple flowers.
+
+_Expensive Flowers not Necessary._--It is evident that for floral
+decoration neither expensive nor lavish displays are necessary, that
+simplicity is the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of wild
+flowers in their season are more truly artistic than many expensive
+hot-house flowers. In this country we do not, as the Japanese do, make
+a festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we rightly appreciate
+and utilize the flowers of each season, we may give a touch of
+festivity to the life of every day.
+
+In the early spring nothing can be more appropriate than an arrangement
+of pussy willows or branches of the alder with its tassels, while the
+red maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that will brighten
+any room. A clump of blood root in a small jardiniere is as decorative
+as the expensive plants one may see in the home of some friend. The
+flowers of the field and the garden offer so many possibilities for
+decorative results that no one's home need lack the cheery touch which
+they can give.
+
+There is a personal element in flowers such as is not found in any
+other means of decoration, not even in pictures, with the single
+exception of good portraits. They seem to speak to us. We can almost
+believe that they feel an interest in all that we have said about them.
+If they really could know, would they not approve the principles that
+we have laid down? We may fancy that they _would_ approve and that, if
+they could really speak and we would listen, they would tell us so in
+some such language as the following:
+
+
+WHAT THE FLOWERS SAY ABOUT IT
+
+Don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our own kind.
+
+Don't make a confusion of colour with us.
+
+Don't arrange us in snug, solid masses.
+
+Don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a part of the decoration.
+
+Don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills around us.
+
+Don't crowd us in with an assortment of household goods; we need space
+and a background.
+
+Don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining table.
+
+_Do_ love us and use us in the home as much as possible. This is well
+for you. By so doing not only will your love of us increase, but your
+artistic perception of the fitness of things will constantly enlarge.
+For truly has it been said, "The poorest woman in the world, if she has
+faith in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with light; she
+can always place there some flowers."
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+DECORATIVE FABRICS
+
+PORTIÈRES, WINDOW DRAPERIES, CUSHION COVERS, TABLE MATS
+
+     The very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate
+     discontent with plain, smooth surface--_Lewis F. Day_
+
+
+No kind of decorative art offers greater possibilities for touching
+the right--or the wrong--chord than that which makes use of fabrics.
+Portières, curtains, cushion covers, table runners and mats, lamp
+shades, and many other furnishings, in which fabrics are involved,
+present problems that quickly engage the interest of the amateur
+decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and, when well worked
+out, add greatly to the attractiveness of artistic surroundings. And
+every house becomes a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when the
+possibilities of development in this direction are realized. Here, as
+everywhere else, decorative art is secondary to architectural design
+and must never fail to acknowledge its dependence. Its glory is to
+follow. To attempt to lead means miserable failure.
+
+_Example of the Model House._--The wide doorways connecting the
+hall, the living room, and dining-room of our model house made doors
+undesirable and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division
+between the rooms and to soften the lines of the wood finish. They were
+made to harmonize with the colour scheme but were darker and richer
+in tone. The multiple windows, with the absence of direct sunshine,
+suggested the light style of drapery; and the preference given to
+straight-lined, substantial furniture, made in the school shops, led as
+a natural consequence to cushions and coverings of leather or coarse
+fabric, in order to bear out the idea of simplicity, directness, and
+durability in craftsmanship. Velvets and satins would have been out of
+place.
+
+_Utility to be Regarded._--The highly decorative function of such
+accessories makes it doubly necessary to exercise care in selecting
+materials, designing the ornamental features, and properly placing
+the completed article, in order that the requirements of use be
+not subordinated to the demands of art. It must never be forgotten
+that utility is the basis of all true decoration. Portieres were
+originally a substitute for doors--a means of closing an opening
+between rooms. It must be possible always for them easily to serve
+this purpose. Hence loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole,
+should be used. Portières may properly be made of heavy cloth and
+they may have a lining harmonizing or in pleasing contrast with the
+tone of the principal fabric. They should always be at least opaque.
+Window draperies, on the other hand, are not a substitute for shades
+or curtains. They should not shut out the light but soften it. They
+should, therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable material,
+and be hung so that they can be easily taken down for cleaning. The
+simplest style of hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets,
+is the best. Since there is no need of frequently sliding them over
+the rod, it is well to hang them by means of a hem, stitched two or
+three inches from the top of the drapery, through which the rod may
+be easily pushed. Cushion covers and table runners, made of durable
+material and decorated with colours that are washable, are manifestly
+more serviceable than those that look fresh only when new, and hence
+are more in keeping with the idea of sincerity in household decoration.
+There is necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in plumbing if
+it is to meet the tests with equal success.
+
+[Illustration: Pillow Cover With Geometrical Designs Printed on Dyed
+Cotton Cloth. Table Runner of Russian Crash with Block Printed and
+Embroidered End Panels. Plate III]
+
+How such decorative features are worked out from beginning to end, is
+told in the following directions for a few practical problems which are
+known to be practical, because they have been actually carried through
+from the design to the completed article. This detailed and complete
+explanation, with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest many
+similar problems which every home offers.
+
+
+BLOCK PRINTING
+
+Problem: _Decorating a Table Runner_.--This problem is easily separated
+into four distinct parts--making the design, cutting the block,
+printing, and finishing. The materials needed are as follows:
+
+
+  (1) Making the design
+  Ordinary drawing paper
+  Rice paper
+  Charcoal
+  Pencil
+  Japanese or sable brush, medium size
+  Water-proof India ink
+
+  (2) Cutting the block
+  Gum wood
+  Small penknife
+  Vise
+  Sand-paper, fine
+
+  (3) Printing the design
+  Printing board
+  Sheet of glass
+  Oil paints
+  Turpentine
+  Palette knife
+  Cotton batting
+  Cheese cloth
+
+(4) Finishing the runner
+Embroidery silk or mercerized cotton
+
+[Illustration: The peacock design]
+
+_The Design._--To carry out the problem as illustrated, it is
+necessary, first of all, to make the design. Geometry, nature, and the
+imagination are satisfactory sources upon which to draw for the motif.
+If the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one should study for
+suggestions the figures in Oriental rugs, photographs of early Eastern
+art, and the fine old tapestries in museum collections. Some good
+geometrical designs, like that used on the pillow cover illustrated
+on page 104, were made by school-girls after drawing many figures
+found in rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying numerous
+reproductions of Coptic designs. In no case was the block pattern in
+the least like the designs studied. They served only as ideas to start
+with and led to the production of truly original work. It is essential
+to keep a few simple principles in mind in working out the design: (1)
+Both the dark and light shades in the patterns should be varied in
+size and form to avoid a monotonous result and should be as beautiful
+in proportion as possible. (2) There should be a centre of interest,
+one part of the design dominant--more attractive than any other. (3)
+The design must be a unit--_i. e._, the parts must hold together. All
+feeling of unity is lost if the parts of the design call attention to
+themselves to the exclusion of the whole.
+
+[Illustration: Block used in printing the peacock design]
+
+_Preliminary Sketches and the Drawing._--It will be found desirable to
+make many preliminary sketches in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a
+part of each sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately the dark
+and light effect. These should be compared, keeping clearly in mind the
+principles stated above. When one possessing the right qualifications
+has been found, the next step is to draw on a fresh piece of paper an
+accurate 3-inch square and copy upon it the satisfactory design in
+pencil outline. This should be done very carefully, that the spirit
+of the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. When the drawing is
+completed it must be put into shape to be transferred to the block. To
+do this we fasten a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace with
+very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces with black ink,
+using a brush. This brush work may be done directly without the pencil
+line if the drawing underneath shows very plainly through the paper.
+When the ink has thoroughly dried, the design may be cut out on the
+edge of the 3-inch square.
+
+[Illustration: Bird pattern]
+
+_Laying the Pattern and Cutting the Block._--A block 3 × 3 × 7/8
+inches will now be required. This should be procured and sand-papered.
+One face of it should then be covered with a coating of library paste,
+the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down smooth. If the design
+is symmetrical it should be pasted on the block, ink side up, but
+otherwise with the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon
+the cloth. When the paste gets quite dry one may then fasten the block
+in the vise and, holding the blade of the knife at a slight angle and
+always away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design along the
+outlines. These must be kept very smooth and sharp. All of the white
+shapes should be cut out, leaving the black ones in relief. Usually
+an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background, but it
+will be found after practise in printing that the larger spaces should
+be cut deeper and that, when the edges or corners of the block form
+a part of the background instead of the dark pattern, they also need
+a deeper cut. The paper that still adheres to the face of the block
+may now be removed by rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper laid upon
+something hard and smooth like glass in order that the block may have
+an absolutely level surface.
+
+[Illustration: A flower and leaf design]
+
+[Illustration: Block used in printing this design]
+
+_The Padded Board._--All block printing should be done upon a padded
+board. A very convenient one can be made by laying upon a bread board
+three or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over these several
+thicknesses of cheese cloth. In place of these an ironing board may be
+used.
+
+_Material Required._--It is essential to select for the runner a piece
+of crash of fine texture and even weave. This is sold under the name of
+Russian crash and is from 15 to 16 inches wide but varies considerably
+in quality. It is very difficult to print well upon the coarser grades.
+
+[Illustration: Alternating animal and geometrical design]
+
+[Illustration: Blocks used in printing this design]
+
+_Trying the Colours._--After deciding upon a colour which will
+harmonize with the general colour scheme of the room in which the
+table runner is to be used, it is in order to mix the paint and try
+the block upon a small piece of crash. To prepare the paint, squeeze
+a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a sheet of glass and
+blend thoroughly with the palette knife, thinning with turpentine to
+the consistency of cream. It is seldom that a colour right from the
+tube will prove a pleasing one to use. Other colours mixed with it will
+change its hue and intensity; black or white will alter the value.
+Tie a little cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth or
+old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove from the raw edges
+all ravellings that might drop into the paint. Spread out quite thin
+upon the glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press the
+pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed all it will. Now
+charge the block by lightly pounding its surface with the pad. Press
+the block upon the cloth evenly. Only by repeated experiment will it
+be possible to determine just the right quantity of paint to mix, its
+brilliancy of tone, its consistency, how heavily to charge the block,
+etc. A good print shows the texture of the cloth through it, is even
+in tone, and has clear-cut edges. If the print looks like a painted
+spot, or if, when quite dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the
+paint used was too thick or else the block was too heavily charged.
+Different materials require different treatment. For a thin silk the
+block should be very lightly charged and lightly though evenly pressed
+upon the material. In printing upon crash it is necessary to press
+the block very firmly upon the material; and frequently, to insure
+getting a sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to tap the
+block lightly with a hammer or wooden mallet. If one has a steady hand,
+the block can easily be lifted at one side to determine just where the
+extra pressure is needed. The block should be thoroughly rubbed with
+old cloth after each impression is made and occasionally sand-papered
+to remove any paint that may adhere to it. The first print made after
+sand-papering the block is liable to be a little less distinct than the
+others and should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the material.
+
+_Centring the Work._--A good way to plan the placing of the panel
+design is to run a basting thread across the crash between two of the
+woven threads. Mark the centre of the runner upon this thread, and,
+using these guides, print the design, beginning with one of the central
+units.
+
+_Additional Features._--Considerable charm can be added to the pattern
+by filling some of the spaces with a simple darning or running stitch
+in some bright colour. The embroidery thread used should be rather
+fine. It is well to finish the ends of the runner by button-holing with
+ravellings of the crash. Tiny dots of some colour used in the panel
+may be embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed edge.
+
+_Colours._--The following list of oil colours will be found practical:
+ivory black, flake white, burnt sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome
+yellow, chrome green, permanent blue.
+
+_Materials._--Linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk pongee, crêpe
+de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached muslin are excellent materials
+for block printing. Beautiful background tones can be obtained by
+dyeing the two latter with easy dyes.
+
+In place of the gum wood for the block, basswood, maple, or holly may
+be used. It is possible to get along without a vise by fastening the
+block between two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board. Success
+is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks while simply held in the hand.
+
+_Laundering._--If the material used for the foundation is washable,
+block printed articles can be satisfactorily and easily laundered in
+soapy, lukewarm water. The colours are not injured in the least. A
+liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes used in place of turpentine,
+insuring still greater permanency of colour.
+
+_Other Applications of Block Printing._--Other articles suitable for
+decoration by block printing are curtains, pillow covers, table covers,
+cushion covers, bureau scarfs, Portieres, table mats, bags of many
+sorts, etc. Printing may also be used to ornament articles for personal
+use, such as aprons and scarfs.
+
+
+STENCILLING
+
+Problem: _Window Draperies_.--Making the design, cutting the stencil,
+printing, and finishing form the divisions of the problem to be worked
+out. A list of necessary materials follows:
+
+  (1) Making the design
+  Charcoal
+  Pencil
+  Reflector
+  Ordinary drawing paper
+  Tracing paper
+  Carbon paper
+  Stencil paper
+
+  (2) Cutting the stencil
+  Sheet of glass
+  Sharp penknife
+
+  (3) Printing
+  Large board
+  Blotting paper
+  Turpentine
+  Oil paints
+  Bristle brushes
+  Pins
+
+_The Design._--Suggestions as to the method of procedure in making
+a design have been already given in the section on block printing.
+The principles of design to be considered are outlined there also.
+In working out this problem, however, several new things come up for
+explanation: (1) The difference between a design to be stenciled and
+one to be printed by means of a wood block; (2) the method of
+joining units to form a border; (3) the method of turning a corner in a
+border design.
+
+[Illustration: Window Draperies With Stenciled Border. Designed and
+Executed by a School Girl. Plate IV]
+
+_The Stencil Bands._--By studying the illustrations accompanying this
+section and by experimenting with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will
+be seen that in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the
+color in the finished work are completely separated from one another by
+bands of varying widths.
+
+[Illustration: A stencilled pattern--portion of pillow cover]
+
+These bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve to hold the stencil
+together and are connected throughout the design. Though they may be as
+wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them much narrower than
+one eighth of an inch, as they are easily broken; and, unless carefully
+pinned down when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under them and
+ruin the work. In a block print design no connection of the light or
+separation of the dark parts has to be considered. In the illustration
+of the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed as compared
+with the stencilled pattern--_i. e._, the dark represents the stencil
+paper, the light the openings through which the paint is applied.
+
+[Illustration: The stencil for this pattern]
+
+_The Complete Unit._--It will be readily understood that a border may
+be made up by repetition of one unit which is a complete thing in
+itself. The unit in such a case may be made very long and narrow, so
+that in repeating it along the vertical edge of a curtain it produces
+a narrow band, while along the horizontal edge the band is broad. A
+border worked out in this way, with perfectly straight and practically
+continuous margins, is very structural in character, emphasizing, as
+it does, the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery. The effect
+is strong and dignified. The corner in this kind of border presents no
+difficulty.
+
+_The Subordinate Unit._--By studying the illustration in Plate IV it
+will be seen that the unit of the border in this case is not complete
+in itself, but that the very conventional flower and stem composing it
+are joined to the next unit by what might be called a subordinate unit,
+composed, in this case, of a leaf form. The units are so closely spaced
+that a structural effect is fairly well obtained--_i. e._, the upper
+and lower edges of the border are nearly straight, giving a feeling of
+restfulness to the design that never accompanies one with broken or
+wavy edges.
+
+_Designing the Corner._--Having planned a design for the straight
+running border of the curtains, take a reflector and experiment with
+the corner. The reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old
+discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece, 3-1/2 by 6 inches
+being a convenient size. The edges should be very straight and the
+corners square. Hold the reflector at various points along the border
+and always at an angle of 45 degrees. Study these possible corners
+which will be reflected in the glass, and when one sufficiently strong
+and interesting is found draw a light line along the edge of the
+reflector. This line, of course, exactly bisects the corner of the
+border to be made. Avoid making a border of this kind too deep or, when
+turned for the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and heavy band.
+
+_The Outline Drawing._--The dark and light design having thus been
+worked out in charcoal, the next thing to do is to make a very careful
+pencil-outline drawing of the same. It is well to draw the corner
+and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. To do the tracing, pin a
+piece of very thin paper over the finished part, and trace with a well
+sharpened and fairly soft pencil. Turn the tracing paper upside down,
+fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing underneath. After tacking
+it down, trace the remainder, using a firm, even pressure and being
+careful exactly to follow the line. Strengthen the part of the pattern
+thus transferred by going over it with a sharp, hard point, and
+continue as before until you have a border of which both the vertical
+and horizontal sections are from 9 to 12 inches long.
+
+_Transfer to Stencil Paper._--Now, take a piece of stencil paper and
+square up one corner. Fasten the pencil drawing securely to the stencil
+paper along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between the two, and
+trace the design.
+
+_Cutting the Stencil._--Before cutting the stencil for the curtain
+a beginner should do a little practising upon an extra piece of the
+paper. Trace a portion of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a
+sheet of glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife cut along
+the outline of the pattern. The knife should be held at a slight angle
+and the cut made completely through the paper. The pieces of stencil
+paper should never be pulled out but will fall out without aid when the
+cutting is completed. After a little practice it will be found a simple
+matter to cut the design with perfectly smooth edges.
+
+_Suitable Materials for Stencilling._--For the curtains fine cheese
+cloth or batiste will be found excellent. Even unbleached muslin will
+make attractive curtains where expense must be carefully considered.
+Unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure white materials
+will be found less pleasing than those that are quite creamy in tone.
+Scrim in a charming, grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good,
+soft quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. It is not advisable to
+hemstitch this material before stencilling as in case of accident or
+failure so much work is lost; but the hems should be carefully planned
+and basted, those along the inner edges of the curtains being narrower
+than the bottom hems.
+
+_The Colours._--The color scheme of the room should be carefully
+considered in deciding upon the colour or colours to be used in
+stencilling. If two colours are chosen, they should be of the same
+value--_i. e._, the two colours should form equally dark spots in order
+that the pattern of the border may appear in the same dark and light as
+the original charcoal sketch.
+
+_Pinning the Stencil._--When ready for the actual process of
+stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting paper upon a board and over
+this place the corner of the curtain. Pin the stencil securely to the
+curtain so that the edge of the border when printed shall be about
+half an inch from the hem and the edges of both shall be absolutely
+parallel. Use as few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil
+close to the cloth.
+
+_Testing the Paint._--Having mixed the oil paint with turpentine or
+stencil mordant, using an old cup or glass for each colour, practise
+stencilling upon a small piece of cloth. Put blotting-paper under
+the cloth and pin the stencil down with great care. Use short, stiff
+bristle brushes for the stencilling, one for each colour. Remove almost
+all the paint from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper. When
+it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil the pattern by pounding
+the brush upon the exposed portions of the cloth, working close to
+the edge of each spot. If, upon removing the stencil, the edges are
+blurred, the paint was too thin or the stencil not carefully pinned
+down. If, on the other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty,
+so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in these places, you
+may be sure that the paint used was too thick or that the brush was too
+wet. The secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as thin and the
+brush as dry as possible. Hold the stencilled sample up to the window
+and see whether, when the light shines through it, the colour appears
+right.
+
+_The Real Process._--When confident that the process is understood
+and that the colour is satisfactory, proceed to stencil the corner of
+the curtain. Always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a clean
+piece of cloth to use in case of accident. When removing the pins from
+the stencil wipe each one carefully. Clean the stencil, too, handling
+it with care that none of the slender bridges may be broken. Replace
+the stencil, fitting a section of it to the finished work. Put the
+pins in the holes already made, otherwise the paint will get into
+them and disfigure the work. Continue the stencilling, a section at a
+time, until the border is completed. Do not fold the curtains until
+the stencilling is thoroughly dry. If the threads of the material can
+be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make the best finish; but
+careful hand hemming will look well upon material like fine batiste.
+
+_The Valance._--The curtains should hang in vertical folds from the top
+of the window to a point slightly below the window sill. They should be
+drawn back at each side of the window and the space between at the top
+filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps deeper if the window is
+very high. This valance should have the border stencilled upon it and
+should be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains. Sometimes,
+as in the illustration in Plate IV, a valance running across
+the entire width of the window is used. In this case it is run upon an
+extra rod in front of the one from which the curtain hangs. Double
+rods for this purpose can be bought.
+
+_Other Possible Problems._--As stencilling can be employed in
+practically the same place and upon the same materials as block
+printing, it is only necessary to refer to the lists given at the
+end of that section of this chapter for suggestions as to further
+possibilities in the way of home decoration by stencilling.
+
+
+EMBROIDERY
+
+Problem: _Table Mat_.--As in the preceding problems, the first thing to
+do is to plan the design roughly in charcoal or soft pencil in order
+to get the dark and light relations and the best proportions possible.
+If convenient, the mat should be made for use with some special lamp
+or vase. By measuring the base of this object it is easy to determine
+the size of the plain central space, which may be either circular or
+square in shape. The forms in the decorated part may be made of various
+shapes, but it is well to keep them very simple in outline. Straight
+lines alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated in Plate V,
+or a combination of straight and curved lines, as in the one shown in
+Plate III. After working out the design very accurately with a
+hard pencil, the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of
+coarse Russian crash or heavy linen by means of carbon paper, taking
+great care to get the straight edges of the design even with the
+threads of the crash.
+
+_Desirable Combinations of Colour and Stitches._--The simple running
+or darning stitch should be employed in embroidering the pattern.
+Two or more colours may be used. Darning in dull green and outlining
+with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive mat. Other good
+combinations are green and white, blue and white, blue and green, soft
+dull blue, and pinkish orange. This by no means exhausts the pleasing
+contrasts that may be found. The brighter colour should always be
+employed in the smaller quantities. The mat illustrated in Plate V was
+embroidered in dull green and red mercerized cotton. After the darning
+was completed it was found that the red used in the small circles alone
+was too conspicuous, although it was very dull in tone. This defect
+was completely remedied and a perfect unity given to the design by
+outlining the forms in a couching stitch, using both colours. This was
+done by laying a green thread along the edge of each spot and taking a
+stitch of red over it at equal intervals.
+
+[Illustration: CROCHETED PANELS
+
+A Linen Workbag With Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch
+
+A Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and Couching Stitch
+
+Designed and Executed by School Girls. Plate V]
+
+After the embroidered pattern is done one may finish the mat with fine,
+close hemstitching or by button-holing the edge with ravellings of the
+crash. The latter method is usually more pleasing. The simple darning
+stitch can also be used to make very attractive borders for table
+runners, sofa pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated in
+Plate V, besides being used to enrich a great variety of block printed
+or stencilled articles.
+
+_The Satin Stitch._--Another effective and easy embroidery stitch to be
+used in decorating articles for the home is the over-and-over or satin
+stitch. When planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen in which
+the threads can be easily counted, transfer the design, after having
+carefully drawn it in pencil outline, to paper marked off into little
+squares. This can be bought where kindergarten supplies are sold.
+Redraw the outline of the design, following exactly the lines on the
+paper, and at the same time keep as close as possible to the original
+form. Let a certain number of threads of linen represent a square of
+the design and copy the pattern in the satin stitch or even the cross
+stitch if preferred. No transferring of the pattern to the cloth is
+necessary.
+
+A pattern worked out on cross section paper in this way can also be
+crocheted, as illustrated in Plate V, and set into linen or some of its
+many imitations to decorate numberless articles for home or personal
+adornment. This crocheted work, if evenly done in fine thread, is quite
+suggestive of the Italian filet lace.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+DRESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DECORATION
+
+    "A foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet
+    With a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it;
+    And that the other maidens of the little town might know it,
+    She thought she'd go to meeting of a Sunday just to show it.
+
+    'Hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head.
+    'Hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she
+    thought they said."
+
+
+In considering the dress of the person as related to home decoration
+one is not so far afield as one may seem to be at first thought. It
+is true that dress has a variety of functions to perform that have no
+connection with the subject of decoration; and yet there is much that
+is common to both. Well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the
+design and general make-up of their costumes, must observe the same
+laws that govern design wherever it is applied, as an expression of
+the artistic sense in the affairs of every-day life. Beauty of line
+and proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use and to a great
+variety of special conditions, simplicity, symmetry, restraint, are all
+involved in personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a room;
+and in most cases success or failure in one field has its counterpart
+in the other. Have we not often remarked of a house or of a room
+that it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him"; and do not
+attractive costumes give pleasure to others than those who wear them
+for the same reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged rooms
+afford similar enjoyment to those who live in them?
+
+_Art and the Fashions._--In discussing the parallel between art
+in clothing and the more stable art of home decoration it must be
+admitted, of course, that style in dress introduces some embarrassing
+questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer wonderful
+changes with every season. And yet people of artistic feeling and good
+taste, succeed in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between the
+changing demands of fashion and the established principles of art as
+applied in dress.
+
+_How to Be Well Dressed._--The well-dressed woman knows how to select
+her clothes and how to wear them. She must study her own figure and
+know her defects as well as her good points. With this knowledge she
+can learn to subdue the one and bring out the other. She should have a
+clear conception of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to
+it. To acquire this training the principles of the art of decoration
+must be understood and applied. She should never wear a garment of a
+certain style simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make it
+conform to her individual type.
+
+_Good Lines._--Decorative design in dress must follow the construction
+lines of the figure and not destroy them. These are the much discussed
+good lines of which we hear and read so much. Horizontal lines break
+the figure and increase the breadth, while vertical lines give the
+appearance of height. It is the simple lines, conforming to and
+following the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. The
+taste of most women leads them to desire simple clothes; but through
+ignorance or inexperience many of these women fail to achieve that aim.
+A stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen wearing a dress with
+lapels or ruffles over the shoulders. This only serves to accentuate
+her defect.
+
+_Unity and Harmony._--In all forms of decoration harmony is
+essential--_i. e._, all the parts that are to be combined must agree
+with one another and with their surroundings. To secure this in dress
+is to give unity to the entire costume. A dress hat with plumes should
+not be worn with a tailored suit in the morning; and yet we often see
+such a combination. Here the lack of harmony is between the parts of
+the costume; but the entire costume must be suited to the peculiarities
+of figure. There are women who never look well in the straight lines
+of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to them. They must
+tone down the effects of the lines by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock,
+or some such softening elements of dress. Others do not look well in
+fluffy things. Each must know what is becoming and dress accordingly.
+
+_Importance of Colours._--Every season we hear that certain colours
+are to be worn. Many women will choose a colour because they like it
+without considering whether it is suitable for them to wear. A little
+attention to a few well-known facts will help them to avoid failures
+of this kind. It is generally recognized that light colours seem to
+increase the size. Striped materials should not be worn by the stout
+women unless the stripes are very indistinct. Dots are also very
+dangerous for her; but she may choose a pattern with pin-point dots
+scattered over the surface at some distance from each other. She is
+always safe in a plain, dark colour.
+
+_Colour and Complexion._--In deciding on a becoming colour one must
+take into account the colour of the hair and eyes and the tone of
+the complexion. It has been thought that young girls can wear clear,
+light shades and that older women should keep to dark, quiet colours;
+yet there are older women who wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender
+charmingly and many young girls who cannot wear blue or pink. It is
+quite impossible to make accurate colour rules, because it would be
+hard to find two complexions that require exactly the same colour
+setting. It is well, however, to study combinations of different
+colours with the idea of finding the right colour, to use in any
+costume, the amount of each, and the best arrangement to give a proper
+balance.
+
+_Proportion._--The importance of the principle of proportion is often
+overlooked, but beauty of dress is never possible if it be neglected. A
+well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must have given consideration
+to the relation of the size and shape of the head to the lines of the
+entire figure. Strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head,
+and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect it, and, through
+harmony of colour and proportion of line and mass, to improve the
+appearance of the whole costume. The artist, when drawing a figure,
+uses the head as the unit of measure. Therefore in choosing a hat
+one should select a style that is in good proportion to the size of
+the head and to the height of the figure. If the mass of the head is
+increased disproportionately by too large a hat, the entire figure is
+apparently shortened and the natural proportions destroyed. One often
+wonders why photographs of people with hats on look so old-fashioned
+and sometimes so ridiculous. It is because the hat is not in good
+proportion. The Gainsborough and Reynolds ladies with hats never look
+queer. Their hats bear the right relation to the head and the figure.
+
+_Appropriateness._--The general proportions of a hat or a gown may
+be good, but the addition of the decoration may destroy all the good
+effect obtained by securing the right relation of line and mass. The
+aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and strengthen the whole.
+Beauty of dress, therefore, depends upon simplicity and appropriateness
+of the material used as well as upon the form and arrangement of the
+material. Wherever ornament is used it must fulfil the condition of
+fitness to place; otherwise it is not really decorative. In trimming a
+hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat before a mirror,
+and place the hat comfortably upon her head; then with the aid of a
+hand glass she should try the trimming in different positions until
+the best effect is obtained.
+
+The designs in trimming should be appropriate to the garment. The size
+of the design and the kind of form used should be considered. Simple
+forms are the best for all decorative art work. In fact, there is great
+advantage in plain materials. They always work to greater economy than
+stripes or plaids.
+
+_Influence of Occupation._--The well-dressed woman should realize how
+great is the influence of occasion and occupation. Some gowns were
+intended only for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see them
+worn on the street cars or for shopping. I have always approved of the
+rule in many shops which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns.
+Formerly it was the old finery which was used for every-day wear. Now
+the business woman to be successful has to exercise more thought upon
+her clothes than the woman at home. Her clothes have harder wear and
+must be appropriate for her work.
+
+The dress of school-girls and children must not be overlooked. It
+should be as simple as possible and above all else it should be
+comfortable. It should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing should
+not interfere with any function of the body. But we often see children
+dressed with much lace, with many ruffles, and even with jewellery;
+and we have seen school girls wearing net waists, plumed hats, and
+high-heeled shoes. What an infraction is this of the principle of
+appropriateness in dress!
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+FURNITURE MAKING
+
+     It is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by
+     thought that labour can be made happy--_John Ruskin_
+
+
+The chief purpose of this chapter is to outline the most important
+general facts upon which good furniture making is based and to give
+specific directions for working out a number of typical problems,
+following designs which have been proved in completed articles made,
+for the most part, by school-boys and tested by use. No attempt is made
+to give this great subject complete and systematic treatment; for this
+would involve many problems in constructive design and a corresponding
+number of working drawings, with specifications for the selection and
+preparation of materials and for the work of construction--a subject so
+extensive that it would easily overrun the limits of a single chapter.
+The aim is rather to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of
+experience in constructive work with special reference to our main
+subject of household decoration.
+
+It is taken for granted that the interested reader is familiar with
+the use of the common hand tools for woodworking or that he can, with
+some assistance, perhaps, easily command their use. It is not thought
+necessary, therefore, to describe in detail the proper method of using
+tools, but rather to offer practical suggestions on the selection,
+preparation and constructive use of woodworking materials and, in the
+series of problems which follow, to give some helpful hints on the way
+woodworking tools should be used. It is also assumed that in most cases
+the very great advantage of woodworking machinery may be utilized,
+especially in preparing the materials and bringing them within easy
+reach of the hand-tool processes. The true art-craft spirit, which
+always honours handwork as the supreme method, may not hesitate
+to command the services of machines so long as it does not become
+slavishly dependent upon them.
+
+
+SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK
+
+The first thing that should claim the attention of the artistic
+woodworker is the selection and preparation of his materials, commonly
+known as the stock. The sculptor selects his marbles with the
+greatest care. So should the cabinet-maker make sure that his woods
+are taken from the right parts of selected timber and that they are
+properly sawed and well seasoned. The importance of this cannot be
+overestimated. Hard wood boards, cut from the sides of a tree, will in
+drying, invariably curve across their grain. It is only those that are
+cut from the centre to the outside of the tree that may be depended
+upon to remain approximately true; for, after this cutting, the grain
+runs directly through the thickness of the board, or nearly so. Boards
+taken from timber in this way are said to be "quarter sawed"; those cut
+by sawing through the logs from side to side, as is always done with
+soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to be "plain sawed."
+This is illustrated in the accompanying drawings.
+
+_Quartered Oak._--In the case of oak, the quarter sawing not only
+maintains a flat surface but greatly improves the appearance of the
+stock when finished. The popularity of quartered oak for furniture may
+therefore be said to be well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods.
+It is as good as it looks.
+
+[Illustration: Quarter sawed log]
+
+Quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined to oak because the
+appearance of the grain and the strength of most woods is far from
+being improved by this method of cutting. Thus ash and gum wood and all
+the softer woods sometimes used in furniture making are plain sawed.
+We shall, therefore, generally find stock from these woods curved and
+twisted badly so that it will be necessary, in selecting material for
+large surfaces such as table tops, to pick out the straight parts for
+these surfaces and save the remainder to be cut into the smaller pieces
+which will always be needed. These pieces can be easily planed without
+much loss of thickness.
+
+[Illustration: End of quarter sawed board]
+
+[Illustration: Plain sawed log]
+
+[Illustration: End of plain sawed board]
+
+_Kiln-dried Lumber._--This bending and twisting of the boards does not
+take place as soon as they are sawed out of the log, but gradually
+during the process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is kiln-dried,
+the more gradual the seasoning the less the bending. Lumber is
+kiln-dried by stacking it, with air spaces left between the boards, in
+steam-heated closets or kilns, where the process of drying is carried
+on evenly though rapidly. Kiln-dried lumber, therefore, retains its
+shape quite as well as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile.
+But whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed to remain in a
+dry place as long as possible before using it so that it will have a
+chance to change all that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent
+shrinking and warping. A good cabinet-maker never undertakes to make
+furniture from stock that he does not know to be perfectly dry and well
+seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is more likely to shrink,
+warp, and crack, but also because it cannot be depended upon to hold
+the glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other methods of
+finishing.
+
+_Planing Down to a Flat Surface._--Since boards are seldom perfectly
+flat, even if one has taken the greatest pains to select well-seasoned
+stock, it will almost invariably be necessary to work them down to a
+plane surface when they are glued up or joined together in any way.
+To accomplish this result it is necessary to plan the arrangement of
+the pieces in such a way that the concave of the bend shall fall on
+the same side, as shown in the illustration, and thus provide for the
+final working down with the least possible removal of stock. They can
+be arranged on a level bench top or floor with the convex side down so
+that they will lie as flat as possible. The boards should then be taken
+out one by one and their edges should be carefully planed so that they
+will match together in the position in which they are laid. It will
+be necessary to take each board from its place and return it several
+times in order that this matching may be made as perfect as possible.
+The object of all this is to prevent the entire arrangement from
+springing--_i. e._, from acquiring any new bend or twist when the parts
+are glued up. In joining boards to form large pieces of glued-up work,
+like table tops, it is customary to strengthen the joints by means of
+dowel pins. Small table tops and similar work may be safely glued up
+without dowelling.
+
+[Illustration: Boards placed for planing to flat surfaces]
+
+_Fastening Glued-up Work._ It will be readily understood upon a little
+reflection that all plain glued-up work should be allowed to move
+slightly upon the framework to which it is attached; for even after it
+is well seasoned and well finished all woods will swell slightly in a
+damp atmosphere and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest
+movement being across the grain. Solid table tops, therefore, should
+never be fastened down firmly upon the framework with glue or with
+screws, but should be secured by means of buttons screwed to the under
+side of the top which travel in grooves cut in the framework and thus
+allow for expansion and contraction. A drawing is shown to illustrate
+the method of attaching the table-top buttons. Much of the warping and
+splitting of furniture is due to the failure of the designer or maker
+to observe this precaution.
+
+[Illustration: Method of fastening table tops]
+
+In planing up stock, whether it be a single piece or several glued
+together as just described, the cabinet-maker planes off one side first
+and then, using this side as the working face, gauges to the required
+thickness and planes off the other side if necessary. If the work be
+upon glued-up stock, it is well to plane off the projecting edges of
+the concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat easier and may
+be all the planing that will be necessary. If it be single pieces of
+stock that need to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is first
+planed out to a flat working face on one side before putting the plane
+to the opposite side.
+
+_The Surface Plate._--Planing to a flat surface requires some device
+to guide the eye. If the surface be very uneven at first, a beginning
+may be made in the planing without much assistance; but a point
+will finally be reached when neither the unaided eye nor the hand
+can determine whether or not a surface is flat. To determine this a
+surface plate, as it is called, is needed. This consists of a block of
+cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it from being bent--_i. e._, an inch
+or more--and with a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on one
+side. This surface is well chalked over. When the wood surface which is
+being planed down is laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved
+it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood will become
+marked with the chalk and so indicate to the cabinet-maker what parts
+are to be removed. By making several tests of this kind he is able to
+plane to a good flat surface.
+
+[Illustration: Winding sticks]
+
+_Winding Sticks._--If the amateur's workshop is not provided with
+a surface plate, a simple means of testing for a flat surface is
+by means of two narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing
+them on their narrow edges across each end of the piece, as shown in
+the illustration, and sighting across their upper edges. The slight
+projections in the surfaces of the board can be determined in this way
+and planed off until the two top edges of the sticks are found to be
+level. These winding sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made,
+with opposite faces parallel. Their dimensions may be 1 × 2-1/2 × 30
+inches.
+
+_Importance of True Surfaces._--It may be well to add that all this
+care to produce flat and parallel surfaces is not merely for the
+purpose of giving a good appearance to these surfaces. True surfaces
+are necessary for the good of the work as a whole, for they form the
+basis from which other surfaces are gauged and other parts "trued
+up"--_i. e._, made square or otherwise geometrically correct. When the
+main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work are properly shaped, all the
+framework and other parts may be brought into line without bending
+or twisting. All such strains should be religiously avoided in good
+cabinet work. The natural curves, twists, or projections of the stock
+used should be removed by the use of the proper tools and never be
+strained to force any of the parts into their proper places or shapes.
+Such efforts produce strains which are transmitted to other parts,
+displacing them, causing new defects or a general failure of the parts
+to support each other.
+
+_A Systematic Plan of Work._--When the cabinet-maker undertakes to make
+either a single piece of furniture or several pieces, he goes about
+it in a very systematic way. Consulting his working drawing he makes
+an accurate list of the different pieces that will be required. For
+example, if he is to make a Morris chair he notes the fact that he will
+need four legs or posts 2-1/2 inches square by 22-3/4 inches long, a
+front rail and a back rail each 7/8 × 2-1/4 × 22 inches, two side rails
+7/8 × 2-1/4 × 24 inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is
+completed. With this list in hand he makes a careful selection of the
+lumber and prepares the pieces in the rough, allowing economically for
+the necessary working waste. Economy of time and labour is also secured
+by keeping together all parts on which similar work is to be done.
+Thus, if several parts are to be sawed to the same width or fashioned
+to the same curves, it is generally the best plan to work these parts
+out together while the machines and tools are set for this purpose.
+Such a plan not only saves time but, partially at least, it obviates
+the danger of mistakes. It is important also to follow a systematic
+order of work. All sawing to rough dimensions should be done before the
+pieces are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the latter operations
+should generally all be completed before laying out and cutting the
+joints. As the work progresses toward completion great saving of time
+and much comfort will result from keeping the completed parts in good
+condition and so arranged that they can be easily assembled.
+
+
+GLUING
+
+_Necessity of Good Joints._--After the selection and preparation of the
+material for the stock, the next important general process that demands
+attention is gluing; for good cabinet work implies good glue and a
+knowledge of how to use it. Prepared glue, such as is sold in bottles,
+is unsatisfactory for work of any consequence. A good woodworker
+always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it may be made ready
+for use on short notice. The glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. It
+should be applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to which it is
+applied clamped up quickly before the glue chills. It is the glue which
+penetrates the wood that holds the parts together and not a layer of
+glue between the joined edges or surfaces. It is therefore evident not
+only that joints and surfaces should be well smeared with glue, hot
+and thin enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the parts should
+be clamped up quickly while the glue is still hot so as to prevent any
+surplus from remaining in the joint. This is an additional reason for
+making close fits in all joints--in those which are to be glued up as
+well as in those which are not. It is a common fault of beginners to
+be satisfied with loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the
+glue to fill up the spaces. Much of the furniture found in the markets
+falls to pieces for the same reason. Such work should never be allowed
+to pass. It is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of the true
+office of glue and is nothing more nor less than a falsehood in wood.
+
+[Illustration: Method of holding framing parts square while glue is
+setting]
+
+_Systematic Methods Required._--As in the preparation of stock and
+working it up, so in gluing, system is all important. The hand screws
+or clamps should be made ready and adjusted to the required width so
+that they may be quickly placed in position as soon as the glue is
+applied. The whole process must be managed as quickly as possible
+because the joints must be tested before the glue has had time to
+set. A carpenter's large square should be used for testing the right
+angles, since it is more reliable than the small try squares. It will
+frequently be found necessary to hold framing pieces square while the
+glue is hardening. This can easily be done by nailing small strips
+of waste stock across the parts, as shown in the drawing. A beginner
+should be cautioned not to attempt to glue up too many joints at one
+time. Two opposite corners of a framing piece should be glued up
+separately and left to set before the attempt is made to glue the whole
+rectangle together. The two remaining joints, however, should be glued
+and clamped together at the same time.
+
+
+PICTURE FRAMING
+
+_Inexpensive Framing Stock._--Picture-frame stock can be easily
+obtained of dealers in artists' supplies and in furniture stores in a
+great variety of styles. Much of it is so well prepared and so nicely
+finished that it leaves little to be desired. It is, therefore, often
+best to secure the stock for frames in this way. It is, however,
+somewhat expensive, so that, when economy is important, it behooves the
+young woodworker to prepare his own framing stock.
+
+Very satisfactory frames 2 inches in width or less may be made from
+matched oak flooring, a section of which is here illustrated, by
+planing off the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove to
+furnish the inset for the glass. Wider flat frames of any thickness
+can, of course, be cut out from the ordinary stock. A special tool
+for cutting the inset is desirable but not necessary. A 1/4-inch
+saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even with a hand saw and
+the necessary removal of the wood accomplished by means of careful
+chiselling.
+
+[Illustration: Picture framing stock made from oak flooring]
+
+[Illustration: The mitre joint]
+
+_Mitres._--Frames may be joined at the corners in various ways. A
+common way is by the mitre joint illustrated in the drawing. To secure
+good joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres be cut on an
+angle of exactly 45 degrees and that the pieces for the corresponding
+sides of the frame be precisely of the same length. Hand sawing is
+generally not exact enough to produce angles of sufficient accuracy
+even when an ordinary mitre box is used. Hand-sawed mitres, therefore,
+will require a little truing with a small plane. Great care must be
+exercised also in fitting the corners together. The common bench
+square is not large enough to prove the work. A better way is to lay a
+carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit the two pieces of the
+frame against the sides of the square, testing each corner in that way.
+
+[Illustration: Clamping mitre joints]
+
+_Gluing the Joints._--If the corners are unusually well fitted, a
+good joint can be made by first sizing the ends with glue and then
+firmly pressing the pieces together upon a true surface, leaving them
+undisturbed for four or five hours until the glue is hard. By sizing
+the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly filling the end pores with
+glue, rubbing it into the pores with another block. Generally speaking,
+however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping device. If
+a special clamping device is not available, one can be easily made
+by gluing small soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the
+corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing. In a half hour or so
+these blocks will become firmly set so that the mitre joints may
+be glued together, clamping them up with a hand screw. As already
+explained under the general directions on gluing, it is good practice
+for a beginner to glue up opposite corners and not attempt to glue up
+the two remaining corners until the first two are well set. When the
+first two corners are well set they should be nailed; and before the
+two remaining corners are glued it is well to try the parts together
+to see if they do not require a little correcting before gluing. These
+joints also should have light nailing after the glue has been set. In
+nailing, small holes should be made with a brad awl or drill in order
+to avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails should be used.
+
+_The Defect of Shrinking._--With proper tools the mitre joint is the
+easiest one to make, but it has one unavoidable defect, especially
+in wide frames. It is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and
+almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so that wide frames,
+however well finished, must be expected to shrink a little after they
+are joined together. As most of this shrinking is across the width of
+the stock it is evident that it will tend to open the mitre joints on
+the inside of the corners. This is what happens almost invariably with
+joints made in this way from wide stock in picture framing. The same
+defect is also frequently observed in the interior finishing around
+windows and doors.
+
+There are three other methods of joining the corners of picture
+frames--_viz._, the halved lap joint, the mortise and tenon joint, and
+the dowelled joint. A drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds
+of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say that no one of
+them is open to the same objection that attaches to the mitre joint.
+All these joints require accurate cutting and rather more of it than
+the mitre joint requires, but they are more easily glued up. The halved
+lap joint is easily clamped up with a common hand screw, even when the
+frame is a very large one. But the other two require long clamps in
+order to pull the joints up well.
+
+[Illustration: Halved lap joint]
+
+[Illustration: Mortise and tenon joint]
+
+_Character of the Frame._--The kind of joint required depends upon the
+general character of the frame--whether it is to be heavy or light,
+wide or narrow, and whether made of picture frame moulding or of the
+plain framing stock with round or flat face; and the character of the
+frame is a matter of design, determined by the kind of picture, by
+its setting, and by other considerations discussed in Chapter III.
+How the plan for the construction of the frame for any given picture
+is influenced by such considerations may be seen in the example which
+follows:
+
+[Illustration: Dowelled joint]
+
+
+MAKING A FRAME FOR A LARGE PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION
+
+This photograph is 60 inches long by 16 inches wide. It is a copy in
+brown tones of a classic painting by Otto Kneille--_The Education of
+Athenian Youth_, the original of which hangs in the Royal Gymnasium in
+Berlin. It represents a spacious hall or court showing three of the
+large marble columns and a massive seat in which an old man reclines
+while another old man is expounding some doctrine to him and to a
+group of younger men gathered around. In the centre of the scene a boy
+lies flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript. Near him several
+youths under the direction of a master, are contending in feats of
+strength. The composition is one that suggests weight and power. It
+may appropriately hang in the hall or in the library over a wide, low
+bookcase.
+
+A picture of this character needs no mat and must have a wide, heavy
+frame. The stock chosen was oak, 4 inches wide, 1-1/2 inches thick,
+and flat faced. The size and weight of such a frame, including the
+glass, demand firmness of construction as the first consideration.
+The stock is too wide for successful mitring because shrinking would
+naturally open and weaken such joints. It was therefore framed together
+with mortise and tenon joints, well glued. A dowelled joint might
+have sufficed, but it would not have the same strength. The mortises
+were cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left on the long
+horizontal pieces. This was in conformity with the usual method of
+joining framework--for example, door frames, window frames, panel
+frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest possible length
+is invariably given to the vertical parts.
+
+The frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating the darkest tones of
+the picture. Long screw eyes were fastened to the back 2 inches from
+the top, so that the picture might hang nearly flat against the wall.
+A strong braided wire about 75 inches long was run through the eyes
+and securely looped at each end, so that a little more than an inch
+of wire on each side passed through the eyes. Since the picture was to
+have a prominent place on a certain wall, two nails 66 inches apart
+allowing for the two widths of the frame as well as for the length of
+the picture were driven into this wall, and the heavy photograph was
+easily hung and balanced without exposing the wire to view.
+
+
+TO MAKE A KNOCK-DOWN BOOKCASE
+
+[Illustration: A knock-down bookcase]
+
+_The Design._--The problem of design was to plan a simple, inexpensive
+bookcase which could be easily transported and set up in a student's
+room and which would hold approximately two hundred books. The drawings
+show how these requirements were met in the design. When in use it is
+held together by keyed shelves at the top and bottom. The necessary
+stiffness is given to it by the base pieces which are fastened both
+to the sides and to the bottom shelf by screws. Additional stiffness
+is given by drawing up the three middle shelves to the sides by
+means of screws. Upon removing the screws and the keys the bookcase
+is easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact form for
+transportation. It is equally easy to set it up again. It has no back
+and may therefore stand away from the wall as well as against it. Its
+contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity which will
+harmonize with modest surroundings and yet not bar it from keeping
+company with more pretentious furnishings.
+
+The original of this design was actually made up in white wood, stained
+and finished to harmonize with black walnut furniture; but it may
+be made up in oak, ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for
+furniture. For one bookcase the stock required is as follows, the sizes
+allowing for finishing to the dimensions as given in the drawing: For
+the ends, two pieces 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches × 4 feet 2-1/2 inches;
+for the short shelves, three pieces 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches × 3 feet
+1 inch; for the long shelves, two pieces, 7/8 inch × 10-1/4 inches ×
+3 feet 5 inches; for the base pieces, two pieces 7/8 inch × 6-3/4 ×
+inches × 3 feet; for the keys, one piece 7/8 inch × 7/8 inch × 1 foot.
+In addition to this there should be two dozen No. 10 round-headed
+blued screws, and one half dozen 1-1/2 inch No. 10 flat headed blued
+screws.
+
+The tools needed are as follows: Rip saw, cross cut saw, back saw,
+compass, jack-plane, smoothing plane, block plane, spokeshave, try
+square, steel square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver, 3/4,
+1/2, and 3/16 inch bits and bitstock, and 1/2 and 3/4 inch chisels,
+gauges, and sand-paper.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase]
+
+_Construction._--All the stock should be jointed, planed to width,
+and smoothed with sand-paper. The two end pieces should be squared to
+length, the top corners rounded, and the curve at the bottom cut as
+shown in the drawing. Care should be exercised in sand-papering not
+to round the edges. The correct spacing for the shelves should then
+be marked off on the end pieces and squared across, care being taken
+to have both ends spaced alike. To do this plane the ends together,
+with their edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure off each
+of the spaces with correct allowance for the thickness of the shelf
+and mark these spaces across the edge. Then, separate the end pieces
+and with the marks on the edges as a guide, square across each of
+the end pieces on the inside and mark with a knife. In allowing for
+the thickness of the shelves it should be remembered that the stock,
+though originally 7/8 of an inch in thickness, has been planed and
+sand-papered, some of the shelves perhaps having been finished down
+more than others. It will therefore be necessary to measure and allow
+for the thickness of each shelf separately.
+
+[Illustration: Method of gaining-in the shelves]
+
+The three middle shelves are "gained" in--_i. e._, set into grooves in
+the upright ends--1/4 of an inch deep, as shown in the sketch. It will
+be better craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across the full
+width of the end pieces but stopped, say, one inch from the edge, the
+shelves being cut to fit, as shown in the drawing. If this be done, the
+grooves should be cut out carefully with a chisel. If the grooves be
+carried across the full width of the end, they may be cut down with a
+back saw and then chiselled out. To insure a good fit in either case
+care should be exercised not to cut outside the knife lines. Chisel the
+bottom of the grooves carefully so that they will be uniformly 1/4 of
+an inch deep.
+
+The next step is to cut the mortises for the top and bottom shelves.
+The dimensions for these should first be laid off on the stock by
+means of a gauge. They should then be bored well inside the marks and
+carefully chiselled out. Before this chiselling is done, however,
+knife lines should be marked on the outside of the end pieces exactly
+opposite the gauge lines. In mortising, as in cutting the grooves, the
+greatest care will need to be exercised that the chisel does not cut
+outside the knife lines. In working for a close fit it is better to
+err on the side of removing too little stock at first, if one must err
+at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little more in the final
+fitting. It is quite impossible to replace stock once removed.
+
+In measuring for the length of the shelves it should not be overlooked
+that the top and bottom shelves are to carry the tenons to be keyed
+through the end pieces. These tenons should be cut out accurately with
+a rip saw, and the stock between them removed with a chisel after
+a deep knife line has been made. After fitting these tenons to the
+mortises and finishing them, the mortises for the keys should be cut,
+using a small chisel. It should not be overlooked that the outside
+face of each key mortise is cut on an angle, as illustrated. The three
+middle shelves are then cut to length, the ends squared by means of a
+block plane, and corners cut out to fit the grooves.
+
+[Illustration: Details of the keys]
+
+The parts are now ready to be put together temporarily and squared up
+in order to fit in the base pieces more perfectly than could be done by
+mere measurement. It will add a pleasing detail to set back these base
+pieces 1/4 of an inch from the front and back faces.
+
+After all the parts are carefully fitted they should be assembled
+and the key and screw fastenings inserted. When this is accomplished
+the bookcase is ready for finishing. As this is a distinct part of
+furniture making it is reserved for treatment in a later chapter.
+
+
+A HANGING BOOK RACK
+
+[Illustration: A hanging book rack]
+
+_The Design._--It is designed to plan a light but strong book rack, to
+be fastened to the wall of a chamber. Since it is intended to occupy
+the space that might be given to pictures it is properly as simple in
+construction as a picture frame, depending upon good proportions and
+symmetry to give a pleasing effect. The straight lines of the design,
+which is illustrated above, meet these requirements and also harmonize
+with the general form and outline of books. Both shelves may be used
+for books, if desired, but the design permits them to be confined to
+the lower shelf, reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a bit
+of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of bric-à-brac. The mortise
+and tenon joints give the essential stiffness and strength without
+requiring the use of heavy stock.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Since strength with lightness is an essential
+feature to realize in the working out of this design, soft woods should
+be avoided. Ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in common
+use. Oak is much stronger but heavy and hard to work. White wood is
+comparatively light and very strong. Gum wood is classified with ash
+excepting that it is closer grained. Since this book rack is to be used
+in a chamber in which the wood trim is in enamelled white and most of
+the furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally appropriate to
+make it of white wood, to be finished in enamelled white, or of bay
+wood as a basis for mahogany finish. It was decided to adopt the latter
+course.
+
+The stock requirements for carrying out this design are as follows: 2
+back posts, 1-1/4 inch × 1-1/4 inch × 24 inches; 2 front posts, 1-1/4
+inch × 1-1/4 × 18 inches; 2 centre uprights, 5/8 × 1 × 18 inches; 1
+back rail, 5/8 × 1-1/4 × 37 inches; 1 end rail, 1 × 1-1/4 × 44 inches;
+and 2 shelves, 7/8 × 7 by 37 inches.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book
+rack (front)]
+
+The tools needed are much like those required in the previous
+problem--_i. e._, the same planes, saws, bitstock, squares, and the
+gauge; but there will be needed a 3/8-inch bit, 3/8-inch and 3/4-inch
+chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box, and a mallet.
+
+_Construction._--The details of construction required are as follows:
+Dressing the stock pieces, cutting the posts to length, cutting the
+points on the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them to
+length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving on the end rails,
+cutting and fitting the shelves, cutting, fitting, and fastening the
+back rail, arranging the clamps and other appliances for gluing up, and
+cleaning off the glue after hardening.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book
+rack (end)]
+
+[Illustration: How the tenon is applied to the rail]
+
+The stock pieces should be first "dressed" down to the drawing
+dimensions. This means that they should be planed and sand-papered
+preparatory to laying out the cutting dimensions. The front and back
+posts should be cut to length in the mitre box, care being taken to
+allow an extra 1/2 inch for the pointed ends at the top and bottom.
+These pointed ends are cut in the mitre box by raising one end of the
+post and sawing to lines squared around the post 1/4 inch from the
+other end. The angle of the cut is made uniform by resting the raised
+end of the post on a block lightly nailed on the inside of the mitre
+box, thus giving the same elevation for all the posts. The 1-inch by
+1-1/4-inch piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane designed
+for that purpose, and afterward cut to length as called for. The blind
+mortises should be made not more than 7/8 of an inch deep, and the
+tenons 1/16 of an inch shorter in order not to strike the bottom of the
+mortise. One of these rails should be accurately laid out with knife
+lines and the rest marked from this as a pattern. The drawing shows the
+location of the tenon with reference to the part of the rail on which
+the shelf rests. This is the most convenient position for cutting the
+tenon and it also gives greater strength. The centre uprights should
+be halved on after the end rails are in position, being cut for this
+purpose as illustrated in the drawing. They may be allowed to stand out
+1/8 of an inch beyond the face of the end rail, and in making the joint
+an equal amount of stock is to be taken from the rail and from the
+upright. The shelves are then easily cut to length and the ends fitted
+with the block plane and dropped into place, being lightly glued and
+nailed with brads from the under side of the rabbet. Finally the top
+back rail should be halved in, being left to the last in order that the
+more important fitting of the shelves may be more easily accomplished.
+
+[Illustration: How the centre uprights are halved on]
+
+In gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care must be exercised to
+set clamps out ready for use before the glue is applied so that the
+parts may be promptly drawn up in position. After gluing they should be
+allowed to remain about ten hours in order that the glue may properly
+harden before the clamps are taken off. All the extra glue squeezed out
+of the joints in clamping must be scraped off with a chisel, after the
+glue has hardened a little; and any remaining spots of glue must be
+carefully removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave anything to
+interfere with the filling and finishing.
+
+
+AN UMBRELLA STAND
+
+_The Design._--So far as the question of use is concerned, no problem
+of design could be more definite than this one, since an umbrella
+rack can have but one use. The only elements of beauty possible are
+found in simplicity, proportion, and the general effectiveness of
+the construction for meeting the demands of use. The drawing shows
+four square, straight posts, squared at the ends, which are allowed
+to project a little above the top to avoid a box-like effect. All the
+joints are mortised except the division bars at the top. The cross
+pieces at the base are made wider not only to conceal the drip pan but
+to give a more stable appearance to the whole rack.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as perhaps the most appropriate
+wood; but other woods, if the surroundings require it, may be used to
+good advantage. Oak is one of the strongest and most durable of the
+woods used for furniture and takes well a great variety of finish. It
+is also quite easily obtained.
+
+[Illustration: An umbrella stand]
+
+The stock requirements are as follows: Four corner posts 1-1/4 × 1-1/4
+× 27-1/2 inches; four top rails 1/2 × 1-1/4 × 9 inches; four base rails
+7/8 × 3 × 9 inches; two division bars 1/4 × 1-1/4 × 9-1/4 inches; four
+cleats 1/2 × 1/2 × 9 inches; and one board 1/2 × 7-1/2 × 7-1/2 inches
+to support the pan.
+
+The same tools in general will be required as in the previous
+exercises, but it will be necessary to add a 1/4-inch bit, a 1/4 inch
+chisel, a steel scraper, and two short clamps.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for umbrella rack]
+
+_Construction._--All the stock should be planed to size, scraped, and
+sand-papered with the exception of the base board for the pan, since
+that is hidden from view. The scraper corrects all slight unevenness of
+surface and removes scratches and other blemishes. Care should be taken
+in sand-papering to rub always with the grain of the wood and to avoid
+rounding the corners. The corner posts should first be cut to proper
+length and the tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. Mortises are then
+to be located, bored, and chiselled up. The top and bottom rails should
+be laid off and the tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have
+them too long. The inside edges of the tenons have to be pared off
+slightly, as illustrated in the drawing, to allow room for each when
+they come together.
+
+[Illustration: Top rail tenons]
+
+[Illustration: Bottom rail tenons]
+
+The next step is to assemble the parts, clamp them up, and test them
+for accuracy. While these parts are in the clamps, measurements should
+be taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made, allowing extra
+length of 1/4 of an inch in each end for the tenons to enter the top
+rails. These cross pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as
+shown in the drawing. The base rails are designed to be thick enough
+to take up all the space on the inside of the posts so as to hide the
+corner, as illustrated in the sketch showing the bottom construction.
+
+The next step is to assemble the parts for gluing. It is not necessary
+to explain this process in detail, since it has already been thoroughly
+explained in the general section on gluing. It is not necessary to glue
+on the cleats on which the pan rests; they may be nailed in. When the
+base is glued together measurements may be taken for the pan.
+
+
+A MAGAZINE STAND
+
+_The Design._--This problem calls for an attractive article of
+furniture which should also be useful as a receptacle for magazines and
+current newspapers. An enclosed portion between two of the shelves is
+desired to conceal from view and preserve for a time the more valuable
+papers, parts of magazines, or clippings, as may be found convenient.
+The perspective sketch on this same page shows how these simple
+requirements are met. The overhanging top adds character and strength
+to what might otherwise seem too light for the load it is intended to
+carry.
+
+[Illustration: A magazine stand]
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as a suitable wood because of
+its strength and durability; for this stand is likely to be in almost
+constant use. A light wood, delicately finished, would soon show wear.
+
+The stock list, according to the drawing, may be itemized as follows:
+4 corner posts 1-3/4 × 1-3/4 × 36 inches; 4 upright slats 5/8 × 1 ×
+34 inches; four shelves 7/8 × 10-1/2 × 17 inches; one piece for the
+top 7/8 × 14 × 21 inches; 2 top rails 1 × 1-3/4 × 12 inches; 1 piece
+for the door 7/8 × 8 × 15-1/2 inches for the ends and the back of the
+closet 1 piece 5/8 × 8 × 36 inches; 1 pair 1-1/4-inch brass butts with
+screws for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch.
+
+The tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a smoothing plane, steel
+square, try square, knife gauge, fine cross cut saw, 1/2-inch bit and
+bit stock, key-hole saw, 1/2-inch chisel, mallet, nail set, hammer,
+screw-driver, and steel scraper.
+
+The principal operations are as follows: Planing to size; scraping and
+sand-papering stock; squaring ends and smoothing them to the required
+length; laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises for top
+rails; making the rails; assembling the main parts; fitting ends and
+sides of the closets; hanging the door and putting on the fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for magazine stand]
+
+_The Construction._--Smoothing with the plane and scraping are very
+important and they should be completed before any sand-papering is done
+because particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood, will dull
+the steel tools. All three operations are needed to remove the marks
+of the machine tools of the factory, in order to give a good finish in
+the end. The scraper follows the plane, removing the unevenness which
+the latter leaves on board surfaces. Sand-papering gives the finishing
+touches.
+
+[Illustration: Method of mortising]
+
+After the stock is well smoothed, the top and the shelves should be
+squared off, cut to length, and block planed. The posts should then be
+cut and accurately trimmed to dimensions. They may be marked with a
+knife line for the gains into which the corners of the shelves are to
+be fastened. Since the posts are perfectly square, no attention will
+have to be given to their exact location in marking or cutting the
+gains; but when the mortising for the rails is laid out, care must be
+exercised to mark them so that the mortises will come on the proper
+faces for assembling. In mortising for the top rail it is well not to
+work up to the end of the post but to cut back, say 3/4 of an inch, as
+shown in one of the details. The rails may now be laid off and the
+tenons cut and fitted. It is exactly 8-1/2 inches between the shoulders
+of the rails. Since the shelves are 10-1/2 inches wide, one inch is
+thus left on each side to be gained into the posts.
+
+The parts are now ready for the first assembling. To do this it is
+convenient to have a clear bench top on which the posts may be laid on
+one side, face down. The rails and shelves may then be slipped into
+place, the other two posts placed on top, and the whole clamped firmly
+together. This is the preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing
+the accuracy of the work. If it be found all right, it should be taken
+apart again, and, after glue has been applied to the tenons and to
+the ends of the shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled
+and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true. Before the glue
+hardens the shelves should be nailed into the posts, as indicated in
+the drawing. In this case it is the nail that is the main stay. The
+glue is accessory, adding much to the stiffness of the construction.
+
+[Illustration: Method of fastening shelf]
+
+The top may now be set on and fastened by screws or by brads driven
+through into the posts and well set so that they may be concealed
+by putty, coloured to match the stain used. The end slats should be
+fastened on in the same way. The back and ends of the closet are next
+cut to size and bradded in. The door is then fitted and, to break the
+surface a little, an ornamental design is cut in the centre. Still
+further relief is given by setting in the door 1/4 of an inch from the
+edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. The door is now hung on brass
+hinges, the stop and catch added, and the stand is ready for staining
+and finishing.
+
+[Illustration: Method of fastening posts to the top]
+
+
+A LIGHT LIBRARY TABLE
+
+_The Design._--This is to be a table designed on simple lines and of
+good proportions. It is to have no drawer but as much shelf room as
+conveniently possible. The under shelf is designed to be cut out to
+allow a chair to be drawn up on either side. The end shelves may be
+regarded as designed to combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding
+much to its usefulness.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--For a table of this kind oak is very
+appropriate. The following list gives the stock required for one table.
+The widths and the thickness are as called for in the drawing, but the
+lengths are given a little long to allow for cutting. A board not less
+than 9 inches wide and 10 feet long will be needed as stock for the
+top, the dimensions of which are 7/8 × 26 × 39 inches. A 10-inch board,
+4-1/2 feet in length, will also be required for the shelves. There will
+also be needed four legs 1-3/4 × 1-3/4 × 30 inches; eight slats 1/2 ×
+1-1/2 × 18 inches; two back pieces 1/2 × 2 × 20-1/2 inches; two rails
+7/8 × 3 × 32 inches; and two rails 7/8 × 3 × 20 inches.
+
+[Illustration: A light library table]
+
+The same tools will be required as in the foregoing problems excepting
+that a 1/2-inch bit and a 1/2-inch chisel will be required for
+mortising, and two 3-foot clamps.
+
+_Construction._--The first step in the construction is to dress the
+stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering it, and working the
+various parts to size. The lengths, however, of all parts excepting
+the legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of construction,
+these parts are needed. The legs are at once cut to length and the
+mortises laid out, bored, and cut. A gain should also be cut in each
+leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted, glued, and bradded
+from the under side. The end and side rails may then be laid off for
+shoulders and tenons, and cut. In this case the tenons should be made
+1/2 of an inch wide.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end]
+
+In gluing up, the top should receive attention first, in order to allow
+the longest possible time for testing the work under the inevitable
+changes due to continued seasoning. Great care must always be exercised
+in making the glued joints. It is often necessary to make them over
+on account of the development of cracks. Proper care, however, will
+prevent this. The general directions for gluing, given at the beginning
+of this chapter, will be of service.
+
+As soon as the top has been glued the four short side pieces may be
+glued to the shelf, taking pains to make good joints before applying
+the glue. It should be noted that the inside ends of these short
+pieces are to be 15 inches apart, and it is important that the ends
+on opposite sides should be exactly squared across, as indicated in
+the drawings. This may be accomplished by first locating the centre
+of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c in the drawing,
+and measuring 7-1/2 inches each way to the line of the back pieces,
+which are to run across the whole bottom shelf. As soon as the glue is
+hardened the ends should be squared and made true to set into the gains
+when the table is assembled. Finally, the legs, the rails, and the
+shelf may be assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside to
+harden before the clamps are removed.
+
+It is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under side before
+the glue hardens. After standing a few hours the table will be ready
+for the 1/2-inch strip which forms the back of the shelf. This is to
+be fitted and bradded in. Then the slats may be cut to length. They
+project slightly below the shelf, and are fastened in position by
+screws. The top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed, after which
+it may be fastened on the frame by means of screws and buttons, as
+already described in the early part of this chapter.
+
+
+A HEAVY LIBRARY TABLE
+
+_The Design._--This table, as the illustration shows, is designed to be
+of simple style, without a drawer or side shelves, and with the bottom
+shelf keyed into the base rail. Heavy, square legs, and mortise and
+tenon joints are called for.
+
+[Illustration: A heavy library table]
+
+_Materials and Tools._--The mission type of furniture, to which this
+design belongs, suggests oak as the fitting wood. The stock for the
+top, the dimensions of which are to be 7/8 × 28 × 44 inches, may be
+cut in three pieces from a 10-inch board, 12 feet long. For the shelf
+a board 7/8 × 12 × 43 inches is required. There are needed also four
+legs 2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 30 inches; two side rails 7/8 × 4 × 36 inches; two
+end top-rails 7/8 × 4 × 22 inches; two end bottom rails 1-1/2 × 4 × 22
+inches; and for keys a strip 1 × 2 × 28 inches.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (front)]
+
+The same tools are required as were needed in the foregoing problem.
+
+_Construction._--Since this table has a larger top than the light
+library table, even greater pains must be taken than in the case of the
+smaller table to join the boards for gluing up. All like parts should
+be laid off together and the necessary mortises and tenons cut and
+fitted, as in the previous case. The two end rails may be glued into
+the legs first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put in place
+last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened in without gluing by
+means of the tenons and keys. The latter should be cut somewhat longer
+than is really needed so that they may appear to be as effective as
+they really are; and they should be tapered at least 1/2 of an inch in
+order to drive up well. A small brad may be driven in to keep them from
+getting loose when the work shrinks.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (end)]
+
+
+A BOOKCASE WITH GLAZED DOORS
+
+_The Design._--This is to be an upright bookcase, with five shelves
+and an overhanging top. Some variety of surface is afforded by the
+arrangement of the sash, as indicated in the drawing. The shelves are
+made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other problems.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--The stock required for one bookcase of this
+pattern is as follows: two end pieces 7/8 × 11-1/2 × 48-1/2 inches; for
+the top and bottom, two pieces 7/8 × 12 × 40 inches; four shelves 7/8
+× 11 × 40 inches; for the sides of the doors, four pieces 7/8 × 2 × 45
+inches; for the top and bottom rails of the doors, four pieces 7/8 ×
+2-1/2 × 18 inches; for the middle rail, one piece 7/8 × 2 × 18 inches;
+for the sash, one piece 7/8 × 1/2 inch × 6 feet; for the back, enough
+1/2 inch stock to cover the space 38 × 46 inches. In addition to this
+there will be required four hinges, two catches, a lock, and glass for
+the sash as dimensioned in the drawing. It is not necessary, however,
+to cut the small lights. One large pane of glass may be set in the full
+width of the door so that the small sash divisions may be apparent
+rather than real.
+
+[Illustration: Bookcase with glazed doors]
+
+The tools for this problem are the same as those used in previous
+problems with the addition of a 1/4-inch bit and 1/4-inch chisel, and a
+rabbet plane, or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet for the
+glass.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for bookcase]
+
+It is not necessary to give directions for the treatment of the
+stock, since it is practically the same as that employed in preceding
+problems. The details for cutting dimensions are given in the
+accompanying drawings. It would be well for the young woodworker to
+study these carefully and make out a working plan of procedure similar
+to that which has been outlined in other problems.
+
+_Construction._--The first thing to do is to erect the bookcase--_i.e._,
+to cut the sides, the top, the bottom, and the back pieces to proper
+form and dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten them. It will
+be noticed that the sides and top are rabbeted out, as indicated in one
+of the small drawings, so that the edge of the back will not show when
+it is nailed in position. The bottom shelf is also made narrow enough
+to allow the back boards to be brought down over it and nailed to the
+edge.
+
+[Illustration: Method of concealing ends of back boards]
+
+After the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to
+the drawing for mortises and tenons, and the inside edges rabbeted to
+give an inset for the glass. If it is decided to use one large light
+at the top of the door instead of six small ones, the sash effect for
+this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this
+arrangement. When the doors are ready for setting the glass it may
+be held in place by small 1/4 round strips, bradded in behind it.
+Great care should, of course, be exercised in gluing up the doors to
+avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not
+be fitted to the case. Careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons
+and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is
+attempted is a wise precaution. It will also be wise to allow a little
+stock for trimming off, both on the sides and on the ends, when the
+doors are finally fitted in.
+
+
+A ROUND CENTRE TABLE
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table]
+
+[Illustration: Detail of top mortise]
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table]
+
+_The Design._--This problem calls for a table of mission style with
+square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the
+top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs. Simplicity of
+form combined with strength characterizes the design.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Quartered oak is recommended for a table of
+this design. The stock required for one table is as follows: four legs
+2-3/4 × 2-3/4 × 27 inches; two cross rails 1-1/4 × 3 × 29 inches; one
+piece of 3 × 12 × 20 inches for the curved rails; and stock enough to
+make a round top 1-1/8 inches thick and 27 inches in diameter.
+
+The only tools desirable to provide, in addition to those previously
+used, are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane.
+
+_Construction._--The first step is to join up and glue the top so
+that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is
+being accomplished. The stock for the legs may then be dressed and the
+bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts. Care must be taken
+to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be
+accurately outlined on the face. Care must also be taken in cutting the
+mortises, in order to make good, clean joints. A dimensioned detail of
+the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail,
+shown on page 180, should be consulted before laying out this work.
+It should be noticed that the legs project 1-1/4 inches above the top
+rail. After the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be
+halved together and the tenons laid off and cut. It will be noticed
+that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off, but this
+should not be done until the fitting is completed.
+
+In laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails
+the trammel comes into use. With this, mark off carefully the inside
+and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with a large steel
+square, draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point, making an
+exact quarter circle. This is shown in one of the drawings on page
+180. Then, parallel with each straight line and on the inside, mark
+off other lines one half the thickness of the leg. This locates the
+shoulder of the tenon. The pattern should then be carefully cut out
+of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock
+the form of the curved rails. After these rails are band sawed and
+smoothed, the tenons may be cut.
+
+When the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they
+may be assembled and glued. Finally the top is placed face down on
+a bench top or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it and
+centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs. These
+should be laid off with great care, the outline reproduced exactly on
+the opposite side, and the stock cut out. The top and frame should then
+be fastened together from the under side. After a few finishing touches
+have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces, the table
+will be ready for the filling and varnishing.
+
+
+A LIBRARY DESK
+
+This is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making
+here suggested. Details are given in the drawings on the opposite page.
+If the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command
+the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task
+to undertake. Most of the operations required in its construction have
+already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed
+directions. There are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making
+called for in this problem which were not required in the others. They
+will therefore need explanation.
+
+[Illustration: A library desk]
+
+_Panelling._--To avoid the difficulties which would result from the
+swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is
+common practice to make use of the panel. The design of the panel is
+easily understood. It consists of a framework of ordinary thickness,
+put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of
+this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of
+stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between
+the sides of the frame. The panel board may be in one piece of wide
+stock or it may be glued up. It may be of very thin stock inset on
+both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on
+one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the
+edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the
+panel frame. In this problem the panel board is to be made of 1/2-inch
+stock, flat on the outside, and inset 1/4 of an inch. The back of the
+panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the
+necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock
+of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and,
+if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. The panel, on
+account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink
+considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so
+that its changes may not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish
+the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to
+the panel board.
+
+_Danger in the Power Saw._--The panel frame may be constructed by hand,
+but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service.
+Beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and
+not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even
+a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The necessary
+operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished
+stock, with a good square and gauge. A combination plane is quite
+essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. Care
+should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece,
+and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges
+of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are
+indicated in the drawing. In gluing up, the directions already given in
+the section on gluing should be followed.
+
+_Sand-papering._--There is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the
+finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in
+almost every kind of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised
+in the directions for furniture making. In furniture manufactories
+sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be
+found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by
+their productive value. It is quite impossible to work down large
+pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. If a sand-papering
+machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will
+be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of
+tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run
+through the machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering by
+hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible
+and always along the grain. Any movements directly across the grain
+or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. The process is
+facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about 2
+× 4 inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same
+dimensions.
+
+
+A MORRIS CHAIR
+
+_History of the Design._--Among furniture designs the Morris chair has
+become a classic. It takes its name for its originator, William Morris,
+the great English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to
+any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture
+design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in England
+but in other European countries and in America. And probably no one of
+his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort,
+and utility in furniture than the Morris chair.
+
+[Illustration: A Morris chair]
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions of Morris chair (front)]
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for Morris chair (side)]
+
+It may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works
+of art, the original design of William Morris has suffered much in
+countless imitations. The furniture shops display carved and otherwise
+embellished monstrosities under the name of Morris chairs which are
+nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. But the life
+of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be
+short. Only the good and true, which are the original, survive. The
+really valuable features of the original Morris chair design, combining
+beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken
+a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid
+comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in this problem are
+illustrated on page 50, chapter II. Both are in quartered oak. The one
+on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the
+seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. The
+one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour.
+On account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight
+than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will
+be followed in this problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in
+ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a
+college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the
+three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself.
+
+By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the
+preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should
+select his stock according to the following list: 4 legs 2-1/2 × 2-1/2
+× 24 inches; two arms 3 × 5-1/2 × 38 inches; two bottom side rails
+1-1/8 × 6 × 26 inches; two top side rails 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 26 inches;
+two bottom rails (front and back) 1-1/8 × 6 × 24 inches; one top rail
+(back) 5/8 × 2-1/4 × 24 inches; two back uprights 1-1/8 × 1-7/8 × 25
+inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) 3/4 × 2-5/8 × 20 inches;
+one cross piece for back (top) 3/4 × 6 × 20 inches; one bracket 1 × 3 ×
+18 inches; four pins 4-1/2 × 4-1/4 inches square.
+
+[Illustration: Detail of Morris chair arm]
+
+[Illustration: Detail of pins]
+
+In sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for
+necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. The arms
+are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out
+of 3-inch stock. There will be a considerable saving in material and
+labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the
+curve is very pleasing. The back slats may be sawed to a slight curve,
+which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make
+and just as serviceable.
+
+The process of construction does not differ in general from that
+already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not
+be repeated here in detail. The method of finishing this and all
+other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the
+following chapter.
+
+Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be
+necessary to provide casters for it. The Acme Pin caster, so-called,
+was used in the chair referred to in this problem. It makes use of a
+steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so
+as to leave only about 1/4 of an inch of the ball exposed.
+
+
+A HALL CLOCK
+
+
+[Illustration: A hall clock
+
+NOTE.--The original of the hall clock was designed and made by Mr.
+Egbert E. MacNary.]
+
+_Design._--This clock was designed and built to conform to the
+requirements of the space allotted to it. The lines of the case are
+all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the
+top. A hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all
+the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc.,
+are horizontal. If the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then
+the top might be spired or pointed.
+
+[Illustration: Construction detail of a hall clock]
+
+The construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and
+substantial. The long sides extend the entire height of the clock,
+being firmly joined into the base and head. The works are supported
+between these sides. The wood is 3/4-inch quartered oak, hand dressed,
+and stained a warm brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and
+weight are of brass.
+
+_Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter._--The long door has a panel of
+transparent leaded glass. This leaded glass work is a most fascinating
+process. The lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in
+lead specialties. Stained glass window concerns are usually willing
+to sell this lead. A full-size drawing was made of the design for
+the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. A
+ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. One caution, kept in mind, will
+enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. _It
+should never be used twice in the same cut._ One stroke of a few inches
+over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is
+not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The glass
+should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand,
+making a continuous cut against a straight edge.
+
+_Soldering._--The long lines of the design are in one piece; and
+there is a strip around the entire outside edge. To solder the pieces
+together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board,
+and brads (about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the board close
+against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position.
+A small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. A small
+soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. The
+copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping
+it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder
+wire. The point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say,
+"tinned." The iron will need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of
+the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result.
+
+[Illustration: Method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering]
+
+The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass
+into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. The piece of
+oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the
+centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short arc of the ring had
+been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about 1 inch and the
+groove continued.
+
+[Illustration: Method of raising the dial rings]
+
+The length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the
+escape wheel. It was necessary in the case of this clock to take out
+the escape wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22 teeth to
+accommodate the length of pendulum desired.
+
+[Illustration: Dimensioned dial piece of clock before edges are turned]
+
+
+OUTDOOR FURNITURE
+
+The greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found
+within the house. This is especially true in the village or in the
+country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that
+are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a
+bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "God's great
+out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden,
+the touch of nature is not lost. It is possible, however, for art to
+assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed.
+It is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in
+the neighbourhood of the village or city home. If there be a garden,
+as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains
+taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out
+any form of interior decoration. There are problems of design and
+construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for
+the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings
+for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps,
+for an out-door dining-room. The more decorative features are found in
+the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the
+pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily
+come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen.
+
+_General Types._--In the designing of out-door furniture there are
+two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression.
+On the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest
+solidity, weight, and permanence. This idea is embodied in walls of
+masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or
+in some other kind of heavy construction. On the other hand, there
+are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the
+growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the
+so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens.
+
+_An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood._--A settle designed for
+comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the
+garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well
+protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion is here given for
+such a design, laid out on substantial lines. Ordinary 4 × 4 spruce,
+planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest
+of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the back pieces and
+arms, and 7/8-inch boards for the rails and seat. Mortise and tenon
+joints should be used in the framing. The illustration shows also a
+simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front
+posts. It is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat
+successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is
+designed to be built.
+
+[Illustration: A garden settle]
+
+_Concrete Furniture._--Still more substantial out-door furniture
+may be made of concrete cement. This material has come into use for
+sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry
+in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy
+building construction. Concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made
+by mixing Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right
+proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it
+to harden. It is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it
+is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of
+an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide
+range of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals, fountains,
+window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety,
+tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this
+material. Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to
+many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in
+bold design if occasion requires it. In weight and durability it leaves
+nothing to be desired.
+
+_The Wire Form._--Concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. In
+its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. It must be
+supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape
+and until it has hardened. In general there are two methods of giving
+the necessary support: _viz._, by employing an interior framework or
+skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the
+cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material
+in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when
+hardened. The latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for
+commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number
+of marketable results from the same moulds. The simpler wooden moulds
+may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience
+he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form
+successfully. For single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire
+forms are to be preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method is
+found in the following problem:
+
+
+A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE
+
+The dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of 10 inches
+and a height of 8 inches. The wire form must therefore be made to
+approximate quite closely to these dimensions. A good material for
+the form is galvanized wire lath of 1/2-inch mesh. This problem will
+require a piece about 8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex
+side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base. From the square
+piece a circle 10 inches in diameter should be cut out. A strong pair
+of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. In bending the long
+piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order
+to produce an evenly curved surface--_i. e._, one free from angular
+bends. A good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on
+a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. If nothing
+better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. When the
+bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought
+together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends
+of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers will be of great assistance.
+If this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result
+a cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular piece should now
+be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the
+strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching
+them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece
+where there are uncut meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for
+covering with the cement.
+
+[Illustration: A garden vase]
+
+The first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the
+scratch coat. This is made by mixing Portland cement with fine, clean
+sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. These
+ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and
+then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked
+apart. For the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be
+needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole
+should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. It
+is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. A scratch
+coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily
+spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together.
+
+When a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it
+should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel
+or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side
+of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first
+coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention
+whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the
+cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will
+be held together firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth coat
+as a part of the later finishing process. When the convex surface has
+been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement
+spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. After the wire
+has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat
+distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true
+cylinder has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for about five
+hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. It is then ready for
+the finishing coat.
+
+The next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing
+coat. Considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour
+and other surface effects that are desired. In this design a light,
+sparkling surface when finished is required. To produce this effect a
+mixture of one part Portland cement and two parts marble dust will be
+needed. This should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that
+used for the scratch coat.
+
+Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly
+moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. There are various
+methods of applying this coat. The simplest is carefully spreading it
+on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. When the
+surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve
+the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. It is
+not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet
+the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and
+yields very satisfactory results.
+
+[Illustration: A vase with blocked rim]
+
+_The Decoration._--A great variety of decorative effects may be
+obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this
+material for out-door use. In pottery these decorations may take the
+form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the
+surface, and of inlays in colour. Whatever the form of design, the
+necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well
+set but not very hard--_i. e._, from 6 to 10 hours after the finishing
+coat is applied. A stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool
+that will be required. A narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable
+for deepening the cuts. The knife should be guided by means of a ruler,
+which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth
+of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work
+similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of 3/16
+or 1/4 of an inch is sufficient. This cutting, of course can be made
+after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it
+will be much more difficult.
+
+[Illustration: A square form]
+
+_The Colours._--Colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the
+best quality of white Portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry
+mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or
+cement-proof colours. Among the pigments suitable for this purpose are
+red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives
+a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of
+copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields
+a good brown. These come as dry powders and should be mixed with the
+dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before
+the water is applied. In order to determine the right colour it is
+well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients
+until a satisfactory shade has been found. Then with this as a guide a
+sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions,
+to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which
+has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To insure
+thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be
+well moistened with a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs are
+shown in the accompanying drawings.
+
+_Rustic Furniture._--The lighter out-door furniture can be easily made
+up in a great variety of designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs
+is determined largely by the material which is available. Very useful
+and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops
+or from branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily found in the
+second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material.
+It is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks
+and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. Chairs,
+settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of
+furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material.
+
+[Illustration: A garden screen]
+
+_Lattice Work._--Trellises and garden screens have been made in an
+almost endless variety of forms. Among the most satisfactory is the
+plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity and
+evident durability are points in its favour. Experience proves also
+that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted
+to this form of trellis. The size of the stock required in making
+the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of
+it. For a garden screen the uprights need to be of 2 × 2 inch stock
+and of any convenient length. End posts of 3 × 3 inch stock will be
+required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long
+one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals
+of ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be strips of 7/8-inch
+stock, 2 inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights.
+Spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is
+suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights
+it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. The
+top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3
+inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set
+into the ground at intervals of 6 feet, to which the bottom rail or
+the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when
+the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green paint will protect the
+wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches
+which it supports.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+FINISHING AND RE-FINISHING
+
+'Tis toil's reward that sweetens industry--_Ebenezer Elliot_
+
+
+In the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing
+to do with the finishing of his work. This essential part of furniture
+making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade. In a
+separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of
+the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner.
+It is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of
+woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production;
+for, however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the
+design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture
+or other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in
+the finishing.
+
+[Illustration: Finishing a Library Table. Plate VI]
+
+But the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher. He should
+familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be
+applied to the different woods. He should know the object of filling
+wood and how it is done. He should understand the processes of fuming,
+staining, and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the
+results desired.
+
+
+CLEANING, SURFACING, AND FILLING
+
+_First Steps in Finishing._--The first step in finishing woodwork is
+to clean it up and prepare it for the filler. Too great care cannot
+be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have
+occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired
+in any part of the process of construction. Light planing, chiselling,
+or scraping, and perhaps a little sand-papering, always with the grain,
+may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes. The most serious
+of these generally result from gluing. All surplus glue should be
+carefully removed, even to the film that soaks into the surface of the
+wood. The slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of
+the wood and show through any kind of finish.
+
+_Importance of Filling._--As soon as the furniture is thoroughly
+cleaned, if it is to be finished in the natural color, the grain of the
+wood must be filled with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance,
+known as the filler, which, after standing from five to seven minutes,
+should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a
+handful of shavings. This process, as its name indicates, fills the
+pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture
+and the consequent swelling. But this is by no means its chief purpose.
+Strictly speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent
+finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be said to be the most
+important operation connected with wood finishing. If improperly done,
+no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault. In
+fact, good work is impossible after a bad beginning. Good varnishing or
+good finishing of any kind requires that, before the final finishing
+processes begin, the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth,
+free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind
+that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate
+the wood. If the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the
+subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough
+surface will be sure to follow. This may, of course, be rubbed down and
+re-finished, but never with that perfection of result which is assured
+by laying a good foundation in correct filling. It may be set down as
+a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is
+obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that
+the thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required to produce
+the desired result.
+
+_Liquid Fillers or Surfaces._--There are many kinds of fillers in
+common use, but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the
+other of two classes. They are either liquid fillers or paste fillers.
+Woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain. The
+coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close
+up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary
+as a foundation for good finishing. The close-grained woods, on the
+other hand, do not present the same filling problem. They could not
+absorb a paste filler. In fact, it is hardly too much to say that the
+fine, close-grained woods, like maple, gum wood, and birch, do not need
+a filler at all; and there are some coarse-grained woods, like southern
+or hard pine and cypress, the pores of which are naturally filled with
+gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler.
+But all such woods _do_ need to be given a finishing surface which will
+prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood.
+This is the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which are very
+properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers."
+
+_How to Make a Liquid Filler._--A standard formula for the preparation
+of a liquid filler is as follows: Mix four parts by weight of carbonate
+of soda with six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in about
+eight parts of japan, thinning the product with turpentine or benzine
+to the consistency of linseed oil. Laundry starch may be used in place
+of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application
+than the clay filler because it does not settle. It lacks in
+durability, however, especially if it is not well covered. The finest
+grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler
+to give body. A great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which,
+without being mixed with anything, will give the necessary surface.
+
+Glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades of varnish, thinned if
+necessary with benzine or turpentine, are often used for this purpose.
+But these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should
+be used on the best grades of woodwork. Shellac is always preferred
+as a first coater for hard pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the
+pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain. If
+oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting
+coat of shellac, the wood blackens with age. Shellac is an excellent
+first coater for other woods also. It is commonly used in house
+finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. But it dries rapidly,
+and generally with a rough surface. The first coating of shellac,
+therefore, requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on.
+
+_Time Needed for a Shellac Coat to Dry._--It may be well to caution
+the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying
+of shellac. While it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first
+drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming a hard coating
+which delays somewhat the drying throughout, so that a shellac filling
+is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has
+been applied, though it may appear to be. It is a good rule to allow at
+least twenty-four hours for thorough drying; and it may be well to add
+that all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for the best
+results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow.
+
+_Cost of Surfacing._--A practical question that the amateur finisher
+will ask is, how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for
+given pieces of work, and what will be its cost? For a good quality
+of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight
+square yards with one coat. The cost varies greatly, depending upon
+the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a
+dealer. A good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for $1.50
+per gallon, making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about
+2-1/2 cents. A small can costs 15 cents. Good work cannot be done with
+the cheaper grades of filler. Shellac, which is, all in all, the best
+of surfacers, can be bought for $1.85 a gallon, which would make the
+cost of surfacing somewhat under 3 cents a square yard.
+
+_How to Make a Paste Filler._--A good paste filler, such as is required
+for the open-grained woods like oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or
+white wood, may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base,
+thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine, and japan in equal
+parts, with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good
+paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste.
+If the mixture should prove to be a little too thick, it may easily
+be thinned with turpentine. The final mixing of this filler requires
+grinding in a hand mill. Unless a considerable quantity of it is needed
+it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer
+in painters' or finishers' supplies, though commercial fillers are
+not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula. They often
+contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so
+satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica.
+
+_How a Paste Filler is Applied._--Paste fillers should be spread on the
+surface to be filled very liberally with a wide, stiff brush, allowed
+to stand from five to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece
+of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior. But it must not
+all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain. This is an easy mistake
+for an inexperienced worker to make. The thing to do is to rub it in
+and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth. The surfaces should
+then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the
+final finishing coats.
+
+
+VARNISHING
+
+The importance of a good foundation surface--even, smooth, and free
+from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat
+of varnish--has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing.
+If this foundation has been well laid, the amateur finisher may enter
+upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but he will
+soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the
+desired results in this part of the finishing process. The selection,
+preparation, and application of varnish is a special calling, and great
+skill comes only as the result of experience; but certain main facts
+and principles are easily learned.
+
+_How a Good Varnish is Recognized._--It is hardly necessary to say
+that a superior varnish must be clear, transparent, and brilliant.
+These qualities are always associated with this kind of finish. But
+durability is also a necessary quality. An expert will, with his eyes
+shut, recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour, which is
+to him an agreeable one. He will at once detect inferior grades by the
+rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture. The
+range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more
+varied than in any other finishing material. For fine, artistic work
+only the best varnish is allowable; and this may be bought for $3.00 a
+gallon.
+
+_"Sag" and How Corrected._--A good varnish flows easily from the brush,
+spreads evenly, and dries slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its
+proper distribution over the surface. And time enough should be taken
+to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking
+due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening. It is of
+the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface
+when first applied. Great care should be taken not to brush long in
+one place. Re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which
+are objectionable. Unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes
+the varnish to run or "sag." A tendency to sag may be brushed out if
+attended to promptly. But, if it is not noticed until the varnish has
+begun to set, the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the
+thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush; and this
+must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been
+put on. By that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will
+be beyond repairing by any simple means.
+
+_Time Required Between Varnish Coats._--The best varnishes, as has
+been stated, dry quite slowly, and they seem to dry and harden not, as
+shellac does, on the top first, but from the under surface outward.
+This peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time
+between coats. And it should be added that mere drying is not all
+that is required. Each coat must harden; and during the process of
+hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat
+until it becomes permanently set or hardened. The time required for
+this permanent setting or seasoning, as it may be called, varies with
+the character of the under coat, with the temperature of the room in
+which the finishing is done, and with the thickness of the varnish coat
+itself. Five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period.
+As many weeks would not be too long for the best results. It is folly
+to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing. In the nature of the case
+it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results. There is no
+other kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with the certainty that
+it does in varnishing. Great pains must be taken with each coat. Least
+of all should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and depth in
+the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty
+of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish
+coat is applied. All this work should be done in a well-lighted room,
+free from dust, and with a good supply of fresh air, kept at an even
+temperature, of about 70 degrees--certainly not colder than this, since
+a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly.
+
+_Number of Coats Needed._--The number of coats of varnish required vary
+with the character of the work. What is known as piano finish requires
+from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish, each
+well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the
+best brushing can give. In addition to these under coats a final finish
+coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre.
+
+_How to Rub Down Varnish._--Rubbing down varnish is a unique and
+important part in the process of finishing. The beginning of the
+operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized
+pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the work is such that
+water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood.
+Whichever liquid is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary.
+This is a block about 4 inches square, made of thick, loose cloth
+like felt or hair cloth. In use it is first moistened in the oil or
+water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered
+pumice. With this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously, giving
+a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces. As
+the smoothing progresses, less and less of the pumice powder is used.
+Near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or
+adhering to the rubbing pad. What remains on the surface is finally
+all wiped off carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found that
+the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine
+scratches due to the grains of the pumice. These are removed by a
+second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water.
+
+_Dull Finish and Flat Varnish._--For many purposes good finishing
+requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish
+coat; and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural
+lustre. For furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred. It is more
+durable, it harmonizes better with its surroundings, and it is more
+in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness. In working for
+a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of
+surface as it is when a high lustre is required, and therefore fewer
+coats are necessary. In fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture
+without any varnish at all. Two or three coats of shellac, each well
+rubbed down, give a very satisfactory result. Wax finish, to be
+described later, gives beautiful effects. There are varnishes known as
+flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing. They are made
+by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of
+the solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and mixing the
+wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish.
+What is known as the old Dutch finish is obtained by using over the
+proper stain one coat of wax varnish. But there is no kind of dull
+finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish,
+each well rubbed down.
+
+
+WAX FINISH
+
+_How to Prepare and Apply Finishing Wax._--The simplest and at the
+same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is
+rubbing it with finishing wax. This is one of the old processes which
+has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and
+is becoming deservedly popular. Finishing wax may be purchased ready
+for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine
+in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine. To do this
+the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings, placed in a dish,
+and covered with the liquid. The solution may be hastened by heating
+in a water bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the water,
+care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the
+turpentine near, on account of the inflammable character of turpentine
+vapor. This mixture, which is too thick to spread with a brush, may
+be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth. Soft
+cloths, like clean cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. The
+rubbing should be continued for a considerable time, but it is by no
+means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of
+varnish. Less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. One of the
+greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied
+and immediately rubbed down, after which the furniture is ready for
+use. Filling and finishing are accomplished together. It is also easy
+to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time. In fact, it is desirable to
+re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the
+first few months of their use, and after that about once a year.
+
+
+STAINING
+
+_Object of Staining._--Up to this point the processes of finishing
+considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural
+colour, excepting that it may darken with age. But it is often
+desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork--_i. e._, to dye or
+stain it. This is done for a variety of purposes--to reduce to one tone
+the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind
+of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture, to
+give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation
+of the more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that will harmonize
+with various colour schemes. To accomplish this great variety of
+results, scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put
+upon the market in almost countless shades and tints, but they are all
+easily classified under three heads. They are oil stains, water stains,
+or alcohol stains.
+
+_A Perfect Stain._--A perfect stain, if it could be obtained, would
+be a clear, limpid liquid, free from all solid particles or specks of
+colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere
+with the absorption of the filler--so clear and transparent that it
+would in no way obscure the grain of the wood, which in many varieties
+is the chief element of beauty--so limpid that it would easily soak
+deep into the pores of the wood, carrying to a considerable depth below
+the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure.
+
+_Water, Alcohol, and Oil Stains Compared._--The water and alcohol
+stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains
+do. They are clear, and without body, and they have great penetration.
+But they are not free from faults. Many of the water stains are made
+from aniline dyes which are not durable. The alcohol stains, however,
+are generally permanent. Both the water stains and the alcohol stains
+raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners
+and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing. The oil stains,
+on the other hand, are free from these faults. They spread easily and
+evenly, they do not raise the grain, they do not double up or show
+laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have a few defects
+which overbalance these good qualities. They have considerable body
+which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface,
+so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or
+the alcohol stains do. Their oily nature causes them partly to close
+up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent
+process of filling. This is so bad a defect that oil stains are not
+to be recommended for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which
+depends so much on correct filling. They are more successful with the
+close-grained woods, which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the
+ordinary liquid filler.
+
+_How Stain is Applied._--If furniture or any kind of woodwork is to
+be artificially coloured, staining is the first of the finishing
+operations to be attended to. The stain should be spread upon
+well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge, and
+allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into
+the wood. The surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean,
+soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have
+soaked into the wood, and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect.
+After the stained surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to
+match the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into the pores, as
+already explained in the section on natural finish. The beginner will
+need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or
+draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much as possible. He
+will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or
+grease, which will interfere with good results.
+
+Excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of
+dealers in painters' supplies. They will not always produce the effects
+claimed for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible to
+find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result. They are
+somewhat expensive, however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to
+develop his own stain. Following are some suggestions along this line:
+
+_Asphaltum and Golden Oak Stain._--A good chocolate brown stain may
+be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish
+made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush.
+A considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used, but not enough
+to make a sticky liquid. This will need to be finished with shellac
+or finishing varnish. When applied to quartered oak it produces the
+beautiful effect known as golden oak. It may also be used on white wood
+to give an imitation of black walnut; and Georgia pine under this stain
+takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of
+the wood.
+
+_Mahogany._--A clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining
+birch of the right grain with logwood stain. The stain is made by
+boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three
+hours. While the mixture is hot, chloride of tin is added gradually
+until the right shade of colour is produced. The stain should be
+allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several coats may be
+needed to secure the right depth of shade. The filler used should be
+coloured with burnt umber and sienna. The finish may be a brilliant or
+a flat varnish, or wax.
+
+_Baywood as Mahogany._--Mahogany stain is also applied to baywood,
+resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany. The genuine
+article, however, is an imported wood coming from South America,
+Mexico, and Africa in several varieties; and it is a much harder wood
+than the American baywood imitation. Both the birch and the baywood
+imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is
+difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties.
+
+_Flemish Oak._--The various oak stains are worthy of special mention.
+Flemish oak finish is very dark, almost black. It is prepared by first
+applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in
+the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water.
+The solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush. After
+drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain
+is applied, made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine. This is
+allowed to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when the surface
+is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied. After a thorough
+drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper
+and finished with wax.
+
+_Mission Oak._--The so-called mission oak finish may be in several
+colours, but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly
+reddish. The stain is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a
+little rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine. The mixture
+should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining
+brush. Wax finish is invariably used for mission oak.
+
+_Forest Green Oak._--Forest green oak is among the best of the green
+effects in this wood. The stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome
+green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material.
+This is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw
+linseed oil, with a little white japan. The resulting stain should be
+somewhat thinner than linseed oil. After this has been applied to the
+oak surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat of thin shellac
+coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline. This should have
+a wax finish.
+
+_Gray Oak._--A gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron
+sulphate, made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure
+crystals in water, and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by
+adding a little sulphuric acid. This solution is most conveniently
+used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of
+wood to be stained, as they must soak in the solution until they are
+thoroughly saturated. The pieces may be kept separate by stout cords
+tied around them, and they may be held under the solution by means of
+weights. When taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are
+rubbed down.
+
+_Weathered Oak._--Weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces
+of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin, dissolving them
+separately in about a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved
+mixing them together. When applied to oak it gives it the natural
+weathered tone with a slight bluish cast. It may then be oiled,
+shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax.
+
+_Fumed Oak and Chestnut._--But the most satisfactory method of giving
+a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork, is without question, by
+fuming with ammonia, though this process is limited to two woods,
+viz., white oak and chestnut. All other woods, including red oak, are
+deficient in tannic acid, the essential element to combine with the
+ammonia gas in the production of the stain. This method requires a
+fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture
+to be fumed. It must be carefully constructed with all its joints
+made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering
+them with shellac. The top or one side of the box should be fastened
+with screws, so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use
+and yet easily removed. The operation of fuming consists simply in
+placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled
+with the strongest ammonia--not the household ammonia, which is too
+weak--screwing the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus to stand
+from 12 to 24 hours, according to the shade desired. If the fuming box
+be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good
+light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of
+colour may be observed without opening the box. When the desired shade
+has been obtained and the furniture removed, it is best to give it a
+good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture.
+
+_Peculiarities of Fumed Finish._--It will be observed that the toning
+of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain
+far better than any other process of staining; and there should also
+be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are
+the reverse of those given by staining; _i. e._, the parts that appear
+lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other. This gives
+a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of
+detecting that which is not genuine.
+
+
+WHITE ENAMEL
+
+A vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the
+trim of some rooms is white enamel. It is used on new work and also
+in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork. In the latter
+case the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed and the
+surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. But whether the wood be old or
+not, a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the
+white varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is somewhat
+transparent. It is necessary, first, to coat the wood with flat
+white--a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening
+and thinned with turpentine. Oil should not be used in any part of
+the process. Three coats of this paint will generally be needed to
+produce the right surface for the final finish. Each of these coats
+should be allowed to dry and become well hardened. Two or three days,
+better still a week, should be allowed for hardening between coats,
+since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats
+and develops a tendency to chip off. When a surface is ready for the
+enamel, only one coat of it should be applied, and that should be given
+not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear. Enamel
+is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish. It
+may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is applied with a
+brush like any other varnish.
+
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+Problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of
+furniture making problems in Chapter VII. It is only necessary
+to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it
+the finishing methods outlined in this chapter. Our problems are,
+therefore, the following:
+
+_The Knock-down Bookcase._--If made up in white wood it may, like its
+original, be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed. It may,
+however, be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize with the
+furniture with which it is to be used.
+
+_The Hanging Book Rack._--In the design for this rack it was suggested
+that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish, or
+of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish.
+
+_The Umbrella Stand._--Oak was advised for this piece of furniture. It
+needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish,
+well rubbed down.
+
+_The Magazine Stand._--Oak was suggested for this stand. The color will
+depend upon the surroundings. Filling and varnishing will be required
+if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be fumed.
+
+_The Light Library Table._--Oak was mentioned as a very appropriate
+wood for this table, but some lighter wood like ash may be used. It
+will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a
+paste filler before they are finished.
+
+_The Heavy Library Table._--As this was designed in the mission style,
+oak was chosen as the most suitable wood. It may be given the so-called
+mission oak stain and a wax finish.
+
+_The Round Centre Table._--This may be made in any of the woods
+commonly used for furniture, but quartered oak was mentioned. A golden
+oak finish will be found very satisfactory.
+
+_The Bookcase with Glazed Doors._--This may be made up in ash, in
+quartered oak, or in gum wood. The finish will depend upon the kind of
+wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated.
+
+_The Library Desk and the Morris Chair._--The originals were made in
+quartered oak, fumed, and waxed.
+
+_The Hall Clock._--This may be made in quartered oak and given a
+weathered oak stain and wax finish.
+
+
+RE-FINISHING OLD FURNITURE
+
+There is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for
+pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of
+genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished. Some of the rare old
+colonial designs are of exceptional merit. This is proved by the high
+prices which they often command. These designs originated in the days
+of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention of machine-made,
+cheap furniture. The work of the older designers was characterized
+by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value; and the
+craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care
+and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality. It
+is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much
+desired.
+
+_Caution as to Repairs._--In the work of renovating old furniture,
+problems are met which are very different from those which have to be
+considered in the production of new work. All questions of design are
+settled. There is generally enough of the original article to show what
+the design was. The problem is one of restoration; we must supply
+the missing parts and re-finish the whole. The first thing to do,
+therefore, with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it
+over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its
+defects, supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the breaks. It
+will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on
+account of its age, and that it will therefore need to be handled more
+carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it will often be found
+desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add
+new wood to the old. This is especially true of veneering, which cannot
+be well matched in any other way. Old bits of veneer, on the other
+hand, may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed
+that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing.
+
+_Scraping._--After the necessary repairs have been made, the next
+thing to be done is to remove the old finish. If the varnish is dry
+and brittle and somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means of a
+well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken, however, not to
+injure the wood surface, especially at the corners and edges. If the
+scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points, fine
+sand-papering may be resorted to. It is generally wise, also, to give
+the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for
+finishing.
+
+_The Varnish Remover._--It often happens, however, that the scraper
+will not accomplish the desired result. In that case the liquid varnish
+remover is necessary. This may be found at the paint stores. The best
+formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only
+to the manufacturers. It is therefore not wise for the young finisher
+to attempt to make his own remover. He should provide himself with a
+can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture.
+After putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes
+and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife.
+If it doesn't come off readily, it should stand a little longer. The
+amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old
+finish. But in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and
+effectually removed. A putty knife, however, will not remove it all.
+After scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from
+the corners, a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean
+off what remains. It is of the greatest importance that none of the old
+varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain.
+Either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad
+surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on.
+
+_Re-finishing._--The re-finishing process is much like that described
+for new work, the chief exception being that there is generally no need
+of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making
+the repairs. Generally speaking, the re-finishing begins with the
+surfacing, which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the
+stain of the furniture. This is sand-papered lightly before receiving
+the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the
+desired effect. Very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax
+finish.
+
+
+PROBLEM: RE-FINISHING AN ANTIQUE MAHOGANY TABLE
+
+The table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture
+shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but
+of poor design; for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful
+lines. Much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture.
+This table, however, when separated from the rubbish which almost
+concealed it, was found to have good proportions, with simple but
+graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive. It
+was a drop-leaf table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve at
+each of the four corners. The legs were of turned stock and fluted,
+terminating in brass thimbles with casters. One leg was broken off, one
+of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other
+was partly broken, the table top had received some hard knocks, and
+the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with
+difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was
+made. It took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay
+in this much abused and dilapidated old relic.
+
+The first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as
+possible with a damp sponge. The part of the top that remained on the
+frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made. The
+broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting
+them together with a 3/4-inch dowel, glued in. The brass tips and
+casters were removed and set aside to be burnished. The missing parts
+of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood, fitted in, glued,
+and stained to match the original wood. After the necessary repairs had
+been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the
+old finish scraped off with a putty knife. This part of the process
+was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine,
+carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners, cracks, and
+openings of any kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish
+remover. After carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with
+clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with
+fine sand-paper. It was found that the wood was well filled, so that
+all it now needed was a final finishing with wax. The transformation
+from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and
+beautiful article of antique furniture was complete.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+HAND WEAVING
+
+    And Aphrodite came to comfort them
+    With incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine;
+    And Heré gave them beauty of face and soul
+    Beyond all women; purest Artemis
+    Endowed them with her stature and white grace;
+    And Pallas taught their hands to flash along
+    Her famous looms.
+
+     The "Daughters of Pandarus" (from the "Odyssey," Lib. XX).
+     Translation by Mrs. Browning.
+
+
+Among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have
+lately revived, perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater
+honour than weaving with the hand loom. Weaving is an ancient art. If
+we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when
+men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the
+skins of animals. That was a great change, for it meant the beginning
+not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself. It is no
+wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient
+mythologies. Not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms
+of our grandmothers, which played an important part in the early
+beginnings of our own history. The New England colonists spoke with
+pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth;
+and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable
+women. It was a work of necessity, but not without love and devotion.
+Many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels
+of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths--examples
+of unfailing patience, great ingenuity, and marvellous skill--handed
+down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud
+possessors.
+
+[Illustration: Weaving a Rug. Plate VII]
+
+_The Primitive Loom._--In the Orient, where our choicest rugs are made,
+two trees growing near each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo,
+and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires. This is a
+primitive loom. The modern hand loom is the same in principle; and the
+looms of our factories do not differ from it essentially. While it is
+true that their productive power has been enormously multiplied, this
+great improvement, which was actually one of the chief causes of a
+great industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive genius of
+two men who harnessed the motive powers of nature to the English hand
+looms.
+
+[Illustration: Shuttle and bobbin]
+
+_Warp and Woof._--The fundamental process in all weaving is essentially
+the same; and it is exceedingly simple. It consists in passing one set
+of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other
+alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage
+of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread. The set of threads which
+cross each other and which, by being moved up and down, interlock the
+thread which is passed between them, is known as the _warp_. The thread
+which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called
+the _woof_. By careful selection of materials, by skilful design in the
+dyeing and arrangement of these materials, and by proper management of
+the warp and woof to express the design, the most beautiful Oriental
+rugs are fashioned; and, though we may not be able to reproduce these
+in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon
+the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience.
+
+[Illustration: The hand loom]
+
+[Illustration: The reed]
+
+_What the Hand Loom is._--The hand loom consists of four uprights or
+posts, joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces.
+Attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each
+side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give free play back
+and forth. This is the beater. These cross pieces are grooved on their
+inner edges, and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a frame
+divided into sections by short, stiff wires, making from 10 to 25 or
+more sections to the inch. It is called a reed because it was formerly
+made from reeds. The sections of the reed are called dents, and through
+each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp. From the upper
+cross pieces extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a height
+of about two feet above the general framework. They are united at
+the top by a round piece called the roll, over which, near each end,
+are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords
+fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across
+the width of the loom. These sticks are in pairs and carry cords or
+wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread
+of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire, as through the
+dent of the reed. This is called the harness. There must be at least
+two of them, and there may be more. Two are necessary for the simplest
+weaving of a plain surface, and more than two if the work is to be more
+complex, as is required for scarfs with fancy borders, cushions, or
+any figured products of the loom. Near each end of the loom are two
+rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the
+loom is set up for weaving. These rollers are called beams. Over one of
+them the woven product passes as the loom is operated, while the other
+holds the unwoven warp. At the back of the loom is still another cross
+piece, underneath which pedals are fastened. These pedals connect by
+chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed
+on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing
+the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of
+the other set or sets of warp threads. An ingenious device of cogs at
+the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let
+out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work.
+
+
+THE PROCESS
+
+_Preparing the Warp._--When the essential parts of the hand loom and
+their uses are understood, the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready
+the warp and attach it to the machine. The thread or warp is taken
+from spools or cones, four threads at one time, which constitute what
+is called a bout. After determining how many threads will be required,
+allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth, the
+operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long. With the
+width, the length, and the number of threads to the inch in mind, she
+proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount
+until she has it all in one great skein. In putting this upon the bars
+or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout--_i. e._, each
+four threads--so that one bout shall go above and one below, in order
+to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks or
+leash-sticks. These attachments keep the order of the threads so that
+they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are
+wound on the beam.
+
+_Warping the Loom._--To warp the loom the operator loosens one end of
+the skein and, passing it from the warping bars to the loom, attaches
+it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after carefully
+dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed. At this point an
+attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a
+certain number of threads placed in each division. By the aid of the
+lease-sticks, which are inserted, and with the assistance of a second
+person to hold the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the beam. The
+rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece.
+
+[Illustration: Warping hook]
+
+_Drawing in the Warp._--As has already been explained, two harnesses
+only will need to be used for simple weaving. Taking the first bout
+of four threads, the weaver draws the first thread through the centre
+of the first loop in the first harness, or the one to which the
+right-hand pedal is attached. The next thread is put through the centre
+of the first loop of the second harness, or the one attached to the
+left-hand pedal. The third is drawn through the second loop of the
+harness connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth, in turn,
+through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal.
+Great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a single
+misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done
+over again. A special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the
+warp. When the drawing in is completed properly, the operator begins
+at the right-hand side of the loom and, measuring the reed, allows
+one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each
+thread through each dent in regular order. When this is done it is only
+necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by
+means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom, test the
+work, and proceed joyously with the weaving.
+
+_Beating Up the Woof._--The weaver presses the right-hand pedal, and
+every alternate thread separates from the other, leaving a space
+between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from
+right to left, carrying the woof threads through. The operator then
+draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings
+home the beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. A sheer fabric
+requires a light stroke of the beater, while firm cloth requires more
+force. Releasing the right pedal, the operator presses the left, which
+causes the warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof threads
+just thrown. The shuttle now passes from left to right, carrying
+through another woof thread which, in turn, is beaten up as before. So
+the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating
+from right to left and from left to right, interspersed with the
+strokes of the beater.
+
+[Illustration: Hand-Made Towels. Plate VIII]
+
+
+PROBLEM: MAKING A RUG
+
+_The Design._--This problem, like all others in house decoration,
+involves in its initial stages questions of design. Before
+planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to
+have--whether it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room,
+or a chamber, and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or
+with a carpet. This is a question of colours, and of materials; for
+the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour, not only in
+the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which
+it should harmonize, and the materials used must not display glaring
+inconsistencies of texture. Unless the beginner has special talent as
+a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many
+colours in one piece of work. If the warp is dark it is usually better
+to use light or medium woof. If several shades are used in the body of
+the rug, better results are obtained by using for the border or end
+decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with
+the principal colours of the body of the rug.
+
+[Illustration: Hand-Made Rugs. Plate IX]
+
+_Materials: Denim._--There are many materials suitable for rug making.
+Denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen. This should
+be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size. In preparing
+the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into
+strips from 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch wide. The latter width is better.
+In cutting, the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut
+end along the selvedge, forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of
+45 degrees. Crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along
+the fold. With a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off
+lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width
+for the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain a true bias.
+When a sufficient amount has been cut, the pieces should be ravelled
+or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button
+hook. There is a certain knack in this, but it is soon acquired. The
+fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means
+of overhand stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting corners. The
+moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof, as soon as it is
+prepared, is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for
+filling the shuttle. A special form of shuttle without a bobbin or
+spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving. Its simple
+construction is shown in the illustration. The woof is wound endwise
+and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle.
+
+[Illustration: Shuttle for woof cloth]
+
+Another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of
+woollen cloth. Warm, durable, and handsome effects may be obtained by
+using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the
+end decoration, with set figures for the body of the rug. Geometric
+designs, arrows, swastika, the pine tree, and many other forms are
+possible. Very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber
+use. Materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses,
+discarded silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully with one or two
+plain colours reserved for use in the borders.
+
+_Combination of Blue and White._--Blue and white is always a happy
+combination; and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven, to be
+placed perhaps in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old blue with
+a white warp, combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe.
+A vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and
+white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white
+or blue between the two. Another happy combination of blue and white
+results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel, cut
+and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim, with a border of
+old blue and figures of the same colour. For a chamber or for a bath
+room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired.
+
+_A Weaving Design._--It has just been said that design in rug making is
+a question of colours and of materials. It is already apparent that it
+is more than that. It is largely a question of procedure in the process
+of weaving. That this is so may be shown in the following account of
+the making of a blue and white rug. The thought was to produce a rug
+with five stripes of blue running lengthwise, with white figures at
+regular intervals through the middle of the rug. To accomplish this
+result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness
+every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side, thus making
+what may be called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will be
+easily seen, had to appear to the number of five on each side when the
+rug was woven. The white figures were formed by first throwing the
+blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle
+and, before beating it up, threading into the warp white cloth in the
+desired pattern, after which the woof and pattern were beaten up
+together. For the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were
+used, two of which were 6 inches in length and three 2 inches, the two
+longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated. A
+space of 7 inches was left between the white figures, the location of
+which was carefully determined by counting the threads, both of warp
+and of woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right
+place. The result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug.
+
+[Illustration: White figure in blue rug]
+
+_Another Example of Weaving Design._--This feature of rug designing
+is capable of indefinite expansion. Perhaps one more example may be
+given. The object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an
+8-inch border all around of a darker colour. This effect was produced
+by first weaving 8 inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed
+goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily. Having reached
+the place where the medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this
+medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short
+pieces of woof of the border colour so that, as the weaving progressed
+along the length of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared
+in its proper place but 8 inches of border on each side. When the
+proper length of the centre had been woven, the rug was finished by
+weaving another 8 inches of the border colour. The result was a rug of
+individuality and charm.
+
+_Great Variety of Material._--Endless combinations will occur to any
+one who becomes interested in this captivating art. The field for
+colour design is almost without limit. No material is so old and
+useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker. Old bed ticking
+with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable
+combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border. A
+charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which
+was ravelled from an old raw silk portière of a mahogany shade and
+wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls being
+rewound several times. This was used as the woof for the centre of
+the rug. The border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled
+mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give thread of a size equal
+to that of the tan cloth. Discarded clothing in which the prevailing
+colours are red, when made up into woof threads and woven on a white
+warp, gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down
+by a border combination as desired. Dyes may, of course, be used if the
+colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded
+clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out.
+
+_Weaving the Rug._--When the design for the rug has been thoroughly
+worked out, determining the colours, materials to be used, and
+the method of procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be
+prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as already explained in
+the discussion of the general process of weaving. Further details of
+procedure are not needed here. The thing to do is to weave a rug as
+designed. The next thing to do is to design and weave another rug, and
+then another and so on. As in most crafts so in weaving, experience
+is the great teacher--a teacher who demands faithful work, who finds
+lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every
+success. Some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated
+opposite page 252.
+
+Rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore
+a good problem with which to begin. After serving a satisfactory
+apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient
+knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more
+difficult problems. This will take her out into a large field of
+opportunity. Portières, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads,
+and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest
+themselves to the ambitious worker. In all these, as has been seen in
+the case of rug making, design is all important. The management of the
+loom is much the same in all plain weaving. What differences there
+are will be found, for the most part, in the weaving designs. In the
+following problems are described some of the special features involved
+in the other forms of weaving.
+
+
+PROBLEM: PORTIÈRES AND COUCH COVERS
+
+_Suggestions for the Design._--If the loom is wide enough these may
+be woven in one piece; but usually it is necessary to weave them in
+sections or breadths. In this case, of course, they must be afterward
+neatly joined. The possibilities in colour design are naturally varied.
+They may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the
+colour of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with striped
+ends. Harmony of colour effects is always to be sought. Depth and
+richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a
+generous use of black. Materials may be yarns, bits of silk or velvet,
+or pieces of fine, soft woollen goods. The warp may be silk or linen
+or mercerized cotton. Beautiful portières have been woven by leaving
+out two threads of warp at regular intervals, giving a loose and fluffy
+effect. Silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating
+with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade; and, if
+of the same colour as the warp used, they will impart a very decided
+tone to the whole product. In portières, the general appearance is
+much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp. The
+soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more
+suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portières.
+Couch covers, however, which will have to resist more wear and tear,
+should be beaten up harder. In preparing the silk and wool pieces the
+cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by carefully lapping
+the ends, and, by cutting away a part of the cloth, making the joint
+uniform in size. If the material is cloth of ordinary thickness 1/2
+an inch is quite wide enough for strips. The length of the pieces used
+may vary greatly, though they may be somewhat different in colour. They
+may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave
+an inch in the portière or cover. This makes it very easy to secure
+a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short
+pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads
+for these products of the loom. Almost any household will be able to
+save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful
+pair of portières or a couch cover which will be durable in quality,
+easy to clean, attractive in colour, and satisfactory from every point
+of view.
+
+
+PROBLEM: WINDOW DRAPERIES AND CURTAINS
+
+_The Design._--Curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the
+simple loom with two harnesses. They may be of the soft cream tint,
+the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which, in
+softening the light passing through them, leaves little to be desired.
+But if a little colour be required, the weaving design may be easily
+changed to secure this result. One may, for example, weave at first 7
+inches of the plain cream. This will give woven material enough for
+a 2-inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and 5 inches before the
+beginning of a coloured border. The border may consist of two threads
+of colour alternating with two threads of the cream, thus making a
+stripe of about 7 inches in width. Following this may come 8 to 10
+inches of the plain cream, followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the
+same colour as the border, 3 inches wide, in turn followed by another
+10 inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and so on,
+alternately, until the required length of the curtain has been woven.
+If desired, a top border may be woven in, though it is well to make it
+somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom--say about 5 inches--and
+it must be added so that it will show below the hem. In any case the
+top of the curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming, and
+also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain.
+Vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains, especially if the
+room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible
+means for making it seem higher. Such stripes may be made by using two
+colours for the warp--as, for example, blue and white or green and
+white--with one of these colours as woof.
+
+[Illustration: An Alcove With Window Draperies, Pillow Covers, Window
+Seat Cover, Chair Seat and Moss Green Rug. All Hand Woven]
+
+_Importance of Selecting Good Warp._--The successful working out
+of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of
+materials. While many things may be used for warp with a certain
+degree of success, there are fine points to be observed in weaving as
+in all the art-crafts, and the real beauty of the result depends upon
+giving due attention to these points. It is always well to remember
+that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part. Mercerized
+cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a
+combination of both, and retains its beauty after being laundered many
+times. In the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk,
+at a much less cost. But silk may often be obtained at a low price
+if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill. Bargains in
+small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver
+may do wonders; and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed
+at small expense. Our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week
+or more, boiled them, and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp.
+They were, in fact, very particular about their warping threads. Not
+everything would suit them. They learned from experience that the
+wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and
+harder twisted than the filling. It was common for them to spin a
+certain thread for this purpose. Exquisite results follow the use of
+a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for
+filling. Striking and beautiful also, in its way, is the very coarse
+linen warp.
+
+_Variety in Woof Threads._--A very pleasing effect in sash curtains
+or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy
+threads alternately with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins,
+one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one. Two or more
+threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer
+prompts; and this style of weaving may be confined to borders, leaving
+the body of the fabric plain, or the borders may be woven of the solid,
+heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the
+alternate coarse and fine threads. Such curtains are very beautiful in
+cream white; but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the
+curtains may be successfully laundered.
+
+
+PATTERN WEAVING
+
+Before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be
+necessary to explain in general two important processes. The first
+one is the process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing. Among the
+heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white
+coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels. No
+one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see
+these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the
+wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they
+were once well known; for our grandmothers designated these designs by
+such names as Spring Flowers, Governor's Garden, the Path of the Roses,
+Flowers of Lebanon, Ladies' Delight, Fairies Ring, and doubtless by
+many more names which have been lost. This work in pattern design is
+wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses, right and left, as
+used in the first three problems, but by the use of several additional
+harnesses.
+
+_To Be Learned by Experimenting._--If the beginner in weaving has
+mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible
+to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a
+pattern weaving loom. But the procedure is too technical and too varied
+to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for
+amateurs. It is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind
+under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step
+by step. Nor will it be possible, in a brief description of this
+somewhat intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving
+designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving.
+Copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study
+and practice. After a little it will be possible to make variations and
+so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate
+new patterns.
+
+[Illustration: Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover, Slumber Robe
+and Pillow Covers. Plate X]
+
+[Illustration: A written pattern with a variety of figures woven from
+it]
+
+_How Patterns Are Written._--Complete working directions for pattern
+weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter; but it may be
+possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be
+of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself
+this interesting application of the art of weaving. Patterns for this
+work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section
+paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration,
+each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses
+of the loom and the pedal attached to it. If we have a four-harness
+loom, as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the
+figures illustrated, the right-hand pedal and the harness connected
+with it, which is the one farthest from the operator, are designated
+by the number 1, and correspond to that harness number in the pattern.
+Following in order, the next three pedals and connected harnesses
+are numbered 2, 3, and 4 to correspond with the same numbers in the
+pattern. Turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern, we shall
+find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that when
+the pattern is "drawn in"--_i. e._, when the warp for weaving the
+pattern is attached to the loom--we shall find the thread of the warp
+which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark
+on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to
+the number of the harness through which it is drawn. Thus, according to
+the pattern shown in the illustration, the first thread is to be drawn
+into the 3d harness, the 2d thread into the 4th harness, and 3d thread
+into the 3d harness, and so on alternately until we reach the 8th
+thread, which is drawn into the 2d harness; the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th,
+and 12th threads are drawn alternately into the 2d and 3d harnesses,
+and the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th are drawn alternately into the
+1st and 2d harnesses. This process is now continued, as will be clearly
+understood by reference to the pattern, up to and including the 42d
+thread, when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed.
+A further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines 3 and 4
+form a continuously alternating series; and similarly that those on
+2 and 3, 1 and 2, and 1 and 4 form also a continuously alternating
+series. But these numbers, however paired, correspond to the harnesses
+into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers 1 to 42, are
+drawn. It thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads
+as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the
+pattern, we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns.
+We must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same
+order as those already drawn in, thus repeating the drawing in of the
+pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be
+woven. The illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern.
+
+_Operation of the Harnesses._--Having explained the method of drawing
+in the pattern, we may now study the movement of the harnesses
+necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern. It
+has been noted that, with the pattern under consideration, harnesses
+1 and 3 hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads, leaving
+harnesses 2 and 4 to take up all the intervening warp threads. If
+then the operator should throw down pedals 1 and 3 together, and
+alternately 2 and 4 also together, the warp threads would be crossed
+exactly as in plain weaving. Bringing out a pattern in weaving must,
+of course, require a variation of the pedal movement from that used
+in plain weaving. Now, upon reference to the illustration it will
+also be noted that in writing the pattern, or in drawing it in, no
+two threads have ever come together on the same harness. If the 1st
+thread has been drawn into the 3d harness, and the 2d thread into the
+4th harness, as shown in the pattern illustrated, the operator begins
+the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the 3d and 4th pedals
+together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread.
+This operation is what weavers call a "pick." Each pick of the pattern
+thread is represented in the diagram (page 268) by a broken black line
+running across the pattern. Thus the diagram of the first design shown
+indicates that there are 6 throws of the shuttle alternately over and
+back, or 6 picks of the pattern thread, for each corresponding section
+of this design. But between every two picks of the pattern thread there
+must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring, as has already been
+explained, the pressing down of either the 1st and 3d pair of pedals
+together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of the 2d
+and 4th if thrown from the left side. It is evident, then, that there
+must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads. One of
+these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern
+weave. The shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a
+fine thread of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation
+according to the design of the weaver. The pattern weaving shuttle
+should carry a coarser thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or
+mercerized cotton.
+
+_Variations in Pattern._--From the fact that a carefully written
+pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern
+weaving, one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely
+followed in the weaving process. And so it must if the pattern be woven
+as written; but, after the drawing in, it is by no means necessary to
+follow the written pattern. As the weaving progresses it is easy to
+see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing
+in--patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each
+other. In fact, one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is
+to devise ways of modifying simple patterns, elaborating them into
+new weaving designs, producing unique and sometimes very interesting
+original figures. We have only to remember that patterns are made by
+the order and number of the overshots--_i. e._, the throws of the
+shuttle carrying the pattern threads--and that the overshots in the
+same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair. In
+the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by 2 and 3, by 1 and
+2, by 1 and 4, or by 3 and 4, not counting 1 and 3 and 2 and 4, which
+are the pairs for plain weaves. We should also remember that the last
+end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next. Examples of
+two variations in design that may be woven from the original written
+pattern, to which we have already referred, are illustrated in the
+diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible.
+
+
+PROBLEM: A BORDERED TABLE SCARF
+
+This problem will require the use of the four-harness loom. The first
+thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw
+it in. When the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun, the
+first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth.
+In doing this, however, we shall, of course, find that the pressing
+of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not
+accomplish the desired result; for it has already been explained that
+the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to
+produce a plain weave. It will be remembered that to do plain weaving
+with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page
+268, it is necessary to press pedals 1 and 3 together alternately with
+2 and 4--_i. e._, both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same
+time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate
+movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving.
+
+When a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven, the written
+pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully
+consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order
+for the weaving of the pattern. The second or weaving shuttle carries
+the bobbin, which is filled with the colour required in the pattern.
+Any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by
+inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour.
+
+_The Design._--A great variety of design is possible in table scarfs.
+It is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have
+been chosen, following this by a few threads of white, and this in
+turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight
+suggestion of the pattern, then more of the plain white and finally
+the full pattern of the border. The centre of the table scarf is simply
+a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour,
+while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and
+bands as were woven at first, but in the reverse order.
+
+_Variations in Design._--One pleasing style of decoration is found
+in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between.
+Another variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow ones
+at short intervals throughout the length. Shadow borders, so-called,
+are also common, and may alternate with borders of colour or may
+constitute the entire decoration. Shadow borders are heavy borders
+woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a
+contrasting shade. In order to make them stand out well it is necessary
+to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders. A gray
+linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect.
+There is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders. It
+is obtainable in dainty colours, and the heavy thread seems to bring
+out the patterns in greater perfection. Darning silks in fast colours
+are also employed, but these should be woven double in order to obtain
+the best effect. They are found in the market in short lengths and in
+such attractive colours as Delft blue, reseda green, pink, and catawba.
+The last two colours, used with linen in the natural shade, make a
+happy combination.
+
+Scarfs should be woven from 20 to 24 inches wide and about 1-1/2 yards
+long, unless some special use requires that they should be of different
+length. Not only do they make pleasing table covers, but they are
+useful as tray cloths, and from them charming sewing or embroidery
+aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with ribbons,
+and arranging pockets to hold the work. One scarf will make two aprons.
+Fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs, but
+the width needs to be only 8 or 10 inches. These may be woven of the
+pattern throughout, or they may be striped with bands or borders.
+Lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very much
+admired for embroidery and other fancy work.
+
+
+DYEING
+
+In the discussion of the problem of hand weaving, frequent reference
+has been made to the use of coloured materials. While it is possible to
+obtain many good colours in the market, it is much more satisfactory
+to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot. In former
+times, when hand weaving was general, there was no other way; and,
+in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered now, as they were
+then, sister arts. When the wool was washed, carded into rolls, spun
+into yarn, and again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking,
+still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before
+weaving it into cloth. One notable exception was found in the natural
+gray homespun, which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black
+and the white sheep carded together. The modern worker with the hand
+loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a
+knowledge of the art of dyeing. Seldom will she find at hand just the
+shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven. Much
+of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs, for example,
+will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one
+for the labour of weaving it up in that condition. And even the new
+material, which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving, for
+pattern weaving, and for use in borders, will often need a bath in the
+dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed.
+
+_Some Good Points in Dyeing._--Good results in dyeing are obtained by
+using the prepared dyes of the markets, mixing together more than
+one colour often, after some experimenting, in order to produce the
+desired shade. Instead of mixing the dye one may, if she chooses, dye
+first in one colour and top off with another. A fine permanent green
+is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a
+blue bath. Green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue
+but a blending of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing. In all
+cases it is better to make the dye bath weak, leaving the article to be
+dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in
+a stronger dye. The advantage is not only greater permanency of colour
+but also greater certainty in the result; for one can watch the process
+of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark.
+The material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically
+all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade
+nor crock.
+
+_Some Common Dyes._--The dull, soft colours, made generations ago
+from barks and teas with alum as a mordant, had artistic qualities
+and were generally permanent. It is well worth while to experiment in
+this direction. Straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb
+saffron; orange comes from madder and fustic; yellow is obtained
+from powdered dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of
+copperas give a good black dye, useful also in freshening black yarns
+that have acquired a dull or faded colour. White maple bark boiled
+in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first
+treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum. A
+permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a
+piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it. In fact, nearly
+everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye. Vegetable
+substances are generally in themselves more permanent, but most dyes
+need to be fixed or "set" by the use of some mordant. All this will
+mean much experimenting, of course, unless one is fortunate enough to
+possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants,
+kettles of brass, and vessels of pewter. The use of the prepared dyes,
+which may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is generally
+satisfactory and of course somewhat easier; and yet the interest which
+inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire
+to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and
+fascinating home industry.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+POTTERY
+
+To watch a potter thumping his wet clay--_Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam_
+
+
+The boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in the sun, and the Indian
+who, ages ago, coiled clay in a basket which he burned away, are but
+two widely separated links in a continuous chain; for men of all time
+have found a fascination in the wet clay that is so easily moulded
+and fashioned into all manner of things of beauty and of use. And,
+beside the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has also
+been the spur of a common need to inspire men of different races,
+independently of each other, to develop the primitive household arts,
+like pottery and rug making, by the use of methods no less remarkable
+for their similarity than for their cleverness. The impressions
+that the primitive man received from his natural surroundings were
+easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably not long
+before he discovered that fire made them permanent and practically
+indestructible. Improvement was bound to come in due time. By
+washing the grosser impurities from the clay mud through a process in
+which the heavier particles settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to
+be poured off, some artist of a very early time found a material that
+became one of his most valuable helps in adding to the furnishings of
+his tribal household. First it was simply burned clay; but in due time
+enamel or glazed work found its use in tiles for building purposes, in
+grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds of table ware; for the uses of
+ancient terra cotta and porcelain were numerous.
+
+[Illustration: Girls at Work on Pottery. Plate XI]
+
+The primitive arts, however, were not confined to objects of necessary
+use. We find, buried with the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences
+of the potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating the
+home, for personal adornment, and for religious use, like the rings
+and scarabs of Egypt. And in modern decorative art, as applied in the
+household, the one final touch which gives that indescribable charm,
+which it is the aim of all art to give, is perhaps to be found in a
+few--a very few--choice bits of pottery.
+
+All of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric times to the
+finest product of modern skill, is based on a plain scientific fact,
+_viz._, that a small quantity of water in the clay, not removable by
+any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out by intense heat so as
+to cause a permanent change in the character of the clay. This water is
+called the water of combination. If the clay is not heated more than
+enough to dry it, a later mixing with water restores it to its former
+plastic state; but clay once burned has lost its water of combination
+and never can return to its original condition.
+
+Most beginners in clay modelling will expect, perhaps in the early
+stages of their work, to be made acquainted with the potter's wheel;
+for who has not heard of this interesting device? It is of interest
+chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture of pottery;
+and yet no one can forget the potter's song with which Longfellow
+begins his beautiful poem Keramos, making it a text for a sermon on the
+philosophy of life:
+
+    "Turn, turn, my wheel! Turn round and round
+    Without a pause, without a sound;
+        So spins the flying world away!
+    This clay, well mixed with marl and sand,
+    Follows the motion of my hand;
+    For some must follow, and some command,
+        Though all are made of clay!"
+
+_Potter's Wheel Unnecessary._--The potter's wheel was used in
+comparatively early times and has been intimately associated with the
+art ever since. But it requires much physical strength and considerable
+skill to use it effectively; and its use has been by no means
+universal. We find the Indians of our own time and people of other
+races, expert in building pottery by hand, using the method of coiling.
+It seems best, therefore, to advise beginners to adopt the simpler
+method and to forego the use of the potter's wheel. The comparative
+inexpensiveness of the hand method of building is another point in its
+favour. The tools required are few and simple. Inexpensive and easy
+methods are favourable to the experimental stage; and it is well for
+the amateur to have every encouragement to experiment freely both with
+methods for building and with designs for his ware, keeping in mind
+always that the beautiful is generally the simple and strong, not the
+fantastic and complicated.
+
+_The Method of Coiling._--It will be understood, therefore, that in
+general the process to be followed consists in building up the bowl or
+jar or whatever the design may be by using coils of clay of the right
+consistency, welding and shaping them together, and scraping them down,
+if necessary, until they are ready to receive the first firing. After
+this they may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again. At first
+the beginner will find his chief interest simply in experimenting with
+the building up process.
+
+
+MATERIALS AND TOOLS
+
+The materials and tools needed are as follows: Clay; oil-cloth, 18
+inches square; cotton cloth or flannelette, 18 inches square; a few
+simple modelling tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, 6
+ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate.
+
+_Clays._--It will be necessary to add a word of explanation in order
+that these materials and tools may be well selected. There is a
+great variety in clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for
+flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain. The latter
+is called kaolin and is very pure. A good modelling clay may be
+obtained from dealers in school supplies or from potteries. In some
+localities, especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or other
+clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be easily found. But, however
+obtained, some experimenting will be necessary to test its suitability.
+The modelling clay is probably the least liable to yield disappointing
+results.
+
+The cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened and used to wrap
+up the clay in order to keep it from drying too rapidly during the
+intervals when it is set aside. This will not be necessary during the
+early part of the process, for then it is desirable for the clay to
+stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural means.
+
+[Illustration: Simple tools used in pottery]
+
+Of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled from hard wood.
+They are not expensive, however, and the beginner will perhaps find it
+well to obtain most of them from a dealer in artists' materials. The
+accompanying illustration shows some of these, among them a very useful
+tool (F) with brass wire loops which are in turn wound with finer
+wire. F and C are especially useful for scraping clay too soft to be
+easily managed with smooth edges. The thumb-like tool A is perhaps the
+most generally useful of those shown here.
+
+In this connection it is well to emphasize the fact that _the greatest
+of all tools is the human thumb_. Cultivate its use. Most modelling and
+building can be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers.
+
+_The Bat and How Made._--A plaster of paris bat will be found
+exceedingly useful. A sheet of thin, unsized paper serves well,
+however, for a surface on which to build; but the dry plaster of
+the bat absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and hastens
+the stiffening process. This bat can be easily made. Take a small
+quantity of water (a half pint or more according to the size of
+the bat required), sift into this from the hand an equal amount of
+plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little dry plaster appears
+at the surface. After a little more vigorous stirring let it rest a
+few minutes and then pour it into tin pans which are 4 or 5 inches in
+diameter by 1 inch deep. The pans should be previously coated on the
+inside with a thick soap solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water
+to the consistency of a thick cream. The bats will harden in 10 or 15
+minutes and may be easily removed from the pan, ready for use.
+
+
+PROBLEM: A BOWL FOR FLOWERS
+
+This problem naturally divides itself into six important steps, as
+follows: The design or profile; building and shaping; decoration, if
+any; firing (bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze.
+
+[Illustration: Variety in dimensions]
+
+_The Design or Profile._--As in all problems of decoration the first
+step is found in design. For present purposes we may consider a bowl
+as having a diameter as great as or greater than the height. The bowl
+will be more interesting from the standpoint of variety if there is
+a difference between its height and its greatest diameter, and also
+between its diameters at the top and at the bottom. The accompanying
+drawing shows such differences.
+
+[Illustration: Suggestive profiles]
+
+Another example of the value of variety is to be found in the curve
+of the profile. A line that is simple but constantly changing in its
+degree of curvature--as, for example, an elliptical curve--is more
+pleasing than an arc of a circle, which is sometimes called the curve
+of limitation. It should be noted that a curved form, in order to be
+forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination with others
+which are subordinate. The profiles illustrated in the following
+drawings have this dominant element and are in no case composed of arcs
+of circles. These varied, interesting, yet simple lines--live lines
+as they are sometimes called--consisting in each case of only two or
+three elements, are given here merely as suggestive material. A little
+experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities in strong, forceful
+curves, and the young student is advised to make many experiments in
+the effort to discover such possibilities. An example of profiles to
+be avoided is given in Problem II, on page 309. That these are
+vase forms and not bowl contours is immaterial. _A_ is commonplace
+because the two parts of the curve are too much alike. _B_ is unrestful
+in its three curves of nearly equal size. If the suggestive profiles
+illustrated in the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it will be
+noted that very few of them seem as pleasing as before. It will be
+found also that a different ratio of height to diameter will give very
+different effects with the same profile. A bowl having top and bottom
+alike may, so far as design is concerned, be classed with the pill
+box. We don't know which is the top until we have spilled the pills.
+If attractive pieces of pottery are found with the top and bottom of
+equal diameter and with curves in themselves objectionable, it will
+invariably be found that the attractiveness consists in some beauty of
+glaze, colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to conceal the
+defects of form.
+
+_Natural Forms._--It may be well to add a word here in regard to the
+imitation of natural forms in designing the general shape of any piece
+of pottery; and that word is a very brief one. Avoid them. Nature is a
+great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery her suggestions
+are to be used as decorative elements rather than for fundamental
+shapes. A fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate;
+but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not take the form of a fish,
+might reasonably have a fish as an element of its decoration.
+
+_Testing Profiles._--A good way to study the effect of the profile of
+both sides of the bowl is to fold the paper on which the profile is
+drawn vertically through the centre and transfer the line reversed
+by rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other half of the
+drawing in exact symmetry. When the general shape of the profile has
+been tested in this way one side should be redrawn carefully; then,
+with the paper folded along the centre line, so that the pencil line
+falls outside, the whole form may be cut out; and then it may be
+unfolded. The next step is to begin to build up the design in clay.
+
+_The Building._--Roll out a coil of clay a little thicker than the
+bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps 3/8 or 1/2 of an inch will serve,
+since the bottom is to be hollowed slightly by scraping. The roll
+should be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible, in
+order that it may not become too dry. Upon the piece of paper or the
+plaster bat start to coil the roll from the centre until the desired
+size is reached, then smear the rolls together, working toward the
+centre. Turn the coil over and work the other side together, truing up
+the circle and making the bottom of uniform thickness. Avoid the use
+of water in smoothing the coils together. It may seem to make the work
+easier, but it softens the clay and invites careless work.
+
+[Illustration: Manipulating the coil]
+
+With another coil begin to build up the sides, making a complete
+circle, and, having pinched off the ends where they meet, join them
+carefully. Lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each coil
+firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them together as in the
+base. The process is illustrated in the drawing. If the clay is very
+soft, the work may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning
+is made upon other pieces. It is well to have two or three pieces in
+the process of construction at the same time.
+
+_Testing the Work._--A template or gauge will be needed to test the
+work as it progresses from the first rough stages to the finish. This
+is made of card-board by cutting out an exact copy of the profile,
+leaving at the bottom sufficient width to insure rigidity when the
+template is held upright on the table or bat.
+
+[Illustration: A template]
+
+As the work goes on, if the design requires that the form should be
+"brought in" toward the top, the coil must be laid a little inside of
+the profile desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the diameter
+slightly. In all the building, allowance should be made for this
+enlargement. When the coil is high enough and of the shape desired,
+it should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough to handle.
+With the various modelling tools the surface should then be scraped
+wherever it is necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to give a
+symmetrical shape to the desired profile.
+
+[Illustration: Scraping a square form]
+
+A drawing is shown to illustrate the process of scraping. The surface
+should be left smooth and even; and this may be accomplished without
+water or sponge. The flat sides of the scraping tool may be used to
+polish the clay as soon as it becomes leather hard--_i. e._, hard and
+stiff, but before it begins to whiten and dry.
+
+The lip or top of the bowl will require special attention. It will
+probably need to be thinned down and have all sharp edges removed. Then
+the bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom hollowed out to
+a depth of 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch, leaving a "foot" or rim around the
+outside of the circle to give it steadiness.
+
+_The Decoration._--After the bowl is complete as to its general form,
+the problem of its decoration, if there is to be any, must be solved.
+This may be studied during the intervals when it is necessary to set
+the bowl aside to harden. If the form and colour are good, the bowl may
+possess a charm that will not be improved by decoration. On the whole,
+less decoration, rather than more, should be the aim. The three vases
+illustrated at the top of a following page are examples of pottery
+without decoration. (See page 308.)
+
+[Illustration: Bowls. Plate XII]
+
+Generally speaking, bowls like the one we are building may be decorated
+by one of three methods: By sinking lines or channels in its surface by
+means of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (D, page 285); by modelling or
+carving the surface; or by painting the surface with coloured "slip" or
+with coloured glaze. It should be explained that "slip" is a mixture
+of clay and water of the consistency of cream; it may be coloured
+or uncoloured. A combination of two or more of these methods is, of
+course, possible. Examples of the first two methods are shown in the
+illustrations of bowls, vases, and tiles. A combination of the first
+and third methods was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row
+shown in Plate XIV opposite page 316.
+
+[Illustration: Spacing in decoration]
+
+_Classes of Decoration._--The _form_ of the decoration is simply a
+matter of space division, as illustrated by two examples shown below.
+It is evident, too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned,
+divides itself naturally into three general classes: (a) The horizontal
+band; (b) the vertical division; (c) a combination of these two. The
+last will prove to be the most common of the three. It should be noted
+that an all-over pattern, which has been left out of consideration as
+tending to monotony, would commonly be a combination of both horizontal
+and vertical methods of division. It should be noted also that the
+presence of other than vertical and horizontal lines in pottery
+decoration does not affect the main classification. Typical examples
+of these divisions are illustrated in both bowls and vases, as well
+as in the cuts A and B. It will be seen in each case that one scheme
+or the other predominates and that there are possibilities for great
+variation in treatment.
+
+Analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations, we find that
+the band or horizontal scheme offers a succession of large and small
+spaces, giving variety and rhythm. In many of those patterns showing
+the combination type there is a concentration or "knotting" of the line
+at regular intervals, frequently at the intersection of both horizontal
+and vertical elements. This is well illustrated by the left-hand bowl
+of the middle row shown in this plate opposite page 294. When
+the method of painted decoration is employed the concentration point is
+composed of mass instead of line. All this serves to give emphasis and
+rhythm.
+
+For subject matter in decoration natural forms may be used as shown in
+the vase at the left of the top row illustrated in Plate XIII,
+opposite page 312. Or an abstract arrangement of lines may be employed,
+as shown in its nearest neighbour, which may or may not have had its
+origin in a very much conventionalized natural motif. The essential
+thing to remember is that the divisions of spaces must be varied and
+rhythmic and the decoration suited to the method of application.
+
+_How the Design is Applied to the Clay._--After the design has been
+studied as much as possible on paper it should be planned out on the
+bowl with a soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised
+line or channel to be made. The clay should be leather-hard--_i. e._,
+stiff but not dry. The spacing around the circumference should be made
+exact, deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing of the paper
+drawing. A good way to manage this important step in the process is to
+measure the circumference at the point of greatest width with a narrow
+strip of paper and then to divide this circumference by folding the
+paper evenly into the number of units desired. By wrapping the paper
+around the bowl again the points of division may be transferred to the
+clay and then projected upward or downward vertically to the belt that
+it is desired to meet. It is necessary to make sure that the vertical
+lines are true "meridians" and do not swerve to the right or the left.
+In order to test the horizontal lines, measurements may be made from
+top or bottom. All of this work is best done free-hand; for, aside from
+the value of the eye training derived, hand-built pottery is seldom
+exact enough to permit of a more mechanical method of planning its
+decoration.
+
+The drawing on the clay having been completed, the next point is to
+choose the tool best fitted for the work and carefully make the cuts,
+deepening them from time to time as the work progresses. If the design
+is to be worked out in line, a chisel, like that illustrated in D (page
+285), may be whittled from a pine stick. It is held nearly
+upright and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow channel.
+Reserve should be exercised in cutting, because, generally speaking,
+there is danger of making the design too insistent. Some of the best
+designs are very subtle and quiet. Care should be taken, however, to
+allow for a slight filling in of the hollow by the glaze when it is
+applied.
+
+_Modelling a Decoration._--If the decoration is to be modelled it would
+seem wise to do it, in whole or in part, as the work is built up; but
+in this case great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the
+relief and unity of the decoration. It will be easy to over-model the
+work.
+
+_How Under-glaze is Applied._--For decoration with under glaze the
+colours given under the head of glazing (page 304) are mixed
+in different proportions with dry powdered clay and water to form a
+colour paste. This is painted on the "green" or moist clay, forming
+a smooth and even surface. Experience will teach the proportions of
+colour to be mixed with the clay. These proportions vary greatly with
+different colours. A very strong colour like cobalt will give a deep
+blue if mixed in the ratio of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts
+of clay. Colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of medium
+strength, and antimony is quite weak.
+
+Before the work is left to dry it would be well to make sure that
+all corners and rough edges are smoothed off as they will show light
+and rough through the glaze. The use of sand-paper, however, is not
+advised, though it may occasionally be used in the emergency of an
+accidental roughness remaining after the piece is dry. The aim should
+be to have all clay work show something of the plastic nature of the
+material out of which it is made.
+
+_Firing._--Pottery must be "bone" dry before it is fired. A very
+satisfactory portable kiln for firing may be purchased for from $34 to
+$175, according to the size. The smallest size, which is illustrated in
+the next drawing, will be ample for the needs of one or two persons.
+If, however, the amateur does not care to go to the expense of
+purchasing a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery factory
+in the vicinity that will undertake the firing and perhaps the glazing.
+
+[Illustration: A portable kiln]
+
+_Temperature Required._--Pottery is fired at a temperature varying,
+according to the clay and the glaze used, from approximately 1800
+to 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. Modelling clay fires at 1958 degrees
+Fahrenheit, or what is called "cone 04." This term comes from the fact
+that the heat is gauged by pyrometric cones, which can be seen through
+a spy hole attached to the kiln. These cones are graded compositions
+of various materials and possess different degrees of resistance to
+heat. They are usually set up in clay in groups of three or more. When
+one of them melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying
+drawing, which shows cone 05--the most fusible one--completely "down,"
+and 04 at a point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat from
+the kiln. This must be done gradually and the kiln must be allowed to
+cool completely before it is opened. This is especially necessary when
+firing the glazes described in the following section, which require
+the same temperature as modelling clay. Further details about firing
+and caring for the kiln may, of course, be learned from descriptions
+accompanying the apparatus. Pottery comes out of the first firing in
+the kiln a dull porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or red,
+according to the amount of iron in the clay. In this state it is called
+"bisque" or "biscuit."
+
+[Illustration: Pyrometric cones]
+
+_Glazing._--It is necessary to bring the pottery up to the condition of
+bisque before it can be glazed; or, to speak more accurately, before
+it can be over-glazed; for it has already been shown how the so-called
+under-glaze is put on before the first firing. The subject is somewhat
+technical, and it will not be possible in a single chapter to take up
+the details extensively. Briefly speaking, the glazes most used for
+this class of work are the lead glazes--combinations of "white lead" or
+carbonate of lead as a flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and
+other ingredients. These are supplied in powdered form and are ground
+together in water by means of a mill or a large mortar and pestle; a
+mortar 8 inches in diameter will serve.
+
+_Grinding the Glaze._--The grinding should continue about an hour. It
+should be said, however, that there is such a thing as grinding too
+fine. After the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity of gum
+tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be added as a binder to prevent
+flaking and rubbing off in handling. It is also a good plan, though
+not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon as it is ground,
+through fine muslin. The tools and materials needed for this work may
+be itemized as follows: Lead carbonate, whiting, Canadian feldspar,
+Florida kaolin, French flint, white oxide of zinc, and various other
+oxides and colours noted in the text; earthenware bowls, 10 or 12
+inches in diameter, for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably
+aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, 8 inches in diameter.
+
+_Example of Matt Glaze and Bright Glaze Mixes._--Two mixes are given
+below calculated to fuse at cone 04. One has a "matt" or dull velvety
+surface, and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface. The matt will
+be found more desirable for general work because it harmonizes better
+with flowers and foliage. The figures given below refer to units of
+weight. Metric weights (grams) are most convenient to use, but any
+units will serve so long as the same one is used throughout. The matt
+glaze should be of the consistency of thick cream, the bright glaze
+somewhat thinner.
+
+
+  MATT BASE
+  Lead carbonate       154
+  Whiting               25
+  Canadian feldspar     83
+  Florida kaolin        51
+
+
+  BRIGHT BASE
+  Lead carbonate       142
+  Whiting               20
+  Canadian feldspar     84
+  Florida kaolin         8
+  White oxide of zinc    8
+  French flint          44
+
+The bases itemized above are colourless and there must be added to
+them from 3 to 6 per cent. of colouring material that will stand
+heat. A list of materials with their colours when fired is given on
+page 304, together with a few typical combinations of colours in
+quantity suitable to be added to the glaze bases given above. The
+following lists are by no means complete, and it is expected that the
+young decorator will make use of these colour mixtures simply as an
+introduction to quite extensive experimenting:
+
+
+  COLOUR MATERIALS
+
+  Black oxide of cobalt         Blue
+  Black oxide of copper         Blue green
+  Green oxide of chromium       Yellow green
+  White oxide of antimony       Lemon yellow
+  Red oxide of iron             Yellowish brown
+  Green oxide of nickel         Dirty gray (for neutralizing)
+  White oxide of tin            Makes glaze opaque
+  Black oxide of manganese      Purplish brown
+  Yellow ochre                  Yellow
+  Burnt umber                   Brown
+
+
+  COLOUR COMBINATIONS
+
+  Olive green
+    Iron oxide           5
+    Cobalt oxide        .5
+
+  Dark brown
+    Iron oxide           3
+    Nickel oxide         2
+    Manganese oxide      5
+
+  Light gray-blue
+    Tin oxide            5
+    Cobalt oxide        .5
+    Copper oxide       1.7
+
+  Blue-green
+    Cobalt oxide         1
+    Copper oxide         7
+    Yellow ochre         4
+
+  Dark gray-blue
+    Nickel oxide         5
+    Yellow ochre         3
+    Cobalt oxide         2
+    Copper oxide         1
+
+_Applying the Glaze._--Before applying the glaze to the piece of
+pottery or bisque, the latter should be soaked in clear water for
+about five minutes or until the air is expelled from the pores. When
+this has been accomplished it should be removed from the water and all
+moisture should be wiped from its surface. The piece is then ready to
+be dipped into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it, if the
+size and shape of the piece make it more convenient to apply the glaze
+in this way. It is usually best to glaze the inside first, shaking out
+all the superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the outside.
+During this process the piece must be held firmly but by as few points
+of contact as possible. These points of contact will generally need to
+be touched up before it is ready for firing.
+
+It is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces with a brush, putting
+on several coats in order to cover the surface with an even thickness.
+The matt glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright glaze
+in order to develop its characteristic velvety texture. The greater
+thickness may be easily secured, because it flows more slowly than
+the thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from the sides of
+the piece to which it is being applied; but, on the other hand, it
+is at a disadvantage in that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct
+inequalities of thickness so readily as the more mobile bright glaze
+does. A certain thickness, however, is essential; and if, after firing,
+it is found that the glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be
+applied and the article again fired.
+
+_Firing the Glaze._--Before the glazed piece is fired the glaze should
+be dried and what runs down and collects about the bottom or foot
+should be scraped off. It should then be set in the kiln on a kind of
+pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the "stilt," which prevents
+the glaze from sticking to the floor or shelves of the kiln. All glazed
+ware should be placed in the kiln with at least 1/2 an inch of space
+between the pieces to prevent them from sticking together during the
+fusing state of the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil."
+
+The firing of glaze is a process very similar to that employed in the
+production of bisque, already described. Greater care, however, must
+be taken in controlling the increase in temperature so that it shall
+be even and steady--free from all sudden flashes of heat. The cooling
+also should be very gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should
+be allowed to get cool before it is opened. With this second firing the
+pottery is finished unless it should happen that a second coat of glaze
+is found to be necessary. If only a few spots need attention, this
+second coat is best applied with a brush.
+
+
+PROBLEM: A VASE FOR LONG STEMMED FLOWERS
+
+The tools required for making this vase are the same as those used
+for the bowl, and the process of building is much the same. The chief
+difference is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile in
+building because the added height and the greater weight tend to
+bulge the lower part. To meet this difficulty it will be necessary to
+set the work aside quite often in order to let the lower part harden
+sufficiently to support the upper part.
+
+_The Profile._--In preparing the profile the same rules hold as were
+applied in working up the problem of the bowl. It will be well to
+remember, however, that the curves of a vase must be treated with
+greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was necessary in
+the case of the bowl--_i. e._, the curve of a vase should be enclosed
+within a rectangle narrower in comparison with its height than is the
+case with the curve of a bowl. The reason for this, of course, is found
+in the greater height of a vase in comparison with its diameter. The
+following figure shows three typical vase forms. If these curves be
+compared with those shown on page 288, illustrating bowl contours,
+it will be observed how the height of the vase is emphasised in the
+greater restraint and subtlety of its curves. In the next illustration
+we have two "horrible" examples to which attention has already been
+called in the suggestions for the design of bowls. The dotted lines in
+the illustration show how these curves may be improved if, in either A
+or B, one element of the compound curve be made dominant at the expense
+of the other. If at the same time the diameter be made smaller in
+comparison with its height the attractiveness of the contours will be
+still more improved. Indeed, it will be a transformation from a profile
+that is positively bad to one that is very good.
+
+[Illustration: Typical vase forms]
+
+[Illustration: Profile to be avoided]
+
+_Decoration._--The problem of decoration is not very different from
+that of the bowl. Here again, however, the added height seems to call
+for greater accent by means of vertical or panel divisions. Unless this
+be understood there is some danger that the larger vertical spaces will
+seem to offer simply more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a
+barber pole effect.
+
+_Handles._--If handles or buttresses are desired, care should be taken
+that they are designed as an integral part of the vase--_i. e._, that
+they continue or reinforce its lines. Two suggestions for the treatment
+of the problem of handles are given in the accompanying drawing.
+It will be noted how sympathetically these handles conform to the
+lines of the vases to which they are attached. Handles that give the
+impression of being made for another vase should be avoided.
+
+[Illustration: Suggestions for handles]
+
+
+PROBLEM: THE FERN DISH
+
+The process of building the fern dish is not essentially different from
+that employed in making the bowl described in the first problem. If the
+fern dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used; but if the
+dish is to be square or rectangular it is not necessary to use this
+method. In place of it the process of "piecing on" may be
+employed--_i. e._, one piece of soft clay may be added to another and
+the different pieces welded together as the work proceeds.
+
+[Illustration: Development of the fern dish]
+
+_The Lining._--The fern dish requires a separate inner dish or lining
+with a hole in the bottom of it like that in the ordinary flower
+pot. This feature forms the unique part of the problem. Generally
+speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call for a little closer
+approach to the vertical in the sides of the outer bowl; and yet some
+latitude is allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated
+in Plate XIII following, which is somewhat similar in profile
+to that illustrated in the accompanying drawing. This drawing shows
+the development of the problem as applied to a round fern dish. Much
+freedom, however, may be used in the plan as either the round or the
+rectangular fern dish seems to give satisfaction. The half section
+in the drawing shows a very narrow space between the inner and outer
+bowls at the top edges. This adds greatly to the good appearance of the
+completed fern dish. The sides of the inner dish are made vertical,
+since it is necessary for it to be easily removed.
+
+_Decoration._--The problem of decoration differs very little from
+that discussed under the problem of the bowl. Either the fern itself
+or its woodland neighbours may easily furnish the motif. Sometimes
+there is occasion for designing similar dishes not for ferns but for
+other plants. Thus the smaller square dish, illustrated in Plate XIII
+opposite, was designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and
+the subject matter for its design was found in that flower.
+
+_Glazing._--The rules already given for glazing apply in this case, but
+it will be necessary to glaze the outside fern dish only. It is well,
+however, to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the inner
+dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed. It hardly needs to
+be added that in firing it is necessary to keep the inner and outer
+dishes separate.
+
+[Illustration: Vases and Fern Dishes. Plate XIII]
+
+
+PROBLEM: THE CANDLESTICK
+
+_The Design._--This problem introduces several points in design that
+need to be especially emphasized. The candlestick should be of such
+size that it will easily support the average candle without putting the
+user to great inconvenience in fitting it by paring it off or melting
+it down. It is necessary to provide a lip to catch the stray drops
+of wax that will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be a
+convenience to have this supplemented by a slight dishing of the base
+if the candlestick is to be carried about. If a handle is to be added
+it should seem to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as
+was explained in the discussion of handles for vases; and it should,
+at the same time, offer a place for a firm and comfortable grasp. The
+accompanying drawing shows how handles may be designed really to form a
+part of the candlestick and at the same time, by means of a sharp bend
+or elbow at the top, to provide a natural place for the thumb to assist
+in grasping the handle.
+
+Whether the candlestick is to be high or low depends entirely upon
+the use intended for it or upon the preference of the user. Generally
+speaking, a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a high
+one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on shelf or table. It
+is well for some definite idea of utility to manifest itself in the
+form chosen. Merely planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without
+carefully relating these three different elements according to the
+requirements of use, can hardly be called designing a candlestick.
+
+[Illustration: Suggestive designs for candlesticks]
+
+The building of the candlestick is started, like the bowl in the
+first problem, by coiling from the centre, and the rim may be added
+in the same way. Care should be taken, however, to attach the central
+tube firmly. This may be coiled or simply modelled from a single lump
+of clay. If there is to be a handle it is well to build it at the
+time the central tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm
+attachment.
+
+
+PROBLEM: TILES
+
+The varied and extensive uses of tiles make it difficult to limit
+the scope of this problem. Tiles are used for paving, wall facings,
+ceilings, coverings for stoves, linings and facings for fireplaces,
+rests for flower pots and teapots, and for various other purposes.
+Tiles figure very prominently in the history of art. They are objects
+of interest and study in many public buildings and museums throughout
+the civilized world. But this problem will confine itself to two of the
+many varieties of tiles, _viz._, tiles designed for bowls or teapots
+and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces.
+
+[Illustration: A tile frame]
+
+_The Tile Frame._--In building tiles a frame is used measuring about 6
+inches square by 5/8 of an inch thick. The strips forming the frame
+may be 1 inch wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that,
+if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is
+moist. This frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and
+the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides, working toward the
+centre, until the frame is completely filled. It is then turned over
+in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly
+welded together. Care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring
+both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame, scraping off the
+surplus clay with a straight edge. While the clay is moist, one side
+is chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to prevent warping.
+The hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the
+top of Plate XIV, or it may be in the shape of channels 3/4 of an inch
+or more in width, separated by ridges 1/2 of an inch wide running
+across the back of the tile. Whichever method is used, the depth should
+be about 3/16 of an inch and not over 1/4 of an inch. Even when the
+utmost precaution is taken, the tile is very liable to warp. It should
+therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of
+exposure on both sides. The greatest help of all is found in the use of
+the so-called "grog." This is made by grinding to a powder clay that
+has been fired once and shrunk, but not glazed. It is used by mixing it
+with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of one part grog
+to three of the clay. It may be added here that grog will be found of
+great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware. It
+will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the express purpose of
+making grog. The occasional failures which develop at the first firing
+of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply.
+
+[Illustration: Tiles. Plate XIV]
+
+_Decoration._--When the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be
+easily taken from the frame, but it should be allowed to get quite
+stiff before decoration is applied. While the hardening process is
+going on the decoration may be studied. The three general methods
+of decoration considered under the flower bowl--_viz._, the sunken
+line, the modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze or
+over-glaze--are all available for use with the tile. If it is to be
+a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable
+caution, otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to
+rest upon.
+
+_Firing._--In giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand
+it on one edge in the kiln, but not on the floor of the kiln, as the
+intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more
+than the others. It may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed
+on one of the shelves. For the glaze firing the tile should be placed
+flat on the stilt.
+
+_Tea Tiles._--The tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of Plate
+XIV were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot, a bowl,
+or a vase. It will be noticed that the centre is left free with one
+exception, which is given as an interesting variation from the general
+rule. The free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design
+and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon.
+In the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as
+to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true. Emphasis
+should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design.
+
+_Fireplace Tiles._--Some of the tiles illustrated in Plate XIV would
+be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a
+fireplace. This is especially true of the middle design shown at the
+top of the plate, on account of the lines which project through the
+corner design nearly to the edges of the tile. This makes it especially
+adapted to repetition in a facing or border.
+
+[Illustration: Pottery, Designed and Made by Schoolgirls. Plate XV]
+
+_Decoration of Tiles._--It is in the field of painted
+decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities in
+fireplace tile designs are found. The framed tile illustrated in Plate
+XV opposite--an example of over-glaze painting--is intended for
+use as a colour accent for the wall. This tile is painted in matt glaze
+between raised outlines. Three similar tiles are illustrated in the
+middle row in Plate XIV. The right-hand one, like the framed
+tile of Plate XV, is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead
+of being raised was slightly depressed. The other two are examples of
+under-glaze painting. They were painted on moist clay, as described in
+the problem of the bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze.
+In this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding richness to
+the colour scheme. The repetition in a tile facing of landscapes,
+designed to be complete or nearly so, would be tiresome. It is better
+so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of
+very simple landscape motifs, each fairly complete in itself, but all
+so related to each other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat
+conventionalized, landscape. A treatment of this kind lends itself to
+many other decorative schemes.
+
+The fireplace offers a great opportunity for design, not only in
+itself, but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which
+it is placed. It should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the
+focal centre of the room. This fact, together with its comparatively
+small size, makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of
+colour, accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room. Tiles,
+properly designed and applied, offer a rich and varied field for
+charming effects in colour and texture.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+DECORATIVE WORK IN LEATHER, COPPER, AND OTHER MATERIALS
+
+     To become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not
+     a matter of choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for
+     a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his
+     craftsmanship--_Hamilton Wright Mabie_
+
+
+LEATHER WORK
+
+Leather work, like weaving and pottery, is of very ancient origin.
+The New Testament text concerning "new wine in old bottles" referred
+to bottles of leather, or wine skins. We read of leather as having
+been used in still earlier times for shields, saddles, harnesses,
+parts of chariots, and as an accessory to clothing. In the middle ages
+the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined to the shoemakers'
+useful productions but included much ornamental work. There were wall
+coverings of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or stamped with
+hot tools; seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled
+leather. Some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt
+figures like the celebrated Spanish leather.
+
+_Why Leather is Suited to Decoration._--Leather seems, therefore,
+to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to
+decoration. Its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its natural
+colour, the ease with which it takes dyes, and the readiness with
+which under proper treatment, it receives and retains the marks of the
+modelling tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less
+than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses.
+
+_Limited Decoration Desirable._--The tooling of leather is based upon
+the fact that, when wet, the fibre yields readily to compression and
+receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry. But
+the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface
+quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it. It is therefore
+a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the
+peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost. The decorations should
+be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined to a small part of
+the surface. Calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling. They are
+supplied in two general forms, _viz._, the smooth, generally as Russia
+calf, and the rough or split cowhides, known as ooze. Leather may be
+stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since the natural
+colour of leather is brown, brownish tones are more satisfactory than
+the blues, greens, violets, grays, etc., because they seem more sincere.
+
+[Illustration: Leather-working tools]
+
+_Tools._--The simple tools required for tooling leather may be
+purchased at small cost, or they may be made from cheap nut picks
+by filing these to shape, polishing them, and buffing them. The
+illustrations show two different tools, each double pointed. A and
+B are different views of the first tool; C is the second tool. The
+narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into
+corners. The broad, flat end is for smoothing down and for general use;
+the broad tool should be used whenever possible. The round point on
+the left end of C is used for outlining and transfering the design to
+leather. The right hand end of C is known as the background tool. It is
+cupped out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise section just
+above and by the end view at the extreme right; in fact, a nail set may
+be used for the same purpose. The background tool, however, is to be
+used sparingly. If used to excess, especially on large surfaces, the
+result is likely to have a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance.
+
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A BELT
+
+The sizes given in the illustration on page 325 are typical, but it is
+expected that in this and other problems, dimensions will be varied to
+suit conditions. When the size has been determined the leather should
+be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be,
+to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle. The strip of leather
+should be thoroughly soaked in _cold water_ and then rolled in dry
+cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling. It is essential
+that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture. If on applying
+the tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still too wet. If it
+should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on
+the back. There is danger of water stains, however, if the entire back
+is not wet.
+
+[Illustration: Two belt designs]
+
+_The Design._--The illustration shows two treatments. An interlaced
+pattern is shown in A which concentrates the interest at the ends and
+in the middle of the back. The pattern shown is tooled solid and the
+background is left untooled. If the pattern be tooled in outline it is
+well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give
+relief to the interlaced bands.
+
+Modelled natural forms are shown in B. In this the background is tooled
+down, but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised
+forms. This gives the background a richer appearance than it has when
+tooled absolutely flat. Both patterns here shown are straight with
+parallel sides. Other shapes are possible--for example, those wider in
+the middle and tapering toward the ends.
+
+When a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is
+transferred to thin bond paper. The greatest care should be taken not
+to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they leave a
+dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove. It may
+be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any
+purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil.
+
+_The Process._--As soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain
+the marks, the pattern should be placed upon it, pencilled side up,
+allowance being made for trimming to the desired width. The paper may
+be held in position by thumb tacks, which must not, however, pass
+through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off. The pattern
+may now be traced through the paper, over the lines of the drawing,
+with the round pointed tool. Care will have to be exercised to make
+sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather. When
+this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines,
+which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather, should be
+immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool.
+
+[Illustration: Method of using the broad tool]
+
+The next step is to tool down the design; and in doing this the work
+should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the
+work, in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge
+of the pattern farthest from the hand. This not only insures a correct
+and convenient position of the tool, but allows a perfect view of the
+work. In this part of the process the broad tool should be used, moved
+sidewise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying
+cut. In working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if
+necessary. The movement may be described as "ironing the leather down."
+The surface should not be roughed up or cut up into "shoulders." It
+is a process requiring time. One should not try to get the full depth
+with the first pressure of the tool. One should coax the surface and
+add pressure with each succeeding stroke, taking care that the tool
+does not scrape. It should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners
+will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble
+scratching and patting. A firm, even gliding pressure does the work.
+As the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a
+dark, glossy surface. When the process is completed the belt may be
+trimmed down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a straight edge
+wherever straight lines are desired.
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A MAT
+
+[Illustration: Supported and unsupported circles]
+
+_The Design and the Process._--The purpose for which a mat is used
+requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain
+surface in the middle. If the general form be square the design at the
+corners should be strengthened. If circular, the design should be so
+arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle
+rather than weaken them. In the three outlines given below, C shows
+a form supporting the circle; D and E show forms tending to weaken
+the circle. Conditions determining size are more variable in this
+problem than in others, because of the great variety of uses which a
+mat may serve. In a design like that shown in A of the accompanying
+illustration, the portions left untooled--_i. e._, the leaves and
+fruit--may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the
+back by means of a tool. To do this the leather should be placed face
+down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax, which has been
+covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin. Then by gently forcing
+the leather down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt end of a
+nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained. After this
+is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct
+the modelling. In order to preserve the higher relief it is well to
+back it up with cotton batting, soaked in paste, and finally to cover
+the entire back with a lining of silk or leather.
+
+[Illustration: Two mat designs]
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A PEN WIPER
+
+A pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this case must be made of
+leather suitable for tooling, and several leaves of soft material like
+sheepskin or chamois, which should match the cover in colour. The
+process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that
+already employed in the foregoing problems. It should, of course, be
+carried through to completion before the book is made up. These parts
+are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same
+colour.
+
+[Illustration: Steps in tying a knot]
+
+The series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming
+the knot, which should finally take the shape of Figure 5. After it has
+been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover
+and leaves of the pen wiper, and secured by a second knot formed on the
+back, resembling Figure 4 with the ends cut as close as will leave
+them securely tied.
+
+[Illustration: Two designs for pen wipers]
+
+Another illustration gives two suggestions for the design: A, a
+rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end; B, a circular pen
+wiper tied with one knot in the middle. In these designs, and indeed
+in all others, decoration should recognize (not antagonize!) the outer
+form of the article to which it is applied. This point is made in the
+illustration.
+
+
+TO MAKE A SLIP COVER FOR A NOTE-BOOK FILLER
+
+[Illustration: Design for slip cover]
+
+_Planning the Cover._--The object in this problem is to make a
+permanent protection for fillers. It is well known that the fillers
+themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are
+provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped
+into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat
+pocket note-book. It is evident that the dimensions of the filler
+determine the size of the cover; but, in planning the cover, care
+should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width, length, and
+thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done. This means that
+the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than
+called for in the final size. The design illustrated shows both the
+outside (A) and the inside (B) of the cover. As it is planned the cover
+is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour; but this may be
+left out if desired, though it, of course, gives a much better finish
+to put it in.
+
+_Assembling the Parts._--The first step after cutting out the leather
+for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it, if it is to have
+any decoration. A piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and
+the edge (C) shaped. The edges of the lining and the pocket should
+next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover. A line is then to be
+ruled with a leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to serve as
+a guide for stitching. A machine stitch may be employed or it may be
+done by hand. If by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce
+the leather at equal distances along the tooled line. Hand stitches may
+safely be a little longer than the machine stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Stitching with two needles]
+
+_Stitching._--A good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand
+sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the
+required distance. A more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is
+possible by making use of a tracing wheel, if one is available of
+suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth. The hand
+stitching may be done either with one needle or with two. If with
+one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then
+return, covering the alternate spaces left on the first round. It is
+better, however, to use two needles, one on each end of one thread,
+selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it, and to
+proceed as illustrated in A and B, _i. e._, to draw one needle with its
+thread through to the middle of the thread, as shown in A, and then
+the other through the next hole, and so on alternately from opposite
+directions, producing a stitch like that illustrated in B. It will,
+of course, be understood that, in the illustration, the length of the
+stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly.
+
+_Trimming and Finishing._--When the sewing is finished the thread is
+fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the
+ends inside between the cover and lining. Then a line should be tooled
+on the cover about 1/16 of an inch outside of the stitching, and on
+this line the cover, lining and pocket are trimmed together. The raw
+edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish. Finally
+the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in
+order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather.
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND MAKE A DESK PAD
+
+_The Design._--The problem of design in this case is, first of all,
+to determine the dimensions of the pad, which depend, of course, upon
+the use to be made of it. Then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in
+outline, including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the
+drawing (A). The only detail that will need elaboration is the corner.
+The shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully
+laid out on thin paper, from which in due time it may be transferred to
+the leather and tooled as in other problems.
+
+[Illustration: Detail of the leather corner]
+
+[Illustration: Outline of desk pad]
+
+_Material and the Process._--For making the pad it will be necessary
+to secure a piece of binders' board--_i. e._, heavy pulp or straw
+board--of the required size. The medium weight is the best, and it may
+generally be obtained at the bookbinder's. If this cannot be obtained,
+two sheets of 10-ply card-board may be used instead. The size given in
+the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper. The
+edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding
+of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used; the
+strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather
+corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board. After
+the binding has been put on, the top of the board should be covered
+with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and the paper
+should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and
+yet leave a suitable width of the binding. The so-called "cover papers"
+will be found satisfactory.
+
+_Making the Corners._--The next step in the process is to lay out and
+cut the leather corners according to the original design. The form in
+which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the
+illustration B. The little flap at _x_ should be noted. It is designed
+to tuck under and close the corner. The edges of leather at _x_ should
+be "skived" or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the
+work. Further improvement will result from skiving down the edges S R
+S and T V T of the large flaps, which are to be folded over underneath
+and pasted down to the back of the board. The ordinary photographers'
+paste is satisfactory for this work. When the leather corners are
+placed in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses of blotting
+paper should be used at each corner, in order to secure the necessary
+space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use. After
+the corners are pasted on, the back of the board should be covered with
+paper in the same way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion
+of the binding and leather exposed. Finally a number of blotters of
+full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them
+in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry.
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND MAKE A CARD-CASE
+
+_The Design._--In the illustration (A), showing a card-case unfolded,
+the dimensions give the finished size. The same card-case is
+illustrated in B somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned
+in. The design on A is a rectangle broken at the corners. In this case,
+as it may be with all similar forms, the design is treated as a sort
+of binding, extending across the middle fold. C shows an alternative
+design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both
+sides of the card-case. The question of which is the top and bottom in
+such a design as that in C can be determined only by the owner's habit
+of holding a case. Sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner
+flaps, as illustrated in A, or on one of the outer surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a card-case]
+
+_The Process._--In cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary
+to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in
+order to allow for trimming. The design should be transferred, the
+line of stitching determined, and the tooling done, according to the
+description already given for the other problems.
+
+_The Lining._--A card-case may be lined either with silk or with
+sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize with the outside. If lined with
+silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling, great
+care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true
+and square. Then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly
+pasted along the edges to a width of 1/8 of an inch, care being taken,
+however, not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible
+when the flaps of the cover are turned in, _i. e._, the middle of the
+fold B. This precaution should be taken because the paste may strike
+through and spot the lining. The flaps should then be moistened a
+little and folded down with firm pressure; but before stitching they
+should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets. This takes
+the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in
+the problem of the note-book. If lined with sheepskin, the ooze side
+showing, the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching;
+then both may be trimmed at once.
+
+
+TO MAKE A LEATHER PURSE
+
+_The Design._--The details of design and construction are shown in
+the accompanying illustrations. In A the outer flap is shown tooled.
+It will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the
+central point in design. The tooling is done as directed in the other
+examples of this class of work.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a purse]
+
+The purse is lined throughout with leather. It has bellows ends, as
+shown in the perspective at C and in the end view at B. The pattern of
+the bellows end shown in D is intended to fold in the middle, bringing
+both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double
+thickness. With thin leather, such as is used in the present instance,
+this pattern is practicable. If thicker leather be used the bellows
+must be made of single thickness. In this case the pattern would simply
+be like that shown in the lower half of D.
+
+_The Process._--After the lining is pasted to the cover a snap
+fastener should be attached. Proper care, of course, should be taken
+to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse
+will fold properly. The cover and lining should then be trimmed and the
+leather surface ruled for stitching. It is well to fold the inner flap
+of the purse while it is moist from pasting. Finally a little paste
+is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in
+position.
+
+Stitching is started at the point E shown in the perspective. Hand
+stitching is the most practicable. The direction is down one side,
+up the other, and around the outside flap to the other bellows end,
+stopping at the point F. When the stitching is completed the inside
+flap should be folded down.
+
+
+TO MAKE A LIMP LEATHER BOOK COVER
+
+_The Design._--The first step is to choose the book to be bound. For
+the sake of simplicity, as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding
+undertaken, it should be a folio or "section." And it should be _worth
+binding in leather_. The subject, the paper, and the typography should
+be worthy of the distinction.
+
+[Illustration: Typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers
+of books. Details of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other
+problems.]
+
+_The Process._--If the book selected is already bound or "cased" it
+is necessary first to remove the binding or casing. Then at least
+three fly leaves should be added, made up to match the other leaves of
+the folio. A piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the
+size of the open folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the fly
+leaves and the folio itself, stitched through the back with silk of a
+colour to harmonize with the leather.
+
+The next step is to prepare the leather cover. To do this, first place
+the leather in position on the closed folio and, allowing 1/4 of an
+inch at the top and bottom and 3/8 of an inch at the fore edge, mark
+and cut out the stock for the cover. The decoration, if there is to be
+any, may now be tooled on. If the design is heavy enough in relief to
+need a backing, it may be at once filled with cotton batting, pasted in
+as directed in the problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper.
+
+Stock for the end papers is now selected. They may be of cover paper,
+or of silk, and they should harmonize in colour with the leather. They
+are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen, by folding it
+over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf. If
+of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the
+width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen
+is pasted in. If the end leaves are to be of silk, an allowance of 1/4
+of an inch must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom and the
+fore edge.
+
+We are now ready to paste the linen to the leather. Strong paste,
+with perhaps a little thin glue added, is needed for this part of the
+process. Now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of
+the cover; and, if silk has been used for these leaves, paste the other
+two to the outer fly leaves. Finally, the book should be placed under
+very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry. Care should
+be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling,
+if there is any, so as not to crush it.
+
+
+COPPER WORK
+
+There is a limited field for metal work in home decoration; but
+there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to
+a remarkable degree and, in their making, introduce us to most
+interesting operations. Beginning with the gate, which may be of
+wrought iron, or with the door knocker, which may be of antique brass,
+we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals.
+Ornamental hinges, key escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds,
+andirons, and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card
+trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other useful things that
+may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves. How some of
+these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems:
+
+
+TO MAKE A LETTER RACK
+
+This is an easy problem. Only four constructive operations are
+required, _viz._, cutting out the stock, sawing the design, bending,
+and finishing. The illustration shows the form and the dimensions and
+suggests a simple design. The material required is 18-gauge soft copper.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a letter rack]
+
+The first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper 8 inches
+long and 4 inches wide. If necessary the edges may be trimmed even and
+then the round corners should be cut. The design is traced on strong,
+thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position
+by using cold liquid glue. A hole is drilled through each unit of the
+design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers' saw inserted, and the
+design cut. Time and patience will be required for this operation. Saws
+are easily broken, and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and
+again applied to the work. After sawing the design it is necessary to
+give the edges a smooth finish. This is done with a file. The surface
+which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and
+polished with water and pumice.
+
+The copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape. To do this
+prepare a block of hard wood 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, grip it
+in a bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the
+block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of
+the block. When this has been done it only remains to clean the outside
+surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. If a fine polish is
+desired, the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a
+Scotch water stone and water.
+
+
+TO MAKE A LETTER OPENER
+
+This requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same
+operations, with the addition of riveting. After the stock is cut out,
+trimmed and trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is pasted
+on, as in the previous problem, and the design cut out. The top is
+then bent over and riveted with a copper tack, having shaped the head
+of the tack in the vise before inserting it. While the tack is being
+riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead
+block. Finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross
+section, and the whole cleaned and polished.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a letter opener]
+
+
+TO MAKE A HAT PIN
+
+For this problem 12-gauge copper will be needed. The operations
+required are cutting out, sawing, and soft soldering. After the
+necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed,
+the design is outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. It is
+desirable to grind with the Scotch stone and water to a good polish.
+The head will then be ready to be attached to the pin.
+
+[Illustration: The hat pin]
+
+Carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin
+is to be attached (shown in the drawing), select a steel pin of desired
+length, scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of
+it, apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small
+stick, and then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit of
+soft solder, which should cover the whole disk. Now place the copper,
+outside face down, on an asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste
+to the central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder on this
+portion of the copper, and fuse as before.
+
+When the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide, which will have
+formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid, and polish on the buffing
+wheel.
+
+
+TO MAKE A BELT PIN
+
+[Illustration: The belt pin]
+
+Eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are
+like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary. The
+slight bending of the copper, required in this case, is done by means
+of a horn mallet and a sand pad. For hard soldering, the surface must
+be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water
+and applied with a small brush. The belt plate should then be placed
+on the asbestos pad, with its convex face down, and blocked up so that
+the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal. The catch
+should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder
+at the base. The solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth
+blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame. The hinge is soldered on in the same
+way, and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use.
+
+
+TO MAKE A SET OF BOOK ENDS
+
+This problem is much like the first one described under metal work.
+Sixteen-gauge copper is required. It may be bent by placing it between
+two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet.
+
+[Illustration: Design for book ends]
+
+
+TO MAKE A TEAPOT STAND
+
+[Illustration: Design for a teapot stand]
+
+Twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are
+similar to those already described; but the cutting and bending are
+much more difficult. After determining the design it will be necessary
+to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as illustrated
+in the detail of the corner. The four corners must be marked and cut
+exactly as shown in the drawing. A piece of hard wood is then cut to
+the size of the top, 5 inches square in this case, to be used as a form
+on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges. If the corners
+are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place, to be bored
+and riveted, as the drawing plainly shows. In order to protect the
+tablecloth, the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so
+that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the
+under surface. As an additional protection, a felt mat may be glued on
+the bottom.
+
+[Illustration: Detail of a corner]
+
+
+TO MAKE A WATCH FOB
+
+This problem introduces engraving and enamelling, two interesting but
+somewhat difficult operations. The process to be carried out is as
+follows: Using 12-gauge copper, saw the outline, and apply the design
+for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a
+pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper. Then strengthen the
+pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl. Imbed
+this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of
+pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table. Using
+an engraving tool, remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to
+the depth of 1/32 of an inch. It is well to have the bottom of the spot
+reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly
+undercut. Before applying the flux, clean, by pouring a small quantity
+of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off
+under the water tap. Flux should be kept in a closed jar under water
+after grinding, and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of
+copper previously cleaned with acid. Enough flux should be applied to
+cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled; but the depth of the spot
+must not be filled up.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a watch fob]
+
+Now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod, and apply
+the flame of the blowpipe to the under side. Heat very slowly until all
+the water is driven off, then force the heat until the flux is fused.
+Allow it to cool slowly, then remove any flux that may have adhered to
+the surface of the fob by grinding with Scotch stone. Clean with acid
+as before, fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was
+applied, and fuse again. After fusing, the surface should be stoned
+again to remove inequalities and again fused, cleaned with water and
+buffed on the wheel.
+
+If it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be
+omitted and the enamel applied directly, but the silver should be
+cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great care
+should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little
+above that of enamel. The depth of the engraving on the silver need not
+be as great as on the copper.
+
+
+TO MAKE A CARD TRAY
+
+Eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem, and two new
+operations, _viz._, raising and chasing, are introduced. After cutting
+out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one
+half an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it to red
+heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric
+acid pickle bath. A circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is
+lightly scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the
+shape indicated in the sketch, and placed in a vise. Now holding the
+copper on the block, it is raised to shape with the round end of the
+roughing hammer. It is well to anneal frequently.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a card tray]
+
+After shaping, the design may be applied by means of transfer paper
+and the lines lightly scratched on the surface. Then imbed the tray
+in pitch and outline the design by following the lines with a narrow
+chasing tool. Reverse the tray on the pitch and, with a chasing tool
+of suitable shape, raise the body of the design to the height desired.
+Reverse on the pitch again and with a flat tool true the outlines and
+smooth the background. Remove from the pitch, trim the edge of the tray
+if it is forced out of line, clean with pumice stone and buff.
+
+[Illustration: Method of shaping with the hammer]
+
+All the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured by painting them
+with, or immersing them in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of
+sulphur. If soft solder has not been used, another pleasing finish
+may be secured by applying a thin coat of lubricating oil and heating
+gently until the oil is volatilized. An antique green or verdigris
+finish may be obtained by painting with a mixture of acetic acid and
+copper carbonate. Several coats may be necessary; and it is desirable
+to lacquer the surface to ensure permanency.
+
+
+WORK IN OTHER MATERIALS
+
+
+A CANDLE SHADE
+
+The materials and tools for this problem are six ply card-board in dull
+shades of gray, brown or green, and with mat surface; Japanese paper
+of average thickness; passe-partout binding a little darker than the
+card-board and of harmonizing colour; paste; a penknife with a thin
+blade; and a water colour outfit.
+
+Of the drawings included in the group on the opposite page one shows a
+development of the surface of the candle shade which is the subject of
+this problem. Referring to the elevation it will be seen that if the
+edges AE and DH be continued until they meet at O, OE and OH are really
+equal to the radii of the outer arc of the development shown in the
+upper part of the group, and OA and OD, to the radii of the inner arc.
+This upper developed surface really forms the pattern of the candle
+shade.
+
+[Illustration: Details of candle shade]
+
+The decoration consists of openings cut through the card-board
+segments. These are covered with Japanese paper, thus allowing light to
+pass through, but adding the effect of colour. A margin of 3/8 of an
+inch is allowed along the openings, the remaining spaces being divided
+by partitions of card-board, as shown in the different typical designs
+at the right of the illustration. It will be noticed that the group of
+openings forming the decoration of one side conforms in the main to the
+shape of that side. It will also be noticed that there is a variety of
+size and shape in the openings, but that they all show a certain unity
+and harmony of space division.
+
+The openings are cut with a penknife, care being taken to make as
+clean a cut as possible. Japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or
+some suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings. The process
+of pasting is one that requires some care. It is well to paste only a
+portion of the pasteboard at a time taking care not to use more paste
+than necessary and not to let any get over the edges of the openings.
+The paper should be pressed on while the paste is still moist, and the
+paper itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. It should be
+placed with colour side next to the openings.
+
+When the paste is dry the card-board should be lightly scored on the
+lines AE, BF, etc., and bent on these lines, bringing the sectors
+together into the form of the shade and fastening them at the top and
+bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout binding. If the binding
+is of the ordinary width (7/8 of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise
+into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting the edges. No
+attempt should be made to run the binding along more than one edge. The
+separated strips should then be cut the exact length for each top and
+bottom edge and applied one at a time. Then the side edges are bound,
+with the apex of the angle at the middle of the binding. When the
+binding is firmly fastened it is carefully trimmed off at the top and
+bottom.
+
+
+ELECTRIC LIGHT PENDANTS
+
+[Illustration: A seven-light fixture]
+
+Two designs for such pendants are illustrated in the accompanying
+drawings. They were derived from suggestions in the _Craftsman_, and
+were successfully worked out in remodelling a house. The seven-light
+fixture consists of a circular pendant-board about 30 inches in
+diameter, made from 2-inch plain oak stock, cut into 60-degree segments
+and, with splined joints, glued up to form a circular piece which was
+turned up on a large lathe. An open space 7 inches in diameter was left
+in the larger circle, which was covered by a cup-shaped cap turned
+from plain oak stock and attached to the larger circle by screws. The
+considerable opening covered by this cap contained the cut out and
+the wiring necessary for connecting with each of the seven lights.
+Seven medium-sized hooks of composition metal were procured which had
+large, coarse threaded screws. A 3/16-inch hole was drilled lengthwise
+through the shanks of these hooks. Holes were bored near the centre of
+the arc of each segment in the board circle to receive these hooks.
+When the fixture was assembled the wires for each light were carried
+from the cut out across a channel made for that purpose on the upper
+surface of the board, passed down through the hole in the shank of
+the hook, woven into the links of the chain pendant and connected with
+the corresponding bulb socket after passing through another hook, like
+those described above, which linked the socket to the chain. As a
+finish around the hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned
+over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and oxidized to a tone
+somewhat darker than the brown of the oak board. Copper cups in a
+conventional petal design were made to place over each of the bulbs.
+The chains were also oxidized to conform with the other metal work. The
+entire combination was satisfactory.
+
+[Illustration: A five-light fixture]
+
+Another design for the dining-room of the same house and much easier to
+construct is also illustrated. It will be observed that the square form
+instead of the circle is carried out consistently in the woodwork and
+metal caps. These caps and the chains are in natural brass of a dull
+finish. The shades are of ground glass, decorated with a flower design
+in heavy black lines. The central light has a larger shade than the
+others, wholly enclosed. In this one is placed a red incandescent bulb
+for use whenever such decorative effect is desired.
+
+
+DECORATIVE FORGINGS
+
+In the story of the designing and building of the model house reference
+was made to contributions from the forge shop. Among these were the
+andirons, door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles shown in
+the accompanying illustrations.
+
+It should be understood that all wrought iron work that has any reality
+in it requires an equipment especially adapted to its production. There
+must be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools, all in the
+hands of a workman of some experience and skill. Successful forge
+work can hardly be considered among the handicrafts easily adapted
+to the needs of the amateur working without instruction and with
+poor equipment. But with good tools, proper equipment, and a little
+experience any clever boy will be able to design and fashion many
+useful articles for the home which have real artistic merit.
+
+[Illustration: Decorative Forgings. Plate XVI]
+
+For the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there may be made the
+shovel, poker, and tongs, and possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot
+hooks. Other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks, lantern
+brackets for the wall or for lantern posts, standards for the newel
+post, the hall lantern or the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker
+for the door, and, if the architectural design permits, hinges, plates,
+and bolts for the door. This list by no means exhausts the uses of
+wrought iron in house decoration. It may be extended to include
+draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles and hinges of great
+variety, nails with ornamental heads for use with heavy construction,
+and many small articles such as trivets for steam kettles, toasting
+forks, candle holders, and many other useful articles which have also
+decorative value.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS
+
+COUNTRY HOMES
+
+     To know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the
+     world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul
+     alive.--_Robert Louis Stevenson_
+
+
+Keen observers of American customs, who have studied the development
+of our taste in house designing and furnishing, tell us that the
+best expression of our art in architecture and home decoration is to
+be found in our country homes. They do not overlook, of course, a
+beautiful public building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether,
+or an occasional private residence on Millionaire Avenue, which are
+monuments to the genius of the men who created them and of which any
+country may be proud. What they mean is that as a people we seek and
+secure the right combination of utility and beauty in our homes more
+frequently in the country than in the city.
+
+At first thought such a criticism may seem to be an exaggeration.
+Is it reasonable, we ask, that people of good sense, such as most
+Americans are, really succeed better in planning, building, and
+decorating the houses which they are to occupy but a few weeks in the
+summer than they do in developing their city homes? We are told that it
+is true and that there are good reasons for it.
+
+_Simplicity of Country Life._--It is the life in the country and at the
+seashore that is the simple life, the natural life, the life that sets
+us free from the accumulated burden of mere "things." Here we come to
+forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the few. Here we are
+to feel the joy of living. Nature is all about us, and she gives of
+her bounty freely. Our wants are few because we are so well satisfied
+with the free gifts. What wants we have keep step with our needs here
+as they do nowhere else. We care less for what others have; we are more
+individual, more rational. Here we generally demand what we really
+need and we more frequently obtain it. And this is true whether it be
+something that appeals to the æsthetic side of our natures or whether
+it be that which ministers to our material needs. In seeking the
+beautiful for the simple home in the country we do not so often forget
+the useful; for here, away from the world of museums and studios
+and collections, we learn that art is possible without paintings and
+statuary. In the exterior form and colouring of the shingled cottage,
+set like a gem on the hillside or by the sea, in the harmonious
+arrangement of its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen
+only for use and comfort and placed where needed, and with decorations,
+cheerful but restrained and subordinate, suggestive of more glorious
+colours and more interesting things in the world without--in such
+surroundings we have beauty and utility combined. Here we have the time
+and the opportunity to realize the truth that all art is one and that
+it may find in the problems of decoration in the country home, if not
+its highest mission, its most open field for giving to appreciative
+people the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful.
+
+_Opportunities for Constructive Art._--If it be true that there is a
+more universal recognition of the true principles of art in the better
+class of our country homes than in our city homes, it is proof, if
+proof be needed, that the elements of art expression are found in the
+simple, natural materials of every-day life. It may be that in the
+development of art amid simple surroundings "necessity is the mother
+of invention," and that, more or less naturally, simplicity is thrust
+upon us. The general habit of our time is to extend the vacation
+period in the country or at the seashore to the point of making a home
+there for every summer season. But only a few can carry wealth and
+elegance with them. A great majority must be satisfied with simple and
+inexpensive homes. At first we accept them as the only thing possible,
+and then we discover that in their very simplicity they offer the best
+of opportunities for true æsthetic expression. And this opportunity
+is largely for the younger members of the family--for the boys and
+girls whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest in the
+summer home is perhaps the more vital and whose imagination is the
+more susceptible to the art suggestions of nature. We have seen that
+it is possible for boys and girls to build and furnish a house under
+the exacting requirements of city life. How much easier it must be to
+build a cottage for the summer season, decorating and furnishing it in
+harmony with the simple needs of a vacation home.
+
+If such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those who undertake the
+work will find much practical help in the problems outlined in the
+foregoing chapters. It is not expected, of course, that the directions
+there given will always be exactly followed. In the furniture problems,
+for example, soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted for
+the harder woods specified. Very attractive as well as very useful
+simple furniture has been made in this way at a merely nominal
+expense. Staining and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with
+colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of new pine and spruce
+is in itself by no means unattractive. The smooth, exposed beams
+of the ceilings and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be stained
+a beautiful gray green or a soft brown. A good colour suggestion
+may be found in the weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old
+buildings. The effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a dado may be easily
+obtained by stretching burlap or denim over the studding or over a
+backing of inexpensive sheathing. These materials are very durable and
+inexpensive, and they may be found in a great variety of beautiful
+shades. They make excellent portières. A lighter, thinner material like
+scrim is better for window draperies. All these fabrics afford good
+surfaces for decoration by stencilling. Stained or painted soft wood
+floors, covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty hand woven
+rugs like those described in the chapter on weaving, with simple,
+useful furniture, a picture or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery,
+complete the equipment for a charming living room. If it all be the
+product of home industry, the cash outlay for the material need not
+be over forty dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount for
+better materials would not in the least interfere with such a room
+being decorated and furnished by the unaided labours of the amateur
+artists and craftsmen of the family.
+
+[Illustration: A fireplace in field rock]
+
+The chief expense would naturally be for the living room, dining-room,
+and kitchen. The dining-room, however, may well be simply a corner or
+alcove of a large living room. Such an arrangement greatly increases
+the value of a single fireplace, which will be required to give the
+summer home the sense of perfect comfort. This may be of rough field
+rock and should be large enough to take one-cut fireplace wood. The
+chamber furnishings may be very simple indeed. Furniture dealers make
+a point of supplying beds, bureaus, chairs, and cabinets of simple
+design, unfinished, so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize
+with any desired colour scheme. But such furniture, or good substitutes
+for it, can be made very inexpensively. For example, the stock for
+a good bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. Cases provided
+with shelves and curtains in place of drawers, made at a cash outlay
+possibly of one dollar, will serve for bureaus. The cost of materials
+for building an eight-room cottage in every way satisfactory need not
+exceed five hundred dollars; and such a cottage could be beautifully
+furnished by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials of one
+hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred dollars.
+
+[Illustration: An inexpensive bed]
+
+In the exterior finishing of summer cottages nature generally needs
+very little assistance. No colours harmonize so well with the gray
+rocks, sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees by the
+seashore, as the weathered grays of the shingled cottage. The window
+frames, door frames and facings, painted to preserve them, may be
+of the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly marking the
+outlines of the house but without unpleasant contrasts. A stained roof
+in slate gray or creosote brown is also in keeping. The underpinning
+and outside chimneys in the field rock of the locality are eminently
+fitting. The house among the hills will stand more colour because the
+colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn season. But
+wherever the house may be, it should repeat in its larger surfaces the
+prevailing colour tones of its natural setting. It should seem to fit
+into its surroundings as if it belonged there and would always remain
+there, a part of the simple, natural beauty all around it.
+
+[Illustration: A country house]
+
+
+THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y.
+
+[Transcriber's Notes:
+  Spelling is the same mix of US/UK as others in series (eg color/colour)
+  Corrected obvious typos:
+    tell -> tells
+    arrrangement -> arrangement
+    CROHETED -> CROCHETED
+    STENCILING -> STENCILLING
+    on account -> on account of
+    will be be -> will be
+    retain -> and retains
+    expecially -> especially
+  Portières/Portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts
+  (left as in text in each case)
+  Hyphenation made consistent:
+    wood-work -> woodwork
+    outdoor -> out-door
+]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Work and Play: Home
+Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORK AND PLAY: HOME DECORATION ***
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Work and Play: Home
+Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Library of Work and Play: Home Decoration
+
+Author: Charles Franklin Warner
+
+Release Date: January 25, 2014 [EBook #44750]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORK AND PLAY: HOME DECORATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Chris Jordan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_cover.jpg" width="497" height="800" alt="Cover" />
+<div class="caption"></div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p6"></p>
+<h1>THE CHILDREN'S LIBRARY OF WORK AND PLAY. Home Decoration</h1>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_f_endpaper_a.jpg" width="300" height="472" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>Front Endpaper A</p></div>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_f_endpaper_b.jpg" width="300" height="472" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><p>Front Endpaper B</p></div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2 class="h2l">THE LIBRARY<br />
+OF WORK AND PLAY</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="Bibliography">
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Carpentry and Woodwork</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Edwin W. Foster</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Electricity and Its Everyday Uses</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D.</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Gardening and Farming</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Ellen Eddy Shaw</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Home Decoration</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D.</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Housekeeping</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Elizabeth Hale Gilman</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Mechanics, Indoors and Out</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Fred T. Hodgson</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Needlecraft</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Effie Archer Archer</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Outdoor Sports, and Games</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B.</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Outdoor Work</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Mary Rogers Miller</div></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl" ><span class="smcap">Working in Metals</span><br />
+<div class="bibauth">By Charles Conrad Sleffel</div></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="FRNT" id="FRNT"></a><img src="images/i_004.jpg" width="600" height="934" alt="" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hanging a Picture</span><br />
+The wall space is a part of the framing of a picture</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="532" height="800" alt="Title Page" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">HOME DECORATION</p>
+<p class="center">
+BY PROF. CHARLES F. WARNER, Sc.D.</p>
+<p class="center"><i>For eight years Master of the Rindge Manual Training
+School, Mass. Twelve years principal of the Technical
+High School and Director of the Evening
+School of Trades, Springfield, Mass.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Garden City</span>            <span class="smcap">New York</span></p>
+<p class="center">DOUBLEDAY, PAGE &amp; COMPANY</p>
+<p class="center">1916</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p class="p6"></p>
+<p class="center">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION
+INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN</p>
+
+<p class="center">COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE &amp; COMPANY</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p class="p6" />
+
+<p class="center">TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS OF AMERICA<br />
+THIS BOOK<br />
+<span class="smcap">WHICH RECORDS WHAT SOME OF THEM HAVE DONE<br />
+IS HOPEFULLY DEDICATED</span>
+</p>
+<hr class="tb" />
+<p class="p6" />
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Some</span> pure lovers of art discard the formula,
+<i>Art for Progress, the Beautiful Useful</i>,
+fearing lest the useful should deform the
+beautiful. They tremble to see the drudge's hand
+attached to the muse's arm. They are solicitous for
+the sublime if it descends as far as to humanity.
+Ah! they are in error. The useful, far from circumscribing
+the sublime, enlarges it.... Is Aurora less
+splendid, clad less in purple and emerald&mdash;suffers
+she any diminution of majesty and of radiant
+grace, because, foreseeing an insect's thirst, she
+carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop needed
+by the bee?</p>
+
+<div class="authsc">Victor Hugo.</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS" id="ACKNOWLEDGMENTS">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS</a></h2>
+
+<p>This volume is the result of an effort to bring together
+in close relation with fundamental principles
+of design a variety of practical problems which are
+more or less closely connected with the general
+problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive
+ability of boys and girls from twelve to
+eighteen years of age. While the book is mainly
+a record of the author's experience and observation
+in this department of educational work, he has
+received many suggestions from co-workers in the
+same field. It will be impossible to give credit to
+all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the
+preparation of this book: but special acknowledgments
+are due to Mr. Fred M. Watts, who furnished
+the material for the chapter on Pottery and several
+drawings for other parts of the book; to Miss Grace
+L. Bell for the illustrations and descriptions embodied
+in the chapter on Block Printing; to Mr.
+Burton A. Adams for the problems in metal work;
+to Mr. Edwin A. Finch and Mr. Lewis O. Richardson
+who contributed many of the specifications for the
+problems in furniture-making; to Miss Elizabeth
+M. Morton for specific suggestions pertaining to
+the subject of dress as related to the principles
+of decoration; and to Mrs. Ruth B. S. Flower, of
+Florence, Mass., who supplied several of the photographs
+and much of the descriptive matter for the
+chapter on Weaving.</p>
+
+<div class="bibauth">Springfield, Mass.</div>
+
+<div class="auth"><div class="caption">C. F. W.</div></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr class="trs"><td class="tocch">CHAPTER</td><td></td><td class="tocpg">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">I.</td><td class="tocti"> Introductory&mdash;The Story of a House</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">II.</td> <td class="tocti">Decorations and Furniture</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">III.</td> <td class="tocti">Pictures</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">IV. </td><td class="tocti">The Arrangement of Flowers</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">V. </td><td class="tocti">Decorative Fabrics</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">VI. </td><td class="tocti">Dress and the Principles of Decoration</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">VII. </td><td class="tocti">Furniture Making</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">VIII.</td> <td class="tocti">Finishing and Re-finishing</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">IX.</td><td class="tocti"> Hand Weaving</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">X. </td><td class="tocti">Pottery</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">XI.</td><td class="tocti"> Decorative Work in Leather, Copper, and <br />
+Other Materials</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocch">XII.</td><td class="tocti"> Concluding Suggestions&mdash;Country Homes</td>
+<td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</a></h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td class="tocti">Hanging a Picture</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#FRNT"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr class="trs"><td class="tocti">&nbsp;</td><td class="tocpg">FACING PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">All the Rough Carpentry was Assigned to the Boys
+ of the Woodworking Sections of the
+Vocational School</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLI">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical
+ High School were not Overlooked in the
+Distribution of the Work on the House</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLII">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">A Table Runner of Russian Crash
+ and Pillow Cover with Geometrical Design</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLIII">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Window Draperies with Stencilled Border</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLIV">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Crocheted Panels, a Linen Work Bag with
+Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch, a
+Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and
+ Couching Stitch</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLV">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Finishing a Library Table</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLVI">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Weaving a Rug</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLVII">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Hand Made Rugs, Hand Made Towels</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLVIII">252</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">An Alcove with Window Draperies, Pillow Covers,
+Window Seat and Moss Green Rug, All Hand
+ Woven</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#ALCOVE">262</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover,
+ Slumber Rug, and Pillow Covers</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLX">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Girls at Work on Pottery</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXI">280</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Bowls</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXII">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Vases and Fern Dishes</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXIII">312</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Tiles</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXIV">316</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Pottery: Designed and Made by Schoolgirls</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXV">318</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tocti">Decorative Forgings</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#PLXVI">364</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class = "ph1"><a name="HOME_DECORATION" id="HOME_DECORATION">HOME DECORATION
+</a></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="600" height="288" alt="A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys" />
+<div class="caption">A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="I" id="I">I</a><br /><br />
+<small>INTRODUCTORY</small></h2>
+
+<h3>THE STORY OF A HOUSE</h3>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">To design</span>, plan, and build a house is a task
+that rarely falls to the lot of boys and girls.
+In fact, it is not the common experience
+of men and women to build houses without the aid
+of architects, masons, and carpenters. Such a task,
+however, was recently offered to certain classes in
+one of the public schools of a well-known New England
+city. It was, indeed, a school problem, and
+yet there was something about it that seemed to
+suggest larger and more interesting things than are
+ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. It did
+not seem at all like some school work. It was more
+like real life; for all boys and girls must some day
+have homes of their own, and here was a chance
+to learn how the house, which is an important
+part of every home, is planned and built. It is
+hardly necessary to say that this work&mdash;or play,
+if you like that word better&mdash;was undertaken with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+genuine enthusiasm. It was a task crammed full of
+the pleasure of interest and of accomplishment&mdash;full
+of the joy of doing something worth while&mdash;from
+the beginning to the end.</p>
+
+<p><i>The House a Work of Art.</i>&mdash;One of the first lessons
+learned by these young builders&mdash;perhaps the
+most important one of all&mdash;was that a great many
+things have to be thought of in planning a house,
+if the thing is to be well done. It is not simply
+a question of deciding how many rooms one will
+have, arranging them in some conventional order,
+and building the house around them with whatever
+external features style or fancy may dictate. Too
+many houses, it is true, are planned, or at least
+put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever
+goes into them in decoration or furniture is generally
+chosen either for necessary use or for display&mdash;not
+with any thought of the real comfort and
+satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings.
+People who are satisfied with such dwellings seem
+to show less appreciation of art, the highest product
+of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who
+decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs
+of their own weaving and who ornamented their
+pottery and their utensils and implements with
+wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+designs. Modern cave dwellers in apartment
+houses with all the conveniences of their ready-made
+surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression
+in their home belongings that encouraged
+and delighted even the savage. The most extreme
+example of this form of degeneracy is found in the
+suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the
+age of concrete construction, now at hand, means
+that we are to have concrete houses poured into a
+standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours,
+and finished for occupancy in a day or two.</p>
+
+<p>The boys and girls of this story would not have
+accepted a machine-made, standardized house if
+one had been offered them, ready for use. There
+was a special purpose for which their house was to
+be planned and built, as there generally is in the
+case of any real house. No style A, B, or C, chosen
+from any series of pattern-built or moulded houses,
+could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could,
+would they willingly give up all the fun of planning
+and building and furnishing? Would they forego
+the lessons of experience to be learned from all
+this work? This is always a large part of the
+satisfaction which comes to any one who builds
+his own house. In the present instance it was the
+chief motive, since the boys and girls who were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+planning this house were not expecting to make
+their home there.</p>
+
+<p><i>Why the House Was Built.</i>&mdash;What, then, was the
+purpose for which this house was to be built; and
+what were the specific problems involved in realizing
+this purpose? It was to be a practice house
+for the girls of the household technology course.
+This meant that it should be, so far as possible,
+a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple
+one. Economy, always a safe guide, was a most
+important factor in determining the character
+of the design. A limited appropriation&mdash;about
+$1000&mdash;for building material was available. Economy
+of space as well as of expense was also important.
+The only available land was a triangular
+lot in the corner of the school yard, 665 square feet
+in area. This limited the dimensions of the floor plan
+to 24 by 35 feet. It was decided to develop the design
+within these dimensions, on a rectangular plan, with
+one story and a hip roof, because such a design would
+present comparatively easy problems in framing and
+insure a building of pleasing external proportions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE GENERAL DESIGN AND THE PLAN</h3>
+
+<p>In attacking the problem of design the method
+of approach was determined by the fact that school-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+girls and school-boys were to be the architects and
+builders. House planning, home decoration, and
+household management were important subjects of
+study on the part of the girls and various forms of
+drawing and constructive work were required of all
+the boys of this school; so they all felt that they
+had a right to contribute something out of their
+study and experience that might be of value in
+working out this problem. The design must therefore
+be a composite of the best features of many studies.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Composite Design.</i>&mdash;The rooms required for a
+house of this character were thought to be a hall,
+a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen, a pantry,
+a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen
+closet. Nothing short of this outfit of rooms would
+satisfy the demands of a house to be used to give
+practical training in all the essentials of plain
+housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests.
+With these requirements in mind and with full
+knowledge of all the limitations of the problem,
+the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were
+taking the course in household technology, entered
+into a lively but friendly competition with each
+other to produce the most acceptable design and
+draw the best plan. So many excellent plans resulted
+from this competition that it was difficult<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+to select the best. It was therefore decided to
+combine in a new and final plan the best features
+of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions
+of the problem with equal success. Two
+of these were selected as having the greatest number
+of good points. From these the final floor plan
+was developed and the necessary modifications
+made in the original drawings to make the general
+design of the building fit the plan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="600" height="525" alt="Floor plan of the model house" />
+<div class="caption">Floor plan of the model house</div>
+</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+<i>The Hall.</i>&mdash;It may be of interest to note how some
+of the details of the problem of design were worked
+out for the final plan. Beginning with the hall,
+it was easily seen that economy of space required
+that the room should have small dimensions. In
+fact, it did not need to be a separate room at all.
+It could easily be a space between the living room
+and the dining-room, separated from both by means
+of porti&egrave;res and joined upon occasion with either
+room or with both, thus making possible a reception
+room or a dining-room of good size, or one large
+room. Of course, the central idea of a hall must
+not be lost sight of in providing for a desirable
+extension of other rooms. It should suggest a
+warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the
+fireplace may fulfil the double function of giving
+the cheer of the hearth-stone at all times and the
+comfort of fire when warmth is needed. The
+absence of a stairway, since none was needed, was
+a favourable circumstance. Appropriate decoration
+and furnishing in due time were to add a
+few distinguishing marks so that the house could
+retain, without any appreciable sacrifice of space,
+the dignity of an entrance hall.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Living Room and the Dining-room.</i>&mdash;The relative
+positions of the living room and the dining-room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+as already stated, were determined by the
+location of the hall. The purpose of each was distinct
+and self-evident, and determined the features
+of design that lent themselves most readily to
+appropriate decoration. In the living room the
+floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration
+with regard to their final treatment, to
+give pleasing proportions and harmonious colouring.
+The same was true of the dining-room, though
+its different purpose suggested a different design.
+An abundance of light was important for both
+rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. Such
+windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing
+drapery effects.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kitchen and Its Appointments.</i>&mdash;No room
+demanded so much study as the kitchen. In the
+first place it was necessary to make provision for
+a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily
+be needed in a house of this size, because in this
+case it was designed to be used as a practice kitchen
+and must therefore be large enough to accommodate
+a considerable number of girls&mdash;at least
+eight&mdash;at one time. This point assumed so much
+importance in the minds of the young designers
+that they were constantly tempted to rob other
+rooms of the space that was due them in order to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+get a "nice, big kitchen." But by clever adjustments
+and combinations the necessary floor dimensions
+were secured without unduly cramping other
+features of the plan. The range, laundry tubs,
+and sink were conveniently located near each other
+with the tubs at such a height that when not in
+use the cover was flush with the top of the range,
+forming a shelf on which kettles and other kitchen
+utensils could be easily placed as they were moved
+back and forth from the range. It was thought
+that it would be very desirable, if not necessary, to
+have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of
+sheet metal.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted as a possible fault in the plan
+that the range is very near the door into the passageway
+leading to the bedroom, the living room,
+and the hall. This point received due consideration;
+but in view of the compensating advantages
+the arrangement was thought allowable, inasmuch
+as the door into the passageway would be used
+only occasionally. There seemed to be no more
+convenient location for the passageway, which was
+designed to give privacy to bedroom and bath
+room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency
+requiring it, easy communication between the
+kitchen and the bedroom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+<i>Special Features.</i>&mdash;The pantry was located between
+the kitchen and the dining-room for obvious
+reasons&mdash;to give easy communication in serving
+and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place.
+In place of a kitchen closet a cabinet was provided
+for as being on the whole the more serviceable
+of the two. It is always desirable to have an
+entry or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved
+for the refrigerator; but the need of providing as
+much room as possible in the kitchen itself seemed
+to justify the omission of the lobby. Another
+unusual feature&mdash;this time not an omission&mdash;is
+to be found in the window of the bedroom closet.
+Such a window, although not common, was thought
+to be very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a
+possible protection against moths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Plans for Decorating and Furnishing.</i>&mdash;These
+were by no means all the features of design that
+had to be considered. As already suggested, there
+was much study given to the question of interior
+decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage.
+This was simply necessary forethought; for much
+of the attractiveness, restfulness, and homelike
+atmosphere of any house is created by the architect,
+who, in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways,
+and windows, disposes his wall areas so that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves
+naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces
+for a few choice pictures and opening up beautiful
+vistas. Such house-planning, begun with clear
+vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every
+detail, may often lead to a harmony of effects as
+pleasing to people of artistic temperament as a
+symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical
+composition. In fact, the parallel between sympathetic
+gradations of form and colour and harmony
+of musical tones is a very close one, and the
+appreciation of it is by no means rare. Any intelligent
+person, on seeing a suite of rooms designed
+and arranged by a real artist, though he may not
+understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm
+of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack
+of any jarring or discordant notes in the decoration,
+the simplicity, fitness, and real beauty, not of any particular
+part, perhaps, but of the whole combination.
+We often find ourselves using the same language
+whether we are describing the work of an artist-architect
+or the work of a musical composer.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN</h3>
+
+<p><i>Adaptation to Purpose.</i>&mdash;Our young architects
+discovered that there are certain fundamental
+principles or laws that must be observed at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+very beginning, if a really good and true design is
+to be made. The first of these laws is the <i>law
+of adaptation to purpose</i>. The application of this
+law was illustrated in the location of the various
+rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions
+agreed upon for each, and in the details of arrangement,
+especially in the kitchen and other rooms
+connecting with it. But this law is universal in
+its application. It determines not only the broad
+features of the plan but the details as well. It
+does not permit anything useless or superfluous
+to exist, for that would mean weakness. It aims
+at efficiency and strength. It dictates the details
+of construction all along the line, from the framing
+of the building to its finish and its decoration. It
+even determines the character of the furniture and
+the amount of it. Adaptation to purpose is a
+ruling principle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simplicity.</i>&mdash;Another great principle that revealed
+itself as the plans of the house developed
+may be called the <i>law of simplicity</i>. This is one
+of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the
+realm of craftsmanship. It is an axiom of geometry
+that the straight line is the shortest distance between
+two points. Not less evident is the fact that
+when Nature undertakes to do anything she goes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+about it in the simplest and most direct way. The
+natural tendency of all motion is along a straight
+line&mdash;so reads the first law of motion. Analyze
+the most complex forms and processes of nature and
+we shall find them due to the harmonious combination
+of the simplest elementary lines and movements.
+But the same law of simplicity which
+invariably marks the works of nature gives strength
+and beauty also to the works of man. Thus, in
+discussing the various problems that developed
+as the designing of the house progressed, it was
+found&mdash;as of course it should have been&mdash;that
+the solution which met the test of simplicity, while
+satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the
+true one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Correlation.</i>&mdash;A third great fundamental principle
+that found expression in these studies of the
+house plans was the <i>principle of correlation</i>. Not
+only must each part of the design be adapted to
+its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must
+support all other parts and receive support in
+return. It is like cooperation or team-work in
+play or in the practical affairs of life. Every room
+in a house bears some natural relation to every
+other room, and even the objects in the same room
+or in adjoining rooms must assist each other,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+whether their purpose be utility or decoration or
+a combination of both. Only by due attention
+to the mutual relations of the various elements
+that must enter into the composition, can the
+designer produce those pleasing space effects, those
+blendings of colour tones, those manifest relations
+between the various objects, useful or decorative,
+that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to
+a complete design.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE COLOUR SCHEME</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Floor the Foundation.</i>&mdash;Almost unconsciously
+our young architects found themselves under the
+guidance of these three great fundamental principles
+of design. When they came to the problem
+of specifying the finish for the floors and other
+wood work of the hall, living room, and dining-room,
+they found that this problem was intimately associated
+with the larger question of the colour
+scheme as a whole. The mutual dependence of all
+the elements concerned could not be overlooked.
+It was evident that the floor, which is the foundation
+of the room, should be darker than the walls
+and ceiling and the general tone of the furnishings,
+in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight
+and firmness for the support of the entire room and
+all it might contain. The effect of solidity could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+be produced by staining the floor boards or by providing
+a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large
+ones as well as small ones. There was no question
+of carpets. These, of course, are not allowable in
+a model house. A few rugs were already available,
+and others could be procured by buying them or by
+making them. A properly toned floor, however,
+is desirable, even with a most generous covering
+of rugs. It was therefore decided to give the floor
+a coat of stain when it was ready to be finished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Colour Schemes.</i>&mdash;But what was the
+colour to be? The designers were thus brought
+face to face with that difficult but important problem
+which all who plan houses have to solve before
+they can hope to bring their work into harmonious
+adjustment with the various natural and
+human conditions that must be satisfied in the
+final product, if it be made a good example of the
+designer's art. The problem of the colour scheme
+is fundamental. Upon this depends not only the
+tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but also,
+to a certain extent, as has already been suggested,
+the kind of woods to be used in the interior finishing,
+and whether they are to be painted, stained, or
+left in their natural colours. It will determine
+the material and the colours of the porti&egrave;res, curtains,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+cushions, lamp shades, picture frames, vases;
+in fact, it will largely settle the decorative character
+of every article placed in the rooms. The consideration
+of movable objects, however, may be deferred
+till the more substantial and fixed elements are
+decided upon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Southern Exposures and Cool Colours.</i>&mdash;In settling
+the all-important question of the colour scheme
+the first point to be considered was the location
+of the rooms with reference to light and to external
+surroundings. Rooms that have a southern exposure
+and nothing to interfere with their being flooded
+with sunlight need to be protected against the glare
+of too much light. For such rooms dull tones of
+colour are the best&mdash;dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain
+blue tones, and the medium grays&mdash;light, cool
+colours that counteract the overbrilliancy of direct
+sunlight and give a positively tempered feeling to
+the atmosphere of a room. Incidentally, too,
+perhaps because they are the tints associated with
+distant views, the cool colours make a room seem
+larger than it really is.</p>
+
+<p><i>Northern Exposures and Warm Colours.</i>&mdash;Northern
+rooms, on the other hand, do not generally suffer
+from excess of sunlight and heat. Warm colours
+are needed in such rooms. Deep reds, rich yellows,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+and golden browns will seem to bring sunlight into
+a sunless room. Our designers noted the fact
+that many of the rooms in the house they were
+planning must be comparatively dark. The house
+was to face the high brick walls of the neighbouring
+school building, not more than twenty-five feet
+distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure.
+A warm colour treatment, therefore,
+was unquestionably needed. Should red, brown,
+or yellow be the prevailing tone? The deciding
+point was the location of the hall and its relations
+to the other rooms. It was, first of all, the
+hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it
+was dark. Its walls must have the sunniest
+of all colours&mdash;a rich golden yellow. The same
+would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps
+a brown with yellow enough in it to be well in tune.
+The dining-room could safely be darker and more
+luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden
+yellow of the hall; but it must not be decidedly
+red. The ceilings of these three rooms, whether
+beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the
+walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint.
+This might well be a light corn yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath
+room, and kitchen was not so important a question<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+as the decoration of the three front rooms.
+Utility and sanitary conditions were important
+things to be considered. Light tints were decided
+upon, which in the bedroom might be relieved, in
+the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures
+in some warm tone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Interior Woodwork.</i>&mdash;With the colour scheme
+settled it was a comparatively easy matter to
+decide what should be the general tone and character
+of the interior woodwork. The floors of the
+three front rooms, since they were to be closely
+associated, required the same solid colour, which
+could well be a walnut brown, darker than any of
+the walls. Fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable
+for the dining-room and gum wood for the
+living room, either of which could be extended to
+the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the
+hall, leaving the oak for the dining-room, found
+much favour. It was finally decided, however,
+to adopt for the three front rooms the combination
+of natural woods first suggested. The bedroom
+and bath room, where suggestions of cleanliness
+are peculiarly appropriate, were specified to
+be finished in white. Yellow southern pine was
+decided upon for the kitchen and its accessory
+rooms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>ORGANIZING THE WORK OF CONSTRUCTION</h3>
+
+<p>As soon as the chief features of design were
+decided upon, preparations were made for carrying
+them out in the actual work of building; for the
+house was not to be a "castle in air." The first
+step was to put these ideas on paper and work out
+the details of construction in clearly executed and
+accurately dimensioned drawings. These included,
+as the first to be used, the working drawings for
+the framing and other rough woodwork, blue print
+copies of which were to be put into the hands of
+the boys of the elementary vocational school, who
+were to carry out this part of the building plans.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="601" height="352" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Front or north elevation of the model house</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Working Drawings.</i>&mdash;A considerable number
+of detailed drawings had to be made before the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+work of construction could be wisely begun. This
+furnished an interesting set of problems for the
+mechanical drawing groups of the technical high
+school. The material for this work consisted of
+rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct
+dimensions as determined in the plan accepted
+as the result of the competition in design. These
+preliminary sketches required much study on the
+part of both boys and girls, under proper guidance,
+in order to find out what the elements of construction
+should be, what dimensions were required,
+and how the various parts should be put together.
+It was an experience of great value to all, but
+especially to those boys who were looking forward
+to architectural draughting as a possible vocation.
+They got an inside view of the importance, on the
+one hand, of accurate working drawings as a basis
+for good construction and, on the other hand,
+a practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough
+knowledge of constructive principles, in order to
+make correct working drawings. They saw that
+the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted
+with all the detailed processes employed by the
+carpenter or mason, informed upon all the conditions
+to be met, and knowing the best ways of meeting
+them. They gained impressions which should
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+help them, in studying the work of great architects,
+to look beyond the exterior, however pleasing it
+may be, for those elements of strength and beauty
+that characterize all good workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLI" id="PLI"></a><img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="600" height="391" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">All the Rough Carpentry Was Assigned to Boys of the Woodworking Section
+of the Vocational School</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate I]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>How the Work Was Distributed.</i>&mdash;It will be recalled
+that boys and girls were to be coworkers
+in the designing, planning, and building of the
+house. The boys were to be held responsible
+for the drawings, the decorating after designs
+made by the girls, and the higher grades of
+woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms
+and the making of the furniture. They were to
+do the wiring for the electric lights, the bells, and
+the interior telephones; and they were to install
+all the fixtures in connection with this wiring.
+Boys from the metal-working sections were to do
+the necessary piping for gas and water and some
+of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating
+plumbing are strict and well enforced, as
+they should be, it was necessary to keep this
+most essential feature of the work under charge of
+licensed plumbers. But this requirement did not
+remove even the plumbing of the building from the
+field of public school work; for, fortunately, this
+city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the
+trades school department, under the direction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+licensed plumbers of high standing, who were glad
+to have given them, as an exercise for their classes,
+a practical problem in house plumbing. The boys
+in the forging classes were not overlooked in the
+distribution of the work on the house. Many of
+the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed
+to be made in the school forge shop. The
+girls designed and made rugs, curtains, porti&egrave;res,
+and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving
+and stencilling; and they contributed many
+decorative articles in clay, copper, leather, and
+other materials. Thus every technical department
+of the school was brought into service; for in
+the building of a house there is to be found something
+to enlist the interest of every boy and girl.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLII" id="PLII"></a><img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="600" height="389" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical High School Were Not Overlooked in the Distribution
+of the Work on the House</div>
+<div class="capl"> [Plate II]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Boy Foremen in Charge.</i>&mdash;To bring about the right
+distribution of the work and to marshal the working
+forces effectually required the oversight and management
+of an experienced instructor. But much
+of the work of direction was delegated to competent
+boys. The preliminary tool work in the
+school shops had revealed those who were especially
+observant and capable as leaders, and those who
+worked best under specific directions. Thus the
+twenty boys of the vocational school who set the
+posts and framed the house worked sometimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+in pairs&mdash;one being the chief foreman and the
+other the helper&mdash;sometimes in gangs of three or
+four under a foreman. The plan was varied according
+to the nature of the work in hand. When
+leaders of more technical knowledge and skill were
+needed, as was the case in setting the window frames
+and directing the shingling, capable boys from the
+technical high school were placed in charge of groups
+of younger boys from the vocational school. In this
+way the work was advanced in several directions at
+the same time; and the advantage was not all in the
+advancement of the house construction. It was a delightful
+and profitable experience for all the boys, not
+unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat
+when school days are over and they take their place
+in the more serious affairs of life. In after years they
+may look back upon the first house that they helped
+to build and recall the part they took, their companions
+in the work, and the good time they had withal.</p>
+
+<h3>SOME DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION</h3>
+
+<p><i>Setting Batter Boards, Posts, and Sills.</i>&mdash;The first
+step in actual construction was to mark off the lot
+and set the batter boards. These were made by
+driving three stakes to form a right angle about
+four feet from the point where each of the four main<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+corners of the house was to be located. Two
+rough boards, one for each side of each angle, were
+nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes,
+with their upper edges all brought to the same
+level. It is very important to set these batter boards
+with accuracy, since their function is to carry the
+lines which mark the dimensions and level of the
+ground floor. In the present instance their first
+use was to locate the concrete posts on which the
+sills of the house were to rest. Twenty-two of
+these posts, which were 4 feet long and 8 inches
+square, were put in position by first setting moulds
+or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were
+those of the posts, 3 feet deep in the light soil and
+filling them with a mixture of concrete and crushed
+rock. It was not thought necessary to remove
+the moulds after the hardening of the concrete.
+In fact, the sills were framed and placed in position
+resting on these boxes before sufficient time had been
+given for the concrete to harden. The sides of the
+boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that
+they could be easily broken off just below the ground,
+exposing the projecting ends of the concrete posts
+for about one foot. The sills were of 6 by 8-inch
+first quality spruce. They were set on the 6-inch
+face, the two long sills being spliced over posts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+using a long halved joint. Mortise and tenon
+joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the
+corners. The floor timbers of 2 by 8-inch spruce
+were gained into the sills with the top faces flush
+with the top of the sill and crowning (<i>i. e.</i>, bending)
+upward if at all. The spacing of the floor timbers
+was taken off at the sill on a strip of furring&mdash;spruce,
+<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch thick by 2 inches wide&mdash;which
+was moved out to the centre near the line
+of bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked
+timbers into line. The bridging was then nailed
+in, the outside last to prevent springing the sills.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="600" height="872" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plan A. Framing details</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Referring to the accompanying sketch (Plan A)
+it will be noticed that the corner posts and centres
+were not mortised into the sills, but were simply
+butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. There was
+a time when carpenters would have regarded such
+a method as altogether wrong; but those were the
+days of great corner posts and heavy studding,
+placed two or three times as far apart as is the
+practice now. It was thought that placing the
+studs 16 inches on centres, which is the common
+practice in modern house framing, removed the
+necessity of mortising into the sill. Mortising is
+still recognized, however, as a good thing to do
+and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Plan A also shows how the outside walls were trussed
+over openings; and Plan B shows how the corners
+of the building were tied by the lapping of the
+double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters
+were placed on the top of the plate.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_047.jpg" width="600" height="828" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plan B. Details of cornice, sill, and roof
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The window frame details are shown in a series
+of cuts (Plan C) which for the sake of completeness
+are drawn to show also the interior finish, not
+usually represented in the framing drawings. A
+detailed description of these features of construction
+is unnecessary, since the dimensions and relations
+of the various elements and the technical
+terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated
+in the illustrations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="600" height="788" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plan C. Details of interior finish
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the same series of cuts a detail of the base is
+shown which includes the framing, the base board,
+and the lath and plaster. It should be stated,
+however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was
+recommended to the student architects&mdash;a new
+product in paper board especially designed for walls
+and ceilings, which it was decided to use. The
+use of this material removed the necessity of the
+"grounds" shown in the drawings and always
+needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when
+the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered.
+In the detail of the dado cap, which will be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+on the page of construction drawings, the dotted
+lines show how the cap was to be expanded into
+a plate rail, requiring the addition of brackets
+with a bed moulding between, in the finishing of the
+walls of the dining-room. Among these drawings
+will also be found a detail showing a section of the
+beamed ceiling finish.</p>
+
+<p>It will be readily understood that none of the
+finishing work called for in the detailed drawings
+was begun until the rough carpentry on the house
+was practically completed. All the rough work,
+which included framing, boarding, shingling, laying
+of the lining floors, and putting up partitions,
+was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections
+of the vocational school. This is an elementary
+industrial or trade school, admitting from the
+grades below the high school boys who have attained
+the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some
+mechanical trade. It represents a new and promising
+experiment in American education. The
+building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity
+for the boys of this school to show the honesty
+of their purpose in enrolling themselves to learn
+the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their
+right to have the chance.</p>
+
+<p>So the house was built by the combined efforts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+of the boys and girls of the public schools of this
+New England city, unassisted by professional architects
+or paid labourers. How they carried out
+with their own hands the designs for decorating
+and furnishing the house is told in the succeeding
+chapters of this book, which also suggests wider
+applications of the principles of household decoration
+as possible to be made in the homes of clever
+boys and girls throughout the country. To carry
+out these suggestions will mean work&mdash;but work
+of a kind that gives pleasure to the worker and to
+many others. It was work for the young designers
+and builders of whom this story tells, but they said
+it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure
+quite equal to that found in doing with one's own
+hands an exceptionally good thing. The true
+craftsmen of all time have found it so. One of
+these master workmen, Stradivarius, the violin
+maker, so George Eliot tells us, made his confession
+thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">" ... God be praised!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Antonio Stradivari has an eye<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That winces at false work and loves the true,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With hand and arm that play upon the tool,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As willingly as any singing bird<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sets him to sing his morning roundelay,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Because he likes to sing and likes the song."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="II" id="II">II</a><br /><br />
+<small>DECORATIONS AND FURNITURE</small></h2>
+
+<div class = "blockquot">
+<p>Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or
+believe to be beautiful&mdash;<i>William Morris</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> decorating and furnishing of a house
+have their true beginning in good architectural
+design. It is a mistake to proceed
+upon the theory that decoration necessarily
+implies something added for its own sake&mdash;something
+beautiful in itself but selected and applied
+without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of
+the room in which it is to be placed and without
+considering the relation of this room to neighbouring
+rooms and to more remote surroundings.
+The truth is, a decorative object may or may not
+be intrinsically beautiful; but however beautiful
+it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in an
+appropriate setting. And the decorator who is
+actuated by the true spirit looks to the architect
+for inspiration and finds his greatest successes
+in acknowledging that leadership. To attempt to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+lead when one should follow is neither good art nor
+good sense.</p>
+
+<p>There is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be
+taken too seriously. It would also be a mistake
+to run to the other extreme and adopt at the outset
+a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified
+like contract work to be carried out and completed
+on a certain date soon after the house is
+built. The problem is one of growing interest,
+especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the
+smaller objects of use or beauty, and for its best
+and happiest solution requires time and study.
+Only the broad and fundamental features can
+be settled in advance. The important thing is
+to have the main lines, dimensions, space relations,
+and colour schemes settled with due regard to
+utility and appropriateness and, as the work of
+construction proceeds, to keep all details in harmony
+with this general plan.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE FLOORS, THE WALLS, AND THE CEILINGS</h3>
+
+<p><i>Colour Harmony in the Model House.</i>&mdash;It will be
+remembered that the colour scheme of the hall,
+living room, and dining-room of our model house
+was settled quite early in the development of the
+design. Standing near the centre of the living
+room and looking through the hall into the dining-room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+one may see at a glance how some of the
+details of decoration were worked out in keeping
+with the general treatment. The walnut brown
+stain of the floors gives a good foundation of
+colour. It flows easily into the lighter browns and
+yellows of all the lower wall spaces. The suggestion
+of olive green in the frieze of the living
+room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing
+browns and harmonizes well with the woodwork
+of this room, which, it will be remembered, was
+designed to be finished in gum wood. This beautiful
+wood, when properly treated, presents a
+surface of satin-like texture and soft colour tone.
+In the dining-room a corner of which is shown
+in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of
+colour where it is needed and is in keeping with
+the fumed oak trim. The wide openings into
+the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together
+with the long, unbroken lines of the beamed
+ceilings, give the impression of generous width.
+The plain wall spaces, though varied in tone
+and relieved of monotonous spacings by the location
+of the necessary doors and windows, are of
+great assistance in increasing the apparent size of
+the room. Plain walls are also the best of backgrounds
+for pictures.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+<i>Redecorating Old Houses.</i>&mdash;It is, of course, true
+that the decorating and furnishing of a house or
+an apartment cannot always have a new and original
+architectural design as the basis for the solution
+of the problems involved. As a matter of
+fact, in the great majority of cases, the houses in
+which homes are made are already built and have
+been previously occupied. Often they are very
+old houses, presenting difficult and even impossible
+tasks for the decorator. Sometimes, however,
+such houses are all the more desirable if they bear
+the marks of age that suggest a past of dignity
+and charm. But the spirit which inspires the
+artist in decorating and furnishing a house already
+built is the same as that which controls his thought
+when he can begin with the foundation of a new
+and original design. His first thought is to discover
+how beauty may be enhanced and at the
+same time unity of purpose and harmony of treatment
+be preserved. His constant care is to avoid
+incongruous elements, however beautiful they may
+be in themselves or however appropriate in other
+houses. His general aim is to use his art to develop
+the design as it is, if there be any design at
+all, and make the most of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decoration as a Corrective.</i>&mdash;But this does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+prevent him from attempting to counteract the
+blunders of faulty design and bad architecture.
+Such correction, indeed, forms a large part of
+the work of decorators and furnishers, both professional
+and amateur. If the lines and space
+divisions of a room be not good, the decoration
+must be planned with a view to giving the needed
+harmony of proportions, or at least the appearance
+of it. If the ceiling be too high, it may be
+made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling
+paper or tinting one or two feet down the walls
+of the room to meet the picture moulding. The
+effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high
+base board or by wainscoting. If the ceiling be
+too low, the depressing effect may be largely overcome
+by extending the picture moulding along the
+top of the wall spaces close to the ceiling. This
+is a desirable thing to do in the living rooms of
+most modern houses. Striped wall papers of
+proper tones may be used in low rooms with good
+effect in increasing their apparent height. Bad
+wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging
+door-ways, substituting porti&egrave;res for the doors,
+and by arranging the drapery over windows to
+give the effect either of increasing or of diminishing
+their height, as the conditions may require.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+<i>Wall Papers.</i>&mdash;Probably no element of decoration
+furnishes so many pitfalls to ensnare the
+unwary as wall papers do. It is easy to fall a
+victim to a captivating design as it appears in the
+few square feet of wall paper displayed on the
+dealer's rack. The same interesting figure, spread
+out in endless repetition on the four walls of the
+living room, may create an atmosphere of unrest
+and positive discomfort keenly felt by sensitive
+persons. A wise choice cannot be made in the
+absence of all the conditions that should really
+determine it. After all, it is not the paper which
+is beautiful in the roll that should be selected,
+but only that which will become beautiful when
+hung upon the walls of a certain room. Papers
+with large figures should be avoided unless there
+is a special reason for using them. They always
+have the effect of reducing the apparent size of
+everything associated with them. They make a
+small room appear dwarfish and a large one over
+decorated unless well relieved by plain spaces
+harmonizing in colour with the large-figured patterns.
+Strong contrasts in colour values should
+also be avoided, not only between the designs
+and the ground colour of the wall paper itself,
+but also between the paper and other objects of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+importance in the room. The principle of gradation
+in colour values, which does not as a general
+thing allow the placing together of light and dark
+shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony
+of colour tones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nature of Decorative Design.</i>&mdash;The one fact
+never to be lost sight of by the decorator is the
+real nature of true decorative design. It is never
+a picture. While it may suggest the natural forms
+of plants or animals, it does not aim to represent
+them in a naturalistic way. Some of the best
+decorative designs do not even suggest natural
+forms; but, whether they do or not, the central
+idea is the repetition of good combinations of
+line and form in closely related colours and values
+on a flat surface. If natural forms are used, they
+should be more or less highly conventionalized.
+Anything that destroys the idea of flat surfaces
+in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration.
+In the nature of the case, a wall can have but one
+plane. Clusters of flowers or patterns of any
+kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or
+back of it, are out of place and therefore offend
+the sense of fitness. Such incongruities are sometimes
+so pronounced that they positively shock
+the sensibilities of refined people. Extreme examples<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+have been known to give such pain to sensitive
+persons as to drive them from the room.</p>
+
+<p><i>Advantage of Plain Walls.</i>&mdash;Decorative designs,
+however, are not essential in wall papers. The
+main point in the treatment of walls is to secure
+and preserve a good background. If one is in
+doubt as to the kind of figure or pattern to be used,
+which is often a perplexing question, it is well to
+leave them out altogether. Plain walls are always
+good if the colour tone is right; for colour
+is the main thing in wall decoration. The decorative
+effects of form may be brought out in the
+porti&egrave;res and window draperies, which may easily
+carry more elaborate patterns when associated
+with plain walls than is desirable with figured wall
+decorations. In fact, with figured walls plain
+porti&egrave;res and curtains are much to be preferred.
+In our model house, as has been explained, the wall
+decorations were designed to offer a plain background
+of colour. The figured borders of the
+porti&egrave;res and curtains, combined with the careful
+gradation in the colouring of the floors, wall spaces,
+and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this
+background that nothing further was needed to
+avoid monotony.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trial Needed in Doubtful Cases.</i>&mdash;It is, indeed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+a good rule to omit whatever is unnecessary. To
+observe this rule wisely is to escape much that is
+positively bad in decoration. Overwrought designs,
+too great variety in decorative material,
+too many decorative objects, however great their
+individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture,
+too many interesting things in whatever
+direction one may turn, create an oppressive and
+disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest
+which it should always be the aim of home decoration
+to dispel. And yet it may not always be best
+to set aside our treasures because they do not
+seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of
+decoration or are not apparently needed to complete
+it. It is, in fact, often very difficult to determine
+where the line should be drawn between
+what is needed and what is not needed. The
+fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a final
+test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things
+that may be introduced into a scheme of decoration
+already well thought out and be given a trial.
+Such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected
+needs or add a new charm that at once proves
+its right to be retained.</p>
+
+<p>To take a step like this, somewhat out of line
+with accepted rules as strictly interpreted, is entirely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+safe if this step is dictated by good taste
+and does not lead the young decorator too far
+afield. Exceptional treatment of any kind should
+show proper restraint, and such restraint, when
+it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in
+itself an attractive feature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Precise Rules not Always Practicable.</i>&mdash;The truth
+is, the rules of decoration, though founded upon
+fundamental principles of art, are not rules of
+precision like those founded upon mathematical
+principles. In the nature of the case they must
+in their application yield more or less to circumstances.
+It is, for example, a good general rule
+to determine the colour scheme and background
+first and accommodate other decorative features
+to these as a foundation; and yet it is possible
+for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify
+a complete reversal of this rule. Here is a concrete
+case. A young artist was the fortunate
+possessor of a considerable number of Japanese
+and Chinese embroideries and other Oriental ornaments.
+He wished to make these the main
+decorative materials for one of his rooms. The
+embroidered figures were in yellow and white
+on a deep, strong blue, the general effect being
+quite dark. There were in the collection several<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+prints, showing the typical dull reds, dark blues,
+and yellows of Japanese art. Now the room
+itself happened to be one that, under the general
+principle of colour schemes as determined by exposure
+and other fixed conditions, would demand
+warm colours on its walls. It would easily support
+a rich red frieze with appropriate combinations
+in floor, dado, and ceiling. This would set
+off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture,
+but it would rule out the Oriental decorations.
+One or the other must give way; and,
+since the value of these decorative materials was
+beyond question, it was decided to try them, even
+at the cost of setting aside the general rule. The
+whole matter resolved itself into selecting a proper
+background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries;
+and for these the best colour was a
+gray blue&mdash;the coldest of colours. But when the
+whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion
+and the cold background was fully employed
+in setting off the rich colours and exquisite
+workmanship of the Oriental prints and draperies,
+all the circumstances that ordinarily determine
+the choice of backgrounds were forgotten in the
+charm of originality. No one thought of the
+exposure as requiring warm colours, the dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+oak trim was not noticed, and the mahogany furniture
+was still in keeping. The result was so
+absolutely satisfying that no one who saw it could
+question the good taste displayed in this very
+original plan of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>But such exceptional cases should not shake
+our confidence in the fundamental principles of
+decoration. It is true that these principles cannot
+be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably
+in all cases, and it is unreasonable to assume
+that any form of treatment is the only one possible
+in any given case. Modifications in the application
+of these principles are always possible,
+but the principles themselves are as unalterable
+as the Mosaic law. One is, indeed, tempted to
+summarize them thus as the</p>
+
+
+<h3>TEN COMMANDMENTS OF DECORATION</h3>
+<div class="blockquotl">
+<p>Thou shalt have no household gods except those that be
+beautiful or those that be useful.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in
+the heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters
+under the earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in
+thine house.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great
+masters of decorative art.</p>
+
+<p>Remember the colour scheme and keep a good background.</p>
+
+<p>Honour the original design, however old it may be, and make
+the most of it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+Thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of faulty
+design and bad architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with over-decorated
+wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor
+permit insane arrangements of anything that is thine.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony
+of thy decorations.</p>
+
+<p>Thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything
+that is thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator
+to show originality but at the same time to acknowledge
+his dependence upon those who have preceded him.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>THE FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p><i>Relation of Furniture to Decoration.</i>&mdash;So much
+for the treatment of floors, walls, and ceilings.
+We may now turn to the more special consideration
+of those objects of use or beauty that are
+to be associated with these backgrounds&mdash;furniture,
+pictures, lamp shades, and small ornaments.
+That these are closely related to decoration
+has been implied in all that has been said. They
+are, in fact, in themselves elements in the decorative
+scheme and as such must obey the same
+laws. Their value, however, depends more or
+less upon their utility, and for this reason they
+seem to require consideration somewhat apart
+from their merely decorative functions. This is
+especially true of furniture, which would have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+very little reason for being if it were not for its
+usefulness.</p>
+
+<p>In designing the furniture for the model house
+the questions that constantly suggested themselves
+were: What is this piece of furniture under consideration
+to be used for? What form, construction,
+and finish will enable it to give the best service?
+What features of design are needed to render
+it suited to its surroundings? In considering
+the furniture for the model house it was most
+natural to apply these tests to the various rooms in
+order.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A library desk in fumed oak</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_066.jpg" width="300" height="514" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hall chair</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hall of the Model House.</i>&mdash;First, there is the
+hall. This is the room into which a visitor is
+first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets
+his first impressions. But in this house it is a
+very small room and designed to serve not merely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+as a place for the formalities of welcome but also
+as an expansion of the rooms on either side. Its
+furniture must consist largely of the fireplace.
+There is no room for a hall settle nor even for a
+chair. A mirror,
+simply but richly
+framed, might hang
+on the wall near the
+front door, balanced
+by a picture on the
+opposite wall behind
+the door. An umbrella
+rack should stand
+outside on the porch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="500" height="265" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hall settle&mdash;simplicity, strength, dignity</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hall Furniture in
+General.</i>&mdash;The halls
+of modern houses
+vary greatly in their
+relative importance.
+In some the traditions
+of the old English
+manor houses
+seem partially to survive.
+In medi&aelig;val England the hall was the principal
+room, if not the only one comfortably furnished.
+When modern houses combine the living room and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+library or reception room with the hall, there is need
+of something more than hall furniture of the formal
+kind. The requirements of comfort must be met.
+But, generally speaking, hall furniture is of little
+real use. Odd chairs, attractive by reason of their
+oddity, the richness of the materials used in their
+construction, or some other assertive quality, but
+not fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable
+in the hall. The hat and coat rack of our fathers
+has been declared insane and no longer appears
+in well-regulated houses. In place of it is found
+the hall settle, which is of real use. It should
+be designed on simple lines and give the impression
+of strength and dignity. If the hall is to
+be used as a waiting room for guests, a few good
+chairs, conveniently placed, will be needed for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+their comfort and a choice picture or two on the
+walls will add greatly to their pleasure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="500" height="241" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two Morris chairs that invite to solid comfort</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_068b.jpg" width="300" height="294" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A satisfactory writing desk</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Living Room Furniture.</i>&mdash;In furnishing living rooms
+there is bound to be a wide range for the exercise
+of good taste because
+of the variety
+of needs to be met and
+the large facilities
+afforded in the markets
+for meeting these
+needs with due regard to
+artistic requirements.
+It will be quite impossible
+to go into detail
+in discussing so large a topic. The important
+thing is to keep in mind the central idea of
+a living room&mdash;the place of all places where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+the freedom, comfort, and protection of home
+life are to be enjoyed. The very atmosphere
+of the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity,
+and good cheer. Every article of furniture should
+be there to serve a genuine need, and it should
+be strong enough to do its full duty. Spider-legged,
+top-heavy tables; light, weak chairs; chairs
+on casters or rockers; sofas with carved backs or
+couches with none at all,&mdash;these have no place
+in the living room. The long, straight lines of the
+craftsman or mission style of furniture are in the
+right direction; but if these be used at all they
+must be made quite general, since few other styles
+harmonize with them. Wicker or reed furniture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+is a notable exception. When well designed it
+will fit in almost anywhere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_069.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An ample library table</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_070.jpg" width="400" height="545" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A plain but useful magazine stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The frequent combination of the library with
+the living room requires a suitable adjustment of
+the furniture to this use. A plain, serviceable
+magazine rack, which may be easily made, will
+relieve the tables of an accumulation of weeklies
+and monthlies. Moderately low bookcases, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+or without doors, are to be preferred to the more
+ordinary high ones because this form harmonizes
+better with the lines of a room, which are generally
+longer horizontally than vertically. If doors are
+used, it is well to break up the glare of the glass
+by heavy sash, the spacing of which may be arranged
+in a very pleasing manner. Good design
+in library tables calls for ample size. Firmness
+and convenience as well as satisfactory proportions
+should control the choice of a writing desk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="300" height="335" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A low bookcase with sash doors</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Dining-room Furniture.</i> Only a few elements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+enter into the design for the furnishing of a
+dining-room; but they are evident and should have
+a controlling influence. The table and chairs are
+for a definite purpose and this should show itself
+in good design. Heavy construction is permissible
+since the chairs are to be moved but little
+and the table is practically stationary. Moreover,
+weight and generous dimensions are suggestive of
+bounty and good service. The rectangular extension
+table is most readily adjusted to varied demands,
+but the round table is preferable for the family circle;
+and for a company of twelve or fifteen a large,
+round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary
+extension table, has been found very attractive.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_072.jpg" width="600" height="380" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A round dining table</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_073.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A sideboard of good proportions. Convenient and generous but not overdone</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As comfort is the chief result to be obtained in
+furnishing a living room, so richness, within one's
+means, is an appropriate aim in furnishing a dining-room.
+The history of sideboard design might
+be cited in proof of this statement, if proof were
+needed. Probably no single article of furniture
+has been subjected to greater elaboration; but
+the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience
+may be secured without overdoing it. The
+unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an interesting
+study for one who wishes to design and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+construct his own in conformity with the architecture
+of his dining-room. The buffet or serving
+table furnishes an equally interesting, though
+simpler, problem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_074.jpg" width="400" height="370" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A buffet of simple but effective design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the care of the china, the built-in cabinet
+as a feature of the architecture of the room is to be
+preferred to the movable cabinet designed for this
+purpose, because of its richer decorative possibilities.
+Large, glazed doors are desirable in either case,
+not for the full display of china and glassware but
+to give a suggestive glimpse of it. As this cabinet
+is for decoration and not for show, it is well to avoid
+plain glass doors unbroken by sash. Leaded panes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+are frequently employed with good effect. The
+decorative effect of old and odd pieces of china&mdash;not
+too many of them&mdash;is most appropriately
+employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is
+better to leave the plate rail bare than to load it
+with commonplace crockery and inappropriate
+ornaments.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 299px;">
+<img src="images/i_075.jpg" width="299" height="240" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A china cabinet. A part of the finish of the room</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Chamber Furniture.</i>&mdash;The bedroom speaks for
+itself. A dainty freshness in all its appointments
+is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the distinctive
+purpose of this room to provide. The
+necessary articles of furniture are a bed, a dressing
+table, a bureau or chiffonier, a few chairs, and, if
+there be no bath room attached, a commode or
+wash stand. A couch is an appropriate addition;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+and here, if anywhere, rocking chairs are allowable.
+When the bedroom must be used more or
+less as a living room or sewing
+room, as it too often unfortunately
+is, furniture to serve such
+uses must be provided. In selecting
+or designing all this furniture,
+lightness, and simplicity
+of design, combined with
+strength, should be allowed a
+controlling influence. The recognition
+of this idea has given
+great popularity to the brass
+or iron beds; but it is possible
+to design and construct beds of
+oak, maple, or other woods that
+harmonize with the rest of the
+furniture, carry out the idea of daintiness, and have
+sufficient strength for service.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_076.jpg" width="200" height="404" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Leaded panes</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of these suggestions on furniture design
+are being carried out in fitting up the model house
+described in our introductory chapter. A small
+house like this, limited to one story, does not permit
+great variety in its furnishings. Certain standard
+conditions, however, were to be met here, as
+everywhere else, and the young designers found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+much pleasure and great profit in working out the
+furniture problems. Some of the construction details
+will be given in
+the later chapters.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="300" height="401" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Duxbury chair</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>ARRANGEMENT OF THE FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p><i>Arrangement Follows
+Selection.</i>&mdash;The problem
+of furnishing a
+home is not fully settled
+when the questions
+of design have
+been answered and
+the right selections
+made. After selection comes arrangement, or,
+to speak more accurately, after a certain amount
+of selection a certain amount of arrangement;
+for, as has already been suggested, there is considerable
+dependence of one upon the other.
+It is not wise to drop the arrangement till
+the selection is complete, for the simple reason
+that the happiest choices are often the late ones,
+determined by the disposition of the earlier ones.
+And yet in the main the order as stated is the
+true one. It should be noted, too, that in arrangement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality
+and taste. While artistic principles still
+hold sway, they yield more readily to exceptional
+interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household,
+to the demands of style, and to the larger
+number of possibilities for pleasing effects when
+the question is one of the arrangement of things
+already well chosen for their usefulness and for
+their artistic value.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_078.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A dainty bed in white maple</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Utility the Controlling Principle.</i>&mdash;The problems
+of arrangement, however, are by no means vague
+and uncertain. The natural law of adaptation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+to purpose is not difficult to follow. In some rooms
+obedience to it has become a settled custom. No
+one, for example, would think of placing the dining
+table in any other place than the centre of the
+dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the
+centre of one end. The sideboard, serving table,
+and china closet likewise fall into their natural
+places. So also the bedroom and the hall, though
+perhaps to a less degree, present comparatively
+easy problems in furniture arrangement when due
+regard is paid to the purposes for which such rooms
+are designed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Appropriateness.</i>&mdash;But it is in the
+library and the living room that we find the most
+difficult and at the same time the most interesting
+problems. And this is due to the operation of the
+same law of adaptation to purpose. It is the
+variety of uses and the diversity of useful objects
+that make the problem somewhat complex. However
+refined and beautiful the different units may
+be, there must be some arrangement of them into
+working groups. The important elements should
+dominate and those of lesser importance should
+fall naturally into related but subordinate places.
+The easy corner with its couch, pillows, and its
+low seats, has a definite function to perform. So<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases
+and library table, the Morris chairs and
+tabourettes, the window seats and screens, the writing
+desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp,
+the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort
+that may belong to it. The various centres of
+interest should be accentuated by grouping around
+them the most appropriate furnishings and the
+most suggestive decorative features. It may be
+well to add one word of caution, and that is that a
+proper balance should be maintained between the
+various centres of arrangement in order that no
+part of the room may seem neglected and bare.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Danger of Overcrowding.</i>&mdash;Finally, the one
+great danger to be avoided in meeting the requirements
+of good arrangement is the temptation
+to overcrowding. Many otherwise excellently appointed
+living rooms suffer from an embarrassment
+of riches. Such overcrowded rooms are
+worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot
+topple over and sink as one might well wish them
+to. To secure the right things and just enough
+of them, arranged with a proper balance between
+utility and beauty, is the true aim. It is as true
+to-day as it ever was in the arrangement and beautifying
+of the home, and, for that matter, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+everything that concerns every-day life&mdash;just as
+true as it was in ancient times when men wrote
+those famous inscriptions over the doors of the
+temple at Delphi: over one, <span class="smcap">know thyself</span>, and
+over the other, <span class="smcap">the golden mean of not too much</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2><a name="III" id="III">III</a><br /><br />
+<small>PICTURES</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>I now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me, not that they
+dazzle me. Pictures must not be too picturesque. Nothing astonishes men
+so much as common sense and plain dealing. All great actions have been
+simple, and all great pictures are.&mdash;<i>Ralph Waldo Emerson</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> decoration of a room is generally not
+complete without pictures. There is, of
+course, great value in good pictures entirely
+aside from their decorative effect; and too
+great care cannot be exercised in their selection.
+But our present purpose is to consider them as
+decorative features; for, though a decoration is
+not a picture, pictures themselves are properly
+regarded as important elements in the general
+scheme of decoration. And this is especially true
+as regards matting and framing, the distribution of
+pictures upon the wall spaces, and the method of
+hanging them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Space Relations.</i>&mdash;A picture mat
+and frame are simply elements of finish, and their
+function is to give the picture a certain individuality<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+and yet connect it harmoniously with the
+space in which it hangs. In fact, the wall space
+is a part of the framing of the picture. The importance
+of giving some study to the relations of
+all the spaces involved is evident. The mat and
+the frame should not be of equal width. Here is a
+fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing. No
+definite rules can be given; sometimes the one,
+sometimes the other should give way. Generally
+speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical pictures,
+and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal
+pictures. But variation from this rule is possible
+and even necessary through the grouping of several
+pictures. In grouping, however, there is danger
+of being tempted to allow too many pictures. In
+the houses of the well-to-do, and even in the homes
+of those of moderate means, too many pictures,
+rather than too few, are often found. The example
+of one New England home, known to the author,
+may be mentioned. The house is new, of generous
+proportions, and it is the home of an artist.
+There are few pictures on the walls, but they are
+distributed with rare artistic effect. There are
+many good pictures stored in the attic because
+there is no suitable space in which to hang them.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Japanese Way.</i>&mdash;The Japanese have taught<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+us many valuable lessons in art, and in the matter
+of the number of pictures to be displayed they have
+a very interesting lesson to teach. It is their
+practice to hang a single choice picture for a season
+in a space where it may be best enjoyed, and then
+after a time to replace it with another picture, and
+this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit.
+There are many conditions that determine the
+selection of the picture to be displayed. It may be
+the preference of a guest, or it may be the season
+of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give
+a certain picture special significance. There is,
+in this singular custom, a very definite service
+which the picture is made to perform, and it is given
+an individuality which perhaps has no parallel
+in our own practice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grouping of Small, Simple Pictures.</i>&mdash;If a considerable
+number of pictures are grouped together,
+it is quite essential that all the pictures of the group
+should be of similar character and tone and similarly
+framed. It is hardly possible for them to be all
+of the same size, nor, indeed, is such agreement
+desirable except in so far as is required to give
+proper balance to the group. Small pictures in
+light frames are, of course, the most desirable
+for such grouping, and if possible there should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+an evident reason for the grouping. A series of
+photographs of a certain locality, for example,
+might form a group of four or five or even more
+pictures so that they could be easily seen together
+and so more thoroughly enjoyed. A collection
+of photographs in passe-partout bindings, especially
+if they deal with subjects in any way related,
+may form an attractive group. But pictures of
+any considerable size or those having decided individuality
+are generally not suited to any plan
+of grouping. They should appear by themselves,
+in frames and other surroundings which accentuate
+their peculiar merits.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kind of Frame.</i>&mdash;The material of the frame,
+its colour, and the colour of the mat are determined
+by the tone of the picture. Oil paintings easily
+support gilt frames and should be hung in good
+light. Pictures of light values with white mats
+are well finished in narrow gilt frames. Carbon
+photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are
+appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium
+colour, and appear best when hung against a dark
+wall. The truth of these statements will hardly
+be questioned by any one who has a good sense of
+colour harmony. But there are many other elements
+that enter into a concrete problem of picture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+framing that cannot be brought under general
+rules or formulas. It is generally best to depend largely
+upon the tests of trial. In framing and hanging pictures,
+as in many other things, observation and experience
+are the best teachers. Some suggestions
+may be found in the following record of two actual
+framing problems that were satisfactorily solved.</p>
+
+<h3>FRAMING AN OLD-TIME INTERIOR, DRAWN IN COLOURS</h3>
+
+<p>The conditions which had to be met in this
+problem are plainly shown in the framed picture
+as it hangs on the wall. The picture itself is a
+small one, 8 inches wide and 13 inches long. It
+is interesting because of its representation of a
+sewing room in one of the high-class homes of
+the colonial period. The mistress and her two young
+daughters are engaged in sewing and embroidery.
+Patterns are displayed upon the wall; the furniture
+is appropriate and evidently an example of the
+best of the period. All these details are suggestive
+of the delightful home life of our grandmothers.</p>
+
+<p>Such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and
+to properly emphasize its details; and it requires
+a simple, narrow frame. The mat was accordingly
+made 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches wide and the frame 1 inch wide.
+The tone of the mat selected was a light bluish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+gray, forming a good connecting link between
+the bright colours of the picture and the gray of
+the wall against which it was to be placed. Since
+it was to hang directly over a fine old mahogany
+table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a
+mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown
+in the picture with that of the room.</p>
+
+<p>The frame was made with mitred corners of
+perfectly plain, square-edged birch, which readily
+takes a mahogany finish. The stain was first
+applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to
+dry. A surfacing coat of shellac, coloured to match
+the stain, was next put on, allowed to dry, and then
+carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to
+guard against rounding the edges and corners. A
+coat of varnish was next applied, which, after hardening
+for one week, was rubbed first with pumice
+stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil.
+A final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put
+on, which was lightly rubbed with rotten stone
+and water to give the half dull effect required to
+match the antique mahogany table.</p>
+
+<h3>FRAMING A CARBON PHOTOGRAPH OF A MASTERPIECE</h3>
+
+<p>The picture is a copy in sepia tones of Murillo's
+Saint Anthony, 16 inches in height by 20 inches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+horizontally. The frame is made of quartered
+oak 3 inches wide, slightly convex but smooth;
+and it is well joined with mitred corners. A picture
+of this character needs no mat. Indeed, it would
+have been the height of presumption to strive
+to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic
+meaning and treatment. It must be left to itself
+as much as possible. The dimensions of the frame
+are therefore determined by the size of the
+picture itself.</p>
+
+<p>The picture hangs against a light gray wall in
+good light, somewhat apart from other pictures.
+It was a happy thought thus to recognize its dignity.
+It was given further distinction by finishing
+the oak frame so that it should not associate
+itself with the other woodwork in the room. Since
+the room in which the picture was to hang has a
+light ash trim and most of the furniture a mahogany
+finish, this requirement was easily met.</p>
+
+<p>But there are many ways of finishing a frame
+to avoid too close association with the commonplace
+that would have been anything but appropriate
+to such a picture as this. A gilt surface,
+a silver-gray tone, or a highly polished golden oak
+are possible blunders. Nothing should be done
+to call attention to the frame of any picture, least<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one.
+The frame should seem to be a part of the
+picture, repeating its prevailing tones with a
+richness in keeping with the composition of the
+picture itself. The colour should be a rich, dark
+brown, but not so dark as to obscure the figure
+of the wood. The finish should be dull, but soft
+and smooth.</p>
+
+<p>There are several brown stains which, properly
+applied, would give the desired effect. For the
+colour it was thought best to rely upon Van Dyke
+brown, which may be used either with alcohol or
+turpentine. It is not desirable to use a water stain
+in a case like this because it would raise the grain,
+necessitating sand-papering, which should be avoided
+as much as possible on picture frames in order to
+keep the edges and corners intact. Ammonia
+fuming preserves the figure of the wood better
+than any other form of staining, but it was thought
+that the oak might not take on a tone dark enough
+to meet the requirements. It was decided, however,
+to try the fuming method and to tone up with a
+thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not
+sufficiently dark. The ammonia process resulted
+in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour too light. A
+thin Van Dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+applied and when dry this was followed by a very
+thin coat of shellac&mdash;mostly alcohol&mdash;coloured
+to match the stain. This was to fill partially the
+grain of the wood. Finally, it was thoroughly coated
+with wax finish and well rubbed to restore the soft,
+satin-like surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<img src="images/i_090.jpg" width="499" height="236" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A group of passe-partouts</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3>PASSE-PARTOUTS</h3>
+
+<p>Framing pictures in passe-partout binding is
+one of the little arts of home decoration, though it
+is by no means an unimportant one. It is easy
+to learn and it involves small expense in time and
+money, but it furnishes a means of preserving
+many pictures of real worth in themselves or of
+value to their owners because of pleasant associations;
+and it is in itself a delightful occupation.
+It offers the same chances for artistic effects in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+colour harmony and contrasts, in spacing, and in
+the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult
+methods of framing do, with the added advantage
+that one need not be deterred by the question of
+expense from discarding an unsuccessful result
+and trying again.</p>
+
+<p><i>Varieties of Binding.</i>&mdash;Passe-partout binding is
+made in a great variety of colours. It costs from
+ten to twenty cents per roll of twelve yards, according
+to colour and quality, and it may be purchased
+of dealers in artists' supplies. For general
+use the ordinary width of binding&mdash;<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an
+inch&mdash;is required; but extra narrow widths are
+supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a
+contrasting colour. For these margins the gold
+and silver narrow bindings are, with certain pictures,
+very effective; but white and other light
+colours are often used for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artistic Colour Effects.</i>&mdash;The choice of the colour
+for the principal binding should be controlled mainly
+by the tone of the picture, with which, as a general
+thing, it should blend. If no mat be used, more
+or less of a contrast in colour between the picture
+and the binding is permissible; but the most artistic
+effects are obtained when mats are used.
+These should, of course, be in harmony with the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+colour tones and general character of the picture.
+It may be a harmony of agreement if there is a
+border of light tone between the picture and the
+mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing.
+Without such a border it will be necessary to show
+a pleasing contrast of tone. But in almost all cases
+when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat
+the predominant colour or some other prominent
+characteristic of the picture. For example, if it
+be a picture of an English hunting scene with
+mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be
+of a light greenish hue and the binding red. If
+it be a landscape photograph in sepia tones, a white
+or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown
+binding is a good combination. A Scotch scene
+is appropriately framed in a plaid binding. In
+this case it is the subject of the picture rather than
+the colour that suggests the binding. But in all
+cases opportunity is offered for carefully selecting
+the colour combinations, planning the spacing,
+and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character.
+Thus one of the simplest of decorative
+processes presents large artistic possibilities.</p>
+
+<p><i>An Actual Problem.</i>&mdash;The various steps in the
+process of framing a picture in passe-partout binding
+may perhaps be best understood by giving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+an example of it. The actual problem is to frame
+a silhouette&mdash;an original drawing in black India
+ink on light gray paper, 8 by 10 inches in size,
+with the longer dimension vertical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;The materials and tools
+required are as follows: A piece of glass the size
+of the picture (8 by 10 inches), since no border is
+needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may
+be cut from an old box cover, the same size as the
+glass; a generous yard of black passe-partout binding;
+two passe-partout rings, which cost five cents per
+dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife
+or a pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed
+nail.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;With these materials in hand it
+will require scarcely more than twenty minutes
+to complete the work. The first step is the setting
+of the rings. This is accomplished by punching
+two small holes in one of the pieces of pasteboard
+two inches from the edge chosen for the top and about
+one inch from each side. Through these holes the
+points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close
+to the pasteboard. Bending the points over in
+opposite directions fastens the ring firmly. This
+is a comparatively large picture. Had it been small&mdash;say
+4 by 5 inches or smaller&mdash;only one ring in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+the centre, fastened about 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches from the
+edge, would have been needed.</p>
+
+<p>The picture is now mounted on the second piece
+of pasteboard by fastening it at the upper corners
+with a little paste. It is desirable to use as little
+paste as possible. The two pieces of pasteboard
+are then brought together, care being taken that
+the rings are on the outside, and the glass laid over
+the picture. These parts are now ready to be bound
+together. The sides are bound first. This is done
+by cutting two pieces of the binding <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+longer than the short edges of the picture, wetting
+the gummed side and laying it along the edge of
+the glass so that it will lap <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch over the
+face of the glass. Each end of this binding will
+extend <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch beyond the glass. The rest
+of the binding is now folded over upon the pasteboard
+back, taking pains to draw it down close to
+the edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is
+permanently fastened. The <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch that
+projects at each end is then folded over the corner
+and pressed down as close as possible to the edge
+of the glass and pasteboard. The upper and lower
+edges are bound in the same way, excepting that the
+pieces of binding are first cut the same length as
+the edges over which they are to be pasted, and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+before they are pasted on, the two corners on the
+side to be pasted to the glass are cut off <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an
+inch back at an angle of 45 degrees, and the other
+corners are also trimmed back to about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an
+inch. The accompanying drawing shows more
+clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. The
+purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are
+pasted over the top and bottom edges of the glass,
+it is seen that they have been cut to give the appearance
+of mitred corners, and that when folded
+over the edges upon the back of the pasteboard
+no rough edges of binding are left exposed at the
+corners.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="500" height="161" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">How the binding strips are trimmed</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the lessons of experience in this work is
+that it is well to take great pains in centring
+the binding strips accurately before pasting them
+on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made
+to correct a mistake by removing the binding and
+pasting it on again.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+The more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats,
+borders, and double bindings, are scarcely more difficult
+than the simple example just described, though
+they will require more time. It is well to begin with
+the easier problems. When borders and double
+bindings are used the narrow passe-partout strips
+are pasted on first, with proper care to cut the
+mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately
+before pasting them down upon the glass. The
+edges are bound last. This partly covers the
+brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along
+the edge of the glass, and leaves a narrow line of
+colour exposed as a border just inside the
+binding.</p>
+
+<h3>HANGING PICTURES</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_097.jpg" width="400" height="317" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A correct method of hanging pictures</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>How to Hang Pictures.</i>&mdash;If wire be used for hanging
+pictures, it should be as small and inconspicuous
+as possible. In place of the braided steel wire,
+which may be needed for large pictures, a single
+brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for
+those of lighter weight. In all cases where the wire
+shows it should appear as two vertical lines against
+the wall and not as a single wire bent over a single
+hook in the form of an inverted V, so commonly
+seen and so manifestly failing to conform with any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+lines of a room. Levelling the picture may be easily
+managed by using only one wire, making it continuous
+through the screw eyes on the back of the picture.
+These screw eyes should be placed near the
+top of the frame&mdash;about one sixth the whole vertical
+width of the picture from the top&mdash;so that the picture
+may hang nearly flat against the wall. Whenever
+possible, however, pictures should be hung without
+showing the wire at all. This may be easily managed
+without seriously marring the finish of some rooms by
+driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower
+wall which is to come directly behind the top of the
+picture, allowing them to project about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+inch and bending them up a little with a pair of
+pliers so that the wires will not slip off. Choice,
+small pictures may be hung in this way on fine
+upholstery tacks. It is often possible, when the
+wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado
+cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze.
+Whenever it is necessary, as it often is, to suspend
+wires by means of the so-called picture hooks
+from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above
+the frieze, some attention should be paid to
+the colour of these hooks. Bright metal hooks
+showing over a delicately coloured moulding are
+in bad taste. Some people prefer to use the
+inverted V suspension in order to reduce the number
+of these picture hooks. But it is far better to
+retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible
+wires and colour the hooks to make them less
+conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>In determining the height of pictures it is only
+necessary to remember that they are placed upon the
+walls to be enjoyed. While monotony in height
+is to be avoided, the average eye level should not
+be disregarded. The frontispiece illustrates an
+effective placing of a picture in the dining-room of
+the model house.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV">IV</a><br /><br />
+<small>THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS</small></h2>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"I know not which I love the most,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Nor which the comeliest shows;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The timid, bashful violet,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Or the royal-hearted rose;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"The pansy in her purple dress,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The pink with cheek of red,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Like a bashful maid, her head."<br /></span>
+</div>
+<div class="auth"><i>&mdash;Ph&oelig;be Cary</i></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Formerly</span> when the furniture, pictures, and
+draperies had been arranged in our rooms, with
+perhaps a few pieces of bric-&agrave;-brac, we considered
+their decoration quite complete. But we have
+learned how much cheerfulness a few simple flowers,
+properly arranged, impart to the same rooms;
+and so flowers have come to be considered as almost
+essential to the complete decoration of the home.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Lesson From the Japanese.</i>&mdash;If we have learned
+much from the Japanese in regard to the arrangement
+and hanging of pictures, from them we have
+learned more about the artistic arrangement of
+flowers. They have taught us to value the stem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+and leaves of the flower as essential to an artistic
+arrangement, that flowers of the same kind should
+be grouped together, and that harmony and blending
+of colour are necessary to secure the most artistic
+effects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flowers of a Kind Grouped Together.</i>&mdash;We may
+have been in the habit of putting several different
+kinds of flowers together and of being satisfied with
+such a composition; but the Japanese would tell us
+that when several different kinds of flowers are combined
+in one grouping the full beauty of each is
+lost; and after a few experiments we shall come to
+see the truth of this. Here is an illustration: At a
+summer camp with which I am familiar it was the
+daily duty of one of the younger boys to go for the
+wild flowers we used for keeping the camp gay. He
+often brought home snug little bunches of the flower
+of the wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be
+used together. No pleasing arrangement could be
+made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring
+long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and
+gather branches of the rose, especially those with
+the buds. The convolvulus we arranged in a flat
+dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the
+vine hang over the mantel, and he quickly saw that
+it "looked prettier&mdash;more as though it were growing."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+When a few of the stalks of the wild rose
+were arranged by themselves in a green glass vase
+he pronounced them much "prettier than when
+mixed up with other flowers."</p>
+
+<p><i>The Way of the Garden.</i>&mdash;In our gardens we plant
+the sunshiny daffodils by themselves, the sweet
+peas grow in a mass together, and we have beds of
+roses. If we follow the same plan in the arrangement
+of our flowers indoors we shall realize their
+decorative qualities to the utmost. So we may
+consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging flowers,&mdash;to
+use only one kind of flower, with its stems and
+leaves, arranging them loosely, rather than to have
+many in a compact grouping. One single, long-stemmed
+rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall,
+slender glass is more decorative and gives us more
+pleasure than a dozen roses stripped of their foliage
+and crowded into a small vase.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exceptions.</i>&mdash;While the above rule should be
+generally followed, there are exceptional instances
+of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of flowers
+of two or more kinds together. Among these we
+may mention the combining of field daisies and
+buttercups, or buttercups with the grasses among
+which they grow. So, too, the lacy flower of the
+wild carrot may sometimes be effectively combined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+with some other flower. The spikes of the cardinal
+flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour, but very
+stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a
+few sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and
+makes it more pleasing.</p>
+
+<h3>COLOUR ARRANGEMENT</h3>
+
+<p>We have just considered the grouping of flowers
+by themselves. There is another element to be
+considered before we can have artistic results, and
+that is arrangement as to colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colour Grouping.</i>&mdash;We may not all be sensitive
+to colour ourselves, but in arranging flowers we
+should always keep in mind the pleasure that is to be
+given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour
+grouping that will offend those whose colour sense
+is keen. There are three colour schemes that can be
+followed with success and satisfaction to all. In
+one we group together only flowers of the same
+colour, as red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris,
+not red, pink, and white roses, nor all of the various
+colours of sweet pea.</p>
+
+<p>Another arrangement calls for shades and tints
+of the same colour. With many flowers it is possible
+to get exquisite effects by following this scheme.
+For instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+to deep purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of
+damp moss. Sweet peas have beautiful shades
+of pink that can be combined, as well as shades
+of red and of lavender. Nasturtiums are never so
+effective as when the various shades of yellow, orange
+and brown are used together. The garden aster
+of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure
+in colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and
+purples, a variety of pink tones, beautiful reds, and
+perfect white ones.</p>
+
+<p>And the white ones! What shall we do with
+these? Three or four pure white asters of the same
+variety may be used together; or two or three white
+ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or
+pink ones. White may be combined with any
+colour with good results. Nature is a good teacher
+here for she gives us both the coloured and the white
+in almost every variety of flower. For example there
+are crimson cosmos and white cosmos, scarlet geraniums
+and white geraniums, blue violets and white
+violets, and so on through a great many varieties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Combination of Complementary Colours.</i>&mdash;Another
+colour grouping that is sometimes desirable makes
+use of the complementary colours. The salpiglossis,
+a garden flower that ought to be better known than
+it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+orange-yellow flowers that are so effective together.
+The iris also has flowers of complementary colours,
+yellow and violet blue being common among them.</p>
+
+<h3>THE FLOWER HOLDERS</h3>
+
+<p><i>A Flower Composition as a Picture.</i>&mdash;Having
+learned something about the artistic use of colour,
+we come to the consideration of the arrangement of
+the flowers, and this includes the vase or other receptacle
+used for holding them. An artistic flower
+composition is a picture; and as the mat and frame
+give finish to a picture hanging on the wall, so the
+vessel holding flowers should give the required finish
+to the flower picture. Like the frame, it should be
+simple in design, have graceful lines, and serve only
+as a medium to set off the flowers to the best advantage.
+There should be as little decoration as
+possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used
+they must blend or harmonize with the colour
+schemes of the flowers placed in them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Receptacles for Flowers.</i>&mdash;It often is a problem
+to find the most fitting thing for holding flowers;
+but in the reliable Japanese shops one can always
+find some simple holders, and there are very good
+designs in the clear and in the green glass that are
+inexpensive and appropriate. As a rule the less expensive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+the article the better adapted it is as a suitable
+holder for flowers. One need never mourn that
+she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they
+and their cheap imitations are among the most
+unsuitable of holders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Four Typical Flower Holders.</i>&mdash;Let us suppose our
+equipment includes four simple receptacles,&mdash;a
+small, clear glass fish globe such as may be had for
+twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve
+inches in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring
+a little at the top, costing twenty-five cents; a
+large cylindrical Japanese jar of a pale green tint,
+eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar
+and a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight
+inches in height, which may be bought for sixty or
+seventy cents.</p>
+
+<p>The fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums
+and their leaves are loosely arranged in it. The
+stems show through the water and glass and form
+a part of the composition. Short stemmed roses
+may be most artistically grouped in it. I have seen
+a very charming combination of mignonette and
+bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as a
+harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the
+various shades of California poppies and their
+foliage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_106.jpg" width="300" height="282" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A fish globe with daisies</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed
+roses: and a few yellow daffodils or the narcissus with
+their leaves look equally well in it. Poppies for a day,
+in the same vase, have
+given pleasure to the
+beholder. At Easter
+it has joyously borne
+a stalk of two perfect
+lilies, and in the
+autumn tall spikes of
+salvia have been
+equally at home in it.</p>
+
+<p>Our tall Japanese
+jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need to
+remember that in tall or vertical compositions the
+vase should be about one third the height of the
+whole combination; so this is adapted to holding
+branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if
+one is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about
+three branches from these are effective in it.
+Tall-growing golden-rod looks equally well placed
+here. It furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and
+chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions
+has been two or three branches of pine
+bearing their brown cones.</p>
+
+<p>The possibilities of the smaller green jar are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+numerous, and only a few are given as suggestions.
+A loose arrangement of jonquils and their leaves,
+or of white narcissus, is effective. The shorter
+stemmed lilacs, either the
+purple ones or the white
+ones, may be placed in it.
+An arrangement of white
+field daisies, and one of
+yellow roses, have been found
+equally successful. One
+soon discovers the harmony
+and balance that exist between
+the flower and holder.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE BACKGROUND</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_107.jpg" width="250" height="486" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A tall vase with narcissus</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Space and Harmonious
+Surroundings.</i>&mdash;To obtain
+the largest decorative effect
+we must have not only
+artistic grouping and harmonious setting of flowers,
+but space and background, just as are needed for the
+hanging of pictures. Many a floral composition
+has lost all decorative effect from being placed in
+too small a space and surrounded by distracting
+objects. A few days ago I stepped into a room on
+an errand and forgot my errand in the pleasure I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+derived from seeing some beautiful yellow chrysanthemums,
+three or four, I think, in a yellowish
+brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for
+a background the upturned leaf of the table. It
+stood some little distance from anything else, a shaft
+of sunlight lay across the whole, and as I looked at
+it I thought: Here is all that constitutes a decorative
+arrangement of flowers. It was the feature
+of the room that held one's attention.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_108.jpg" width="500" height="483" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An arrangement for the tall Japanese jar</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Flowers for the Dining Table.</i>&mdash;If we can have
+flowers in but one room in the house, it may be
+difficult to decide which one it shall be. Since
+it often happens that the dining-room is the only
+room where a busy
+family comes together
+for any length of time,
+flowers should certainly
+be introduced here that
+all may share their
+beauty and cheer. Any
+arrangement for the
+home table should be
+moderately low; and
+there are many simple
+flowers that can be used in this way to advantage.
+For instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence
+or common bluet (root and all), to be
+found in any field in the spring, and put them in a
+shallow glass dish. Simple and effective decoration
+for the table is the result. Flowers with any
+degree of fragrance should never be used in the
+dining-room. The fragrance of some flowers is
+offensive to many people, and when combined with
+the odour of food doubly so.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_109.jpg" width="300" height="310" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An arrangement of roses in a small jar</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At a luncheon served by the girls in the model<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+house the floral decoration for the table was a half
+dozen single, yellow jonquils with their foliage,
+placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the
+girls. Their dishes being in white with a gold edge
+and the walls and furniture in browns, nothing could
+have been more harmonious than these few simple
+flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Expensive Flowers not Necessary.</i>&mdash;It is evident
+that for floral decoration neither expensive nor
+lavish displays are necessary, that simplicity is
+the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of
+wild flowers in their season are more truly artistic
+than many expensive hot-house flowers. In this
+country we do not, as the Japanese do, make a
+festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we
+rightly appreciate and utilize the flowers of each
+season, we may give a touch of festivity to the life
+of every day.</p>
+
+<p>In the early spring nothing can be more appropriate
+than an arrangement of pussy willows or
+branches of the alder with its tassels, while the red
+maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that
+will brighten any room. A clump of blood root
+in a small jardiniere is as decorative as the expensive
+plants one may see in the home of some friend.
+The flowers of the field and the garden offer so many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+possibilities for decorative results that no one's home
+need lack the cheery touch which they can give.</p>
+
+<p>There is a personal element in flowers such as
+is not found in any other means of decoration,
+not even in pictures, with the single exception of
+good portraits. They seem to speak to us. We can
+almost believe that they feel an interest in all that
+we have said about them. If they really could know,
+would they not approve the principles that we have
+laid down? We may fancy that they <i>would</i> approve
+and that, if they could really speak and we would
+listen, they would tell us so in some such language
+as the following:</p>
+
+<h3>WHAT THE FLOWERS SAY ABOUT IT</h3>
+
+<p>Don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our
+own kind.</p>
+
+<p>Don't make a confusion of colour with us.</p>
+
+<p>Don't arrange us in snug, solid masses.</p>
+
+<p>Don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a
+part of the decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills
+around us.</p>
+
+<p>Don't crowd us in with an assortment of household
+goods; we need space and a background.</p>
+
+<p>Don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining
+table.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Do</i> love us and use us in the home as much
+as possible. This is well for you. By so doing
+not only will your love of us increase, but your
+artistic perception of the fitness of things will
+constantly enlarge. For truly has it been said,
+"The poorest woman in the world, if she has faith
+in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with
+light; she can always place there some flowers."</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="V" id="V">V</a><br /><br />
+<small>DECORATIVE FABRICS</small></h2>
+
+<h3>PORTI&Egrave;RES, WINDOW DRAPERIES, CUSHION COVERS,
+TABLE MATS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate discontent with
+plain, smooth surface&mdash;<i>Lewis F. Day</i></p></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">No kind</span> of decorative art offers greater
+possibilities for touching the right&mdash;or the
+wrong&mdash;chord than that which makes use
+of fabrics. Porti&egrave;res, curtains, cushion covers, table
+runners and mats, lamp shades, and many other furnishings,
+in which fabrics are involved, present problems
+that quickly engage the interest of the amateur
+decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and,
+when well worked out, add greatly to the attractiveness
+of artistic surroundings. And every house becomes
+a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when
+the possibilities of development in this direction are
+realized. Here, as everywhere else, decorative art
+is secondary to architectural design and must never
+fail to acknowledge its dependence. Its glory is to
+follow. To attempt to lead means miserable failure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Example of the Model House.</i>&mdash;The wide doorways
+connecting the hall, the living room, and dining-room
+of our model house made doors undesirable
+and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division
+between the rooms and to soften the lines of the
+wood finish. They were made to harmonize with
+the colour scheme but were darker and richer in
+tone. The multiple windows, with the absence of
+direct sunshine, suggested the light style of drapery;
+and the preference given to straight-lined, substantial
+furniture, made in the school shops, led as
+a natural consequence to cushions and coverings
+of leather or coarse fabric, in order to bear out the
+idea of simplicity, directness, and durability in
+craftsmanship. Velvets and satins would have
+been out of place.</p>
+
+<p><i>Utility to be Regarded.</i>&mdash;The highly decorative
+function of such accessories makes it doubly necessary
+to exercise care in selecting materials, designing
+the ornamental features, and properly placing
+the completed article, in order that the requirements
+of use be not subordinated to the demands of art.
+It must never be forgotten that utility is the basis
+of all true decoration. Portieres were originally
+a substitute for doors&mdash;a means of closing an
+opening between rooms. It must be possible always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+for them easily to serve this purpose. Hence
+loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole, should
+be used. Porti&egrave;res may properly be made of heavy
+cloth and they may have a lining harmonizing or
+in pleasing contrast with the tone of the principal
+fabric. They should always be at least opaque.
+Window draperies, on the other hand, are not a
+substitute for shades or curtains. They should not
+shut out the light but soften it. They should,
+therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable
+material, and be hung so that they can be easily
+taken down for cleaning. The simplest style of
+hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets,
+is the best. Since there is no need of frequently
+sliding them over the rod, it is well to hang them
+by means of a hem, stitched two or three inches from
+the top of the drapery, through which the rod may
+be easily pushed. Cushion covers and table runners,
+made of durable material and decorated with colours
+that are washable, are manifestly more serviceable
+than those that look fresh only when new, and
+hence are more in keeping with the idea of
+sincerity in household decoration. There is
+necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in
+plumbing if it is to meet the tests with equal success.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLIII" id="PLIII"></a><img src="images/i_115.jpg" width="600" height="355" alt="" />
+
+<table class="tablecp4" summary="captions">
+<tr valign="top"><td class="tdc"><div class="caption">Pillow Cover With Geometrical Designs Printed on Dyed
+Cotton Cloth.</div></td>
+<td class="tdc"><div class="caption">Table Runner of Russian Crash with Block Printed
+and Embroidered End Panels</div></td></tr>
+</table>
+<div class="capl">[Plate III]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>How such decorative features are worked out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+from beginning to end, is told in the following directions
+for a few practical problems which are known
+to be practical, because they have been actually
+carried through from the design to the completed
+article. This detailed and complete explanation,
+with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest
+many similar problems which every home offers.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BLOCK PRINTING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Problem</span>: <i>Decorating a Table Runner</i>.&mdash;This
+problem is easily separated into four distinct parts&mdash;making
+the design, cutting the block, printing,
+and finishing. The materials needed are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="materials">
+<tr><td class="tdl">(1) Making the design</td><td class="tpl">(2) Cutting the block</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Ordinary drawing paper</td><td class="tpl">Gum wood</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Rice paper</td><td class="tpl">Small penknife</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Charcoal</td><td class="tpl">Vise</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Pencil</td><td class="tpl">Sand-paper, fine</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Japanese or sable brush, medium size</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Water-proof India ink</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">(3) Printing the design</td><td class="tpl">(4) Finishing the runner</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Printing board</td><td class="tpl">Embroidery silk or mercerized cotton</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Sheet of glass</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Oil paints</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Turpentine</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Palette knife</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Cotton batting</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Cheese cloth</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="300" height="289" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The peacock design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;To carry out the problem as illustrated,
+it is necessary, first of all, to make the design.
+Geometry, nature, and the imagination are satisfactory
+sources upon which to draw for the motif.
+If the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one
+should study for suggestions the figures in Oriental
+rugs, photographs of early Eastern art, and the
+fine old tapestries in museum collections. Some
+good geometrical designs, like that used on the
+pillow cover illustrated on <a href="#Page_104">page 104</a>, were made
+by school-girls after drawing many figures found in
+rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying
+numerous reproductions of Coptic designs. In
+no case was the block pattern in the least like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+designs studied. They served only as ideas to start
+with and led to the production of truly original
+work. It is essential to keep a few simple principles
+in mind in working out the design: (1) Both the dark
+and light shades in the patterns
+should be varied in
+size and form to avoid a
+monotonous result and should
+be as beautiful in proportion
+as possible. (2) There should
+be a centre of interest, one
+part of the design dominant&mdash;more
+attractive than any
+other. (3) The design must be a unit&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the parts must hold together. All feeling of unity
+is lost if the parts of the design call attention to
+themselves to the exclusion of the whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_120.jpg" width="200" height="206" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Block used in printing the
+peacock design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Preliminary Sketches and the Drawing.</i>&mdash;It will be
+found desirable to make many preliminary sketches
+in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a part of each
+sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately
+the dark and light effect. These should be compared,
+keeping clearly in mind the principles stated
+above. When one possessing the right qualifications
+has been found, the next step is to draw on a
+fresh piece of paper an accurate 3-inch square and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+copy upon it the satisfactory design in pencil outline.
+This should be done very carefully, that the spirit of
+the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. When
+the drawing is completed it must be put into shape
+to be transferred to the block. To do this we fasten
+a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace
+with very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces
+with black ink, using a brush. This brush work
+may be done directly without the pencil line if the
+drawing underneath shows very plainly through the
+paper. When the ink has thoroughly dried, the design
+may be cut out on the edge of the 3-inch square.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_121.jpg" width="400" height="392" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bird pattern</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Laying the Pattern and Cutting the Block.</i>&mdash;A block<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+3 &times; 3 &times; <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inches will now be required. This
+should be procured and sand-papered. One face
+of it should then be covered with a coating of library
+paste, the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down
+smooth. If the design is symmetrical it should be
+pasted on the block, ink side up, but otherwise with
+the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon
+the cloth. When the paste gets quite dry one may
+then fasten the block in the vise and, holding the
+blade of the knife at a slight angle and always
+away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design
+along the outlines. These must be kept very smooth
+and sharp. All of the white shapes should be cut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+out, leaving the black ones in relief. Usually
+an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background,
+but it will be found after practise in printing
+that the larger spaces should be cut deeper and
+that, when the edges or corners of
+the block form a part of the background
+instead of the dark pattern,
+they also need a deeper cut. The
+paper that still adheres to the face of
+the block may now be removed by
+rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper
+laid upon something hard and smooth like glass in
+order that the block may have an absolutely
+level surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_122.jpg" width="400" height="392" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A flower and leaf design</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_123.jpg" width="200" height="198" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Block used in
+printing this
+design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Padded Board.</i>&mdash;All block printing should be
+done upon a padded board. A very convenient
+one can be made by laying upon a bread board three
+or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over
+these several thicknesses of cheese cloth. In place
+of these an ironing board may be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Material Required.</i>&mdash;It is essential to select for
+the runner a piece of crash of fine texture and even
+weave. This is sold under the name of Russian
+crash and is from 15 to 16 inches wide but varies
+considerably in quality. It is very difficult to
+print well upon the coarser grades.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_124.jpg" width="400" height="384" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Alternating animal and geometrical design</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<img src="images/i_125.jpg" width="399" height="142" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Blocks used in printing this design</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Trying the Colours.</i>&mdash;After deciding upon a colour
+which will harmonize with the general colour scheme
+of the room in which the table runner is to be used,
+it is in order to mix the paint and try the block upon
+a small piece of crash. To prepare the paint, squeeze
+a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a
+sheet of glass and blend thoroughly with the palette
+knife, thinning with turpentine to the consistency
+of cream. It is seldom that a colour right from
+the tube will prove a pleasing one to use. Other
+colours mixed with it will change its hue and intensity;
+black or white will alter the value. Tie a little
+cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+or old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove
+from the raw edges all ravellings that might drop
+into the paint. Spread out quite thin upon the
+glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press
+the pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed
+all it will. Now charge the block by lightly
+pounding its surface with the pad. Press the block
+upon the cloth evenly. Only by repeated experiment
+will it be possible to determine just the right
+quantity of paint to mix, its brilliancy of tone, its
+consistency, how heavily to charge the block, etc.
+A good print shows the texture of the cloth through
+it, is even in tone, and has clear-cut edges. If
+the print looks like a painted spot, or if, when quite
+dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the paint
+used was too thick or else the block was too heavily
+charged. Different materials require different
+treatment. For a thin silk the block should be
+very lightly charged and lightly though evenly
+pressed upon the material. In printing upon crash<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+it is necessary to press the block very firmly upon
+the material; and frequently, to insure getting a
+sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to
+tap the block lightly with a hammer or wooden
+mallet. If one has a steady hand, the block can
+easily be lifted at one side to determine just where
+the extra pressure is needed. The block should be
+thoroughly rubbed with old cloth after each impression
+is made and occasionally sand-papered
+to remove any paint that may adhere to it. The
+first print made after sand-papering the block is
+liable to be a little less distinct than the others and
+should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the
+material.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centring the Work.</i>&mdash;A good way to plan the placing
+of the panel design is to run a basting thread
+across the crash between two of the woven threads.
+Mark the centre of the runner upon this thread,
+and, using these guides, print the design, beginning
+with one of the central units.</p>
+
+<p><i>Additional Features.</i>&mdash;Considerable charm can be
+added to the pattern by filling some of the spaces
+with a simple darning or running stitch in some
+bright colour. The embroidery thread used should
+be rather fine. It is well to finish the ends of the
+runner by button-holing with ravellings of the crash.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+Tiny dots of some colour used in the panel may be
+embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed
+edge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colours.</i>&mdash;The following list of oil colours will be
+found practical: ivory black, flake white, burnt
+sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome yellow,
+chrome green, permanent blue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials.</i>&mdash;Linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk
+pongee, cr&ecirc;pe de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached
+muslin are excellent materials for block printing.
+Beautiful background tones can be obtained by
+dyeing the two latter with easy dyes.</p>
+
+<p>In place of the gum wood for the block, basswood,
+maple, or holly may be used. It is possible to get
+along without a vise by fastening the block between
+two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board.
+Success is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks
+while simply held in the hand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Laundering.</i>&mdash;If the material used for the foundation
+is washable, block printed articles can be
+satisfactorily and easily laundered in soapy, lukewarm
+water. The colours are not injured in the
+least. A liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes
+used in place of turpentine, insuring still greater
+permanency of colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Applications of Block Printing.</i>&mdash;Other articles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+suitable for decoration by block printing are
+curtains, pillow covers, table covers, cushion covers,
+bureau scarfs, Portieres, table mats, bags of many
+sorts, etc. Printing may also be used to ornament
+articles for personal use, such as aprons and scarfs.</p>
+
+
+<h3>STENCILLING</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Problem</span>: <i>Window Draperies</i>.&mdash;Making the design,
+cutting the stencil, printing, and finishing form
+the divisions of the problem to be worked out. A list
+of necessary materials follows:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="materials">
+<tr valign="top"><td class="tdl" >(1) Making the design</td><td class="tpl">(2) Cutting the stencil</td><td class="tpl">(3) Printing</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Charcoal</td><td class="tpl">Sheet of glass</td><td class="tpl">Large board</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Pencil</td><td class="tpl">Sharp penknife</td><td class="tpl">Blotting paper</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Reflector</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Turpentine</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Ordinary drawing paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Oil paints</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Tracing paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Bristle brushes</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Carbon paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Pins</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Stencil paper</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;Suggestions as to the method of
+procedure in making a design have been already
+given in the section on block printing. The principles
+of design to be considered are outlined there
+also. In working out this problem, however, several
+new things come up for explanation: (1) The
+difference between a design to be stenciled and one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+to be printed by means of a wood block; (2) the
+method of joining units to form a border; (3) the
+method of turning a corner in a border design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLIV" id="PLIV"></a><img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="500" height="747" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Window Draperies With Stenciled Border. Designed and
+Executed by a School Girl</div>
+<div class="capl"> [Plate IV]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>The Stencil Bands.</i>&mdash;By studying the illustrations
+accompanying this section and by experimenting
+with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will be seen that
+in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the
+color in the finished work are completely separated
+from one another by bands of varying widths.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_131.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A stencilled pattern&mdash;portion of pillow cover</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve
+to hold the stencil together and are connected
+throughout the design. Though they may be as
+wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+much narrower than one eighth of an inch, as they
+are easily broken; and, unless carefully pinned down
+when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under
+them and ruin the work. In a block print design
+no connection of the light or separation of the dark
+parts has to be considered. In the illustration of
+the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed
+as compared with the stencilled pattern&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the dark represents the stencil paper, the light
+the openings through which the paint is applied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_132.jpg" width="300" height="301" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The stencil for this pattern</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Complete Unit.</i>&mdash;It will be readily understood
+that a border may be made up by repetition of
+one unit which is a complete thing in itself. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+unit in such a case may be made very long and
+narrow, so that in repeating it along the vertical
+edge of a curtain it produces a narrow band, while
+along the horizontal edge the band is broad. A
+border worked out in this way, with perfectly
+straight and practically continuous margins, is very
+structural in character, emphasizing, as it does,
+the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery.
+The effect is strong and dignified. The corner in
+this kind of border presents no difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Subordinate Unit.</i>&mdash;By studying the illustration
+in <a href="#PLIV">Plate IV</a> it will be seen that the unit of the
+border in this case is not complete in itself, but that
+the very conventional flower and stem composing
+it are joined to the next unit by what might be called
+a subordinate unit, composed, in this case, of a
+leaf form. The units are so closely spaced that a
+structural effect is fairly well obtained&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the
+upper and lower edges of the border are nearly
+straight, giving a feeling of restfulness to the design
+that never accompanies one with broken or wavy
+edges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Designing the Corner.</i>&mdash;Having planned a design
+for the straight running border of the curtains, take
+a reflector and experiment with the corner. The
+reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece,
+3<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> by 6 inches being a convenient size. The edges
+should be very straight and the corners square.
+Hold the reflector at various points along the border
+and always at an angle of 45 degrees. Study these
+possible corners which will be reflected in the glass,
+and when one sufficiently strong and interesting
+is found draw a light line along the edge of the
+reflector. This line, of course, exactly bisects the
+corner of the border to be made. Avoid making a
+border of this kind too deep or, when turned for
+the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and
+heavy band.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Outline Drawing.</i>&mdash;The dark and light design
+having thus been worked out in charcoal, the next
+thing to do is to make a very careful pencil-outline
+drawing of the same. It is well to draw the corner
+and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. To do
+the tracing, pin a piece of very thin paper over the
+finished part, and trace with a well sharpened and
+fairly soft pencil. Turn the tracing paper upside
+down, fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing
+underneath. After tacking it down, trace the remainder,
+using a firm, even pressure and being careful
+exactly to follow the line. Strengthen the part of
+the pattern thus transferred by going over it with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+a sharp, hard point, and continue as before until you
+have a border of which both the vertical and horizontal
+sections are from 9 to 12 inches long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transfer to Stencil Paper.</i>&mdash;Now, take a piece of
+stencil paper and square up one corner. Fasten
+the pencil drawing securely to the stencil paper
+along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between
+the two, and trace the design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutting the Stencil.</i>&mdash;Before cutting the stencil
+for the curtain a beginner should do a little practising
+upon an extra piece of the paper. Trace a portion
+of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a sheet of
+glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife
+cut along the outline of the pattern. The knife
+should be held at a slight angle and the cut made
+completely through the paper. The pieces of stencil
+paper should never be pulled out but will fall out
+without aid when the cutting is completed. After
+a little practice it will be found a simple matter to
+cut the design with perfectly smooth edges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suitable Materials for Stencilling.</i>&mdash;For the curtains
+fine cheese cloth or batiste will be found excellent.
+Even unbleached muslin will make attractive curtains
+where expense must be carefully considered.
+Unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure
+white materials will be found less pleasing than those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+that are quite creamy in tone. Scrim in a charming,
+grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good, soft
+quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. It is
+not advisable to hemstitch this material before
+stencilling as in case of accident or failure so much
+work is lost; but the hems should be carefully
+planned and basted, those along the inner edges of
+the curtains being narrower than the bottom hems.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Colours.</i>&mdash;The color scheme of the room should
+be carefully considered in deciding upon the colour
+or colours to be used in stencilling. If two colours
+are chosen, they should be of the same value&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the two colours should form equally dark spots
+in order that the pattern of the border may appear
+in the same dark and light as the original charcoal
+sketch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinning the Stencil.</i>&mdash;When ready for the actual
+process of stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting
+paper upon a board and over this place the corner
+of the curtain. Pin the stencil securely to the
+curtain so that the edge of the border when printed
+shall be about half an inch from the hem and the
+edges of both shall be absolutely parallel. Use as
+few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil
+close to the cloth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testing the Paint.</i>&mdash;Having mixed the oil paint<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+with turpentine or stencil mordant, using an old cup
+or glass for each colour, practise stencilling upon a
+small piece of cloth. Put blotting-paper under the
+cloth and pin the stencil down with great care.
+Use short, stiff bristle brushes for the stencilling,
+one for each colour. Remove almost all the paint
+from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper.
+When it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil
+the pattern by pounding the brush upon the exposed
+portions of the cloth, working close to the
+edge of each spot. If, upon removing the stencil,
+the edges are blurred, the paint was too thin or
+the stencil not carefully pinned down. If, on the
+other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty,
+so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in
+these places, you may be sure that the paint
+used was too thick or that the brush was too wet.
+The secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as
+thin and the brush as dry as possible. Hold the
+stencilled sample up to the window and see whether,
+when the light shines through it, the colour appears
+right.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Real Process.</i>&mdash;When confident that the
+process is understood and that the colour is satisfactory,
+proceed to stencil the corner of the curtain.
+Always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+clean piece of cloth to use in case of accident.
+When removing the pins from the stencil wipe each
+one carefully. Clean the stencil, too, handling it
+with care that none of the slender bridges may be
+broken. Replace the stencil, fitting a section of
+it to the finished work. Put the pins in the holes
+already made, otherwise the paint will get into
+them and disfigure the work. Continue the stencilling,
+a section at a time, until the border is completed.
+Do not fold the curtains until the stencilling
+is thoroughly dry. If the threads of the material
+can be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make
+the best finish; but careful hand hemming will look
+well upon material like fine batiste.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Valance.</i>&mdash;The curtains should hang in vertical
+folds from the top of the window to a point slightly
+below the window sill. They should be drawn back
+at each side of the window and the space between at
+the top filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps
+deeper if the window is very high. This valance
+should have the border stencilled upon it and should
+be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains.
+Sometimes, as in the illustration in <a href="#PLIV">Plate IV</a>, a
+valance running across the entire width of the
+window is used. In this case it is run upon an extra
+rod in front of the one from which the curtain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+hangs. Double rods for this purpose can be
+bought.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Possible Problems.</i>&mdash;As stencilling can be
+employed in practically the same place and upon
+the same materials as block printing, it is only
+necessary to refer to the lists given at the end of
+that section of this chapter for suggestions as to
+further possibilities in the way of home decoration
+by stencilling.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EMBROIDERY</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Problem</span>: <i>Table Mat</i>.&mdash;As in the preceding problems,
+the first thing to do is to plan the design roughly
+in charcoal or soft pencil in order to get the dark and
+light relations and the best proportions possible.
+If convenient, the mat should be made for use with
+some special lamp or vase. By measuring the base
+of this object it is easy to determine the size of the
+plain central space, which may be either circular
+or square in shape. The forms in the decorated
+part may be made of various shapes, but it is well
+to keep them very simple in outline. Straight lines
+alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated
+in <a href="#PLV">Plate V</a>, or a combination of straight and curved
+lines, as in the one shown in <a href="#PLIII">Plate III</a>. After working
+out the design very accurately with a hard pencil,
+the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+coarse Russian crash or heavy linen by means of
+carbon paper, taking great care to get the straight
+edges of the design even with the threads of the
+crash.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desirable Combinations of Colour and Stitches.</i>&mdash;The
+simple running or darning stitch should be employed
+in embroidering the pattern. Two or more colours
+may be used. Darning in dull green and outlining
+with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive
+mat. Other good combinations are green and
+white, blue and white, blue and green, soft dull
+blue, and pinkish orange. This by no means exhausts
+the pleasing contrasts that may be found.
+The brighter colour should always be employed in
+the smaller quantities. The mat illustrated in
+<a href="#PLV">Plate V</a> was embroidered in dull green and red
+mercerized cotton. After the darning was completed
+it was found that the red used in the small
+circles alone was too conspicuous, although it was
+very dull in tone. This defect was completely
+remedied and a perfect unity given to the design
+by outlining the forms in a couching stitch,
+using both colours. This was done by laying
+a green thread along the edge of each spot
+and taking a stitch of red over it at equal
+intervals.
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLV" id="PLV"></a><img src="images/i_141.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">CROCHETED PANELS</div>
+<div class="caption"><table class="tablecp4" summary="captions">
+<tr valign="top"><td class="tdl" >A Linen Workbag With Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch</td>
+<td class="tdl">A Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and Couching Stitch</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">Designed and Executed by School Girls</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate V]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>After the embroidered pattern is done one may
+finish the mat with fine, close hemstitching or by
+button-holing the edge with ravellings of the crash.
+The latter method is usually more pleasing. The
+simple darning stitch can also be used to make
+very attractive borders for table runners, sofa
+pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated
+in <a href="#PLV">Plate V</a>, besides being used to enrich a
+great variety of block printed or stencilled articles.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Satin Stitch.</i>&mdash;Another effective and easy
+embroidery stitch to be used in decorating articles
+for the home is the over-and-over or satin stitch.
+When planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen
+in which the threads can be easily counted, transfer
+the design, after having carefully drawn it in pencil
+outline, to paper marked off into little squares.
+This can be bought where kindergarten supplies
+are sold. Redraw the outline of the design, following
+exactly the lines on the paper, and at the
+same time keep as close as possible to the original
+form. Let a certain number of threads of linen
+represent a square of the design and copy the pattern
+in the satin stitch or even the cross stitch if
+preferred. No transferring of the pattern to the
+cloth is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>A pattern worked out on cross section paper in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+this way can also be crocheted, as illustrated in
+<a href="#PLV">Plate V</a>, and set into linen or some of its many
+imitations to decorate numberless articles for home
+or personal adornment. This crocheted work, if
+evenly done in fine thread, is quite suggestive of
+the Italian filet lace.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI">VI</a><br /><br />
+<small>DRESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DECORATION</small></h2>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"A foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And that the other maidens of the little town might know it,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">She thought she'd go to meeting of a Sunday just to show it.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">'Hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">'Hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she thought they said."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> considering the dress of the person as related
+to home decoration one is not so far afield
+as one may seem to be at first thought. It is
+true that dress has a variety of functions to perform
+that have no connection with the subject of decoration;
+and yet there is much that is common to both.
+Well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the
+design and general make-up of their costumes, must
+observe the same laws that govern design wherever it
+is applied, as an expression of the artistic sense in
+the affairs of every-day life. Beauty of line and
+proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use
+and to a great variety of special conditions, simplicity,
+symmetry, restraint, are all involved in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a
+room; and in most cases success or failure in one
+field has its counterpart in the other. Have we
+not often remarked of a house or of a room that
+it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him";
+and do not attractive costumes give pleasure to
+others than those who wear them for the same
+reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged
+rooms afford similar enjoyment to those who live
+in them?</p>
+
+<p><i>Art and the Fashions.</i>&mdash;In discussing the parallel
+between art in clothing and the more stable art
+of home decoration it must be admitted, of course,
+that style in dress introduces some embarrassing
+questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer
+wonderful changes with every season. And yet
+people of artistic feeling and good taste, succeed
+in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between
+the changing demands of fashion and the established
+principles of art as applied in dress.</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Be Well Dressed.</i>&mdash;The well-dressed woman
+knows how to select her clothes and how to wear
+them. She must study her own figure and know
+her defects as well as her good points. With this
+knowledge she can learn to subdue the one and bring
+out the other. She should have a clear conception<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to it.
+To acquire this training the principles of the art
+of decoration must be understood and applied.
+She should never wear a garment of a certain style
+simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make
+it conform to her individual type.</p>
+
+<p><i>Good Lines.</i>&mdash;Decorative design in dress must
+follow the construction lines of the figure and not
+destroy them. These are the much discussed good
+lines of which we hear and read so much. Horizontal
+lines break the figure and increase the breadth,
+while vertical lines give the appearance of height.
+It is the simple lines, conforming to and following
+the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. The
+taste of most women leads them to desire simple
+clothes; but through ignorance or inexperience
+many of these women fail to achieve that aim. A
+stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen
+wearing a dress with lapels or ruffles over the
+shoulders. This only serves to accentuate her defect.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unity and Harmony.</i>&mdash;In all forms of decoration
+harmony is essential&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, all the parts that are
+to be combined must agree with one another and
+with their surroundings. To secure this in dress
+is to give unity to the entire costume. A dress
+hat with plumes should not be worn with a tailored<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+suit in the morning; and yet we often see such a
+combination. Here the lack of harmony is between
+the parts of the costume; but the entire costume
+must be suited to the peculiarities of figure. There
+are women who never look well in the straight lines
+of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to
+them. They must tone down the effects of the lines
+by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock, or some such
+softening elements of dress. Others do not look
+well in fluffy things. Each must know what is
+becoming and dress accordingly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Colours.</i>&mdash;Every season we hear that
+certain colours are to be worn. Many women will
+choose a colour because they like it without considering
+whether it is suitable for them to wear. A little
+attention to a few well-known facts will help them
+to avoid failures of this kind. It is generally recognized
+that light colours seem to increase the size.
+Striped materials should not be worn by the stout
+women unless the stripes are very indistinct. Dots
+are also very dangerous for her; but she may choose
+a pattern with pin-point dots scattered over the
+surface at some distance from each other. She is
+always safe in a plain, dark colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colour and Complexion.</i>&mdash;In deciding on a becoming
+colour one must take into account the colour of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+the hair and eyes and the tone of the complexion.
+It has been thought that young girls can wear clear,
+light shades and that older women should keep to
+dark, quiet colours; yet there are older women who
+wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender charmingly
+and many young girls who cannot wear blue or
+pink. It is quite impossible to make accurate colour
+rules, because it would be hard to find two complexions
+that require exactly the same colour setting.
+It is well, however, to study combinations of different
+colours with the idea of finding the right
+colour, to use in any costume, the amount of each,
+and the best arrangement to give a proper
+balance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proportion.</i>&mdash;The importance of the principle
+of proportion is often overlooked, but beauty of
+dress is never possible if it be neglected. A
+well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must
+have given consideration to the relation of the size
+and shape of the head to the lines of the entire figure.
+Strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head,
+and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect
+it, and, through harmony of colour and proportion
+of line and mass, to improve the appearance of the
+whole costume. The artist, when drawing a figure,
+uses the head as the unit of measure. Therefore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+in choosing a hat one should select a style that is
+in good proportion to the size of the head and to the
+height of the figure. If the mass of the head is
+increased disproportionately by too large a hat,
+the entire figure is apparently shortened and the
+natural proportions destroyed. One often wonders
+why photographs of people with hats on look so
+old-fashioned and sometimes so ridiculous. It is
+because the hat is not in good proportion. The
+Gainsborough and Reynolds ladies with hats never
+look queer. Their hats bear the right relation to
+the head and the figure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appropriateness.</i>&mdash;The general proportions of a
+hat or a gown may be good, but the addition of the
+decoration may destroy all the good effect obtained
+by securing the right relation of line and mass. The
+aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and
+strengthen the whole. Beauty of dress, therefore,
+depends upon simplicity and appropriateness of
+the material used as well as upon the form and
+arrangement of the material. Wherever ornament
+is used it must fulfil the condition of fitness to place;
+otherwise it is not really decorative. In trimming
+a hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat
+before a mirror, and place the hat comfortably upon
+her head; then with the aid of a hand glass she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+should try the trimming in different positions until
+the best effect is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The designs in trimming should be appropriate
+to the garment. The size of the design and the kind
+of form used should be considered. Simple forms are
+the best for all decorative art work. In fact, there
+is great advantage in plain materials. They always
+work to greater economy than stripes or plaids.</p>
+
+<p><i>Influence of Occupation.</i>&mdash;The well-dressed woman
+should realize how great is the influence of occasion
+and occupation. Some gowns were intended only
+for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see
+them worn on the street cars or for shopping. I
+have always approved of the rule in many shops
+which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns.
+Formerly it was the old finery which was used for
+every-day wear. Now the business woman to
+be successful has to exercise more thought upon her
+clothes than the woman at home. Her clothes have
+harder wear and must be appropriate for her work.</p>
+
+<p>The dress of school-girls and children must not
+be overlooked. It should be as simple as possible
+and above all else it should be comfortable. It
+should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing
+should not interfere with any function of the body.
+But we often see children dressed with much lace,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+with many ruffles, and even with jewellery; and
+we have seen school girls wearing net waists,
+plumed hats, and high-heeled shoes. What an
+infraction is this of the principle of appropriateness
+in dress!</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII">VII</a><br /><br />
+<small>FURNITURE MAKING</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>It is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by thought
+that labour can be made happy&mdash;<i>John Ruskin</i></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> chief purpose of this chapter is to outline
+the most important general facts upon
+which good furniture making is based and
+to give specific directions for working out a number
+of typical problems, following designs which have
+been proved in completed articles made, for the
+most part, by school-boys and tested by use. No
+attempt is made to give this great subject complete
+and systematic treatment; for this would involve
+many problems in constructive design and a corresponding
+number of working drawings, with
+specifications for the selection and preparation of
+materials and for the work of construction&mdash;a
+subject so extensive that it would easily overrun
+the limits of a single chapter. The aim is rather
+to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of
+experience in constructive work with special reference
+to our main subject of household decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is taken for granted that the interested reader is
+familiar with the use of the common hand tools
+for woodworking or that he can, with some assistance,
+perhaps, easily command their use. It is
+not thought necessary, therefore, to describe in
+detail the proper method of using tools, but rather
+to offer practical suggestions on the selection,
+preparation and constructive use of woodworking
+materials and, in the series of problems which
+follow, to give some helpful hints on the way woodworking
+tools should be used. It is also assumed
+that in most cases the very great advantage of
+woodworking machinery may be utilized, especially
+in preparing the materials and bringing them
+within easy reach of the hand-tool processes. The
+true art-craft spirit, which always honours handwork
+as the supreme method, may not hesitate to
+command the services of machines so long as it
+does not become slavishly dependent upon them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK</h3>
+
+<p>The first thing that should claim the attention
+of the artistic woodworker is the selection and preparation
+of his materials, commonly known as the
+stock. The sculptor selects his marbles with the
+greatest care. So should the cabinet-maker make
+sure that his woods are taken from the right parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+of selected timber and that they are properly
+sawed and well seasoned. The importance of this
+cannot be overestimated. Hard wood boards, cut
+from the sides of a tree, will in drying, invariably
+curve across their grain. It is only those that
+are cut from the centre to the outside of the tree
+that may be depended upon to remain approximately
+true; for, after this cutting, the grain runs directly
+through the thickness of the board, or nearly so.
+Boards taken from timber in this way are said to
+be "quarter sawed"; those cut by sawing through
+the logs from side to side, as is always done with
+soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to
+be "plain sawed." This is illustrated in the accompanying
+drawings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quartered Oak.</i>&mdash;In the case
+of oak, the quarter sawing not
+only maintains a flat surface
+but greatly improves the appearance
+of the stock when finished.
+The popularity of
+quartered oak for furniture
+may therefore be said to be
+well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods. It
+is as good as it looks.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_155.jpg" width="200" height="207" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Quarter sawed log</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+to oak because the appearance of the grain and
+the strength of most woods is far from being improved
+by this method of cutting. Thus ash and
+gum wood and all the softer woods sometimes used
+in furniture making are plain sawed. We shall,
+therefore, generally find stock from these woods
+curved and twisted badly so
+that it will be necessary, in
+selecting material for large
+surfaces such as table tops, to
+pick out the straight parts for
+these surfaces and save the
+remainder to be cut into the
+smaller pieces which will always
+be needed. These pieces can be easily planed
+without much loss of thickness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_156a.jpg" width="400" height="50" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">End of quarter sawed board</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_156b.jpg" width="400" height="207" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Plain sawed log</div>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_156c.jpg" width="400" height="63" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">End of plain sawed board</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><i>Kiln-dried Lumber.</i>&mdash;This bending and twisting
+of the boards does not take place as soon as they
+are sawed out of the log, but gradually during the
+process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+kiln-dried, the more gradual the seasoning the less
+the bending. Lumber is kiln-dried by stacking it,
+with air spaces left between the boards, in steam-heated
+closets or kilns, where the process of drying
+is carried on evenly though rapidly. Kiln-dried
+lumber, therefore, retains its shape quite as well
+as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile.
+But whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed
+to remain in a dry place as long as possible before
+using it so that it will have a chance to change all
+that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent
+shrinking and warping. A good cabinet-maker
+never undertakes to make furniture from stock that
+he does not know to be perfectly dry and well
+seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is
+more likely to shrink, warp, and crack, but also
+because it cannot be depended upon to hold the
+glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other
+methods of finishing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Planing Down to a Flat Surface.</i>&mdash;Since boards
+are seldom perfectly flat, even if one has taken the
+greatest pains to select well-seasoned stock, it will
+almost invariably be necessary to work them down
+to a plane surface when they are glued up or joined
+together in any way. To accomplish this result
+it is necessary to plan the arrangement of the pieces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+in such a way that the concave of the bend shall
+fall on the same side, as shown in the illustration,
+and thus provide for the final working down with
+the least possible removal of stock. They can be
+arranged on a level bench top or floor with the
+convex side down so that they will lie as flat as
+possible. The boards should then be taken out
+one by one and their edges should be carefully planed
+so that they will match together in the position in
+which they are laid. It will be necessary to take
+each board from its place and return it several
+times in order that this matching may be made as
+perfect as possible. The object of all this is to prevent
+the entire arrangement from springing&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+from acquiring any new bend or twist when the
+parts are glued up. In joining boards to form
+large pieces of glued-up work, like table tops, it
+is customary to strengthen the joints by means
+of dowel pins. Small table tops and similar work
+may be safely glued up without dowelling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_158.jpg" width="500" height="61" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Boards placed for planing to flat surfaces</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fastening Glued-up Work.</i> It will be readily
+understood upon a little reflection that all plain
+glued-up work should be allowed to move slightly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+upon the framework to which it is attached; for
+even after it is well seasoned and well finished all
+woods will swell slightly in a damp atmosphere
+and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest
+movement being across the grain. Solid table
+tops, therefore, should never be fastened down
+firmly upon the framework with glue or with screws,
+but should be secured by means of buttons screwed
+to the under side of the top which travel in grooves
+cut in the framework and thus allow for expansion
+and contraction. A drawing is shown to illustrate
+the method of attaching the table-top buttons.
+Much of the warping and splitting of furniture is
+due to the failure of the designer or maker to observe
+this precaution.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_159.jpg" width="400" height="277" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of fastening table tops</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In planing up stock, whether it be a single piece
+or several glued together as just described, the
+cabinet-maker planes off one side first and then,
+using this side as the working face, gauges to the
+required thickness and planes off the other side if
+necessary. If the work be upon glued-up stock,
+it is well to plane off the projecting edges of the
+concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat
+easier and may be all the planing that will be necessary.
+If it be single pieces of stock that need
+to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is
+first planed out to a flat working face on one side
+before putting the plane to the opposite side.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Surface Plate.</i>&mdash;Planing to a flat surface requires
+some device to guide the eye. If the surface
+be very uneven at first, a beginning may be made
+in the planing without much assistance; but a
+point will finally be reached when neither the unaided
+eye nor the hand can determine whether or
+not a surface is flat. To determine this a surface
+plate, as it is called, is needed. This consists of a
+block of cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it
+from being bent&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, an inch or more&mdash;and with
+a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on
+one side. This surface is well chalked over. When
+the wood surface which is being planed down is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved
+it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood
+will become marked with the chalk and so indicate
+to the cabinet-maker what parts are to be removed.
+By making several tests of this kind he is able to
+plane to a good flat surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_161.jpg" width="500" height="160" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Winding sticks</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Winding Sticks.</i>&mdash;If the amateur's workshop is
+not provided with a surface plate, a simple means
+of testing for a flat surface is by means of two
+narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing
+them on their narrow edges across each end of the
+piece, as shown in the illustration, and sighting
+across their upper edges. The slight projections
+in the surfaces of the board can be determined in
+this way and planed off until the two top edges
+of the sticks are found to be level. These winding
+sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made,
+with opposite faces parallel. Their dimensions
+may be 1 &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 30 inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of True Surfaces.</i>&mdash;It may be well to
+add that all this care to produce flat and parallel
+surfaces is not merely for the purpose of giving a
+good appearance to these surfaces. True surfaces
+are necessary for the good of the work as a whole,
+for they form the basis from which other surfaces
+are gauged and other parts "trued up"&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+made square or otherwise geometrically correct.
+When the main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work
+are properly shaped, all the framework and other
+parts may be brought into line without bending
+or twisting. All such strains should be religiously
+avoided in good cabinet work. The natural curves,
+twists, or projections of the stock used should be
+removed by the use of the proper tools and never
+be strained to force any of the parts into
+their proper places or shapes. Such efforts
+produce strains which are transmitted to other
+parts, displacing them, causing new defects
+or a general failure of the parts to support each
+other.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Systematic Plan of Work.</i>&mdash;When the cabinet-maker
+undertakes to make either a single piece of
+furniture or several pieces, he goes about it in a very
+systematic way. Consulting his working drawing
+he makes an accurate list of the different pieces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+that will be required. For example, if he is to make
+a Morris chair he notes the fact that he will need
+four legs or posts 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches square by 22<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>
+inches long, a front rail and a back rail each <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times;
+2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 22 inches, two side rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 24
+inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is
+completed. With this list in hand he makes a careful
+selection of the lumber and prepares the pieces
+in the rough, allowing economically for the necessary
+working waste. Economy of time and labour is also
+secured by keeping together all parts on which similar
+work is to be done. Thus, if several parts are to
+be sawed to the same width or fashioned to the same
+curves, it is generally the best plan to work these
+parts out together while the machines and tools
+are set for this purpose. Such a plan not only
+saves time but, partially at least, it obviates the
+danger of mistakes. It is important also to follow
+a systematic order of work. All sawing to rough
+dimensions should be done before the pieces
+are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the
+latter operations should generally all be completed
+before laying out and cutting the joints.
+As the work progresses toward completion
+great saving of time and much comfort will
+result from keeping the completed parts in good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+condition and so arranged that they can be easily
+assembled.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GLUING</h3>
+
+<p><i>Necessity of Good Joints.</i>&mdash;After the selection
+and preparation of the material for the stock, the
+next important general process that demands attention
+is gluing; for good cabinet work implies
+good glue and a knowledge of how to use it. Prepared
+glue, such as is sold in bottles, is unsatisfactory
+for work of any consequence. A good woodworker
+always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it
+may be made ready for use on short notice. The
+glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. It should be
+applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to
+which it is applied clamped up quickly before the
+glue chills. It is the glue which penetrates the wood
+that holds the parts together and not a layer of
+glue between the joined edges or surfaces. It is
+therefore evident not only that joints and surfaces
+should be well smeared with glue, hot and thin
+enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the
+parts should be clamped up quickly while the glue is
+still hot so as to prevent any surplus from remaining
+in the joint. This is an additional reason for making
+close fits in all joints&mdash;in those which are to
+be glued up as well as in those which are not. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+is a common fault of beginners to be satisfied with
+loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the
+glue to fill up the spaces. Much of the furniture
+found in the markets falls to pieces for the same
+reason. Such work should never be allowed to pass.
+It is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of
+the true office of glue and is nothing more nor less
+than a falsehood in wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<img src="images/i_165.jpg" width="499" height="179" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of holding framing parts square while glue is setting</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Systematic Methods Required.</i>&mdash;As in the preparation
+of stock and working it up, so in gluing, system
+is all important. The hand screws or clamps should
+be made ready and adjusted to the required width
+so that they may be quickly placed in position as
+soon as the glue is applied. The whole process
+must be managed as quickly as possible because
+the joints must be tested before the glue has had
+time to set. A carpenter's large square should be
+used for testing the right angles, since it is more reliable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+than the small try squares. It will frequently be
+found necessary to hold framing pieces square while
+the glue is hardening. This can easily be done by
+nailing small strips of waste stock across the parts,
+as shown in the drawing. A beginner should be cautioned
+not to attempt to glue up too many joints at
+one time. Two opposite corners of a framing piece
+should be glued up separately and left to set before
+the attempt is made to glue the whole rectangle
+together. The two remaining joints, however, should
+be glued and clamped together at the same time.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PICTURE FRAMING</h3>
+
+<p><i>Inexpensive Framing Stock.</i>&mdash;Picture-frame stock
+can be easily obtained of dealers in artists' supplies
+and in furniture stores in a great variety of styles.
+Much of it is so well prepared and so nicely finished
+that it leaves little to be desired. It is, therefore,
+often best to secure the stock for frames in this way.
+It is, however, somewhat expensive, so that, when
+economy is important, it behooves the young woodworker
+to prepare his own framing stock.</p>
+
+<p>Very satisfactory frames 2 inches in width or
+less may be made from matched oak flooring, a
+section of which is here illustrated, by planing off
+the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+to furnish the inset for the glass. Wider flat frames
+of any thickness can, of course, be cut out from the
+ordinary stock. A special tool for cutting the
+inset is desirable but not necessary. A <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch
+saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even
+with a hand saw and the necessary removal of the
+wood accomplished by means of careful chiselling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_167a.jpg" width="500" height="111" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Picture framing stock made from oak flooring</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_167b.jpg" width="500" height="228" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The mitre joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Mitres.</i>&mdash;Frames may be joined at the corners
+in various ways. A common way is by the mitre
+joint illustrated in the drawing. To secure good
+joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres
+be cut on an angle of exactly 45 degrees and that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+the pieces for the corresponding sides of the frame
+be precisely of the same length. Hand sawing is
+generally not exact enough to produce angles of
+sufficient accuracy even when an ordinary mitre
+box is used. Hand-sawed mitres, therefore, will
+require a little truing with a small plane. Great
+care must be exercised also in fitting the corners
+together. The common bench square is not large
+enough to prove the work. A better way is to lay
+a carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit
+the two pieces of the frame against the sides of the
+square, testing each corner in that way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="400" height="522" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Clamping mitre joints</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Gluing the Joints.</i>&mdash;If the corners are unusually
+well fitted, a good joint can be made by first sizing
+the ends with glue and then firmly pressing the pieces
+together upon a true surface, leaving them undisturbed
+for four or five hours until the glue is hard.
+By sizing the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly
+filling the end pores with glue, rubbing it into the
+pores with another block. Generally speaking,
+however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping
+device. If a special clamping device is
+not available, one can be easily made by gluing small
+soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the
+corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing.
+In a half hour or so these blocks will become firmly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+set so that the mitre joints may be glued together,
+clamping them up with a hand screw. As already
+explained under the general directions on gluing,
+it is good practice for a beginner to glue up opposite
+corners and not attempt to glue up the two
+remaining corners until the first two are well set.
+When the first two corners are well set they should
+be nailed; and before the two remaining corners<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+are glued it is well to try the parts together to see
+if they do not require a little correcting before
+gluing. These joints also should have light nailing
+after the glue has been set. In nailing, small holes
+should be made with a brad awl or drill in order to
+avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails
+should be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Defect of Shrinking.</i>&mdash;With proper tools the
+mitre joint is the easiest one to make, but it has
+one unavoidable defect, especially in wide frames.
+It is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and
+almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so
+that wide frames, however well finished, must be
+expected to shrink a little after they are joined
+together. As most of this shrinking is across the
+width of the stock it is evident that it will tend
+to open the mitre joints on the inside of the corners.
+This is what happens almost invariably with joints
+made in this way from wide stock in picture framing.
+The same defect is also frequently observed
+in the interior finishing around windows and doors.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_171.jpg" width="250" height="183" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Halved lap joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are three other methods of joining the corners
+of picture frames&mdash;<i>viz.</i>, the halved lap joint,
+the mortise and tenon joint, and the dowelled joint.
+A drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds
+of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+that no one of them is open to the same objection
+that attaches to the mitre joint. All these joints
+require accurate cutting and rather more of it
+than the mitre joint
+requires, but they are
+more easily glued up. The
+halved lap joint is easily
+clamped up with a common
+hand screw, even when the
+frame is a very large one.
+But the other two require long clamps in order to
+pull the joints up well.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;">
+<img src="images/i_171a.jpg" width="399" height="220" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Mortise and tenon joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_172.jpg" width="200" height="351" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Dowelled joint</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Character of the Frame.</i>&mdash;The kind of joint required
+depends upon the general character of the frame&mdash;whether
+it is to be heavy or light, wide or narrow,
+and whether made of picture frame moulding or of
+the plain framing stock with round or flat face;
+and the character of the frame is a matter of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+design, determined by the kind of picture, by its
+setting, and by other considerations discussed in
+Chapter III. How the plan for
+the construction of the frame
+for any given picture is influenced
+by such considerations may be
+seen in the example which
+follows:</p>
+
+
+<h3>MAKING A FRAME FOR A LARGE
+PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION</h3>
+
+<p>This photograph is 60 inches
+long by 16 inches wide. It is a
+copy in brown tones of a classic
+painting by Otto Kneille&mdash;<i>The
+Education of Athenian Youth</i>, the original of
+which hangs in the Royal Gymnasium in Berlin.
+It represents a spacious hall or court showing
+three of the large marble columns and a massive
+seat in which an old man reclines while
+another old man is expounding some doctrine
+to him and to a group of younger men gathered
+around. In the centre of the scene a boy lies
+flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript.
+Near him several youths under the direction of
+a master, are contending in feats of strength.
+The composition is one that suggests weight and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+power. It may appropriately hang in the hall or
+in the library over a wide, low bookcase.</p>
+
+<p>A picture of this character needs no mat and must
+have a wide, heavy frame. The stock chosen was
+oak, 4 inches wide, 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches thick, and flat faced.
+The size and weight of such a frame, including the
+glass, demand firmness of construction as the first
+consideration. The stock is too wide for successful
+mitring because shrinking would naturally open
+and weaken such joints. It was therefore framed
+together with mortise and tenon joints, well glued.
+A dowelled joint might have sufficed, but it would
+not have the same strength. The mortises were
+cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left
+on the long horizontal pieces. This was in conformity
+with the usual method of joining framework&mdash;for
+example, door frames, window frames, panel
+frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest
+possible length is invariably given to the
+vertical parts.</p>
+
+<p>The frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating
+the darkest tones of the picture. Long screw
+eyes were fastened to the back 2 inches from the top,
+so that the picture might hang nearly flat against
+the wall. A strong braided wire about 75 inches
+long was run through the eyes and securely looped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+at each end, so that a little more than an inch of
+wire on each side passed through the eyes. Since
+the picture was to have a prominent place on a
+certain wall, two nails 66 inches apart allowing
+for the two widths of the frame as well as for the
+length of the picture were driven into this wall,
+and the heavy photograph was easily hung and
+balanced without exposing the wire to view.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A KNOCK-DOWN BOOKCASE</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_174.jpg" width="300" height="380" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A knock-down bookcase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The problem of design was to plan
+a simple, inexpensive
+bookcase which could
+be easily transported
+and set up in a student's
+room and which would
+hold approximately
+two hundred books.
+The drawings show
+how these requirements
+were met in the design.
+When in use it is held
+together by keyed
+shelves at the top and
+bottom. The necessary stiffness is given to it by
+the base pieces which are fastened both to the sides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+and to the bottom shelf by screws. Additional
+stiffness is given by drawing up the three middle
+shelves to the sides by means of screws. Upon
+removing the screws and the keys the bookcase is
+easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact
+form for transportation. It is equally easy
+to set it up again. It has no back and may therefore
+stand away from the wall as well as against it.
+Its contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity
+which will harmonize with modest surroundings
+and yet not bar it from keeping company with
+more pretentious furnishings.</p>
+
+<p>The original of this design was actually made up in
+white wood, stained and finished to harmonize with
+black walnut furniture; but it may be made up in oak,
+ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for
+furniture. For one bookcase the stock required is
+as follows, the sizes allowing for finishing to the
+dimensions as given in the drawing: For the ends,
+two pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches &times; 4 feet 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches;
+for the short shelves, three pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>
+inches &times; 3 feet 1 inch; for the long shelves, two
+pieces, <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches &times; 3 feet 5 inches; for
+the base pieces, two pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 6<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; inches &times; 3
+feet; for the keys, one piece <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inch &times; 1 foot.
+In addition to this there should be two dozen No. 10<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+round-headed blued screws, and one half dozen
+1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch No. 10 flat headed blued screws.</p>
+
+<p>The tools needed are as follows: Rip saw, cross
+cut saw, back saw, compass, jack-plane, smoothing
+plane, block plane, spokeshave, try square, steel
+square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver,
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>, <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>, and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> inch bits and bitstock, and <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>
+inch chisels, gauges, and sand-paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_176.jpg" width="500" height="366" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;All the stock should be jointed,
+planed to width, and smoothed with sand-paper.
+The two end pieces should be squared to length,
+the top corners rounded, and the curve at the
+bottom cut as shown in the drawing. Care should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+be exercised in sand-papering not to round the
+edges. The correct spacing for the shelves should
+then be marked off on the end pieces and squared
+across, care being taken to have both ends spaced
+alike. To do this plane the ends together, with their
+edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure
+off each of the spaces with correct allowance for the
+thickness of the shelf and mark these spaces across
+the edge. Then, separate the end pieces and with
+the marks on the edges as a guide, square across
+each of the end pieces on the inside
+and mark with a knife. In allowing
+for the thickness of the shelves it
+should be remembered that the
+stock, though originally <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an
+inch in thickness, has been planed
+and sand-papered, some of the
+shelves perhaps having been finished
+down more than others. It will
+therefore be necessary to measure and allow for
+the thickness of each shelf separately.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="200" height="283" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of gaining-in
+the shelves</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The three middle shelves are "gained" in&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+set into grooves in the upright ends&mdash;<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an
+inch deep, as shown in the sketch. It will be better
+craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across
+the full width of the end pieces but stopped, say,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+one inch from the edge, the shelves being cut
+to fit, as shown in the drawing. If this be
+done, the grooves should be cut out carefully
+with a chisel. If the grooves be carried across
+the full width of the end, they may be cut down
+with a back saw and then chiselled out.
+To insure a good fit in either case care should be
+exercised not to cut outside the knife lines.
+Chisel the bottom of the grooves carefully
+so that they will be uniformly <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+deep.</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to cut the mortises for the top
+and bottom shelves. The dimensions for these
+should first be laid off on the stock by means of a
+gauge. They should then be bored well inside the
+marks and carefully chiselled out. Before this chiselling
+is done, however, knife lines should be marked
+on the outside of the end pieces exactly opposite the
+gauge lines. In mortising, as in cutting the grooves,
+the greatest care will need to be exercised that the
+chisel does not cut outside the knife lines. In
+working for a close fit it is better to err on the side
+of removing too little stock at first, if one must
+err at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little
+more in the final fitting. It is quite impossible
+to replace stock once removed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In measuring for the length of the shelves it should
+not be overlooked that the top and bottom shelves
+are to carry the tenons to be keyed through the end
+pieces. These tenons should be cut out accurately
+with a rip saw, and the stock between them removed
+with a chisel after a deep knife line has been made.
+After fitting these tenons to the mortises and finishing
+them, the mortises for the keys should be
+cut, using a small chisel. It should not be overlooked
+that the outside face of each key mortise
+is cut on an angle, as illustrated.
+The three middle shelves are
+then cut to length, the ends
+squared by means of a block
+plane, and corners cut out to fit
+the grooves.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_179.jpg" width="300" height="343" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details of the keys</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The parts are now ready
+to be put together temporarily
+and squared up in order to fit in the base
+pieces more perfectly than could be done by mere
+measurement. It will add a pleasing detail to set
+back these base pieces <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch from the
+front and back faces.</p>
+
+<p>After all the parts are carefully fitted they should
+be assembled and the key and screw fastenings
+inserted. When this is accomplished the bookcase<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+is ready for finishing. As this is a distinct part
+of furniture making it is reserved for treatment
+in a later chapter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A HANGING BOOK RACK</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_180.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hanging book rack</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;It is designed to plan a light but
+strong book rack, to be fastened to the wall of a
+chamber. Since it is intended to occupy the space
+that might be given to pictures it is properly as
+simple in construction as a picture frame, depending
+upon good proportions and symmetry to give a
+pleasing effect. The straight lines of the design,
+which is illustrated above, meet these requirements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+and also harmonize with the general
+form and outline of books. Both shelves
+may be used for books, if desired, but the design
+permits them to be confined to the lower shelf,
+reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a
+bit of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of
+bric-&agrave;-brac. The mortise and tenon joints give
+the essential stiffness and strength without requiring
+the use of heavy stock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Since strength with lightness
+is an essential feature to realize in the working
+out of this design, soft woods should be avoided.
+Ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in
+common use. Oak is much stronger but heavy and
+hard to work. White wood is comparatively light
+and very strong. Gum wood is classified with ash
+excepting that it is closer grained. Since this
+book rack is to be used in a chamber in which the
+wood trim is in enamelled white and most of the
+furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally
+appropriate to make it of white wood, to be finished
+in enamelled white, or of bay wood as a basis for
+mahogany finish. It was decided to adopt the
+latter course.</p>
+
+<p>The stock requirements for carrying out this
+design are as follows: 2 back posts, 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch &times;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch &times; 24 inches; 2 front posts, 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch &times;
+1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 18 inches; 2 centre uprights, <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1 &times; 18
+inches; 1 back rail, <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 37 inches; 1 end
+rail, 1 &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 44 inches; and 2 shelves, <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 7
+by 37 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="500" height="296" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions for hanging book rack (front)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tools needed are much like those required
+in the previous problem&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the same planes,
+saws, bitstock, squares, and the gauge; but there
+will be needed a <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch bit, <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch
+chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box,
+and a mallet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_183.jpg" width="200" height="417" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details
+and dimensions for
+hanging book
+rack (end)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The details of construction required
+are as follows: Dressing the stock pieces,
+cutting the posts to length, cutting the points on
+the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+to length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving
+on the end rails, cutting and fitting the shelves,
+cutting, fitting, and fastening the back rail,
+arranging the clamps and other
+appliances for gluing up, and cleaning
+off the glue after hardening.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_184.jpg" width="300" height="206" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">How the tenon is applied to the rail</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stock pieces should be first
+"dressed" down to the drawing dimensions.
+This means that they
+should be planed and sand-papered
+preparatory to laying out the cutting
+dimensions. The front and
+back posts should be cut to length
+in the mitre box, care being taken
+to allow an extra <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch for the
+pointed ends at the top and bottom.
+These pointed ends are cut in the mitre
+box by raising one end of the post and sawing
+to lines squared around the post <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch from
+the other end. The angle of the cut is made
+uniform by resting the raised end of the
+post on a block lightly nailed on the inside
+of the mitre box, thus giving the same elevation
+for all the posts. The 1-inch by 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch
+piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane
+designed for that purpose, and afterward cut to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+length as called for. The blind mortises should
+be made not more than <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch deep, and the
+tenons <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> of an inch shorter in order not to strike
+the bottom of the mortise. One of these rails
+should be accurately laid out with knife lines and
+the rest marked
+from this as a
+pattern. The
+drawing shows the
+location of the
+tenon with reference
+to the part of
+the rail on which
+the shelf rests.
+This is the most convenient position for cutting the
+tenon and it also gives greater strength. The centre
+uprights should be halved on after the end rails
+are in position, being cut for this purpose as illustrated
+in the drawing. They may be allowed to
+stand out <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch beyond the face of the end
+rail, and in making the joint an equal amount of
+stock is to be taken from the rail and from the
+upright. The shelves are then easily cut to length
+and the ends fitted with the block plane and dropped
+into place, being lightly glued and nailed with
+brads from the under side of the rabbet. Finally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+the top back rail should be halved in, being left
+to the last in order that the more important fitting
+of the shelves may be more easily accomplished.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_185.jpg" width="200" height="400" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">How the centre
+uprights are
+halved on</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care
+must be exercised to set clamps out ready for use
+before the glue is applied so that the
+parts may be promptly drawn up in
+position. After gluing they should be
+allowed to remain about ten hours in
+order that the glue may properly harden
+before the clamps are taken off.
+All the extra glue squeezed out of
+the joints in clamping must be scraped
+off with a chisel, after the glue has
+hardened a little; and any remaining
+spots of glue must be carefully
+removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave
+anything to interfere with the filling and finishing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>AN UMBRELLA STAND</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;So far as the question of use is
+concerned, no problem of design could be more
+definite than this one, since an umbrella rack can
+have but one use. The only elements of beauty
+possible are found in simplicity, proportion, and
+the general effectiveness of the construction for
+meeting the demands of use. The drawing shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+four square, straight posts, squared at the ends,
+which are allowed to project a little above the top
+to avoid a box-like effect. All the
+joints are mortised except the division
+bars at the top. The cross pieces at
+the base are made wider not only to
+conceal the drip pan but to give a
+more stable appearance to the whole
+rack.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_186.jpg" width="150" height="303" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An umbrella stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Oak is selected
+as perhaps the most appropriate
+wood; but other woods, if the surroundings
+require it, may be used to good
+advantage. Oak is one of the strongest and most durable
+of the woods used for furniture and takes well a
+great variety of finish. It is also quite easily obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The stock requirements are as follows: Four corner
+posts 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 27<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches; four top rails
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 9 inches; four base rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 3 &times; 9
+inches; two division bars <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 9<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches;
+four cleats <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 9 inches; and one board <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times;
+7<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 7<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches to support the pan.</p>
+
+<p>The same tools in general will be required as in
+the previous exercises, but it will be necessary to
+add a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch bit, a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inch chisel, a steel scraper,
+and two short clamps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_187.jpg" width="500" height="719" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for umbrella rack</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;All the stock should be planed
+to size, scraped, and sand-papered with the exception
+of the base board for the pan, since that is hidden
+from view. The scraper corrects all slight
+unevenness of surface and removes scratches and
+other blemishes. Care should be taken in sand-papering
+to rub always with the grain of the wood
+and to avoid rounding the corners. The corner
+posts should first be cut to proper length and the
+tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. Mortises
+are then to be located, bored, and chiselled up.
+The top and bottom rails should be laid off and the
+tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have
+them too long. The inside edges of the tenons have
+to be pared off slightly, as illustrated in the drawing,
+to allow room for each when they come together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_188.jpg" width="500" height="212" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Top rail tenons (left) and Bottom rail tenons(right)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next step is to assemble the parts, clamp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+them up, and test them for accuracy. While these
+parts are in the clamps, measurements should be
+taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made,
+allowing extra length of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch in each end
+for the tenons to enter the top rails. These cross
+pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as
+shown in the drawing. The base rails are designed to
+be thick enough to take up all the space on the inside
+of the posts so as to hide the corner, as illustrated
+in the sketch showing the bottom construction.</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to assemble the parts for gluing.
+It is not necessary to explain this process in detail,
+since it has already been thoroughly explained in
+the general section on gluing. It is not necessary
+to glue on the cleats on which the pan rests; they
+may be nailed in. When the base is glued together
+measurements may be taken for the pan.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A MAGAZINE STAND</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem calls for an attractive
+article of furniture which should also be useful as
+a receptacle for magazines and current newspapers.
+An enclosed portion between two of the shelves
+is desired to conceal from view and preserve for a
+time the more valuable papers, parts of magazines,
+or clippings, as may be found convenient. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+perspective sketch on this same page shows how
+these simple requirements are met. The overhanging
+top adds character and strength to what
+might otherwise seem too light
+for the load it is intended to
+carry.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_190.jpg" width="200" height="308" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A magazine stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Oak is
+selected as a suitable wood because
+of its strength and
+durability; for this stand
+is likely to be in almost constant
+use. A light wood, delicately
+finished, would soon
+show wear.</p>
+
+<p>The stock list, according to the drawing, may be
+itemized as follows: 4 corner posts 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+36 inches; 4 upright slats <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1 &times; 34 inches; four
+shelves <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 17 inches; one piece for the
+top <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 14 &times; 21 inches; 2 top rails 1 &times; 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+12 inches; 1 piece for the door <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 8 &times; 15<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches
+for the ends and the back of the closet 1 piece <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 8
+&times; 36 inches; 1 pair 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch brass butts with screws
+for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch.</p>
+
+<p>The tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a
+smoothing plane, steel square, try square, knife
+gauge, fine cross cut saw, <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch bit and bit stock,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+key-hole saw, <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch chisel, mallet, nail set,
+hammer, screw-driver, and steel scraper.</p>
+
+<p>The principal operations are as follows: Planing
+to size; scraping and sand-papering stock; squaring
+ends and smoothing them to the required length;
+laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises
+for top rails; making the rails; assembling the main
+parts; fitting ends and sides of the closets; hanging
+the door and putting on the fixtures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_191.jpg" width="500" height="419" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for magazine stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Construction.</i>&mdash;Smoothing with the plane<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+and scraping are very important and they should be
+completed before any sand-papering is done because
+particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood,
+will dull the steel tools. All three operations are
+needed to remove the marks of the machine tools
+of the factory, in order to give a good finish in the
+end. The scraper follows the plane, removing
+the unevenness which the latter leaves on board
+surfaces. Sand-papering gives the finishing touches.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_192.jpg" width="300" height="137" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of mortising</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the stock is well smoothed, the top and the
+shelves should be squared off, cut to length, and block
+planed. The posts should then be cut and accurately
+trimmed to dimensions. They may be marked with
+a knife line for the gains into which the corners
+of the shelves are to be fastened. Since the posts
+are perfectly square, no attention will have to be
+given to their exact location in marking or cutting
+the gains; but when
+the mortising for the
+rails is laid out, care
+must be exercised to
+mark them so that
+the mortises will come on the proper faces for
+assembling. In mortising for the top rail it is well
+not to work up to the end of the post but to cut
+back, say <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch, as shown in one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+details. The rails may now be laid off and the tenons
+cut and fitted. It is exactly 8<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches between the
+shoulders of the rails. Since the shelves are 10<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>
+inches wide, one inch is thus left on each side to be
+gained into the posts.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_193.jpg" width="200" height="163" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of fastening shelf</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The parts are now ready for the first assembling.
+To do this it is convenient to have a clear bench
+top on which the posts may be laid on one side, face
+down. The rails and shelves may then be slipped
+into place, the other two posts placed on top, and
+the whole clamped firmly together. This is the
+preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing
+the accuracy of the work. If it be found all right,
+it should be taken apart again, and, after glue has
+been applied to the tenons and to the ends of the
+shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled
+and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true.
+Before the glue hardens the
+shelves should be nailed into the
+posts, as indicated in the drawing.
+In this case it is the nail
+that is the main stay. The glue
+is accessory, adding much to
+the stiffness of the construction.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_194.jpg" width="350" height="165" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of fastening posts to the top</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top may now be set on and fastened by screws
+or by brads driven through into the posts and well set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+so that they may be concealed by putty, coloured to
+match the stain used. The end slats should be fastened
+on in the same way. The back and ends of the
+closet are next cut to size and bradded in. The door
+is then fitted and, to break the surface a little, an
+ornamental design
+is cut in the
+centre. Still further
+relief is given
+by setting in
+the door <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an
+inch from the
+edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. The
+door is now hung on brass hinges, the stop and
+catch added, and the stand is ready for staining
+and finishing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A LIGHT LIBRARY TABLE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This is to be a table designed on
+simple lines and of good proportions. It is to have
+no drawer but as much shelf room as conveniently
+possible. The under shelf is designed to be cut
+out to allow a chair to be drawn up on either side.
+The end shelves may be regarded as designed to
+combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding
+much to its usefulness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;For a table of this kind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+oak is very appropriate. The following list gives
+the stock required for one table. The widths
+and the thickness are as called for in the drawing,
+but the lengths are given
+a little long to allow
+for cutting. A board
+not less than 9 inches
+wide and 10 feet long
+will be needed as stock
+for the top, the dimensions
+of which are <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times;
+26 &times; 39 inches. A 10-inch
+board, 4<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> feet in length, will also be
+required for the shelves. There will also be needed
+four legs 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 1<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 30 inches; eight slats <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>
+&times; 18 inches; two back pieces <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 2 &times; 20<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches;
+two rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 3 &times; 32 inches; and two rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 3 &times;
+20 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_195.jpg" width="300" height="253" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A light library table</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same tools will be required as in the foregoing
+problems excepting that a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch bit and
+a <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch chisel will be required for mortising, and
+two 3-foot clamps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The first step in the construction
+is to dress the stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering
+it, and working the various parts to size.
+The lengths, however, of all parts excepting the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of
+construction, these parts are needed. The legs
+are at once cut to length and the mortises laid out,
+bored, and cut. A gain should also be cut in each
+leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted,
+glued, and bradded from the under side. The end
+and side rails may then be laid off for shoulders
+and tenons, and cut. In this case the tenons should
+be made <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch wide.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_196.jpg" width="500" height="254" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In gluing up, the top should receive attention
+first, in order to allow the longest possible time
+for testing the work under the inevitable changes
+due to continued seasoning. Great care must always
+be exercised in making the glued joints. It
+is often necessary to make them over on account
+of the development of cracks. Proper care, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+will prevent this. The general directions for gluing,
+given at the beginning of this chapter, will be of
+service.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the top has been glued the four short
+side pieces may be glued to the shelf, taking pains
+to make good joints before applying the glue.
+It should be noted that the inside ends of these
+short pieces are to be 15 inches apart, and it is important
+that the ends on opposite sides should be exactly
+squared across, as indicated in the drawings. This
+may be accomplished by first locating the centre
+of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c
+in the drawing, and measuring 7<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches each way
+to the line of the back pieces, which are to run
+across the whole bottom shelf. As soon as the glue
+is hardened the ends should be squared and made
+true to set into the gains when the table is assembled.
+Finally, the legs, the rails, and the shelf may be
+assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside
+to harden before the clamps are removed.</p>
+
+<p>It is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under
+side before the glue hardens. After standing a
+few hours the table will be ready for the <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch
+strip which forms the back of the shelf. This is
+to be fitted and bradded in. Then the slats may be
+cut to length. They project slightly below the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+shelf, and are fastened in position by screws. The
+top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed,
+after which it may be fastened on the frame by
+means of screws and buttons, as already described
+in the early part of this chapter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A HEAVY LIBRARY TABLE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This table, as the illustration shows,
+is designed to be of simple style, without a drawer
+or side shelves, and with the bottom shelf keyed
+into the base rail.
+Heavy, square legs,
+and mortise and tenon
+joints are called for.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_198.jpg" width="300" height="270" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A heavy library table</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;The
+mission type
+of furniture, to which
+this design belongs,
+suggests oak as the
+fitting wood. The
+stock for the top, the dimensions of which are to
+be <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 28 &times; 44 inches, may be cut in three
+pieces from a 10-inch board, 12 feet long. For
+the shelf a board <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 12 &times; 43 inches is required.
+There are needed also four legs 2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 30 inches; two side rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 4 &times; 36
+inches; two end top-rails <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 4 &times; 22 inches; two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+end bottom rails 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 4 &times; 22 inches; and for
+keys a strip 1 &times; 2 &times; 28 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_199.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions (front)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same tools are required as were needed in
+the foregoing problem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;Since this table has a larger
+top than the light library table, even greater pains
+must be taken than in the case of the smaller table
+to join the boards for gluing up. All like parts
+should be laid off together and the necessary mortises
+and tenons cut and fitted, as in the previous
+case. The two end rails may be glued into the legs
+first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put
+in place last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened
+in without gluing by means of the tenons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+and keys. The latter should be cut somewhat
+longer than is really needed so that they may appear
+to be as effective as they really are; and they
+should be tapered at least <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch in order
+to drive up well. A small brad may be driven
+in to keep them from getting loose when the work
+shrinks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_200.jpg" width="400" height="352" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction details and dimensions (end)</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>A BOOKCASE WITH GLAZED DOORS</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This is to be an upright bookcase,
+with five shelves and an overhanging top. Some
+variety of surface is afforded by the arrangement of
+the sash, as indicated in the drawing. The shelves
+are made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other
+problems.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_201.jpg" width="300" height="473" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bookcase with glazed doors</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;The stock required for one
+bookcase of this pattern is as follows: two end pieces
+<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 11<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 48<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inches; for the top and bottom,
+two pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 12 &times; 40
+inches; four shelves <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times;
+11 &times; 40 inches; for the
+sides of the doors, four
+pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2 &times; 45
+inches; for the top and
+bottom rails of the doors,
+four pieces <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 18
+inches; for the middle
+rail, one piece <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2 &times;
+18 inches; for the sash,
+one piece <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch
+&times; 6 feet; for the back,
+enough <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> inch stock to
+cover the space 38 &times;
+46 inches. In addition
+to this there will be required four hinges, two catches,
+a lock, and glass for the sash as dimensioned in
+the drawing. It is not necessary, however, to
+cut the small lights. One large pane of glass may
+be set in the full width of the door so that the
+small sash divisions may be apparent rather than
+real.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The tools for this problem are the same as those
+used in previous problems with the addition of a
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch bit and <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch chisel, and a rabbet plane,
+or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet
+for the glass.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_202.jpg" width="500" height="391" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for bookcase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to give directions for the treatment
+of the stock, since it is practically the same
+as that employed in preceding problems. The
+details for cutting dimensions are given in the
+accompanying drawings. It would be well for the
+young woodworker to study these carefully and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+make out a working plan of procedure similar to
+that which has been outlined in other problems.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The first thing to do is to erect
+the bookcase&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, to cut the sides, the top,
+the bottom, and the back pieces to proper form and
+dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten
+them. It will be noticed that the sides and top are
+rabbeted out, as indicated in one of the small
+drawings, so that the edge of the back will not
+show when it is nailed in position. The bottom
+shelf is also made narrow enough to allow the back
+boards to be brought down over it and nailed
+to the edge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_203.jpg" width="500" height="146" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of concealing ends of back boards</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the case is erected the doors should be laid
+out according to the drawing for mortises and tenons,
+and the inside edges rabbeted to give an inset for
+the glass. If it is decided to use one large light
+at the top of the door instead of six small ones,
+the sash effect for this light will have to be made
+of pieces thin enough to allow this arrangement.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+When the doors are ready for setting the glass it
+may be held in place by small <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> round strips,
+bradded in behind it. Great care should, of course,
+be exercised in gluing up the doors to avoid strains
+which might give them such a twist that they
+could not be fitted to the case. Careful fitting of
+all the mortises and tenons and the usual assembling
+of the parts of each door before gluing is attempted
+is a wise precaution. It will also be wise to allow
+a little stock for trimming off, both on the sides
+and on the ends, when the doors are finally fitted in.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A ROUND CENTRE TABLE</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_204a.jpg" width="250" height="246" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for round
+centre table</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/i_204b.jpg" width="200" height="330" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of top mortise</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_205.jpg" width="500" height="796" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for round centre table</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem calls for a table of
+mission style with square legs set into the circumference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+of the table flush with the top and having
+tenons exposed on the face of the legs. Simplicity
+of form combined with strength characterizes the
+design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Materials and Tools.</i>&mdash;Quartered oak is recommended
+for a table of this design. The stock
+required for one table is as follows: four legs 2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times;
+2<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 27 inches; two cross rails 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 3 &times; 29 inches;
+one piece of 3 &times; 12 &times; 20 inches for the curved rails;
+and stock enough to make a round top 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> inches
+thick and 27 inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The only tools desirable to provide, in addition
+to those previously used, are a trammel and spokeshave
+or a circle plane.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;The first step is to join up and
+glue the top so that it may have ample time to harden
+and dry while the other work is being accomplished.
+The stock for the legs may then be dressed
+and the bottom mortises marked and cut through
+the posts. Care must be taken to transfer the
+marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may
+be accurately outlined on the face. Care must
+also be taken in cutting the mortises, in order to
+make good, clean joints. A dimensioned detail
+of the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons
+of the curved rail, shown on <a href="#Page_180">page 180</a>, should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+consulted before laying out this work. It should
+be noticed that the legs project 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches above
+the top rail. After the top mortises are cut the
+cross bottom rails should be halved together and
+the tenons laid off and cut. It will be noticed that
+the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled
+off, but this should not be done until the fitting is
+completed.</p>
+
+<p>In laying out the plan of work for the construction
+of the curved rails the trammel comes
+into use. With this, mark off carefully the inside
+and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with
+a large steel square, draw straight lines from the
+centre or pivot point, making an exact quarter circle.
+This is shown in one of the drawings on <a href="#Page_180">page 180</a>.
+Then, parallel with each straight line and on the
+inside, mark off other lines one half the thickness of
+the leg. This locates the shoulder of the tenon. The
+pattern should then be carefully cut out of the
+thin board and used as a template for marking out
+on the stock the form of the curved rails. After
+these rails are band sawed and smoothed, the
+tenons may be cut.</p>
+
+<p>When the framing parts of the table have all
+been cut and fitted they may be assembled and glued.
+Finally the top is placed face down on a bench top<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it
+and centred to give the correct position of the
+insets for the legs. These should be laid off with
+great care, the outline reproduced exactly on the
+opposite side, and the stock cut out. The top and
+frame should then be fastened together from the
+under side. After a few finishing touches have
+been given to the projecting ends and exposed
+surfaces, the table will be ready for the filling and
+varnishing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A LIBRARY DESK</h3>
+
+<p>This is the most ambitious of the special problems
+in furniture making here suggested. Details
+are given in the drawings on the opposite page.
+If the young woodworker can give sufficient time
+to it and can command the services of a few machine
+tools it will not be an unreasonable task to undertake.
+Most of the operations required in its construction
+have already been carefully explained
+and need not be repeated as detailed directions.
+There are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making
+called for in this problem which were not
+required in the others. They will therefore need
+explanation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_209.jpg" width="600" height="412" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A library desk</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Panelling.</i>&mdash;To avoid the difficulties which would
+result from the swelling, shrinking, and warping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+of wide surfaces in furniture it is common practice
+to make use of the panel. The design of the panel
+is easily understood. It consists of a framework
+of ordinary thickness, put together usually with
+mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of this
+framework are grooved, and into the groove is
+fitted a piece of stock generally thinner than the
+frame which fills the space between the sides of
+the frame. The panel board may be in one piece
+of wide stock or it may be glued up. It may be
+of very thin stock inset on both sides of the panel,
+or it may be of thicker stock inset only on one side,
+and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case
+only the edges of the board are made thin enough
+to run in the groove of the panel frame. In this
+problem the panel board is to be made of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch
+stock, flat on the outside, and inset <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch.
+The back of the panel board is flush with the frame
+and is chamfered off to give the necessary tongue
+all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock
+of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink
+appreciably and, if well constructed, cannot become
+warped or twisted. The panel, on account of
+its greater width, may and generally does swell
+and shrink considerably; but it should be fitted to
+move easily in the grooves so that its changes may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish
+the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to
+the rails, not to the panel board.</p>
+
+<p><i>Danger in the Power Saw.</i>&mdash;The panel frame
+may be constructed by hand, but if a circular
+saw be available it will be found of great service.
+Beginners, however, should employ the services
+of an expert sawyer and not assume the great risk
+involved in the use of a circular saw or even a band
+saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The
+necessary operations should be carefully laid out
+on the partially finished stock, with a good square
+and gauge. A combination plane is quite essential
+for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own
+gauge. Care should be taken to make all measurements
+from the centre of the piece, and gauge and
+square always from the face sides and from the face
+edges of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to
+make for the joints are indicated in the drawing. In
+gluing up, the directions already given in the section
+on gluing should be followed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sand-papering.</i>&mdash;There is a legitimate use for
+sand-paper in the finishing stages of the work on
+this desk, as there is, in fact, in almost every kind
+of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised
+in the directions for furniture making. In furniture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+manufactories sand-papering machines are among
+the most expensive machines to be found in the
+shops; and their high cost is of course justified by
+their productive value. It is quite impossible to
+work down large pieces to a good surface by the
+process of planing. If a sand-papering machine
+is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker,
+it will be very desirable for him to send all large
+pieces like the tops of tables and panel boards to
+the factory in order to have them run through the
+machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering
+by hand considerable pressure should be
+applied as evenly as possible and always along the
+grain. Any movements directly across the grain
+or at an angle are sure to show through the finish.
+The process is facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper
+around a block of wood about 2 &times; 4 inches in
+diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same
+dimensions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A MORRIS CHAIR</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_213.jpg" width="300" height="312" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A Morris chair</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History of the Design.</i>&mdash;Among furniture designs
+the Morris chair has become a classic. It takes its
+name for its originator, William Morris, the great
+English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps
+more than to any other person, we are indebted for
+sane and honest work in furniture design and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+all forms of household decoration, not only in
+England but in other European countries and in
+America. And probably no one of his creations
+has done more to
+teach the lesson of
+simplicity, comfort,
+and utility in
+furniture than the
+Morris chair.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 497px;">
+<img src="images/i_214.jpg" width="497" height="659" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions of Morris chair (front)</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_215.jpg" width="500" height="442" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details and dimensions for Morris chair (side)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be well to
+add, however, that
+like many other
+famous works of
+art, the original
+design of William
+Morris has suffered
+much in countless imitations. The furniture shops
+display carved and otherwise embellished monstrosities
+under the name of Morris chairs which are
+nothing less than an insult to the great name they
+bear. But the life of all imitations of original and
+really great ideas is bound to be short. Only the
+good and true, which are the original, survive. The
+really valuable features of the original Morris chair
+design, combining beauty of material with simplicity
+of form and construction, have taken a lasting hold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+upon the hearts of all people who have found solid
+comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+this problem are illustrated on <a href="#Page_50">page 50, chapter II</a>.
+Both are in quartered oak. The one on the right is
+stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the
+seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium
+brown leather. The one on the left is in light fumed
+oak with cushions of mahogany velour. On account
+of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter
+in weight than the one on the right, and the dimensions
+of the smaller one will be followed in this
+problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+ash which, with a centre table and stool, were
+designed and made for a college girl's room; and a
+large part of the work of constructing the three
+pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_216a.jpg" width="400" height="96" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of pins</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing
+shown on the preceding page the young woodworker
+who undertakes this problem should select
+his stock according to the following list: 4 legs
+2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 24 inches; two arms 3 &times; 5<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 38
+inches; two bottom side rails 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 6 &times; 26 inches;
+two top side rails <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 26
+inches; two bottom rails (front and
+back) 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 6 &times; 24 inches; one top rail
+(back) <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 24 inches; two
+back uprights 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 1<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 25 inches;
+three cross pieces for back (lower)
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 2<sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> &times; 20 inches; one cross piece
+for back (top) <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> &times; 6 &times; 20 inches;
+one bracket 1 &times; 3 &times; 18 inches; four
+pins 4<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> &times; 4<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> inches square.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_216.jpg" width="150" height="421" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of Morris
+chair arm</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In sawing up the stock, allowance
+should be made of course, for necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+waste in working down to the drawing dimensions.
+The arms are drawn with a curve and may be
+fashioned by band sawing them out of 3-inch stock.
+There will be a considerable saving in material and
+labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the
+effect of the curve is very pleasing. The back slats
+may be sawed to a slight curve, which is another
+attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make
+and just as serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>The process of construction does not differ in
+general from that already described in some of the
+foregoing problems, and need not be repeated here
+in detail. The method of finishing this and all
+other furniture referred to in the problems will
+be explained in the following chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture,
+it will be necessary to provide casters for it. The
+Acme Pin caster, so-called, was used in the chair
+referred to in this problem. It makes use of a steel
+ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into
+the legs so as to leave only about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch of
+the ball exposed.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A HALL CLOCK</h3>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_218.jpg" width="500" height="825" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A hall clock
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The original
+of the hall clock was
+designed and made by
+Mr. Egbert E. MacNary.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Design.</i>&mdash;This clock was designed and built to conform
+to the requirements of the space allotted to it.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+The lines of the case are all straight; there are no
+spires or gables or fantastic curves on the top. A hall
+clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal;
+for all the other lines such as tops of window casings,
+picture moulding,
+etc., are horizontal.
+If the clock
+stood out of doors
+under the stars,
+then the top might
+be spired or
+pointed.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="300" height="575" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Construction detail of a hall clock</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The construction,
+as indicated
+in the sketches, is
+simple and substantial.
+The long
+sides extend the
+entire height of
+the clock, being
+firmly joined into
+the base and head.
+The works are supported
+between
+these sides. The
+wood is <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+quartered oak, hand dressed, and stained a warm
+brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and
+weight are of brass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter.</i>&mdash;The long door
+has a panel of transparent leaded glass. This
+leaded glass work is a most fascinating process.
+The lead strips required for it were purchased of a
+dealer in lead specialties. Stained glass window
+concerns are usually willing to sell this lead. A
+full-size drawing was made of the design for the
+glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the
+pattern. A ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used.
+One caution, kept in mind, will enable one to use
+a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. <i>It
+should never be used twice in the same cut.</i> One
+stroke of a few inches over a cut previously made
+will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is not abused
+by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The
+glass should be laid on a level table and the cutter
+used with a firm hand, making a continuous cut
+against a straight edge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soldering.</i>&mdash;The long lines of the design are in one
+piece; and there is a strip around the entire outside
+edge. To solder the pieces together, the glass and
+lead strips are laid in position on a board, and brads
+(about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+board close against the outside strips, so as to hold
+the pieces in position. A small bead of soldering
+paste is placed on each joint. A small soldering
+"iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are
+used. The copper may be "tinned" by filing the
+point bright, heating it, dipping it in the soldering
+paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder
+wire. The point will become coated with the
+solder, or, as we say, "tinned." The iron will
+need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of
+the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the
+best result.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by
+driving the brass into a groove in a piece of oak with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+a hard wood wedge. The piece of oak was revolved
+around the dial by means of a nail driven through
+the centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short
+arc of the ring had been raised, the grooved piece was
+swung around about 1 inch and the groove continued.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_222.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of raising the dial rings</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_223.jpg" width="250" height="243" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Dimensioned dial piece of clock
+before edges are turned</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The length of the pendulum depends upon the
+number of teeth in the escape wheel. It was necessary
+in the case of this clock to take out the escape
+wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22
+teeth to accommodate the length of pendulum desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>OUTDOOR FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p>The greatest charm of home life in the summer
+season is rarely found within the house. This
+is especially true in the village or in the country,
+where nature is at her best; but even in city homes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+that are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings
+a small yard, a bit of garden, or any
+means of connecting the home
+with "God's great out-of-doors,"
+though it be but a
+sheltered balcony or a window
+garden, the touch of nature is
+not lost. It is possible, however,
+for art to assist nature;
+and in many cases her assistance
+is very much needed.
+It is certainly true that nature cannot be left
+wholly to herself in the neighbourhood of the
+village or city home. If there be a garden, as
+much forethought must be exercised in planning
+it and as much pains taken in developing and caring
+for it as is called for in working out any form of
+interior decoration. There are problems of design
+and construction suggested by the need of suitable
+chairs and settles for the piazza, comfortable hammocks
+and couches for the balcony, awnings for the
+windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture,
+perhaps, for an out-door dining-room. The more
+decorative features are found in the rose arbours,
+the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent,
+the pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+problems that easily come within the reach of
+enterprising and capable young craftsmen.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Types.</i>&mdash;In the designing of out-door
+furniture there are two suggestions from nature
+that may appropriately find expression. On the
+one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks,
+suggest solidity, weight, and permanence. This
+idea is embodied in walls of masonry, stone posts,
+iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or in some
+other kind of heavy construction. On the other
+hand, there are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy,
+and growth, seen in the growing vines, shrubbery,
+and small trees, which are carried out in the so-called
+rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden
+screens.</p>
+
+<p><i>An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood.</i>&mdash;A
+settle designed for comparatively permanent use
+in some cool or retired corner of the garden may be
+made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well
+protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion
+is here given for such a design, laid out on substantial
+lines. Ordinary 4 &times; 4 spruce, planed, may be
+used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest
+of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the
+back pieces and arms, and <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch boards for the
+rails and seat. Mortise and tenon joints should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+used in the framing. The illustration shows also
+a simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated
+in the two front posts. It is a decorative feature
+which seems to counteract, somewhat successfully,
+the general severity of the lines on which the settle
+is designed to be built.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_225.jpg" width="400" height="327" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A garden settle</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Concrete Furniture.</i>&mdash;Still more substantial out-door
+furniture may be made of concrete cement.
+This material has come into use for sidewalks and
+pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone
+masonry in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in
+a great variety of heavy building construction. Concrete
+is, in fact, an artificial stone, made by mixing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in
+the right proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture
+with water, and allowing it to harden. It is so
+commonly associated with heavy, crude work that
+it is not easy to believe that it may be also
+fashioned into anything of an artistic or decorative
+character; and yet it is capable of a wide range
+of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals,
+fountains, window boxes, urns, and other forms of
+garden pottery in great variety, tables, and garden
+seats, have been successfully moulded in this material.
+Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well
+suited to many of these uses; but it may be given a
+variety of colour effects in bold design if occasion
+requires it. In weight and durability it leaves
+nothing to be desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Wire Form.</i>&mdash;Concrete cement cannot be
+modelled like clay. In its formative state it is too
+soft for such manipulation. It must be supported
+in some way while it is being worked into the desired
+shape and until it has hardened. In general
+there are two methods of giving the necessary
+support: <i>viz.</i>, by employing an interior framework
+or skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently
+encased in the cement; or by using a
+plaster or wooden mould into which the material<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which
+it is removed when hardened. The latter method
+has been elaborated quite extensively for commercial
+purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite
+number of marketable results from the same
+moulds. The simpler wooden moulds may be easily
+made by a clever boy; and after a little experience
+he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly
+and mould a form successfully. For single pieces
+of concrete work, however, the wire forms are to be
+preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method
+is found in the following problem:</p>
+
+
+<h3>A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE</h3>
+
+<p>The dimensions called for in this design are a
+diameter of 10 inches and a height of 8 inches. The
+wire form must therefore be made to approximate
+quite closely to these dimensions. A good material
+for the form is galvanized wire lath of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>-inch
+mesh. This problem will require a piece about
+8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex
+side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base.
+From the square piece a circle 10 inches in diameter
+should be cut out. A strong pair of tinners' shears
+will be needed for this purpose. In bending the
+long piece into the cylindrical form it is well to
+proceed slowly in order to produce an evenly curved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+surface&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, one free from angular bends. A
+good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece
+down on a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical
+wooden block. If
+nothing better is available
+a rolling pin will serve
+this purpose. When the
+bending is nearly complete,
+the two ends of the piece
+should be brought together,
+lapped over about an inch,
+and bound together with
+free ends of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers
+will be of great assistance. If this part of the process
+has been carefully done, there will result a
+cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular
+piece should now be attached to one end of
+this form by means of the free ends of the strands
+found there, bending the projecting wires over and
+clinching them at convenient points on the circumference
+of the circular piece where there are uncut
+meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for
+covering with the cement.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_228.jpg" width="250" height="278" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A garden vase</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first step is the mixing of the cement for what
+is known as the scratch coat. This is made by
+mixing Portland cement with fine, clean sand in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+the proportion of one part cement to two of
+sand. These ingredients should be thoroughly
+mixed together in the dry state, and then there
+should be added a small quantity of goats' hair,
+well picked apart. For the problem at hand about
+five pounds of cement will be needed and as much
+goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole
+should be thoroughly wet down with just the right
+amount of water. It is important that the mixture
+should not be made too soft. A scratch coat
+should be given a consistency that will enable it
+to be easily spread over the wire form and, at the
+same time, to hang well together.</p>
+
+<p>When a sufficient amount of the right mixture
+has been obtained, it should be spread upon the
+wire form by means of a small mason's trowel
+or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom
+of the convex side of the cylinder, working upward,
+taking no pains to make this first coat smooth,
+since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention
+whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting
+to see that the cement is forced well through the
+meshes so that the whole mass will be held together
+firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth
+coat as a part of the later finishing process. When
+the convex surface has been well covered, the form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+should be turned bottom up and the cement spread
+upon the base of the cylinder in the same way.
+After the wire has been completely covered, the form,
+which is likely to be somewhat distorted, should be
+corrected by careful manipulation till a true cylinder
+has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for
+about five hours until the cement has thoroughly
+hardened. It is then ready for the finishing coat.</p>
+
+<p>The next step in the process is to make the cement
+for the finishing coat. Considerable variety is
+possible here, depending upon the colour and other
+surface effects that are desired. In this design a
+light, sparkling surface when finished is required.
+To produce this effect a mixture of one part Portland
+cement and two parts marble dust will be
+needed. This should be mixed without hair to a
+consistency like that used for the scratch coat.</p>
+
+<p>Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces
+should be thoroughly moistened by means of a
+brush well filled with water. There are various
+methods of applying this coat. The simplest is
+carefully spreading it on with a trowel and smoothing
+it with the moistened hand. When the surface
+has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible
+to improve the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper
+or a coarse file. It is not possible to produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet the
+method has the characteristic freedom of handwork
+in general, and yields very satisfactory results.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_231.jpg" width="250" height="295" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A vase with blocked rim</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Decoration.</i>&mdash;A great variety of decorative
+effects may be obtained in concrete pottery and in
+other articles made of this material for out-door
+use. In pottery these decorations may take the
+form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or
+designs cut in the surface, and of inlays in colour.
+Whatever the form of design, the necessary cutting
+for it is best made when the cement has become well
+set but not very hard&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, from 6 to 10 hours
+after the finishing coat is applied. A stout, sharp,
+pointed knife blade is all the
+tool that will be required.
+A narrow chisel, however,
+may be found desirable for
+deepening the cuts. The
+knife should be guided by
+means of a ruler, which
+should be flexible if used on
+curved surfaces; and the
+depth of the cut will depend
+somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work
+similar to that described in the problem just
+given, a depth of <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> or <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch is sufficient.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+This cutting, of course can be made after the
+cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and
+chisel; but it will be much more difficult.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/i_232.jpg" width="150" height="187" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A square form</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Colours.</i>&mdash;Colour cement for inlaid designs
+is made by using the best quality of white Portland
+cement as a base, colouring it with dry mineral
+pigments which are sold by dealers under the name
+of lime or cement-proof colours. Among the pigments
+suitable for this purpose are red oxide of iron,
+which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives
+a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces
+yellow; carbonate of copper, which gives a good
+dark green; and burnt umber, which yields a good
+brown. These come as dry powders
+and should be mixed with the dry
+cement and marble dust, making a
+mixture of uniform colour, before
+the water is applied. In order to
+determine the right colour it is
+well to experiment with a small
+quantity of the various ingredients until a satisfactory
+shade has been found. Then with this as a
+guide a sufficiently large quantity should be mixed,
+in the same proportions, to the consistency of a thick
+paste, and applied to the design, which has been
+previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+insure thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete,
+the cutting should be well moistened with
+a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs
+are shown in the accompanying drawings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rustic Furniture.</i>&mdash;The lighter out-door furniture
+can be easily made up in a great variety of
+designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs is
+determined largely by the material which is available.
+Very useful and ornamental effects are produced
+by using sticks cut from the tops or from
+branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily
+found in the second growth of some wood lots,
+afford a good supply of material. It is not necessary
+that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks
+and notches are often very useful in bracing the
+framework. Chairs, settles, tables, standards for
+flower boxes, and other articles of furniture may
+be made out of this rough and unfinished material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_234.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A garden screen</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Lattice Work.</i>&mdash;Trellises and garden screens have
+been made in an almost endless variety of forms.
+Among the most satisfactory is the plain lattice
+work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity
+and evident durability are points in its favour.
+Experience proves also that vines and other plants
+needing support are readily adjusted to this form
+of trellis. The size of the stock required in making<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+the right-angled lattice work depends upon the
+uses to be made of it. For a garden screen the
+uprights need to be of 2 &times; 2 inch stock and of
+any convenient length. End posts of 3 &times; 3 inch
+stock will be required, to give necessary stiffness;
+and, if the screen be a long one, intermediate posts
+of the same size should be placed at intervals of
+ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be
+strips of <sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub>-inch stock, 2 inches wide, set their full
+thickness into the uprights. Spruce furring, which
+lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is suitable
+for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+uprights it is well to use the same wood for the rest
+of the construction. The top and bottom rails
+should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3
+inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete
+posts, firmly set into the ground at intervals of 6
+feet, to which the bottom rail or the uprights are
+fastened by means of irons set into the cement when
+the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green
+paint will protect the wood and properly subordinate
+the lattice work to the trailing branches which it
+supports.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII">VIII</a><br /><br />
+<small>FINISHING AND RE-FINISHING</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+'Tis toil's reward that sweetens industry&mdash;<i>Ebenezer Elliot</i>
+</p></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In the</span> commercial production of furniture the
+cabinet-maker has nothing to do with the finishing
+of his work. This essential part of furniture
+making is turned over to artisans who are finishers
+by trade. In a separate part of the factory they
+attend to the cleaning and filling of the wood
+and to whatever finish is applied to the work of
+the joiner. It is hardly necessary to add that
+the finishing of all kinds of woodwork is quite as
+important as any other feature in its production;
+for, however good the lines of design may be and
+however thoroughly the design may be carried out
+in the construction of any piece of furniture or
+other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as
+a work of art in the finishing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLVI" id="PLVI"></a><img src="images/i_237.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Finishing a Library Table</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate VI]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>But the amateur cabinet-maker should be his
+own finisher. He should familiarize himself with
+the various kinds of finish that may be applied to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+the different woods. He should know the object of
+filling wood and how it is done. He should understand
+the processes of fuming, staining, and varnishing
+so well that he can produce with certainty
+the results desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CLEANING, SURFACING, AND FILLING</h3>
+
+<p><i>First Steps in Finishing.</i>&mdash;The first step in finishing
+woodwork is to clean it up and prepare it for the
+filler. Too great care cannot be taken in examining
+all surfaces for slight oversights that have occurred
+in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been
+acquired in any part of the process of construction.
+Light planing, chiselling, or scraping, and perhaps
+a little sand-papering, always with the grain, may
+be needed to remove these faults and blemishes.
+The most serious of these generally result from gluing.
+All surplus glue should be carefully removed,
+even to the film that soaks into the surface of the
+wood. The slightest spot of glue remaining will
+keep the filler out of the wood and show through
+any kind of finish.</p>
+
+<p><i>Importance of Filling.</i>&mdash;As soon as the furniture
+is thoroughly cleaned, if it is to be finished in the
+natural color, the grain of the wood must be filled
+with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance,
+known as the filler, which, after standing from five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+to seven minutes, should be thoroughly rubbed off
+with a piece of coarse cloth or a handful of shavings.
+This process, as its name indicates, fills the pores
+of the wood and protects them against the absorption
+of moisture and the consequent swelling. But
+this is by no means its chief purpose. Strictly
+speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent
+finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be
+said to be the most important operation connected
+with wood finishing. If improperly done, no amount
+of good work with the varnish brush will remove the
+fault. In fact, good work is impossible after a bad
+beginning. Good varnishing or good finishing of any
+kind requires that, before the final finishing processes
+begin, the surface should be made perfectly
+level and smooth, free from all unevenness or roughness
+or minute openings of any kind that might
+allow the varnish or other finishing material to
+penetrate the wood. If the filling has not been so
+thorough that no part of the subsequent finishing
+material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough
+surface will be sure to follow. This may, of course,
+be rubbed down and re-finished, but never with
+that perfection of result which is assured by laying
+a good foundation in correct filling. It may be set
+down as a fundamental principle of wood finishing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+that the best result is obtained when the filling or
+surfacing has been so thoroughly done that the
+thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required
+to produce the desired result.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liquid Fillers or Surfaces.</i>&mdash;There are many kinds
+of fillers in common use, but they may all be considered
+as belonging to one or the other of two
+classes. They are either liquid fillers or paste
+fillers. Woods differ greatly in the coarseness or
+fineness of their grain. The coarse or open-grained
+woods require a filler with body enough to close up
+the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even
+surface necessary as a foundation for good finishing.
+The close-grained woods, on the other hand, do not
+present the same filling problem. They could not
+absorb a paste filler. In fact, it is hardly too much
+to say that the fine, close-grained woods, like maple,
+gum wood, and birch, do not need a filler at all;
+and there are some coarse-grained woods, like
+southern or hard pine and cypress, the pores of
+which are naturally filled with gummy or resinous
+substances and will not absorb an artificial filler.
+But all such woods <i>do</i> need to be given a finishing
+surface which will prevent the finishing coats
+from soaking into the fibre of the wood. This is
+the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+are very properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers."</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Make a Liquid Filler.</i>&mdash;A standard formula
+for the preparation of a liquid filler is as follows:
+Mix four parts by weight of carbonate of soda with
+six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in
+about eight parts of japan, thinning the product
+with turpentine or benzine to the consistency of
+linseed oil. Laundry starch may be used in place
+of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat
+easier of application than the clay filler because
+it does not settle. It lacks in durability, however,
+especially if it is not well covered. The finest
+grained woods do not require the addition of any
+material to the filler to give body. A great variety
+of liquids may be easily obtained which, without
+being mixed with anything, will give the necessary
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>Glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades
+of varnish, thinned if necessary with benzine or
+turpentine, are often used for this purpose. But
+these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and
+never should be used on the best grades of woodwork.
+Shellac is always preferred as a first coater for hard
+pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the pores of the
+wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+If oil is applied to hard pine without first applying
+this protecting coat of shellac, the wood blackens
+with age. Shellac is an excellent first coater for
+other woods also. It is commonly used in house
+finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. But
+it dries rapidly, and generally with a rough surface.
+The first coating of shellac, therefore, requires careful
+sand-papering before the varnish is put on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time Needed for a Shellac Coat to Dry.</i>&mdash;It may be
+well to caution the amateur finisher as to the time
+required for the thorough drying of shellac. While
+it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first
+drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming
+a hard coating which delays somewhat the drying
+throughout, so that a shellac filling is not really
+dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after
+it has been applied, though it may appear to be.
+It is a good rule to allow at least twenty-four hours
+for thorough drying; and it may be well to add that
+all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for
+the best results more time than energetic workers
+sometimes allow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cost of Surfacing.</i>&mdash;A practical question that the
+amateur finisher will ask is, how can one know in
+advance how much filler is needed for given pieces
+of work, and what will be its cost? For a good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+quality of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint
+will cover eight square yards with one coat. The
+cost varies greatly, depending upon the quality
+of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained
+of a dealer. A good commercial filler or surfacer
+can be bought for $1.50 per gallon, making the cost
+per square yard of one-coat surfacing about 2<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub>
+cents. A small can costs 15 cents. Good work cannot
+be done with the cheaper grades of filler. Shellac,
+which is, all in all, the best of surfacers, can be
+bought for $1.85 a gallon, which would make the cost
+of surfacing somewhat under 3 cents a square yard.</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Make a Paste Filler.</i>&mdash;A good paste filler,
+such as is required for the open-grained woods like
+oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or white wood, may
+be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base,
+thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine,
+and japan in equal parts, with enough silica added
+to the liquid mixture to form a good paste of a consistency
+somewhat thicker than paper-hangers'
+paste. If the mixture should prove to be a little too
+thick, it may easily be thinned with turpentine.
+The final mixing of this filler requires grinding in a
+hand mill. Unless a considerable quantity of it is
+needed it is quite as well to purchase a can of the
+paste filler of a dealer in painters' or finishers' supplies,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+though commercial fillers are not generally
+quite so good as a one made on this formula.
+They often contain wax and whiting and other
+materials as a base which are not so satisfactory
+in the long run as the floated silica.</p>
+
+<p><i>How a Paste Filler is Applied.</i>&mdash;Paste fillers should
+be spread on the surface to be filled very liberally
+with a wide, stiff brush, allowed to stand from five
+to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece
+of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior.
+But it must not all be rubbed off or drawn out of
+the grain. This is an easy mistake for an inexperienced
+worker to make. The thing to do is to
+rub it in and at the same time leave the surfaces
+smooth. The surfaces should then be allowed to
+dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving
+the final finishing coats.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VARNISHING</h3>
+
+<p>The importance of a good foundation surface&mdash;even,
+smooth, and free from unsealed pores that
+would absorb and thus undermine the first coat
+of varnish&mdash;has been explained in the section on
+filling and surfacing. If this foundation has been
+well laid, the amateur finisher may enter upon the
+varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but
+he will soon learn that there is much call for skill<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+in order to produce the desired results in this part
+of the finishing process. The selection, preparation,
+and application of varnish is a special calling,
+and great skill comes only as the result of experience;
+but certain main facts and principles are easily
+learned.</p>
+
+<p><i>How a Good Varnish is Recognized.</i>&mdash;It is hardly
+necessary to say that a superior varnish must be
+clear, transparent, and brilliant. These qualities
+are always associated with this kind of finish. But
+durability is also a necessary quality. An expert will,
+with his eyes shut, recognize a high-grade varnish
+by its peculiar odour, which is to him an agreeable
+one. He will at once detect inferior grades by the
+rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in
+their manufacture. The range of quality and cost
+in varnishes is probably greater and more varied
+than in any other finishing material. For fine,
+artistic work only the best varnish is allowable;
+and this may be bought for $3.00 a gallon.</p>
+
+<p><i>"Sag" and How Corrected.</i>&mdash;A good varnish flows
+easily from the brush, spreads evenly, and dries
+slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its proper
+distribution over the surface. And time enough
+should be taken to apply an even coat which will
+not dry unequally and lead to cracking due to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+irregular contraction in the process of hardening.
+It is of the utmost importance that each coat be
+spread evenly over the surface when first applied.
+Great care should be taken not to brush long in one
+place. Re-brushing after a brief interval leaves
+brush marks which are objectionable. Unequal
+spreading on broad surfaces often causes the varnish
+to run or "sag." A tendency to sag may be
+brushed out if attended to promptly. But, if it
+is not noticed until the varnish has begun to set,
+the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb
+the thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly
+dried brush; and this must not be attempted three
+or four minutes after the varnish has been put on.
+By that time it will have become quite well set and
+a sag will be beyond repairing by any simple means.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time Required Between Varnish Coats.</i>&mdash;The best
+varnishes, as has been stated, dry quite slowly,
+and they seem to dry and harden not, as shellac
+does, on the top first, but from the under surface
+outward. This peculiarity emphasizes the need of
+allowing sufficient time between coats. And it
+should be added that mere drying is not all that
+is required. Each coat must harden; and during
+the process of hardening slight movements take
+place throughout the mass of the coat until it becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+permanently set or hardened. The time
+required for this permanent setting or seasoning,
+as it may be called, varies with the character of
+the under coat, with the temperature of the room
+in which the finishing is done, and with the thickness
+of the varnish coat itself. Five days is usually
+thought to be a short seasoning period. As many
+weeks would not be too long for the best results.
+It is folly to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing.
+In the nature of the case it cannot be hurried without
+yielding disastrous results. There is no other
+kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with
+the certainty that it does in varnishing. Great
+pains must be taken with each coat. Least of all
+should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and
+depth in the appearance of the finished surfaces
+depend upon there being plenty of evenly laid and
+well hardened varnish before the final or finish coat
+is applied. All this work should be done in a well-lighted
+room, free from dust, and with a good supply
+of fresh air, kept at an even temperature, of about
+70 degrees&mdash;certainly not colder than this, since
+a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading
+evenly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Number of Coats Needed.</i>&mdash;The number of coats
+of varnish required vary with the character of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+work. What is known as piano finish requires from
+three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing
+varnish, each well hardened and rubbed down to give
+under surfaces more even than the best brushing can
+give. In addition to these under coats a final finish
+coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre.</p>
+
+<p><i>How to Rub Down Varnish.</i>&mdash;Rubbing down
+varnish is a unique and important part in the process
+of finishing. The beginning of the operation consists
+of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized
+pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the
+work is such that water would have no chance to
+soak into the pores of the wood. Whichever liquid
+is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary.
+This is a block about 4 inches square, made of thick,
+loose cloth like felt or hair cloth. In use it is first
+moistened in the oil or water and then dipped into
+a box containing a quantity of powdered pumice.
+With this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously,
+giving a circular movement to the pad in rubbing
+down the broad surfaces. As the smoothing progresses,
+less and less of the pumice powder is used.
+Near the end of the process enough will be found
+on the surface or adhering to the rubbing pad.
+What remains on the surface is finally all wiped off
+carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+that the surface has been levelled down but that it
+is covered with fine scratches due to the grains of
+the pumice. These are removed by a second rubbing
+in rotten stone and oil or water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dull Finish and Flat Varnish.</i>&mdash;For many purposes
+good finishing requires but one under coat rubbed
+down and covered with a finish coat; and this finish
+coat is often not allowed to retain its natural
+lustre. For furniture a dull finish is much to be
+preferred. It is more durable, it harmonizes better
+with its surroundings, and it is more in keeping with
+the idea of simplicity and usefulness. In working
+for a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth
+and evenness of surface as it is when a high lustre is
+required, and therefore fewer coats are necessary.
+In fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture without
+any varnish at all. Two or three coats of shellac,
+each well rubbed down, give a very satisfactory
+result. Wax finish, to be described later, gives
+beautiful effects. There are varnishes known as
+flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing.
+They are made by dissolving beeswax in
+turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of the
+solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and
+mixing the wax solution while warm with four times
+the quantity of warm varnish. What is known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+as the old Dutch finish is obtained by using over the
+proper stain one coat of wax varnish. But there is
+no kind of dull finish so durable as that given by
+several coats of high-grade varnish, each well rubbed
+down.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WAX FINISH</h3>
+
+<p><i>How to Prepare and Apply Finishing Wax.</i>&mdash;The
+simplest and at the same time one of the most
+attractive methods of finishing woodwork is rubbing
+it with finishing wax. This is one of the old processes
+which has of late years been revived by the
+arts and crafts societies and is becoming deservedly
+popular. Finishing wax may be purchased ready
+for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow
+beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two
+parts wax and one of turpentine. To do this the
+wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings,
+placed in a dish, and covered with the liquid. The
+solution may be hastened by heating in a water
+bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the
+water, care should be exercised to extinguish the
+flame before bringing the turpentine near, on account
+of the inflammable character of turpentine vapor.
+This mixture, which is too thick to spread with a
+brush, may be applied either hot or cold by means
+of a piece of soft cloth. Soft cloths, like clean<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. The
+rubbing should be continued for a considerable time,
+but it is by no means so tedious a process as the
+rubbing down of the several coats of varnish. Less
+rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. One
+of the greatest advantages of the wax finish is that
+it may be quickly applied and immediately rubbed
+down, after which the furniture is ready for use.
+Filling and finishing are accomplished together. It
+is also easy to apply a fresh coat of wax at any
+time. In fact, it is desirable to re-finish new
+pieces of furniture in this way several times during
+the first few months of their use, and after that about
+once a year.</p>
+
+
+<h3>STAINING</h3>
+
+<p><i>Object of Staining.</i>&mdash;Up to this point the processes
+of finishing considered have assumed that the
+wood treated is to retain its natural colour, excepting
+that it may darken with age. But it is often
+desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+to dye or stain it. This is done for a variety
+of purposes&mdash;to reduce to one tone the different
+shades of the natural colour often found in the same
+kind of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of
+the grain and texture, to give an entirely new colour
+to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that
+will harmonize with various colour schemes. To
+accomplish this great variety of results, scores of
+different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put
+upon the market in almost countless shades and
+tints, but they are all easily classified under three
+heads. They are oil stains, water stains, or alcohol
+stains.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Perfect Stain.</i>&mdash;A perfect stain, if it could be
+obtained, would be a clear, limpid liquid, free from
+all solid particles or specks of colouring matter
+that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere
+with the absorption of the filler&mdash;so clear and
+transparent that it would in no way obscure the
+grain of the wood, which in many varieties is the
+chief element of beauty&mdash;so limpid that it would
+easily soak deep into the pores of the wood, carrying
+to a considerable depth below the surface an
+artificial colour which will not fade on exposure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water, Alcohol, and Oil Stains Compared.</i>&mdash;The
+water and alcohol stains on the whole meet these
+requirements better than the oil stains do. They
+are clear, and without body, and they have great
+penetration. But they are not free from faults.
+Many of the water stains are made from aniline
+dyes which are not durable. The alcohol stains,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+however, are generally permanent. Both the water
+stains and the alcohol stains raise the grain of the
+wood and are liable to show darker in corners and
+on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing.
+The oil stains, on the other hand, are free from these
+faults. They spread easily and evenly, they do
+not raise the grain, they do not double up or show
+laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have
+a few defects which overbalance these good qualities.
+They have considerable body which prevents
+them from penetrating equally all parts of the
+surface, so that they do not carry in the colouring
+as either the water or the alcohol stains do. Their
+oily nature causes them partly to close up the
+filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the
+subsequent process of filling. This is so bad a
+defect that oil stains are not to be recommended
+for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which
+depends so much on correct filling. They are more
+successful with the close-grained woods, which need
+only to be surfaced with shellac or the ordinary
+liquid filler.</p>
+
+<p><i>How Stain is Applied.</i>&mdash;If furniture or any kind
+of woodwork is to be artificially coloured, staining
+is the first of the finishing operations to be attended
+to. The stain should be spread upon well-cleaned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge,
+and allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it
+may penetrate well into the wood. The surfaces
+should then be carefully wiped off with clean, soft
+cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may
+not have soaked into the wood, and thus prevent
+a streaked or painted effect. After the stained
+surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to match
+the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into
+the pores, as already explained in the section on
+natural finish. The beginner will need to be cautioned
+again and again not to rub the filler all off or
+draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much
+as possible. He will also need to be on his guard
+against the presence of moisture or grease, which
+will interfere with good results.</p>
+
+<p>Excellent prepared stains in great variety may
+be easily obtained of dealers in painters' supplies.
+They will not always produce the effects claimed
+for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible
+to find prepared stains that will give almost
+any desired result. They are somewhat expensive,
+however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to
+develop his own stain. Following are some suggestions
+along this line:</p>
+
+<p><i>Asphaltum and Golden Oak Stain.</i>&mdash;A good chocolate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+brown stain may be produced on almost any
+light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish made by
+colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying
+with a brush. A considerable quantity of asphaltum
+should be used, but not enough to make a
+sticky liquid. This will need to be finished with
+shellac or finishing varnish. When applied to
+quartered oak it produces the beautiful effect known
+as golden oak. It may also be used on white wood
+to give an imitation of black walnut; and Georgia
+pine under this stain takes on a very attractive tone
+without obscuring the natural figure of the wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mahogany.</i>&mdash;A clever imitation of mahogany may
+be made by staining birch of the right grain with
+logwood stain. The stain is made by boiling together
+equal parts of logwood chips and water for
+about three hours. While the mixture is hot,
+chloride of tin is added gradually until the right
+shade of colour is produced. The stain should be
+allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several
+coats may be needed to secure the right depth of
+shade. The filler used should be coloured with
+burnt umber and sienna. The finish may be a
+brilliant or a flat varnish, or wax.</p>
+
+<p><i>Baywood as Mahogany.</i>&mdash;Mahogany stain is also
+applied to baywood, resulting in what commonly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+passes for real mahogany. The genuine article,
+however, is an imported wood coming from South
+America, Mexico, and Africa in several varieties;
+and it is a much harder wood than the American
+baywood imitation. Both the birch and the baywood
+imitations of mahogany may be so well stained
+and finished that it is difficult to distinguish them
+from the imported varieties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flemish Oak.</i>&mdash;The various oak stains are worthy
+of special mention. Flemish oak finish is very dark,
+almost black. It is prepared by first applying a
+stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in
+water in the proportion of one half pound of bichromate
+to a gallon of water. The solution should
+be strained and applied with a stiff brush. After
+drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat
+of thin black stain is applied, made by dissolving
+japan drop-black in turpentine. This is allowed
+to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when
+the surface is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac
+is applied. After a thorough drying and hardening
+the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper
+and finished with wax.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mission Oak.</i>&mdash;The so-called mission oak finish
+may be in several colours, but as a rule it is of a dull
+gray with the flakes slightly reddish. The stain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a little
+rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine.
+The mixture should be strained through cheese
+cloth and applied with a staining brush. Wax
+finish is invariably used for mission oak.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forest Green Oak.</i>&mdash;Forest green oak is among
+the best of the green effects in this wood. The stain
+is made by mixing two parts of chrome green with
+one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material.
+This is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine
+and one of raw linseed oil, with a little white japan.
+The resulting stain should be somewhat thinner than
+linseed oil. After this has been applied to the oak
+surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat
+of thin shellac coloured with tumeric and a
+very little green aniline. This should have a wax
+finish.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gray Oak.</i>&mdash;A gray stain may be given to oak by
+a solution of iron sulphate, made by dissolving a
+small quantity of chemically pure crystals in water,
+and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by
+adding a little sulphuric acid. This solution is most
+conveniently used by placing it in a box tank large
+enough to contain the pieces of wood to be stained,
+as they must soak in the solution until they are
+thoroughly saturated. The pieces may be kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+separate by stout cords tied around them, and they
+may be held under the solution by means of weights.
+When taken out they should be allowed to dry before
+they are rubbed down.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weathered Oak.</i>&mdash;Weathered oak stain is made by
+taking two ounces of copperas and the same quantity
+of dry tannin, dissolving them separately in about
+a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved
+mixing them together. When applied to oak it
+gives it the natural weathered tone with
+a slight bluish cast. It may then be oiled,
+shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or
+wax.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fumed Oak and Chestnut.</i>&mdash;But the most satisfactory
+method of giving a brown tone to furniture
+or other woodwork, is without question, by fuming
+with ammonia, though this process is limited to
+two woods, viz., white oak and chestnut. All
+other woods, including red oak, are deficient in
+tannic acid, the essential element to combine with
+the ammonia gas in the production of the stain.
+This method requires a fuming box of sufficient
+dimensions to contain the article of furniture to
+be fumed. It must be carefully constructed with
+all its joints made vapour proof by pasting over
+them strips of paper and covering them with shellac.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+The top or one side of the box should be
+fastened with screws, so that it may be vapour proof
+when the box is in use and yet easily removed.
+The operation of fuming consists simply in placing
+the furniture in the box with one or more shallow
+pans filled with the strongest ammonia&mdash;not the
+household ammonia, which is too weak&mdash;screwing
+the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus
+to stand from 12 to 24 hours, according to the shade
+desired. If the fuming box be provided with small
+glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good
+light will be thrown across the furniture so that
+the development of colour may be observed without
+opening the box. When the desired shade
+has been obtained and the furniture removed,
+it is best to give it a good wax finish which will
+develop a beautiful velvety texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peculiarities of Fumed Finish.</i>&mdash;It will be observed
+that the toning of quartered oak by the fuming process
+develops the beauty of the grain far better than
+any other process of staining; and there should also
+be noted the still more remarkable fact that the
+contrasts of tone are the reverse of those given by
+staining; <i>i. e.</i>, the parts that appear lighter in the
+one case are the darker parts in the other. This
+gives a certain distinction to the fumed finish and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+furnishes a means of detecting that which is not
+genuine.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHITE ENAMEL</h3>
+
+<p>A vivid and very effective finish for furniture
+as well as for the trim of some rooms is white enamel.
+It is used on new work and also in re-finishing old
+furniture and other woodwork. In the latter case
+the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed
+and the surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. But
+whether the wood be old or not, a satisfactory enamel
+finish cannot be produced by using the white
+varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is
+somewhat transparent. It is necessary, first, to
+coat the wood with flat white&mdash;a paint made of
+white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening and
+thinned with turpentine. Oil should not be used
+in any part of the process. Three coats of this paint
+will generally be needed to produce the right surface
+for the final finish. Each of these coats should be
+allowed to dry and become well hardened. Two
+or three days, better still a week, should be allowed
+for hardening between coats, since insufficient
+hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats
+and develops a tendency to chip off. When a surface
+is ready for the enamel, only one coat of it
+should be applied, and that should be given not less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+than one week to harden before it is exposed to
+wear. Enamel is simply a good varnish coloured
+with zinc oxide ground in varnish. It may be
+thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is
+applied with a brush like any other varnish.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEMS</h3>
+
+<p>Problems in filling and finishing were developed
+in the series of furniture making problems in <a href="#VII">Chapter
+VII</a>. It is only necessary to bring forward the unfinished
+work there described and apply to it the
+finishing methods outlined in this chapter. Our
+problems are, therefore, the following:</p>
+
+<p><i>The Knock-down Bookcase.</i>&mdash;If made up in white
+wood it may, like its original, be stained in imitation
+of black walnut and waxed. It may, however,
+be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize
+with the furniture with which it is to be
+used.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hanging Book Rack.</i>&mdash;In the design for this
+rack it was suggested that it might be made of white
+wood and given a white enamel finish, or of baywood
+with a mahogany stain and varnish.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Umbrella Stand.</i>&mdash;Oak was advised for this
+piece of furniture. It needs to be treated with
+a paste filler and given two coats of varnish, well
+rubbed down.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>The Magazine Stand.</i>&mdash;Oak was suggested for
+this stand. The color will depend upon the surroundings.
+Filling and varnishing will be required
+if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be
+fumed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Light Library Table.</i>&mdash;Oak was mentioned as
+a very appropriate wood for this table, but some
+lighter wood like ash may be used. It will be
+remembered that all open-grained woods require
+treatment with a paste filler before they are finished.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Heavy Library Table.</i>&mdash;As this was designed
+in the mission style, oak was chosen as the most
+suitable wood. It may be given the so-called mission
+oak stain and a wax finish.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Round Centre Table.</i>&mdash;This may be made in
+any of the woods commonly used for furniture,
+but quartered oak was mentioned. A golden oak
+finish will be found very satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bookcase with Glazed Doors.</i>&mdash;This may be
+made up in ash, in quartered oak, or in gum wood.
+The finish will depend upon the kind of wood used
+and the furniture with which it is to be associated.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Library Desk and the Morris Chair.</i>&mdash;The
+originals were made in quartered oak, fumed, and
+waxed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hall Clock.</i>&mdash;This may be made in quartered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+oak and given a weathered oak stain and wax
+finish.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RE-FINISHING OLD FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<p>There is nothing that affords more satisfaction
+to one looking for pleasing effects in household
+fittings than the occasional piece of genuine old
+furniture repaired and re-finished. Some of the
+rare old colonial designs are of exceptional merit.
+This is proved by the high prices which they often
+command. These designs originated in the days
+of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention
+of machine-made, cheap furniture. The work of
+the older designers was characterized by a certain
+individuality which gave it artistic value; and the
+craftsmen who worked out these designs did their
+work with such care and thoroughness that what
+they produced has had a lasting quality. It is
+for these reasons that we find it still in existence
+and so much desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caution as to Repairs.</i>&mdash;In the work of renovating
+old furniture, problems are met which are very
+different from those which have to be considered
+in the production of new work. All questions of
+design are settled. There is generally enough of
+the original article to show what the design was.
+The problem is one of restoration; we must supply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+the missing parts and re-finish the whole. The first
+thing to do, therefore, with any piece of genuine
+antique furniture is to look it over carefully from the
+point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its defects,
+supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the
+breaks. It will be found that the wood is generally
+exceedingly dry and brittle on account of its age,
+and that it will therefore need to be handled more
+carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it
+will often be found desirable to make use of parts
+of other old pieces rather than to add new wood
+to the old. This is especially true of veneering,
+which cannot be well matched in any other way.
+Old bits of veneer, on the other hand, may be so
+deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed
+that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent
+finishing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scraping.</i>&mdash;After the necessary repairs have been
+made, the next thing to be done is to remove the
+old finish. If the varnish is dry and brittle and
+somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means
+of a well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken,
+however, not to injure the wood surface, especially
+at the corners and edges. If the scraper does not
+take off the varnish well at certain points, fine sand-papering
+may be resorted to. It is generally wise,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+also, to give the entire surface a light sand-papering
+before it is cleaned up for finishing.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Varnish Remover.</i>&mdash;It often happens, however,
+that the scraper will not accomplish the desired
+result. In that case the liquid varnish remover
+is necessary. This may be found at the paint stores.
+The best formulas for producing these varnish and
+paint removers are known only to the manufacturers.
+It is therefore not wise for the young finisher to
+attempt to make his own remover. He should provide
+himself with a can of it and a bristle brush
+with which to apply it to the furniture. After
+putting on a good coat he should let it remain a
+few minutes and then try to scrape off the softened
+finish with a putty knife. If it doesn't come off
+readily, it should stand a little longer. The amount
+of time required depends entirely upon the hardness
+of the old finish. But in due time it will become
+soft and can be very quickly and effectually removed.
+A putty knife, however, will not remove it all.
+After scraping off as much as possible from the
+plain surfaces and from the corners, a careful washing
+with turpentine or benzine will clean off what
+remains. It is of the greatest importance that none
+of the old varnish nor any of the varnish remover
+should be permitted to remain. Either of them will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+show through the finish as stains on the broad surfaces
+and collect in the corners when the new finish
+is put on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Re-finishing.</i>&mdash;The re-finishing process is much
+like that described for new work, the chief exception
+being that there is generally no need of filling unless
+it has been found necessary to add new wood in
+making the repairs. Generally speaking, the re-finishing
+begins with the surfacing, which may be
+done with thin shellac coloured to match the stain
+of the furniture. This is sand-papered lightly
+before receiving the one or more coats of finishing
+varnish necessary to produce the desired effect.
+Very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down
+wax finish.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: RE-FINISHING AN ANTIQUE MAHOGANY
+TABLE</h3>
+
+<p>The table with which this problem deals was
+found in an old furniture shop among a large number
+of pieces probably of equal antiquity but of poor
+design; for all old furniture was not conceived on
+beautiful lines. Much of it was quite as ugly as
+some of the modern furniture. This table, however,
+when separated from the rubbish which almost
+concealed it, was found to have good proportions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+with simple but graceful elements designed to make
+it useful as well as attractive. It was a drop-leaf
+table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve
+at each of the four corners. The legs were of turned
+stock and fluted, terminating in brass thimbles
+with casters. One leg was broken off, one of the
+leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges
+and the other was partly broken, the table top had
+received some hard knocks, and the entire surface
+was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with
+difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of
+which the table was made. It took some imagination
+to conceive the possibilities which lay in this
+much abused and dilapidated old relic.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and
+dirt as well as possible with a damp sponge. The
+part of the top that remained on the frame was then
+removed so that the repairs could be easily made.
+The broken leg was replaced by boring each of the
+broken parts and setting them together with a
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub>-inch dowel, glued in. The brass tips and casters
+were removed and set aside to be burnished. The
+missing parts of the top were replaced by new pieces
+of baywood, fitted in, glued, and stained to match
+the original wood. After the necessary repairs
+had been made the entire table was treated with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+varnish remover and the old finish scraped off with
+a putty knife. This part of the process was completed
+by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with
+turpentine, carefully picking out with a pointed
+knife from corners, cracks, and openings of any
+kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish
+remover. After carefully wiping off the results
+of this treatment with clean cheese cloth all the
+broad surfaces were then smoothed off with fine
+sand-paper. It was found that the wood was well
+filled, so that all it now needed was a final finishing
+with wax. The transformation from the begrimed
+old table found in the shop to a graceful and beautiful
+article of antique furniture was complete.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX">IX</a><br /><br />
+<small>HAND WEAVING</small></h2>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And Aphrodite came to comfort them<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Her&eacute; gave them beauty of face and soul<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Beyond all women; purest Artemis<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Endowed them with her stature and white grace;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Pallas taught their hands to flash along<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Her famous looms.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The "Daughters of Pandarus" (from the "Odyssey," Lib. XX). Translation
+by Mrs. Browning.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Among</span> the home industries which the arts and
+crafts societies have lately revived, perhaps
+none invite more interest or deserve greater
+honour than weaving with the hand loom. Weaving
+is an ancient art. If we were to seek its origin we
+should have to go back to the time when men adopted
+homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made
+from the skins of animals. That was a great change,
+for it meant the beginning not only of the textile
+industries but of civilization itself. It is no wonder
+that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured
+in ancient mythologies. Not less honour is due the
+spinning wheels and looms of our grandmothers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+which played an important part in the early beginnings
+of our own history. The New England
+colonists spoke with pride of communities which
+showed progress in the weaving of cloth; and this
+was then largely a home industry in the hands of
+honourable women. It was a work of necessity, but
+not without love and devotion. Many evidences
+remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels
+of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths&mdash;examples
+of unfailing patience, great ingenuity,
+and marvellous skill&mdash;handed down from
+generation to generation to their present fortunate
+and proud possessors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLVII" id="PLVII"></a><img src="images/i_271.jpg" width="600" height="389" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Weaving a Rug</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate VII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>The Primitive Loom.</i>&mdash;In the Orient, where our
+choicest rugs are made, two trees growing near
+each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo,
+and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires.
+This is a primitive loom. The modern
+hand loom is the same in principle; and the looms
+of our factories do not differ from it essentially.
+While it is true that their productive power has been
+enormously multiplied, this great improvement,
+which was actually one of the chief causes of a great
+industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive
+genius of two men who harnessed the motive
+powers of nature to the English hand looms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_274.jpg" width="400" height="130" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Shuttle and bobbin</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Warp and Woof.</i>&mdash;The fundamental process in
+all weaving is essentially the same; and it is exceedingly
+simple. It consists in passing one set of threads
+between two other sets of threads which cross each
+other alternately and are moved first up and then
+down to allow the passage of the shuttle with its
+bobbin and thread. The set of threads which cross
+each other and which, by being moved up and
+down, interlock the thread which is passed between
+them, is known as the <i>warp</i>. The thread which
+the shuttle carries across and between the warp
+threads is called the <i>woof</i>. By careful selection
+of materials, by skilful design in the dyeing and
+arrangement of these materials, and by proper management
+of the warp and woof to express the design,
+the most beautiful Oriental rugs are fashioned;
+and, though we may not be able to reproduce these
+in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things
+may be made upon the hand loom by those who have
+the necessary enthusiasm and patience.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i_275.jpg" width="600" height="512" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The hand loom</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_276.jpg" width="500" height="74" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The reed</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>What the Hand Loom is.</i>&mdash;The hand loom consists
+of four uprights or posts, joined on two sides at the
+top and bottom by cross pieces. Attached to the
+lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each
+side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give
+free play back and forth. This is the beater.
+These cross pieces are grooved on their inner edges,
+and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a
+frame divided into sections by short, stiff wires,
+making from 10 to 25 or more sections to the inch.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+It is called a reed because it was formerly made
+from reeds. The sections of the reed are called
+dents, and through each one is to be threaded a single
+strand of the warp. From the upper cross pieces
+extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a
+height of about two feet above the general framework.
+They are united at the top by a round piece
+called the roll, over which, near each end, are
+passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn
+carry other cords fastened by means of screw eyes
+to inch-wide sticks extending across the width
+of the loom. These sticks are in pairs and carry
+cords or wires of uniform length through the centre
+of each of which a thread of the warp is passed by
+means of an eye in each wire, as through the dent
+of the reed. This is called the harness. There
+must be at least two of them, and there may be more.
+Two are necessary for the simplest weaving of a
+plain surface, and more than two if the work is to
+be more complex, as is required for scarfs with
+fancy borders, cushions, or any figured products
+of the loom. Near each end of the loom are two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads
+are attached when the loom is set up for weaving.
+These rollers are called beams. Over one of them
+the woven product passes as the loom is operated,
+while the other holds the unwoven warp. At the
+back of the loom is still another cross piece, underneath
+which pedals are fastened. These pedals
+connect by chains with the harnesses in such a manner
+that when the foot is placed on one of them the cords
+attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing the
+harness and the warp threads which it carries below
+the level of the other set or sets of warp threads.
+An ingenious device of cogs at the side of the loom
+holds the work taut and enables the worker to let
+out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE PROCESS</h3>
+
+<p><i>Preparing the Warp.</i>&mdash;When the essential parts
+of the hand loom and their uses are understood,
+the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready the
+warp and attach it to the machine. The thread or
+warp is taken from spools or cones, four threads at one
+time, which constitute what is called a bout. After
+determining how many threads will be required,
+allowing so many threads to form one inch of the
+woven cloth, the operator must decide how wide<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+her warp is to be and how long. With the width,
+the length, and the number of threads to the inch
+in mind, she proceeds to wind upon her warping
+bars or frame the requisite amount until she has it
+all in one great skein. In putting this upon the bars
+or frames she should be very careful to cross each
+bout&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, each four threads&mdash;so that one bout
+shall go above and one below, in order to allow the
+introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks
+or leash-sticks. These attachments keep the order
+of the threads so that they may be drawn into the
+harness in the same order in which they are wound
+on the beam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Warping the Loom.</i>&mdash;To warp the loom the operator
+loosens one end of the skein and, passing it
+from the warping bars to the loom, attaches it to
+the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after
+carefully dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed.
+At this point an attachment called a
+rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and
+a certain number of threads placed in each division.
+By the aid of the lease-sticks, which are inserted,
+and with the assistance of a second person to hold
+the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the
+beam. The rake is now removed and the worker
+proceeds to set up the piece.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_279.jpg" width="300" height="38" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Warping hook</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Drawing in the Warp.</i>&mdash;As has already been
+explained, two harnesses only will need to be
+used for simple weaving. Taking the first bout of
+four threads, the weaver draws the first thread
+through the centre of the first loop in the first harness,
+or the one to which the right-hand pedal is
+attached. The next thread is put through the
+centre of the first loop of the second harness, or
+the one attached to the left-hand pedal. The
+third is drawn through the second loop of the harness
+connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth,
+in turn, through the second loop of the harness
+attached to the left-hand pedal. Great care must
+be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a
+single misplaced thread means that the work of
+drawing in must be all done over again. A special
+kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the
+warp. When the drawing in is completed properly,
+the operator begins at the right-hand side of the
+loom and, measuring the reed, allows one half the
+width of web from the centre of the reed and draws
+each thread through each dent in regular order.
+When this is done it is only necessary to connect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by
+means of heavier threads which hold the warp
+out in the loom, test the work, and proceed joyously
+with the weaving.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beating Up the Woof.</i>&mdash;The weaver presses the
+right-hand pedal, and every alternate thread separates
+from the other, leaving a space between the
+two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown
+from right to left, carrying the woof threads through.
+The operator then draws this thread up at the
+side to make a good selvedge and brings home the
+beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. A
+sheer fabric requires a light stroke of the beater, while
+firm cloth requires more force. Releasing the right
+pedal, the operator presses the left, which causes the
+warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof
+threads just thrown. The shuttle now passes from
+left to right, carrying through another woof thread
+which, in turn, is beaten up as before. So the work
+goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating
+from right to left and from left to right,
+interspersed with the strokes of the beater.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLVIII" id="PLVIII"></a><img src="images/i_281.jpg" width="600" height="476" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Hand-Made Towels</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate VIII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: MAKING A RUG</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem, like all others in
+house decoration, involves in its initial stages
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+questions of design. Before planning the rug it
+is necessary to know what use the rug is to have&mdash;whether
+it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room,
+or a chamber, and whether it is to be used
+upon hard wood floors or with a carpet. This is
+a question of colours, and of materials; for the
+designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour,
+not only in the rug itself but in its relation to the
+other colours with which it should harmonize,
+and the materials used must not display glaring
+inconsistencies of texture. Unless the beginner has
+special talent as a colourist it is not wise to attempt
+the introduction of too many colours in one piece
+of work. If the warp is dark it is usually better to use
+light or medium woof. If several shades are used
+in the body of the rug, better results are obtained
+by using for the border or end decoration one or
+more plain colours which match or readily blend
+with the principal colours of the body of the rug.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;">
+<a name="PLIX" id="PLIX"></a><img src="images/i_283.jpg" width="599" height="597" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Hand-Made Rugs</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate IX]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Materials: Denim.</i>&mdash;There are many materials
+suitable for rug making. Denim in moss or forest
+green makes a rug fit for a queen. This should
+be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet
+size. In preparing the woof it will be necessary to
+cut the denim on a true bias into strips from <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> to
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch wide. The latter width is better.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+In cutting, the best method is to fold back one
+corner of a square cut end along the selvedge, forming
+a fold across the cloth at an angle of 45 degrees.
+Crease this fold carefully and make the first cut
+along the fold. With a yardstick or a straight
+edge of some kind rule off lightly with a piece of
+chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width for
+the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain
+a true bias. When a sufficient amount has been
+cut, the pieces should be ravelled or fringed on each
+edge by drawing them quickly through a button
+hook. There is a certain knack in this, but it is
+soon acquired. The fringed strips should then be
+fastened together at the ends by means of overhand
+stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting
+corners. The moss-like effect when woven is improved
+if the woof, as soon as it is prepared, is not
+rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for
+filling the shuttle. A special form of shuttle without
+a bobbin or spool is used for carrying the woof
+cloth for rug weaving. Its simple construction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+is shown in the illustration. The woof is wound
+endwise and unwound in weaving by turning the
+shuttle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_286.jpg" width="400" height="95" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Shuttle for woof cloth</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another good material for rug making is found
+in various kinds of woollen cloth. Warm, durable,
+and handsome effects may be obtained by using a
+gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade
+of red as the end decoration, with set figures for the
+body of the rug. Geometric designs, arrows, swastika,
+the pine tree, and many other forms are
+possible. Very dainty colours also may be combined
+in rugs for chamber use. Materials for these
+may be obtained from worn lawn dresses, discarded
+silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully
+with one or two plain colours reserved for use in
+the borders.</p>
+
+<p><i>Combination of Blue and White.</i>&mdash;Blue and white
+is always a happy combination; and exceedingly
+dainty creations may be woven, to be placed perhaps
+in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old
+blue with a white warp, combined with white
+borders and a white knotted fringe. A vine-like
+effect may be obtained in the border by twisting
+blue and white together in opposite ways and weaving
+in a plain thread of white or blue between the
+two. Another happy combination of blue and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+white results from weaving on a blue warp a woof
+of white outing flannel, cut and fringed as described
+for the moss rug of denim, with a border of old blue
+and figures of the same colour. For a chamber or
+for a bath room in white such a rug as this will
+leave nothing to be desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>A Weaving Design.</i>&mdash;It has just been said that
+design in rug making is a question of colours and of
+materials. It is already apparent that it is more
+than that. It is largely a question of procedure in
+the process of weaving. That this is so may be
+shown in the following account of the making of a
+blue and white rug. The thought was to produce
+a rug with five stripes of blue running lengthwise,
+with white figures at regular intervals through the
+middle of the rug. To accomplish this result two
+threads of white warp were removed from the reed
+and harness every two inches for a space of ten
+inches on each side, thus making what may be
+called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will
+be easily seen, had to appear to the number of
+five on each side when the rug was woven. The white
+figures were formed by first throwing the blue cloth
+or woof through the warp by the usual throw of
+the shuttle and, before beating it up, threading into
+the warp white cloth in the desired pattern, after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+which the woof and pattern were beaten up together.
+For the pattern five threads or pieces of
+white cloth were used, two of which were 6 inches
+in length and three 2 inches, the two longer ones
+being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated.
+A space of 7 inches was left between the white
+figures, the location of which was carefully determined
+by counting the threads, both of warp and of
+woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear
+at the right place. The result of this weaving design
+was a very beautiful rug.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_289.jpg" width="500" height="155" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">White figure in blue rug</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Another Example of Weaving Design.</i>&mdash;This feature
+of rug designing is capable of indefinite expansion.
+Perhaps one more example may be given.
+The object was to produce a rug of medium dark
+centre with an 8-inch border all around of a darker
+colour. This effect was produced by first weaving
+8 inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed
+goods showing several dark colours contrasting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+happily. Having reached the place where the
+medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this
+medium colour and of the right length was joined
+each time to short pieces of woof of the border colour
+so that, as the weaving progressed along the length
+of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared
+in its proper place but 8 inches of border on each
+side. When the proper length of the centre had
+been woven, the rug was finished by weaving another
+8 inches of the border colour. The result was a
+rug of individuality and charm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Great Variety of Material.</i>&mdash;Endless combinations
+will occur to any one who becomes interested in
+this captivating art. The field for colour design
+is almost without limit. No material is so old and
+useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker.
+Old bed ticking with its blue and white stripes cut
+on the bias makes a very desirable combination
+when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border.
+A charming mottled effect in one instance was
+produced by a yarn which was ravelled from an old
+raw silk porti&egrave;re of a mahogany shade and wound
+into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls
+being rewound several times. This was used as
+the woof for the centre of the rug. The border
+was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span>
+mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give
+thread of a size equal to that of the tan cloth. Discarded
+clothing in which the prevailing colours
+are red, when made up into woof threads and woven
+on a white warp, gives a charming effect which may
+be strengthened or toned down by a border combination
+as desired. Dyes may, of course, be used
+if the colours of the weaving threads made up from
+old cloths and discarded clothing are not suited
+to the design that is to be worked out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weaving the Rug.</i>&mdash;When the design for the rug
+has been thoroughly worked out, determining the
+colours, materials to be used, and the method of
+procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be
+prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as
+already explained in the discussion of the general
+process of weaving. Further details of procedure
+are not needed here. The thing to do is to weave
+a rug as designed. The next thing to do is to
+design and weave another rug, and then another and
+so on. As in most crafts so in weaving, experience
+is the great teacher&mdash;a teacher who demands
+faithful work, who finds lessons of value in every
+failure and abundant satisfaction in every success.
+Some of these successes were found in the rugs
+illustrated opposite <a href="#Page_252">page 252</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Rug weaving is probably the simplest of all
+weaving and therefore a good problem with which
+to begin. After serving a satisfactory apprenticeship
+in this field the amateur will have acquired
+sufficient knowledge of design and sufficient skill
+in the art to pass to more difficult problems. This
+will take her out into a large field of opportunity.
+Porti&egrave;res, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads,
+and covers for pillows and cushions in endless
+variety will suggest themselves to the ambitious
+worker. In all these, as has been seen in the case
+of rug making, design is all important. The management
+of the loom is much the same in all plain
+weaving. What differences there are will be found,
+for the most part, in the weaving designs. In the
+following problems are described some of the special
+features involved in the other forms of weaving.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: PORTI&Egrave;RES AND COUCH COVERS</h3>
+
+<p><i>Suggestions for the Design.</i>&mdash;If the loom is wide
+enough these may be woven in one piece; but usually
+it is necessary to weave them in sections or
+breadths. In this case, of course, they must be
+afterward neatly joined. The possibilities in colour
+design are naturally varied. They may be woven
+with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the colour<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with
+striped ends. Harmony of colour effects is always
+to be sought. Depth and richness may sometimes
+be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a
+generous use of black. Materials may be yarns,
+bits of silk or velvet, or pieces of fine, soft woollen
+goods. The warp may be silk or linen or mercerized
+cotton. Beautiful porti&egrave;res have been woven
+by leaving out two threads of warp at regular
+intervals, giving a loose and fluffy effect. Silk and
+wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating
+with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired
+shade; and, if of the same colour as the warp
+used, they will impart a very decided tone to the
+whole product. In porti&egrave;res, the general appearance
+is much improved if the woof is not beaten up
+hard into the warp. The soft beating gives a resulting
+texture that is more pliable and more suitable
+for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in
+porti&egrave;res. Couch covers, however, which will have
+to resist more wear and tear, should be beaten up
+harder. In preparing the silk and wool pieces the
+cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by
+carefully lapping the ends, and, by cutting away
+a part of the cloth, making the joint uniform in
+size. If the material is cloth of ordinary thickness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> an inch is quite wide enough for strips. The
+length of the pieces used may vary greatly, though
+they may be somewhat different in colour. They
+may vary all the way from a few inches to a length
+long enough to weave an inch in the porti&egrave;re or cover.
+This makes it very easy to secure a source of supply
+for the material in saving old garments and short
+pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making
+up the woof threads for these products of the loom.
+Almost any household will be able to save enough
+in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful
+pair of porti&egrave;res or a couch cover which will be durable
+in quality, easy to clean, attractive in colour,
+and satisfactory from every point of view.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: WINDOW DRAPERIES AND CURTAINS</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;Curtains of one colour or of several
+are woven on the simple loom with two harnesses.
+They may be of the soft cream tint, the material
+for which is easily obtained and the effect of which,
+in softening the light passing through them, leaves
+little to be desired. But if a little colour be required,
+the weaving design may be easily changed
+to secure this result. One may, for example, weave
+at first 7 inches of the plain cream. This will
+give woven material enough for a 2-inch hem at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+bottom of the curtain and 5 inches before the
+beginning of a coloured border. The border may
+consist of two threads of colour alternating with
+two threads of the cream, thus making a stripe of
+about 7 inches in width. Following this may come
+8 to 10 inches of the plain cream, followed in turn
+by a narrow stripe of the same colour as the border,
+3 inches wide, in turn followed by another 10 inches
+of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and
+so on, alternately, until the required length of the
+curtain has been woven. If desired, a top border
+may be woven in, though it is well to make it somewhat
+narrower than the one at the bottom&mdash;say
+about 5 inches&mdash;and it must be added so that it
+will show below the hem. In any case the top of the
+curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming,
+and also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted
+for hanging the curtain. Vertical stripes are often
+desirable in curtains, especially if the room is so
+low studded as to invite the employment of every
+possible means for making it seem higher. Such
+stripes may be made by using two colours for the
+warp&mdash;as, for example, blue and white or green
+and white&mdash;with one of these colours as woof.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="ALCOVE" id="ALCOVE"></a><img src="images/i_295.jpg" width="500" height="767" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An Alcove With Window Draperies, Pillow Covers, Window
+Seat Cover, Chair Seat and Moss Green Rug. All Hand Woven</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Importance of Selecting Good Warp.</i>&mdash;The successful
+working out of this problem depends very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+largely upon the proper selection of materials.
+While many things may be used for warp with a
+certain degree of success, there are fine points to
+be observed in weaving as in all the art-crafts,
+and the real beauty of the result depends upon
+giving due attention to these points. It is always
+well to remember that in all weaving the warp
+plays a most important part. Mercerized cotton
+warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof
+or with a combination of both, and retains its beauty
+after being laundered many times. In the soft cream
+shade it has almost the appearance of silk, at a much
+less cost. But silk may often be obtained at a low
+price if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a
+silk mill. Bargains in small lots of unsalable colours
+may be secured with which the weaver may do wonders;
+and if the colours are not good the silk may be
+dyed at small expense. Our grandmothers saved
+their tea grounds for a week or more, boiled them,
+and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp.
+They were, in fact, very particular about their warping
+threads. Not everything would suit them. They
+learned from experience that the wearing quality
+of goods is improved by having the warp stronger
+and harder twisted than the filling. It was common
+for them to spin a certain thread for this purpose.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+Exquisite results follow the use of a fine linen
+warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk
+for filling. Striking and beautiful also, in its way,
+is the very coarse linen warp.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variety in Woof Threads.</i>&mdash;A very pleasing effect
+in sash curtains or in full length window draperies
+is produced by weaving heavy threads alternately
+with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins, one
+holding the heavy thread and the other the fine
+one. Two or more threads may be alternated in
+this way as the fancy of the designer prompts;
+and this style of weaving may be confined to borders,
+leaving the body of the fabric plain, or the borders
+may be woven of the solid, heavy threads and the
+body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the
+alternate coarse and fine threads. Such curtains
+are very beautiful in cream white; but colour may
+be used if the colours are fast so that the curtains
+may be successfully laundered.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PATTERN WEAVING</h3>
+
+<p>Before undertaking more difficult problems in
+weaving it will be necessary to explain in general
+two important processes. The first one is the
+process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing.
+Among the heirlooms treasured by many families<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span>
+are the beautiful blue and white coverlets or
+bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and
+towels. No one with strong domestic tastes who
+has been fortunate enough to see these products
+of home industry can have failed to be charmed with
+the wonderfully wrought designs and with the
+quaint names by which they were once well known;
+for our grandmothers designated these designs by
+such names as Spring Flowers, Governor's Garden,
+the Path of the Roses, Flowers of Lebanon, Ladies'
+Delight, Fairies Ring, and doubtless by many more
+names which have been lost. This work in pattern
+design is wrought by the use not of two pedals
+and harnesses, right and left, as used in the first
+three problems, but by the use of several additional
+harnesses.</p>
+
+<p><i>To Be Learned by Experimenting.</i>&mdash;If the beginner
+in weaving has mastered the use of the simple loom
+with two harnesses it is possible to extend her knowledge
+and skill to the successful operation of a pattern
+weaving loom. But the procedure is too technical
+and too varied to be described in detail as directions
+for a practical problem for amateurs. It is
+far better to experiment with a loom of this kind
+under the guidance of some person competent to
+point out the way step by step. Nor will it be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+possible, in a brief description of this somewhat
+intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving
+designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take
+up pattern weaving. Copies of the traditional
+designs may be obtained as material for study and
+practice. After a little it will be possible to make
+variations and so lead to the delight of originating
+simple and perhaps more elaborate new patterns.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLX" id="PLX"></a><img src="images/i_301.jpg" width="600" height="450" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover, Slumber Robe and Pillow Covers</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate X]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_304.jpg" width="500" height="738" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A written pattern with a variety of figures woven from it</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>How Patterns Are Written.</i>&mdash;Complete working
+directions for pattern weaving will therefore not
+be attempted in this chapter; but it may be possible
+to point out a few leading facts and principles which
+will be of assistance to the experimenter who ventures
+to take up by herself this interesting application
+of the art of weaving. Patterns for this work
+are plainly written out from right to left on cross section
+paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying
+illustration, each horizontal section of which
+corresponds to one of the harnesses of the loom and
+the pedal attached to it. If we have a four-harness
+loom, as would be required for working the pattern
+and weaving the figures illustrated, the right-hand
+pedal and the harness connected with it, which is
+the one farthest from the operator, are designated
+by the number 1, and correspond to that harness
+number in the pattern. Following in order, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+next three pedals and connected harnesses are
+numbered 2, 3, and 4 to correspond with the same
+numbers in the pattern. Turning now to the vertical
+sections of the pattern, we shall find that each
+one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that
+when the pattern is "drawn in"&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, when the
+warp for weaving the pattern is attached to the
+loom&mdash;we shall find the thread of the warp which
+is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated
+by a mark on the section of the pattern corresponding
+to that warp thread and to the number of the
+harness through which it is drawn. Thus, according
+to the pattern shown in the illustration,
+the first thread is to be drawn into the 3d harness,
+the 2d thread into the 4th harness, and 3d thread
+into the 3d harness, and so on alternately until we
+reach the 8th thread, which is drawn into the 2d
+harness; the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th threads are
+drawn alternately into the 2d and 3d harnesses, and
+the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th are drawn alternately
+into the 1st and 2d harnesses. This process
+is now continued, as will be clearly understood
+by reference to the pattern, up to and including
+the 42d thread, when one drawing in of the pattern
+will have been completed. A further study of the
+pattern shows that the marks on lines 3 and 4 form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+a continuously alternating series; and similarly
+that those on 2 and 3, 1 and 2, and 1 and 4 form also
+a continuously alternating series. But these numbers,
+however paired, correspond to the harnesses
+into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers
+1 to 42, are drawn. It thus appears that after
+we have drawn in as many warp threads as the
+pattern calls for once around in the order indicated
+in the pattern, we have prepared the loom for
+weaving one of these patterns. We must therefore
+draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same
+order as those already drawn in, thus repeating
+the drawing in of the pattern as many times as
+required for the width of the piece to be woven.
+The illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern.</p>
+
+<p><i>Operation of the Harnesses.</i>&mdash;Having explained
+the method of drawing in the pattern, we may now
+study the movement of the harnesses necessary to
+guide the warp properly for the weaving of the
+pattern. It has been noted that, with the pattern
+under consideration, harnesses 1 and 3 hold a continuous
+line of alternating warp threads, leaving
+harnesses 2 and 4 to take up all the intervening
+warp threads. If then the operator should throw
+down pedals 1 and 3 together, and alternately 2<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+and 4 also together, the warp threads would be
+crossed exactly as in plain weaving. Bringing out
+a pattern in weaving must, of course, require a
+variation of the pedal movement from that used
+in plain weaving. Now, upon reference to the illustration
+it will also be noted that in writing the pattern,
+or in drawing it in, no two threads have ever
+come together on the same harness. If the 1st
+thread has been drawn into the 3d harness, and
+the 2d thread into the 4th harness, as shown in the
+pattern illustrated, the operator begins the weaving
+of the pattern by throwing down the 3d and 4th
+pedals together and throwing the shuttle which
+carries the pattern thread. This operation is what
+weavers call a "pick." Each pick of the pattern
+thread is represented in the diagram (<a href="#Page_268">page 268</a>) by
+a broken black line running across the pattern.
+Thus the diagram of the first design shown indicates
+that there are 6 throws of the shuttle alternately
+over and back, or 6 picks of the pattern thread,
+for each corresponding section of this design. But
+between every two picks of the pattern thread
+there must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring,
+as has already been explained, the pressing down of
+either the 1st and 3d pair of pedals together when
+the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+the 2d and 4th if thrown from the left side. It is
+evident, then, that there must be two shuttles prepared
+for carrying the woof threads. One of these
+is to be used for the plain weave and the other for
+the pattern weave. The shuttle used for the
+plain weave is usually threaded with a fine thread
+of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation
+according to the design of the weaver. The
+pattern weaving shuttle should carry a coarser
+thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or mercerized
+cotton.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variations in Pattern.</i>&mdash;From the fact that a
+carefully written pattern is necessary in preparing
+a four-harness loom for pattern weaving, one would
+naturally infer that the pattern must be closely
+followed in the weaving process. And so it must
+if the pattern be woven as written; but, after the
+drawing in, it is by no means necessary to follow
+the written pattern. As the weaving progresses
+it is easy to see many variations in pattern which
+may be woven upon one drawing in&mdash;patterns
+so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to
+each other. In fact, one of the delights of weaving
+with a pattern loom is to devise ways of modifying
+simple patterns, elaborating them into new weaving
+designs, producing unique and sometimes very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+interesting original figures. We have only to remember
+that patterns are made by the order and
+number of the overshots&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the throws of the
+shuttle carrying the pattern threads&mdash;and that
+the overshots in the same horizontal and vertical lines
+are produced by the same pair. In the pattern illustrated
+the overshots are made by 2 and 3, by 1 and 2,
+by 1 and 4, or by 3 and 4, not counting 1 and 3 and 2
+and 4, which are the pairs for plain weaves. We
+should also remember that the last end in one overshot
+is usually the first one in the next. Examples of
+two variations in design that may be woven from the
+original written pattern, to which we have already
+referred, are illustrated in the diagram and probably
+at least a dozen more variations are possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: A BORDERED TABLE SCARF</h3>
+
+<p>This problem will require the use of the four-harness
+loom. The first thing to do is to procure
+the written pattern for the border and draw it in.
+When the drawing in is completed and the weaving
+is begun, the first step in the process is to weave a
+few inches of the plain cloth. In doing this, however,
+we shall, of course, find that the pressing
+of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple
+weaving will not accomplish the desired result;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+for it has already been explained that the pedals of
+a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs
+to produce a plain weave. It will be remembered
+that to do plain weaving with the warp drawn in
+as required by the pattern illustrated on <a href="#Page_268">page 268</a>,
+it is necessary to press pedals 1 and 3 together
+alternately with 2 and 4&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, both pedals of each
+pair must be pressed at the same time to produce the
+same effect as that produced by the alternate movements
+of the right and left pedals in simple weaving.</p>
+
+<p>When a sufficient length of plain cloth has been
+woven, the written pattern for the weaving of
+the border design must be faithfully consulted
+and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper
+order for the weaving of the pattern. The second
+or weaving shuttle carries the bobbin, which is
+filled with the colour required in the pattern. Any
+changes of colour required by the design are easily
+produced by inserting a new bobbin filled with the
+desired colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;A great variety of design is possible
+in table scarfs. It is common to weave in a narrow
+beading of whatever colour may have been chosen,
+following this by a few threads of white, and this
+in turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border
+with some slight suggestion of the pattern, then more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+of the plain white and finally the full pattern of
+the border. The centre of the table scarf is simply
+a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in
+some solid colour, while the other end of the scarf
+must be woven with the same border and bands
+as were woven at first, but in the reverse order.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variations in Design.</i>&mdash;One pleasing style of
+decoration is found in repeating the border several
+times with inch-wide spaces between. Another
+variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow
+ones at short intervals throughout the length.
+Shadow borders, so-called, are also common, and
+may alternate with borders of colour or may constitute
+the entire decoration. Shadow borders are
+heavy borders woven in the cream or body colour
+of the scarf instead of being in a contrasting shade.
+In order to make them stand out well it is necessary
+to use a coarser thread than is required for the
+colour borders. A gray linen plain weave is often
+embellished in white with delicate effect. There
+is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf
+borders. It is obtainable in dainty colours, and
+the heavy thread seems to bring out the patterns
+in greater perfection. Darning silks in fast colours
+are also employed, but these should be woven
+double in order to obtain the best effect. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+are found in the market in short lengths and in such
+attractive colours as Delft blue, reseda green, pink,
+and catawba. The last two colours, used with linen
+in the natural shade, make a happy combination.</p>
+
+<p>Scarfs should be woven from 20 to 24 inches wide
+and about 1<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> yards long, unless some special use
+requires that they should be of different length.
+Not only do they make pleasing table covers, but
+they are useful as tray cloths, and from them
+charming sewing or embroidery aprons may be
+fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with
+ribbons, and arranging pockets to hold the work.
+One scarf will make two aprons. Fancy bags are
+also woven on the same general lines as scarfs,
+but the width needs to be only 8 or 10 inches. These
+may be woven of the pattern throughout, or they may
+be striped with bands or borders. Lined with silk
+and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very
+much admired for embroidery and other fancy
+work.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING</h3>
+
+<p>In the discussion of the problem of hand weaving,
+frequent reference has been made to the use of
+coloured materials. While it is possible to obtain
+many good colours in the market, it is much more
+satisfactory to make these colours at home by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span>
+use of the dye pot. In former times, when hand
+weaving was general, there was no other way; and,
+in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered
+now, as they were then, sister arts. When the wool
+was washed, carded into rolls, spun into yarn, and
+again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking,
+still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent
+dye before weaving it into cloth. One notable
+exception was found in the natural gray homespun,
+which was of yarn spun from the wool of both
+the black and the white sheep carded together.
+The modern worker with the hand loom will find
+almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did
+for a knowledge of the art of dyeing. Seldom will
+she find at hand just the shade or colour required
+by the design of the piece to be woven. Much of
+the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs,
+for example, will be found to be so faded or spotted
+that it would poorly repay one for the labour of
+weaving it up in that condition. And even the new
+material, which it is often necessary to procure
+for plain weaving, for pattern weaving, and for use
+in borders, will often need a bath in the dye pot in
+order to furnish the tone of colour needed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Some Good Points in Dyeing.</i>&mdash;Good results in
+dyeing are obtained by using the prepared dyes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+the markets, mixing together more than one colour
+often, after some experimenting, in order to produce
+the desired shade. Instead of mixing the dye one
+may, if she chooses, dye first in one colour and top
+off with another. A fine permanent green is obtained
+by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping
+with a blue bath. Green and blue dye used
+together give neither green nor blue but a blending
+of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing.
+In all cases it is better to make the dye bath weak,
+leaving the article to be dyed in the bath a long
+time rather than to keep it a shorter time in a
+stronger dye. The advantage is not only greater
+permanency of colour but also greater certainty in
+the result; for one can watch the process of dyeing
+more easily and guard against the colours becoming
+too dark. The material which remains in the dye
+bath until it takes practically all the colour from it
+may generally be depended upon neither to fade
+nor crock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Some Common Dyes.</i>&mdash;The dull, soft colours, made
+generations ago from barks and teas with alum as
+a mordant, had artistic qualities and were generally
+permanent. It is well worth while to experiment
+in this direction. Straw colour may be made from
+the old-fashioned herb saffron; orange comes from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+madder and fustic; yellow is obtained from powdered
+dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit
+of copperas give a good black dye, useful also in
+freshening black yarns that have acquired a dull
+or faded colour. White maple bark boiled in water
+makes a fine medium brown which may be made
+fast by first treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed
+in it with a solution of alum. A permanent and fine
+nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with
+a piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in
+it. In fact, nearly everything which possesses colour
+may be considered a dye. Vegetable substances
+are generally in themselves more permanent, but
+most dyes need to be fixed or "set" by the use of
+some mordant. All this will mean much experimenting,
+of course, unless one is fortunate enough
+to possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions
+to mordants, kettles of brass, and vessels
+of pewter. The use of the prepared dyes, which
+may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is
+generally satisfactory and of course somewhat
+easier; and yet the interest which inspires one to
+cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire
+to master all of the arts intimately associated with
+this ancient and fascinating home industry.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="X" id="X">X</a><br /><br />
+<small>POTTERY</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+To watch a potter thumping his wet clay&mdash;<i>Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam</i>
+</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in
+the sun, and the Indian who, ages ago, coiled
+clay in a basket which he burned away, are
+but two widely separated links in a continuous chain;
+for men of all time have found a fascination in the wet
+clay that is so easily moulded and fashioned into all
+manner of things of beauty and of use. And, beside
+the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has
+also been the spur of a common need to inspire men
+of different races, independently of each other, to
+develop the primitive household arts, like pottery
+and rug making, by the use of methods no less
+remarkable for their similarity than for their
+cleverness. The impressions that the primitive
+man received from his natural surroundings were
+easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably
+not long before he discovered that fire made
+them permanent and practically indestructible.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+Improvement was bound to come in due time.
+By washing the grosser impurities from the clay
+mud through a process in which the heavier particles
+settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to be poured
+off, some artist of a very early time found a material
+that became one of his most valuable helps in adding
+to the furnishings of his tribal household. First
+it was simply burned clay; but in due time enamel
+or glazed work found its use in tiles for building
+purposes, in grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds
+of table ware; for the uses of ancient terra cotta
+and porcelain were numerous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXI" id="PLXI"></a><img src="images/i_317.jpg" width="500" height="723" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Girls at Work on Pottery</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XI]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The primitive arts, however, were not confined
+to objects of necessary use. We find, buried with
+the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences of the
+potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating
+the home, for personal adornment, and for religious
+use, like the rings and scarabs of Egypt.
+And in modern decorative art, as applied in the
+household, the one final touch which gives that
+indescribable charm, which it is the aim of all art
+to give, is perhaps to be found in a few&mdash;a very
+few&mdash;choice bits of pottery.</p>
+
+<p>All of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric
+times to the finest product of modern skill,
+is based on a plain scientific fact, <i>viz.</i>, that a small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>
+quantity of water in the clay, not removable by
+any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out
+by intense heat so as to cause a permanent change
+in the character of the clay. This water is called
+the water of combination. If the clay is not heated
+more than enough to dry it, a later mixing with water
+restores it to its former plastic state; but clay once
+burned has lost its water of combination and never
+can return to its original condition.</p>
+
+<p>Most beginners in clay modelling will expect,
+perhaps in the early stages of their work, to be made
+acquainted with the potter's wheel; for who has not
+heard of this interesting device? It is of interest
+chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture
+of pottery; and yet no one can forget the
+potter's song with which Longfellow begins his
+beautiful poem Keramos, making it a text for a
+sermon on the philosophy of life:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Turn, turn, my wheel! Turn round and round<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Without a pause, without a sound;<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">So spins the flying world away!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">This clay, well mixed with marl and sand,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Follows the motion of my hand;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For some must follow, and some command,<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Though all are made of clay!"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><i>Potter's Wheel Unnecessary.</i>&mdash;The potter's wheel
+was used in comparatively early times and has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>
+been intimately associated with the art ever
+since. But it requires much physical strength and
+considerable skill to use it effectively; and its use
+has been by no means universal. We find the
+Indians of our own time and people of other races,
+expert in building pottery by hand, using the
+method of coiling. It seems best, therefore, to
+advise beginners to adopt the simpler method and
+to forego the use of the potter's wheel. The comparative
+inexpensiveness of the hand method of
+building is another point in its favour. The tools
+required are few and simple. Inexpensive and
+easy methods are favourable to the experimental
+stage; and it is well for the amateur to have every
+encouragement to experiment freely both with
+methods for building and with designs for his
+ware, keeping in mind always that the beautiful is
+generally the simple and strong, not the fantastic
+and complicated.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Method of Coiling.</i>&mdash;It will be understood,
+therefore, that in general the process to be followed
+consists in building up the bowl or jar or whatever
+the design may be by using coils of clay of the right
+consistency, welding and shaping them together,
+and scraping them down, if necessary, until they
+are ready to receive the first firing. After this they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>
+may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again.
+At first the beginner will find his chief interest simply
+in experimenting with the building up process.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MATERIALS AND TOOLS</h3>
+
+<p>The materials and tools needed are as follows:
+Clay; oil-cloth, 18 inches square; cotton cloth or
+flannelette, 18 inches square; a few simple modelling
+tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, 6
+ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clays.</i>&mdash;It will be necessary to add a word of
+explanation in order that these materials and tools
+may be well selected. There is a great variety in
+clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for
+flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain.
+The latter is called kaolin and is very pure. A good
+modelling clay may be obtained from dealers in school
+supplies or from potteries. In some localities,
+especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or
+other clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be
+easily found. But, however obtained, some experimenting
+will be necessary to test its suitability.
+The modelling clay is probably the least liable to
+yield disappointing results.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened
+and used to wrap up the clay in order to keep it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span>
+from drying too rapidly during the intervals when
+it is set aside. This will not be necessary during the
+early part of the process, for then it is desirable for
+the clay to stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural
+means.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_323.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Simple tools used in pottery</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled
+from hard wood. They are not expensive, however,
+and the beginner will perhaps find it well to obtain
+most of them from a dealer in artists' materials.
+The accompanying illustration shows some of these,
+among them a very useful tool (F) with brass wire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span>
+loops which are in turn wound with finer wire.
+F and C are especially useful for scraping clay too
+soft to be easily managed with smooth edges. The
+thumb-like tool A is perhaps the most generally
+useful of those shown here.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it is well to emphasize the fact
+that <i>the greatest of all tools is the human thumb</i>.
+Cultivate its use. Most modelling and building can
+be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bat and How Made.</i>&mdash;A plaster of paris bat
+will be found exceedingly useful. A sheet of thin,
+unsized paper serves well, however, for a surface
+on which to build; but the dry plaster of the bat
+absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and
+hastens the stiffening process. This bat can be
+easily made. Take a small quantity of water (a
+half pint or more according to the size of the bat
+required), sift into this from the hand an equal
+amount of plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little
+dry plaster appears at the surface. After a little
+more vigorous stirring let it rest a few minutes and
+then pour it into tin pans which are 4 or 5 inches
+in diameter by 1 inch deep. The pans should be
+previously coated on the inside with a thick soap
+solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water to
+the consistency of a thick cream. The bats will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+harden in 10 or 15 minutes and may be easily
+removed from the pan, ready for use.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: A BOWL FOR FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p>This problem naturally divides itself into six
+important steps, as follows: The design or profile;
+building and shaping; decoration, if any; firing
+(bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_325.jpg" width="400" height="238" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Variety in dimensions</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design or Profile.</i>&mdash;As in all problems of
+decoration the first step is found in design. For
+present purposes we may consider a bowl as having
+a diameter as great as or greater than the height.
+The bowl will be more interesting from the standpoint
+of variety if there is a difference between its
+height and its greatest diameter, and also between
+its diameters at the top and at the bottom. The
+accompanying drawing shows such differences.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_326.jpg" width="500" height="340" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Suggestive profiles</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another example of the value of variety is to be
+found in the curve of the profile. A line that is
+simple but constantly changing in its degree of
+curvature&mdash;as, for example, an elliptical curve&mdash;is
+more pleasing than an arc of a circle, which
+is sometimes called the curve of limitation. It
+should be noted that a curved form, in order to be
+forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination
+with others which are subordinate. The
+profiles illustrated in the following drawings have
+this dominant element and are in no case composed
+of arcs of circles. These varied, interesting, yet
+simple lines&mdash;live lines as they are sometimes called&mdash;consisting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span>
+in each case of only two or three elements,
+are given here merely as suggestive material.
+A little experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities
+in strong, forceful curves, and the young
+student is advised to make many experiments in
+the effort to discover such possibilities. An example
+of profiles to be avoided is given in Problem II,
+on <a href="#Page_309">page 309</a>. That these are vase forms and not
+bowl contours is immaterial. <i>A</i> is commonplace
+because the two parts of the curve are too much
+alike. <i>B</i> is unrestful in its three curves of nearly
+equal size. If the suggestive profiles illustrated in
+the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it
+will be noted that very few of them seem as pleasing
+as before. It will be found also that a different
+ratio of height to diameter will give very different
+effects with the same profile. A bowl having top
+and bottom alike may, so far as design is concerned,
+be classed with the pill box. We don't know which
+is the top until we have spilled the pills. If attractive
+pieces of pottery are found with the top and
+bottom of equal diameter and with curves in themselves
+objectionable, it will invariably be found that
+the attractiveness consists in some beauty of glaze,
+colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to
+conceal the defects of form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Forms.</i>&mdash;It may be well to add a word here
+in regard to the imitation of natural forms in designing
+the general shape of any piece of pottery; and
+that word is a very brief one. Avoid them. Nature
+is a great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery
+her suggestions are to be used as decorative
+elements rather than for fundamental shapes. A
+fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate;
+but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not
+take the form of a fish, might reasonably have a fish
+as an element of its decoration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testing Profiles.</i>&mdash;A good way to study the effect
+of the profile of both sides of the bowl is to fold
+the paper on which the profile is drawn vertically
+through the centre and transfer the line reversed by
+rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other
+half of the drawing in exact symmetry. When
+the general shape of the profile has been tested in
+this way one side should be redrawn carefully;
+then, with the paper folded along the centre line,
+so that the pencil line falls outside, the whole form
+may be cut out; and then it may be unfolded.
+The next step is to begin to build up the design in
+clay.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Building.</i>&mdash;Roll out a coil of clay a little
+thicker than the bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> or <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch will serve, since the bottom is to
+be hollowed slightly by scraping. The roll should
+be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible,
+in order that it may not become too dry.
+Upon the piece of paper or the plaster bat start to
+coil the roll from the centre until the desired size
+is reached, then smear the rolls together, working
+toward the centre. Turn the coil over and work
+the other side together, truing up the circle and
+making the bottom of uniform thickness. Avoid
+the use of water in smoothing the coils together.
+It may seem to make the work easier, but it softens
+the clay and invites careless work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_329.jpg" width="400" height="222" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Manipulating the coil</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With another coil begin to build up the sides,
+making a complete circle, and, having pinched off
+the ends where they meet, join them carefully.
+Lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span>
+coil firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them
+together as in the base. The process is illustrated
+in the drawing. If the clay is very soft, the work
+may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning
+is made upon other pieces. It is well to have two
+or three pieces in the process of construction at
+the same time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testing the Work.</i>&mdash;A template or gauge will be
+needed to test the work as it progresses from the
+first rough stages
+to the finish. This
+is made of card-board
+by cutting
+out an exact copy
+of the profile, leaving
+at the bottom
+sufficient width to
+insure rigidity
+when the template
+is held upright on
+the table or bat.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_330.jpg" width="300" height="283" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A template</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the work goes on, if the design requires that
+the form should be "brought in" toward the top,
+the coil must be laid a little inside of the profile
+desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the
+diameter slightly. In all the building, allowance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+should be made for this enlargement. When the
+coil is high enough and of the shape desired, it
+should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough
+to handle. With the various modelling tools the
+surface should then be scraped wherever it is
+necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to
+give a symmetrical shape to the desired profile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_331.jpg" width="400" height="192" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Scraping a square form</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A drawing is shown to illustrate the process of
+scraping. The surface should be left smooth and
+even; and this may be accomplished without water
+or sponge. The flat sides of the scraping tool may
+be used to polish the clay as soon as it becomes
+leather hard&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, hard and stiff, but before it
+begins to whiten and dry.</p>
+
+<p>The lip or top of the bowl will require special
+attention. It will probably need to be thinned
+down and have all sharp edges removed. Then the
+bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span>
+hollowed out to a depth of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> to <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch,
+leaving a "foot" or rim around the outside of the
+circle to give it steadiness.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Decoration.</i>&mdash;After the bowl is complete as
+to its general form, the problem of its decoration,
+if there is to be any, must be solved. This may be
+studied during the intervals when it is necessary
+to set the bowl aside to harden. If the form and
+colour are good, the bowl may possess a charm that
+will not be improved by decoration. On the whole,
+less decoration, rather than more, should be the
+aim. The three vases illustrated at the top of
+a following page are examples of pottery without
+decoration. (See <a href="#Page_308">page 308</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXII" id="PLXII"></a><img src="images/i_333.jpg" width="500" height="635" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Bowls</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Generally speaking, bowls like the one we are
+building may be decorated by one of three methods:
+By sinking lines or channels in its surface by means
+of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (D, <a href="#Page_285">page 285</a>);
+by modelling or carving the surface; or by painting
+the surface with coloured "slip" or with coloured
+glaze. It should be explained that "slip" is a
+mixture of clay and water of the consistency of
+cream; it may be coloured or uncoloured. A combination
+of two or more of these methods is, of
+course, possible. Examples of the first two methods
+are shown in the illustrations of bowls, vases, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
+tiles. A combination of the first and third methods
+was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row
+shown in <a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV opposite page 316</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_335.jpg" width="500" height="198" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Spacing in decoration</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Classes of Decoration.</i>&mdash;The <i>form</i> of the decoration
+is simply a matter of space division, as illustrated
+by two examples shown below. It is evident,
+too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned,
+divides itself naturally into three general classes:
+(a) The horizontal band; (b) the vertical division;
+(c) a combination of these two. The last will
+prove to be the most common of the three. It
+should be noted that an all-over pattern, which has
+been left out of consideration as tending to monotony,
+would commonly be a combination of both
+horizontal and vertical methods of division. It
+should be noted also that the presence of other than
+vertical and horizontal lines in pottery decoration
+does not affect the main classification. Typical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span>
+examples of these divisions are illustrated in both
+bowls and vases, as well as in the cuts A and B. It
+will be seen in each case that one scheme or the
+other predominates and that there are possibilities
+for great variation in treatment.</p>
+
+<p>Analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations,
+we find that the band or horizontal scheme
+offers a succession of large and small spaces, giving
+variety and rhythm. In many of those patterns
+showing the combination type there is a concentration
+or "knotting" of the line at regular intervals,
+frequently at the intersection of both horizontal
+and vertical elements. This is well illustrated by
+the left-hand bowl of the middle row shown in this
+plate opposite <a href="#Page_294">page 294</a>. When the method of painted
+decoration is employed the concentration point is
+composed of mass instead of line. All this serves
+to give emphasis and rhythm.</p>
+
+<p>For subject matter in decoration natural forms
+may be used as shown in the vase at the left of
+the top row illustrated in <a href="#PLXIII">Plate XIII, opposite page
+312</a>. Or an abstract arrangement of lines may be
+employed, as shown in its nearest neighbour,
+which may or may not have had its origin in a
+very much conventionalized natural motif. The
+essential thing to remember is that the divisions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span>
+of spaces must be varied and rhythmic and the decoration
+suited to the method of application.</p>
+
+<p><i>How the Design is Applied to the Clay.</i>&mdash;After the
+design has been studied as much as possible on
+paper it should be planned out on the bowl with a
+soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised
+line or channel to be made. The clay should be
+leather-hard&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, stiff but not dry. The spacing
+around the circumference should be made exact,
+deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing
+of the paper drawing. A good way to manage
+this important step in the process is to measure the
+circumference at the point of greatest width with
+a narrow strip of paper and then to divide this
+circumference by folding the paper evenly into
+the number of units desired. By wrapping the
+paper around the bowl again the points of division
+may be transferred to the clay and then projected
+upward or downward vertically to the belt that it
+is desired to meet. It is necessary to make sure
+that the vertical lines are true "meridians" and do
+not swerve to the right or the left. In order to test
+the horizontal lines, measurements may be made
+from top or bottom. All of this work is best done
+free-hand; for, aside from the value of the eye training
+derived, hand-built pottery is seldom exact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+enough to permit of a more mechanical method of
+planning its decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The drawing on the clay having been completed,
+the next point is to choose the tool best fitted for
+the work and carefully make the cuts, deepening
+them from time to time as the work progresses.
+If the design is to be worked out in line, a chisel,
+like that illustrated in D (<a href="#Page_285">page 285</a>), may be
+whittled from a pine stick. It is held nearly upright
+and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow
+channel. Reserve should be exercised in cutting,
+because, generally speaking, there is danger of
+making the design too insistent. Some of the best
+designs are very subtle and quiet. Care should
+be taken, however, to allow for a slight filling in of
+the hollow by the glaze when it is applied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modelling a Decoration.</i>&mdash;If the decoration is to
+be modelled it would seem wise to do it, in whole
+or in part, as the work is built up; but in this case
+great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the
+relief and unity of the decoration. It will be easy
+to over-model the work.</p>
+
+<p><i>How Under-glaze is Applied.</i>&mdash;For decoration with
+under glaze the colours given under the head of
+glazing (<a href="#Page_304">page 304</a>) are mixed in different proportions
+with dry powdered clay and water to form a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>
+colour paste. This is painted on the "green"
+or moist clay, forming a smooth and even surface.
+Experience will teach the proportions of colour to
+be mixed with the clay. These proportions vary
+greatly with different colours. A very strong colour
+like cobalt will give a deep blue if mixed in the ratio
+of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts of clay.
+Colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of
+medium strength, and antimony is quite weak.</p>
+
+<p>Before the work is left to dry it would be well
+to make sure that all corners and rough edges are
+smoothed off as they will show light and rough
+through the glaze. The use of sand-paper, however,
+is not advised, though it may occasionally be used
+in the emergency of an accidental roughness remaining
+after the piece is dry. The aim should
+be to have all clay work show something of the
+plastic nature of the material out of which it is
+made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firing.</i>&mdash;Pottery must be "bone" dry before it
+is fired. A very satisfactory portable kiln for firing
+may be purchased for from $34 to $175, according
+to the size. The smallest size, which is illustrated
+in the next drawing, will be ample for the needs
+of one or two persons. If, however, the amateur
+does not care to go to the expense of purchasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery
+factory in the vicinity that will undertake the firing
+and perhaps the glazing.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_340.jpg" width="300" height="404" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A portable kiln</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Temperature Required.</i>&mdash;Pottery is fired at a
+temperature varying,
+according to the
+clay and the glaze
+used, from approximately
+1800 to 2000
+degrees Fahrenheit.
+Modelling clay fires
+at 1958 degrees Fahrenheit,
+or what is
+called "cone 04."
+This term comes
+from the fact that
+the heat is gauged
+by pyrometric cones,
+which can be seen
+through a spy hole attached to the kiln. These
+cones are graded compositions of various materials
+and possess different degrees of resistance
+to heat. They are usually set up in clay
+in groups of three or more. When one of them
+melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying
+drawing, which shows cone 05&mdash;the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span>
+fusible one&mdash;completely "down," and 04 at a
+point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat
+from the kiln. This must be done gradually
+and the kiln must be allowed to cool completely
+before it is opened.
+This is especially
+necessary when firing the
+glazes described in the
+following section, which
+require the same temperature
+as modelling
+clay. Further details
+about firing and caring
+for the kiln may, of
+course, be learned from
+descriptions accompanying the apparatus. Pottery
+comes out of the first firing in the kiln a dull
+porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or
+red, according to the amount of iron in the clay.
+In this state it is called "bisque" or "biscuit."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_341.jpg" width="250" height="280" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pyrometric cones</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Glazing.</i>&mdash;It is necessary to bring the pottery up
+to the condition of bisque before it can be glazed;
+or, to speak more accurately, before it can be over-glazed;
+for it has already been shown how the so-called
+under-glaze is put on before the first firing.
+The subject is somewhat technical, and it will not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
+be possible in a single chapter to take up the details
+extensively. Briefly speaking, the glazes most used
+for this class of work are the lead glazes&mdash;combinations
+of "white lead" or carbonate of lead as a
+flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and other
+ingredients. These are supplied in powdered form
+and are ground together in water by means of a mill
+or a large mortar and pestle; a mortar 8 inches in
+diameter will serve.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grinding the Glaze.</i>&mdash;The grinding should continue
+about an hour. It should be said, however, that
+there is such a thing as grinding too fine. After
+the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity
+of gum tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be
+added as a binder to prevent flaking and rubbing
+off in handling. It is also a good plan, though
+not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon
+as it is ground, through fine muslin. The tools and
+materials needed for this work may be itemized as
+follows: Lead carbonate, whiting, Canadian feldspar,
+Florida kaolin, French flint, white oxide of zinc,
+and various other oxides and colours noted in the
+text; earthenware bowls, 10 or 12 inches in diameter,
+for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably
+aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, 8 inches in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Example of Matt Glaze and Bright Glaze Mixes.</i>&mdash;Two
+mixes are given below calculated to fuse at cone
+04. One has a "matt" or dull velvety surface,
+and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface.
+The matt will be found more desirable for general
+work because it harmonizes better with flowers
+and foliage. The figures given below refer to units
+of weight. Metric weights (grams) are most convenient
+to use, but any units will serve so long as
+the same one is used throughout. The matt glaze
+should be of the consistency of thick cream, the
+bright glaze somewhat thinner.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="GLAZE BASES">
+<tr><td class="tdl"><div class="smcap">MATT BASE</div></td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl"><div class="smcap">BRIGHT BASE</div></td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Lead carbonate</td><td class="tpl">154</td><td class="tpl">Lead carbonate</td><td class="tpl">142</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Whiting</td><td class="tpl">25</td><td class="tpl">Whiting</td><td class="tpl">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Canadian feldspar</td><td class="tpl">83</td><td class="tpl">Canadian feldspar</td><td class="tpl">84</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Florida kaolin</td><td class="tpl">51</td><td class="tpl">Florida kaolin</td><td class="tpl">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">White oxide of zinc</td><td class="tpl">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">French flint</td><td class="tpl">44</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The bases itemized above are colourless and there
+must be added to them from 3 to 6 per cent. of
+colouring material that will stand heat. A list of
+materials with their colours when fired is given on
+<a href="#Page_304">page 304</a>, together with a few typical combinations of
+colours in quantity suitable to be added to the glaze
+bases given above. The following lists are by no
+means complete, and it is expected that the young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+decorator will make use of these colour mixtures
+simply as an introduction to quite extensive experimenting:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="COLOUR MATERIALS">
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><div class="smcap">COLOUR MATERIALS</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Black oxide of cobalt</td><td class="tpl">Blue</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Black oxide of copper</td><td class="tpl">Blue green</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Green oxide of chromium</td><td class="tpl">Yellow green</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">White oxide of antimony</td><td class="tpl">Lemon yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Red oxide of iron</td><td class="tpl">Yellowish brown</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Green oxide of nickel</td><td class="tpl">Dirty gray (for neutralizing)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">White oxide of tin</td><td class="tpl">Makes glaze opaque</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Black oxide of manganese</td><td class="tpl">Purplish brown</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Yellow ochre</td><td class="tpl">Yellow</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Burnt umber</td><td class="tpl">Brown</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="p2" />
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tablesmall" summary="COLOUR COMBINATIONS">
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="4"><div class="smcap">COLOUR COMBINATIONS</div></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Olive green</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Blue-green</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Iron oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">.5</td><td class="tpl">Copper oxide</td><td class="tpl">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Yellow ochre</td><td class="tpl">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Dark brown</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tdl">Dark gray-blue</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Iron oxide</td><td class="tpl">3</td><td class="tpl">Nickel oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Nickel oxide</td><td class="tpl">2</td><td class="tpl">Yellow ochre</td><td class="tpl">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Manganese oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">Copper oxide</td><td class="tpl">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Light gray-blue</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Tin oxide</td><td class="tpl">5</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Cobalt oxide</td><td class="tpl">.5</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tpl">Copper oxide</td><td class="tpl">1.7</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td><td class="tpl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Applying the Glaze.</i>&mdash;Before applying the glaze
+to the piece of pottery or bisque, the latter should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span>
+be soaked in clear water for about five minutes or
+until the air is expelled from the pores. When
+this has been accomplished it should be removed
+from the water and all moisture should be wiped
+from its surface. The piece is then ready to be dipped
+into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it,
+if the size and shape of the piece make it more convenient
+to apply the glaze in this way. It is usually
+best to glaze the inside first, shaking out all the
+superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the
+outside. During this process the piece must
+be held firmly but by as few points of contact
+as possible. These points of contact will generally
+need to be touched up before it is ready for
+firing.</p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces
+with a brush, putting on several coats in order to
+cover the surface with an even thickness. The matt
+glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright
+glaze in order to develop its characteristic velvety
+texture. The greater thickness may be easily
+secured, because it flows more slowly than the
+thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from
+the sides of the piece to which it is being applied;
+but, on the other hand, it is at a disadvantage in
+that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct inequalities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span>
+of thickness so readily as the more mobile
+bright glaze does. A certain thickness, however,
+is essential; and if, after firing, it is found that the
+glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be
+applied and the article again fired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firing the Glaze.</i>&mdash;Before the glazed piece is fired
+the glaze should be dried and what runs down and
+collects about the bottom or foot should be scraped
+off. It should then be set in the kiln on a kind of
+pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the
+"stilt," which prevents the glaze from sticking to
+the floor or shelves of the kiln. All glazed ware
+should be placed in the kiln with at least <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> an
+inch of space between the pieces to prevent them
+from sticking together during the fusing state of
+the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil."</p>
+
+<p>The firing of glaze is a process very similar to
+that employed in the production of bisque, already
+described. Greater care, however, must be taken
+in controlling the increase in temperature so that it
+shall be even and steady&mdash;free from all sudden
+flashes of heat. The cooling also should be very
+gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should be
+allowed to get cool before it is opened. With this
+second firing the pottery is finished unless it should
+happen that a second coat of glaze is found to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span>
+necessary. If only a few spots need attention,
+this second coat is best applied with a brush.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: A VASE FOR LONG STEMMED FLOWERS</h3>
+
+<p>The tools required for making this vase are the
+same as those used for the bowl, and the process of
+building is much the same. The chief difference
+is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile
+in building because the added height and the
+greater weight tend to bulge the lower part. To
+meet this difficulty it will be necessary to set the
+work aside quite often in order to let the lower part
+harden sufficiently to support the upper part.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Profile.</i>&mdash;In preparing the profile the same
+rules hold as were applied in working up the problem
+of the bowl. It will be well to remember, however,
+that the curves of a vase must be treated with
+greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was
+necessary in the case of the bowl&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the curve
+of a vase should be enclosed within a rectangle
+narrower in comparison with its height than is the
+case with the curve of a bowl. The reason for this,
+of course, is found in the greater height of a vase
+in comparison with its diameter. The following figure
+shows three typical vase forms. If these curves
+be compared with those shown on <a href="#Page_288">page 288</a>, illustrating
+bowl contours, it will be observed how the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span>
+height of the vase is emphasised in the greater
+restraint and subtlety of its curves. In the next
+illustration we have two "horrible" examples to
+which attention has already been called in the
+suggestions for the design of bowls. The dotted
+lines in the illustration show how these curves may
+be improved if, in either A or B, one element of the
+compound curve be made dominant at the expense
+of the other. If at the same time the diameter be
+made smaller in comparison with its height the
+attractiveness of the contours will be still more improved.
+Indeed, it will be a transformation from a
+profile that is positively bad to one that is very good.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_348.jpg" width="500" height="349" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Typical vase forms</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 499px;">
+<img src="images/i_349.jpg" width="499" height="289" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Profile to be avoided</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Decoration.</i>&mdash;The problem of decoration is not
+very different from that of the bowl. Here again,
+however, the added height seems to call for greater
+accent by means of vertical or panel divisions.
+Unless this be understood there is some danger that
+the larger vertical spaces will seem to offer simply
+more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a
+barber pole effect.</p>
+
+<p><i>Handles.</i>&mdash;If handles or buttresses are desired,
+care should be taken that they are designed as an
+integral part of the vase&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, that they continue
+or reinforce its lines. Two suggestions for the treatment
+of the problem of handles are given in the
+accompanying drawing. It will be noted how
+sympathetically these handles conform to the lines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span>
+of the vases to which they are attached. Handles
+that give the impression of being made for another
+vase should be avoided.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_350.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Suggestions for handles</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: THE FERN DISH</h3>
+
+<p>The process of building the fern dish is not essentially
+different from that employed in making the
+bowl described in the first problem. If the fern
+dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used;
+but if the dish is to be square or rectangular it is
+not necessary to use this method. In place of it the
+process of "piecing on" may be employed&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+one piece of soft clay may be added to another and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span>
+the different pieces welded together as the work
+proceeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 495px;">
+<img src="images/i_351.jpg" width="495" height="342" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Development of the fern dish</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Lining.</i>&mdash;The fern dish requires a separate
+inner dish or lining with a hole in the bottom of it
+like that in the ordinary flower pot. This feature
+forms the unique part of the problem. Generally
+speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call
+for a little closer approach to the vertical in the
+sides of the outer bowl; and yet some latitude is
+allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated
+in <a href="#PLXIII">Plate XIII</a> following, which is somewhat
+similar in profile to that illustrated in the accompanying
+drawing. This drawing shows the development<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span>
+of the problem as applied to a round fern dish.
+Much freedom, however, may be used in the plan
+as either the round or the rectangular fern dish
+seems to give satisfaction. The half section in the
+drawing shows a very narrow space between the
+inner and outer bowls at the top edges. This adds
+greatly to the good appearance of the completed
+fern dish. The sides of the inner dish are made
+vertical, since it is necessary for it to be easily
+removed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decoration.</i>&mdash;The problem of decoration differs
+very little from that discussed under the problem
+of the bowl. Either the fern itself or its woodland
+neighbours may easily furnish the motif. Sometimes
+there is occasion for designing similar dishes
+not for ferns but for other plants. Thus the smaller
+square dish, illustrated in <a href="#PLXIII">Plate XIII</a> opposite, was
+designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and the
+subject matter for its design was found in that
+flower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glazing.</i>&mdash;The rules already given for glazing
+apply in this case, but it will be necessary to glaze
+the outside fern dish only. It is well, however,
+to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the
+inner dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed.
+It hardly needs to be added that in firing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>
+it is necessary to keep the inner and outer dishes
+separate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 496px;">
+<a name="PLXIII" id="PLXIII"></a><img src="images/i_353.jpg" width="496" height="641" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Vases and Fern Dishes</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XIII]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: THE CANDLESTICK</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;This problem introduces several
+points in design that need to be especially emphasized.
+The candlestick should be of such size that it
+will easily support the average candle without putting
+the user to great inconvenience in fitting it by
+paring it off or melting it down. It is necessary
+to provide a lip to catch the stray drops of wax that
+will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be
+a convenience to have this supplemented by a slight
+dishing of the base if the candlestick is to be carried
+about. If a handle is to be added it should seem
+to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as
+was explained in the discussion of handles for vases;
+and it should, at the same time, offer a place for
+a firm and comfortable grasp. The accompanying
+drawing shows how handles may be designed really
+to form a part of the candlestick and at the same
+time, by means of a sharp bend or elbow at the top, to
+provide a natural place for the thumb to assist in
+grasping the handle.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the candlestick is to be high or low
+depends entirely upon the use intended for it or
+upon the preference of the user. Generally speaking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span>
+a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a
+high one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on
+shelf or table. It is well for some definite idea of
+utility to manifest itself in the form chosen. Merely
+planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without
+carefully relating these three different elements
+according to the requirements of use, can hardly
+be called designing a candlestick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_356.jpg" width="500" height="317" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Suggestive designs for candlesticks</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The building of the candlestick is started, like
+the bowl in the first problem, by coiling from the
+centre, and the rim may be added in the same way.
+Care should be taken, however, to attach the central
+tube firmly. This may be coiled or simply modelled
+from a single lump of clay. If there is to be a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>
+handle it is well to build it at the time the central
+tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm
+attachment.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEM: TILES</h3>
+
+<p>The varied and extensive uses of tiles make it
+difficult to limit the scope of this problem. Tiles
+are used for paving,
+wall facings, ceilings,
+coverings for
+stoves, linings and
+facings for fireplaces,
+rests for
+flower pots and teapots,
+and for various
+other purposes. Tiles
+figure very prominently
+in the history
+of art. They
+are objects of interest
+and study in many public buildings and
+museums throughout the civilized world. But this
+problem will confine itself to two of the many
+varieties of tiles, <i>viz.</i>, tiles designed for bowls or
+teapots and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_357.jpg" width="300" height="354" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A tile frame</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Tile Frame.</i>&mdash;In building tiles a frame is used
+measuring about 6 inches square by <sup>5</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span>
+thick. The strips forming the frame may be 1 inch
+wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that,
+if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart
+while the clay is moist. This frame is placed on a
+plaster bat or piece of paper and the clay forced
+firmly into its corners and sides, working toward
+the centre, until the frame is completely filled.
+It is then turned over in order to make sure that the
+under side of the clay is thoroughly welded together.
+Care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring
+both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame,
+scraping off the surplus clay with a straight
+edge. While the clay is moist, one side is
+chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to
+prevent warping. The hollowing may take the
+form shown in the right-hand tile at the top of
+<a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a>, or it may be in the shape of channels
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch or more in width, separated by ridges
+<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>2</sub> of an inch wide running across the back of the
+tile. Whichever method is used, the depth should
+be about <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> of an inch and not over <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch.
+Even when the utmost precaution is taken, the tile
+is very liable to warp. It should therefore be dried
+slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of
+exposure on both sides. The greatest help of all is
+found in the use of the so-called "grog." This is made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span>
+by grinding to a powder clay that has been fired once
+and shrunk, but not glazed. It is used by mixing it
+with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of
+one part grog to three of the clay. It may be added
+here that grog will be found of great assistance not
+only in making tiles but in making other ware. It
+will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the
+express purpose of making grog. The occasional
+failures which develop at the first firing of every
+batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXIV" id="PLXIV"></a><img src="images/i_359.jpg" width="500" height="642" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Tiles</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XIV]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class= "tb" />
+
+<p><i>Decoration.</i>&mdash;When the tile is dried and shrunk
+a little it may be easily taken from the frame, but
+it should be allowed to get quite stiff before decoration
+is applied. While the hardening process
+is going on the decoration may be studied. The
+three general methods of decoration considered
+under the flower bowl&mdash;<i>viz.</i>, the sunken line, the
+modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze
+or over-glaze&mdash;are all available for use with the
+tile. If it is to be a tea tile the modelled surface
+must be treated with considerable caution, otherwise
+there may result an uneven surface for the teapot
+to rest upon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firing.</i>&mdash;In giving the tile its first firing it is
+safer to stand it on one edge in the kiln, but not on
+the floor of the kiln, as the intense heat of the floor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span>
+would be liable to shrink that side more than the
+others. It may be supported on two stilts or it may
+be placed on one of the shelves. For the glaze firing
+the tile should be placed flat on the stilt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tea Tiles.</i>&mdash;The tiles illustrated at the top and bottom
+of <a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a> were designed and made to serve
+as rests for a teapot, a bowl, or a vase. It will be
+noticed that the centre is left free with one exception,
+which is given as an interesting variation from the
+general rule. The free space is an advantage in
+giving relief to the design and in furnishing an even
+surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon. In
+the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general
+principles as to variety of measure or shape in space
+divisions hold true. Emphasis should be concentrated
+at the corners in order to strengthen the
+design.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fireplace Tiles.</i>&mdash;Some of the tiles illustrated in
+<a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a> would be entirely appropriate for facing
+a border around the opening of a fireplace. This is
+especially true of the middle design shown at the
+top of the plate, on account of the lines which project
+through the corner design nearly to the edges
+of the tile. This makes it especially adapted to
+repetition in a facing or border.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="PLXV" id="PLXV"></a><img src="images/i_363.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Pottery, Designed and Made by Schoolgirls</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XV]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Decoration of Tiles.</i>&mdash;It is in the field of painted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span>
+decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities
+in fireplace tile designs are found. The
+framed tile illustrated in <a href="#PLXV">Plate XV</a> opposite&mdash;an example
+of over-glaze painting&mdash;is intended for use as
+a colour accent for the wall. This tile is painted in
+matt glaze between raised outlines. Three similar
+tiles are illustrated in the middle row in <a href="#PLXIV">Plate XIV</a>.
+The right-hand one, like the framed tile of <a href="#PLXV">Plate XV</a>,
+is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead of being
+raised was slightly depressed. The other two are
+examples of under-glaze painting. They were painted
+on moist clay, as described in the problem of the
+bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze.
+In this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding
+richness to the colour scheme. The repetition
+in a tile facing of landscapes, designed to be complete
+or nearly so, would be tiresome. It is better
+so to design the entire facing that it will be made up
+of a series of very simple landscape motifs, each
+fairly complete in itself, but all so related to each
+other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat
+conventionalized, landscape. A treatment of this
+kind lends itself to many other decorative schemes.</p>
+
+<p>The fireplace offers a great opportunity for design,
+not only in itself, but as related to the decorative
+scheme of the room in which it is placed. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span>
+should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the
+focal centre of the room. This fact, together with
+its comparatively small size, makes it possible to
+give it a strong and rich note of colour, accenting
+the prevailing colour scheme of the room. Tiles,
+properly designed and applied, offer a rich and
+varied field for charming effects in colour and
+texture.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI">XI</a><br /><br />
+<small>DECORATIVE WORK IN LEATHER, COPPER, AND OTHER
+MATERIALS</small></h2>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>To become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not a matter of
+choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for a man's heart must be in his
+skill and a man's soul in his craftsmanship&mdash;<i>Hamilton Wright Mabie</i></p></div>
+
+
+<h3>LEATHER WORK</h3>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Leather work</span>, like weaving and pottery, is of
+very ancient origin. The New Testament
+text concerning "new wine in old bottles"
+referred to bottles of leather, or wine skins. We read
+of leather as having been used in still earlier times
+for shields, saddles, harnesses, parts of chariots,
+and as an accessory to clothing. In the middle
+ages the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined
+to the shoemakers' useful productions but included
+much ornamental work. There were wall coverings
+of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or
+stamped with hot tools; seats were upholstered and
+books were covered with tooled leather. Some of
+this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt
+figures like the celebrated Spanish leather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Why Leather is Suited to Decoration.</i>&mdash;Leather
+seems, therefore, to have won the right to a high
+place among the materials suited to decoration.
+Its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its
+natural colour, the ease with which it takes dyes,
+and the readiness with which under proper treatment,
+it receives and retains the marks of the modelling
+tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense
+no less than its durability enables it to serve the
+more common uses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Limited Decoration Desirable.</i>&mdash;The tooling of
+leather is based upon the fact that, when wet, the
+fibre yields readily to compression and receives
+impressions that are retained after the leather is
+dry. But the beauty of design depends upon the
+colour and texture of the surface quite as much
+as upon the figured impressions upon it. It is therefore
+a good point in design not to cover the surface
+so completely that the peculiar beauty of the
+material itself be lost. The decorations should
+be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined
+to a small part of the surface. Calf skin and cowhide
+are well suited to tooling. They are supplied
+in two general forms, <i>viz.</i>, the smooth,
+generally as Russia calf, and the rough or split
+cowhides, known as ooze. Leather may be stained<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span>
+a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since
+the natural colour of leather is brown, brownish
+tones are more satisfactory than the blues, greens,
+violets, grays, etc., because they seem more
+sincere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_369.jpg" width="500" height="199" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Leather-working tools</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Tools.</i>&mdash;The simple tools required for tooling
+leather may be purchased at small cost, or
+they may be made from cheap nut picks by filing
+these to shape, polishing them, and buffing
+them. The illustrations show two different
+tools, each double pointed. A and B are
+different views of the first tool; C is the second
+tool. The narrow pointed end of the first
+tool is for outlining and working into corners.
+The broad, flat end is for smoothing down
+and for general use; the broad tool should be
+used whenever possible. The round point on
+the left end of C is used for outlining and transfering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span>
+the design to leather. The right hand end
+of C is known as the background tool. It is cupped
+out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise
+section just above and by the end view at the
+extreme right; in fact, a nail set may be used for
+the same purpose. The background tool, however,
+is to be used sparingly. If used to excess, especially
+on large surfaces, the result is likely to have
+a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROBLEMS<br /><br />
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A BELT</h3>
+
+<p>The sizes given in the illustration on <a href="#Page_325">page 325</a> are
+typical, but it is expected that in this and other problems,
+dimensions will be varied to suit conditions.
+When the size has been determined the leather
+should be cut a little longer and wider than the
+final dimensions are to be, to allow for attaching
+the belt pin or buckle. The strip of leather should
+be thoroughly soaked in <i>cold water</i> and then rolled
+in dry cloth until the leather is dry enough for
+tooling. It is essential that there should be absolute
+uniformity of moisture. If on applying the
+tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still
+too wet. If it should get too dry to retain the
+mark of the tool it may be sponged on the back.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span>
+There is danger of water stains, however, if the
+entire back is not wet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_371.jpg" width="500" height="221" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two belt designs</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The illustration shows two treatments.
+An interlaced pattern is shown in A which
+concentrates the interest at the ends and in the
+middle of the back. The pattern shown is tooled
+solid and the background is left untooled. If the
+pattern be tooled in outline it is well to shade these
+outlines out into the background in order to give
+relief to the interlaced bands.</p>
+
+<p>Modelled natural forms are shown in B. In
+this the background is tooled down, but is heaviest
+at the ends or in the spaces against the raised
+forms. This gives the background a richer appearance
+than it has when tooled absolutely flat.
+Both patterns here shown are straight with parallel
+sides. Other shapes are possible&mdash;for example,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span>
+those wider in the middle and tapering toward
+the ends.</p>
+
+<p>When a satisfactory design has been worked
+out and drawn it is transferred to thin bond paper.
+The greatest care should be taken not to have any
+pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they
+leave a dirty gray stain on the leather which is
+difficult to remove. It may be added here that
+whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any
+purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;As soon as the leather has dried
+just enough to retain the marks, the pattern should
+be placed upon it, pencilled side up, allowance
+being made for trimming to the desired width.
+The paper may be held in position by thumb tacks,
+which must not, however, pass through the leather
+inside the part that is to be cut off. The pattern
+may now be traced through the paper, over the
+lines of the drawing, with the round pointed tool.
+Care will have to be exercised to make sure that
+the pattern is completely transferred to the leather.
+When this is accomplished the pattern should be removed
+and the lines, which will be found somewhat
+dimly traced on the leather, should be immediately
+deepened by going over them with the
+same tool.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_373.jpg" width="250" height="202" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of using the broad tool</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next step is to tool down the design; and
+in doing this the work should be turned under
+the tool rather than the tool itself on the work,
+in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied
+at the edge of the pattern farthest from the
+hand. This not only insures a correct and convenient
+position of the tool, but allows a perfect
+view of the work. In this part of the process the
+broad tool should be used, moved sidewise, as shown
+by the direction of the arrow
+in the accompanying
+cut. In working up into
+corners the narrow tool
+may be used if necessary.
+The movement may be
+described as "ironing the
+leather down." The surface
+should not be roughed up or cut up into
+"shoulders." It is a process requiring time.
+One should not try to get the full depth with the
+first pressure of the tool. One should coax the
+surface and add pressure with each succeeding
+stroke, taking care that the tool does not scrape.
+It should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners
+will perhaps need to be cautioned not
+to wear out the surface by feeble scratching and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span>
+patting. A firm, even gliding pressure does the
+work. As the leather dries it will be seen that the
+tooling has given it a dark, glossy surface. When
+the process is completed the belt may be trimmed
+down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a
+straight edge wherever straight lines are desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND TOOL A MAT</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_374.jpg" width="500" height="190" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Supported and unsupported circles</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Design and the Process.</i>&mdash;The purpose for
+which a mat is used requires as one condition of
+design that there should be a plain surface in the
+middle. If the general form be square the design
+at the corners should be strengthened. If circular,
+the design should be so arranged that it will lend
+support to the perfect curves of the circle rather
+than weaken them. In the three outlines given
+below, C shows a form supporting the circle; D
+and E show forms tending to weaken the circle.
+Conditions determining size are more variable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span>
+in this problem than in others, because of the
+great variety of uses which a mat may serve. In
+a design like that shown in A of the accompanying
+illustration, the portions left untooled&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>,
+the leaves and fruit&mdash;may be raised still more
+by pressing out the leather from the back by means
+of a tool. To do this the leather should be placed
+face down in the palm of the hand or on modelling
+wax, which has been covered with a piece of chamois
+or sheepskin. Then by gently forcing the leather
+down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt
+end of a nut pick the desired relief in the figure
+may be obtained. After this is done it will probably
+be necessary to turn the mat over and correct
+the modelling. In order to preserve the higher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span>
+relief it is well to back it up with cotton batting,
+soaked in paste, and finally to cover the entire
+back with a lining of silk or leather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_375.jpg" width="500" height="278" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two mat designs</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND TOOL A PEN WIPER</h3>
+
+<p>A pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this
+case must be made of leather suitable for tooling,
+and several leaves of soft material like sheepskin or
+chamois, which should match the cover in colour.
+The process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ
+essentially from that already employed in the foregoing
+problems. It should, of course, be carried
+through to completion before the book is made up.
+These parts are to be tied together with knots of
+sheepskin thongs of the same colour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_376.jpg" width="500" height="130" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Steps in tying a knot</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The series of cuts given below show the progressive
+steps in forming the knot, which should finally
+take the shape of Figure 5. After it has been
+formed the thongs are passed through holes punched
+in the cover and leaves of the pen wiper, and
+secured by a second knot formed on the back, resembling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span>
+Figure 4 with the ends cut as close as will
+leave them securely tied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_377.jpg" width="400" height="255" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Two designs for pen wipers</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another illustration gives two suggestions for
+the design: A, a rectangular pen wiper tied with
+two knots at the end; B, a circular pen wiper tied
+with one knot in the middle. In these designs,
+and indeed in all others, decoration should recognize
+(not antagonize!) the outer form of the article
+to which it is applied. This point is made in the
+illustration.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A SLIP COVER FOR A NOTE-BOOK FILLER</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_378.jpg" width="500" height="664" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for slip cover</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Planning the Cover.</i>&mdash;The object in this problem
+is to make a permanent protection for fillers. It
+is well known that the fillers themselves may be
+purchased for a trifling sum and that they are provided
+with a backing of stiff paper which is designed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span>
+to be slipped into a pocket in the back of a leather
+cover and thus form a neat pocket note-book. It
+is evident that the dimensions of the filler determine
+the size of the cover; but, in planning the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span>
+cover, care should be exercised to allow sufficient
+play for width, length, and thickness after all the
+cutting and sewing are done. This means that
+the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a
+little larger than called for in the final size. The
+design illustrated shows both the outside (A) and
+the inside (B) of the cover. As it is planned the
+cover is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing
+colour; but this may be left out if desired, though
+it, of course, gives a much better finish to put
+it in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assembling the Parts.</i>&mdash;The first step after cutting
+out the leather for the cover is to prepare the
+leather and tool it, if it is to have any decoration.
+A piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and
+the edge (C) shaped. The edges of the lining and
+the pocket should next be lightly pasted and pressed
+on the cover. A line is then to be ruled with a
+leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to
+serve as a guide for stitching. A machine stitch
+may be employed or it may be done by hand. If
+by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce
+the leather at equal distances along the tooled
+line. Hand stitches may safely be a little longer
+than the machine stitches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_380.jpg" width="500" height="280" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Stitching with two needles</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Stitching.</i>&mdash;A good way to secure equally spaced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span>
+stitches by hand sewing is to make use of bow
+springs or spacing dividers set to the required
+distance. A more rapid way to accomplish the
+same thing is possible by making use of a tracing
+wheel, if one is available of suitable size and of the
+right spacing between the teeth. The hand stitching
+may be done either with one needle or with
+two. If with one it is best to sew a running stitch
+once around the seam and then return, covering
+the alternate spaces left on the first round. It is
+better, however, to use two needles, one on each
+end of one thread, selected long enough to finish
+the sewing without piecing it, and to proceed as
+illustrated in A and B, <i>i. e.</i>, to draw one needle
+with its thread through to the middle of the thread,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span>
+as shown in A, and then the other through the next
+hole, and so on alternately from opposite directions,
+producing a stitch like that illustrated in
+B. It will, of course, be understood that, in the
+illustration, the length of the stitch is exaggerated
+in order to show the process plainly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trimming and Finishing.</i>&mdash;When the sewing is
+finished the thread is fastened by doubling over
+one or two of the stitches and drawing the ends
+inside between the cover and lining. Then a line
+should be tooled on the cover about <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub> of an inch
+outside of the stitching, and on this line the cover,
+lining and pocket are trimmed together. The raw
+edges may be treated with water colour to give them
+a finish. Finally the cover is moistened a little and
+folded back with firm pressure in order to establish
+an even and permanent bend in the leather.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND MAKE A DESK PAD</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The problem of design in this case is,
+first of all, to determine the dimensions of the pad,
+which depend, of course, upon the use to be made of
+it. Then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn
+in outline, including the spacing for the corners
+as illustrated in the drawing (A). The only detail
+that will need elaboration is the corner. The shape<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span>
+and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully
+laid out on thin paper, from which in due time
+it may be transferred to the leather and tooled as in
+other problems.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_382.jpg" width="500" height="259" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of the leather corner(left) Outline of desk pad(right)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Material and the Process.</i>&mdash;For making the pad
+it will be necessary to secure a piece of binders'
+board&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, heavy pulp or straw board&mdash;of the
+required size. The medium weight is the best,
+and it may generally be obtained at the bookbinder's.
+If this cannot be obtained, two sheets
+of 10-ply card-board may be used instead. The
+size given in the drawing will carry a half sheet
+of commercial blotting paper. The edges of the
+paper board should be bound with passe-partout
+binding of a colour to harmonize with the leather
+that is to be used; the strips of binding should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span>
+be long enough to extend under the leather corners
+but they need not reach up to the corners
+of the board. After the binding has been put on,
+the top of the board should be covered with paper
+also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and
+the paper should be cut of such size as to lap
+over the edge of the binding and yet leave a suitable
+width of the binding. The so-called "cover papers"
+will be found satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p><i>Making the Corners.</i>&mdash;The next step in the process
+is to lay out and cut the leather corners
+according to the original design. The form in
+which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions
+are shown in the illustration B. The little
+flap at <i>x</i> should be noted. It is designed to
+tuck under and close the corner. The edges of
+leather at <i>x</i> should be "skived" or thinned down
+so as to add to the neat appearance of the work.
+Further improvement will result from skiving
+down the edges S R S and T V T of the large
+flaps, which are to be folded over underneath
+and pasted down to the back of the board. The
+ordinary photographers' paste is satisfactory for
+this work. When the leather corners are placed
+in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses
+of blotting paper should be used at each corner,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>
+in order to secure the necessary space for the reception
+of the blotters when the board is in use.
+After the corners are pasted on, the back of the
+board should be covered with paper in the same
+way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion
+of the binding and leather exposed. Finally a
+number of blotters of full size should be inserted
+in position under the corners to keep them in shape
+and the whole placed under light pressure until dry.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO DESIGN AND MAKE A CARD-CASE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;In the illustration (A), showing
+a card-case unfolded, the dimensions give the finished
+size. The same card-case is illustrated in
+B somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps
+turned in. The design on A is a rectangle broken
+at the corners. In this case, as it may be with all
+similar forms, the design is treated as a sort of
+binding, extending across the middle fold. C
+shows an alternative design which is treated as a
+panel and may be placed on one or on both sides
+of the card-case. The question of which is the top
+and bottom in such a design as that in C can
+be determined only by the owner's habit of holding
+a case. Sometimes a monogram is placed in one
+of the inner flaps, as illustrated in A, or on one of
+the outer surfaces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_385.jpg" width="500" height="397" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a card-case</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;In cutting the leather for a card-case
+it is necessary to provide a piece a little
+larger than the finished dimensions in order to
+allow for trimming. The design should be transferred,
+the line of stitching determined, and the
+tooling done, according to the description already
+given for the other problems.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Lining.</i>&mdash;A card-case may be lined either
+with silk or with sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize
+with the outside. If lined with silk it
+must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>
+great care being exercised to have the sides
+parallel and the corners true and square. Then the
+silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly pasted
+along the edges to a width of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch, care
+being taken, however, not to paste those portions of
+the edges that will be visible when the flaps of
+the cover are turned in, <i>i. e.</i>, the middle of
+the fold B. This precaution should be taken
+because the paste may strike through and
+spot the lining. The flaps should then be
+moistened a little and folded down with firm pressure;
+but before stitching they should be fastened
+down with a little paste to form pockets. This
+takes the place of basting and is followed by stitching
+as described in the problem of the note-book.
+If lined with sheepskin, the ooze side showing,
+the cover need not be trimmed down until after
+the stitching; then both may be trimmed at once.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LEATHER PURSE</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The details of design and construction
+are shown in the accompanying illustrations. In A
+the outer flap is shown tooled. It will be noticed
+that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the
+central point in design. The tooling is done as
+directed in the other examples of this class of work.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_387.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a purse</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The purse is lined throughout with leather.
+It has bellows ends, as shown in the perspective
+at C and in the end view at B. The pattern of
+the bellows end shown in D is intended to fold in
+the middle, bringing both ends of the leather together
+and thus giving an end of double thickness.
+With thin leather, such as is used in the present
+instance, this pattern is practicable. If thicker
+leather be used the bellows must be made of single
+thickness. In this case the pattern would simply
+be like that shown in the lower half of D.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;After the lining is pasted to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span>
+cover a snap fastener should be attached. Proper
+care, of course, should be taken to see that the fastener
+comes in the right place so that the purse will
+fold properly. The cover and lining should then be
+trimmed and the leather surface ruled for stitching.
+It is well to fold the inner flap of the purse while it is
+moist from pasting. Finally a little paste is applied
+along the edges of the bellows ends and they are
+placed in position.</p>
+
+<p>Stitching is started at the point E shown in the
+perspective. Hand stitching is the most practicable.
+The direction is down one side, up the other,
+and around the outside flap to the other bellows
+end, stopping at the point F. When the stitching
+is completed the inside flap should be folded down.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LIMP LEATHER BOOK COVER</h3>
+
+<p><i>The Design.</i>&mdash;The first step is to choose the book
+to be bound. For the sake of simplicity, as perhaps
+the first piece of bookbinding undertaken,
+it should be a folio or "section." And it should
+be <i>worth binding in leather</i>. The subject, the
+paper, and the typography should be worthy of
+the distinction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_389.jpg" width="500" height="707" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers of books. Details
+of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other problems.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Process.</i>&mdash;If the book selected is already
+bound or "cased" it is necessary first to remove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span>
+the binding or casing. Then at least three fly
+leaves should be added, made up to match the
+other leaves of the folio. A piece of bookbinders'
+linen or buckram is now cut to the size of the open
+folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the
+fly leaves and the folio itself, stitched through
+the back with silk of a colour to harmonize with
+the leather.</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to prepare the leather cover.
+To do this, first place the leather in position
+on the closed folio and, allowing <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+at the top and bottom and <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch at the
+fore edge, mark and cut out the stock for the
+cover. The decoration, if there is to be any, may
+now be tooled on. If the design is heavy enough in
+relief to need a backing, it may be at once filled
+with cotton batting, pasted in as directed in the
+problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper.</p>
+
+<p>Stock for the end papers is now selected. They
+may be of cover paper, or of silk, and they should
+harmonize in colour with the leather. They are
+formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen,
+by folding it over to fit into the part between the
+linen and the first fly leaf. If of paper they are
+to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the
+width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span>
+after the linen is pasted in. If the end leaves
+are to be of silk, an allowance of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>4</sub> of an inch
+must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom
+and the fore edge.</p>
+
+<p>We are now ready to paste the linen to the leather.
+Strong paste, with perhaps a little thin glue added,
+is needed for this part of the process. Now paste
+the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside
+of the cover; and, if silk has been used for these
+leaves, paste the other two to the outer fly leaves.
+Finally, the book should be placed under very
+gentle pressure and kept in this condition until
+dry. Care should be exercised to adjust this pressure
+to the character of the tooling, if there is any,
+so as not to crush it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>COPPER WORK</h3>
+
+<p>There is a limited field for metal work in home
+decoration; but there are some things of metal
+that combine beauty and utility to a remarkable
+degree and, in their making, introduce us to most
+interesting operations. Beginning with the gate,
+which may be of wrought iron, or with the door
+knocker, which may be of antique brass, we may
+find in every home problems of design involving
+work in metals. Ornamental hinges, key<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span>
+escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds, andirons,
+and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card
+trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other
+useful things that may be made in attractive forms
+readily suggest themselves. How some of these
+may be made is suggested in the following simple
+problems:</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LETTER RACK</h3>
+
+<p>This is an easy problem. Only four constructive
+operations are required, <i>viz.</i>, cutting out the stock,
+sawing the design,
+bending, and finishing.
+The illustration shows
+the form and the dimensions
+and suggests a
+simple design. The
+material required is 18-gauge
+soft copper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_392.jpg" width="300" height="319" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a letter rack</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first step in the
+process is to cut out a
+strip of copper 8 inches
+long and 4 inches wide.
+If necessary the edges may be trimmed even and
+then the round corners should be cut. The design is
+traced on strong, thin paper and securely pasted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span>
+on the copper in the proper position by using cold
+liquid glue. A hole is drilled through each unit
+of the design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers'
+saw inserted, and the design cut. Time and patience
+will be required for this operation. Saws
+are easily broken, and new ones must be attached
+to the saw frame and again applied to the work.
+After sawing the design it is necessary to give
+the edges a smooth finish. This is done with a
+file. The surface which is to form the inside of
+the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and polished
+with water and pumice.</p>
+
+<p>The copper is now ready to be bent to the required
+shape. To do this prepare a block of hard
+wood 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, grip it in a
+bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely
+across the block in such a position that the sides may
+be bent over the edges of the block. When this has
+been done it only remains to clean the outside surface
+and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. If a
+fine polish is desired, the buffing should be preceded
+by careful grinding with a Scotch water stone and
+water.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A LETTER OPENER</h3>
+
+<p>This requires the same kind of material as the
+letter rack and the same operations, with the addition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span>
+of riveting. After the stock is cut out, trimmed and
+trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is
+pasted on, as in the previous problem, and the design
+cut out. The top is then bent over and riveted with a
+copper tack, having shaped the head of the tack in
+the vise before inserting it. While the tack is being
+riveted the finished head should be protected by
+placing it on a lead block. Finally the edge should
+be filed to the shape shown in the cross section, and
+the whole cleaned and polished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_394.jpg" width="500" height="318" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a letter opener</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A HAT PIN</h3>
+
+<p>For this problem 12-gauge copper will be needed.
+The operations required are cutting out, sawing, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span>
+soft soldering. After the necessary stock has been cut
+to the required shape and the edges filed, the design is
+outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. It
+is desirable to grind with the Scotch stone and water
+to a good polish. The head will then be ready to be
+attached to the pin.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_395.jpg" width="350" height="288" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The hat pin</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the
+surface where
+the pin is to be attached
+(shown in
+the drawing), select
+a steel pin of
+desired length,
+scrape the surface
+of the little
+disk attached to
+one end of it, apply
+to this disk
+a little soldering paste by means of a small stick, and
+then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit
+of soft solder, which should cover the whole disk.
+Now place the copper, outside face down, on an
+asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste to the
+central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder
+on this portion of the copper, and fuse as before.</p>
+
+<p>When the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span>
+which will have formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric
+acid, and polish on the buffing wheel.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A BELT PIN</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/i_396.jpg" width="350" height="301" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">The belt pin</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem.
+The operations are like those for the hat pin except
+that hard soldering is necessary. The slight bending
+of the copper, required in this case, is done by means
+of a horn mallet and a sand pad. For hard soldering,
+the surface must be scraped as before and covered
+with a little borax ground in water and applied
+with a small brush. The belt plate should then
+be placed on the asbestos pad, with its convex
+face down, and blocked up so that the end where
+the soldering is to be done is horizontal. The catch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span>
+should then be placed in position with a small
+piece of silver solder at the base. The solder should
+be melted as before by means of a mouth blowpipe
+and gas or alcohol flame. The hinge is soldered on
+in the same way, and finally the pin is cleaned and
+polished for use.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A SET OF BOOK ENDS</h3>
+
+<p>This problem is much like the first one described
+under metal work. Sixteen-gauge copper is required.
+It may be bent by placing it between two hard wood
+blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide
+mallet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_397.jpg" width="300" height="256" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for book ends</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A TEAPOT STAND</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_398.jpg" width="500" height="637" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a teapot stand</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_399.jpg" width="300" height="282" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Detail of a corner</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem.
+The operations are similar to those already described;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span>
+but the cutting and bending are much more difficult.
+After determining the design it will be necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span>
+make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as
+illustrated in the detail of the corner. The four
+corners must be marked and cut exactly as shown
+in the drawing. A piece of hard wood is then cut
+to the size of the top, 5 inches square in this case,
+to be used as a form on which to bend down the
+sides and turn the
+flanges. If the corners
+are correctly cut the
+parts will fall naturally
+into place, to be bored
+and riveted, as the
+drawing plainly shows.
+In order to protect the
+tablecloth, the under
+side of the rivet holes
+should be countersunk so that the ends of the rivets
+may be finished smooth and flush with the under
+surface. As an additional protection, a felt mat
+may be glued on the bottom.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A WATCH FOB</h3>
+
+<p>This problem introduces engraving and enamelling,
+two interesting but somewhat difficult operations.
+The process to be carried out is as follows: Using 12-gauge
+copper, saw the outline, and apply the design<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching
+it with a pencil or transferring it by means of
+carbon paper. Then strengthen the pencil or carbon
+lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl.
+Imbed this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl
+or in a small quantity of pitch placed on a piece
+of board clamped to the
+bench or table. Using
+an engraving tool, remove
+the copper from the spot
+to be enamelled to the
+depth of <sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>32</sub> of an inch.
+It is well to have the bottom
+of the spot reasonably
+level but not necessarily
+smooth and the sides
+slightly undercut. Before applying the flux, clean,
+by pouring a small quantity of concentrated nitric
+acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off
+under the water tap. Flux should be kept in a
+closed jar under water after grinding, and taken
+out as needed on the tip of a small strip of copper
+previously cleaned with acid. Enough flux should
+be applied to cover the bottom of the spot to be
+enamelled; but the depth of the spot must not
+be filled up.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/i_400.jpg" width="250" height="258" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a watch fob</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on
+an iron tripod, and apply the flame of the blowpipe
+to the under side. Heat very slowly until all the
+water is driven off, then force the heat until the
+flux is fused. Allow it to cool slowly, then remove
+any flux that may have adhered to the surface
+of the fob by grinding with Scotch stone.
+Clean with acid as before, fill the spot with enamel
+in the same manner as the flux was applied, and
+fuse again. After fusing, the surface should be
+stoned again to remove inequalities and again
+fused, cleaned with water and buffed on the wheel.</p>
+
+<p>If it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver
+the flux may be omitted and the enamel applied
+directly, but the silver should be cleaned with
+sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great
+care should be used in heating as the fusing point
+of silver is but little above that of enamel. The
+depth of the engraving on the silver need not be
+as great as on the copper.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TO MAKE A CARD TRAY</h3>
+
+<p>Eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem,
+and two new operations, <i>viz.</i>, raising and chasing,
+are introduced. After cutting out a circular piece of
+copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one half<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>
+an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it
+to red heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling
+by dipping in a sulphuric acid pickle bath. A
+circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is lightly
+scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the
+end grain to the shape indicated in the sketch,
+and placed in a vise. Now holding the copper
+on the block, it is raised to shape with the round
+end of the roughing hammer. It is well to anneal
+frequently.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/i_402.jpg" width="400" height="472" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Design for a card tray</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After shaping, the design may be applied
+by means of transfer paper and the lines lightly
+scratched on the surface. Then imbed the tray
+in pitch and outline the design by following the
+lines with a narrow chasing tool. Reverse the tray
+on the pitch and, with a chasing tool of suitable
+shape, raise the body of the design to the height
+desired. Reverse on the pitch again and with a
+flat tool true the outlines and smooth the background.
+Remove from the pitch, trim the edge
+of the tray if it is forced out of line, clean with
+pumice stone and buff.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 247px;">
+<img src="images/i_403.jpg" width="247" height="246" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Method of shaping with the hammer</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured
+by painting them with, or immersing them
+in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of sulphur. If
+soft solder has not been used, another pleasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span>
+finish may be secured by applying a thin coat of
+lubricating oil and heating gently until the oil is
+volatilized. An antique green or verdigris finish
+may be obtained by painting with a mixture of
+acetic acid and copper carbonate. Several coats
+may be necessary; and it is desirable to lacquer
+the surface to ensure permanency.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Work in Other Materials</span><br /><br />
+A CANDLE SHADE</h3>
+
+<p>The materials and tools for this problem are
+six ply card-board in dull shades of gray, brown
+or green, and with mat surface; Japanese paper
+of average thickness; passe-partout binding a
+little darker than the card-board and of harmonizing
+colour; paste; a penknife with a thin blade;
+and a water colour outfit.</p>
+
+<p>Of the drawings included in the group on the
+opposite page one shows a development of the
+surface of the candle shade which is the subject
+of this problem. Referring to the elevation it will
+be seen that if the edges AE and DH be continued
+until they meet at O, OE and OH are really equal
+to the radii of the outer arc of the development
+shown in the upper part of the group, and OA and
+OD, to the radii of the inner arc. This upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span>
+developed surface really forms the pattern of the
+candle shade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_405.jpg" width="500" height="741" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Details of candle shade</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The decoration consists of openings cut through
+the card-board segments. These are covered with
+Japanese paper, thus allowing light to pass through,
+but adding the effect of colour. A margin of
+<sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch is allowed along the openings, the
+remaining spaces being divided by partitions of
+card-board, as shown in the different typical designs
+at the right of the illustration. It will be noticed that
+the group of openings forming the decoration of
+one side conforms in the main to the shape of that
+side. It will also be noticed that there is a variety
+of size and shape in the openings, but that they
+all show a certain unity and harmony of space
+division.</p>
+
+<p>The openings are cut with a penknife, care
+being taken to make as clean a cut as possible.
+Japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or some
+suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings.
+The process of pasting is one that requires some
+care. It is well to paste only a portion of the pasteboard
+at a time taking care not to use more
+paste than necessary and not to let any get over the
+edges of the openings. The paper should be pressed
+on while the paste is still moist, and the paper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span>
+itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. It
+should be placed with colour side next to the
+openings.</p>
+
+<p>When the paste is dry the card-board should be
+lightly scored on the lines AE, BF, etc., and bent
+on these lines, bringing the sectors together into
+the form of the shade and fastening them at the
+top and bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout
+binding. If the binding is of the ordinary
+width (<sup>7</sup>&frasl;<sub>8</sub> of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise
+into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting
+the edges. No attempt should be made to
+run the binding along more than one edge. The
+separated strips should then be cut the exact length
+for each top and bottom edge and applied one at
+a time. Then the side edges are bound, with the
+apex of the angle at the middle of the binding.
+When the binding is firmly fastened it is carefully
+trimmed off at the top and bottom.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ELECTRIC LIGHT PENDANTS</h3>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_408.jpg" width="300" height="280" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A seven-light fixture</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two designs for such pendants are illustrated in
+the accompanying drawings. They were derived
+from suggestions in the <i>Craftsman</i>, and were
+successfully worked out in remodelling a house.
+The seven-light fixture consists of a circular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span>
+pendant-board about 30 inches in diameter, made
+from 2-inch plain oak stock, cut into 60-degree
+segments and, with splined joints, glued up to
+form a circular piece which was turned up on
+a large lathe. An open space 7 inches in diameter
+was left in the larger circle, which was
+covered by a cup-shaped cap turned from plain
+oak stock and attached
+to the larger circle by
+screws. The considerable
+opening covered
+by this cap contained
+the cut out and the
+wiring necessary for
+connecting with each
+of the seven lights.
+Seven medium-sized
+hooks of composition metal were procured which
+had large, coarse threaded screws. A <sup>3</sup>&frasl;<sub>16</sub>-inch hole
+was drilled lengthwise through the shanks of these
+hooks. Holes were bored near the centre of the
+arc of each segment in the board circle to receive
+these hooks. When the fixture was assembled the
+wires for each light were carried from the cut out
+across a channel made for that purpose on the
+upper surface of the board, passed down through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span>
+the hole in the shank of the hook, woven into the
+links of the chain pendant and connected with the corresponding
+bulb socket after passing through another
+hook, like those described above, which linked
+the socket to the chain. As a finish around the
+hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned
+over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and
+oxidized to a tone somewhat
+darker than the brown of the
+oak board. Copper cups in a
+conventional petal design were
+made to place over each of the
+bulbs. The chains were also
+oxidized to conform with the
+other metal work. The entire
+combination was satisfactory.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 618px;">
+<img src="images/i_409.jpg" width="618" height="716" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A five-light fixture</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another design for the dining-room of the same
+house and much easier to construct is also illustrated.
+It will be observed that the square form
+instead of the circle is carried out consistently in
+the woodwork and metal caps. These caps and
+the chains are in natural brass of a dull finish.
+The shades are of ground glass, decorated with a
+flower design in heavy black lines. The central
+light has a larger shade than the others, wholly
+enclosed. In this one is placed a red incandescent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span>
+bulb for use whenever such decorative effect is
+desired.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DECORATIVE FORGINGS</h3>
+
+<p>In the story of the designing and building of the
+model house reference was made to contributions
+from the forge shop. Among these were the andirons,
+door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles
+shown in the accompanying illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>It should be understood that all wrought iron work
+that has any reality in it requires an equipment
+especially adapted to its production. There must
+be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools,
+all in the hands of a workman of some experience
+and skill. Successful forge work can hardly be
+considered among the handicrafts easily adapted
+to the needs of the amateur working without instruction
+and with poor equipment. But with
+good tools, proper equipment, and a little experience
+any clever boy will be able to design and fashion
+many useful articles for the home which have real
+artistic merit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="PLXVI" id="PLXVI"></a><img src="images/i_411.jpg" width="500" height="701" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">Decorative Forgings</div>
+<div class="capl">[Plate XVI]</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>For the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there
+may be made the shovel, poker, and tongs, and
+possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot hooks.
+Other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span>
+lantern brackets for the wall or for lantern posts,
+standards for the newel post, the hall lantern or
+the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker for
+the door, and, if the architectural design permits,
+hinges, plates, and bolts for the door. This list
+by no means exhausts the uses of wrought iron in
+house decoration. It may be extended to include
+draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles
+and hinges of great variety, nails with ornamental
+heads for use with heavy construction, and many
+small articles such as trivets for steam kettles,
+toasting forks, candle holders, and many other
+useful articles which have also decorative value.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII">XII</a><br /><br />
+<small>CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS</small></h2>
+
+<h3>COUNTRY HOMES</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>To know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the
+world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul alive.&mdash;<i>Robert Louis Stevenson</i>
+</p></div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Keen</span> observers of American customs, who
+have studied the development of our taste
+in house designing and furnishing, tell us
+that the best expression of our art in architecture and
+home decoration is to be found in our country homes.
+They do not overlook, of course, a beautiful public
+building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether,
+or an occasional private residence on Millionaire
+Avenue, which are monuments to the genius of
+the men who created them and of which any country
+may be proud. What they mean is that as a people
+we seek and secure the right combination of utility
+and beauty in our homes more frequently in the
+country than in the city.</p>
+
+<p>At first thought such a criticism may seem to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span>
+be an exaggeration. Is it reasonable, we ask,
+that people of good sense, such as most Americans
+are, really succeed better in planning, building, and
+decorating the houses which they are to occupy
+but a few weeks in the summer than they do in
+developing their city homes? We are told that
+it is true and that there are good reasons for it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simplicity of Country Life.</i>&mdash;It is the life in the
+country and at the seashore that is the simple life,
+the natural life, the life that sets us free from the
+accumulated burden of mere "things." Here we come
+to forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the
+few. Here we are to feel the joy of living. Nature
+is all about us, and she gives of her bounty freely.
+Our wants are few because we are so well satisfied
+with the free gifts. What wants we have keep
+step with our needs here as they do nowhere else.
+We care less for what others have; we are
+more individual, more rational. Here we generally
+demand what we really need and we more frequently
+obtain it. And this is true whether it be
+something that appeals to the &aelig;sthetic side of
+our natures or whether it be that which ministers
+to our material needs. In seeking the beautiful
+for the simple home in the country we do not so
+often forget the useful; for here, away from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span>
+world of museums and studios and collections, we
+learn that art is possible without paintings and
+statuary. In the exterior form and colouring of
+the shingled cottage, set like a gem on the hillside
+or by the sea, in the harmonious arrangement of
+its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen
+only for use and comfort and placed where needed,
+and with decorations, cheerful but restrained and
+subordinate, suggestive of more glorious colours
+and more interesting things in the world without&mdash;in
+such surroundings we have beauty and utility
+combined. Here we have the time and the opportunity
+to realize the truth that all art is one
+and that it may find in the problems of decoration
+in the country home, if not its highest mission,
+its most open field for giving to appreciative people
+the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opportunities for Constructive Art.</i>&mdash;If it be true
+that there is a more universal recognition of the
+true principles of art in the better class of our
+country homes than in our city homes, it is proof,
+if proof be needed, that the elements of art expression
+are found in the simple, natural materials
+of every-day life. It may be that in the development
+of art amid simple surroundings "necessity
+is the mother of invention," and that, more or less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span>
+naturally, simplicity is thrust upon us. The general
+habit of our time is to extend the vacation period
+in the country or at the seashore to the point of
+making a home there for every summer season.
+But only a few can carry wealth and elegance with
+them. A great majority must be satisfied with
+simple and inexpensive homes. At first we accept
+them as the only thing possible, and then we discover
+that in their very simplicity they offer the
+best of opportunities for true &aelig;sthetic expression.
+And this opportunity is largely for the younger
+members of the family&mdash;for the boys and girls
+whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest
+in the summer home is perhaps the more
+vital and whose imagination is the more susceptible
+to the art suggestions of nature. We have
+seen that it is possible for boys and girls to build
+and furnish a house under the exacting requirements
+of city life. How much easier it must be
+to build a cottage for the summer season, decorating
+and furnishing it in harmony with the simple
+needs of a vacation home.</p>
+
+<p>If such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those
+who undertake the work will find much practical
+help in the problems outlined in the foregoing
+chapters. It is not expected, of course, that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>
+directions there given will always be exactly followed.
+In the furniture problems, for example,
+soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted
+for the harder woods specified. Very attractive as
+well as very useful simple furniture has been made
+in this way at a merely nominal expense. Staining
+and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with
+colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of
+new pine and spruce is in itself by no means unattractive.
+The smooth, exposed beams of the ceilings
+and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be
+stained a beautiful gray green or a soft brown.
+A good colour suggestion may be found in the
+weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old
+buildings. The effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a
+dado may be easily obtained by stretching burlap
+or denim over the studding or over a backing of
+inexpensive sheathing. These materials are very
+durable and inexpensive, and they may be found
+in a great variety of beautiful shades. They make
+excellent porti&egrave;res. A lighter, thinner material
+like scrim is better for window draperies. All
+these fabrics afford good surfaces for decoration
+by stencilling. Stained or painted soft wood floors,
+covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty
+hand woven rugs like those described in the chapter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>
+on weaving, with simple, useful furniture, a picture
+or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery, complete
+the equipment for a charming living room. If
+it all be the product of home industry, the cash
+outlay for the material need not be over forty
+dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount
+for better materials would not in the least interfere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span>
+with such a room being decorated and furnished
+by the unaided labours of the amateur artists
+and craftsmen of the family.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_419.jpg" width="500" height="514" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">A fireplace in field rock</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief expense would naturally be for the
+living room, dining-room, and kitchen. The dining-room,
+however, may well be simply a corner
+or alcove of a large living room. Such an arrangement
+greatly increases the value of a single fireplace,
+which will be required to give the summer
+home the sense of perfect comfort. This may be
+of rough field rock and should be large enough to
+take one-cut fireplace wood. The chamber furnishings
+may be very simple indeed. Furniture
+dealers make a point of supplying beds, bureaus,
+chairs, and cabinets of simple design, unfinished,
+so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize
+with any desired colour scheme. But such furniture,
+or good substitutes for it, can be made very
+inexpensively. For example, the stock for a good
+bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. Cases
+provided with shelves and curtains in place of
+drawers, made at a cash outlay possibly of one
+dollar, will serve for bureaus. The cost of materials
+for building an eight-room cottage in every way
+satisfactory need not exceed five hundred dollars;
+and such a cottage could be beautifully furnished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>
+by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials
+of one hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred
+dollars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_421.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="" />
+<div class="caption">An inexpensive bed</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the exterior finishing of summer cottages
+nature generally needs very little assistance. No
+colours harmonize so well with the gray rocks,
+sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees
+by the seashore, as the weathered grays of the
+shingled cottage. The window frames, door frames
+and facings, painted to preserve them, may be of
+the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly
+marking the outlines of the house but without
+unpleasant contrasts. A stained roof in slate gray<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span>
+or creosote brown is also in keeping. The underpinning
+and outside chimneys in the field rock of
+the locality are eminently fitting. The house
+among the hills will stand more colour because the
+colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn
+season. But wherever the house may be,
+it should repeat in its larger surfaces the prevailing
+colour tones of its natural setting. It should seem
+to fit into its surroundings as if it belonged there
+and would always remain there, a part of the simple,
+natural beauty all around it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i_422.jpg" width="500" height="242" alt="A Summer Cottage" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="p6"></p>
+
+<hr class="h50" />
+<p class="center">THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_b_endpaper_a.jpg" width="300" height="476" alt="endpaper a" />
+<div class="caption">Endpaper a</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/i_b_endpaper_b.jpg" width="300" height="475" alt="endpaper b" />
+<div class="caption">Endpaper b</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<h2>Transcriber's Notes:</h2>
+<p>Spelling is the same mix of US/UK as others in series (eg color/colour)</p>
+<p>Corrected obvious typos:
+tell -&gt; tells<br />
+arrrangement -&gt; arrangement<br />
+CROHETED -&gt; CROCHETED<br />
+STENCILING -&gt; STENCILLING<br />
+on account -&gt; on account of<br />
+will be be -&gt; will be<br />
+retain -&gt; and retains<br />
+expecially -&gt; especially<br /></p>
+<p>Porti&egrave;res/Portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts (left as in text in each case)</p>
+<p>Hyphenation made consistent: <br />
+    wood-work -&gt; woodwork<br />
+    outdoor -&gt; out-door<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Work and Play: Home
+Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Work and Play: Home
+Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Library of Work and Play: Home Decoration
+
+Author: Charles Franklin Warner
+
+Release Date: January 25, 2014 [EBook #44750]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORK AND PLAY: HOME DECORATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Chris Jordan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE LIBRARY
+OF WORK AND PLAY
+
+    CARPENTRY AND WOODWORK
+               By Edwin W. Foster
+
+    ELECTRICITY AND ITS EVERYDAY USES
+               By John F. Woodhull, Ph.D.
+
+    GARDENING AND FARMING
+               By Ellen Eddy Shaw
+
+    HOME DECORATION
+               By Charles Franklin Warner, Sc.D.
+
+    HOUSEKEEPING
+               By Elizabeth Hale Gilman
+
+    MECHANICS, INDOORS AND OUT
+               By Fred T. Hodgson
+
+    NEEDLECRAFT
+               By Effie Archer Archer
+
+    OUTDOOR SPORTS, AND GAMES
+               By Claude H. Miller, Ph.B.
+
+    OUTDOOR WORK
+               By Mary Rogers Miller
+
+    WORKING IN METALS
+               By Charles Conrad Sleffel
+
+
+[Illustration: HANGING A PICTURE
+
+The wall space is a part of the framing of a picture]
+
+
+
+
+                            HOME DECORATION
+                                   BY
+                     PROF. CHARLES F. WARNER, Sc.D.
+
+         _For eight years Master of the Rindge Manual Training
+         School, Mass. Twelve years principal of the Technical
+                High School and Director of the Evening
+                 School of Trades, Springfield, Mass._
+
+[Illustration: Title Page]
+
+                    GARDEN CITY            NEW YORK
+                       DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
+                                  1916
+
+
+
+           ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION
+           INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN
+
+             COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+                    TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS OF AMERICA
+                               THIS BOOK
+               WHICH RECORDS WHAT SOME OF THEM HAVE DONE
+                         IS HOPEFULLY DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+     Some pure lovers of art discard the formula, _Art for Progress,
+     the Beautiful Useful_, fearing lest the useful should deform the
+     beautiful. They tremble to see the drudge's hand attached to the
+     muse's arm. They are solicitous for the sublime if it descends
+     as far as to humanity. Ah! they are in error. The useful, far
+     from circumscribing the sublime, enlarges it.... Is Aurora less
+     splendid, clad less in purple and emerald--suffers she any
+     diminution of majesty and of radiant grace, because, foreseeing an
+     insect's thirst, she carefully secretes in the flower the dewdrop
+     needed by the bee?
+                                                         Victor Hugo.
+
+
+
+
+                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
+
+
+This volume is the result of an effort to bring together in close
+relation with fundamental principles of design a variety of practical
+problems which are more or less closely connected with the general
+problem of home decoration and suited to the constructive ability of
+boys and girls from twelve to eighteen years of age. While the book
+is mainly a record of the author's experience and observation in this
+department of educational work, he has received many suggestions from
+co-workers in the same field. It will be impossible to give credit to
+all who have directly or indirectly assisted in the preparation of
+this book: but special acknowledgments are due to Mr. Fred M. Watts,
+who furnished the material for the chapter on Pottery and several
+drawings for other parts of the book; to Miss Grace L. Bell for the
+illustrations and descriptions embodied in the chapter on Block
+Printing; to Mr. Burton A. Adams for the problems in metal work; to Mr.
+Edwin A. Finch and Mr. Lewis O. Richardson who contributed many of the
+specifications for the problems in furniture-making; to Miss Elizabeth
+M. Morton for specific suggestions pertaining to the subject of dress
+as related to the principles of decoration; and to Mrs. Ruth B. S.
+Flower, of Florence, Mass., who supplied several of the photographs and
+much of the descriptive matter for the chapter on Weaving.
+
+Springfield, Mass.
+
+                                                       C. F. W.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+
+      CHAPTER                                          PAGE
+
+       I. Introductory--The Story of a House              3
+
+      II. Decorations and Furniture                      34
+
+     III. Pictures                                       64
+
+      IV. The Arrangement of Flowers                     81
+
+       V. Decorative Fabrics                             95
+
+      VI. Dress and the Principles of Decoration        121
+
+     VII. Furniture Making                              129
+
+    VIII. Finishing and Re-finishing                    212
+
+      IX. Hand Weaving                                  244
+
+       X. Pottery                                       280
+
+      XI. Decorative Work in Leather, Copper, and Other
+          Materials                                     321
+
+     XII. Concluding Suggestions--Country Homes         366
+
+
+
+
+                             ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    Hanging a Picture                            _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                   FACING PAGE
+
+    All the Rough Carpentry was Assigned to the Boys
+    of the Woodworking Sections of the Vocational
+    School                                                  22
+
+    The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical
+    High School were not Overlooked in the Distribution
+    of the Work on the House                                24
+
+    A Table Runner of Russian Crash and Pillow
+    Cover with Geometrical Design                           96
+
+    Window Draperies with Stencilled Border                108
+
+    Crocheted Panels, a Linen Work Bag with Conventional
+    Landscape in Darning Stitch, a
+    Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and
+    Couching Stitch                                        118
+
+    Finishing a Library Table                              212
+
+    Weaving a Rug                                          244
+
+    Hand Made Rugs, Hand Made Towels                       252
+
+    An Alcove with Window Draperies, Pillow Covers,
+    Window Seat and Moss Green Rug, All Hand
+    Woven                                                  262
+    Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover,
+    Slumber Rug, and Pillow Covers                         266
+
+    Girls at Work on Pottery                               280
+
+    Bowls                                                  294
+
+    Vases and Fern Dishes                                  312
+
+    Tiles                                                  316
+
+    Pottery: Designed and Made by Schoolgirls              318
+
+    Decorative Forgings                                    364
+
+
+
+
+                            HOME DECORATION
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A model house: Designed by girls and built by boys]
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+THE STORY OF A HOUSE
+
+
+To design, plan, and build a house is a task that rarely falls to the
+lot of boys and girls. In fact, it is not the common experience of
+men and women to build houses without the aid of architects, masons,
+and carpenters. Such a task, however, was recently offered to certain
+classes in one of the public schools of a well-known New England city.
+It was, indeed, a school problem, and yet there was something about
+it that seemed to suggest larger and more interesting things than
+are ordinarily dealt with in the school-room. It did not seem at all
+like some school work. It was more like real life; for all boys and
+girls must some day have homes of their own, and here was a chance
+to learn how the house, which is an important part of every home, is
+planned and built. It is hardly necessary to say that this work--or
+play, if you like that word better--was undertaken with genuine
+enthusiasm. It was a task crammed full of the pleasure of interest and
+of accomplishment--full of the joy of doing something worth while--from
+the beginning to the end.
+
+_The House a Work of Art._--One of the first lessons learned by these
+young builders--perhaps the most important one of all--was that a
+great many things have to be thought of in planning a house, if the
+thing is to be well done. It is not simply a question of deciding how
+many rooms one will have, arranging them in some conventional order,
+and building the house around them with whatever external features
+style or fancy may dictate. Too many houses, it is true, are planned,
+or at least put up, in this thoughtless fashion; and whatever goes
+into them in decoration or furniture is generally chosen either for
+necessary use or for display--not with any thought of the real comfort
+and satisfaction that come from artistic surroundings. People who are
+satisfied with such dwellings seem to show less appreciation of art,
+the highest product of civilization, than those uncivilized tribes who
+decorated their caves or huts with beautiful rugs of their own weaving
+and who ornamented their pottery and their utensils and implements
+with wonderfully conceived and elaborately wrought designs. Modern
+cave dwellers in apartment houses with all the conveniences of their
+ready-made surroundings, are in danger of missing that self-expression
+in their home belongings that encouraged and delighted even the savage.
+The most extreme example of this form of degeneracy is found in the
+suggestion of a certain great inventor, that the age of concrete
+construction, now at hand, means that we are to have concrete houses
+poured into a standard mould, hardened in twenty-four hours, and
+finished for occupancy in a day or two.
+
+The boys and girls of this story would not have accepted a
+machine-made, standardized house if one had been offered them, ready
+for use. There was a special purpose for which their house was to be
+planned and built, as there generally is in the case of any real house.
+No style A, B, or C, chosen from any series of pattern-built or moulded
+houses, could fulfil such a purpose; and even if it could, would they
+willingly give up all the fun of planning and building and furnishing?
+Would they forego the lessons of experience to be learned from all this
+work? This is always a large part of the satisfaction which comes to
+any one who builds his own house. In the present instance it was the
+chief motive, since the boys and girls who were planning this house
+were not expecting to make their home there.
+
+_Why the House Was Built._--What, then, was the purpose for which this
+house was to be built; and what were the specific problems involved in
+realizing this purpose? It was to be a practice house for the girls
+of the household technology course. This meant that it should be, so
+far as possible, a model house; but it must of necessity be a simple
+one. Economy, always a safe guide, was a most important factor in
+determining the character of the design. A limited appropriation--about
+$1000--for building material was available. Economy of space as well as
+of expense was also important. The only available land was a triangular
+lot in the corner of the school yard, 665 square feet in area. This
+limited the dimensions of the floor plan to 24 by 35 feet. It was
+decided to develop the design within these dimensions, on a rectangular
+plan, with one story and a hip roof, because such a design would
+present comparatively easy problems in framing and insure a building of
+pleasing external proportions.
+
+
+THE GENERAL DESIGN AND THE PLAN
+
+In attacking the problem of design the method of approach was
+determined by the fact that school-girls and school-boys were to be
+the architects and builders. House planning, home decoration, and
+household management were important subjects of study on the part of
+the girls and various forms of drawing and constructive work were
+required of all the boys of this school; so they all felt that they
+had a right to contribute something out of their study and experience
+that might be of value in working out this problem. The design must
+therefore be a composite of the best features of many studies.
+
+_A Composite Design._--The rooms required for a house of this character
+were thought to be a hall, a living room, a dining-room, a kitchen,
+a pantry, a bedroom with a closet, a bath room, and a linen closet.
+Nothing short of this outfit of rooms would satisfy the demands of
+a house to be used to give practical training in all the essentials
+of plain housekeeping and in the entertainment of guests. With these
+requirements in mind and with full knowledge of all the limitations
+of the problem, the girls of the junior and senior classes, who were
+taking the course in household technology, entered into a lively but
+friendly competition with each other to produce the most acceptable
+design and draw the best plan. So many excellent plans resulted from
+this competition that it was difficult to select the best. It was
+therefore decided to combine in a new and final plan the best features
+of several studies that seemed to meet the conditions of the problem
+with equal success. Two of these were selected as having the greatest
+number of good points. From these the final floor plan was developed
+and the necessary modifications made in the original drawings to make
+the general design of the building fit the plan.
+
+[Illustration: Floor plan of the model house]
+
+_The Hall._--It may be
+of interest to note how some of the details of the problem of design
+were worked out for the final plan. Beginning with the hall, it was
+easily seen that economy of space required that the room should have
+small dimensions. In fact, it did not need to be a separate room
+at all. It could easily be a space between the living room and the
+dining-room, separated from both by means of portieres and joined
+upon occasion with either room or with both, thus making possible
+a reception room or a dining-room of good size, or one large room.
+Of course, the central idea of a hall must not be lost sight of in
+providing for a desirable extension of other rooms. It should suggest
+a warm welcome to the guest; and here is where the fireplace may
+fulfil the double function of giving the cheer of the hearth-stone at
+all times and the comfort of fire when warmth is needed. The absence
+of a stairway, since none was needed, was a favourable circumstance.
+Appropriate decoration and furnishing in due time were to add a few
+distinguishing marks so that the house could retain, without any
+appreciable sacrifice of space, the dignity of an entrance hall.
+
+_The Living Room and the Dining-room._--The relative positions of the
+living room and the dining-room, as already stated, were determined
+by the location of the hall. The purpose of each was distinct and
+self-evident, and determined the features of design that lent
+themselves most readily to appropriate decoration. In the living room
+the floor, the wall spaces, and the ceiling needed consideration with
+regard to their final treatment, to give pleasing proportions and
+harmonious colouring. The same was true of the dining-room, though its
+different purpose suggested a different design. An abundance of light
+was important for both rooms, hence the large, multiple windows. Such
+windows would also offer a good chance for pleasing drapery effects.
+
+_The Kitchen and Its Appointments._--No room demanded so much study
+as the kitchen. In the first place it was necessary to make provision
+for a relatively larger kitchen than would ordinarily be needed in a
+house of this size, because in this case it was designed to be used as
+a practice kitchen and must therefore be large enough to accommodate
+a considerable number of girls--at least eight--at one time. This
+point assumed so much importance in the minds of the young designers
+that they were constantly tempted to rob other rooms of the space that
+was due them in order to get a "nice, big kitchen." But by clever
+adjustments and combinations the necessary floor dimensions were
+secured without unduly cramping other features of the plan. The range,
+laundry tubs, and sink were conveniently located near each other with
+the tubs at such a height that when not in use the cover was flush
+with the top of the range, forming a shelf on which kettles and other
+kitchen utensils could be easily placed as they were moved back and
+forth from the range. It was thought that it would be very desirable,
+if not necessary, to have this shelf covered with zinc or some kind of
+sheet metal.
+
+It will be noted as a possible fault in the plan that the range is
+very near the door into the passageway leading to the bedroom, the
+living room, and the hall. This point received due consideration; but
+in view of the compensating advantages the arrangement was thought
+allowable, inasmuch as the door into the passageway would be used
+only occasionally. There seemed to be no more convenient location for
+the passageway, which was designed to give privacy to bedroom and
+bath room and, in cases of sickness or any emergency requiring it,
+easy communication between the kitchen and the bedroom.
+
+_Special Features._--The pantry was located between the kitchen and the
+dining-room for obvious reasons--to give easy communication in serving
+and to confine kitchen odours to their proper place. In place of a
+kitchen closet a cabinet was provided for as being on the whole the
+more serviceable of the two. It is always desirable to have an entry
+or lobby, with a convenient part of it reserved for the refrigerator;
+but the need of providing as much room as possible in the kitchen
+itself seemed to justify the omission of the lobby. Another unusual
+feature--this time not an omission--is to be found in the window of the
+bedroom closet. Such a window, although not common, was thought to be
+very desirable on sanitary grounds and as a possible protection against
+moths.
+
+_Early Plans for Decorating and Furnishing._--These were by no means
+all the features of design that had to be considered. As already
+suggested, there was much study given to the question of interior
+decoration and furnishing, even at this early stage. This was simply
+necessary forethought; for much of the attractiveness, restfulness,
+and homelike atmosphere of any house is created by the architect, who,
+in his arrangement of rooms, door-ways, and windows, disposes his wall
+areas so that they may be divided symmetrically and lend themselves
+naturally to colour toning, offering tempting spaces for a few choice
+pictures and opening up beautiful vistas. Such house-planning, begun
+with clear vision and followed with taste and delicacy in every detail,
+may often lead to a harmony of effects as pleasing to people of
+artistic temperament as a symphony is to those who enjoy a fine musical
+composition. In fact, the parallel between sympathetic gradations of
+form and colour and harmony of musical tones is a very close one, and
+the appreciation of it is by no means rare. Any intelligent person,
+on seeing a suite of rooms designed and arranged by a real artist,
+though he may not understand why, will be impressed by the rhythm
+of space divisions, the harmony of colours, the lack of any jarring
+or discordant notes in the decoration, the simplicity, fitness, and
+real beauty, not of any particular part, perhaps, but of the whole
+combination. We often find ourselves using the same language whether we
+are describing the work of an artist-architect or the work of a musical
+composer.
+
+
+FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
+
+_Adaptation to Purpose._--Our young architects discovered that there
+are certain fundamental principles or laws that must be observed at
+the very beginning, if a really good and true design is to be made.
+The first of these laws is the _law of adaptation to purpose_. The
+application of this law was illustrated in the location of the various
+rooms in the plan of the house, in the dimensions agreed upon for
+each, and in the details of arrangement, especially in the kitchen
+and other rooms connecting with it. But this law is universal in its
+application. It determines not only the broad features of the plan but
+the details as well. It does not permit anything useless or superfluous
+to exist, for that would mean weakness. It aims at efficiency and
+strength. It dictates the details of construction all along the line,
+from the framing of the building to its finish and its decoration. It
+even determines the character of the furniture and the amount of it.
+Adaptation to purpose is a ruling principle.
+
+_Simplicity._--Another great principle that revealed itself as the
+plans of the house developed may be called the _law of simplicity_.
+This is one of the elementary laws of nature transferred to the realm
+of craftsmanship. It is an axiom of geometry that the straight line
+is the shortest distance between two points. Not less evident is the
+fact that when Nature undertakes to do anything she goes about it in
+the simplest and most direct way. The natural tendency of all motion
+is along a straight line--so reads the first law of motion. Analyze
+the most complex forms and processes of nature and we shall find them
+due to the harmonious combination of the simplest elementary lines
+and movements. But the same law of simplicity which invariably marks
+the works of nature gives strength and beauty also to the works of
+man. Thus, in discussing the various problems that developed as the
+designing of the house progressed, it was found--as of course it should
+have been--that the solution which met the test of simplicity, while
+satisfying the law of adaptation to purpose, was the true one.
+
+_Correlation._--A third great fundamental principle that found
+expression in these studies of the house plans was the _principle
+of correlation_. Not only must each part of the design be adapted
+to its use in the simplest possible manner, but it must support all
+other parts and receive support in return. It is like cooperation or
+team-work in play or in the practical affairs of life. Every room in
+a house bears some natural relation to every other room, and even the
+objects in the same room or in adjoining rooms must assist each other,
+whether their purpose be utility or decoration or a combination of
+both. Only by due attention to the mutual relations of the various
+elements that must enter into the composition, can the designer produce
+those pleasing space effects, those blendings of colour tones, those
+manifest relations between the various objects, useful or decorative,
+that give order, unity, and sympathetic feeling to a complete design.
+
+
+THE COLOUR SCHEME
+
+_The Floor the Foundation._--Almost unconsciously our young architects
+found themselves under the guidance of these three great fundamental
+principles of design. When they came to the problem of specifying the
+finish for the floors and other wood work of the hall, living room, and
+dining-room, they found that this problem was intimately associated
+with the larger question of the colour scheme as a whole. The mutual
+dependence of all the elements concerned could not be overlooked.
+It was evident that the floor, which is the foundation of the room,
+should be darker than the walls and ceiling and the general tone of the
+furnishings, in order to give the suggestion of sufficient weight and
+firmness for the support of the entire room and all it might contain.
+The effect of solidity could be produced by staining the floor boards
+or by providing a liberal supply of dark, rich-toned rugs, large ones
+as well as small ones. There was no question of carpets. These, of
+course, are not allowable in a model house. A few rugs were already
+available, and others could be procured by buying them or by making
+them. A properly toned floor, however, is desirable, even with a most
+generous covering of rugs. It was therefore decided to give the floor a
+coat of stain when it was ready to be finished.
+
+_Importance of Colour Schemes._--But what was the colour to be? The
+designers were thus brought face to face with that difficult but
+important problem which all who plan houses have to solve before they
+can hope to bring their work into harmonious adjustment with the
+various natural and human conditions that must be satisfied in the
+final product, if it be made a good example of the designer's art.
+The problem of the colour scheme is fundamental. Upon this depends
+not only the tone of the floors, the walls, and the ceilings, but
+also, to a certain extent, as has already been suggested, the kind of
+woods to be used in the interior finishing, and whether they are to be
+painted, stained, or left in their natural colours. It will determine
+the material and the colours of the portieres, curtains, cushions,
+lamp shades, picture frames, vases; in fact, it will largely settle
+the decorative character of every article placed in the rooms. The
+consideration of movable objects, however, may be deferred till the
+more substantial and fixed elements are decided upon.
+
+_Southern Exposures and Cool Colours._--In settling the all-important
+question of the colour scheme the first point to be considered was
+the location of the rooms with reference to light and to external
+surroundings. Rooms that have a southern exposure and nothing to
+interfere with their being flooded with sunlight need to be protected
+against the glare of too much light. For such rooms dull tones of
+colour are the best--dull browns, soft gray-greens, certain blue
+tones, and the medium grays--light, cool colours that counteract the
+overbrilliancy of direct sunlight and give a positively tempered
+feeling to the atmosphere of a room. Incidentally, too, perhaps because
+they are the tints associated with distant views, the cool colours make
+a room seem larger than it really is.
+
+_Northern Exposures and Warm Colours._--Northern rooms, on the other
+hand, do not generally suffer from excess of sunlight and heat. Warm
+colours are needed in such rooms. Deep reds, rich yellows, and golden
+browns will seem to bring sunlight into a sunless room. Our designers
+noted the fact that many of the rooms in the house they were planning
+must be comparatively dark. The house was to face the high brick walls
+of the neighbouring school building, not more than twenty-five feet
+distant, and its principal rooms had a northern exposure. A warm colour
+treatment, therefore, was unquestionably needed. Should red, brown, or
+yellow be the prevailing tone? The deciding point was the location of
+the hall and its relations to the other rooms. It was, first of all,
+the hall, the place of welcome for the guest; but it was dark. Its
+walls must have the sunniest of all colours--a rich golden yellow. The
+same would serve the needs of the living room, or perhaps a brown with
+yellow enough in it to be well in tune. The dining-room could safely be
+darker and more luminous, in pleasing contrast with the golden yellow
+of the hall; but it must not be decidedly red. The ceilings of these
+three rooms, whether beamed or not, since they must be lighter than the
+walls, could have the same or nearly the same tint. This might well be
+a light corn yellow.
+
+The colouring of the walls of the bedroom, bath room, and kitchen was
+not so important a question as the decoration of the three front
+rooms. Utility and sanitary conditions were important things to be
+considered. Light tints were decided upon, which in the bedroom might
+be relieved, in the finishing touches, by delicate stenciled figures in
+some warm tone.
+
+_Interior Woodwork._--With the colour scheme settled it was a
+comparatively easy matter to decide what should be the general tone
+and character of the interior woodwork. The floors of the three front
+rooms, since they were to be closely associated, required the same
+solid colour, which could well be a walnut brown, darker than any
+of the walls. Fumed oak trimmings were thought desirable for the
+dining-room and gum wood for the living room, either of which could be
+extended to the hall; but ivory white for the living room and the hall,
+leaving the oak for the dining-room, found much favour. It was finally
+decided, however, to adopt for the three front rooms the combination
+of natural woods first suggested. The bedroom and bath room, where
+suggestions of cleanliness are peculiarly appropriate, were specified
+to be finished in white. Yellow southern pine was decided upon for the
+kitchen and its accessory rooms.
+
+
+ORGANIZING THE WORK OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+As soon as the chief features of design were decided upon, preparations
+were made for carrying them out in the actual work of building; for the
+house was not to be a "castle in air." The first step was to put these
+ideas on paper and work out the details of construction in clearly
+executed and accurately dimensioned drawings. These included, as the
+first to be used, the working drawings for the framing and other rough
+woodwork, blue print copies of which were to be put into the hands of
+the boys of the elementary vocational school, who were to carry out
+this part of the building plans.
+
+[Illustration: Front or north elevation of the model house]
+
+_The Working Drawings._--A considerable number of detailed drawings
+had to be made before the work of construction could be wisely begun.
+This furnished an interesting set of problems for the mechanical
+drawing groups of the technical high school. The material for this work
+consisted of rough sketches in pencil, but with the correct dimensions
+as determined in the plan accepted as the result of the competition in
+design. These preliminary sketches required much study on the part of
+both boys and girls, under proper guidance, in order to find out what
+the elements of construction should be, what dimensions were required,
+and how the various parts should be put together. It was an experience
+of great value to all, but especially to those boys who were looking
+forward to architectural draughting as a possible vocation. They got
+an inside view of the importance, on the one hand, of accurate working
+drawings as a basis for good construction and, on the other hand, a
+practical illustration of the necessity of a thorough knowledge of
+constructive principles, in order to make correct working drawings.
+They saw that the efficient architect must be a builder, acquainted
+with all the detailed processes employed by the carpenter or mason,
+informed upon all the conditions to be met, and knowing the best ways
+of meeting them. They gained impressions which should help them, in
+studying the work of great architects, to look beyond the exterior,
+however pleasing it may be, for those elements of strength and beauty
+that characterize all good workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: All the Rough Carpentry Was Assigned to Boys of the
+Woodworking Section of the Vocational School. Plate I]
+
+_How the Work Was Distributed._--It will be recalled that boys and
+girls were to be coworkers in the designing, planning, and building
+of the house. The boys were to be held responsible for the drawings,
+the decorating after designs made by the girls, and the higher grades
+of woodwork, including the finishing of the rooms and the making of
+the furniture. They were to do the wiring for the electric lights, the
+bells, and the interior telephones; and they were to install all the
+fixtures in connection with this wiring. Boys from the metal-working
+sections were to do the necessary piping for gas and water and some
+of the work of plumbing; but, since the laws regulating plumbing are
+strict and well enforced, as they should be, it was necessary to keep
+this most essential feature of the work under charge of licensed
+plumbers. But this requirement did not remove even the plumbing of
+the building from the field of public school work; for, fortunately,
+this city has a well-equipped plumbing school in the trades school
+department, under the direction of licensed plumbers of high standing,
+who were glad to have given them, as an exercise for their classes, a
+practical problem in house plumbing. The boys in the forging classes
+were not overlooked in the distribution of the work on the house. Many
+of the fixtures needed for use or ornament were designed to be made
+in the school forge shop. The girls designed and made rugs, curtains,
+portieres, and cushions as a part of their school work in weaving and
+stencilling; and they contributed many decorative articles in clay,
+copper, leather, and other materials. Thus every technical department
+of the school was brought into service; for in the building of a house
+there is to be found something to enlist the interest of every boy and
+girl.
+
+[Illustration: The Boys of the Forging Classes of the Technical High
+School Were Not Overlooked in the Distribution of the Work on the
+House. Plate II]
+
+_Boy Foremen in Charge._--To bring about the right distribution of
+the work and to marshal the working forces effectually required the
+oversight and management of an experienced instructor. But much of the
+work of direction was delegated to competent boys. The preliminary
+tool work in the school shops had revealed those who were especially
+observant and capable as leaders, and those who worked best under
+specific directions. Thus the twenty boys of the vocational school who
+set the posts and framed the house worked sometimes in pairs--one
+being the chief foreman and the other the helper--sometimes in gangs
+of three or four under a foreman. The plan was varied according to the
+nature of the work in hand. When leaders of more technical knowledge
+and skill were needed, as was the case in setting the window frames and
+directing the shingling, capable boys from the technical high school
+were placed in charge of groups of younger boys from the vocational
+school. In this way the work was advanced in several directions at the
+same time; and the advantage was not all in the advancement of the
+house construction. It was a delightful and profitable experience for
+all the boys, not unlike that which some of them will doubtless repeat
+when school days are over and they take their place in the more serious
+affairs of life. In after years they may look back upon the first
+house that they helped to build and recall the part they took, their
+companions in the work, and the good time they had withal.
+
+
+SOME DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION
+
+_Setting Batter Boards, Posts, and Sills._--The first step in actual
+construction was to mark off the lot and set the batter boards. These
+were made by driving three stakes to form a right angle about four
+feet from the point where each of the four main corners of the house
+was to be located. Two rough boards, one for each side of each angle,
+were nailed horizontally to each of the four sets of stakes, with their
+upper edges all brought to the same level. It is very important to set
+these batter boards with accuracy, since their function is to carry the
+lines which mark the dimensions and level of the ground floor. In the
+present instance their first use was to locate the concrete posts on
+which the sills of the house were to rest. Twenty-two of these posts,
+which were 4 feet long and 8 inches square, were put in position by
+first setting moulds or boxes, the interior dimensions of which were
+those of the posts, 3 feet deep in the light soil and filling them with
+a mixture of concrete and crushed rock. It was not thought necessary
+to remove the moulds after the hardening of the concrete. In fact, the
+sills were framed and placed in position resting on these boxes before
+sufficient time had been given for the concrete to harden. The sides of
+the boxes, however, were scored with a saw cut so that they could be
+easily broken off just below the ground, exposing the projecting ends
+of the concrete posts for about one foot. The sills were of 6 by 8-inch
+first quality spruce. They were set on the 6-inch face, the two long
+sills being spliced over posts, using a long halved joint. Mortise
+and tenon joints, draw-bored and pinned, were used at the corners. The
+floor timbers of 2 by 8-inch spruce were gained into the sills with
+the top faces flush with the top of the sill and crowning (_i. e._,
+bending) upward if at all. The spacing of the floor timbers was taken
+off at the sill on a strip of furring--spruce, 7/8 of an inch thick
+by 2 inches wide--which was moved out to the centre near the line of
+bridging and lightly nailed, bringing crooked timbers into line. The
+bridging was then nailed in, the outside last to prevent springing the
+sills.
+
+[Illustration: Plan A. Framing details]
+
+Referring to the accompanying sketch (Plan A) it will be noticed that
+the corner posts and centres were not mortised into the sills, but were
+simply butted on and heavily nailed or spiked. There was a time when
+carpenters would have regarded such a method as altogether wrong; but
+those were the days of great corner posts and heavy studding, placed
+two or three times as far apart as is the practice now. It was thought
+that placing the studs 16 inches on centres, which is the common
+practice in modern house framing, removed the necessity of mortising
+into the sill. Mortising is still recognized, however, as a good thing
+to do and is sometimes practised by first-rate carpenters. Plan A
+also shows how the outside walls were trussed over openings; and Plan B
+shows how the corners of the building were tied by the lapping of the
+double plate, and how the ceiling timbers and rafters were placed on
+the top of the plate.
+
+
+[Illustration: Plan B. Details of cornice, sill, and roof
+
+  A SHINGLES
+  B ROOF BOARDS
+  C RAFTER 2" x 6" 20" O.C.
+  D PLATE 4" x 4"
+  E ROUGH BOARDING
+  F STUD
+  G FRIEZE
+  H CROWN MOLD
+  I BED MOLD
+  J CEILING JOIST 2" x 6"
+  K GROUND
+  L LATH & PLASTER
+  M BASE
+  N FINISHED FLOOR
+  O LINING FLOOR
+  P FURRING
+  Q SILL
+  R CONCRETE POST 8" x 8"
+  S CORNER POST
+  T HIP RAFTER 3" x 8"
+  U FLOOR JOIST
+]
+
+The window frame details are shown in a series of cuts (Plan C) which
+for the sake of completeness are drawn to show also the interior
+finish, not usually represented in the framing drawings. A detailed
+description of these features of construction is unnecessary, since
+the dimensions and relations of the various elements and the technical
+terms by which they are known are all clearly indicated in the
+illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: Plan C. Details of interior finish
+
+  A OUTSIDE CASING     I HEADER          Q SURBASE
+  B BACK BAND          J CORNER BLOCK    R SILL 1-3/4" TH'K
+  C HEAD               K ROUGH BOARDING  S INSIDE CASING
+  D STOP 1/2"   THICK  L SHINGLES        T SOFFIT
+  E SASH 1-3/8" ditto  M WEIGHT          U BED MOLD
+  F LATH & PLASTER     N PULLEY STYLE    V FINISHED FLOOR
+  G GROUND 3/4" TH'K   O PARTING STRIP   W BASE
+  H STUD 2" x 4"       P STOOL CAP       X LINING FLOOR
+]
+
+In the same series of cuts a detail of the base is shown which includes
+the framing, the base board, and the lath and plaster. It should be
+stated, however, that a substitute for lath and plaster was recommended
+to the student architects--a new product in paper board especially
+designed for walls and ceilings, which it was decided to use. The use
+of this material removed the necessity of the "grounds" shown in the
+drawings and always needed as a nailing base for the wood trim when
+the walls and ceilings are lathed and plastered. In the detail of the
+dado cap, which will be found on the page of construction drawings,
+the dotted lines show how the cap was to be expanded into a plate rail,
+requiring the addition of brackets with a bed moulding between, in the
+finishing of the walls of the dining-room. Among these drawings will
+also be found a detail showing a section of the beamed ceiling finish.
+
+It will be readily understood that none of the finishing work called
+for in the detailed drawings was begun until the rough carpentry on the
+house was practically completed. All the rough work, which included
+framing, boarding, shingling, laying of the lining floors, and putting
+up partitions, was assigned to boys of the woodworking sections of the
+vocational school. This is an elementary industrial or trade school,
+admitting from the grades below the high school boys who have attained
+the age of fourteen years and wish to learn some mechanical trade.
+It represents a new and promising experiment in American education.
+The building of this house furnished an excellent opportunity for the
+boys of this school to show the honesty of their purpose in enrolling
+themselves to learn the fundamentals of a trade and thus prove their
+right to have the chance.
+
+So the house was built by the combined efforts of the boys and
+girls of the public schools of this New England city, unassisted by
+professional architects or paid labourers. How they carried out with
+their own hands the designs for decorating and furnishing the house is
+told in the succeeding chapters of this book, which also suggests wider
+applications of the principles of household decoration as possible to
+be made in the homes of clever boys and girls throughout the country.
+To carry out these suggestions will mean work--but work of a kind that
+gives pleasure to the worker and to many others. It was work for the
+young designers and builders of whom this story tells, but they said
+it was "great fun," and there really is no pleasure quite equal to
+that found in doing with one's own hands an exceptionally good thing.
+The true craftsmen of all time have found it so. One of these master
+workmen, Stradivarius, the violin maker, so George Eliot tells us, made
+his confession thus:
+
+        " ... God be praised!
+    Antonio Stradivari has an eye
+    That winces at false work and loves the true,
+    With hand and arm that play upon the tool,
+    As willingly as any singing bird
+    Sets him to sing his morning roundelay,
+    Because he likes to sing and likes the song."
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+DECORATIONS AND FURNITURE
+
+     Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful, or
+     believe to be beautiful--_William Morris_
+
+
+The decorating and furnishing of a house have their true beginning
+in good architectural design. It is a mistake to proceed upon the
+theory that decoration necessarily implies something added for its
+own sake--something beautiful in itself but selected and applied
+without regard to the lines, spaces, and colours of the room in which
+it is to be placed and without considering the relation of this room
+to neighbouring rooms and to more remote surroundings. The truth is,
+a decorative object may or may not be intrinsically beautiful; but
+however beautiful it may be in itself, it finds its truest beauty in
+an appropriate setting. And the decorator who is actuated by the true
+spirit looks to the architect for inspiration and finds his greatest
+successes in acknowledging that leadership. To attempt to lead when
+one should follow is neither good art nor good sense.
+
+There is danger, perhaps, that this truth may be taken too seriously.
+It would also be a mistake to run to the other extreme and adopt at
+the outset a rigid plan of decoration and furnishing, specified like
+contract work to be carried out and completed on a certain date soon
+after the house is built. The problem is one of growing interest,
+especially as regards furniture, pictures, and the smaller objects of
+use or beauty, and for its best and happiest solution requires time
+and study. Only the broad and fundamental features can be settled in
+advance. The important thing is to have the main lines, dimensions,
+space relations, and colour schemes settled with due regard to utility
+and appropriateness and, as the work of construction proceeds, to keep
+all details in harmony with this general plan.
+
+
+THE FLOORS, THE WALLS, AND THE CEILINGS
+
+_Colour Harmony in the Model House._--It will be remembered that
+the colour scheme of the hall, living room, and dining-room of our
+model house was settled quite early in the development of the design.
+Standing near the centre of the living room and looking through the
+hall into the dining-room, one may see at a glance how some of the
+details of decoration were worked out in keeping with the general
+treatment. The walnut brown stain of the floors gives a good foundation
+of colour. It flows easily into the lighter browns and yellows of all
+the lower wall spaces. The suggestion of olive green in the frieze of
+the living room offers a pleasing contrast with the prevailing browns
+and harmonizes well with the woodwork of this room, which, it will be
+remembered, was designed to be finished in gum wood. This beautiful
+wood, when properly treated, presents a surface of satin-like texture
+and soft colour tone. In the dining-room a corner of which is shown
+in the frontispiece, the frieze lends a warmth of colour where it is
+needed and is in keeping with the fumed oak trim. The wide openings
+into the hall from the rooms on each side of it, together with the
+long, unbroken lines of the beamed ceilings, give the impression of
+generous width. The plain wall spaces, though varied in tone and
+relieved of monotonous spacings by the location of the necessary doors
+and windows, are of great assistance in increasing the apparent size of
+the room. Plain walls are also the best of backgrounds for pictures.
+_Redecorating Old Houses._--It is, of course, true that the decorating
+and furnishing of a house or an apartment cannot always have a new
+and original architectural design as the basis for the solution of
+the problems involved. As a matter of fact, in the great majority of
+cases, the houses in which homes are made are already built and have
+been previously occupied. Often they are very old houses, presenting
+difficult and even impossible tasks for the decorator. Sometimes,
+however, such houses are all the more desirable if they bear the marks
+of age that suggest a past of dignity and charm. But the spirit which
+inspires the artist in decorating and furnishing a house already built
+is the same as that which controls his thought when he can begin with
+the foundation of a new and original design. His first thought is to
+discover how beauty may be enhanced and at the same time unity of
+purpose and harmony of treatment be preserved. His constant care is to
+avoid incongruous elements, however beautiful they may be in themselves
+or however appropriate in other houses. His general aim is to use his
+art to develop the design as it is, if there be any design at all, and
+make the most of it.
+
+_Decoration as a Corrective._--But this does not prevent him from
+attempting to counteract the blunders of faulty design and bad
+architecture. Such correction, indeed, forms a large part of the work
+of decorators and furnishers, both professional and amateur. If the
+lines and space divisions of a room be not good, the decoration must
+be planned with a view to giving the needed harmony of proportions,
+or at least the appearance of it. If the ceiling be too high, it may
+be made to "look" lower by carrying the ceiling paper or tinting one
+or two feet down the walls of the room to meet the picture moulding.
+The effect of reduced height is accentuated by a high base board or by
+wainscoting. If the ceiling be too low, the depressing effect may be
+largely overcome by extending the picture moulding along the top of the
+wall spaces close to the ceiling. This is a desirable thing to do in
+the living rooms of most modern houses. Striped wall papers of proper
+tones may be used in low rooms with good effect in increasing their
+apparent height. Bad wall spacing may also be corrected by enlarging
+door-ways, substituting portieres for the doors, and by arranging
+the drapery over windows to give the effect either of increasing or
+of diminishing their height, as the conditions may require. _Wall
+Papers._--Probably no element of decoration furnishes so many pitfalls
+to ensnare the unwary as wall papers do. It is easy to fall a victim
+to a captivating design as it appears in the few square feet of wall
+paper displayed on the dealer's rack. The same interesting figure,
+spread out in endless repetition on the four walls of the living room,
+may create an atmosphere of unrest and positive discomfort keenly felt
+by sensitive persons. A wise choice cannot be made in the absence of
+all the conditions that should really determine it. After all, it is
+not the paper which is beautiful in the roll that should be selected,
+but only that which will become beautiful when hung upon the walls of
+a certain room. Papers with large figures should be avoided unless
+there is a special reason for using them. They always have the effect
+of reducing the apparent size of everything associated with them.
+They make a small room appear dwarfish and a large one over decorated
+unless well relieved by plain spaces harmonizing in colour with the
+large-figured patterns. Strong contrasts in colour values should also
+be avoided, not only between the designs and the ground colour of the
+wall paper itself, but also between the paper and other objects of
+importance in the room. The principle of gradation in colour values,
+which does not as a general thing allow the placing together of light
+and dark shades or tints, is almost as important as harmony of colour
+tones.
+
+_Nature of Decorative Design._--The one fact never to be lost sight
+of by the decorator is the real nature of true decorative design. It
+is never a picture. While it may suggest the natural forms of plants
+or animals, it does not aim to represent them in a naturalistic way.
+Some of the best decorative designs do not even suggest natural forms;
+but, whether they do or not, the central idea is the repetition of good
+combinations of line and form in closely related colours and values
+on a flat surface. If natural forms are used, they should be more or
+less highly conventionalized. Anything that destroys the idea of flat
+surfaces in the same plane is a false note in wall decoration. In the
+nature of the case, a wall can have but one plane. Clusters of flowers
+or patterns of any kind that seem to hang in front of this plane, or
+back of it, are out of place and therefore offend the sense of fitness.
+Such incongruities are sometimes so pronounced that they positively
+shock the sensibilities of refined people. Extreme examples have been
+known to give such pain to sensitive persons as to drive them from the
+room.
+
+_Advantage of Plain Walls._--Decorative designs, however, are not
+essential in wall papers. The main point in the treatment of walls is
+to secure and preserve a good background. If one is in doubt as to
+the kind of figure or pattern to be used, which is often a perplexing
+question, it is well to leave them out altogether. Plain walls are
+always good if the colour tone is right; for colour is the main thing
+in wall decoration. The decorative effects of form may be brought out
+in the portieres and window draperies, which may easily carry more
+elaborate patterns when associated with plain walls than is desirable
+with figured wall decorations. In fact, with figured walls plain
+portieres and curtains are much to be preferred. In our model house,
+as has been explained, the wall decorations were designed to offer a
+plain background of colour. The figured borders of the portieres and
+curtains, combined with the careful gradation in the colouring of the
+floors, wall spaces, and ceiling, gave such a variety of tone to this
+background that nothing further was needed to avoid monotony.
+
+_Trial Needed in Doubtful Cases._--It is, indeed, a good rule to omit
+whatever is unnecessary. To observe this rule wisely is to escape much
+that is positively bad in decoration. Overwrought designs, too great
+variety in decorative material, too many decorative objects, however
+great their individual beauty, too many odd pieces of furniture, too
+many interesting things in whatever direction one may turn, create an
+oppressive and disquieting atmosphere and a feeling of unrest which
+it should always be the aim of home decoration to dispel. And yet it
+may not always be best to set aside our treasures because they do not
+seem perfectly suited to the general scheme of decoration or are not
+apparently needed to complete it. It is, in fact, often very difficult
+to determine where the line should be drawn between what is needed and
+what is not needed. The fact that nothing seems to be lacking is not a
+final test if one has at hand useful or beautiful things that may be
+introduced into a scheme of decoration already well thought out and be
+given a trial. Such experimenting will often reveal unsuspected needs
+or add a new charm that at once proves its right to be retained.
+
+To take a step like this, somewhat out of line with accepted rules
+as strictly interpreted, is entirely safe if this step is dictated
+by good taste and does not lead the young decorator too far afield.
+Exceptional treatment of any kind should show proper restraint, and
+such restraint, when it is plainly indicated in any work of art, is in
+itself an attractive feature.
+
+_Precise Rules not Always Practicable._--The truth is, the rules of
+decoration, though founded upon fundamental principles of art, are not
+rules of precision like those founded upon mathematical principles.
+In the nature of the case they must in their application yield more
+or less to circumstances. It is, for example, a good general rule
+to determine the colour scheme and background first and accommodate
+other decorative features to these as a foundation; and yet it is
+possible for a situation to be so exceptional as to justify a complete
+reversal of this rule. Here is a concrete case. A young artist was the
+fortunate possessor of a considerable number of Japanese and Chinese
+embroideries and other Oriental ornaments. He wished to make these the
+main decorative materials for one of his rooms. The embroidered figures
+were in yellow and white on a deep, strong blue, the general effect
+being quite dark. There were in the collection several prints, showing
+the typical dull reds, dark blues, and yellows of Japanese art. Now the
+room itself happened to be one that, under the general principle of
+colour schemes as determined by exposure and other fixed conditions,
+would demand warm colours on its walls. It would easily support a rich
+red frieze with appropriate combinations in floor, dado, and ceiling.
+This would set off well the dark oak trim and the mahogany furniture,
+but it would rule out the Oriental decorations. One or the other must
+give way; and, since the value of these decorative materials was beyond
+question, it was decided to try them, even at the cost of setting aside
+the general rule. The whole matter resolved itself into selecting a
+proper background for these beautiful pictures and embroideries; and
+for these the best colour was a gray blue--the coldest of colours. But
+when the whole decorative scheme was carried out to completion and the
+cold background was fully employed in setting off the rich colours and
+exquisite workmanship of the Oriental prints and draperies, all the
+circumstances that ordinarily determine the choice of backgrounds were
+forgotten in the charm of originality. No one thought of the exposure
+as requiring warm colours, the dark oak trim was not noticed, and the
+mahogany furniture was still in keeping. The result was so absolutely
+satisfying that no one who saw it could question the good taste
+displayed in this very original plan of decoration.
+
+But such exceptional cases should not shake our confidence in the
+fundamental principles of decoration. It is true that these principles
+cannot be reduced to formulas to be applied invariably in all cases,
+and it is unreasonable to assume that any form of treatment is the only
+one possible in any given case. Modifications in the application of
+these principles are always possible, but the principles themselves are
+as unalterable as the Mosaic law. One is, indeed, tempted to summarize
+them thus as the
+
+
+TEN COMMANDMENTS OF DECORATION
+
+     Thou shalt have no household gods except those that be beautiful
+     or those that be useful.
+
+     Thou shalt not make unto thyself any likeness that is in the
+     heaven above or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the
+     earth, that does not find an appropriate setting in thine house.
+
+     Thou shalt not look in vain upon the creations of the great
+     masters of decorative art.
+
+     Remember the colour scheme and keep a good background.
+
+     Honour the original design, however old it may be, and make the
+     most of it. Thou shalt not hesitate to correct the blunders of
+     faulty design and bad architecture.
+
+     Thou shalt not kill thy neighbours or thy friends with
+     over-decorated wall papers or oppressive decorations of any kind.
+
+     Thou shalt not bring together incongruous articles nor permit
+     insane arrangements of anything that is thine.
+
+     Thou shalt not permit any false note to mar the harmony of thy
+     decorations.
+
+     Thou shalt not imitate thy neighbour's house or anything that is
+     thy neighbour's, for it is the glory of the good decorator to show
+     originality but at the same time to acknowledge his dependence
+     upon those who have preceded him.
+
+
+THE FURNITURE
+
+_Relation of Furniture to Decoration._--So much for the treatment
+of floors, walls, and ceilings. We may now turn to the more special
+consideration of those objects of use or beauty that are to be
+associated with these backgrounds--furniture, pictures, lamp shades,
+and small ornaments. That these are closely related to decoration
+has been implied in all that has been said. They are, in fact, in
+themselves elements in the decorative scheme and as such must obey
+the same laws. Their value, however, depends more or less upon their
+utility, and for this reason they seem to require consideration
+somewhat apart from their merely decorative functions. This is
+especially true of furniture, which would have very little reason for
+being if it were not for its usefulness.
+
+In designing the furniture for the model house the questions that
+constantly suggested themselves were: What is this piece of furniture
+under consideration to be used for? What form, construction, and finish
+will enable it to give the best service? What features of design are
+needed to render it suited to its surroundings? In considering the
+furniture for the model house it was most natural to apply these tests
+to the various rooms in order.
+
+[Illustration: A library desk in fumed oak]
+
+_Hall of the Model House._--First, there is the hall. This is the room
+into which a visitor is first admitted, and from its atmosphere he gets
+his first impressions. But in this house it is a very small room and
+designed to serve not merely as a place for the formalities of welcome
+but also as an expansion of the rooms on either side. Its furniture
+must consist largely of the fireplace. There is no room for a hall
+settle nor even for a chair. A mirror, simply but richly framed, might
+hang on the wall near the front door, balanced by a picture on the
+opposite wall behind the door. An umbrella rack should stand outside on
+the porch.
+
+[Illustration: A hall chair]
+
+[Illustration: A hall settle--simplicity, strength, dignity]
+
+_Hall Furniture in General._--The halls of modern houses vary greatly
+in their relative importance. In some the traditions of the old English
+manor houses seem partially to survive. In mediaeval England the hall
+was the principal room, if not the only one comfortably furnished. When
+modern houses combine the living room and library or reception room
+with the hall, there is need of something more than hall furniture
+of the formal kind. The requirements of comfort must be met. But,
+generally speaking, hall furniture is of little real use. Odd chairs,
+attractive by reason of their oddity, the richness of the materials
+used in their construction, or some other assertive quality, but not
+fit to sit in, are suitable or at least excusable in the hall. The hat
+and coat rack of our fathers has been declared insane and no longer
+appears in well-regulated houses. In place of it is found the hall
+settle, which is of real use. It should be designed on simple lines and
+give the impression of strength and dignity. If the hall is to be used
+as a waiting room for guests, a few good chairs, conveniently placed,
+will be needed for their comfort and a choice picture or two on the
+walls will add greatly to their pleasure.
+
+[Illustration: Two Morris chairs that invite to solid comfort]
+
+[Illustration: A satisfactory writing desk]
+
+_Living Room Furniture._--In furnishing living rooms there is bound to
+be a wide range for the exercise of good taste because of the variety
+of needs to be met and the large facilities afforded in the markets
+for meeting these needs with due regard to artistic requirements. It
+will be quite impossible to go into detail in discussing so large a
+topic. The important thing is to keep in mind the central idea of a
+living room--the place of all places where the freedom, comfort, and
+protection of home life are to be enjoyed. The very atmosphere of
+the room should suggest simplicity, sincerity, and good cheer. Every
+article of furniture should be there to serve a genuine need, and it
+should be strong enough to do its full duty. Spider-legged, top-heavy
+tables; light, weak chairs; chairs on casters or rockers; sofas with
+carved backs or couches with none at all,--these have no place in the
+living room. The long, straight lines of the craftsman or mission
+style of furniture are in the right direction; but if these be used at
+all they must be made quite general, since few other styles harmonize
+with them. Wicker or reed furniture is a notable exception. When well
+designed it will fit in almost anywhere.
+
+[Illustration: An ample library table]
+
+[Illustration: A plain but useful magazine stand]
+
+The frequent combination of the library with the living room requires a
+suitable adjustment of the furniture to this use. A plain, serviceable
+magazine rack, which may be easily made, will relieve the tables of an
+accumulation of weeklies and monthlies. Moderately low bookcases, with
+or without doors, are to be preferred to the more ordinary high ones
+because this form harmonizes better with the lines of a room, which are
+generally longer horizontally than vertically. If doors are used, it
+is well to break up the glare of the glass by heavy sash, the spacing
+of which may be arranged in a very pleasing manner. Good design in
+library tables calls for ample size. Firmness and convenience as well
+as satisfactory proportions should control the choice of a writing desk.
+
+[Illustration: A low bookcase with sash doors]
+
+_Dining-room Furniture._ Only a few elements enter into the design for
+the furnishing of a dining-room; but they are evident and should have a
+controlling influence. The table and chairs are for a definite purpose
+and this should show itself in good design. Heavy construction is
+permissible since the chairs are to be moved but little and the table
+is practically stationary. Moreover, weight and generous dimensions
+are suggestive of bounty and good service. The rectangular extension
+table is most readily adjusted to varied demands, but the round table
+is preferable for the family circle; and for a company of twelve or
+fifteen a large, round, temporary table top, placed on an ordinary
+extension table, has been found very attractive.
+
+[Illustration: A round dining table]
+
+[Illustration: A sideboard of good proportions. Convenient and generous
+but not overdone]
+
+As comfort is the chief result to be obtained in furnishing a living
+room, so richness, within one's means, is an appropriate aim in
+furnishing a dining-room. The history of sideboard design might be
+cited in proof of this statement, if proof were needed. Probably no
+single article of furniture has been subjected to greater elaboration;
+but the desirable suggestion of plenty with convenience may be secured
+without overdoing it. The unique purpose of the sideboard makes it an
+interesting study for one who wishes to design and construct his own
+in conformity with the architecture of his dining-room. The buffet or
+serving table furnishes an equally interesting, though simpler, problem.
+
+[Illustration: A buffet of simple but effective design]
+
+For the care of the china, the built-in cabinet as a feature of
+the architecture of the room is to be preferred to the movable
+cabinet designed for this purpose, because of its richer decorative
+possibilities. Large, glazed doors are desirable in either case, not
+for the full display of china and glassware but to give a suggestive
+glimpse of it. As this cabinet is for decoration and not for show, it
+is well to avoid plain glass doors unbroken by sash. Leaded panes are
+frequently employed with good effect. The decorative effect of old
+and odd pieces of china--not too many of them--is most appropriately
+employed by the use of the plate rail; but it is better to leave
+the plate rail bare than to load it with commonplace crockery and
+inappropriate ornaments.
+
+[Illustration: A china cabinet. A part of the finish of the room]
+
+_Chamber Furniture._--The bedroom speaks for itself. A dainty freshness
+in all its appointments is conducive to sleep and rest, which it is the
+distinctive purpose of this room to provide. The necessary articles
+of furniture are a bed, a dressing table, a bureau or chiffonier, a
+few chairs, and, if there be no bath room attached, a commode or wash
+stand. A couch is an appropriate addition; and here, if anywhere,
+rocking chairs are allowable. When the bedroom must be used more or
+less as a living room or sewing room, as it too often unfortunately
+is, furniture to serve such uses must be provided. In selecting or
+designing all this furniture, lightness, and simplicity of design,
+combined with strength, should be allowed a controlling influence.
+The recognition of this idea has given great popularity to the brass
+or iron beds; but it is possible to design and construct beds of oak,
+maple, or other woods that harmonize with the rest of the furniture,
+carry out the idea of daintiness, and have sufficient strength for
+service.
+
+[Illustration: Leaded panes]
+
+Many of these suggestions on furniture design are being carried out
+in fitting up the model house described in our introductory chapter.
+A small house like this, limited to one story, does not permit great
+variety in its furnishings. Certain standard conditions, however, were
+to be met here, as everywhere else, and the young designers found much
+pleasure and great profit in working out the furniture problems. Some
+of the construction details will be given in the later chapters.
+
+[Illustration: A Duxbury chair]
+
+
+ARRANGEMENT OF THE FURNITURE
+
+_Arrangement Follows Selection._--The problem of furnishing a home is
+not fully settled when the questions of design have been answered and
+the right selections made. After selection comes arrangement, or, to
+speak more accurately, after a certain amount of selection a certain
+amount of arrangement; for, as has already been suggested, there is
+considerable dependence of one upon the other. It is not wise to drop
+the arrangement till the selection is complete, for the simple reason
+that the happiest choices are often the late ones, determined by the
+disposition of the earlier ones. And yet in the main the order as
+stated is the true one. It should be noted, too, that in arrangement
+there is a larger field for the exercise of individuality and taste.
+While artistic principles still hold sway, they yield more readily to
+exceptional interpretation by the ruling spirit of the household, to
+the demands of style, and to the larger number of possibilities for
+pleasing effects when the question is one of the arrangement of things
+already well chosen for their usefulness and for their artistic value.
+
+[Illustration: A dainty bed in white maple]
+
+_Utility the Controlling Principle._--The problems of arrangement,
+however, are by no means vague and uncertain. The natural law of
+adaptation to purpose is not difficult to follow. In some rooms
+obedience to it has become a settled custom. No one, for example, would
+think of placing the dining table in any other place than the centre
+of the dining-room or, if the room be a long one, in the centre of one
+end. The sideboard, serving table, and china closet likewise fall into
+their natural places. So also the bedroom and the hall, though perhaps
+to a less degree, present comparatively easy problems in furniture
+arrangement when due regard is paid to the purposes for which such
+rooms are designed.
+
+_Importance of Appropriateness._--But it is in the library and the
+living room that we find the most difficult and at the same time the
+most interesting problems. And this is due to the operation of the
+same law of adaptation to purpose. It is the variety of uses and the
+diversity of useful objects that make the problem somewhat complex.
+However refined and beautiful the different units may be, there
+must be some arrangement of them into working groups. The important
+elements should dominate and those of lesser importance should fall
+naturally into related but subordinate places. The easy corner with
+its couch, pillows, and its low seats, has a definite function to
+perform. So also have the piano and the music rack, the bookcases and
+library table, the Morris chairs and tabourettes, the window seats and
+screens, the writing desk and its proper lighting by window or lamp,
+the fireplace and all the accessories of comfort that may belong to
+it. The various centres of interest should be accentuated by grouping
+around them the most appropriate furnishings and the most suggestive
+decorative features. It may be well to add one word of caution, and
+that is that a proper balance should be maintained between the various
+centres of arrangement in order that no part of the room may seem
+neglected and bare.
+
+_The Danger of Overcrowding._--Finally, the one great danger to
+be avoided in meeting the requirements of good arrangement is the
+temptation to overcrowding. Many otherwise excellently appointed living
+rooms suffer from an embarrassment of riches. Such overcrowded rooms
+are worse than an overloaded ship because they cannot topple over and
+sink as one might well wish them to. To secure the right things and
+just enough of them, arranged with a proper balance between utility
+and beauty, is the true aim. It is as true to-day as it ever was in
+the arrangement and beautifying of the home, and, for that matter, in
+everything that concerns every-day life--just as true as it was in
+ancient times when men wrote those famous inscriptions over the doors
+of the temple at Delphi: over one, KNOW THYSELF, and over the other,
+THE GOLDEN MEAN OF NOT TOO MUCH.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+PICTURES
+
+     I now require this of all pictures, that they domesticate me,
+     not that they dazzle me. Pictures must not be too picturesque.
+     Nothing astonishes men so much as common sense and plain dealing.
+     All great actions have been simple, and all great pictures
+     are.--_Ralph Waldo Emerson_
+
+
+The decoration of a room is generally not complete without pictures.
+There is, of course, great value in good pictures entirely aside
+from their decorative effect; and too great care cannot be exercised
+in their selection. But our present purpose is to consider them as
+decorative features; for, though a decoration is not a picture,
+pictures themselves are properly regarded as important elements in the
+general scheme of decoration. And this is especially true as regards
+matting and framing, the distribution of pictures upon the wall spaces,
+and the method of hanging them.
+
+_Importance of Space Relations._--A picture mat and frame are simply
+elements of finish, and their function is to give the picture a certain
+individuality and yet connect it harmoniously with the space in which
+it hangs. In fact, the wall space is a part of the framing of the
+picture. The importance of giving some study to the relations of all
+the spaces involved is evident. The mat and the frame should not be of
+equal width. Here is a fine opportunity to secure variety in spacing.
+No definite rules can be given; sometimes the one, sometimes the other
+should give way. Generally speaking, tall wall spaces require vertical
+pictures, and spaces longer horizontally demand horizontal pictures.
+But variation from this rule is possible and even necessary through the
+grouping of several pictures. In grouping, however, there is danger
+of being tempted to allow too many pictures. In the houses of the
+well-to-do, and even in the homes of those of moderate means, too many
+pictures, rather than too few, are often found. The example of one New
+England home, known to the author, may be mentioned. The house is new,
+of generous proportions, and it is the home of an artist. There are
+few pictures on the walls, but they are distributed with rare artistic
+effect. There are many good pictures stored in the attic because there
+is no suitable space in which to hang them.
+
+_The Japanese Way._--The Japanese have taught us many valuable lessons
+in art, and in the matter of the number of pictures to be displayed
+they have a very interesting lesson to teach. It is their practice
+to hang a single choice picture for a season in a space where it may
+be best enjoyed, and then after a time to replace it with another
+picture, and this, perhaps, by another if circumstances permit. There
+are many conditions that determine the selection of the picture to
+be displayed. It may be the preference of a guest, or it may be the
+season of the year, or, in fact, any occasion that may give a certain
+picture special significance. There is, in this singular custom, a very
+definite service which the picture is made to perform, and it is given
+an individuality which perhaps has no parallel in our own practice.
+
+_Grouping of Small, Simple Pictures._--If a considerable number of
+pictures are grouped together, it is quite essential that all the
+pictures of the group should be of similar character and tone and
+similarly framed. It is hardly possible for them to be all of the same
+size, nor, indeed, is such agreement desirable except in so far as is
+required to give proper balance to the group. Small pictures in light
+frames are, of course, the most desirable for such grouping, and if
+possible there should be an evident reason for the grouping. A series
+of photographs of a certain locality, for example, might form a group
+of four or five or even more pictures so that they could be easily seen
+together and so more thoroughly enjoyed. A collection of photographs
+in passe-partout bindings, especially if they deal with subjects in
+any way related, may form an attractive group. But pictures of any
+considerable size or those having decided individuality are generally
+not suited to any plan of grouping. They should appear by themselves,
+in frames and other surroundings which accentuate their peculiar merits.
+
+_The Kind of Frame._--The material of the frame, its colour, and the
+colour of the mat are determined by the tone of the picture. Oil
+paintings easily support gilt frames and should be hung in good light.
+Pictures of light values with white mats are well finished in narrow
+gilt frames. Carbon photographs and other pictures of dull tones, are
+appropriately framed in wood of dark or medium colour, and appear
+best when hung against a dark wall. The truth of these statements
+will hardly be questioned by any one who has a good sense of colour
+harmony. But there are many other elements that enter into a concrete
+problem of picture framing that cannot be brought under general rules
+or formulas. It is generally best to depend largely upon the tests
+of trial. In framing and hanging pictures, as in many other things,
+observation and experience are the best teachers. Some suggestions may
+be found in the following record of two actual framing problems that
+were satisfactorily solved.
+
+
+FRAMING AN OLD-TIME INTERIOR, DRAWN IN COLOURS
+
+The conditions which had to be met in this problem are plainly shown
+in the framed picture as it hangs on the wall. The picture itself is a
+small one, 8 inches wide and 13 inches long. It is interesting because
+of its representation of a sewing room in one of the high-class homes
+of the colonial period. The mistress and her two young daughters are
+engaged in sewing and embroidery. Patterns are displayed upon the wall;
+the furniture is appropriate and evidently an example of the best of
+the period. All these details are suggestive of the delightful home
+life of our grandmothers.
+
+Such a picture needs a mat to give it depth and to properly emphasize
+its details; and it requires a simple, narrow frame. The mat was
+accordingly made 2-1/2 inches wide and the frame 1 inch wide. The tone
+of the mat selected was a light bluish gray, forming a good connecting
+link between the bright colours of the picture and the gray of the wall
+against which it was to be placed. Since it was to hang directly over
+a fine old mahogany table, it was thought fitting to give the frame a
+mahogany finish, connecting the furniture shown in the picture with
+that of the room.
+
+The frame was made with mitred corners of perfectly plain, square-edged
+birch, which readily takes a mahogany finish. The stain was first
+applied with a brush, rubbed in, and allowed to dry. A surfacing coat
+of shellac, coloured to match the stain, was next put on, allowed to
+dry, and then carefully sand-papered, special care being taken to
+guard against rounding the edges and corners. A coat of varnish was
+next applied, which, after hardening for one week, was rubbed first
+with pumice stone and oil and finally with rotten stone and oil.
+A final coat of thin finishing varnish was then put on, which was
+lightly rubbed with rotten stone and water to give the half dull effect
+required to match the antique mahogany table.
+
+
+FRAMING A CARBON PHOTOGRAPH OF A MASTERPIECE
+
+The picture is a copy in sepia tones of Murillo's Saint Anthony, 16
+inches in height by 20 inches horizontally. The frame is made of
+quartered oak 3 inches wide, slightly convex but smooth; and it is
+well joined with mitred corners. A picture of this character needs
+no mat. Indeed, it would have been the height of presumption to
+strive to accentuate a masterpiece of such highly idealistic meaning
+and treatment. It must be left to itself as much as possible. The
+dimensions of the frame are therefore determined by the size of the
+picture itself.
+
+The picture hangs against a light gray wall in good light, somewhat
+apart from other pictures. It was a happy thought thus to recognize its
+dignity. It was given further distinction by finishing the oak frame
+so that it should not associate itself with the other woodwork in the
+room. Since the room in which the picture was to hang has a light ash
+trim and most of the furniture a mahogany finish, this requirement was
+easily met.
+
+But there are many ways of finishing a frame to avoid too close
+association with the commonplace that would have been anything but
+appropriate to such a picture as this. A gilt surface, a silver-gray
+tone, or a highly polished golden oak are possible blunders. Nothing
+should be done to call attention to the frame of any picture, least
+of all to one of such spiritual feeling as this one. The frame should
+seem to be a part of the picture, repeating its prevailing tones with
+a richness in keeping with the composition of the picture itself. The
+colour should be a rich, dark brown, but not so dark as to obscure the
+figure of the wood. The finish should be dull, but soft and smooth.
+
+There are several brown stains which, properly applied, would give
+the desired effect. For the colour it was thought best to rely upon
+Van Dyke brown, which may be used either with alcohol or turpentine.
+It is not desirable to use a water stain in a case like this because
+it would raise the grain, necessitating sand-papering, which should
+be avoided as much as possible on picture frames in order to keep the
+edges and corners intact. Ammonia fuming preserves the figure of the
+wood better than any other form of staining, but it was thought that
+the oak might not take on a tone dark enough to meet the requirements.
+It was decided, however, to try the fuming method and to tone up with
+a thin coat of stain if the effect proved to be not sufficiently dark.
+The ammonia process resulted in a rich, soft surface, but in a colour
+too light. A thin Van Dyke brown alcohol stain was therefore applied
+and when dry this was followed by a very thin coat of shellac--mostly
+alcohol--coloured to match the stain. This was to fill partially the
+grain of the wood. Finally, it was thoroughly coated with wax finish
+and well rubbed to restore the soft, satin-like surface.
+
+[Illustration: A group of passe-partouts]
+
+
+PASSE-PARTOUTS
+
+Framing pictures in passe-partout binding is one of the little
+arts of home decoration, though it is by no means an unimportant
+one. It is easy to learn and it involves small expense in time and
+money, but it furnishes a means of preserving many pictures of real
+worth in themselves or of value to their owners because of pleasant
+associations; and it is in itself a delightful occupation. It offers
+the same chances for artistic effects in colour harmony and contrasts,
+in spacing, and in the arrangements for hanging that the more difficult
+methods of framing do, with the added advantage that one need not be
+deterred by the question of expense from discarding an unsuccessful
+result and trying again.
+
+_Varieties of Binding._--Passe-partout binding is made in a great
+variety of colours. It costs from ten to twenty cents per roll of
+twelve yards, according to colour and quality, and it may be purchased
+of dealers in artists' supplies. For general use the ordinary width
+of binding--7/8 of an inch--is required; but extra narrow widths are
+supplied when it is desired to add a margin of a contrasting colour.
+For these margins the gold and silver narrow bindings are, with certain
+pictures, very effective; but white and other light colours are often
+used for this purpose.
+
+_Artistic Colour Effects._--The choice of the colour for the principal
+binding should be controlled mainly by the tone of the picture, with
+which, as a general thing, it should blend. If no mat be used, more
+or less of a contrast in colour between the picture and the binding
+is permissible; but the most artistic effects are obtained when mats
+are used. These should, of course, be in harmony with the colour
+tones and general character of the picture. It may be a harmony of
+agreement if there is a border of light tone between the picture and
+the mat, as illustrated in the accompanying drawing. Without such a
+border it will be necessary to show a pleasing contrast of tone. But
+in almost all cases when a mat is used the outer binding should repeat
+the predominant colour or some other prominent characteristic of the
+picture. For example, if it be a picture of an English hunting scene
+with mounted sportsmen in red coats, the mat may be of a light greenish
+hue and the binding red. If it be a landscape photograph in sepia
+tones, a white or light coffee-coloured mat with a dark brown binding
+is a good combination. A Scotch scene is appropriately framed in a
+plaid binding. In this case it is the subject of the picture rather
+than the colour that suggests the binding. But in all cases opportunity
+is offered for carefully selecting the colour combinations, planning
+the spacing, and arranging the grouping of pictures of like character.
+Thus one of the simplest of decorative processes presents large
+artistic possibilities.
+
+_An Actual Problem._--The various steps in the process of framing
+a picture in passe-partout binding may perhaps be best understood
+by giving an example of it. The actual problem is to frame a
+silhouette--an original drawing in black India ink on light gray paper,
+8 by 10 inches in size, with the longer dimension vertical.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--The materials and tools required are as
+follows: A piece of glass the size of the picture (8 by 10 inches),
+since no border is needed; two pieces of thin pasteboard, which may be
+cut from an old box cover, the same size as the glass; a generous yard
+of black passe-partout binding; two passe-partout rings, which cost
+five cents per dozen; a little photographers' paste; a sharp knife or a
+pair of scissors; and an awl or a pointed nail.
+
+_The Process._--With these materials in hand it will require scarcely
+more than twenty minutes to complete the work. The first step is the
+setting of the rings. This is accomplished by punching two small holes
+in one of the pieces of pasteboard two inches from the edge chosen
+for the top and about one inch from each side. Through these holes
+the points of the rings are pushed until the ring is close to the
+pasteboard. Bending the points over in opposite directions fastens
+the ring firmly. This is a comparatively large picture. Had it been
+small--say 4 by 5 inches or smaller--only one ring in the centre,
+fastened about 1-1/2 inches from the edge, would have been needed.
+
+The picture is now mounted on the second piece of pasteboard by
+fastening it at the upper corners with a little paste. It is desirable
+to use as little paste as possible. The two pieces of pasteboard are
+then brought together, care being taken that the rings are on the
+outside, and the glass laid over the picture. These parts are now
+ready to be bound together. The sides are bound first. This is done
+by cutting two pieces of the binding 1/4 of an inch longer than the
+short edges of the picture, wetting the gummed side and laying it
+along the edge of the glass so that it will lap 1/4 of an inch over
+the face of the glass. Each end of this binding will extend 1/8 of
+an inch beyond the glass. The rest of the binding is now folded over
+upon the pasteboard back, taking pains to draw it down close to the
+edge of the glass and pasteboard before it is permanently fastened.
+The 1/8 of an inch that projects at each end is then folded over the
+corner and pressed down as close as possible to the edge of the glass
+and pasteboard. The upper and lower edges are bound in the same way,
+excepting that the pieces of binding are first cut the same length
+as the edges over which they are to be pasted, and, before they are
+pasted on, the two corners on the side to be pasted to the glass are
+cut off 1/4 of an inch back at an angle of 45 degrees, and the other
+corners are also trimmed back to about 1/8 of an inch. The accompanying
+drawing shows more clearly how these binding strips are trimmed. The
+purpose of it is evident; for when the strips are pasted over the top
+and bottom edges of the glass, it is seen that they have been cut to
+give the appearance of mitred corners, and that when folded over the
+edges upon the back of the pasteboard no rough edges of binding are
+left exposed at the corners.
+
+[Illustration: How the binding strips are trimmed]
+
+One of the lessons of experience in this work is that it is well to
+take great pains in centring the binding strips accurately before
+pasting them on, as they do not stick well if the attempt is made to
+correct a mistake by removing the binding and pasting it on again.
+The more elaborate passe-partouts, requiring mats, borders, and double
+bindings, are scarcely more difficult than the simple example just
+described, though they will require more time. It is well to begin
+with the easier problems. When borders and double bindings are used
+the narrow passe-partout strips are pasted on first, with proper care
+to cut the mitres correctly and to centre the strips accurately before
+pasting them down upon the glass. The edges are bound last. This partly
+covers the brighter-coloured strips previously pasted along the edge of
+the glass, and leaves a narrow line of colour exposed as a border just
+inside the binding.
+
+
+HANGING PICTURES
+
+[Illustration: A correct method of hanging pictures]
+
+_How to Hang Pictures._--If wire be used for hanging pictures, it
+should be as small and inconspicuous as possible. In place of the
+braided steel wire, which may be needed for large pictures, a single
+brass or copper wire is much to be preferred for those of lighter
+weight. In all cases where the wire shows it should appear as two
+vertical lines against the wall and not as a single wire bent over
+a single hook in the form of an inverted V, so commonly seen and so
+manifestly failing to conform with any lines of a room. Levelling
+the picture may be easily managed by using only one wire, making it
+continuous through the screw eyes on the back of the picture. These
+screw eyes should be placed near the top of the frame--about one
+sixth the whole vertical width of the picture from the top--so that
+the picture may hang nearly flat against the wall. Whenever possible,
+however, pictures should be hung without showing the wire at all. This
+may be easily managed without seriously marring the finish of some
+rooms by driving two fine finishing nails in the part of the lower wall
+which is to come directly behind the top of the picture, allowing them
+to project about 1/2 of an inch and bending them up a little with
+a pair of pliers so that the wires will not slip off. Choice, small
+pictures may be hung in this way on fine upholstery tacks. It is often
+possible, when the wire must be exposed, to stop it just below the dado
+cap and thus avoid showing the wire over the frieze. Whenever it is
+necessary, as it often is, to suspend wires by means of the so-called
+picture hooks from a picture moulding or cornice strip placed above the
+frieze, some attention should be paid to the colour of these hooks.
+Bright metal hooks showing over a delicately coloured moulding are in
+bad taste. Some people prefer to use the inverted V suspension in order
+to reduce the number of these picture hooks. But it is far better to
+retain the straight, fine, and nearly invisible wires and colour the
+hooks to make them less conspicuous.
+
+In determining the height of pictures it is only necessary to remember
+that they are placed upon the walls to be enjoyed. While monotony
+in height is to be avoided, the average eye level should not be
+disregarded. The frontispiece illustrates an effective placing of a
+picture in the dining-room of the model house.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS
+
+    "I know not which I love the most,
+      Nor which the comeliest shows;
+    The timid, bashful violet,
+      Or the royal-hearted rose;
+
+    "The pansy in her purple dress,
+      The pink with cheek of red,
+    Or the faint, fair heliotrope who hangs,
+      Like a bashful maid, her head."
+
+    --_Phoebe Cary_
+
+
+Formerly when the furniture, pictures, and draperies had been
+arranged in our rooms, with perhaps a few pieces of bric-a-brac, we
+considered their decoration quite complete. But we have learned how
+much cheerfulness a few simple flowers, properly arranged, impart to
+the same rooms; and so flowers have come to be considered as almost
+essential to the complete decoration of the home.
+
+_A Lesson From the Japanese._--If we have learned much from the
+Japanese in regard to the arrangement and hanging of pictures, from
+them we have learned more about the artistic arrangement of flowers.
+They have taught us to value the stem and leaves of the flower as
+essential to an artistic arrangement, that flowers of the same kind
+should be grouped together, and that harmony and blending of colour are
+necessary to secure the most artistic effects.
+
+_Flowers of a Kind Grouped Together._--We may have been in the habit
+of putting several different kinds of flowers together and of being
+satisfied with such a composition; but the Japanese would tell us that
+when several different kinds of flowers are combined in one grouping
+the full beauty of each is lost; and after a few experiments we shall
+come to see the truth of this. Here is an illustration: At a summer
+camp with which I am familiar it was the daily duty of one of the
+younger boys to go for the wild flowers we used for keeping the camp
+gay. He often brought home snug little bunches of the flower of the
+wild convolvulus and the wild rose, to be used together. No pleasing
+arrangement could be made from such a handful, so he was asked to bring
+long pieces of the vine of the convolvulus and gather branches of the
+rose, especially those with the buds. The convolvulus we arranged in a
+flat dish at one end of a gray stone mantel, letting the vine hang over
+the mantel, and he quickly saw that it "looked prettier--more as though
+it were growing." When a few of the stalks of the wild rose were
+arranged by themselves in a green glass vase he pronounced them much
+"prettier than when mixed up with other flowers."
+
+_The Way of the Garden._--In our gardens we plant the sunshiny
+daffodils by themselves, the sweet peas grow in a mass together, and
+we have beds of roses. If we follow the same plan in the arrangement
+of our flowers indoors we shall realize their decorative qualities to
+the utmost. So we may consider it a safe rule to follow in arranging
+flowers,--to use only one kind of flower, with its stems and leaves,
+arranging them loosely, rather than to have many in a compact grouping.
+One single, long-stemmed rose, with its beautiful foliage, in a tall,
+slender glass is more decorative and gives us more pleasure than a
+dozen roses stripped of their foliage and crowded into a small vase.
+
+_Exceptions._--While the above rule should be generally followed, there
+are exceptional instances of the perfectly harmonious arrangement of
+flowers of two or more kinds together. Among these we may mention the
+combining of field daisies and buttercups, or buttercups with the
+grasses among which they grow. So, too, the lacy flower of the wild
+carrot may sometimes be effectively combined with some other flower.
+The spikes of the cardinal flower, for example, are gorgeous in colour,
+but very stiff and difficult to arrange; so the addition of a few
+sprays of the wild carrot softens the effect and makes it more pleasing.
+
+
+COLOUR ARRANGEMENT
+
+We have just considered the grouping of flowers by themselves. There is
+another element to be considered before we can have artistic results,
+and that is arrangement as to colour.
+
+_Colour Grouping._--We may not all be sensitive to colour ourselves,
+but in arranging flowers we should always keep in mind the pleasure
+that is to be given others, and so we wish nothing in our colour
+grouping that will offend those whose colour sense is keen. There are
+three colour schemes that can be followed with success and satisfaction
+to all. In one we group together only flowers of the same colour, as
+red roses, pink sweet peas, yellow iris, not red, pink, and white
+roses, nor all of the various colours of sweet pea.
+
+Another arrangement calls for shades and tints of the same colour. With
+many flowers it is possible to get exquisite effects by following this
+scheme. For instance, pansies ranging from a pale lavender to deep
+purple are lovely arranged in a low basket of damp moss. Sweet peas
+have beautiful shades of pink that can be combined, as well as shades
+of red and of lavender. Nasturtiums are never so effective as when
+the various shades of yellow, orange and brown are used together. The
+garden aster of to-day is another flower that affords much pleasure in
+colour arrangement; for it has lavenders and purples, a variety of pink
+tones, beautiful reds, and perfect white ones.
+
+And the white ones! What shall we do with these? Three or four pure
+white asters of the same variety may be used together; or two or three
+white ones may be grouped with a few lavender ones, or pink ones. White
+may be combined with any colour with good results. Nature is a good
+teacher here for she gives us both the coloured and the white in almost
+every variety of flower. For example there are crimson cosmos and white
+cosmos, scarlet geraniums and white geraniums, blue violets and white
+violets, and so on through a great many varieties.
+
+_Combination of Complementary Colours._--Another colour grouping
+that is sometimes desirable makes use of the complementary colours.
+The salpiglossis, a garden flower that ought to be better known than
+it is, gives us examples of these, with its blue and orange-yellow
+flowers that are so effective together. The iris also has flowers of
+complementary colours, yellow and violet blue being common among them.
+
+
+THE FLOWER HOLDERS
+
+_A Flower Composition as a Picture._--Having learned something
+about the artistic use of colour, we come to the consideration of
+the arrangement of the flowers, and this includes the vase or other
+receptacle used for holding them. An artistic flower composition is
+a picture; and as the mat and frame give finish to a picture hanging
+on the wall, so the vessel holding flowers should give the required
+finish to the flower picture. Like the frame, it should be simple in
+design, have graceful lines, and serve only as a medium to set off the
+flowers to the best advantage. There should be as little decoration as
+possible, and when jars or vases of colour are used they must blend or
+harmonize with the colour schemes of the flowers placed in them.
+
+_Receptacles for Flowers._--It often is a problem to find the most
+fitting thing for holding flowers; but in the reliable Japanese shops
+one can always find some simple holders, and there are very good
+designs in the clear and in the green glass that are inexpensive and
+appropriate. As a rule the less expensive the article the better
+adapted it is as a suitable holder for flowers. One need never mourn
+that she cannot afford cut glass vases for flowers, as they and their
+cheap imitations are among the most unsuitable of holders.
+
+_Four Typical Flower Holders._--Let us suppose our equipment includes
+four simple receptacles,--a small, clear glass fish globe such as may
+be had for twenty-five cents; a clear glass vase, about twelve inches
+in height, cylindrical in shape though flaring a little at the top,
+costing twenty-five cents; a large cylindrical Japanese jar of a pale
+green tint, eighteen inches in height and costing about one dollar and
+a quarter; and a deep green one, about eight inches in height, which
+may be bought for sixty or seventy cents.
+
+The fish globe is very effective when nasturtiums and their leaves are
+loosely arranged in it. The stems show through the water and glass
+and form a part of the composition. Short stemmed roses may be most
+artistically grouped in it. I have seen a very charming combination
+of mignonette and bachelor's buttons in the same bowl, as well as
+a harmonious picture in yellow, composed of the various shades of
+California poppies and their foliage.
+
+[Illustration: A fish globe with daisies]
+
+The tall glass sets off two or three long stemmed roses: and a few
+yellow daffodils or the narcissus with their leaves look equally well
+in it. Poppies for a day, in the same vase, have given pleasure to
+the beholder. At Easter it has joyously borne a stalk of two perfect
+lilies, and in the autumn tall spikes of salvia have been equally at
+home in it.
+
+Our tall Japanese jar is suited to larger arrangements, for we need
+to remember that in tall or vertical compositions the vase should be
+about one third the height of the whole combination; so this is adapted
+to holding branches of apple blossoms or mountain laurel; or, if one
+is fortunate enough to find tall lilac bushes, about three branches
+from these are effective in it. Tall-growing golden-rod looks equally
+well placed here. It furnishes a modest setting for dahlias and
+chrysanthemums, and one of its most decorative compositions has been
+two or three branches of pine bearing their brown cones.
+
+The possibilities of the smaller green jar are numerous, and only
+a few are given as suggestions. A loose arrangement of jonquils and
+their leaves, or of white narcissus, is effective. The shorter stemmed
+lilacs, either the purple ones or the white ones, may be placed in
+it. An arrangement of white field daisies, and one of yellow roses,
+have been found equally successful. One soon discovers the harmony and
+balance that exist between the flower and holder.
+
+[Illustration: A tall vase with narcissus]
+
+
+THE BACKGROUND
+
+_Space and Harmonious Surroundings._--To obtain the largest decorative
+effect we must have not only artistic grouping and harmonious setting
+of flowers, but space and background, just as are needed for the
+hanging of pictures. Many a floral composition has lost all decorative
+effect from being placed in too small a space and surrounded by
+distracting objects. A few days ago I stepped into a room on an errand
+and forgot my errand in the pleasure I derived from seeing some
+beautiful yellow chrysanthemums, three or four, I think, in a yellowish
+brown jar on a large mahogany table, having for a background the
+upturned leaf of the table. It stood some little distance from anything
+else, a shaft of sunlight lay across the whole, and as I looked at it
+I thought: Here is all that constitutes a decorative arrangement of
+flowers. It was the feature of the room that held one's attention.
+
+[Illustration: An arrangement for the tall Japanese jar]
+
+_Flowers for the Dining Table._--If we can have flowers in but one
+room in the house, it may be difficult to decide which one it shall
+be. Since it often happens that the dining-room is the only room where
+a busy family comes together for any length of time, flowers should
+certainly be introduced here that all may share their beauty and cheer.
+Any arrangement for the home table should be moderately low; and there
+are many simple flowers that can be used in this way to advantage. For
+instance, one can gather a quantity of the innocence or common bluet
+(root and all), to be found in any field in the spring, and put them in
+a shallow glass dish. Simple and effective decoration for the table is
+the result. Flowers with any degree of fragrance should never be used
+in the dining-room. The fragrance of some flowers is offensive to many
+people, and when combined with the odour of food doubly so.
+
+[Illustration: An arrangement of roses in a small jar]
+
+At a luncheon served by the girls in the model house the floral
+decoration for the table was a half dozen single, yellow jonquils
+with their foliage, placed in a creamy brown vase made by one of the
+girls. Their dishes being in white with a gold edge and the walls and
+furniture in browns, nothing could have been more harmonious than these
+few simple flowers.
+
+_Expensive Flowers not Necessary._--It is evident that for floral
+decoration neither expensive nor lavish displays are necessary, that
+simplicity is the thing to strive for, and that a few sprays of wild
+flowers in their season are more truly artistic than many expensive
+hot-house flowers. In this country we do not, as the Japanese do, make
+a festival in honour of certain flowers; but if we rightly appreciate
+and utilize the flowers of each season, we may give a touch of
+festivity to the life of every day.
+
+In the early spring nothing can be more appropriate than an arrangement
+of pussy willows or branches of the alder with its tassels, while the
+red maple when in flower gives a touch of colour that will brighten
+any room. A clump of blood root in a small jardiniere is as decorative
+as the expensive plants one may see in the home of some friend. The
+flowers of the field and the garden offer so many possibilities for
+decorative results that no one's home need lack the cheery touch which
+they can give.
+
+There is a personal element in flowers such as is not found in any
+other means of decoration, not even in pictures, with the single
+exception of good portraits. They seem to speak to us. We can almost
+believe that they feel an interest in all that we have said about them.
+If they really could know, would they not approve the principles that
+we have laid down? We may fancy that they _would_ approve and that, if
+they could really speak and we would listen, they would tell us so in
+some such language as the following:
+
+
+WHAT THE FLOWERS SAY ABOUT IT
+
+Don't mix us; we are exclusive and prefer our own kind.
+
+Don't make a confusion of colour with us.
+
+Don't arrange us in snug, solid masses.
+
+Don't neglect to use our stems and foliage as a part of the decoration.
+
+Don't tie us with ribbons, nor put paper-lace frills around us.
+
+Don't crowd us in with an assortment of household goods; we need space
+and a background.
+
+Don't arrange us in tall, stiff forms for the dining table.
+
+_Do_ love us and use us in the home as much as possible. This is well
+for you. By so doing not only will your love of us increase, but your
+artistic perception of the fitness of things will constantly enlarge.
+For truly has it been said, "The poorest woman in the world, if she has
+faith in beauty, will always be able to fill her home with light; she
+can always place there some flowers."
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+DECORATIVE FABRICS
+
+PORTIERES, WINDOW DRAPERIES, CUSHION COVERS, TABLE MATS
+
+     The very need of ornament arises out of a certain innate
+     discontent with plain, smooth surface--_Lewis F. Day_
+
+
+No kind of decorative art offers greater possibilities for touching
+the right--or the wrong--chord than that which makes use of fabrics.
+Portieres, curtains, cushion covers, table runners and mats, lamp
+shades, and many other furnishings, in which fabrics are involved,
+present problems that quickly engage the interest of the amateur
+decorator who wishes to avoid the commonplace and, when well worked
+out, add greatly to the attractiveness of artistic surroundings. And
+every house becomes a studio for problems peculiar to itself, when the
+possibilities of development in this direction are realized. Here, as
+everywhere else, decorative art is secondary to architectural design
+and must never fail to acknowledge its dependence. Its glory is to
+follow. To attempt to lead means miserable failure.
+
+_Example of the Model House._--The wide doorways connecting the
+hall, the living room, and dining-room of our model house made doors
+undesirable and portieres necessary to assist in marking the division
+between the rooms and to soften the lines of the wood finish. They were
+made to harmonize with the colour scheme but were darker and richer
+in tone. The multiple windows, with the absence of direct sunshine,
+suggested the light style of drapery; and the preference given to
+straight-lined, substantial furniture, made in the school shops, led as
+a natural consequence to cushions and coverings of leather or coarse
+fabric, in order to bear out the idea of simplicity, directness, and
+durability in craftsmanship. Velvets and satins would have been out of
+place.
+
+_Utility to be Regarded._--The highly decorative function of such
+accessories makes it doubly necessary to exercise care in selecting
+materials, designing the ornamental features, and properly placing
+the completed article, in order that the requirements of use be
+not subordinated to the demands of art. It must never be forgotten
+that utility is the basis of all true decoration. Portieres were
+originally a substitute for doors--a means of closing an opening
+between rooms. It must be possible always for them easily to serve
+this purpose. Hence loops or rings, which slide easily over a pole,
+should be used. Portieres may properly be made of heavy cloth and
+they may have a lining harmonizing or in pleasing contrast with the
+tone of the principal fabric. They should always be at least opaque.
+Window draperies, on the other hand, are not a substitute for shades
+or curtains. They should not shut out the light but soften it. They
+should, therefore, be made of light, washable, and durable material,
+and be hung so that they can be easily taken down for cleaning. The
+simplest style of hanging, by means of a brass rod and plain brackets,
+is the best. Since there is no need of frequently sliding them over
+the rod, it is well to hang them by means of a hem, stitched two or
+three inches from the top of the drapery, through which the rod may
+be easily pushed. Cushion covers and table runners, made of durable
+material and decorated with colours that are washable, are manifestly
+more serviceable than those that look fresh only when new, and hence
+are more in keeping with the idea of sincerity in household decoration.
+There is necessity for honesty in decoration as well as in plumbing if
+it is to meet the tests with equal success.
+
+[Illustration: Pillow Cover With Geometrical Designs Printed on Dyed
+Cotton Cloth. Table Runner of Russian Crash with Block Printed and
+Embroidered End Panels. Plate III]
+
+How such decorative features are worked out from beginning to end, is
+told in the following directions for a few practical problems which are
+known to be practical, because they have been actually carried through
+from the design to the completed article. This detailed and complete
+explanation, with the accompanying illustrations, will suggest many
+similar problems which every home offers.
+
+
+BLOCK PRINTING
+
+Problem: _Decorating a Table Runner_.--This problem is easily separated
+into four distinct parts--making the design, cutting the block,
+printing, and finishing. The materials needed are as follows:
+
+
+  (1) Making the design
+  Ordinary drawing paper
+  Rice paper
+  Charcoal
+  Pencil
+  Japanese or sable brush, medium size
+  Water-proof India ink
+
+  (2) Cutting the block
+  Gum wood
+  Small penknife
+  Vise
+  Sand-paper, fine
+
+  (3) Printing the design
+  Printing board
+  Sheet of glass
+  Oil paints
+  Turpentine
+  Palette knife
+  Cotton batting
+  Cheese cloth
+
+(4) Finishing the runner
+Embroidery silk or mercerized cotton
+
+[Illustration: The peacock design]
+
+_The Design._--To carry out the problem as illustrated, it is
+necessary, first of all, to make the design. Geometry, nature, and the
+imagination are satisfactory sources upon which to draw for the motif.
+If the inventive faculty is quite undeveloped, one should study for
+suggestions the figures in Oriental rugs, photographs of early Eastern
+art, and the fine old tapestries in museum collections. Some good
+geometrical designs, like that used on the pillow cover illustrated
+on page 104, were made by school-girls after drawing many figures
+found in rugs; and interesting bird patterns, after studying numerous
+reproductions of Coptic designs. In no case was the block pattern in
+the least like the designs studied. They served only as ideas to start
+with and led to the production of truly original work. It is essential
+to keep a few simple principles in mind in working out the design: (1)
+Both the dark and light shades in the patterns should be varied in
+size and form to avoid a monotonous result and should be as beautiful
+in proportion as possible. (2) There should be a centre of interest,
+one part of the design dominant--more attractive than any other. (3)
+The design must be a unit--_i. e._, the parts must hold together. All
+feeling of unity is lost if the parts of the design call attention to
+themselves to the exclusion of the whole.
+
+[Illustration: Block used in printing the peacock design]
+
+_Preliminary Sketches and the Drawing._--It will be found desirable to
+make many preliminary sketches in charcoal or soft pencil, rubbing in a
+part of each sketch with a tone in order to secure immediately the dark
+and light effect. These should be compared, keeping clearly in mind the
+principles stated above. When one possessing the right qualifications
+has been found, the next step is to draw on a fresh piece of paper an
+accurate 3-inch square and copy upon it the satisfactory design in
+pencil outline. This should be done very carefully, that the spirit
+of the original charcoal sketch may not be lost. When the drawing is
+completed it must be put into shape to be transferred to the block. To
+do this we fasten a piece of rice-paper over the drawing and trace with
+very light pencil lines, filling in the dark spaces with black ink,
+using a brush. This brush work may be done directly without the pencil
+line if the drawing underneath shows very plainly through the paper.
+When the ink has thoroughly dried, the design may be cut out on the
+edge of the 3-inch square.
+
+[Illustration: Bird pattern]
+
+_Laying the Pattern and Cutting the Block._--A block 3 x 3 x 7/8
+inches will now be required. This should be procured and sand-papered.
+One face of it should then be covered with a coating of library paste,
+the pattern laid upon it, and rubbed down smooth. If the design
+is symmetrical it should be pasted on the block, ink side up, but
+otherwise with the ink side down, or the design will be reversed upon
+the cloth. When the paste gets quite dry one may then fasten the block
+in the vise and, holding the blade of the knife at a slight angle and
+always away from the dark spots, proceed to cut the design along the
+outlines. These must be kept very smooth and sharp. All of the white
+shapes should be cut out, leaving the black ones in relief. Usually
+an eighth of an inch will be deep enough for the background, but it
+will be found after practise in printing that the larger spaces should
+be cut deeper and that, when the edges or corners of the block form
+a part of the background instead of the dark pattern, they also need
+a deeper cut. The paper that still adheres to the face of the block
+may now be removed by rubbing it upon a sheet of sand-paper laid upon
+something hard and smooth like glass in order that the block may have
+an absolutely level surface.
+
+[Illustration: A flower and leaf design]
+
+[Illustration: Block used in printing this design]
+
+_The Padded Board._--All block printing should be done upon a padded
+board. A very convenient one can be made by laying upon a bread board
+three or four sheets of blotting paper, and tacking over these several
+thicknesses of cheese cloth. In place of these an ironing board may be
+used.
+
+_Material Required._--It is essential to select for the runner a piece
+of crash of fine texture and even weave. This is sold under the name of
+Russian crash and is from 15 to 16 inches wide but varies considerably
+in quality. It is very difficult to print well upon the coarser grades.
+
+[Illustration: Alternating animal and geometrical design]
+
+[Illustration: Blocks used in printing this design]
+
+_Trying the Colours._--After deciding upon a colour which will
+harmonize with the general colour scheme of the room in which the
+table runner is to be used, it is in order to mix the paint and try
+the block upon a small piece of crash. To prepare the paint, squeeze
+a small quantity of the true colours chosen upon a sheet of glass and
+blend thoroughly with the palette knife, thinning with turpentine to
+the consistency of cream. It is seldom that a colour right from the
+tube will prove a pleasing one to use. Other colours mixed with it will
+change its hue and intensity; black or white will alter the value.
+Tie a little cotton batting up in a small square of cheese cloth or
+old handkerchief linen, being careful to remove from the raw edges
+all ravellings that might drop into the paint. Spread out quite thin
+upon the glass a small portion of the prepared paint and press the
+pad into it a number of times until it has absorbed all it will. Now
+charge the block by lightly pounding its surface with the pad. Press
+the block upon the cloth evenly. Only by repeated experiment will it
+be possible to determine just the right quantity of paint to mix, its
+brilliancy of tone, its consistency, how heavily to charge the block,
+etc. A good print shows the texture of the cloth through it, is even
+in tone, and has clear-cut edges. If the print looks like a painted
+spot, or if, when quite dry, you find it has stiffened the cloth, the
+paint used was too thick or else the block was too heavily charged.
+Different materials require different treatment. For a thin silk the
+block should be very lightly charged and lightly though evenly pressed
+upon the material. In printing upon crash it is necessary to press
+the block very firmly upon the material; and frequently, to insure
+getting a sufficiently strong impression, it is advisable to tap the
+block lightly with a hammer or wooden mallet. If one has a steady hand,
+the block can easily be lifted at one side to determine just where the
+extra pressure is needed. The block should be thoroughly rubbed with
+old cloth after each impression is made and occasionally sand-papered
+to remove any paint that may adhere to it. The first print made after
+sand-papering the block is liable to be a little less distinct than the
+others and should therefore be made upon an extra piece of the material.
+
+_Centring the Work._--A good way to plan the placing of the panel
+design is to run a basting thread across the crash between two of the
+woven threads. Mark the centre of the runner upon this thread, and,
+using these guides, print the design, beginning with one of the central
+units.
+
+_Additional Features._--Considerable charm can be added to the pattern
+by filling some of the spaces with a simple darning or running stitch
+in some bright colour. The embroidery thread used should be rather
+fine. It is well to finish the ends of the runner by button-holing with
+ravellings of the crash. Tiny dots of some colour used in the panel
+may be embroidered at intervals just above the button-holed edge.
+
+_Colours._--The following list of oil colours will be found practical:
+ivory black, flake white, burnt sienna, light red, crimson lake, chrome
+yellow, chrome green, permanent blue.
+
+_Materials._--Linen, cotton, soisette, all or part silk pongee, crepe
+de chine, cheese cloth, and unbleached muslin are excellent materials
+for block printing. Beautiful background tones can be obtained by
+dyeing the two latter with easy dyes.
+
+In place of the gum wood for the block, basswood, maple, or holly may
+be used. It is possible to get along without a vise by fastening the
+block between two cleats nailed to an old table or heavy board. Success
+is sometimes achieved in cutting blocks while simply held in the hand.
+
+_Laundering._--If the material used for the foundation is washable,
+block printed articles can be satisfactorily and easily laundered in
+soapy, lukewarm water. The colours are not injured in the least. A
+liquid called stencil mordant is sometimes used in place of turpentine,
+insuring still greater permanency of colour.
+
+_Other Applications of Block Printing._--Other articles suitable for
+decoration by block printing are curtains, pillow covers, table covers,
+cushion covers, bureau scarfs, Portieres, table mats, bags of many
+sorts, etc. Printing may also be used to ornament articles for personal
+use, such as aprons and scarfs.
+
+
+STENCILLING
+
+Problem: _Window Draperies_.--Making the design, cutting the stencil,
+printing, and finishing form the divisions of the problem to be worked
+out. A list of necessary materials follows:
+
+  (1) Making the design
+  Charcoal
+  Pencil
+  Reflector
+  Ordinary drawing paper
+  Tracing paper
+  Carbon paper
+  Stencil paper
+
+  (2) Cutting the stencil
+  Sheet of glass
+  Sharp penknife
+
+  (3) Printing
+  Large board
+  Blotting paper
+  Turpentine
+  Oil paints
+  Bristle brushes
+  Pins
+
+_The Design._--Suggestions as to the method of procedure in making
+a design have been already given in the section on block printing.
+The principles of design to be considered are outlined there also.
+In working out this problem, however, several new things come up for
+explanation: (1) The difference between a design to be stenciled and
+one to be printed by means of a wood block; (2) the method of
+joining units to form a border; (3) the method of turning a corner in a
+border design.
+
+[Illustration: Window Draperies With Stenciled Border. Designed and
+Executed by a School Girl. Plate IV]
+
+_The Stencil Bands._--By studying the illustrations accompanying this
+section and by experimenting with the charcoal or soft pencil, it will
+be seen that in a stencil design the dark spots which stand for the
+color in the finished work are completely separated from one another by
+bands of varying widths.
+
+[Illustration: A stencilled pattern--portion of pillow cover]
+
+These bands, or bridges, as they are called, serve to hold the stencil
+together and are connected throughout the design. Though they may be as
+wide as one desires, it is seldom wise to make them much narrower than
+one eighth of an inch, as they are easily broken; and, unless carefully
+pinned down when stencilling, the paint is liable to run under them and
+ruin the work. In a block print design no connection of the light or
+separation of the dark parts has to be considered. In the illustration
+of the stencil observe that the dark and light are reversed as compared
+with the stencilled pattern--_i. e._, the dark represents the stencil
+paper, the light the openings through which the paint is applied.
+
+[Illustration: The stencil for this pattern]
+
+_The Complete Unit._--It will be readily understood that a border may
+be made up by repetition of one unit which is a complete thing in
+itself. The unit in such a case may be made very long and narrow, so
+that in repeating it along the vertical edge of a curtain it produces
+a narrow band, while along the horizontal edge the band is broad. A
+border worked out in this way, with perfectly straight and practically
+continuous margins, is very structural in character, emphasizing, as
+it does, the vertical and horizontal edges of the drapery. The effect
+is strong and dignified. The corner in this kind of border presents no
+difficulty.
+
+_The Subordinate Unit._--By studying the illustration in Plate IV it
+will be seen that the unit of the border in this case is not complete
+in itself, but that the very conventional flower and stem composing it
+are joined to the next unit by what might be called a subordinate unit,
+composed, in this case, of a leaf form. The units are so closely spaced
+that a structural effect is fairly well obtained--_i. e._, the upper
+and lower edges of the border are nearly straight, giving a feeling of
+restfulness to the design that never accompanies one with broken or
+wavy edges.
+
+_Designing the Corner._--Having planned a design for the straight
+running border of the curtains, take a reflector and experiment with
+the corner. The reflector can easily be made by cutting from an old
+discarded looking-glass a small rectangular piece, 3-1/2 by 6 inches
+being a convenient size. The edges should be very straight and the
+corners square. Hold the reflector at various points along the border
+and always at an angle of 45 degrees. Study these possible corners
+which will be reflected in the glass, and when one sufficiently strong
+and interesting is found draw a light line along the edge of the
+reflector. This line, of course, exactly bisects the corner of the
+border to be made. Avoid making a border of this kind too deep or, when
+turned for the vertical edges, it will form a very broad and heavy band.
+
+_The Outline Drawing._--The dark and light design having thus been
+worked out in charcoal, the next thing to do is to make a very careful
+pencil-outline drawing of the same. It is well to draw the corner
+and one unit free-hand and trace the rest. To do the tracing, pin a
+piece of very thin paper over the finished part, and trace with a well
+sharpened and fairly soft pencil. Turn the tracing paper upside down,
+fitting a part of the tracing to the drawing underneath. After tacking
+it down, trace the remainder, using a firm, even pressure and being
+careful exactly to follow the line. Strengthen the part of the pattern
+thus transferred by going over it with a sharp, hard point, and
+continue as before until you have a border of which both the vertical
+and horizontal sections are from 9 to 12 inches long.
+
+_Transfer to Stencil Paper._--Now, take a piece of stencil paper and
+square up one corner. Fasten the pencil drawing securely to the stencil
+paper along one edge, slip a piece of carbon paper between the two, and
+trace the design.
+
+_Cutting the Stencil._--Before cutting the stencil for the curtain
+a beginner should do a little practising upon an extra piece of the
+paper. Trace a portion of the design upon this piece, lay it upon a
+sheet of glass or very hard wood, and with a sharp penknife cut along
+the outline of the pattern. The knife should be held at a slight angle
+and the cut made completely through the paper. The pieces of stencil
+paper should never be pulled out but will fall out without aid when the
+cutting is completed. After a little practice it will be found a simple
+matter to cut the design with perfectly smooth edges.
+
+_Suitable Materials for Stencilling._--For the curtains fine cheese
+cloth or batiste will be found excellent. Even unbleached muslin will
+make attractive curtains where expense must be carefully considered.
+Unless the woodwork of the room is white, the pure white materials
+will be found less pleasing than those that are quite creamy in tone.
+Scrim in a charming, grayish tan colour is obtainable, and, if of good,
+soft quality, makes most satisfactory curtains. It is not advisable to
+hemstitch this material before stencilling as in case of accident or
+failure so much work is lost; but the hems should be carefully planned
+and basted, those along the inner edges of the curtains being narrower
+than the bottom hems.
+
+_The Colours._--The color scheme of the room should be carefully
+considered in deciding upon the colour or colours to be used in
+stencilling. If two colours are chosen, they should be of the same
+value--_i. e._, the two colours should form equally dark spots in order
+that the pattern of the border may appear in the same dark and light as
+the original charcoal sketch.
+
+_Pinning the Stencil._--When ready for the actual process of
+stencilling, lay a large sheet of blotting paper upon a board and over
+this place the corner of the curtain. Pin the stencil securely to the
+curtain so that the edge of the border when printed shall be about
+half an inch from the hem and the edges of both shall be absolutely
+parallel. Use as few pins as possible but enough to keep the stencil
+close to the cloth.
+
+_Testing the Paint._--Having mixed the oil paint with turpentine or
+stencil mordant, using an old cup or glass for each colour, practise
+stencilling upon a small piece of cloth. Put blotting-paper under
+the cloth and pin the stencil down with great care. Use short, stiff
+bristle brushes for the stencilling, one for each colour. Remove almost
+all the paint from the brush by pressing it upon blotting-paper. When
+it leaves scarcely a mark, proceed to stencil the pattern by pounding
+the brush upon the exposed portions of the cloth, working close to
+the edge of each spot. If, upon removing the stencil, the edges are
+blurred, the paint was too thin or the stencil not carefully pinned
+down. If, on the other hand, the coloured spots look thick and painty,
+so that upon drying, the cloth is found stiffened in these places, you
+may be sure that the paint used was too thick or that the brush was too
+wet. The secret of good stencilling is to use the paint as thin and the
+brush as dry as possible. Hold the stencilled sample up to the window
+and see whether, when the light shines through it, the colour appears
+right.
+
+_The Real Process._--When confident that the process is understood
+and that the colour is satisfactory, proceed to stencil the corner of
+the curtain. Always have at hand a bottle of turpentine and a clean
+piece of cloth to use in case of accident. When removing the pins from
+the stencil wipe each one carefully. Clean the stencil, too, handling
+it with care that none of the slender bridges may be broken. Replace
+the stencil, fitting a section of it to the finished work. Put the
+pins in the holes already made, otherwise the paint will get into
+them and disfigure the work. Continue the stencilling, a section at a
+time, until the border is completed. Do not fold the curtains until
+the stencilling is thoroughly dry. If the threads of the material can
+be easily pulled, a hemstitched edge will make the best finish; but
+careful hand hemming will look well upon material like fine batiste.
+
+_The Valance._--The curtains should hang in vertical folds from the top
+of the window to a point slightly below the window sill. They should be
+drawn back at each side of the window and the space between at the top
+filled by a valance about a foot deep, perhaps deeper if the window is
+very high. This valance should have the border stencilled upon it and
+should be tacked just underneath the edge of the curtains. Sometimes,
+as in the illustration in Plate IV, a valance running across
+the entire width of the window is used. In this case it is run upon an
+extra rod in front of the one from which the curtain hangs. Double
+rods for this purpose can be bought.
+
+_Other Possible Problems._--As stencilling can be employed in
+practically the same place and upon the same materials as block
+printing, it is only necessary to refer to the lists given at the
+end of that section of this chapter for suggestions as to further
+possibilities in the way of home decoration by stencilling.
+
+
+EMBROIDERY
+
+Problem: _Table Mat_.--As in the preceding problems, the first thing to
+do is to plan the design roughly in charcoal or soft pencil in order
+to get the dark and light relations and the best proportions possible.
+If convenient, the mat should be made for use with some special lamp
+or vase. By measuring the base of this object it is easy to determine
+the size of the plain central space, which may be either circular or
+square in shape. The forms in the decorated part may be made of various
+shapes, but it is well to keep them very simple in outline. Straight
+lines alone may be employed, as in the mats illustrated in Plate V,
+or a combination of straight and curved lines, as in the one shown in
+Plate III. After working out the design very accurately with a
+hard pencil, the next thing in order is to transfer it to a piece of
+coarse Russian crash or heavy linen by means of carbon paper, taking
+great care to get the straight edges of the design even with the
+threads of the crash.
+
+_Desirable Combinations of Colour and Stitches._--The simple running
+or darning stitch should be employed in embroidering the pattern.
+Two or more colours may be used. Darning in dull green and outlining
+with black in the same stitch makes a very attractive mat. Other good
+combinations are green and white, blue and white, blue and green, soft
+dull blue, and pinkish orange. This by no means exhausts the pleasing
+contrasts that may be found. The brighter colour should always be
+employed in the smaller quantities. The mat illustrated in Plate V was
+embroidered in dull green and red mercerized cotton. After the darning
+was completed it was found that the red used in the small circles alone
+was too conspicuous, although it was very dull in tone. This defect
+was completely remedied and a perfect unity given to the design by
+outlining the forms in a couching stitch, using both colours. This was
+done by laying a green thread along the edge of each spot and taking a
+stitch of red over it at equal intervals.
+
+[Illustration: CROCHETED PANELS
+
+A Linen Workbag With Conventional Landscape in Darning Stitch
+
+A Crash Table Mat Embroidered in Darning and Couching Stitch
+
+Designed and Executed by School Girls. Plate V]
+
+After the embroidered pattern is done one may finish the mat with fine,
+close hemstitching or by button-holing the edge with ravellings of the
+crash. The latter method is usually more pleasing. The simple darning
+stitch can also be used to make very attractive borders for table
+runners, sofa pillows, decorations for work bags, as illustrated in
+Plate V, besides being used to enrich a great variety of block printed
+or stencilled articles.
+
+_The Satin Stitch._--Another effective and easy embroidery stitch to be
+used in decorating articles for the home is the over-and-over or satin
+stitch. When planning to use this stitch upon coarse linen in which
+the threads can be easily counted, transfer the design, after having
+carefully drawn it in pencil outline, to paper marked off into little
+squares. This can be bought where kindergarten supplies are sold.
+Redraw the outline of the design, following exactly the lines on the
+paper, and at the same time keep as close as possible to the original
+form. Let a certain number of threads of linen represent a square of
+the design and copy the pattern in the satin stitch or even the cross
+stitch if preferred. No transferring of the pattern to the cloth is
+necessary.
+
+A pattern worked out on cross section paper in this way can also be
+crocheted, as illustrated in Plate V, and set into linen or some of its
+many imitations to decorate numberless articles for home or personal
+adornment. This crocheted work, if evenly done in fine thread, is quite
+suggestive of the Italian filet lace.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+DRESS AND THE PRINCIPLES OF DECORATION
+
+    "A foolish little maiden had a foolish little bonnet
+    With a feather and a ribbon and a bit of lace upon it;
+    And that the other maidens of the little town might know it,
+    She thought she'd go to meeting of a Sunday just to show it.
+
+    'Hallelujah! hallelujah!' sang the choir above her head.
+    'Hardly knew you! hardly knew you!' were the words she
+    thought they said."
+
+
+In considering the dress of the person as related to home decoration
+one is not so far afield as one may seem to be at first thought. It
+is true that dress has a variety of functions to perform that have no
+connection with the subject of decoration; and yet there is much that
+is common to both. Well-dressed people of whatever age or sex, in the
+design and general make-up of their costumes, must observe the same
+laws that govern design wherever it is applied, as an expression of
+the artistic sense in the affairs of every-day life. Beauty of line
+and proportion, harmony of colour, adaptation to use and to a great
+variety of special conditions, simplicity, symmetry, restraint, are all
+involved in personal attire, as they are in the decoration of a room;
+and in most cases success or failure in one field has its counterpart
+in the other. Have we not often remarked of a house or of a room
+that it looks "just like her" or perhaps "just like him"; and do not
+attractive costumes give pleasure to others than those who wear them
+for the same reasons that properly decorated and well-arranged rooms
+afford similar enjoyment to those who live in them?
+
+_Art and the Fashions._--In discussing the parallel between art
+in clothing and the more stable art of home decoration it must be
+admitted, of course, that style in dress introduces some embarrassing
+questions; for the styles, especially for women, suffer wonderful
+changes with every season. And yet people of artistic feeling and good
+taste, succeed in maintaining a fair degree of harmony between the
+changing demands of fashion and the established principles of art as
+applied in dress.
+
+_How to Be Well Dressed._--The well-dressed woman knows how to select
+her clothes and how to wear them. She must study her own figure and
+know her defects as well as her good points. With this knowledge she
+can learn to subdue the one and bring out the other. She should have a
+clear conception of the ideal figure and strive to adapt herself to
+it. To acquire this training the principles of the art of decoration
+must be understood and applied. She should never wear a garment of a
+certain style simply because it is the fashion, but strive to make it
+conform to her individual type.
+
+_Good Lines._--Decorative design in dress must follow the construction
+lines of the figure and not destroy them. These are the much discussed
+good lines of which we hear and read so much. Horizontal lines break
+the figure and increase the breadth, while vertical lines give the
+appearance of height. It is the simple lines, conforming to and
+following the lines of the ideal figure, which are the best. The
+taste of most women leads them to desire simple clothes; but through
+ignorance or inexperience many of these women fail to achieve that aim.
+A stout woman with a round back is sometimes seen wearing a dress with
+lapels or ruffles over the shoulders. This only serves to accentuate
+her defect.
+
+_Unity and Harmony._--In all forms of decoration harmony is
+essential--_i. e._, all the parts that are to be combined must agree
+with one another and with their surroundings. To secure this in dress
+is to give unity to the entire costume. A dress hat with plumes should
+not be worn with a tailored suit in the morning; and yet we often see
+such a combination. Here the lack of harmony is between the parts of
+the costume; but the entire costume must be suited to the peculiarities
+of figure. There are women who never look well in the straight lines
+of a tailored suit: the severity is not becoming to them. They must
+tone down the effects of the lines by ruchings, ruffles, a soft stock,
+or some such softening elements of dress. Others do not look well in
+fluffy things. Each must know what is becoming and dress accordingly.
+
+_Importance of Colours._--Every season we hear that certain colours
+are to be worn. Many women will choose a colour because they like it
+without considering whether it is suitable for them to wear. A little
+attention to a few well-known facts will help them to avoid failures
+of this kind. It is generally recognized that light colours seem to
+increase the size. Striped materials should not be worn by the stout
+women unless the stripes are very indistinct. Dots are also very
+dangerous for her; but she may choose a pattern with pin-point dots
+scattered over the surface at some distance from each other. She is
+always safe in a plain, dark colour.
+
+_Colour and Complexion._--In deciding on a becoming colour one must
+take into account the colour of the hair and eyes and the tone of
+the complexion. It has been thought that young girls can wear clear,
+light shades and that older women should keep to dark, quiet colours;
+yet there are older women who wear pale gray, mauve, and lavender
+charmingly and many young girls who cannot wear blue or pink. It is
+quite impossible to make accurate colour rules, because it would be
+hard to find two complexions that require exactly the same colour
+setting. It is well, however, to study combinations of different
+colours with the idea of finding the right colour, to use in any
+costume, the amount of each, and the best arrangement to give a proper
+balance.
+
+_Proportion._--The importance of the principle of proportion is often
+overlooked, but beauty of dress is never possible if it be neglected. A
+well-dressed woman, in selecting her hat, must have given consideration
+to the relation of the size and shape of the head to the lines of the
+entire figure. Strictly speaking, a hat is a covering for the head,
+and it should seem to belong to the head, to protect it, and, through
+harmony of colour and proportion of line and mass, to improve the
+appearance of the whole costume. The artist, when drawing a figure,
+uses the head as the unit of measure. Therefore in choosing a hat
+one should select a style that is in good proportion to the size of
+the head and to the height of the figure. If the mass of the head is
+increased disproportionately by too large a hat, the entire figure is
+apparently shortened and the natural proportions destroyed. One often
+wonders why photographs of people with hats on look so old-fashioned
+and sometimes so ridiculous. It is because the hat is not in good
+proportion. The Gainsborough and Reynolds ladies with hats never look
+queer. Their hats bear the right relation to the head and the figure.
+
+_Appropriateness._--The general proportions of a hat or a gown may
+be good, but the addition of the decoration may destroy all the good
+effect obtained by securing the right relation of line and mass. The
+aim of all decoration should be to harmonize and strengthen the whole.
+Beauty of dress, therefore, depends upon simplicity and appropriateness
+of the material used as well as upon the form and arrangement of the
+material. Wherever ornament is used it must fulfil the condition of
+fitness to place; otherwise it is not really decorative. In trimming a
+hat, the one who is to wear it should take her seat before a mirror,
+and place the hat comfortably upon her head; then with the aid of a
+hand glass she should try the trimming in different positions until
+the best effect is obtained.
+
+The designs in trimming should be appropriate to the garment. The size
+of the design and the kind of form used should be considered. Simple
+forms are the best for all decorative art work. In fact, there is great
+advantage in plain materials. They always work to greater economy than
+stripes or plaids.
+
+_Influence of Occupation._--The well-dressed woman should realize how
+great is the influence of occasion and occupation. Some gowns were
+intended only for afternoon wear in the house; but we often see them
+worn on the street cars or for shopping. I have always approved of the
+rule in many shops which requires the clerks to wear plain black gowns.
+Formerly it was the old finery which was used for every-day wear. Now
+the business woman to be successful has to exercise more thought upon
+her clothes than the woman at home. Her clothes have harder wear and
+must be appropriate for her work.
+
+The dress of school-girls and children must not be overlooked. It
+should be as simple as possible and above all else it should be
+comfortable. It should never bind or pinch; indeed, the clothing should
+not interfere with any function of the body. But we often see children
+dressed with much lace, with many ruffles, and even with jewellery;
+and we have seen school girls wearing net waists, plumed hats, and
+high-heeled shoes. What an infraction is this of the principle of
+appropriateness in dress!
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+FURNITURE MAKING
+
+     It is only by labour that thought can be made healthy, and only by
+     thought that labour can be made happy--_John Ruskin_
+
+
+The chief purpose of this chapter is to outline the most important
+general facts upon which good furniture making is based and to give
+specific directions for working out a number of typical problems,
+following designs which have been proved in completed articles made,
+for the most part, by school-boys and tested by use. No attempt is made
+to give this great subject complete and systematic treatment; for this
+would involve many problems in constructive design and a corresponding
+number of working drawings, with specifications for the selection and
+preparation of materials and for the work of construction--a subject so
+extensive that it would easily overrun the limits of a single chapter.
+The aim is rather to select a few of the most suggestive lessons of
+experience in constructive work with special reference to our main
+subject of household decoration.
+
+It is taken for granted that the interested reader is familiar with
+the use of the common hand tools for woodworking or that he can, with
+some assistance, perhaps, easily command their use. It is not thought
+necessary, therefore, to describe in detail the proper method of using
+tools, but rather to offer practical suggestions on the selection,
+preparation and constructive use of woodworking materials and, in the
+series of problems which follow, to give some helpful hints on the way
+woodworking tools should be used. It is also assumed that in most cases
+the very great advantage of woodworking machinery may be utilized,
+especially in preparing the materials and bringing them within easy
+reach of the hand-tool processes. The true art-craft spirit, which
+always honours handwork as the supreme method, may not hesitate
+to command the services of machines so long as it does not become
+slavishly dependent upon them.
+
+
+SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK
+
+The first thing that should claim the attention of the artistic
+woodworker is the selection and preparation of his materials, commonly
+known as the stock. The sculptor selects his marbles with the
+greatest care. So should the cabinet-maker make sure that his woods
+are taken from the right parts of selected timber and that they are
+properly sawed and well seasoned. The importance of this cannot be
+overestimated. Hard wood boards, cut from the sides of a tree, will in
+drying, invariably curve across their grain. It is only those that are
+cut from the centre to the outside of the tree that may be depended
+upon to remain approximately true; for, after this cutting, the grain
+runs directly through the thickness of the board, or nearly so. Boards
+taken from timber in this way are said to be "quarter sawed"; those cut
+by sawing through the logs from side to side, as is always done with
+soft woods and often with hard woods, are said to be "plain sawed."
+This is illustrated in the accompanying drawings.
+
+_Quartered Oak._--In the case of oak, the quarter sawing not only
+maintains a flat surface but greatly improves the appearance of the
+stock when finished. The popularity of quartered oak for furniture may
+therefore be said to be well founded, for it is the sincerest of woods.
+It is as good as it looks.
+
+[Illustration: Quarter sawed log]
+
+Quarter sawing, however, is very largely confined to oak because the
+appearance of the grain and the strength of most woods is far from
+being improved by this method of cutting. Thus ash and gum wood and all
+the softer woods sometimes used in furniture making are plain sawed.
+We shall, therefore, generally find stock from these woods curved and
+twisted badly so that it will be necessary, in selecting material for
+large surfaces such as table tops, to pick out the straight parts for
+these surfaces and save the remainder to be cut into the smaller pieces
+which will always be needed. These pieces can be easily planed without
+much loss of thickness.
+
+[Illustration: End of quarter sawed board]
+
+[Illustration: Plain sawed log]
+
+[Illustration: End of plain sawed board]
+
+_Kiln-dried Lumber._--This bending and twisting of the boards does not
+take place as soon as they are sawed out of the log, but gradually
+during the process of seasoning; and, unless the lumber is kiln-dried,
+the more gradual the seasoning the less the bending. Lumber is
+kiln-dried by stacking it, with air spaces left between the boards, in
+steam-heated closets or kilns, where the process of drying is carried
+on evenly though rapidly. Kiln-dried lumber, therefore, retains its
+shape quite as well as that which is dried slowly in the lumber pile.
+But whether kiln-dried or not, it should be allowed to remain in a
+dry place as long as possible before using it so that it will have a
+chance to change all that it is likely to and so lessen the subsequent
+shrinking and warping. A good cabinet-maker never undertakes to make
+furniture from stock that he does not know to be perfectly dry and well
+seasoned, not only because unseasoned lumber is more likely to shrink,
+warp, and crack, but also because it cannot be depended upon to hold
+the glue, take varnish well, or respond readily to other methods of
+finishing.
+
+_Planing Down to a Flat Surface._--Since boards are seldom perfectly
+flat, even if one has taken the greatest pains to select well-seasoned
+stock, it will almost invariably be necessary to work them down to a
+plane surface when they are glued up or joined together in any way.
+To accomplish this result it is necessary to plan the arrangement of
+the pieces in such a way that the concave of the bend shall fall on
+the same side, as shown in the illustration, and thus provide for the
+final working down with the least possible removal of stock. They can
+be arranged on a level bench top or floor with the convex side down so
+that they will lie as flat as possible. The boards should then be taken
+out one by one and their edges should be carefully planed so that they
+will match together in the position in which they are laid. It will
+be necessary to take each board from its place and return it several
+times in order that this matching may be made as perfect as possible.
+The object of all this is to prevent the entire arrangement from
+springing--_i. e._, from acquiring any new bend or twist when the parts
+are glued up. In joining boards to form large pieces of glued-up work,
+like table tops, it is customary to strengthen the joints by means of
+dowel pins. Small table tops and similar work may be safely glued up
+without dowelling.
+
+[Illustration: Boards placed for planing to flat surfaces]
+
+_Fastening Glued-up Work._ It will be readily understood upon a little
+reflection that all plain glued-up work should be allowed to move
+slightly upon the framework to which it is attached; for even after it
+is well seasoned and well finished all woods will swell slightly in a
+damp atmosphere and shrink slightly when the air is dry, the greatest
+movement being across the grain. Solid table tops, therefore, should
+never be fastened down firmly upon the framework with glue or with
+screws, but should be secured by means of buttons screwed to the under
+side of the top which travel in grooves cut in the framework and thus
+allow for expansion and contraction. A drawing is shown to illustrate
+the method of attaching the table-top buttons. Much of the warping and
+splitting of furniture is due to the failure of the designer or maker
+to observe this precaution.
+
+[Illustration: Method of fastening table tops]
+
+In planing up stock, whether it be a single piece or several glued
+together as just described, the cabinet-maker planes off one side first
+and then, using this side as the working face, gauges to the required
+thickness and planes off the other side if necessary. If the work be
+upon glued-up stock, it is well to plane off the projecting edges of
+the concave sides first, as that is generally somewhat easier and may
+be all the planing that will be necessary. If it be single pieces of
+stock that need to be planed up, the natural twist or "wind" is first
+planed out to a flat working face on one side before putting the plane
+to the opposite side.
+
+_The Surface Plate._--Planing to a flat surface requires some device
+to guide the eye. If the surface be very uneven at first, a beginning
+may be made in the planing without much assistance; but a point
+will finally be reached when neither the unaided eye nor the hand
+can determine whether or not a surface is flat. To determine this a
+surface plate, as it is called, is needed. This consists of a block of
+cast-iron, thick enough to prevent it from being bent--_i. e._, an inch
+or more--and with a somewhat rough but perfectly flat surface on one
+side. This surface is well chalked over. When the wood surface which is
+being planed down is laid upon this chalked surface and slightly moved
+it is readily seen that the highest places on the wood will become
+marked with the chalk and so indicate to the cabinet-maker what parts
+are to be removed. By making several tests of this kind he is able to
+plane to a good flat surface.
+
+[Illustration: Winding sticks]
+
+_Winding Sticks._--If the amateur's workshop is not provided with
+a surface plate, a simple means of testing for a flat surface is
+by means of two narrow straight edges or "winding" sticks, placing
+them on their narrow edges across each end of the piece, as shown in
+the illustration, and sighting across their upper edges. The slight
+projections in the surfaces of the board can be determined in this way
+and planed off until the two top edges of the sticks are found to be
+level. These winding sticks are simply wooden strips, accurately made,
+with opposite faces parallel. Their dimensions may be 1 x 2-1/2 x 30
+inches.
+
+_Importance of True Surfaces._--It may be well to add that all this
+care to produce flat and parallel surfaces is not merely for the
+purpose of giving a good appearance to these surfaces. True surfaces
+are necessary for the good of the work as a whole, for they form the
+basis from which other surfaces are gauged and other parts "trued
+up"--_i. e._, made square or otherwise geometrically correct. When the
+main surfaces of a piece of cabinet work are properly shaped, all the
+framework and other parts may be brought into line without bending
+or twisting. All such strains should be religiously avoided in good
+cabinet work. The natural curves, twists, or projections of the stock
+used should be removed by the use of the proper tools and never be
+strained to force any of the parts into their proper places or shapes.
+Such efforts produce strains which are transmitted to other parts,
+displacing them, causing new defects or a general failure of the parts
+to support each other.
+
+_A Systematic Plan of Work._--When the cabinet-maker undertakes to make
+either a single piece of furniture or several pieces, he goes about
+it in a very systematic way. Consulting his working drawing he makes
+an accurate list of the different pieces that will be required. For
+example, if he is to make a Morris chair he notes the fact that he will
+need four legs or posts 2-1/2 inches square by 22-3/4 inches long, a
+front rail and a back rail each 7/8 x 2-1/4 x 22 inches, two side rails
+7/8 x 2-1/4 x 24 inches, and so on until the list of necessary parts is
+completed. With this list in hand he makes a careful selection of the
+lumber and prepares the pieces in the rough, allowing economically for
+the necessary working waste. Economy of time and labour is also secured
+by keeping together all parts on which similar work is to be done.
+Thus, if several parts are to be sawed to the same width or fashioned
+to the same curves, it is generally the best plan to work these parts
+out together while the machines and tools are set for this purpose.
+Such a plan not only saves time but, partially at least, it obviates
+the danger of mistakes. It is important also to follow a systematic
+order of work. All sawing to rough dimensions should be done before the
+pieces are dressed to drawing dimensions, and the latter operations
+should generally all be completed before laying out and cutting the
+joints. As the work progresses toward completion great saving of time
+and much comfort will result from keeping the completed parts in good
+condition and so arranged that they can be easily assembled.
+
+
+GLUING
+
+_Necessity of Good Joints._--After the selection and preparation of the
+material for the stock, the next important general process that demands
+attention is gluing; for good cabinet work implies good glue and a
+knowledge of how to use it. Prepared glue, such as is sold in bottles,
+is unsatisfactory for work of any consequence. A good woodworker
+always has his own glue pot and sees to it that it may be made ready
+for use on short notice. The glue should be fresh, thin, and hot. It
+should be applied quickly in a warm room and the parts to which it is
+applied clamped up quickly before the glue chills. It is the glue which
+penetrates the wood that holds the parts together and not a layer of
+glue between the joined edges or surfaces. It is therefore evident not
+only that joints and surfaces should be well smeared with glue, hot
+and thin enough to be quickly absorbed, but also that the parts should
+be clamped up quickly while the glue is still hot so as to prevent any
+surplus from remaining in the joint. This is an additional reason for
+making close fits in all joints--in those which are to be glued up as
+well as in those which are not. It is a common fault of beginners to
+be satisfied with loose mortise and tenon joints, counting upon the
+glue to fill up the spaces. Much of the furniture found in the markets
+falls to pieces for the same reason. Such work should never be allowed
+to pass. It is based upon an entirely mistaken notion of the true
+office of glue and is nothing more nor less than a falsehood in wood.
+
+[Illustration: Method of holding framing parts square while glue is
+setting]
+
+_Systematic Methods Required._--As in the preparation of stock and
+working it up, so in gluing, system is all important. The hand screws
+or clamps should be made ready and adjusted to the required width so
+that they may be quickly placed in position as soon as the glue is
+applied. The whole process must be managed as quickly as possible
+because the joints must be tested before the glue has had time to
+set. A carpenter's large square should be used for testing the right
+angles, since it is more reliable than the small try squares. It will
+frequently be found necessary to hold framing pieces square while the
+glue is hardening. This can easily be done by nailing small strips
+of waste stock across the parts, as shown in the drawing. A beginner
+should be cautioned not to attempt to glue up too many joints at one
+time. Two opposite corners of a framing piece should be glued up
+separately and left to set before the attempt is made to glue the whole
+rectangle together. The two remaining joints, however, should be glued
+and clamped together at the same time.
+
+
+PICTURE FRAMING
+
+_Inexpensive Framing Stock._--Picture-frame stock can be easily
+obtained of dealers in artists' supplies and in furniture stores in a
+great variety of styles. Much of it is so well prepared and so nicely
+finished that it leaves little to be desired. It is, therefore, often
+best to secure the stock for frames in this way. It is, however,
+somewhat expensive, so that, when economy is important, it behooves the
+young woodworker to prepare his own framing stock.
+
+Very satisfactory frames 2 inches in width or less may be made from
+matched oak flooring, a section of which is here illustrated, by
+planing off the tongue and cutting away one side of the groove to
+furnish the inset for the glass. Wider flat frames of any thickness
+can, of course, be cut out from the ordinary stock. A special tool
+for cutting the inset is desirable but not necessary. A 1/4-inch
+saw cut may be made with a circular saw or even with a hand saw and
+the necessary removal of the wood accomplished by means of careful
+chiselling.
+
+[Illustration: Picture framing stock made from oak flooring]
+
+[Illustration: The mitre joint]
+
+_Mitres._--Frames may be joined at the corners in various ways. A
+common way is by the mitre joint illustrated in the drawing. To secure
+good joints of this kind it is necessary that the mitres be cut on an
+angle of exactly 45 degrees and that the pieces for the corresponding
+sides of the frame be precisely of the same length. Hand sawing is
+generally not exact enough to produce angles of sufficient accuracy
+even when an ordinary mitre box is used. Hand-sawed mitres, therefore,
+will require a little truing with a small plane. Great care must be
+exercised also in fitting the corners together. The common bench
+square is not large enough to prove the work. A better way is to lay a
+carpenter's framing square on the bench and fit the two pieces of the
+frame against the sides of the square, testing each corner in that way.
+
+[Illustration: Clamping mitre joints]
+
+_Gluing the Joints._--If the corners are unusually well fitted, a
+good joint can be made by first sizing the ends with glue and then
+firmly pressing the pieces together upon a true surface, leaving them
+undisturbed for four or five hours until the glue is hard. By sizing
+the ends of the joints is meant thoroughly filling the end pores with
+glue, rubbing it into the pores with another block. Generally speaking,
+however, it is necessary to make use of a mitre-clamping device. If
+a special clamping device is not available, one can be easily made
+by gluing small soft wood blocks to the parts of the frame near the
+corners, as shown in the accompanying drawing. In a half hour or so
+these blocks will become firmly set so that the mitre joints may
+be glued together, clamping them up with a hand screw. As already
+explained under the general directions on gluing, it is good practice
+for a beginner to glue up opposite corners and not attempt to glue up
+the two remaining corners until the first two are well set. When the
+first two corners are well set they should be nailed; and before the
+two remaining corners are glued it is well to try the parts together
+to see if they do not require a little correcting before gluing. These
+joints also should have light nailing after the glue has been set. In
+nailing, small holes should be made with a brad awl or drill in order
+to avoid splitting the corners, and long finishing nails should be used.
+
+_The Defect of Shrinking._--With proper tools the mitre joint is the
+easiest one to make, but it has one unavoidable defect, especially
+in wide frames. It is very difficult to get stock well seasoned and
+almost impossible to get it perfectly seasoned, so that wide frames,
+however well finished, must be expected to shrink a little after they
+are joined together. As most of this shrinking is across the width of
+the stock it is evident that it will tend to open the mitre joints on
+the inside of the corners. This is what happens almost invariably with
+joints made in this way from wide stock in picture framing. The same
+defect is also frequently observed in the interior finishing around
+windows and doors.
+
+There are three other methods of joining the corners of picture
+frames--_viz._, the halved lap joint, the mortise and tenon joint, and
+the dowelled joint. A drawing is shown to illustrate these three kinds
+of corner joints, and it is hardly necessary to say that no one of
+them is open to the same objection that attaches to the mitre joint.
+All these joints require accurate cutting and rather more of it than
+the mitre joint requires, but they are more easily glued up. The halved
+lap joint is easily clamped up with a common hand screw, even when the
+frame is a very large one. But the other two require long clamps in
+order to pull the joints up well.
+
+[Illustration: Halved lap joint]
+
+[Illustration: Mortise and tenon joint]
+
+_Character of the Frame._--The kind of joint required depends upon the
+general character of the frame--whether it is to be heavy or light,
+wide or narrow, and whether made of picture frame moulding or of the
+plain framing stock with round or flat face; and the character of the
+frame is a matter of design, determined by the kind of picture, by
+its setting, and by other considerations discussed in Chapter III.
+How the plan for the construction of the frame for any given picture
+is influenced by such considerations may be seen in the example which
+follows:
+
+[Illustration: Dowelled joint]
+
+
+MAKING A FRAME FOR A LARGE PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION
+
+This photograph is 60 inches long by 16 inches wide. It is a copy in
+brown tones of a classic painting by Otto Kneille--_The Education of
+Athenian Youth_, the original of which hangs in the Royal Gymnasium in
+Berlin. It represents a spacious hall or court showing three of the
+large marble columns and a massive seat in which an old man reclines
+while another old man is expounding some doctrine to him and to a
+group of younger men gathered around. In the centre of the scene a boy
+lies flat upon the pavement reading a manuscript. Near him several
+youths under the direction of a master, are contending in feats of
+strength. The composition is one that suggests weight and power. It
+may appropriately hang in the hall or in the library over a wide, low
+bookcase.
+
+A picture of this character needs no mat and must have a wide, heavy
+frame. The stock chosen was oak, 4 inches wide, 1-1/2 inches thick,
+and flat faced. The size and weight of such a frame, including the
+glass, demand firmness of construction as the first consideration.
+The stock is too wide for successful mitring because shrinking would
+naturally open and weaken such joints. It was therefore framed together
+with mortise and tenon joints, well glued. A dowelled joint might
+have sufficed, but it would not have the same strength. The mortises
+were cut in the vertical ends and the tenons were left on the long
+horizontal pieces. This was in conformity with the usual method of
+joining framework--for example, door frames, window frames, panel
+frames, and other interior woodwork; for the greatest possible length
+is invariably given to the vertical parts.
+
+The frame was given a dark brown finish, repeating the darkest tones of
+the picture. Long screw eyes were fastened to the back 2 inches from
+the top, so that the picture might hang nearly flat against the wall.
+A strong braided wire about 75 inches long was run through the eyes
+and securely looped at each end, so that a little more than an inch
+of wire on each side passed through the eyes. Since the picture was to
+have a prominent place on a certain wall, two nails 66 inches apart
+allowing for the two widths of the frame as well as for the length of
+the picture were driven into this wall, and the heavy photograph was
+easily hung and balanced without exposing the wire to view.
+
+
+TO MAKE A KNOCK-DOWN BOOKCASE
+
+[Illustration: A knock-down bookcase]
+
+_The Design._--The problem of design was to plan a simple, inexpensive
+bookcase which could be easily transported and set up in a student's
+room and which would hold approximately two hundred books. The drawings
+show how these requirements were met in the design. When in use it is
+held together by keyed shelves at the top and bottom. The necessary
+stiffness is given to it by the base pieces which are fastened both
+to the sides and to the bottom shelf by screws. Additional stiffness
+is given by drawing up the three middle shelves to the sides by
+means of screws. Upon removing the screws and the keys the bookcase
+is easily taken apart so that it may be crated in compact form for
+transportation. It is equally easy to set it up again. It has no back
+and may therefore stand away from the wall as well as against it. Its
+contour is plain, with few curves, giving a simplicity which will
+harmonize with modest surroundings and yet not bar it from keeping
+company with more pretentious furnishings.
+
+The original of this design was actually made up in white wood, stained
+and finished to harmonize with black walnut furniture; but it may
+be made up in oak, ash, cherry, or any of the common woods used for
+furniture. For one bookcase the stock required is as follows, the sizes
+allowing for finishing to the dimensions as given in the drawing: For
+the ends, two pieces 7/8 inch x 10-1/4 inches x 4 feet 2-1/2 inches;
+for the short shelves, three pieces 7/8 inch x 10-1/4 inches x 3 feet
+1 inch; for the long shelves, two pieces, 7/8 inch x 10-1/4 inches x
+3 feet 5 inches; for the base pieces, two pieces 7/8 inch x 6-3/4 x
+inches x 3 feet; for the keys, one piece 7/8 inch x 7/8 inch x 1 foot.
+In addition to this there should be two dozen No. 10 round-headed
+blued screws, and one half dozen 1-1/2 inch No. 10 flat headed blued
+screws.
+
+The tools needed are as follows: Rip saw, cross cut saw, back saw,
+compass, jack-plane, smoothing plane, block plane, spokeshave, try
+square, steel square, rule, knife, hammer, mallet, screw-driver, 3/4,
+1/2, and 3/16 inch bits and bitstock, and 1/2 and 3/4 inch chisels,
+gauges, and sand-paper.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for a knock-down bookcase]
+
+_Construction._--All the stock should be jointed, planed to width,
+and smoothed with sand-paper. The two end pieces should be squared to
+length, the top corners rounded, and the curve at the bottom cut as
+shown in the drawing. Care should be exercised in sand-papering not
+to round the edges. The correct spacing for the shelves should then
+be marked off on the end pieces and squared across, care being taken
+to have both ends spaced alike. To do this plane the ends together,
+with their edges flush; and, beginning at the bottom, measure off each
+of the spaces with correct allowance for the thickness of the shelf
+and mark these spaces across the edge. Then, separate the end pieces
+and with the marks on the edges as a guide, square across each of
+the end pieces on the inside and mark with a knife. In allowing for
+the thickness of the shelves it should be remembered that the stock,
+though originally 7/8 of an inch in thickness, has been planed and
+sand-papered, some of the shelves perhaps having been finished down
+more than others. It will therefore be necessary to measure and allow
+for the thickness of each shelf separately.
+
+[Illustration: Method of gaining-in the shelves]
+
+The three middle shelves are "gained" in--_i. e._, set into grooves in
+the upright ends--1/4 of an inch deep, as shown in the sketch. It will
+be better craftsmanship if the grooves are not carried across the full
+width of the end pieces but stopped, say, one inch from the edge, the
+shelves being cut to fit, as shown in the drawing. If this be done, the
+grooves should be cut out carefully with a chisel. If the grooves be
+carried across the full width of the end, they may be cut down with a
+back saw and then chiselled out. To insure a good fit in either case
+care should be exercised not to cut outside the knife lines. Chisel the
+bottom of the grooves carefully so that they will be uniformly 1/4 of
+an inch deep.
+
+The next step is to cut the mortises for the top and bottom shelves.
+The dimensions for these should first be laid off on the stock by
+means of a gauge. They should then be bored well inside the marks and
+carefully chiselled out. Before this chiselling is done, however,
+knife lines should be marked on the outside of the end pieces exactly
+opposite the gauge lines. In mortising, as in cutting the grooves, the
+greatest care will need to be exercised that the chisel does not cut
+outside the knife lines. In working for a close fit it is better to
+err on the side of removing too little stock at first, if one must err
+at all, since it is quite easy to remove a little more in the final
+fitting. It is quite impossible to replace stock once removed.
+
+In measuring for the length of the shelves it should not be overlooked
+that the top and bottom shelves are to carry the tenons to be keyed
+through the end pieces. These tenons should be cut out accurately with
+a rip saw, and the stock between them removed with a chisel after
+a deep knife line has been made. After fitting these tenons to the
+mortises and finishing them, the mortises for the keys should be cut,
+using a small chisel. It should not be overlooked that the outside
+face of each key mortise is cut on an angle, as illustrated. The three
+middle shelves are then cut to length, the ends squared by means of a
+block plane, and corners cut out to fit the grooves.
+
+[Illustration: Details of the keys]
+
+The parts are now ready to be put together temporarily and squared up
+in order to fit in the base pieces more perfectly than could be done by
+mere measurement. It will add a pleasing detail to set back these base
+pieces 1/4 of an inch from the front and back faces.
+
+After all the parts are carefully fitted they should be assembled
+and the key and screw fastenings inserted. When this is accomplished
+the bookcase is ready for finishing. As this is a distinct part of
+furniture making it is reserved for treatment in a later chapter.
+
+
+A HANGING BOOK RACK
+
+[Illustration: A hanging book rack]
+
+_The Design._--It is designed to plan a light but strong book rack, to
+be fastened to the wall of a chamber. Since it is intended to occupy
+the space that might be given to pictures it is properly as simple in
+construction as a picture frame, depending upon good proportions and
+symmetry to give a pleasing effect. The straight lines of the design,
+which is illustrated above, meet these requirements and also harmonize
+with the general form and outline of books. Both shelves may be used
+for books, if desired, but the design permits them to be confined to
+the lower shelf, reserving the upper one as a suitable place for a bit
+of pottery or two, or some other choice bit of bric-a-brac. The mortise
+and tenon joints give the essential stiffness and strength without
+requiring the use of heavy stock.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Since strength with lightness is an essential
+feature to realize in the working out of this design, soft woods should
+be avoided. Ash is probably the strongest of the light woods in common
+use. Oak is much stronger but heavy and hard to work. White wood is
+comparatively light and very strong. Gum wood is classified with ash
+excepting that it is closer grained. Since this book rack is to be used
+in a chamber in which the wood trim is in enamelled white and most of
+the furniture of a mahogany finish, it will be equally appropriate to
+make it of white wood, to be finished in enamelled white, or of bay
+wood as a basis for mahogany finish. It was decided to adopt the latter
+course.
+
+The stock requirements for carrying out this design are as follows: 2
+back posts, 1-1/4 inch x 1-1/4 inch x 24 inches; 2 front posts, 1-1/4
+inch x 1-1/4 x 18 inches; 2 centre uprights, 5/8 x 1 x 18 inches; 1
+back rail, 5/8 x 1-1/4 x 37 inches; 1 end rail, 1 x 1-1/4 x 44 inches;
+and 2 shelves, 7/8 x 7 by 37 inches.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book
+rack (front)]
+
+The tools needed are much like those required in the previous
+problem--_i. e._, the same planes, saws, bitstock, squares, and the
+gauge; but there will be needed a 3/8-inch bit, 3/8-inch and 3/4-inch
+chisels, a knife rule, a rabbet plane, a mitre box, and a mallet.
+
+_Construction._--The details of construction required are as follows:
+Dressing the stock pieces, cutting the posts to length, cutting the
+points on the posts, rabbeting the cross rails and cutting them to
+length, cutting the mortise and tenons, halving on the end rails,
+cutting and fitting the shelves, cutting, fitting, and fastening the
+back rail, arranging the clamps and other appliances for gluing up, and
+cleaning off the glue after hardening.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions for hanging book
+rack (end)]
+
+[Illustration: How the tenon is applied to the rail]
+
+The stock pieces should be first "dressed" down to the drawing
+dimensions. This means that they should be planed and sand-papered
+preparatory to laying out the cutting dimensions. The front and back
+posts should be cut to length in the mitre box, care being taken to
+allow an extra 1/2 inch for the pointed ends at the top and bottom.
+These pointed ends are cut in the mitre box by raising one end of the
+post and sawing to lines squared around the post 1/4 inch from the
+other end. The angle of the cut is made uniform by resting the raised
+end of the post on a block lightly nailed on the inside of the mitre
+box, thus giving the same elevation for all the posts. The 1-inch by
+1-1/4-inch piece for rails is rabbeted out, using the plane designed
+for that purpose, and afterward cut to length as called for. The blind
+mortises should be made not more than 7/8 of an inch deep, and the
+tenons 1/16 of an inch shorter in order not to strike the bottom of the
+mortise. One of these rails should be accurately laid out with knife
+lines and the rest marked from this as a pattern. The drawing shows the
+location of the tenon with reference to the part of the rail on which
+the shelf rests. This is the most convenient position for cutting the
+tenon and it also gives greater strength. The centre uprights should
+be halved on after the end rails are in position, being cut for this
+purpose as illustrated in the drawing. They may be allowed to stand out
+1/8 of an inch beyond the face of the end rail, and in making the joint
+an equal amount of stock is to be taken from the rail and from the
+upright. The shelves are then easily cut to length and the ends fitted
+with the block plane and dropped into place, being lightly glued and
+nailed with brads from the under side of the rabbet. Finally the top
+back rail should be halved in, being left to the last in order that the
+more important fitting of the shelves may be more easily accomplished.
+
+[Illustration: How the centre uprights are halved on]
+
+In gluing up the mortise and tenon joints care must be exercised to
+set clamps out ready for use before the glue is applied so that the
+parts may be promptly drawn up in position. After gluing they should be
+allowed to remain about ten hours in order that the glue may properly
+harden before the clamps are taken off. All the extra glue squeezed out
+of the joints in clamping must be scraped off with a chisel, after the
+glue has hardened a little; and any remaining spots of glue must be
+carefully removed with fine sand-paper so as not to leave anything to
+interfere with the filling and finishing.
+
+
+AN UMBRELLA STAND
+
+_The Design._--So far as the question of use is concerned, no problem
+of design could be more definite than this one, since an umbrella
+rack can have but one use. The only elements of beauty possible are
+found in simplicity, proportion, and the general effectiveness of
+the construction for meeting the demands of use. The drawing shows
+four square, straight posts, squared at the ends, which are allowed
+to project a little above the top to avoid a box-like effect. All the
+joints are mortised except the division bars at the top. The cross
+pieces at the base are made wider not only to conceal the drip pan but
+to give a more stable appearance to the whole rack.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as perhaps the most appropriate
+wood; but other woods, if the surroundings require it, may be used to
+good advantage. Oak is one of the strongest and most durable of the
+woods used for furniture and takes well a great variety of finish. It
+is also quite easily obtained.
+
+[Illustration: An umbrella stand]
+
+The stock requirements are as follows: Four corner posts 1-1/4 x 1-1/4
+x 27-1/2 inches; four top rails 1/2 x 1-1/4 x 9 inches; four base rails
+7/8 x 3 x 9 inches; two division bars 1/4 x 1-1/4 x 9-1/4 inches; four
+cleats 1/2 x 1/2 x 9 inches; and one board 1/2 x 7-1/2 x 7-1/2 inches
+to support the pan.
+
+The same tools in general will be required as in the previous
+exercises, but it will be necessary to add a 1/4-inch bit, a 1/4 inch
+chisel, a steel scraper, and two short clamps.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for umbrella rack]
+
+_Construction._--All the stock should be planed to size, scraped, and
+sand-papered with the exception of the base board for the pan, since
+that is hidden from view. The scraper corrects all slight unevenness of
+surface and removes scratches and other blemishes. Care should be taken
+in sand-papering to rub always with the grain of the wood and to avoid
+rounding the corners. The corner posts should first be cut to proper
+length and the tops and bottoms slightly chamfered. Mortises are then
+to be located, bored, and chiselled up. The top and bottom rails should
+be laid off and the tenons gauged and cut, care being taken not to have
+them too long. The inside edges of the tenons have to be pared off
+slightly, as illustrated in the drawing, to allow room for each when
+they come together.
+
+[Illustration: Top rail tenons]
+
+[Illustration: Bottom rail tenons]
+
+The next step is to assemble the parts, clamp them up, and test them
+for accuracy. While these parts are in the clamps, measurements should
+be taken for the cross pieces, which may then be made, allowing extra
+length of 1/4 of an inch in each end for the tenons to enter the top
+rails. These cross pieces are to be halved together at the centre, as
+shown in the drawing. The base rails are designed to be thick enough
+to take up all the space on the inside of the posts so as to hide the
+corner, as illustrated in the sketch showing the bottom construction.
+
+The next step is to assemble the parts for gluing. It is not necessary
+to explain this process in detail, since it has already been thoroughly
+explained in the general section on gluing. It is not necessary to glue
+on the cleats on which the pan rests; they may be nailed in. When the
+base is glued together measurements may be taken for the pan.
+
+
+A MAGAZINE STAND
+
+_The Design._--This problem calls for an attractive article of
+furniture which should also be useful as a receptacle for magazines and
+current newspapers. An enclosed portion between two of the shelves is
+desired to conceal from view and preserve for a time the more valuable
+papers, parts of magazines, or clippings, as may be found convenient.
+The perspective sketch on this same page shows how these simple
+requirements are met. The overhanging top adds character and strength
+to what might otherwise seem too light for the load it is intended to
+carry.
+
+[Illustration: A magazine stand]
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Oak is selected as a suitable wood because of
+its strength and durability; for this stand is likely to be in almost
+constant use. A light wood, delicately finished, would soon show wear.
+
+The stock list, according to the drawing, may be itemized as follows:
+4 corner posts 1-3/4 x 1-3/4 x 36 inches; 4 upright slats 5/8 x 1 x
+34 inches; four shelves 7/8 x 10-1/2 x 17 inches; one piece for the
+top 7/8 x 14 x 21 inches; 2 top rails 1 x 1-3/4 x 12 inches; 1 piece
+for the door 7/8 x 8 x 15-1/2 inches for the ends and the back of the
+closet 1 piece 5/8 x 8 x 36 inches; 1 pair 1-1/4-inch brass butts with
+screws for the hinges, and one brass knob or catch.
+
+The tools needed are a jointer, a block plane, a smoothing plane, steel
+square, try square, knife gauge, fine cross cut saw, 1/2-inch bit and
+bit stock, key-hole saw, 1/2-inch chisel, mallet, nail set, hammer,
+screw-driver, and steel scraper.
+
+The principal operations are as follows: Planing to size; scraping and
+sand-papering stock; squaring ends and smoothing them to the required
+length; laying out gains at corner posts; making mortises for top
+rails; making the rails; assembling the main parts; fitting ends and
+sides of the closets; hanging the door and putting on the fixtures.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for magazine stand]
+
+_The Construction._--Smoothing with the plane and scraping are very
+important and they should be completed before any sand-papering is done
+because particles of sand (silica), adhering to the wood, will dull
+the steel tools. All three operations are needed to remove the marks
+of the machine tools of the factory, in order to give a good finish in
+the end. The scraper follows the plane, removing the unevenness which
+the latter leaves on board surfaces. Sand-papering gives the finishing
+touches.
+
+[Illustration: Method of mortising]
+
+After the stock is well smoothed, the top and the shelves should be
+squared off, cut to length, and block planed. The posts should then be
+cut and accurately trimmed to dimensions. They may be marked with a
+knife line for the gains into which the corners of the shelves are to
+be fastened. Since the posts are perfectly square, no attention will
+have to be given to their exact location in marking or cutting the
+gains; but when the mortising for the rails is laid out, care must be
+exercised to mark them so that the mortises will come on the proper
+faces for assembling. In mortising for the top rail it is well not to
+work up to the end of the post but to cut back, say 3/4 of an inch, as
+shown in one of the details. The rails may now be laid off and the
+tenons cut and fitted. It is exactly 8-1/2 inches between the shoulders
+of the rails. Since the shelves are 10-1/2 inches wide, one inch is
+thus left on each side to be gained into the posts.
+
+The parts are now ready for the first assembling. To do this it is
+convenient to have a clear bench top on which the posts may be laid on
+one side, face down. The rails and shelves may then be slipped into
+place, the other two posts placed on top, and the whole clamped firmly
+together. This is the preliminary assembling for the purpose of testing
+the accuracy of the work. If it be found all right, it should be taken
+apart again, and, after glue has been applied to the tenons and to
+the ends of the shelves, the parts should be quickly re-assembled
+and clamped up as before, with the angles kept true. Before the glue
+hardens the shelves should be nailed into the posts, as indicated in
+the drawing. In this case it is the nail that is the main stay. The
+glue is accessory, adding much to the stiffness of the construction.
+
+[Illustration: Method of fastening shelf]
+
+The top may now be set on and fastened by screws or by brads driven
+through into the posts and well set so that they may be concealed
+by putty, coloured to match the stain used. The end slats should be
+fastened on in the same way. The back and ends of the closet are next
+cut to size and bradded in. The door is then fitted and, to break the
+surface a little, an ornamental design is cut in the centre. Still
+further relief is given by setting in the door 1/4 of an inch from the
+edge of the shelf and ends of the closet. The door is now hung on brass
+hinges, the stop and catch added, and the stand is ready for staining
+and finishing.
+
+[Illustration: Method of fastening posts to the top]
+
+
+A LIGHT LIBRARY TABLE
+
+_The Design._--This is to be a table designed on simple lines and of
+good proportions. It is to have no drawer but as much shelf room as
+conveniently possible. The under shelf is designed to be cut out to
+allow a chair to be drawn up on either side. The end shelves may be
+regarded as designed to combine a bookcase with the table, thus adding
+much to its usefulness.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--For a table of this kind oak is very
+appropriate. The following list gives the stock required for one table.
+The widths and the thickness are as called for in the drawing, but the
+lengths are given a little long to allow for cutting. A board not less
+than 9 inches wide and 10 feet long will be needed as stock for the
+top, the dimensions of which are 7/8 x 26 x 39 inches. A 10-inch board,
+4-1/2 feet in length, will also be required for the shelves. There will
+also be needed four legs 1-3/4 x 1-3/4 x 30 inches; eight slats 1/2 x
+1-1/2 x 18 inches; two back pieces 1/2 x 2 x 20-1/2 inches; two rails
+7/8 x 3 x 32 inches; and two rails 7/8 x 3 x 20 inches.
+
+[Illustration: A light library table]
+
+The same tools will be required as in the foregoing problems excepting
+that a 1/2-inch bit and a 1/2-inch chisel will be required for
+mortising, and two 3-foot clamps.
+
+_Construction._--The first step in the construction is to dress the
+stock, smoothing, scraping, and sand-papering it, and working the
+various parts to size. The lengths, however, of all parts excepting
+the legs are not cut accurately until, in the process of construction,
+these parts are needed. The legs are at once cut to length and the
+mortises laid out, bored, and cut. A gain should also be cut in each
+leg, into which the bottom shelf is to be fitted, glued, and bradded
+from the under side. The end and side rails may then be laid off for
+shoulders and tenons, and cut. In this case the tenons should be made
+1/2 of an inch wide.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (a) front; (b) end]
+
+In gluing up, the top should receive attention first, in order to allow
+the longest possible time for testing the work under the inevitable
+changes due to continued seasoning. Great care must always be exercised
+in making the glued joints. It is often necessary to make them over
+on account of the development of cracks. Proper care, however, will
+prevent this. The general directions for gluing, given at the beginning
+of this chapter, will be of service.
+
+As soon as the top has been glued the four short side pieces may be
+glued to the shelf, taking pains to make good joints before applying
+the glue. It should be noted that the inside ends of these short
+pieces are to be 15 inches apart, and it is important that the ends
+on opposite sides should be exactly squared across, as indicated in
+the drawings. This may be accomplished by first locating the centre
+of the shelf, at the intersection of lines, marked c in the drawing,
+and measuring 7-1/2 inches each way to the line of the back pieces,
+which are to run across the whole bottom shelf. As soon as the glue is
+hardened the ends should be squared and made true to set into the gains
+when the table is assembled. Finally, the legs, the rails, and the
+shelf may be assembled, glued, squared up, clamped, and set aside to
+harden before the clamps are removed.
+
+It is a good plan to brad the shelf in from the under side before
+the glue hardens. After standing a few hours the table will be ready
+for the 1/2-inch strip which forms the back of the shelf. This is to
+be fitted and bradded in. Then the slats may be cut to length. They
+project slightly below the shelf, and are fastened in position by
+screws. The top may be cut to length and its ends smoothed, after which
+it may be fastened on the frame by means of screws and buttons, as
+already described in the early part of this chapter.
+
+
+A HEAVY LIBRARY TABLE
+
+_The Design._--This table, as the illustration shows, is designed to be
+of simple style, without a drawer or side shelves, and with the bottom
+shelf keyed into the base rail. Heavy, square legs, and mortise and
+tenon joints are called for.
+
+[Illustration: A heavy library table]
+
+_Materials and Tools._--The mission type of furniture, to which this
+design belongs, suggests oak as the fitting wood. The stock for the
+top, the dimensions of which are to be 7/8 x 28 x 44 inches, may be
+cut in three pieces from a 10-inch board, 12 feet long. For the shelf
+a board 7/8 x 12 x 43 inches is required. There are needed also four
+legs 2-3/4 x 2-3/4 x 30 inches; two side rails 7/8 x 4 x 36 inches; two
+end top-rails 7/8 x 4 x 22 inches; two end bottom rails 1-1/2 x 4 x 22
+inches; and for keys a strip 1 x 2 x 28 inches.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (front)]
+
+The same tools are required as were needed in the foregoing problem.
+
+_Construction._--Since this table has a larger top than the light
+library table, even greater pains must be taken than in the case of the
+smaller table to join the boards for gluing up. All like parts should
+be laid off together and the necessary mortises and tenons cut and
+fitted, as in the previous case. The two end rails may be glued into
+the legs first and clamped, leaving the side rails to be put in place
+last, when the bottom shelf may also be fastened in without gluing by
+means of the tenons and keys. The latter should be cut somewhat longer
+than is really needed so that they may appear to be as effective as
+they really are; and they should be tapered at least 1/2 of an inch in
+order to drive up well. A small brad may be driven in to keep them from
+getting loose when the work shrinks.
+
+[Illustration: Construction details and dimensions (end)]
+
+
+A BOOKCASE WITH GLAZED DOORS
+
+_The Design._--This is to be an upright bookcase, with five shelves
+and an overhanging top. Some variety of surface is afforded by the
+arrangement of the sash, as indicated in the drawing. The shelves are
+made to be adjustable, and not fixed as in other problems.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--The stock required for one bookcase of this
+pattern is as follows: two end pieces 7/8 x 11-1/2 x 48-1/2 inches; for
+the top and bottom, two pieces 7/8 x 12 x 40 inches; four shelves 7/8
+x 11 x 40 inches; for the sides of the doors, four pieces 7/8 x 2 x 45
+inches; for the top and bottom rails of the doors, four pieces 7/8 x
+2-1/2 x 18 inches; for the middle rail, one piece 7/8 x 2 x 18 inches;
+for the sash, one piece 7/8 x 1/2 inch x 6 feet; for the back, enough
+1/2 inch stock to cover the space 38 x 46 inches. In addition to this
+there will be required four hinges, two catches, a lock, and glass for
+the sash as dimensioned in the drawing. It is not necessary, however,
+to cut the small lights. One large pane of glass may be set in the full
+width of the door so that the small sash divisions may be apparent
+rather than real.
+
+[Illustration: Bookcase with glazed doors]
+
+The tools for this problem are the same as those used in previous
+problems with the addition of a 1/4-inch bit and 1/4-inch chisel, and a
+rabbet plane, or a universal plane for cutting out the rabbet for the
+glass.
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for bookcase]
+
+It is not necessary to give directions for the treatment of the
+stock, since it is practically the same as that employed in preceding
+problems. The details for cutting dimensions are given in the
+accompanying drawings. It would be well for the young woodworker to
+study these carefully and make out a working plan of procedure similar
+to that which has been outlined in other problems.
+
+_Construction._--The first thing to do is to erect the bookcase--_i.e._,
+to cut the sides, the top, the bottom, and the back pieces to proper
+form and dimensions, bring them into position, and fasten them. It will
+be noticed that the sides and top are rabbeted out, as indicated in one
+of the small drawings, so that the edge of the back will not show when
+it is nailed in position. The bottom shelf is also made narrow enough
+to allow the back boards to be brought down over it and nailed to the
+edge.
+
+[Illustration: Method of concealing ends of back boards]
+
+After the case is erected the doors should be laid out according to
+the drawing for mortises and tenons, and the inside edges rabbeted to
+give an inset for the glass. If it is decided to use one large light
+at the top of the door instead of six small ones, the sash effect for
+this light will have to be made of pieces thin enough to allow this
+arrangement. When the doors are ready for setting the glass it may
+be held in place by small 1/4 round strips, bradded in behind it.
+Great care should, of course, be exercised in gluing up the doors to
+avoid strains which might give them such a twist that they could not
+be fitted to the case. Careful fitting of all the mortises and tenons
+and the usual assembling of the parts of each door before gluing is
+attempted is a wise precaution. It will also be wise to allow a little
+stock for trimming off, both on the sides and on the ends, when the
+doors are finally fitted in.
+
+
+A ROUND CENTRE TABLE
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table]
+
+[Illustration: Detail of top mortise]
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for round centre table]
+
+_The Design._--This problem calls for a table of mission style with
+square legs set into the circumference of the table flush with the
+top and having tenons exposed on the face of the legs. Simplicity of
+form combined with strength characterizes the design.
+
+_Materials and Tools._--Quartered oak is recommended for a table of
+this design. The stock required for one table is as follows: four legs
+2-3/4 x 2-3/4 x 27 inches; two cross rails 1-1/4 x 3 x 29 inches; one
+piece of 3 x 12 x 20 inches for the curved rails; and stock enough to
+make a round top 1-1/8 inches thick and 27 inches in diameter.
+
+The only tools desirable to provide, in addition to those previously
+used, are a trammel and spokeshave or a circle plane.
+
+_Construction._--The first step is to join up and glue the top so
+that it may have ample time to harden and dry while the other work is
+being accomplished. The stock for the legs may then be dressed and the
+bottom mortises marked and cut through the posts. Care must be taken
+to transfer the marks to the opposite side so that the mortises may be
+accurately outlined on the face. Care must also be taken in cutting the
+mortises, in order to make good, clean joints. A dimensioned detail of
+the top mortises, which are to receive the tenons of the curved rail,
+shown on page 180, should be consulted before laying out this work.
+It should be noticed that the legs project 1-1/4 inches above the top
+rail. After the top mortises are cut the cross bottom rails should be
+halved together and the tenons laid off and cut. It will be noticed
+that the projecting end of the tenons is to be bevelled off, but this
+should not be done until the fitting is completed.
+
+In laying out the plan of work for the construction of the curved rails
+the trammel comes into use. With this, mark off carefully the inside
+and outside curves on a thin piece of board and, with a large steel
+square, draw straight lines from the centre or pivot point, making an
+exact quarter circle. This is shown in one of the drawings on page
+180. Then, parallel with each straight line and on the inside, mark
+off other lines one half the thickness of the leg. This locates the
+shoulder of the tenon. The pattern should then be carefully cut out
+of the thin board and used as a template for marking out on the stock
+the form of the curved rails. After these rails are band sawed and
+smoothed, the tenons may be cut.
+
+When the framing parts of the table have all been cut and fitted they
+may be assembled and glued. Finally the top is placed face down on
+a bench top or on horses, and the inverted frame laid over it and
+centred to give the correct position of the insets for the legs. These
+should be laid off with great care, the outline reproduced exactly on
+the opposite side, and the stock cut out. The top and frame should then
+be fastened together from the under side. After a few finishing touches
+have been given to the projecting ends and exposed surfaces, the table
+will be ready for the filling and varnishing.
+
+
+A LIBRARY DESK
+
+This is the most ambitious of the special problems in furniture making
+here suggested. Details are given in the drawings on the opposite page.
+If the young woodworker can give sufficient time to it and can command
+the services of a few machine tools it will not be an unreasonable task
+to undertake. Most of the operations required in its construction have
+already been carefully explained and need not be repeated as detailed
+directions. There are, however, one or two principles of cabinet-making
+called for in this problem which were not required in the others. They
+will therefore need explanation.
+
+[Illustration: A library desk]
+
+_Panelling._--To avoid the difficulties which would result from the
+swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is
+common practice to make use of the panel. The design of the panel is
+easily understood. It consists of a framework of ordinary thickness,
+put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of
+this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of
+stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between
+the sides of the frame. The panel board may be in one piece of wide
+stock or it may be glued up. It may be of very thin stock inset on
+both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on
+one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the
+edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the
+panel frame. In this problem the panel board is to be made of 1/2-inch
+stock, flat on the outside, and inset 1/4 of an inch. The back of the
+panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the
+necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock
+of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and,
+if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. The panel, on
+account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink
+considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so
+that its changes may not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish
+the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to
+the panel board.
+
+_Danger in the Power Saw._--The panel frame may be constructed by hand,
+but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service.
+Beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and
+not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even
+a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The necessary
+operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished
+stock, with a good square and gauge. A combination plane is quite
+essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. Care
+should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece,
+and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges
+of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are
+indicated in the drawing. In gluing up, the directions already given in
+the section on gluing should be followed.
+
+_Sand-papering._--There is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the
+finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in
+almost every kind of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised
+in the directions for furniture making. In furniture manufactories
+sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be
+found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by
+their productive value. It is quite impossible to work down large
+pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. If a sand-papering
+machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will
+be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of
+tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run
+through the machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering by
+hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible
+and always along the grain. Any movements directly across the grain
+or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. The process is
+facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about 2
+x 4 inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same
+dimensions.
+
+
+A MORRIS CHAIR
+
+_History of the Design._--Among furniture designs the Morris chair has
+become a classic. It takes its name for its originator, William Morris,
+the great English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to
+any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture
+design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in England
+but in other European countries and in America. And probably no one of
+his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort,
+and utility in furniture than the Morris chair.
+
+[Illustration: A Morris chair]
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions of Morris chair (front)]
+
+[Illustration: Details and dimensions for Morris chair (side)]
+
+It may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works
+of art, the original design of William Morris has suffered much in
+countless imitations. The furniture shops display carved and otherwise
+embellished monstrosities under the name of Morris chairs which are
+nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. But the life
+of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be
+short. Only the good and true, which are the original, survive. The
+really valuable features of the original Morris chair design, combining
+beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken
+a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid
+comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in this problem are
+illustrated on page 50, chapter II. Both are in quartered oak. The one
+on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the
+seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. The
+one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour.
+On account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight
+than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will
+be followed in this problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in
+ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a
+college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the
+three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself.
+
+By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the
+preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should
+select his stock according to the following list: 4 legs 2-1/2 x 2-1/2
+x 24 inches; two arms 3 x 5-1/2 x 38 inches; two bottom side rails
+1-1/8 x 6 x 26 inches; two top side rails 5/8 x 2-1/4 x 26 inches;
+two bottom rails (front and back) 1-1/8 x 6 x 24 inches; one top rail
+(back) 5/8 x 2-1/4 x 24 inches; two back uprights 1-1/8 x 1-7/8 x 25
+inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) 3/4 x 2-5/8 x 20 inches;
+one cross piece for back (top) 3/4 x 6 x 20 inches; one bracket 1 x 3 x
+18 inches; four pins 4-1/2 x 4-1/4 inches square.
+
+[Illustration: Detail of Morris chair arm]
+
+[Illustration: Detail of pins]
+
+In sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for
+necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. The arms
+are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out
+of 3-inch stock. There will be a considerable saving in material and
+labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the
+curve is very pleasing. The back slats may be sawed to a slight curve,
+which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make
+and just as serviceable.
+
+The process of construction does not differ in general from that
+already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not
+be repeated here in detail. The method of finishing this and all
+other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the
+following chapter.
+
+Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be
+necessary to provide casters for it. The Acme Pin caster, so-called,
+was used in the chair referred to in this problem. It makes use of a
+steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so
+as to leave only about 1/4 of an inch of the ball exposed.
+
+
+A HALL CLOCK
+
+
+[Illustration: A hall clock
+
+NOTE.--The original of the hall clock was designed and made by Mr.
+Egbert E. MacNary.]
+
+_Design._--This clock was designed and built to conform to the
+requirements of the space allotted to it. The lines of the case are
+all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the
+top. A hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all
+the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc.,
+are horizontal. If the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then
+the top might be spired or pointed.
+
+[Illustration: Construction detail of a hall clock]
+
+The construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and
+substantial. The long sides extend the entire height of the clock,
+being firmly joined into the base and head. The works are supported
+between these sides. The wood is 3/4-inch quartered oak, hand dressed,
+and stained a warm brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and
+weight are of brass.
+
+_Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter._--The long door has a panel of
+transparent leaded glass. This leaded glass work is a most fascinating
+process. The lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in
+lead specialties. Stained glass window concerns are usually willing
+to sell this lead. A full-size drawing was made of the design for
+the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. A
+ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. One caution, kept in mind, will
+enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. _It
+should never be used twice in the same cut._ One stroke of a few inches
+over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is
+not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The glass
+should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand,
+making a continuous cut against a straight edge.
+
+_Soldering._--The long lines of the design are in one piece; and
+there is a strip around the entire outside edge. To solder the pieces
+together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board,
+and brads (about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the board close
+against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position.
+A small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. A small
+soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. The
+copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping
+it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder
+wire. The point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say,
+"tinned." The iron will need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of
+the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result.
+
+[Illustration: Method of holding glass and lead strips for soldering]
+
+The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass
+into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. The piece of
+oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the
+centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short arc of the ring had
+been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about 1 inch and the
+groove continued.
+
+[Illustration: Method of raising the dial rings]
+
+The length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the
+escape wheel. It was necessary in the case of this clock to take out
+the escape wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22 teeth to
+accommodate the length of pendulum desired.
+
+[Illustration: Dimensioned dial piece of clock before edges are turned]
+
+
+OUTDOOR FURNITURE
+
+The greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found
+within the house. This is especially true in the village or in the
+country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that
+are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a
+bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "God's great
+out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden,
+the touch of nature is not lost. It is possible, however, for art to
+assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed.
+It is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in
+the neighbourhood of the village or city home. If there be a garden,
+as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains
+taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out
+any form of interior decoration. There are problems of design and
+construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for
+the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings
+for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps,
+for an out-door dining-room. The more decorative features are found in
+the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the
+pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily
+come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen.
+
+_General Types._--In the designing of out-door furniture there are
+two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression.
+On the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest
+solidity, weight, and permanence. This idea is embodied in walls of
+masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or
+in some other kind of heavy construction. On the other hand, there
+are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the
+growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the
+so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens.
+
+_An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood._--A settle designed for
+comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the
+garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well
+protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion is here given for
+such a design, laid out on substantial lines. Ordinary 4 x 4 spruce,
+planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest
+of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the back pieces and
+arms, and 7/8-inch boards for the rails and seat. Mortise and tenon
+joints should be used in the framing. The illustration shows also a
+simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front
+posts. It is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat
+successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is
+designed to be built.
+
+[Illustration: A garden settle]
+
+_Concrete Furniture._--Still more substantial out-door furniture
+may be made of concrete cement. This material has come into use for
+sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry
+in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy
+building construction. Concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made
+by mixing Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right
+proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it
+to harden. It is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it
+is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of
+an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide
+range of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals, fountains,
+window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety,
+tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this
+material. Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to
+many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in
+bold design if occasion requires it. In weight and durability it leaves
+nothing to be desired.
+
+_The Wire Form._--Concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. In
+its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. It must be
+supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape
+and until it has hardened. In general there are two methods of giving
+the necessary support: _viz._, by employing an interior framework or
+skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the
+cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material
+in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when
+hardened. The latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for
+commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number
+of marketable results from the same moulds. The simpler wooden moulds
+may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience
+he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form
+successfully. For single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire
+forms are to be preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method is
+found in the following problem:
+
+
+A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE
+
+The dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of 10 inches
+and a height of 8 inches. The wire form must therefore be made to
+approximate quite closely to these dimensions. A good material for
+the form is galvanized wire lath of 1/2-inch mesh. This problem will
+require a piece about 8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex
+side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base. From the square
+piece a circle 10 inches in diameter should be cut out. A strong pair
+of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. In bending the long
+piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order
+to produce an evenly curved surface--_i. e._, one free from angular
+bends. A good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on
+a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. If nothing
+better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. When the
+bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought
+together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends
+of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers will be of great assistance.
+If this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result
+a cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular piece should now
+be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the
+strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching
+them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece
+where there are uncut meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for
+covering with the cement.
+
+[Illustration: A garden vase]
+
+The first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the
+scratch coat. This is made by mixing Portland cement with fine, clean
+sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. These
+ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and
+then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked
+apart. For the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be
+needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole
+should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. It
+is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. A scratch
+coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily
+spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together.
+
+When a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it
+should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel
+or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side
+of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first
+coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention
+whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the
+cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will
+be held together firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth coat
+as a part of the later finishing process. When the convex surface has
+been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement
+spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. After the wire
+has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat
+distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true
+cylinder has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for about five
+hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. It is then ready for
+the finishing coat.
+
+The next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing
+coat. Considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour
+and other surface effects that are desired. In this design a light,
+sparkling surface when finished is required. To produce this effect a
+mixture of one part Portland cement and two parts marble dust will be
+needed. This should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that
+used for the scratch coat.
+
+Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly
+moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. There are various
+methods of applying this coat. The simplest is carefully spreading it
+on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. When the
+surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve
+the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. It is
+not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet
+the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and
+yields very satisfactory results.
+
+[Illustration: A vase with blocked rim]
+
+_The Decoration._--A great variety of decorative effects may be
+obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this
+material for out-door use. In pottery these decorations may take the
+form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the
+surface, and of inlays in colour. Whatever the form of design, the
+necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well
+set but not very hard--_i. e._, from 6 to 10 hours after the finishing
+coat is applied. A stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool
+that will be required. A narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable
+for deepening the cuts. The knife should be guided by means of a ruler,
+which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth
+of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work
+similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of 3/16
+or 1/4 of an inch is sufficient. This cutting, of course can be made
+after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it
+will be much more difficult.
+
+[Illustration: A square form]
+
+_The Colours._--Colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the
+best quality of white Portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry
+mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or
+cement-proof colours. Among the pigments suitable for this purpose are
+red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives
+a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of
+copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields
+a good brown. These come as dry powders and should be mixed with the
+dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before
+the water is applied. In order to determine the right colour it is
+well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients
+until a satisfactory shade has been found. Then with this as a guide a
+sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions,
+to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which
+has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To insure
+thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be
+well moistened with a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs are
+shown in the accompanying drawings.
+
+_Rustic Furniture._--The lighter out-door furniture can be easily made
+up in a great variety of designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs
+is determined largely by the material which is available. Very useful
+and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops
+or from branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily found in the
+second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material.
+It is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks
+and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. Chairs,
+settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of
+furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material.
+
+[Illustration: A garden screen]
+
+_Lattice Work._--Trellises and garden screens have been made in an
+almost endless variety of forms. Among the most satisfactory is the
+plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity and
+evident durability are points in its favour. Experience proves also
+that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted
+to this form of trellis. The size of the stock required in making
+the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of
+it. For a garden screen the uprights need to be of 2 x 2 inch stock
+and of any convenient length. End posts of 3 x 3 inch stock will be
+required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long
+one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals
+of ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be strips of 7/8-inch
+stock, 2 inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights.
+Spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is
+suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights
+it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. The
+top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3
+inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set
+into the ground at intervals of 6 feet, to which the bottom rail or
+the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when
+the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green paint will protect the
+wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches
+which it supports.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+FINISHING AND RE-FINISHING
+
+'Tis toil's reward that sweetens industry--_Ebenezer Elliot_
+
+
+In the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing
+to do with the finishing of his work. This essential part of furniture
+making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade. In a
+separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of
+the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner.
+It is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of
+woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production;
+for, however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the
+design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture
+or other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in
+the finishing.
+
+[Illustration: Finishing a Library Table. Plate VI]
+
+But the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher. He should
+familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be
+applied to the different woods. He should know the object of filling
+wood and how it is done. He should understand the processes of fuming,
+staining, and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the
+results desired.
+
+
+CLEANING, SURFACING, AND FILLING
+
+_First Steps in Finishing._--The first step in finishing woodwork is
+to clean it up and prepare it for the filler. Too great care cannot
+be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have
+occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired
+in any part of the process of construction. Light planing, chiselling,
+or scraping, and perhaps a little sand-papering, always with the grain,
+may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes. The most serious
+of these generally result from gluing. All surplus glue should be
+carefully removed, even to the film that soaks into the surface of the
+wood. The slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of
+the wood and show through any kind of finish.
+
+_Importance of Filling._--As soon as the furniture is thoroughly
+cleaned, if it is to be finished in the natural color, the grain of the
+wood must be filled with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance,
+known as the filler, which, after standing from five to seven minutes,
+should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a
+handful of shavings. This process, as its name indicates, fills the
+pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture
+and the consequent swelling. But this is by no means its chief purpose.
+Strictly speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent
+finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be said to be the most
+important operation connected with wood finishing. If improperly done,
+no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault. In
+fact, good work is impossible after a bad beginning. Good varnishing or
+good finishing of any kind requires that, before the final finishing
+processes begin, the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth,
+free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind
+that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate
+the wood. If the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the
+subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough
+surface will be sure to follow. This may, of course, be rubbed down and
+re-finished, but never with that perfection of result which is assured
+by laying a good foundation in correct filling. It may be set down as
+a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is
+obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that
+the thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required to produce
+the desired result.
+
+_Liquid Fillers or Surfaces._--There are many kinds of fillers in
+common use, but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the
+other of two classes. They are either liquid fillers or paste fillers.
+Woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain. The
+coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close
+up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary
+as a foundation for good finishing. The close-grained woods, on the
+other hand, do not present the same filling problem. They could not
+absorb a paste filler. In fact, it is hardly too much to say that the
+fine, close-grained woods, like maple, gum wood, and birch, do not need
+a filler at all; and there are some coarse-grained woods, like southern
+or hard pine and cypress, the pores of which are naturally filled with
+gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler.
+But all such woods _do_ need to be given a finishing surface which will
+prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood.
+This is the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which are very
+properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers."
+
+_How to Make a Liquid Filler._--A standard formula for the preparation
+of a liquid filler is as follows: Mix four parts by weight of carbonate
+of soda with six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in about
+eight parts of japan, thinning the product with turpentine or benzine
+to the consistency of linseed oil. Laundry starch may be used in place
+of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application
+than the clay filler because it does not settle. It lacks in
+durability, however, especially if it is not well covered. The finest
+grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler
+to give body. A great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which,
+without being mixed with anything, will give the necessary surface.
+
+Glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades of varnish, thinned if
+necessary with benzine or turpentine, are often used for this purpose.
+But these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should
+be used on the best grades of woodwork. Shellac is always preferred
+as a first coater for hard pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the
+pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain. If
+oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting
+coat of shellac, the wood blackens with age. Shellac is an excellent
+first coater for other woods also. It is commonly used in house
+finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. But it dries rapidly,
+and generally with a rough surface. The first coating of shellac,
+therefore, requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on.
+
+_Time Needed for a Shellac Coat to Dry._--It may be well to caution
+the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying
+of shellac. While it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first
+drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming a hard coating
+which delays somewhat the drying throughout, so that a shellac filling
+is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has
+been applied, though it may appear to be. It is a good rule to allow at
+least twenty-four hours for thorough drying; and it may be well to add
+that all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for the best
+results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow.
+
+_Cost of Surfacing._--A practical question that the amateur finisher
+will ask is, how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for
+given pieces of work, and what will be its cost? For a good quality
+of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight
+square yards with one coat. The cost varies greatly, depending upon
+the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a
+dealer. A good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for $1.50
+per gallon, making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about
+2-1/2 cents. A small can costs 15 cents. Good work cannot be done with
+the cheaper grades of filler. Shellac, which is, all in all, the best
+of surfacers, can be bought for $1.85 a gallon, which would make the
+cost of surfacing somewhat under 3 cents a square yard.
+
+_How to Make a Paste Filler._--A good paste filler, such as is required
+for the open-grained woods like oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or
+white wood, may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base,
+thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine, and japan in equal
+parts, with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good
+paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste.
+If the mixture should prove to be a little too thick, it may easily
+be thinned with turpentine. The final mixing of this filler requires
+grinding in a hand mill. Unless a considerable quantity of it is needed
+it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer
+in painters' or finishers' supplies, though commercial fillers are
+not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula. They often
+contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so
+satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica.
+
+_How a Paste Filler is Applied._--Paste fillers should be spread on the
+surface to be filled very liberally with a wide, stiff brush, allowed
+to stand from five to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece
+of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior. But it must not
+all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain. This is an easy mistake
+for an inexperienced worker to make. The thing to do is to rub it in
+and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth. The surfaces should
+then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the
+final finishing coats.
+
+
+VARNISHING
+
+The importance of a good foundation surface--even, smooth, and free
+from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat
+of varnish--has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing.
+If this foundation has been well laid, the amateur finisher may enter
+upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but he will
+soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the
+desired results in this part of the finishing process. The selection,
+preparation, and application of varnish is a special calling, and great
+skill comes only as the result of experience; but certain main facts
+and principles are easily learned.
+
+_How a Good Varnish is Recognized._--It is hardly necessary to say
+that a superior varnish must be clear, transparent, and brilliant.
+These qualities are always associated with this kind of finish. But
+durability is also a necessary quality. An expert will, with his eyes
+shut, recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour, which is
+to him an agreeable one. He will at once detect inferior grades by the
+rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture. The
+range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more
+varied than in any other finishing material. For fine, artistic work
+only the best varnish is allowable; and this may be bought for $3.00 a
+gallon.
+
+_"Sag" and How Corrected._--A good varnish flows easily from the brush,
+spreads evenly, and dries slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its
+proper distribution over the surface. And time enough should be taken
+to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking
+due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening. It is of
+the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface
+when first applied. Great care should be taken not to brush long in
+one place. Re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which
+are objectionable. Unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes
+the varnish to run or "sag." A tendency to sag may be brushed out if
+attended to promptly. But, if it is not noticed until the varnish has
+begun to set, the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the
+thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush; and this
+must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been
+put on. By that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will
+be beyond repairing by any simple means.
+
+_Time Required Between Varnish Coats._--The best varnishes, as has
+been stated, dry quite slowly, and they seem to dry and harden not, as
+shellac does, on the top first, but from the under surface outward.
+This peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time
+between coats. And it should be added that mere drying is not all
+that is required. Each coat must harden; and during the process of
+hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat
+until it becomes permanently set or hardened. The time required for
+this permanent setting or seasoning, as it may be called, varies with
+the character of the under coat, with the temperature of the room in
+which the finishing is done, and with the thickness of the varnish coat
+itself. Five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period.
+As many weeks would not be too long for the best results. It is folly
+to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing. In the nature of the case
+it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results. There is no
+other kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with the certainty that
+it does in varnishing. Great pains must be taken with each coat. Least
+of all should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and depth in
+the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty
+of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish
+coat is applied. All this work should be done in a well-lighted room,
+free from dust, and with a good supply of fresh air, kept at an even
+temperature, of about 70 degrees--certainly not colder than this, since
+a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly.
+
+_Number of Coats Needed._--The number of coats of varnish required vary
+with the character of the work. What is known as piano finish requires
+from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish, each
+well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the
+best brushing can give. In addition to these under coats a final finish
+coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre.
+
+_How to Rub Down Varnish._--Rubbing down varnish is a unique and
+important part in the process of finishing. The beginning of the
+operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized
+pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the work is such that
+water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood.
+Whichever liquid is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary.
+This is a block about 4 inches square, made of thick, loose cloth
+like felt or hair cloth. In use it is first moistened in the oil or
+water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered
+pumice. With this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously, giving
+a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces. As
+the smoothing progresses, less and less of the pumice powder is used.
+Near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or
+adhering to the rubbing pad. What remains on the surface is finally
+all wiped off carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found that
+the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine
+scratches due to the grains of the pumice. These are removed by a
+second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water.
+
+_Dull Finish and Flat Varnish._--For many purposes good finishing
+requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish
+coat; and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural
+lustre. For furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred. It is more
+durable, it harmonizes better with its surroundings, and it is more
+in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness. In working for
+a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of
+surface as it is when a high lustre is required, and therefore fewer
+coats are necessary. In fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture
+without any varnish at all. Two or three coats of shellac, each well
+rubbed down, give a very satisfactory result. Wax finish, to be
+described later, gives beautiful effects. There are varnishes known as
+flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing. They are made
+by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of
+the solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and mixing the
+wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish.
+What is known as the old Dutch finish is obtained by using over the
+proper stain one coat of wax varnish. But there is no kind of dull
+finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish,
+each well rubbed down.
+
+
+WAX FINISH
+
+_How to Prepare and Apply Finishing Wax._--The simplest and at the
+same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is
+rubbing it with finishing wax. This is one of the old processes which
+has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and
+is becoming deservedly popular. Finishing wax may be purchased ready
+for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine
+in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine. To do this
+the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings, placed in a dish,
+and covered with the liquid. The solution may be hastened by heating
+in a water bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the water,
+care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the
+turpentine near, on account of the inflammable character of turpentine
+vapor. This mixture, which is too thick to spread with a brush, may
+be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth. Soft
+cloths, like clean cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. The
+rubbing should be continued for a considerable time, but it is by no
+means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of
+varnish. Less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. One of the
+greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied
+and immediately rubbed down, after which the furniture is ready for
+use. Filling and finishing are accomplished together. It is also easy
+to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time. In fact, it is desirable to
+re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the
+first few months of their use, and after that about once a year.
+
+
+STAINING
+
+_Object of Staining._--Up to this point the processes of finishing
+considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural
+colour, excepting that it may darken with age. But it is often
+desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork--_i. e._, to dye or
+stain it. This is done for a variety of purposes--to reduce to one tone
+the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind
+of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture, to
+give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation
+of the more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that will harmonize
+with various colour schemes. To accomplish this great variety of
+results, scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put
+upon the market in almost countless shades and tints, but they are all
+easily classified under three heads. They are oil stains, water stains,
+or alcohol stains.
+
+_A Perfect Stain._--A perfect stain, if it could be obtained, would
+be a clear, limpid liquid, free from all solid particles or specks of
+colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere
+with the absorption of the filler--so clear and transparent that it
+would in no way obscure the grain of the wood, which in many varieties
+is the chief element of beauty--so limpid that it would easily soak
+deep into the pores of the wood, carrying to a considerable depth below
+the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure.
+
+_Water, Alcohol, and Oil Stains Compared._--The water and alcohol
+stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains
+do. They are clear, and without body, and they have great penetration.
+But they are not free from faults. Many of the water stains are made
+from aniline dyes which are not durable. The alcohol stains, however,
+are generally permanent. Both the water stains and the alcohol stains
+raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners
+and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing. The oil stains,
+on the other hand, are free from these faults. They spread easily and
+evenly, they do not raise the grain, they do not double up or show
+laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have a few defects
+which overbalance these good qualities. They have considerable body
+which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface,
+so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or
+the alcohol stains do. Their oily nature causes them partly to close
+up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent
+process of filling. This is so bad a defect that oil stains are not
+to be recommended for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which
+depends so much on correct filling. They are more successful with the
+close-grained woods, which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the
+ordinary liquid filler.
+
+_How Stain is Applied._--If furniture or any kind of woodwork is to
+be artificially coloured, staining is the first of the finishing
+operations to be attended to. The stain should be spread upon
+well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge, and
+allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into
+the wood. The surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean,
+soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have
+soaked into the wood, and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect.
+After the stained surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to
+match the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into the pores, as
+already explained in the section on natural finish. The beginner will
+need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or
+draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much as possible. He
+will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or
+grease, which will interfere with good results.
+
+Excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of
+dealers in painters' supplies. They will not always produce the effects
+claimed for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible to
+find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result. They are
+somewhat expensive, however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to
+develop his own stain. Following are some suggestions along this line:
+
+_Asphaltum and Golden Oak Stain._--A good chocolate brown stain may
+be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish
+made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush.
+A considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used, but not enough
+to make a sticky liquid. This will need to be finished with shellac
+or finishing varnish. When applied to quartered oak it produces the
+beautiful effect known as golden oak. It may also be used on white wood
+to give an imitation of black walnut; and Georgia pine under this stain
+takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of
+the wood.
+
+_Mahogany._--A clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining
+birch of the right grain with logwood stain. The stain is made by
+boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three
+hours. While the mixture is hot, chloride of tin is added gradually
+until the right shade of colour is produced. The stain should be
+allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several coats may be
+needed to secure the right depth of shade. The filler used should be
+coloured with burnt umber and sienna. The finish may be a brilliant or
+a flat varnish, or wax.
+
+_Baywood as Mahogany._--Mahogany stain is also applied to baywood,
+resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany. The genuine
+article, however, is an imported wood coming from South America,
+Mexico, and Africa in several varieties; and it is a much harder wood
+than the American baywood imitation. Both the birch and the baywood
+imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is
+difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties.
+
+_Flemish Oak._--The various oak stains are worthy of special mention.
+Flemish oak finish is very dark, almost black. It is prepared by first
+applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in
+the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water.
+The solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush. After
+drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain
+is applied, made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine. This is
+allowed to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when the surface
+is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied. After a thorough
+drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper
+and finished with wax.
+
+_Mission Oak._--The so-called mission oak finish may be in several
+colours, but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly
+reddish. The stain is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a
+little rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine. The mixture
+should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining
+brush. Wax finish is invariably used for mission oak.
+
+_Forest Green Oak._--Forest green oak is among the best of the green
+effects in this wood. The stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome
+green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material.
+This is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw
+linseed oil, with a little white japan. The resulting stain should be
+somewhat thinner than linseed oil. After this has been applied to the
+oak surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat of thin shellac
+coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline. This should have
+a wax finish.
+
+_Gray Oak._--A gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron
+sulphate, made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure
+crystals in water, and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by
+adding a little sulphuric acid. This solution is most conveniently
+used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of
+wood to be stained, as they must soak in the solution until they are
+thoroughly saturated. The pieces may be kept separate by stout cords
+tied around them, and they may be held under the solution by means of
+weights. When taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are
+rubbed down.
+
+_Weathered Oak._--Weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces
+of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin, dissolving them
+separately in about a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved
+mixing them together. When applied to oak it gives it the natural
+weathered tone with a slight bluish cast. It may then be oiled,
+shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax.
+
+_Fumed Oak and Chestnut._--But the most satisfactory method of giving
+a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork, is without question, by
+fuming with ammonia, though this process is limited to two woods,
+viz., white oak and chestnut. All other woods, including red oak, are
+deficient in tannic acid, the essential element to combine with the
+ammonia gas in the production of the stain. This method requires a
+fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture
+to be fumed. It must be carefully constructed with all its joints
+made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering
+them with shellac. The top or one side of the box should be fastened
+with screws, so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use
+and yet easily removed. The operation of fuming consists simply in
+placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled
+with the strongest ammonia--not the household ammonia, which is too
+weak--screwing the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus to stand
+from 12 to 24 hours, according to the shade desired. If the fuming box
+be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good
+light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of
+colour may be observed without opening the box. When the desired shade
+has been obtained and the furniture removed, it is best to give it a
+good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture.
+
+_Peculiarities of Fumed Finish._--It will be observed that the toning
+of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain
+far better than any other process of staining; and there should also
+be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are
+the reverse of those given by staining; _i. e._, the parts that appear
+lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other. This gives
+a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of
+detecting that which is not genuine.
+
+
+WHITE ENAMEL
+
+A vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the
+trim of some rooms is white enamel. It is used on new work and also
+in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork. In the latter
+case the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed and the
+surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. But whether the wood be old or
+not, a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the
+white varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is somewhat
+transparent. It is necessary, first, to coat the wood with flat
+white--a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening
+and thinned with turpentine. Oil should not be used in any part of
+the process. Three coats of this paint will generally be needed to
+produce the right surface for the final finish. Each of these coats
+should be allowed to dry and become well hardened. Two or three days,
+better still a week, should be allowed for hardening between coats,
+since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats
+and develops a tendency to chip off. When a surface is ready for the
+enamel, only one coat of it should be applied, and that should be given
+not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear. Enamel
+is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish. It
+may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is applied with a
+brush like any other varnish.
+
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+Problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of
+furniture making problems in Chapter VII. It is only necessary
+to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it
+the finishing methods outlined in this chapter. Our problems are,
+therefore, the following:
+
+_The Knock-down Bookcase._--If made up in white wood it may, like its
+original, be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed. It may,
+however, be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize with the
+furniture with which it is to be used.
+
+_The Hanging Book Rack._--In the design for this rack it was suggested
+that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish, or
+of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish.
+
+_The Umbrella Stand._--Oak was advised for this piece of furniture. It
+needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish,
+well rubbed down.
+
+_The Magazine Stand._--Oak was suggested for this stand. The color will
+depend upon the surroundings. Filling and varnishing will be required
+if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be fumed.
+
+_The Light Library Table._--Oak was mentioned as a very appropriate
+wood for this table, but some lighter wood like ash may be used. It
+will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a
+paste filler before they are finished.
+
+_The Heavy Library Table._--As this was designed in the mission style,
+oak was chosen as the most suitable wood. It may be given the so-called
+mission oak stain and a wax finish.
+
+_The Round Centre Table._--This may be made in any of the woods
+commonly used for furniture, but quartered oak was mentioned. A golden
+oak finish will be found very satisfactory.
+
+_The Bookcase with Glazed Doors._--This may be made up in ash, in
+quartered oak, or in gum wood. The finish will depend upon the kind of
+wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated.
+
+_The Library Desk and the Morris Chair._--The originals were made in
+quartered oak, fumed, and waxed.
+
+_The Hall Clock._--This may be made in quartered oak and given a
+weathered oak stain and wax finish.
+
+
+RE-FINISHING OLD FURNITURE
+
+There is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for
+pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of
+genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished. Some of the rare old
+colonial designs are of exceptional merit. This is proved by the high
+prices which they often command. These designs originated in the days
+of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention of machine-made,
+cheap furniture. The work of the older designers was characterized
+by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value; and the
+craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care
+and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality. It
+is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much
+desired.
+
+_Caution as to Repairs._--In the work of renovating old furniture,
+problems are met which are very different from those which have to be
+considered in the production of new work. All questions of design are
+settled. There is generally enough of the original article to show what
+the design was. The problem is one of restoration; we must supply
+the missing parts and re-finish the whole. The first thing to do,
+therefore, with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it
+over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its
+defects, supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the breaks. It
+will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on
+account of its age, and that it will therefore need to be handled more
+carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it will often be found
+desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add
+new wood to the old. This is especially true of veneering, which cannot
+be well matched in any other way. Old bits of veneer, on the other
+hand, may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed
+that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing.
+
+_Scraping._--After the necessary repairs have been made, the next
+thing to be done is to remove the old finish. If the varnish is dry
+and brittle and somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means of a
+well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken, however, not to
+injure the wood surface, especially at the corners and edges. If the
+scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points, fine
+sand-papering may be resorted to. It is generally wise, also, to give
+the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for
+finishing.
+
+_The Varnish Remover._--It often happens, however, that the scraper
+will not accomplish the desired result. In that case the liquid varnish
+remover is necessary. This may be found at the paint stores. The best
+formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only
+to the manufacturers. It is therefore not wise for the young finisher
+to attempt to make his own remover. He should provide himself with a
+can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture.
+After putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes
+and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife.
+If it doesn't come off readily, it should stand a little longer. The
+amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old
+finish. But in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and
+effectually removed. A putty knife, however, will not remove it all.
+After scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from
+the corners, a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean
+off what remains. It is of the greatest importance that none of the old
+varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain.
+Either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad
+surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on.
+
+_Re-finishing._--The re-finishing process is much like that described
+for new work, the chief exception being that there is generally no need
+of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making
+the repairs. Generally speaking, the re-finishing begins with the
+surfacing, which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the
+stain of the furniture. This is sand-papered lightly before receiving
+the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the
+desired effect. Very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax
+finish.
+
+
+PROBLEM: RE-FINISHING AN ANTIQUE MAHOGANY TABLE
+
+The table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture
+shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but
+of poor design; for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful
+lines. Much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture.
+This table, however, when separated from the rubbish which almost
+concealed it, was found to have good proportions, with simple but
+graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive. It
+was a drop-leaf table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve at
+each of the four corners. The legs were of turned stock and fluted,
+terminating in brass thimbles with casters. One leg was broken off, one
+of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other
+was partly broken, the table top had received some hard knocks, and
+the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with
+difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was
+made. It took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay
+in this much abused and dilapidated old relic.
+
+The first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as
+possible with a damp sponge. The part of the top that remained on the
+frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made. The
+broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting
+them together with a 3/4-inch dowel, glued in. The brass tips and
+casters were removed and set aside to be burnished. The missing parts
+of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood, fitted in, glued,
+and stained to match the original wood. After the necessary repairs had
+been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the
+old finish scraped off with a putty knife. This part of the process
+was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine,
+carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners, cracks, and
+openings of any kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish
+remover. After carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with
+clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with
+fine sand-paper. It was found that the wood was well filled, so that
+all it now needed was a final finishing with wax. The transformation
+from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and
+beautiful article of antique furniture was complete.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+HAND WEAVING
+
+    And Aphrodite came to comfort them
+    With incense, luscious honey, and fragrant wine;
+    And Here gave them beauty of face and soul
+    Beyond all women; purest Artemis
+    Endowed them with her stature and white grace;
+    And Pallas taught their hands to flash along
+    Her famous looms.
+
+     The "Daughters of Pandarus" (from the "Odyssey," Lib. XX).
+     Translation by Mrs. Browning.
+
+
+Among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have
+lately revived, perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater
+honour than weaving with the hand loom. Weaving is an ancient art. If
+we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when
+men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the
+skins of animals. That was a great change, for it meant the beginning
+not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself. It is no
+wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient
+mythologies. Not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms
+of our grandmothers, which played an important part in the early
+beginnings of our own history. The New England colonists spoke with
+pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth;
+and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable
+women. It was a work of necessity, but not without love and devotion.
+Many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels
+of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths--examples
+of unfailing patience, great ingenuity, and marvellous skill--handed
+down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud
+possessors.
+
+[Illustration: Weaving a Rug. Plate VII]
+
+_The Primitive Loom._--In the Orient, where our choicest rugs are made,
+two trees growing near each other, some strings and pieces of bamboo,
+and a few simple accessories, are all the worker requires. This is a
+primitive loom. The modern hand loom is the same in principle; and the
+looms of our factories do not differ from it essentially. While it is
+true that their productive power has been enormously multiplied, this
+great improvement, which was actually one of the chief causes of a
+great industrial revolution, was due mainly to the inventive genius of
+two men who harnessed the motive powers of nature to the English hand
+looms.
+
+[Illustration: Shuttle and bobbin]
+
+_Warp and Woof._--The fundamental process in all weaving is essentially
+the same; and it is exceedingly simple. It consists in passing one set
+of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other
+alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage
+of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread. The set of threads which
+cross each other and which, by being moved up and down, interlock the
+thread which is passed between them, is known as the _warp_. The thread
+which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called
+the _woof_. By careful selection of materials, by skilful design in the
+dyeing and arrangement of these materials, and by proper management of
+the warp and woof to express the design, the most beautiful Oriental
+rugs are fashioned; and, though we may not be able to reproduce these
+in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon
+the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience.
+
+[Illustration: The hand loom]
+
+[Illustration: The reed]
+
+_What the Hand Loom is._--The hand loom consists of four uprights or
+posts, joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces.
+Attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each
+side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give free play back
+and forth. This is the beater. These cross pieces are grooved on their
+inner edges, and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a frame
+divided into sections by short, stiff wires, making from 10 to 25 or
+more sections to the inch. It is called a reed because it was formerly
+made from reeds. The sections of the reed are called dents, and through
+each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp. From the upper
+cross pieces extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a height
+of about two feet above the general framework. They are united at
+the top by a round piece called the roll, over which, near each end,
+are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords
+fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across
+the width of the loom. These sticks are in pairs and carry cords or
+wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread
+of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire, as through the
+dent of the reed. This is called the harness. There must be at least
+two of them, and there may be more. Two are necessary for the simplest
+weaving of a plain surface, and more than two if the work is to be more
+complex, as is required for scarfs with fancy borders, cushions, or
+any figured products of the loom. Near each end of the loom are two
+rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the
+loom is set up for weaving. These rollers are called beams. Over one of
+them the woven product passes as the loom is operated, while the other
+holds the unwoven warp. At the back of the loom is still another cross
+piece, underneath which pedals are fastened. These pedals connect by
+chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed
+on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing
+the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of
+the other set or sets of warp threads. An ingenious device of cogs at
+the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let
+out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work.
+
+
+THE PROCESS
+
+_Preparing the Warp._--When the essential parts of the hand loom and
+their uses are understood, the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready
+the warp and attach it to the machine. The thread or warp is taken
+from spools or cones, four threads at one time, which constitute what
+is called a bout. After determining how many threads will be required,
+allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth, the
+operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long. With the
+width, the length, and the number of threads to the inch in mind, she
+proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount
+until she has it all in one great skein. In putting this upon the bars
+or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout--_i. e._, each
+four threads--so that one bout shall go above and one below, in order
+to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks or
+leash-sticks. These attachments keep the order of the threads so that
+they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are
+wound on the beam.
+
+_Warping the Loom._--To warp the loom the operator loosens one end of
+the skein and, passing it from the warping bars to the loom, attaches
+it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after carefully
+dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed. At this point an
+attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a
+certain number of threads placed in each division. By the aid of the
+lease-sticks, which are inserted, and with the assistance of a second
+person to hold the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the beam. The
+rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece.
+
+[Illustration: Warping hook]
+
+_Drawing in the Warp._--As has already been explained, two harnesses
+only will need to be used for simple weaving. Taking the first bout
+of four threads, the weaver draws the first thread through the centre
+of the first loop in the first harness, or the one to which the
+right-hand pedal is attached. The next thread is put through the centre
+of the first loop of the second harness, or the one attached to the
+left-hand pedal. The third is drawn through the second loop of the
+harness connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth, in turn,
+through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal.
+Great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a single
+misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done
+over again. A special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the
+warp. When the drawing in is completed properly, the operator begins
+at the right-hand side of the loom and, measuring the reed, allows
+one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each
+thread through each dent in regular order. When this is done it is only
+necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by
+means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom, test the
+work, and proceed joyously with the weaving.
+
+_Beating Up the Woof._--The weaver presses the right-hand pedal, and
+every alternate thread separates from the other, leaving a space
+between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from
+right to left, carrying the woof threads through. The operator then
+draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings
+home the beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. A sheer fabric
+requires a light stroke of the beater, while firm cloth requires more
+force. Releasing the right pedal, the operator presses the left, which
+causes the warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof threads
+just thrown. The shuttle now passes from left to right, carrying
+through another woof thread which, in turn, is beaten up as before. So
+the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating
+from right to left and from left to right, interspersed with the
+strokes of the beater.
+
+[Illustration: Hand-Made Towels. Plate VIII]
+
+
+PROBLEM: MAKING A RUG
+
+_The Design._--This problem, like all others in house decoration,
+involves in its initial stages questions of design. Before
+planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to
+have--whether it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room,
+or a chamber, and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or
+with a carpet. This is a question of colours, and of materials; for
+the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour, not only in
+the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which
+it should harmonize, and the materials used must not display glaring
+inconsistencies of texture. Unless the beginner has special talent as
+a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many
+colours in one piece of work. If the warp is dark it is usually better
+to use light or medium woof. If several shades are used in the body of
+the rug, better results are obtained by using for the border or end
+decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with
+the principal colours of the body of the rug.
+
+[Illustration: Hand-Made Rugs. Plate IX]
+
+_Materials: Denim._--There are many materials suitable for rug making.
+Denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen. This should
+be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size. In preparing
+the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into
+strips from 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch wide. The latter width is better.
+In cutting, the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut
+end along the selvedge, forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of
+45 degrees. Crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along
+the fold. With a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off
+lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width
+for the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain a true bias.
+When a sufficient amount has been cut, the pieces should be ravelled
+or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button
+hook. There is a certain knack in this, but it is soon acquired. The
+fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means
+of overhand stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting corners. The
+moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof, as soon as it is
+prepared, is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for
+filling the shuttle. A special form of shuttle without a bobbin or
+spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving. Its simple
+construction is shown in the illustration. The woof is wound endwise
+and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle.
+
+[Illustration: Shuttle for woof cloth]
+
+Another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of
+woollen cloth. Warm, durable, and handsome effects may be obtained by
+using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the
+end decoration, with set figures for the body of the rug. Geometric
+designs, arrows, swastika, the pine tree, and many other forms are
+possible. Very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber
+use. Materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses,
+discarded silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully with one or two
+plain colours reserved for use in the borders.
+
+_Combination of Blue and White._--Blue and white is always a happy
+combination; and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven, to be
+placed perhaps in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old blue with
+a white warp, combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe.
+A vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and
+white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white
+or blue between the two. Another happy combination of blue and white
+results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel, cut
+and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim, with a border of
+old blue and figures of the same colour. For a chamber or for a bath
+room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired.
+
+_A Weaving Design._--It has just been said that design in rug making is
+a question of colours and of materials. It is already apparent that it
+is more than that. It is largely a question of procedure in the process
+of weaving. That this is so may be shown in the following account of
+the making of a blue and white rug. The thought was to produce a rug
+with five stripes of blue running lengthwise, with white figures at
+regular intervals through the middle of the rug. To accomplish this
+result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness
+every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side, thus making
+what may be called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will be
+easily seen, had to appear to the number of five on each side when the
+rug was woven. The white figures were formed by first throwing the
+blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle
+and, before beating it up, threading into the warp white cloth in the
+desired pattern, after which the woof and pattern were beaten up
+together. For the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were
+used, two of which were 6 inches in length and three 2 inches, the two
+longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated. A
+space of 7 inches was left between the white figures, the location of
+which was carefully determined by counting the threads, both of warp
+and of woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right
+place. The result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug.
+
+[Illustration: White figure in blue rug]
+
+_Another Example of Weaving Design._--This feature of rug designing
+is capable of indefinite expansion. Perhaps one more example may be
+given. The object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an
+8-inch border all around of a darker colour. This effect was produced
+by first weaving 8 inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed
+goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily. Having reached
+the place where the medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this
+medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short
+pieces of woof of the border colour so that, as the weaving progressed
+along the length of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared
+in its proper place but 8 inches of border on each side. When the
+proper length of the centre had been woven, the rug was finished by
+weaving another 8 inches of the border colour. The result was a rug of
+individuality and charm.
+
+_Great Variety of Material._--Endless combinations will occur to any
+one who becomes interested in this captivating art. The field for
+colour design is almost without limit. No material is so old and
+useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker. Old bed ticking
+with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable
+combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border. A
+charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which
+was ravelled from an old raw silk portiere of a mahogany shade and
+wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls being
+rewound several times. This was used as the woof for the centre of
+the rug. The border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled
+mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give thread of a size equal
+to that of the tan cloth. Discarded clothing in which the prevailing
+colours are red, when made up into woof threads and woven on a white
+warp, gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down
+by a border combination as desired. Dyes may, of course, be used if the
+colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded
+clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out.
+
+_Weaving the Rug._--When the design for the rug has been thoroughly
+worked out, determining the colours, materials to be used, and
+the method of procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be
+prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as already explained in
+the discussion of the general process of weaving. Further details of
+procedure are not needed here. The thing to do is to weave a rug as
+designed. The next thing to do is to design and weave another rug, and
+then another and so on. As in most crafts so in weaving, experience
+is the great teacher--a teacher who demands faithful work, who finds
+lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every
+success. Some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated
+opposite page 252.
+
+Rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore
+a good problem with which to begin. After serving a satisfactory
+apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient
+knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more
+difficult problems. This will take her out into a large field of
+opportunity. Portieres, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads,
+and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest
+themselves to the ambitious worker. In all these, as has been seen in
+the case of rug making, design is all important. The management of the
+loom is much the same in all plain weaving. What differences there
+are will be found, for the most part, in the weaving designs. In the
+following problems are described some of the special features involved
+in the other forms of weaving.
+
+
+PROBLEM: PORTIERES AND COUCH COVERS
+
+_Suggestions for the Design._--If the loom is wide enough these may
+be woven in one piece; but usually it is necessary to weave them in
+sections or breadths. In this case, of course, they must be afterward
+neatly joined. The possibilities in colour design are naturally varied.
+They may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the
+colour of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with striped
+ends. Harmony of colour effects is always to be sought. Depth and
+richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a
+generous use of black. Materials may be yarns, bits of silk or velvet,
+or pieces of fine, soft woollen goods. The warp may be silk or linen
+or mercerized cotton. Beautiful portieres have been woven by leaving
+out two threads of warp at regular intervals, giving a loose and fluffy
+effect. Silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating
+with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade; and, if
+of the same colour as the warp used, they will impart a very decided
+tone to the whole product. In portieres, the general appearance is
+much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp. The
+soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more
+suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portieres.
+Couch covers, however, which will have to resist more wear and tear,
+should be beaten up harder. In preparing the silk and wool pieces the
+cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by carefully lapping
+the ends, and, by cutting away a part of the cloth, making the joint
+uniform in size. If the material is cloth of ordinary thickness 1/2
+an inch is quite wide enough for strips. The length of the pieces used
+may vary greatly, though they may be somewhat different in colour. They
+may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave
+an inch in the portiere or cover. This makes it very easy to secure
+a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short
+pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads
+for these products of the loom. Almost any household will be able to
+save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful
+pair of portieres or a couch cover which will be durable in quality,
+easy to clean, attractive in colour, and satisfactory from every point
+of view.
+
+
+PROBLEM: WINDOW DRAPERIES AND CURTAINS
+
+_The Design._--Curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the
+simple loom with two harnesses. They may be of the soft cream tint,
+the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which, in
+softening the light passing through them, leaves little to be desired.
+But if a little colour be required, the weaving design may be easily
+changed to secure this result. One may, for example, weave at first 7
+inches of the plain cream. This will give woven material enough for
+a 2-inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and 5 inches before the
+beginning of a coloured border. The border may consist of two threads
+of colour alternating with two threads of the cream, thus making a
+stripe of about 7 inches in width. Following this may come 8 to 10
+inches of the plain cream, followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the
+same colour as the border, 3 inches wide, in turn followed by another
+10 inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and so on,
+alternately, until the required length of the curtain has been woven.
+If desired, a top border may be woven in, though it is well to make it
+somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom--say about 5 inches--and
+it must be added so that it will show below the hem. In any case the
+top of the curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming, and
+also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain.
+Vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains, especially if the
+room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible
+means for making it seem higher. Such stripes may be made by using two
+colours for the warp--as, for example, blue and white or green and
+white--with one of these colours as woof.
+
+[Illustration: An Alcove With Window Draperies, Pillow Covers, Window
+Seat Cover, Chair Seat and Moss Green Rug. All Hand Woven]
+
+_Importance of Selecting Good Warp._--The successful working out
+of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of
+materials. While many things may be used for warp with a certain
+degree of success, there are fine points to be observed in weaving as
+in all the art-crafts, and the real beauty of the result depends upon
+giving due attention to these points. It is always well to remember
+that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part. Mercerized
+cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a
+combination of both, and retains its beauty after being laundered many
+times. In the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk,
+at a much less cost. But silk may often be obtained at a low price
+if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill. Bargains in
+small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver
+may do wonders; and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed
+at small expense. Our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week
+or more, boiled them, and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp.
+They were, in fact, very particular about their warping threads. Not
+everything would suit them. They learned from experience that the
+wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and
+harder twisted than the filling. It was common for them to spin a
+certain thread for this purpose. Exquisite results follow the use of
+a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for
+filling. Striking and beautiful also, in its way, is the very coarse
+linen warp.
+
+_Variety in Woof Threads._--A very pleasing effect in sash curtains
+or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy
+threads alternately with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins,
+one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one. Two or more
+threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer
+prompts; and this style of weaving may be confined to borders, leaving
+the body of the fabric plain, or the borders may be woven of the solid,
+heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the
+alternate coarse and fine threads. Such curtains are very beautiful in
+cream white; but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the
+curtains may be successfully laundered.
+
+
+PATTERN WEAVING
+
+Before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be
+necessary to explain in general two important processes. The first
+one is the process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing. Among the
+heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white
+coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels. No
+one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see
+these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the
+wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they
+were once well known; for our grandmothers designated these designs by
+such names as Spring Flowers, Governor's Garden, the Path of the Roses,
+Flowers of Lebanon, Ladies' Delight, Fairies Ring, and doubtless by
+many more names which have been lost. This work in pattern design is
+wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses, right and left, as
+used in the first three problems, but by the use of several additional
+harnesses.
+
+_To Be Learned by Experimenting._--If the beginner in weaving has
+mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible
+to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a
+pattern weaving loom. But the procedure is too technical and too varied
+to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for
+amateurs. It is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind
+under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step
+by step. Nor will it be possible, in a brief description of this
+somewhat intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving
+designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving.
+Copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study
+and practice. After a little it will be possible to make variations and
+so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate
+new patterns.
+
+[Illustration: Hand Woven Window Draperies, Couch Cover, Slumber Robe
+and Pillow Covers. Plate X]
+
+[Illustration: A written pattern with a variety of figures woven from
+it]
+
+_How Patterns Are Written._--Complete working directions for pattern
+weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter; but it may be
+possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be
+of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself
+this interesting application of the art of weaving. Patterns for this
+work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section
+paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration,
+each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses
+of the loom and the pedal attached to it. If we have a four-harness
+loom, as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the
+figures illustrated, the right-hand pedal and the harness connected
+with it, which is the one farthest from the operator, are designated
+by the number 1, and correspond to that harness number in the pattern.
+Following in order, the next three pedals and connected harnesses
+are numbered 2, 3, and 4 to correspond with the same numbers in the
+pattern. Turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern, we shall
+find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that when
+the pattern is "drawn in"--_i. e._, when the warp for weaving the
+pattern is attached to the loom--we shall find the thread of the warp
+which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark
+on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to
+the number of the harness through which it is drawn. Thus, according to
+the pattern shown in the illustration, the first thread is to be drawn
+into the 3d harness, the 2d thread into the 4th harness, and 3d thread
+into the 3d harness, and so on alternately until we reach the 8th
+thread, which is drawn into the 2d harness; the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th,
+and 12th threads are drawn alternately into the 2d and 3d harnesses,
+and the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th are drawn alternately into the
+1st and 2d harnesses. This process is now continued, as will be clearly
+understood by reference to the pattern, up to and including the 42d
+thread, when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed.
+A further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines 3 and 4
+form a continuously alternating series; and similarly that those on
+2 and 3, 1 and 2, and 1 and 4 form also a continuously alternating
+series. But these numbers, however paired, correspond to the harnesses
+into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers 1 to 42, are
+drawn. It thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads
+as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the
+pattern, we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns.
+We must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same
+order as those already drawn in, thus repeating the drawing in of the
+pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be
+woven. The illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern.
+
+_Operation of the Harnesses._--Having explained the method of drawing
+in the pattern, we may now study the movement of the harnesses
+necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern. It
+has been noted that, with the pattern under consideration, harnesses
+1 and 3 hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads, leaving
+harnesses 2 and 4 to take up all the intervening warp threads. If
+then the operator should throw down pedals 1 and 3 together, and
+alternately 2 and 4 also together, the warp threads would be crossed
+exactly as in plain weaving. Bringing out a pattern in weaving must,
+of course, require a variation of the pedal movement from that used
+in plain weaving. Now, upon reference to the illustration it will
+also be noted that in writing the pattern, or in drawing it in, no
+two threads have ever come together on the same harness. If the 1st
+thread has been drawn into the 3d harness, and the 2d thread into the
+4th harness, as shown in the pattern illustrated, the operator begins
+the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the 3d and 4th pedals
+together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread.
+This operation is what weavers call a "pick." Each pick of the pattern
+thread is represented in the diagram (page 268) by a broken black line
+running across the pattern. Thus the diagram of the first design shown
+indicates that there are 6 throws of the shuttle alternately over and
+back, or 6 picks of the pattern thread, for each corresponding section
+of this design. But between every two picks of the pattern thread there
+must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring, as has already been
+explained, the pressing down of either the 1st and 3d pair of pedals
+together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of the 2d
+and 4th if thrown from the left side. It is evident, then, that there
+must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads. One of
+these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern
+weave. The shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a
+fine thread of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation
+according to the design of the weaver. The pattern weaving shuttle
+should carry a coarser thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or
+mercerized cotton.
+
+_Variations in Pattern._--From the fact that a carefully written
+pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern
+weaving, one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely
+followed in the weaving process. And so it must if the pattern be woven
+as written; but, after the drawing in, it is by no means necessary to
+follow the written pattern. As the weaving progresses it is easy to
+see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing
+in--patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each
+other. In fact, one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is
+to devise ways of modifying simple patterns, elaborating them into
+new weaving designs, producing unique and sometimes very interesting
+original figures. We have only to remember that patterns are made by
+the order and number of the overshots--_i. e._, the throws of the
+shuttle carrying the pattern threads--and that the overshots in the
+same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair. In
+the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by 2 and 3, by 1 and
+2, by 1 and 4, or by 3 and 4, not counting 1 and 3 and 2 and 4, which
+are the pairs for plain weaves. We should also remember that the last
+end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next. Examples of
+two variations in design that may be woven from the original written
+pattern, to which we have already referred, are illustrated in the
+diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible.
+
+
+PROBLEM: A BORDERED TABLE SCARF
+
+This problem will require the use of the four-harness loom. The first
+thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw
+it in. When the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun, the
+first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth.
+In doing this, however, we shall, of course, find that the pressing
+of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not
+accomplish the desired result; for it has already been explained that
+the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to
+produce a plain weave. It will be remembered that to do plain weaving
+with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page
+268, it is necessary to press pedals 1 and 3 together alternately with
+2 and 4--_i. e._, both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same
+time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate
+movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving.
+
+When a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven, the written
+pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully
+consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order
+for the weaving of the pattern. The second or weaving shuttle carries
+the bobbin, which is filled with the colour required in the pattern.
+Any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by
+inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour.
+
+_The Design._--A great variety of design is possible in table scarfs.
+It is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have
+been chosen, following this by a few threads of white, and this in
+turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight
+suggestion of the pattern, then more of the plain white and finally
+the full pattern of the border. The centre of the table scarf is simply
+a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour,
+while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and
+bands as were woven at first, but in the reverse order.
+
+_Variations in Design._--One pleasing style of decoration is found
+in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between.
+Another variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow ones
+at short intervals throughout the length. Shadow borders, so-called,
+are also common, and may alternate with borders of colour or may
+constitute the entire decoration. Shadow borders are heavy borders
+woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a
+contrasting shade. In order to make them stand out well it is necessary
+to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders. A gray
+linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect.
+There is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders. It
+is obtainable in dainty colours, and the heavy thread seems to bring
+out the patterns in greater perfection. Darning silks in fast colours
+are also employed, but these should be woven double in order to obtain
+the best effect. They are found in the market in short lengths and in
+such attractive colours as Delft blue, reseda green, pink, and catawba.
+The last two colours, used with linen in the natural shade, make a
+happy combination.
+
+Scarfs should be woven from 20 to 24 inches wide and about 1-1/2 yards
+long, unless some special use requires that they should be of different
+length. Not only do they make pleasing table covers, but they are
+useful as tray cloths, and from them charming sewing or embroidery
+aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with ribbons,
+and arranging pockets to hold the work. One scarf will make two aprons.
+Fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs, but
+the width needs to be only 8 or 10 inches. These may be woven of the
+pattern throughout, or they may be striped with bands or borders.
+Lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very much
+admired for embroidery and other fancy work.
+
+
+DYEING
+
+In the discussion of the problem of hand weaving, frequent reference
+has been made to the use of coloured materials. While it is possible to
+obtain many good colours in the market, it is much more satisfactory
+to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot. In former
+times, when hand weaving was general, there was no other way; and,
+in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered now, as they were
+then, sister arts. When the wool was washed, carded into rolls, spun
+into yarn, and again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking,
+still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before
+weaving it into cloth. One notable exception was found in the natural
+gray homespun, which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black
+and the white sheep carded together. The modern worker with the hand
+loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a
+knowledge of the art of dyeing. Seldom will she find at hand just the
+shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven. Much
+of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs, for example,
+will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one
+for the labour of weaving it up in that condition. And even the new
+material, which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving, for
+pattern weaving, and for use in borders, will often need a bath in the
+dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed.
+
+_Some Good Points in Dyeing._--Good results in dyeing are obtained by
+using the prepared dyes of the markets, mixing together more than
+one colour often, after some experimenting, in order to produce the
+desired shade. Instead of mixing the dye one may, if she chooses, dye
+first in one colour and top off with another. A fine permanent green
+is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a
+blue bath. Green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue
+but a blending of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing. In all
+cases it is better to make the dye bath weak, leaving the article to be
+dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in
+a stronger dye. The advantage is not only greater permanency of colour
+but also greater certainty in the result; for one can watch the process
+of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark.
+The material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically
+all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade
+nor crock.
+
+_Some Common Dyes._--The dull, soft colours, made generations ago
+from barks and teas with alum as a mordant, had artistic qualities
+and were generally permanent. It is well worth while to experiment in
+this direction. Straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb
+saffron; orange comes from madder and fustic; yellow is obtained
+from powdered dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of
+copperas give a good black dye, useful also in freshening black yarns
+that have acquired a dull or faded colour. White maple bark boiled
+in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first
+treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum. A
+permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a
+piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it. In fact, nearly
+everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye. Vegetable
+substances are generally in themselves more permanent, but most dyes
+need to be fixed or "set" by the use of some mordant. All this will
+mean much experimenting, of course, unless one is fortunate enough to
+possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants,
+kettles of brass, and vessels of pewter. The use of the prepared dyes,
+which may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is generally
+satisfactory and of course somewhat easier; and yet the interest which
+inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire
+to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and
+fascinating home industry.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+POTTERY
+
+To watch a potter thumping his wet clay--_Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam_
+
+
+The boy who makes his mud pie, baking it in the sun, and the Indian
+who, ages ago, coiled clay in a basket which he burned away, are but
+two widely separated links in a continuous chain; for men of all time
+have found a fascination in the wet clay that is so easily moulded
+and fashioned into all manner of things of beauty and of use. And,
+beside the joy of exercising the creative faculty, there has also
+been the spur of a common need to inspire men of different races,
+independently of each other, to develop the primitive household arts,
+like pottery and rug making, by the use of methods no less remarkable
+for their similarity than for their cleverness. The impressions
+that the primitive man received from his natural surroundings were
+easily expressed in the plastic mud, and it was probably not long
+before he discovered that fire made them permanent and practically
+indestructible. Improvement was bound to come in due time. By
+washing the grosser impurities from the clay mud through a process in
+which the heavier particles settled, leaving the silt or finer clay to
+be poured off, some artist of a very early time found a material that
+became one of his most valuable helps in adding to the furnishings of
+his tribal household. First it was simply burned clay; but in due time
+enamel or glazed work found its use in tiles for building purposes, in
+grain jars, in wine jugs, in many kinds of table ware; for the uses of
+ancient terra cotta and porcelain were numerous.
+
+[Illustration: Girls at Work on Pottery. Plate XI]
+
+The primitive arts, however, were not confined to objects of necessary
+use. We find, buried with the ruins of ancient cities, many evidences
+of the potter's craft, and among them articles for decorating the
+home, for personal adornment, and for religious use, like the rings
+and scarabs of Egypt. And in modern decorative art, as applied in the
+household, the one final touch which gives that indescribable charm,
+which it is the aim of all art to give, is perhaps to be found in a
+few--a very few--choice bits of pottery.
+
+All of this use of clay, from the rude art of prehistoric times to the
+finest product of modern skill, is based on a plain scientific fact,
+_viz._, that a small quantity of water in the clay, not removable by
+any ordinary means of drying, can be driven out by intense heat so as
+to cause a permanent change in the character of the clay. This water is
+called the water of combination. If the clay is not heated more than
+enough to dry it, a later mixing with water restores it to its former
+plastic state; but clay once burned has lost its water of combination
+and never can return to its original condition.
+
+Most beginners in clay modelling will expect, perhaps in the early
+stages of their work, to be made acquainted with the potter's wheel;
+for who has not heard of this interesting device? It is of interest
+chiefly because of its practical utility in the manufacture of pottery;
+and yet no one can forget the potter's song with which Longfellow
+begins his beautiful poem Keramos, making it a text for a sermon on the
+philosophy of life:
+
+    "Turn, turn, my wheel! Turn round and round
+    Without a pause, without a sound;
+        So spins the flying world away!
+    This clay, well mixed with marl and sand,
+    Follows the motion of my hand;
+    For some must follow, and some command,
+        Though all are made of clay!"
+
+_Potter's Wheel Unnecessary._--The potter's wheel was used in
+comparatively early times and has been intimately associated with the
+art ever since. But it requires much physical strength and considerable
+skill to use it effectively; and its use has been by no means
+universal. We find the Indians of our own time and people of other
+races, expert in building pottery by hand, using the method of coiling.
+It seems best, therefore, to advise beginners to adopt the simpler
+method and to forego the use of the potter's wheel. The comparative
+inexpensiveness of the hand method of building is another point in its
+favour. The tools required are few and simple. Inexpensive and easy
+methods are favourable to the experimental stage; and it is well for
+the amateur to have every encouragement to experiment freely both with
+methods for building and with designs for his ware, keeping in mind
+always that the beautiful is generally the simple and strong, not the
+fantastic and complicated.
+
+_The Method of Coiling._--It will be understood, therefore, that in
+general the process to be followed consists in building up the bowl or
+jar or whatever the design may be by using coils of clay of the right
+consistency, welding and shaping them together, and scraping them down,
+if necessary, until they are ready to receive the first firing. After
+this they may receive a coating of glaze and be fired again. At first
+the beginner will find his chief interest simply in experimenting with
+the building up process.
+
+
+MATERIALS AND TOOLS
+
+The materials and tools needed are as follows: Clay; oil-cloth, 18
+inches square; cotton cloth or flannelette, 18 inches square; a few
+simple modelling tools; a soft pencil; drawing paper; card-board, 6
+ply; a plaster of paris "bat," or a piece of slate.
+
+_Clays._--It will be necessary to add a word of explanation in order
+that these materials and tools may be well selected. There is a
+great variety in clays, ranging from a very coarse red clay used for
+flower pots to the finest white clay used for porcelain. The latter
+is called kaolin and is very pure. A good modelling clay may be
+obtained from dealers in school supplies or from potteries. In some
+localities, especially in the neighbourhood of brick-yards or other
+clay industries, a satisfactory clay may be easily found. But, however
+obtained, some experimenting will be necessary to test its suitability.
+The modelling clay is probably the least liable to yield disappointing
+results.
+
+The cotton cloth or flannelette is to be moistened and used to wrap
+up the clay in order to keep it from drying too rapidly during the
+intervals when it is set aside. This will not be necessary during the
+early part of the process, for then it is desirable for the clay to
+stiffen as rapidly as possible by natural means.
+
+[Illustration: Simple tools used in pottery]
+
+Of the modelling tools needed some can be whittled from hard wood.
+They are not expensive, however, and the beginner will perhaps find it
+well to obtain most of them from a dealer in artists' materials. The
+accompanying illustration shows some of these, among them a very useful
+tool (F) with brass wire loops which are in turn wound with finer
+wire. F and C are especially useful for scraping clay too soft to be
+easily managed with smooth edges. The thumb-like tool A is perhaps the
+most generally useful of those shown here.
+
+In this connection it is well to emphasize the fact that _the greatest
+of all tools is the human thumb_. Cultivate its use. Most modelling and
+building can be managed with the thumb, assisted by the fingers.
+
+_The Bat and How Made._--A plaster of paris bat will be found
+exceedingly useful. A sheet of thin, unsized paper serves well,
+however, for a surface on which to build; but the dry plaster of
+the bat absorbs the moisture of the clay at the bottom and hastens
+the stiffening process. This bat can be easily made. Take a small
+quantity of water (a half pint or more according to the size of
+the bat required), sift into this from the hand an equal amount of
+plaster of paris, and stir it in until a little dry plaster appears
+at the surface. After a little more vigorous stirring let it rest a
+few minutes and then pour it into tin pans which are 4 or 5 inches in
+diameter by 1 inch deep. The pans should be previously coated on the
+inside with a thick soap solution, made by dissolving soap in hot water
+to the consistency of a thick cream. The bats will harden in 10 or 15
+minutes and may be easily removed from the pan, ready for use.
+
+
+PROBLEM: A BOWL FOR FLOWERS
+
+This problem naturally divides itself into six important steps, as
+follows: The design or profile; building and shaping; decoration, if
+any; firing (bisque); glazing; and firing the glaze.
+
+[Illustration: Variety in dimensions]
+
+_The Design or Profile._--As in all problems of decoration the first
+step is found in design. For present purposes we may consider a bowl
+as having a diameter as great as or greater than the height. The bowl
+will be more interesting from the standpoint of variety if there is
+a difference between its height and its greatest diameter, and also
+between its diameters at the top and at the bottom. The accompanying
+drawing shows such differences.
+
+[Illustration: Suggestive profiles]
+
+Another example of the value of variety is to be found in the curve
+of the profile. A line that is simple but constantly changing in its
+degree of curvature--as, for example, an elliptical curve--is more
+pleasing than an arc of a circle, which is sometimes called the curve
+of limitation. It should be noted that a curved form, in order to be
+forceful, should have some dominant curve in combination with others
+which are subordinate. The profiles illustrated in the following
+drawings have this dominant element and are in no case composed of arcs
+of circles. These varied, interesting, yet simple lines--live lines
+as they are sometimes called--consisting in each case of only two or
+three elements, are given here merely as suggestive material. A little
+experimenting will show unsuspected possibilities in strong, forceful
+curves, and the young student is advised to make many experiments in
+the effort to discover such possibilities. An example of profiles to
+be avoided is given in Problem II, on page 309. That these are
+vase forms and not bowl contours is immaterial. _A_ is commonplace
+because the two parts of the curve are too much alike. _B_ is unrestful
+in its three curves of nearly equal size. If the suggestive profiles
+illustrated in the foregoing drawing be turned upside down it will be
+noted that very few of them seem as pleasing as before. It will be
+found also that a different ratio of height to diameter will give very
+different effects with the same profile. A bowl having top and bottom
+alike may, so far as design is concerned, be classed with the pill
+box. We don't know which is the top until we have spilled the pills.
+If attractive pieces of pottery are found with the top and bottom of
+equal diameter and with curves in themselves objectionable, it will
+invariably be found that the attractiveness consists in some beauty of
+glaze, colour, or decoration which is prominent enough to conceal the
+defects of form.
+
+_Natural Forms._--It may be well to add a word here in regard to the
+imitation of natural forms in designing the general shape of any piece
+of pottery; and that word is a very brief one. Avoid them. Nature is a
+great teacher in all branches of art; but in pottery her suggestions
+are to be used as decorative elements rather than for fundamental
+shapes. A fish with a flower in its mouth does not seem appropriate;
+but a bowl for water-lilies, while it may not take the form of a fish,
+might reasonably have a fish as an element of its decoration.
+
+_Testing Profiles._--A good way to study the effect of the profile of
+both sides of the bowl is to fold the paper on which the profile is
+drawn vertically through the centre and transfer the line reversed
+by rubbing the back of the paper, thus giving the other half of the
+drawing in exact symmetry. When the general shape of the profile has
+been tested in this way one side should be redrawn carefully; then,
+with the paper folded along the centre line, so that the pencil line
+falls outside, the whole form may be cut out; and then it may be
+unfolded. The next step is to begin to build up the design in clay.
+
+_The Building._--Roll out a coil of clay a little thicker than the
+bottom of the bowl is to be; perhaps 3/8 or 1/2 of an inch will serve,
+since the bottom is to be hollowed slightly by scraping. The roll
+should be uniform in diameter and rolled as little as possible, in
+order that it may not become too dry. Upon the piece of paper or the
+plaster bat start to coil the roll from the centre until the desired
+size is reached, then smear the rolls together, working toward the
+centre. Turn the coil over and work the other side together, truing up
+the circle and making the bottom of uniform thickness. Avoid the use
+of water in smoothing the coils together. It may seem to make the work
+easier, but it softens the clay and invites careless work.
+
+[Illustration: Manipulating the coil]
+
+With another coil begin to build up the sides, making a complete
+circle, and, having pinched off the ends where they meet, join them
+carefully. Lay two or three coils in this fashion, pressing each coil
+firmly into place as it is laid, and smooth them together as in the
+base. The process is illustrated in the drawing. If the clay is very
+soft, the work may be set aside to harden a little, while a beginning
+is made upon other pieces. It is well to have two or three pieces in
+the process of construction at the same time.
+
+_Testing the Work._--A template or gauge will be needed to test the
+work as it progresses from the first rough stages to the finish. This
+is made of card-board by cutting out an exact copy of the profile,
+leaving at the bottom sufficient width to insure rigidity when the
+template is held upright on the table or bat.
+
+[Illustration: A template]
+
+As the work goes on, if the design requires that the form should be
+"brought in" toward the top, the coil must be laid a little inside of
+the profile desired, as the smoothing tends to increase the diameter
+slightly. In all the building, allowance should be made for this
+enlargement. When the coil is high enough and of the shape desired,
+it should be allowed to stiffen until it is rigid enough to handle.
+With the various modelling tools the surface should then be scraped
+wherever it is necessary to remove the hardened clay in order to give a
+symmetrical shape to the desired profile.
+
+[Illustration: Scraping a square form]
+
+A drawing is shown to illustrate the process of scraping. The surface
+should be left smooth and even; and this may be accomplished without
+water or sponge. The flat sides of the scraping tool may be used to
+polish the clay as soon as it becomes leather hard--_i. e._, hard and
+stiff, but before it begins to whiten and dry.
+
+The lip or top of the bowl will require special attention. It will
+probably need to be thinned down and have all sharp edges removed. Then
+the bowl should be turned upside down and the bottom hollowed out to
+a depth of 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch, leaving a "foot" or rim around the
+outside of the circle to give it steadiness.
+
+_The Decoration._--After the bowl is complete as to its general form,
+the problem of its decoration, if there is to be any, must be solved.
+This may be studied during the intervals when it is necessary to set
+the bowl aside to harden. If the form and colour are good, the bowl may
+possess a charm that will not be improved by decoration. On the whole,
+less decoration, rather than more, should be the aim. The three vases
+illustrated at the top of a following page are examples of pottery
+without decoration. (See page 308.)
+
+[Illustration: Bowls. Plate XII]
+
+Generally speaking, bowls like the one we are building may be decorated
+by one of three methods: By sinking lines or channels in its surface by
+means of a sharpened, chisel-like stick (D, page 285); by modelling or
+carving the surface; or by painting the surface with coloured "slip" or
+with coloured glaze. It should be explained that "slip" is a mixture
+of clay and water of the consistency of cream; it may be coloured
+or uncoloured. A combination of two or more of these methods is, of
+course, possible. Examples of the first two methods are shown in the
+illustrations of bowls, vases, and tiles. A combination of the first
+and third methods was used in decorating the tiles of the middle row
+shown in Plate XIV opposite page 316.
+
+[Illustration: Spacing in decoration]
+
+_Classes of Decoration._--The _form_ of the decoration is simply a
+matter of space division, as illustrated by two examples shown below.
+It is evident, too, that decoration, so far as form is concerned,
+divides itself naturally into three general classes: (a) The horizontal
+band; (b) the vertical division; (c) a combination of these two. The
+last will prove to be the most common of the three. It should be noted
+that an all-over pattern, which has been left out of consideration as
+tending to monotony, would commonly be a combination of both horizontal
+and vertical methods of division. It should be noted also that the
+presence of other than vertical and horizontal lines in pottery
+decoration does not affect the main classification. Typical examples
+of these divisions are illustrated in both bowls and vases, as well
+as in the cuts A and B. It will be seen in each case that one scheme
+or the other predominates and that there are possibilities for great
+variation in treatment.
+
+Analyzing the patterns shown in all these illustrations, we find that
+the band or horizontal scheme offers a succession of large and small
+spaces, giving variety and rhythm. In many of those patterns showing
+the combination type there is a concentration or "knotting" of the line
+at regular intervals, frequently at the intersection of both horizontal
+and vertical elements. This is well illustrated by the left-hand bowl
+of the middle row shown in this plate opposite page 294. When
+the method of painted decoration is employed the concentration point is
+composed of mass instead of line. All this serves to give emphasis and
+rhythm.
+
+For subject matter in decoration natural forms may be used as shown in
+the vase at the left of the top row illustrated in Plate XIII,
+opposite page 312. Or an abstract arrangement of lines may be employed,
+as shown in its nearest neighbour, which may or may not have had its
+origin in a very much conventionalized natural motif. The essential
+thing to remember is that the divisions of spaces must be varied and
+rhythmic and the decoration suited to the method of application.
+
+_How the Design is Applied to the Clay._--After the design has been
+studied as much as possible on paper it should be planned out on the
+bowl with a soft pencil, allowing sufficient space for the incised
+line or channel to be made. The clay should be leather-hard--_i. e._,
+stiff but not dry. The spacing around the circumference should be made
+exact, deviating somewhat, if necessary, from the spacing of the paper
+drawing. A good way to manage this important step in the process is to
+measure the circumference at the point of greatest width with a narrow
+strip of paper and then to divide this circumference by folding the
+paper evenly into the number of units desired. By wrapping the paper
+around the bowl again the points of division may be transferred to the
+clay and then projected upward or downward vertically to the belt that
+it is desired to meet. It is necessary to make sure that the vertical
+lines are true "meridians" and do not swerve to the right or the left.
+In order to test the horizontal lines, measurements may be made from
+top or bottom. All of this work is best done free-hand; for, aside from
+the value of the eye training derived, hand-built pottery is seldom
+exact enough to permit of a more mechanical method of planning its
+decoration.
+
+The drawing on the clay having been completed, the next point is to
+choose the tool best fitted for the work and carefully make the cuts,
+deepening them from time to time as the work progresses. If the design
+is to be worked out in line, a chisel, like that illustrated in D (page
+285), may be whittled from a pine stick. It is held nearly
+upright and used as a scraper to cut out at first a shallow channel.
+Reserve should be exercised in cutting, because, generally speaking,
+there is danger of making the design too insistent. Some of the best
+designs are very subtle and quiet. Care should be taken, however, to
+allow for a slight filling in of the hollow by the glaze when it is
+applied.
+
+_Modelling a Decoration._--If the decoration is to be modelled it would
+seem wise to do it, in whole or in part, as the work is built up; but
+in this case great care will be needed to keep a firm hold on the
+relief and unity of the decoration. It will be easy to over-model the
+work.
+
+_How Under-glaze is Applied._--For decoration with under glaze the
+colours given under the head of glazing (page 304) are mixed
+in different proportions with dry powdered clay and water to form a
+colour paste. This is painted on the "green" or moist clay, forming
+a smooth and even surface. Experience will teach the proportions of
+colour to be mixed with the clay. These proportions vary greatly with
+different colours. A very strong colour like cobalt will give a deep
+blue if mixed in the ratio of one part by weight of cobalt to ten parts
+of clay. Colours like the oxides of iron and copper are of medium
+strength, and antimony is quite weak.
+
+Before the work is left to dry it would be well to make sure that
+all corners and rough edges are smoothed off as they will show light
+and rough through the glaze. The use of sand-paper, however, is not
+advised, though it may occasionally be used in the emergency of an
+accidental roughness remaining after the piece is dry. The aim should
+be to have all clay work show something of the plastic nature of the
+material out of which it is made.
+
+_Firing._--Pottery must be "bone" dry before it is fired. A very
+satisfactory portable kiln for firing may be purchased for from $34 to
+$175, according to the size. The smallest size, which is illustrated in
+the next drawing, will be ample for the needs of one or two persons.
+If, however, the amateur does not care to go to the expense of
+purchasing a kiln, it is generally possible to find a pottery factory
+in the vicinity that will undertake the firing and perhaps the glazing.
+
+[Illustration: A portable kiln]
+
+_Temperature Required._--Pottery is fired at a temperature varying,
+according to the clay and the glaze used, from approximately 1800
+to 2000 degrees Fahrenheit. Modelling clay fires at 1958 degrees
+Fahrenheit, or what is called "cone 04." This term comes from the fact
+that the heat is gauged by pyrometric cones, which can be seen through
+a spy hole attached to the kiln. These cones are graded compositions
+of various materials and possess different degrees of resistance to
+heat. They are usually set up in clay in groups of three or more. When
+one of them melts it bends over, as illustrated in the accompanying
+drawing, which shows cone 05--the most fusible one--completely "down,"
+and 04 at a point indicating that it is time to shut off the heat from
+the kiln. This must be done gradually and the kiln must be allowed to
+cool completely before it is opened. This is especially necessary when
+firing the glazes described in the following section, which require
+the same temperature as modelling clay. Further details about firing
+and caring for the kiln may, of course, be learned from descriptions
+accompanying the apparatus. Pottery comes out of the first firing in
+the kiln a dull porous ware and in colour either cream, buff, or red,
+according to the amount of iron in the clay. In this state it is called
+"bisque" or "biscuit."
+
+[Illustration: Pyrometric cones]
+
+_Glazing._--It is necessary to bring the pottery up to the condition of
+bisque before it can be glazed; or, to speak more accurately, before
+it can be over-glazed; for it has already been shown how the so-called
+under-glaze is put on before the first firing. The subject is somewhat
+technical, and it will not be possible in a single chapter to take up
+the details extensively. Briefly speaking, the glazes most used for
+this class of work are the lead glazes--combinations of "white lead" or
+carbonate of lead as a flux with kaolin, flint, whiting, feldspar, and
+other ingredients. These are supplied in powdered form and are ground
+together in water by means of a mill or a large mortar and pestle; a
+mortar 8 inches in diameter will serve.
+
+_Grinding the Glaze._--The grinding should continue about an hour. It
+should be said, however, that there is such a thing as grinding too
+fine. After the glaze has been properly ground a small quantity of gum
+tragacanth, dissolved in water, is to be added as a binder to prevent
+flaking and rubbing off in handling. It is also a good plan, though
+not always necessary, to strain the glaze, as soon as it is ground,
+through fine muslin. The tools and materials needed for this work may
+be itemized as follows: Lead carbonate, whiting, Canadian feldspar,
+Florida kaolin, French flint, white oxide of zinc, and various other
+oxides and colours noted in the text; earthenware bowls, 10 or 12
+inches in diameter, for holding the glaze; large spoons, preferably
+aluminum; agate mortar and pestle, 8 inches in diameter.
+
+_Example of Matt Glaze and Bright Glaze Mixes._--Two mixes are given
+below calculated to fuse at cone 04. One has a "matt" or dull velvety
+surface, and the other has a "bright" or shiny surface. The matt will
+be found more desirable for general work because it harmonizes better
+with flowers and foliage. The figures given below refer to units of
+weight. Metric weights (grams) are most convenient to use, but any
+units will serve so long as the same one is used throughout. The matt
+glaze should be of the consistency of thick cream, the bright glaze
+somewhat thinner.
+
+
+  MATT BASE
+  Lead carbonate       154
+  Whiting               25
+  Canadian feldspar     83
+  Florida kaolin        51
+
+
+  BRIGHT BASE
+  Lead carbonate       142
+  Whiting               20
+  Canadian feldspar     84
+  Florida kaolin         8
+  White oxide of zinc    8
+  French flint          44
+
+The bases itemized above are colourless and there must be added to
+them from 3 to 6 per cent. of colouring material that will stand
+heat. A list of materials with their colours when fired is given on
+page 304, together with a few typical combinations of colours in
+quantity suitable to be added to the glaze bases given above. The
+following lists are by no means complete, and it is expected that the
+young decorator will make use of these colour mixtures simply as an
+introduction to quite extensive experimenting:
+
+
+  COLOUR MATERIALS
+
+  Black oxide of cobalt         Blue
+  Black oxide of copper         Blue green
+  Green oxide of chromium       Yellow green
+  White oxide of antimony       Lemon yellow
+  Red oxide of iron             Yellowish brown
+  Green oxide of nickel         Dirty gray (for neutralizing)
+  White oxide of tin            Makes glaze opaque
+  Black oxide of manganese      Purplish brown
+  Yellow ochre                  Yellow
+  Burnt umber                   Brown
+
+
+  COLOUR COMBINATIONS
+
+  Olive green
+    Iron oxide           5
+    Cobalt oxide        .5
+
+  Dark brown
+    Iron oxide           3
+    Nickel oxide         2
+    Manganese oxide      5
+
+  Light gray-blue
+    Tin oxide            5
+    Cobalt oxide        .5
+    Copper oxide       1.7
+
+  Blue-green
+    Cobalt oxide         1
+    Copper oxide         7
+    Yellow ochre         4
+
+  Dark gray-blue
+    Nickel oxide         5
+    Yellow ochre         3
+    Cobalt oxide         2
+    Copper oxide         1
+
+_Applying the Glaze._--Before applying the glaze to the piece of
+pottery or bisque, the latter should be soaked in clear water for
+about five minutes or until the air is expelled from the pores. When
+this has been accomplished it should be removed from the water and all
+moisture should be wiped from its surface. The piece is then ready to
+be dipped into the glaze, or to have the glaze poured over it, if the
+size and shape of the piece make it more convenient to apply the glaze
+in this way. It is usually best to glaze the inside first, shaking out
+all the superfluous glaze before applying the glaze to the outside.
+During this process the piece must be held firmly but by as few points
+of contact as possible. These points of contact will generally need to
+be touched up before it is ready for firing.
+
+It is sometimes necessary to glaze large pieces with a brush, putting
+on several coats in order to cover the surface with an even thickness.
+The matt glaze requires a greater thickness than the bright glaze
+in order to develop its characteristic velvety texture. The greater
+thickness may be easily secured, because it flows more slowly than
+the thinner bright glaze and is less likely to drip from the sides of
+the piece to which it is being applied; but, on the other hand, it
+is at a disadvantage in that it does not, in flowing slowly, correct
+inequalities of thickness so readily as the more mobile bright glaze
+does. A certain thickness, however, is essential; and if, after firing,
+it is found that the glaze was put on too thin, a second coat may be
+applied and the article again fired.
+
+_Firing the Glaze._--Before the glazed piece is fired the glaze should
+be dried and what runs down and collects about the bottom or foot
+should be scraped off. It should then be set in the kiln on a kind of
+pointed tripod of hard burned clay, called the "stilt," which prevents
+the glaze from sticking to the floor or shelves of the kiln. All glazed
+ware should be placed in the kiln with at least 1/2 an inch of space
+between the pieces to prevent them from sticking together during the
+fusing state of the glaze, when it is apt to bubble or "boil."
+
+The firing of glaze is a process very similar to that employed in the
+production of bisque, already described. Greater care, however, must
+be taken in controlling the increase in temperature so that it shall
+be even and steady--free from all sudden flashes of heat. The cooling
+also should be very gradual and, as in bisque firing, the kiln should
+be allowed to get cool before it is opened. With this second firing the
+pottery is finished unless it should happen that a second coat of glaze
+is found to be necessary. If only a few spots need attention, this
+second coat is best applied with a brush.
+
+
+PROBLEM: A VASE FOR LONG STEMMED FLOWERS
+
+The tools required for making this vase are the same as those used
+for the bowl, and the process of building is much the same. The chief
+difference is that it is more difficult to preserve the profile in
+building because the added height and the greater weight tend to
+bulge the lower part. To meet this difficulty it will be necessary to
+set the work aside quite often in order to let the lower part harden
+sufficiently to support the upper part.
+
+_The Profile._--In preparing the profile the same rules hold as were
+applied in working up the problem of the bowl. It will be well to
+remember, however, that the curves of a vase must be treated with
+greater reserve as to their lateral projection than was necessary in
+the case of the bowl--_i. e._, the curve of a vase should be enclosed
+within a rectangle narrower in comparison with its height than is the
+case with the curve of a bowl. The reason for this, of course, is found
+in the greater height of a vase in comparison with its diameter. The
+following figure shows three typical vase forms. If these curves be
+compared with those shown on page 288, illustrating bowl contours,
+it will be observed how the height of the vase is emphasised in the
+greater restraint and subtlety of its curves. In the next illustration
+we have two "horrible" examples to which attention has already been
+called in the suggestions for the design of bowls. The dotted lines in
+the illustration show how these curves may be improved if, in either A
+or B, one element of the compound curve be made dominant at the expense
+of the other. If at the same time the diameter be made smaller in
+comparison with its height the attractiveness of the contours will be
+still more improved. Indeed, it will be a transformation from a profile
+that is positively bad to one that is very good.
+
+[Illustration: Typical vase forms]
+
+[Illustration: Profile to be avoided]
+
+_Decoration._--The problem of decoration is not very different from
+that of the bowl. Here again, however, the added height seems to call
+for greater accent by means of vertical or panel divisions. Unless this
+be understood there is some danger that the larger vertical spaces will
+seem to offer simply more room for horizontal bands, resulting in a
+barber pole effect.
+
+_Handles._--If handles or buttresses are desired, care should be taken
+that they are designed as an integral part of the vase--_i. e._, that
+they continue or reinforce its lines. Two suggestions for the treatment
+of the problem of handles are given in the accompanying drawing.
+It will be noted how sympathetically these handles conform to the
+lines of the vases to which they are attached. Handles that give the
+impression of being made for another vase should be avoided.
+
+[Illustration: Suggestions for handles]
+
+
+PROBLEM: THE FERN DISH
+
+The process of building the fern dish is not essentially different from
+that employed in making the bowl described in the first problem. If the
+fern dish is to be round, the coiling method may be used; but if the
+dish is to be square or rectangular it is not necessary to use this
+method. In place of it the process of "piecing on" may be
+employed--_i. e._, one piece of soft clay may be added to another and
+the different pieces welded together as the work proceeds.
+
+[Illustration: Development of the fern dish]
+
+_The Lining._--The fern dish requires a separate inner dish or lining
+with a hole in the bottom of it like that in the ordinary flower
+pot. This feature forms the unique part of the problem. Generally
+speaking, the presence of this lining seems to call for a little closer
+approach to the vertical in the sides of the outer bowl; and yet some
+latitude is allowable, as is shown in the right hand dish illustrated
+in Plate XIII following, which is somewhat similar in profile
+to that illustrated in the accompanying drawing. This drawing shows
+the development of the problem as applied to a round fern dish. Much
+freedom, however, may be used in the plan as either the round or the
+rectangular fern dish seems to give satisfaction. The half section
+in the drawing shows a very narrow space between the inner and outer
+bowls at the top edges. This adds greatly to the good appearance of the
+completed fern dish. The sides of the inner dish are made vertical,
+since it is necessary for it to be easily removed.
+
+_Decoration._--The problem of decoration differs very little from
+that discussed under the problem of the bowl. Either the fern itself
+or its woodland neighbours may easily furnish the motif. Sometimes
+there is occasion for designing similar dishes not for ferns but for
+other plants. Thus the smaller square dish, illustrated in Plate XIII
+opposite, was designed and made for the familiar "bluets," and
+the subject matter for its design was found in that flower.
+
+_Glazing._--The rules already given for glazing apply in this case, but
+it will be necessary to glaze the outside fern dish only. It is well,
+however, to glaze a narrow strip along the upper edge of the inner
+dish; but the rest of it should be left unglazed. It hardly needs to
+be added that in firing it is necessary to keep the inner and outer
+dishes separate.
+
+[Illustration: Vases and Fern Dishes. Plate XIII]
+
+
+PROBLEM: THE CANDLESTICK
+
+_The Design._--This problem introduces several points in design that
+need to be especially emphasized. The candlestick should be of such
+size that it will easily support the average candle without putting the
+user to great inconvenience in fitting it by paring it off or melting
+it down. It is necessary to provide a lip to catch the stray drops
+of wax that will run down the sides of the candle; and it will be a
+convenience to have this supplemented by a slight dishing of the base
+if the candlestick is to be carried about. If a handle is to be added
+it should seem to be a natural outgrowth of the candlestick itself, as
+was explained in the discussion of handles for vases; and it should,
+at the same time, offer a place for a firm and comfortable grasp. The
+accompanying drawing shows how handles may be designed really to form a
+part of the candlestick and at the same time, by means of a sharp bend
+or elbow at the top, to provide a natural place for the thumb to assist
+in grasping the handle.
+
+Whether the candlestick is to be high or low depends entirely upon
+the use intended for it or upon the preference of the user. Generally
+speaking, a low candlestick is better for carrying about and a high
+one more desirable for standing in a cabinet or on shelf or table. It
+is well for some definite idea of utility to manifest itself in the
+form chosen. Merely planning a tube and a handle upon a base, without
+carefully relating these three different elements according to the
+requirements of use, can hardly be called designing a candlestick.
+
+[Illustration: Suggestive designs for candlesticks]
+
+The building of the candlestick is started, like the bowl in the
+first problem, by coiling from the centre, and the rim may be added
+in the same way. Care should be taken, however, to attach the central
+tube firmly. This may be coiled or simply modelled from a single lump
+of clay. If there is to be a handle it is well to build it at the
+time the central tube is built, as it is then easier to make a firm
+attachment.
+
+
+PROBLEM: TILES
+
+The varied and extensive uses of tiles make it difficult to limit
+the scope of this problem. Tiles are used for paving, wall facings,
+ceilings, coverings for stoves, linings and facings for fireplaces,
+rests for flower pots and teapots, and for various other purposes.
+Tiles figure very prominently in the history of art. They are objects
+of interest and study in many public buildings and museums throughout
+the civilized world. But this problem will confine itself to two of the
+many varieties of tiles, _viz._, tiles designed for bowls or teapots
+and tiles used for the facing of fireplaces.
+
+[Illustration: A tile frame]
+
+_The Tile Frame._--In building tiles a frame is used measuring about 6
+inches square by 5/8 of an inch thick. The strips forming the frame
+may be 1 inch wide, lightly nailed together at the corners so that,
+if necessary, the frame can be easily taken apart while the clay is
+moist. This frame is placed on a plaster bat or piece of paper and
+the clay forced firmly into its corners and sides, working toward the
+centre, until the frame is completely filled. It is then turned over
+in order to make sure that the under side of the clay is thoroughly
+welded together. Care should be taken to use sufficient clay to bring
+both surfaces well up to the surface of the frame, scraping off the
+surplus clay with a straight edge. While the clay is moist, one side
+is chosen for the back, and this is hollowed out to prevent warping.
+The hollowing may take the form shown in the right-hand tile at the
+top of Plate XIV, or it may be in the shape of channels 3/4 of an inch
+or more in width, separated by ridges 1/2 of an inch wide running
+across the back of the tile. Whichever method is used, the depth should
+be about 3/16 of an inch and not over 1/4 of an inch. Even when the
+utmost precaution is taken, the tile is very liable to warp. It should
+therefore be dried slowly and with the greatest possible evenness of
+exposure on both sides. The greatest help of all is found in the use of
+the so-called "grog." This is made by grinding to a powder clay that
+has been fired once and shrunk, but not glazed. It is used by mixing it
+with the clay before it is moulded, in the proportion of one part grog
+to three of the clay. It may be added here that grog will be found of
+great assistance not only in making tiles but in making other ware. It
+will not be necessary, however, to burn clay for the express purpose of
+making grog. The occasional failures which develop at the first firing
+of every batch of pottery will furnish an adequate supply.
+
+[Illustration: Tiles. Plate XIV]
+
+_Decoration._--When the tile is dried and shrunk a little it may be
+easily taken from the frame, but it should be allowed to get quite
+stiff before decoration is applied. While the hardening process is
+going on the decoration may be studied. The three general methods
+of decoration considered under the flower bowl--_viz._, the sunken
+line, the modelled surface, and the painting with under-glaze or
+over-glaze--are all available for use with the tile. If it is to be
+a tea tile the modelled surface must be treated with considerable
+caution, otherwise there may result an uneven surface for the teapot to
+rest upon.
+
+_Firing._--In giving the tile its first firing it is safer to stand
+it on one edge in the kiln, but not on the floor of the kiln, as the
+intense heat of the floor would be liable to shrink that side more
+than the others. It may be supported on two stilts or it may be placed
+on one of the shelves. For the glaze firing the tile should be placed
+flat on the stilt.
+
+_Tea Tiles._--The tiles illustrated at the top and bottom of Plate
+XIV were designed and made to serve as rests for a teapot, a bowl,
+or a vase. It will be noticed that the centre is left free with one
+exception, which is given as an interesting variation from the general
+rule. The free space is an advantage in giving relief to the design
+and in furnishing an even surface for the teapot or bowl to rest upon.
+In the decoration of rectangular tile forms the general principles as
+to variety of measure or shape in space divisions hold true. Emphasis
+should be concentrated at the corners in order to strengthen the design.
+
+_Fireplace Tiles._--Some of the tiles illustrated in Plate XIV would
+be entirely appropriate for facing a border around the opening of a
+fireplace. This is especially true of the middle design shown at the
+top of the plate, on account of the lines which project through the
+corner design nearly to the edges of the tile. This makes it especially
+adapted to repetition in a facing or border.
+
+[Illustration: Pottery, Designed and Made by Schoolgirls. Plate XV]
+
+_Decoration of Tiles._--It is in the field of painted
+decoration, however, that the most attractive possibilities in
+fireplace tile designs are found. The framed tile illustrated in Plate
+XV opposite--an example of over-glaze painting--is intended for
+use as a colour accent for the wall. This tile is painted in matt glaze
+between raised outlines. Three similar tiles are illustrated in the
+middle row in Plate XIV. The right-hand one, like the framed
+tile of Plate XV, is a matt over-glaze, but the outline instead
+of being raised was slightly depressed. The other two are examples of
+under-glaze painting. They were painted on moist clay, as described in
+the problem of the bowl, and afterwards covered with a bright glaze.
+In this case the glaze was itself coloured, thus adding richness to
+the colour scheme. The repetition in a tile facing of landscapes,
+designed to be complete or nearly so, would be tiresome. It is better
+so to design the entire facing that it will be made up of a series of
+very simple landscape motifs, each fairly complete in itself, but all
+so related to each other as to form, when joined, a larger, somewhat
+conventionalized, landscape. A treatment of this kind lends itself to
+many other decorative schemes.
+
+The fireplace offers a great opportunity for design, not only in
+itself, but as related to the decorative scheme of the room in which
+it is placed. It should not be forgotten that it is, in a sense, the
+focal centre of the room. This fact, together with its comparatively
+small size, makes it possible to give it a strong and rich note of
+colour, accenting the prevailing colour scheme of the room. Tiles,
+properly designed and applied, offer a rich and varied field for
+charming effects in colour and texture.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+DECORATIVE WORK IN LEATHER, COPPER, AND OTHER MATERIALS
+
+     To become an artist in dealing with tools and materials is not
+     a matter of choice or privilege; it is a moral necessity; for
+     a man's heart must be in his skill and a man's soul in his
+     craftsmanship--_Hamilton Wright Mabie_
+
+
+LEATHER WORK
+
+Leather work, like weaving and pottery, is of very ancient origin.
+The New Testament text concerning "new wine in old bottles" referred
+to bottles of leather, or wine skins. We read of leather as having
+been used in still earlier times for shields, saddles, harnesses,
+parts of chariots, and as an accessory to clothing. In the middle ages
+the "gentle craft of leather" was not confined to the shoemakers'
+useful productions but included much ornamental work. There were wall
+coverings of leather with designs carved, or modelled, or stamped with
+hot tools; seats were upholstered and books were covered with tooled
+leather. Some of this work was richly adorned with painted and gilt
+figures like the celebrated Spanish leather.
+
+_Why Leather is Suited to Decoration._--Leather seems, therefore,
+to have won the right to a high place among the materials suited to
+decoration. Its beautiful texture, the rich brown tones of its natural
+colour, the ease with which it takes dyes, and the readiness with
+which under proper treatment, it receives and retains the marks of the
+modelling tool, qualify it to minister to the artistic sense no less
+than its durability enables it to serve the more common uses.
+
+_Limited Decoration Desirable._--The tooling of leather is based upon
+the fact that, when wet, the fibre yields readily to compression and
+receives impressions that are retained after the leather is dry. But
+the beauty of design depends upon the colour and texture of the surface
+quite as much as upon the figured impressions upon it. It is therefore
+a good point in design not to cover the surface so completely that the
+peculiar beauty of the material itself be lost. The decorations should
+be bold and rich, but the tooling should be confined to a small part of
+the surface. Calf skin and cowhide are well suited to tooling. They are
+supplied in two general forms, _viz._, the smooth, generally as Russia
+calf, and the rough or split cowhides, known as ooze. Leather may be
+stained a variety of colours by aniline dyes; but since the natural
+colour of leather is brown, brownish tones are more satisfactory than
+the blues, greens, violets, grays, etc., because they seem more sincere.
+
+[Illustration: Leather-working tools]
+
+_Tools._--The simple tools required for tooling leather may be
+purchased at small cost, or they may be made from cheap nut picks
+by filing these to shape, polishing them, and buffing them. The
+illustrations show two different tools, each double pointed. A and
+B are different views of the first tool; C is the second tool. The
+narrow pointed end of the first tool is for outlining and working into
+corners. The broad, flat end is for smoothing down and for general use;
+the broad tool should be used whenever possible. The round point on
+the left end of C is used for outlining and transfering the design to
+leather. The right hand end of C is known as the background tool. It is
+cupped out like a nail set, as indicated by the lengthwise section just
+above and by the end view at the extreme right; in fact, a nail set may
+be used for the same purpose. The background tool, however, is to be
+used sparingly. If used to excess, especially on large surfaces, the
+result is likely to have a mechanical and "shoppy" appearance.
+
+
+PROBLEMS
+
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A BELT
+
+The sizes given in the illustration on page 325 are typical, but it is
+expected that in this and other problems, dimensions will be varied to
+suit conditions. When the size has been determined the leather should
+be cut a little longer and wider than the final dimensions are to be,
+to allow for attaching the belt pin or buckle. The strip of leather
+should be thoroughly soaked in _cold water_ and then rolled in dry
+cloth until the leather is dry enough for tooling. It is essential
+that there should be absolute uniformity of moisture. If on applying
+the tool, water follows pressure, the leather is still too wet. If it
+should get too dry to retain the mark of the tool it may be sponged on
+the back. There is danger of water stains, however, if the entire back
+is not wet.
+
+[Illustration: Two belt designs]
+
+_The Design._--The illustration shows two treatments. An interlaced
+pattern is shown in A which concentrates the interest at the ends and
+in the middle of the back. The pattern shown is tooled solid and the
+background is left untooled. If the pattern be tooled in outline it is
+well to shade these outlines out into the background in order to give
+relief to the interlaced bands.
+
+Modelled natural forms are shown in B. In this the background is tooled
+down, but is heaviest at the ends or in the spaces against the raised
+forms. This gives the background a richer appearance than it has when
+tooled absolutely flat. Both patterns here shown are straight with
+parallel sides. Other shapes are possible--for example, those wider in
+the middle and tapering toward the ends.
+
+When a satisfactory design has been worked out and drawn it is
+transferred to thin bond paper. The greatest care should be taken not
+to have any pencil marks on the back of this paper, for they leave a
+dirty gray stain on the leather which is difficult to remove. It may
+be added here that whenever it is desired to mark the leather for any
+purpose a tool should be used, not a pencil.
+
+_The Process._--As soon as the leather has dried just enough to retain
+the marks, the pattern should be placed upon it, pencilled side up,
+allowance being made for trimming to the desired width. The paper may
+be held in position by thumb tacks, which must not, however, pass
+through the leather inside the part that is to be cut off. The pattern
+may now be traced through the paper, over the lines of the drawing,
+with the round pointed tool. Care will have to be exercised to make
+sure that the pattern is completely transferred to the leather. When
+this is accomplished the pattern should be removed and the lines,
+which will be found somewhat dimly traced on the leather, should be
+immediately deepened by going over them with the same tool.
+
+[Illustration: Method of using the broad tool]
+
+The next step is to tool down the design; and in doing this the work
+should be turned under the tool rather than the tool itself on the
+work, in order that the pressure of the tool may be applied at the edge
+of the pattern farthest from the hand. This not only insures a correct
+and convenient position of the tool, but allows a perfect view of the
+work. In this part of the process the broad tool should be used, moved
+sidewise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in the accompanying
+cut. In working up into corners the narrow tool may be used if
+necessary. The movement may be described as "ironing the leather down."
+The surface should not be roughed up or cut up into "shoulders." It
+is a process requiring time. One should not try to get the full depth
+with the first pressure of the tool. One should coax the surface and
+add pressure with each succeeding stroke, taking care that the tool
+does not scrape. It should glide; and yet, on the other hand, beginners
+will perhaps need to be cautioned not to wear out the surface by feeble
+scratching and patting. A firm, even gliding pressure does the work.
+As the leather dries it will be seen that the tooling has given it a
+dark, glossy surface. When the process is completed the belt may be
+trimmed down with a firm, sure cut of the knife, using a straight edge
+wherever straight lines are desired.
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A MAT
+
+[Illustration: Supported and unsupported circles]
+
+_The Design and the Process._--The purpose for which a mat is used
+requires as one condition of design that there should be a plain
+surface in the middle. If the general form be square the design at the
+corners should be strengthened. If circular, the design should be so
+arranged that it will lend support to the perfect curves of the circle
+rather than weaken them. In the three outlines given below, C shows
+a form supporting the circle; D and E show forms tending to weaken
+the circle. Conditions determining size are more variable in this
+problem than in others, because of the great variety of uses which a
+mat may serve. In a design like that shown in A of the accompanying
+illustration, the portions left untooled--_i. e._, the leaves and
+fruit--may be raised still more by pressing out the leather from the
+back by means of a tool. To do this the leather should be placed face
+down in the palm of the hand or on modelling wax, which has been
+covered with a piece of chamois or sheepskin. Then by gently forcing
+the leather down with a round, blunt tool such as the blunt end of a
+nut pick the desired relief in the figure may be obtained. After this
+is done it will probably be necessary to turn the mat over and correct
+the modelling. In order to preserve the higher relief it is well to
+back it up with cotton batting, soaked in paste, and finally to cover
+the entire back with a lining of silk or leather.
+
+[Illustration: Two mat designs]
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND TOOL A PEN WIPER
+
+A pen wiper consists of a cover, which in this case must be made of
+leather suitable for tooling, and several leaves of soft material like
+sheepskin or chamois, which should match the cover in colour. The
+process of tooling the pen wiper does not differ essentially from that
+already employed in the foregoing problems. It should, of course, be
+carried through to completion before the book is made up. These parts
+are to be tied together with knots of sheepskin thongs of the same
+colour.
+
+[Illustration: Steps in tying a knot]
+
+The series of cuts given below show the progressive steps in forming
+the knot, which should finally take the shape of Figure 5. After it has
+been formed the thongs are passed through holes punched in the cover
+and leaves of the pen wiper, and secured by a second knot formed on the
+back, resembling Figure 4 with the ends cut as close as will leave
+them securely tied.
+
+[Illustration: Two designs for pen wipers]
+
+Another illustration gives two suggestions for the design: A, a
+rectangular pen wiper tied with two knots at the end; B, a circular pen
+wiper tied with one knot in the middle. In these designs, and indeed
+in all others, decoration should recognize (not antagonize!) the outer
+form of the article to which it is applied. This point is made in the
+illustration.
+
+
+TO MAKE A SLIP COVER FOR A NOTE-BOOK FILLER
+
+[Illustration: Design for slip cover]
+
+_Planning the Cover._--The object in this problem is to make a
+permanent protection for fillers. It is well known that the fillers
+themselves may be purchased for a trifling sum and that they are
+provided with a backing of stiff paper which is designed to be slipped
+into a pocket in the back of a leather cover and thus form a neat
+pocket note-book. It is evident that the dimensions of the filler
+determine the size of the cover; but, in planning the cover, care
+should be exercised to allow sufficient play for width, length, and
+thickness after all the cutting and sewing are done. This means that
+the stock for the cover and lining should be cut a little larger than
+called for in the final size. The design illustrated shows both the
+outside (A) and the inside (B) of the cover. As it is planned the cover
+is to be lined with sheepskin of harmonizing colour; but this may be
+left out if desired, though it, of course, gives a much better finish
+to put it in.
+
+_Assembling the Parts._--The first step after cutting out the leather
+for the cover is to prepare the leather and tool it, if it is to have
+any decoration. A piece of leather should be cut for the pocket, and
+the edge (C) shaped. The edges of the lining and the pocket should
+next be lightly pasted and pressed on the cover. A line is then to be
+ruled with a leather tool (not with pencil) on the outside to serve as
+a guide for stitching. A machine stitch may be employed or it may be
+done by hand. If by the latter method it will be necessary to pierce
+the leather at equal distances along the tooled line. Hand stitches may
+safely be a little longer than the machine stitches.
+
+[Illustration: Stitching with two needles]
+
+_Stitching._--A good way to secure equally spaced stitches by hand
+sewing is to make use of bow springs or spacing dividers set to the
+required distance. A more rapid way to accomplish the same thing is
+possible by making use of a tracing wheel, if one is available of
+suitable size and of the right spacing between the teeth. The hand
+stitching may be done either with one needle or with two. If with
+one it is best to sew a running stitch once around the seam and then
+return, covering the alternate spaces left on the first round. It is
+better, however, to use two needles, one on each end of one thread,
+selected long enough to finish the sewing without piecing it, and to
+proceed as illustrated in A and B, _i. e._, to draw one needle with its
+thread through to the middle of the thread, as shown in A, and then
+the other through the next hole, and so on alternately from opposite
+directions, producing a stitch like that illustrated in B. It will,
+of course, be understood that, in the illustration, the length of the
+stitch is exaggerated in order to show the process plainly.
+
+_Trimming and Finishing._--When the sewing is finished the thread is
+fastened by doubling over one or two of the stitches and drawing the
+ends inside between the cover and lining. Then a line should be tooled
+on the cover about 1/16 of an inch outside of the stitching, and on
+this line the cover, lining and pocket are trimmed together. The raw
+edges may be treated with water colour to give them a finish. Finally
+the cover is moistened a little and folded back with firm pressure in
+order to establish an even and permanent bend in the leather.
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND MAKE A DESK PAD
+
+_The Design._--The problem of design in this case is, first of all,
+to determine the dimensions of the pad, which depend, of course, upon
+the use to be made of it. Then a dimensioned sketch should be drawn in
+outline, including the spacing for the corners as illustrated in the
+drawing (A). The only detail that will need elaboration is the corner.
+The shape and decoration of one of the corners should be carefully
+laid out on thin paper, from which in due time it may be transferred to
+the leather and tooled as in other problems.
+
+[Illustration: Detail of the leather corner]
+
+[Illustration: Outline of desk pad]
+
+_Material and the Process._--For making the pad it will be necessary
+to secure a piece of binders' board--_i. e._, heavy pulp or straw
+board--of the required size. The medium weight is the best, and it may
+generally be obtained at the bookbinder's. If this cannot be obtained,
+two sheets of 10-ply card-board may be used instead. The size given in
+the drawing will carry a half sheet of commercial blotting paper. The
+edges of the paper board should be bound with passe-partout binding
+of a colour to harmonize with the leather that is to be used; the
+strips of binding should be long enough to extend under the leather
+corners but they need not reach up to the corners of the board. After
+the binding has been put on, the top of the board should be covered
+with paper also harmonizing in colour with the leather, and the paper
+should be cut of such size as to lap over the edge of the binding and
+yet leave a suitable width of the binding. The so-called "cover papers"
+will be found satisfactory.
+
+_Making the Corners._--The next step in the process is to lay out and
+cut the leather corners according to the original design. The form in
+which the leather is to be cut and the dimensions are shown in the
+illustration B. The little flap at _x_ should be noted. It is designed
+to tuck under and close the corner. The edges of leather at _x_ should
+be "skived" or thinned down so as to add to the neat appearance of the
+work. Further improvement will result from skiving down the edges S R
+S and T V T of the large flaps, which are to be folded over underneath
+and pasted down to the back of the board. The ordinary photographers'
+paste is satisfactory for this work. When the leather corners are
+placed in position for pasting, two or three thicknesses of blotting
+paper should be used at each corner, in order to secure the necessary
+space for the reception of the blotters when the board is in use. After
+the corners are pasted on, the back of the board should be covered with
+paper in the same way as the front, care being taken to leave a portion
+of the binding and leather exposed. Finally a number of blotters of
+full size should be inserted in position under the corners to keep them
+in shape and the whole placed under light pressure until dry.
+
+
+TO DESIGN AND MAKE A CARD-CASE
+
+_The Design._--In the illustration (A), showing a card-case unfolded,
+the dimensions give the finished size. The same card-case is
+illustrated in B somewhat reduced in scale and with the flaps turned
+in. The design on A is a rectangle broken at the corners. In this case,
+as it may be with all similar forms, the design is treated as a sort
+of binding, extending across the middle fold. C shows an alternative
+design which is treated as a panel and may be placed on one or on both
+sides of the card-case. The question of which is the top and bottom in
+such a design as that in C can be determined only by the owner's habit
+of holding a case. Sometimes a monogram is placed in one of the inner
+flaps, as illustrated in A, or on one of the outer surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a card-case]
+
+_The Process._--In cutting the leather for a card-case it is necessary
+to provide a piece a little larger than the finished dimensions in
+order to allow for trimming. The design should be transferred, the
+line of stitching determined, and the tooling done, according to the
+description already given for the other problems.
+
+_The Lining._--A card-case may be lined either with silk or with
+sheepskin, in a colour to harmonize with the outside. If lined with
+silk it must be trimmed down to size accurately after tooling, great
+care being exercised to have the sides parallel and the corners true
+and square. Then the silk is to be turned in at the edges and lightly
+pasted along the edges to a width of 1/8 of an inch, care being taken,
+however, not to paste those portions of the edges that will be visible
+when the flaps of the cover are turned in, _i. e._, the middle of the
+fold B. This precaution should be taken because the paste may strike
+through and spot the lining. The flaps should then be moistened a
+little and folded down with firm pressure; but before stitching they
+should be fastened down with a little paste to form pockets. This takes
+the place of basting and is followed by stitching as described in
+the problem of the note-book. If lined with sheepskin, the ooze side
+showing, the cover need not be trimmed down until after the stitching;
+then both may be trimmed at once.
+
+
+TO MAKE A LEATHER PURSE
+
+_The Design._--The details of design and construction are shown in
+the accompanying illustrations. In A the outer flap is shown tooled.
+It will be noticed that the cap of the snap fastener is taken as the
+central point in design. The tooling is done as directed in the other
+examples of this class of work.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a purse]
+
+The purse is lined throughout with leather. It has bellows ends, as
+shown in the perspective at C and in the end view at B. The pattern of
+the bellows end shown in D is intended to fold in the middle, bringing
+both ends of the leather together and thus giving an end of double
+thickness. With thin leather, such as is used in the present instance,
+this pattern is practicable. If thicker leather be used the bellows
+must be made of single thickness. In this case the pattern would simply
+be like that shown in the lower half of D.
+
+_The Process._--After the lining is pasted to the cover a snap
+fastener should be attached. Proper care, of course, should be taken
+to see that the fastener comes in the right place so that the purse
+will fold properly. The cover and lining should then be trimmed and the
+leather surface ruled for stitching. It is well to fold the inner flap
+of the purse while it is moist from pasting. Finally a little paste
+is applied along the edges of the bellows ends and they are placed in
+position.
+
+Stitching is started at the point E shown in the perspective. Hand
+stitching is the most practicable. The direction is down one side,
+up the other, and around the outside flap to the other bellows end,
+stopping at the point F. When the stitching is completed the inside
+flap should be folded down.
+
+
+TO MAKE A LIMP LEATHER BOOK COVER
+
+_The Design._--The first step is to choose the book to be bound. For
+the sake of simplicity, as perhaps the first piece of bookbinding
+undertaken, it should be a folio or "section." And it should be _worth
+binding in leather_. The subject, the paper, and the typography should
+be worthy of the distinction.
+
+[Illustration: Typical arrangements suitable for tooled leather covers
+of books. Details of tooling, relief, etc., worked out as in other
+problems.]
+
+_The Process._--If the book selected is already bound or "cased" it
+is necessary first to remove the binding or casing. Then at least
+three fly leaves should be added, made up to match the other leaves of
+the folio. A piece of bookbinders' linen or buckram is now cut to the
+size of the open folio, placed upon it like a cover, and, with the fly
+leaves and the folio itself, stitched through the back with silk of a
+colour to harmonize with the leather.
+
+The next step is to prepare the leather cover. To do this, first place
+the leather in position on the closed folio and, allowing 1/4 of an
+inch at the top and bottom and 3/8 of an inch at the fore edge, mark
+and cut out the stock for the cover. The decoration, if there is to be
+any, may now be tooled on. If the design is heavy enough in relief to
+need a backing, it may be at once filled with cotton batting, pasted in
+as directed in the problem of the mat, and covered with thin paper.
+
+Stock for the end papers is now selected. They may be of cover paper,
+or of silk, and they should harmonize in colour with the leather. They
+are formed of two thicknesses of the material chosen, by folding it
+over to fit into the part between the linen and the first fly leaf. If
+of paper they are to be cut to the length of the folio leaves, but the
+width is to be left with an allowance for adjustment after the linen
+is pasted in. If the end leaves are to be of silk, an allowance of 1/4
+of an inch must be left for turning in at the top, the bottom and the
+fore edge.
+
+We are now ready to paste the linen to the leather. Strong paste,
+with perhaps a little thin glue added, is needed for this part of the
+process. Now paste the outside end leaves to the linen on the inside of
+the cover; and, if silk has been used for these leaves, paste the other
+two to the outer fly leaves. Finally, the book should be placed under
+very gentle pressure and kept in this condition until dry. Care should
+be exercised to adjust this pressure to the character of the tooling,
+if there is any, so as not to crush it.
+
+
+COPPER WORK
+
+There is a limited field for metal work in home decoration; but
+there are some things of metal that combine beauty and utility to
+a remarkable degree and, in their making, introduce us to most
+interesting operations. Beginning with the gate, which may be of
+wrought iron, or with the door knocker, which may be of antique brass,
+we may find in every home problems of design involving work in metals.
+Ornamental hinges, key escutcheons, fastenings of various kinds,
+andirons, and other accessories of the hearth, lamp holders, card
+trays, crumb trays, bon bon dishes, and many other useful things that
+may be made in attractive forms readily suggest themselves. How some of
+these may be made is suggested in the following simple problems:
+
+
+TO MAKE A LETTER RACK
+
+This is an easy problem. Only four constructive operations are
+required, _viz._, cutting out the stock, sawing the design, bending,
+and finishing. The illustration shows the form and the dimensions and
+suggests a simple design. The material required is 18-gauge soft copper.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a letter rack]
+
+The first step in the process is to cut out a strip of copper 8 inches
+long and 4 inches wide. If necessary the edges may be trimmed even and
+then the round corners should be cut. The design is traced on strong,
+thin paper and securely pasted on the copper in the proper position
+by using cold liquid glue. A hole is drilled through each unit of the
+design by means of a hand drill, a jewellers' saw inserted, and the
+design cut. Time and patience will be required for this operation. Saws
+are easily broken, and new ones must be attached to the saw frame and
+again applied to the work. After sawing the design it is necessary to
+give the edges a smooth finish. This is done with a file. The surface
+which is to form the inside of the rack is then thoroughly cleaned and
+polished with water and pumice.
+
+The copper is now ready to be bent to the required shape. To do this
+prepare a block of hard wood 8 inches long and 2 inches wide, grip it
+in a bench vise, and clamp the strip of copper squarely across the
+block in such a position that the sides may be bent over the edges of
+the block. When this has been done it only remains to clean the outside
+surface and finish it on the felt buffing wheel. If a fine polish is
+desired, the buffing should be preceded by careful grinding with a
+Scotch water stone and water.
+
+
+TO MAKE A LETTER OPENER
+
+This requires the same kind of material as the letter rack and the same
+operations, with the addition of riveting. After the stock is cut out,
+trimmed and trued up at the edges, an outline of the design is pasted
+on, as in the previous problem, and the design cut out. The top is
+then bent over and riveted with a copper tack, having shaped the head
+of the tack in the vise before inserting it. While the tack is being
+riveted the finished head should be protected by placing it on a lead
+block. Finally the edge should be filed to the shape shown in the cross
+section, and the whole cleaned and polished.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a letter opener]
+
+
+TO MAKE A HAT PIN
+
+For this problem 12-gauge copper will be needed. The operations
+required are cutting out, sawing, and soft soldering. After the
+necessary stock has been cut to the required shape and the edges filed,
+the design is outlined, pasted on, sawed, and finished as before. It is
+desirable to grind with the Scotch stone and water to a good polish.
+The head will then be ready to be attached to the pin.
+
+[Illustration: The hat pin]
+
+Carefully scrape with a knife the portions of the surface where the pin
+is to be attached (shown in the drawing), select a steel pin of desired
+length, scrape the surface of the little disk attached to one end of
+it, apply to this disk a little soldering paste by means of a small
+stick, and then, with a gas (or alcohol) blowpipe, melt on a bit of
+soft solder, which should cover the whole disk. Now place the copper,
+outside face down, on an asbestos pad, applying the soldering paste
+to the central portion, place the disk with its bit of solder on this
+portion of the copper, and fuse as before.
+
+When the copper has cooled, clean off the oxide, which will have
+formed, by dipping in diluted sulphuric acid, and polish on the buffing
+wheel.
+
+
+TO MAKE A BELT PIN
+
+[Illustration: The belt pin]
+
+Eighteen-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are
+like those for the hat pin except that hard soldering is necessary. The
+slight bending of the copper, required in this case, is done by means
+of a horn mallet and a sand pad. For hard soldering, the surface must
+be scraped as before and covered with a little borax ground in water
+and applied with a small brush. The belt plate should then be placed
+on the asbestos pad, with its convex face down, and blocked up so that
+the end where the soldering is to be done is horizontal. The catch
+should then be placed in position with a small piece of silver solder
+at the base. The solder should be melted as before by means of a mouth
+blowpipe and gas or alcohol flame. The hinge is soldered on in the same
+way, and finally the pin is cleaned and polished for use.
+
+
+TO MAKE A SET OF BOOK ENDS
+
+This problem is much like the first one described under metal work.
+Sixteen-gauge copper is required. It may be bent by placing it between
+two hard wood blocks in a vise and hammering it with a rawhide mallet.
+
+[Illustration: Design for book ends]
+
+
+TO MAKE A TEAPOT STAND
+
+[Illustration: Design for a teapot stand]
+
+Twenty-gauge copper is required for this problem. The operations are
+similar to those already described; but the cutting and bending are
+much more difficult. After determining the design it will be necessary
+to make a drawing showing fully developed surfaces, as illustrated
+in the detail of the corner. The four corners must be marked and cut
+exactly as shown in the drawing. A piece of hard wood is then cut to
+the size of the top, 5 inches square in this case, to be used as a form
+on which to bend down the sides and turn the flanges. If the corners
+are correctly cut the parts will fall naturally into place, to be bored
+and riveted, as the drawing plainly shows. In order to protect the
+tablecloth, the under side of the rivet holes should be countersunk so
+that the ends of the rivets may be finished smooth and flush with the
+under surface. As an additional protection, a felt mat may be glued on
+the bottom.
+
+[Illustration: Detail of a corner]
+
+
+TO MAKE A WATCH FOB
+
+This problem introduces engraving and enamelling, two interesting but
+somewhat difficult operations. The process to be carried out is as
+follows: Using 12-gauge copper, saw the outline, and apply the design
+for the part to be enamelled to the copper by sketching it with a
+pencil or transferring it by means of carbon paper. Then strengthen the
+pencil or carbon lines by scratching lightly with a scratch awl. Imbed
+this fob in pitch, either in a pitch bowl or in a small quantity of
+pitch placed on a piece of board clamped to the bench or table. Using
+an engraving tool, remove the copper from the spot to be enamelled to
+the depth of 1/32 of an inch. It is well to have the bottom of the spot
+reasonably level but not necessarily smooth and the sides slightly
+undercut. Before applying the flux, clean, by pouring a small quantity
+of concentrated nitric acid over the cut and immediately rinsing it off
+under the water tap. Flux should be kept in a closed jar under water
+after grinding, and taken out as needed on the tip of a small strip of
+copper previously cleaned with acid. Enough flux should be applied to
+cover the bottom of the spot to be enamelled; but the depth of the spot
+must not be filled up.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a watch fob]
+
+Now place the fob on a piece of wire gauze on an iron tripod, and apply
+the flame of the blowpipe to the under side. Heat very slowly until all
+the water is driven off, then force the heat until the flux is fused.
+Allow it to cool slowly, then remove any flux that may have adhered to
+the surface of the fob by grinding with Scotch stone. Clean with acid
+as before, fill the spot with enamel in the same manner as the flux was
+applied, and fuse again. After fusing, the surface should be stoned
+again to remove inequalities and again fused, cleaned with water and
+buffed on the wheel.
+
+If it is desired to apply enamel to sterling silver the flux may be
+omitted and the enamel applied directly, but the silver should be
+cleaned with sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid, and great care
+should be used in heating as the fusing point of silver is but little
+above that of enamel. The depth of the engraving on the silver need not
+be as great as on the copper.
+
+
+TO MAKE A CARD TRAY
+
+Eighteen-gauge copper should be used for this problem, and two new
+operations, _viz._, raising and chasing, are introduced. After cutting
+out a circular piece of copper to the diameter indicated, allowing one
+half an inch extra for raising, it is annealed by heating it to red
+heat under the blowpipe flame and cooling by dipping in a sulphuric
+acid pickle bath. A circle indicating the inner edge of the rim is
+lightly scratched, and a hard wood block is cut on the end grain to the
+shape indicated in the sketch, and placed in a vise. Now holding the
+copper on the block, it is raised to shape with the round end of the
+roughing hammer. It is well to anneal frequently.
+
+[Illustration: Design for a card tray]
+
+After shaping, the design may be applied by means of transfer paper
+and the lines lightly scratched on the surface. Then imbed the tray
+in pitch and outline the design by following the lines with a narrow
+chasing tool. Reverse the tray on the pitch and, with a chasing tool
+of suitable shape, raise the body of the design to the height desired.
+Reverse on the pitch again and with a flat tool true the outlines and
+smooth the background. Remove from the pitch, trim the edge of the tray
+if it is forced out of line, clean with pumice stone and buff.
+
+[Illustration: Method of shaping with the hammer]
+
+All the foregoing articles may be agreeably coloured by painting them
+with, or immersing them in, a weak solution (boiling) of liver of
+sulphur. If soft solder has not been used, another pleasing finish
+may be secured by applying a thin coat of lubricating oil and heating
+gently until the oil is volatilized. An antique green or verdigris
+finish may be obtained by painting with a mixture of acetic acid and
+copper carbonate. Several coats may be necessary; and it is desirable
+to lacquer the surface to ensure permanency.
+
+
+WORK IN OTHER MATERIALS
+
+
+A CANDLE SHADE
+
+The materials and tools for this problem are six ply card-board in dull
+shades of gray, brown or green, and with mat surface; Japanese paper
+of average thickness; passe-partout binding a little darker than the
+card-board and of harmonizing colour; paste; a penknife with a thin
+blade; and a water colour outfit.
+
+Of the drawings included in the group on the opposite page one shows a
+development of the surface of the candle shade which is the subject of
+this problem. Referring to the elevation it will be seen that if the
+edges AE and DH be continued until they meet at O, OE and OH are really
+equal to the radii of the outer arc of the development shown in the
+upper part of the group, and OA and OD, to the radii of the inner arc.
+This upper developed surface really forms the pattern of the candle
+shade.
+
+[Illustration: Details of candle shade]
+
+The decoration consists of openings cut through the card-board
+segments. These are covered with Japanese paper, thus allowing light to
+pass through, but adding the effect of colour. A margin of 3/8 of an
+inch is allowed along the openings, the remaining spaces being divided
+by partitions of card-board, as shown in the different typical designs
+at the right of the illustration. It will be noticed that the group of
+openings forming the decoration of one side conforms in the main to the
+shape of that side. It will also be noticed that there is a variety of
+size and shape in the openings, but that they all show a certain unity
+and harmony of space division.
+
+The openings are cut with a penknife, care being taken to make as
+clean a cut as possible. Japanese paper, of pale green, orange, or
+some suitable light colour, is pasted under the openings. The process
+of pasting is one that requires some care. It is well to paste only a
+portion of the pasteboard at a time taking care not to use more paste
+than necessary and not to let any get over the edges of the openings.
+The paper should be pressed on while the paste is still moist, and the
+paper itself should, of course, not be pasted at all. It should be
+placed with colour side next to the openings.
+
+When the paste is dry the card-board should be lightly scored on the
+lines AE, BF, etc., and bent on these lines, bringing the sectors
+together into the form of the shade and fastening them at the top and
+bottom temporarily with a bit of passe-partout binding. If the binding
+is of the ordinary width (7/8 of an inch), it should be cut lengthwise
+into two strips of equal width, to be used for mounting the edges. No
+attempt should be made to run the binding along more than one edge. The
+separated strips should then be cut the exact length for each top and
+bottom edge and applied one at a time. Then the side edges are bound,
+with the apex of the angle at the middle of the binding. When the
+binding is firmly fastened it is carefully trimmed off at the top and
+bottom.
+
+
+ELECTRIC LIGHT PENDANTS
+
+[Illustration: A seven-light fixture]
+
+Two designs for such pendants are illustrated in the accompanying
+drawings. They were derived from suggestions in the _Craftsman_, and
+were successfully worked out in remodelling a house. The seven-light
+fixture consists of a circular pendant-board about 30 inches in
+diameter, made from 2-inch plain oak stock, cut into 60-degree segments
+and, with splined joints, glued up to form a circular piece which was
+turned up on a large lathe. An open space 7 inches in diameter was left
+in the larger circle, which was covered by a cup-shaped cap turned
+from plain oak stock and attached to the larger circle by screws. The
+considerable opening covered by this cap contained the cut out and
+the wiring necessary for connecting with each of the seven lights.
+Seven medium-sized hooks of composition metal were procured which had
+large, coarse threaded screws. A 3/16-inch hole was drilled lengthwise
+through the shanks of these hooks. Holes were bored near the centre of
+the arc of each segment in the board circle to receive these hooks.
+When the fixture was assembled the wires for each light were carried
+from the cut out across a channel made for that purpose on the upper
+surface of the board, passed down through the hole in the shank of
+the hook, woven into the links of the chain pendant and connected with
+the corresponding bulb socket after passing through another hook, like
+those described above, which linked the socket to the chain. As a
+finish around the hooks shallow cups of beaten copper were fashioned
+over a wooden form, turned for the purpose, and oxidized to a tone
+somewhat darker than the brown of the oak board. Copper cups in a
+conventional petal design were made to place over each of the bulbs.
+The chains were also oxidized to conform with the other metal work. The
+entire combination was satisfactory.
+
+[Illustration: A five-light fixture]
+
+Another design for the dining-room of the same house and much easier to
+construct is also illustrated. It will be observed that the square form
+instead of the circle is carried out consistently in the woodwork and
+metal caps. These caps and the chains are in natural brass of a dull
+finish. The shades are of ground glass, decorated with a flower design
+in heavy black lines. The central light has a larger shade than the
+others, wholly enclosed. In this one is placed a red incandescent bulb
+for use whenever such decorative effect is desired.
+
+
+DECORATIVE FORGINGS
+
+In the story of the designing and building of the model house reference
+was made to contributions from the forge shop. Among these were the
+andirons, door knocker, lantern bracket, and other articles shown in
+the accompanying illustrations.
+
+It should be understood that all wrought iron work that has any reality
+in it requires an equipment especially adapted to its production. There
+must be a good forge and fire, an anvil, and proper tools, all in the
+hands of a workman of some experience and skill. Successful forge
+work can hardly be considered among the handicrafts easily adapted
+to the needs of the amateur working without instruction and with
+poor equipment. But with good tools, proper equipment, and a little
+experience any clever boy will be able to design and fashion many
+useful articles for the home which have real artistic merit.
+
+[Illustration: Decorative Forgings. Plate XVI]
+
+For the fireplace, in addition to andirons, there may be made the
+shovel, poker, and tongs, and possibly the old-fashioned crane and pot
+hooks. Other fixtures that may be made are ceiling hooks, lantern
+brackets for the wall or for lantern posts, standards for the newel
+post, the hall lantern or the porch lantern, the latch and the knocker
+for the door, and, if the architectural design permits, hinges, plates,
+and bolts for the door. This list by no means exhausts the uses of
+wrought iron in house decoration. It may be extended to include
+draw pulls, key escutcheons, furniture handles and hinges of great
+variety, nails with ornamental heads for use with heavy construction,
+and many small articles such as trivets for steam kettles, toasting
+forks, candle holders, and many other useful articles which have also
+decorative value.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS
+
+COUNTRY HOMES
+
+     To know what you prefer, instead of humbly saying amen to what the
+     world tells you you ought to prefer, is to have kept your soul
+     alive.--_Robert Louis Stevenson_
+
+
+Keen observers of American customs, who have studied the development
+of our taste in house designing and furnishing, tell us that the
+best expression of our art in architecture and home decoration is to
+be found in our country homes. They do not overlook, of course, a
+beautiful public building in this city or that, perhaps ten altogether,
+or an occasional private residence on Millionaire Avenue, which are
+monuments to the genius of the men who created them and of which any
+country may be proud. What they mean is that as a people we seek and
+secure the right combination of utility and beauty in our homes more
+frequently in the country than in the city.
+
+At first thought such a criticism may seem to be an exaggeration.
+Is it reasonable, we ask, that people of good sense, such as most
+Americans are, really succeed better in planning, building, and
+decorating the houses which they are to occupy but a few weeks in the
+summer than they do in developing their city homes? We are told that it
+is true and that there are good reasons for it.
+
+_Simplicity of Country Life._--It is the life in the country and at the
+seashore that is the simple life, the natural life, the life that sets
+us free from the accumulated burden of mere "things." Here we come to
+forget for a time the many and find pleasure in the few. Here we are
+to feel the joy of living. Nature is all about us, and she gives of
+her bounty freely. Our wants are few because we are so well satisfied
+with the free gifts. What wants we have keep step with our needs here
+as they do nowhere else. We care less for what others have; we are more
+individual, more rational. Here we generally demand what we really
+need and we more frequently obtain it. And this is true whether it be
+something that appeals to the aesthetic side of our natures or whether
+it be that which ministers to our material needs. In seeking the
+beautiful for the simple home in the country we do not so often forget
+the useful; for here, away from the world of museums and studios
+and collections, we learn that art is possible without paintings and
+statuary. In the exterior form and colouring of the shingled cottage,
+set like a gem on the hillside or by the sea, in the harmonious
+arrangement of its interiors, with every article of furniture chosen
+only for use and comfort and placed where needed, and with decorations,
+cheerful but restrained and subordinate, suggestive of more glorious
+colours and more interesting things in the world without--in such
+surroundings we have beauty and utility combined. Here we have the time
+and the opportunity to realize the truth that all art is one and that
+it may find in the problems of decoration in the country home, if not
+its highest mission, its most open field for giving to appreciative
+people the pleasure of seeing and enjoying the beautiful.
+
+_Opportunities for Constructive Art._--If it be true that there is a
+more universal recognition of the true principles of art in the better
+class of our country homes than in our city homes, it is proof, if
+proof be needed, that the elements of art expression are found in the
+simple, natural materials of every-day life. It may be that in the
+development of art amid simple surroundings "necessity is the mother
+of invention," and that, more or less naturally, simplicity is thrust
+upon us. The general habit of our time is to extend the vacation
+period in the country or at the seashore to the point of making a home
+there for every summer season. But only a few can carry wealth and
+elegance with them. A great majority must be satisfied with simple and
+inexpensive homes. At first we accept them as the only thing possible,
+and then we discover that in their very simplicity they offer the best
+of opportunities for true aesthetic expression. And this opportunity
+is largely for the younger members of the family--for the boys and
+girls whose vacation period is more extended, whose interest in the
+summer home is perhaps the more vital and whose imagination is the
+more susceptible to the art suggestions of nature. We have seen that
+it is possible for boys and girls to build and furnish a house under
+the exacting requirements of city life. How much easier it must be to
+build a cottage for the summer season, decorating and furnishing it in
+harmony with the simple needs of a vacation home.
+
+If such a suggestion meet with acceptance, those who undertake the
+work will find much practical help in the problems outlined in the
+foregoing chapters. It is not expected, of course, that the directions
+there given will always be exactly followed. In the furniture problems,
+for example, soft woods like pine and spruce may be substituted for
+the harder woods specified. Very attractive as well as very useful
+simple furniture has been made in this way at a merely nominal
+expense. Staining and finishing may easily bring it into harmony with
+colour schemes; but the bright, fresh colour of new pine and spruce
+is in itself by no means unattractive. The smooth, exposed beams
+of the ceilings and walls, if of well chosen stock, may be stained
+a beautiful gray green or a soft brown. A good colour suggestion
+may be found in the weathered gray of the hewn timbers of very old
+buildings. The effect of a ceiled-up wall or of a dado may be easily
+obtained by stretching burlap or denim over the studding or over a
+backing of inexpensive sheathing. These materials are very durable and
+inexpensive, and they may be found in a great variety of beautiful
+shades. They make excellent portieres. A lighter, thinner material like
+scrim is better for window draperies. All these fabrics afford good
+surfaces for decoration by stencilling. Stained or painted soft wood
+floors, covered with grass cloth rugs or the more dainty hand woven
+rugs like those described in the chapter on weaving, with simple,
+useful furniture, a picture or two, and a few choice pieces of pottery,
+complete the equipment for a charming living room. If it all be the
+product of home industry, the cash outlay for the material need not
+be over forty dollars, though an outlay of ten times that amount for
+better materials would not in the least interfere with such a room
+being decorated and furnished by the unaided labours of the amateur
+artists and craftsmen of the family.
+
+[Illustration: A fireplace in field rock]
+
+The chief expense would naturally be for the living room, dining-room,
+and kitchen. The dining-room, however, may well be simply a corner or
+alcove of a large living room. Such an arrangement greatly increases
+the value of a single fireplace, which will be required to give the
+summer home the sense of perfect comfort. This may be of rough field
+rock and should be large enough to take one-cut fireplace wood. The
+chamber furnishings may be very simple indeed. Furniture dealers make
+a point of supplying beds, bureaus, chairs, and cabinets of simple
+design, unfinished, so that the purchaser may stain them to harmonize
+with any desired colour scheme. But such furniture, or good substitutes
+for it, can be made very inexpensively. For example, the stock for
+a good bed will not cost over seventy-five cents. Cases provided
+with shelves and curtains in place of drawers, made at a cash outlay
+possibly of one dollar, will serve for bureaus. The cost of materials
+for building an eight-room cottage in every way satisfactory need not
+exceed five hundred dollars; and such a cottage could be beautifully
+furnished by clever boys and girls at an expense for materials of one
+hundred and fifty or perhaps two hundred dollars.
+
+[Illustration: An inexpensive bed]
+
+In the exterior finishing of summer cottages nature generally needs
+very little assistance. No colours harmonize so well with the gray
+rocks, sere fields and marshes, and the evergreen trees by the
+seashore, as the weathered grays of the shingled cottage. The window
+frames, door frames and facings, painted to preserve them, may be
+of the same colour or in dull green or brown, plainly marking the
+outlines of the house but without unpleasant contrasts. A stained roof
+in slate gray or creosote brown is also in keeping. The underpinning
+and outside chimneys in the field rock of the locality are eminently
+fitting. The house among the hills will stand more colour because the
+colours of nature are richer, especially in the autumn season. But
+wherever the house may be, it should repeat in its larger surfaces the
+prevailing colour tones of its natural setting. It should seem to fit
+into its surroundings as if it belonged there and would always remain
+there, a part of the simple, natural beauty all around it.
+
+[Illustration: A country house]
+
+
+THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y.
+
+[Transcriber's Notes:
+  Spelling is the same mix of US/UK as others in series (eg color/colour)
+  Corrected obvious typos:
+    tell -> tells
+    arrrangement -> arrangement
+    CROHETED -> CROCHETED
+    STENCILING -> STENCILLING
+    on account -> on account of
+    will be be -> will be
+    retain -> and retains
+    expecially -> especially
+  Portieres/Portieres found with and w/o accent in equal parts
+  (left as in text in each case)
+  Hyphenation made consistent:
+    wood-work -> woodwork
+    outdoor -> out-door
+]
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Library of Work and Play: Home
+Decoration, by Charles Franklin Warner
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